Split (1)

train · 64k rows

content stringlengths 275 370k
Most people are familiar with the overall scorpion shape: a flattened, elongated oval body; the pair of front appendages with pincers; four pairs of walking legs; and a long, curling tail that ends in a bulbous segment tipped with stinger. Young scorpions are pale yellowish-brown, usually with two lengthwise dark stripes on the abdomen; older scorpions are uniform dark brown with the stripes faint or lacking. A scorpion has a pair of eyes in the middle of its back, as well as two to five additional pairs of eyes along the front edge of its body. Even though they have a lot of eyes, scorpions have poor vision. They make up for this by having tiny sensitive hairs on their pinchers that help them detect motion. In addition, scorpions have strange comblike structures called pectines on their underside, which are unique to scorpions. The pectines are sensitive to touch, to ground vibrations and perhaps even to sound.
Physicists unfold the mechanics of origami Sep 18, 2012 5 comments Here's a fun exercise – take a piece of paper and use a compass to draw two concentric circles that define a ring. Then replace the pencil in the compass with a hard tip to indent a concentric crease in the paper halfway between the inner and outer edge of the ring. Cut out the ring and then fold along the crease all the way along its circumference – and if you are careful you will have created a 3D saddle such as the one in the photograph above. This is a simple example of "curved-crease origami", the mechanics of which have been studied in detail for the first time by physicists in the US. Originating in Japan, origami is the art of creating 3D objects by folding paper. Origami can transform a lightweight flat material into a strong and flexible 3D object and as a result its principles have been adopted by engineers to design everything from vehicle airbags to satellite components. Practical 3D materials Curved creases are sometimes used in origami – a practical example being the French-fry box used in fast food restaurants. However, little is understood about the mechanics of such structures. Now, Marcelo Dias, Christian Santangelo and colleagues at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst and Harvard University are the first to develop a set of equations to describe the physics of curved-crease structures. As well as providing a better understanding of origami, the team hopes that the work will lead to practical 3D materials that are both strong and flexible. Santangelo and colleagues focused on a ring because it is a relatively simple example of how a 2D structure can be transformed into 3D object by creating a curved crease. To gain a basic understanding of the physics, the team built a few origami saddles out of paper – from which they deduced which physical properties are key to understanding the mechanics of the curved crease. At the heart of the transition from a 2D sheet to a 3D object are the planar stresses created in the ring when it is folded. These stresses are relieved by the sheet wrapping around itself to create a saddle-like structure. If the ring is cut, then the stresses are relieved and the saddle will collapse to a ring that will lie flat – albeit with a smaller radius (see image above). The team's mathematical description is based on several parameters, including the ratio of the width of the ring being folded to the radius of the ring. The angle of the crease is also important, along with the "stiffness" of the crease – the latter being a measure of how difficult it is to change the angle of the fold. Another important parameter is the stiffness of the material itself – a measure of how difficult it is to bend the sheet from which the ring is made of. The team derived an equation for the total energy of a creased ring in terms of these parameters and then calculated the energy using several analytical and numerical techniques. In addition to the angle of the crease, the results suggest that two ratios play an important role in the shape of the 3D structure – the ratio of width of the ring to its radius and the ratio of the stiffness of the crease to the bending stiffness of the material. When the ratio of the crease stiffness to the bending stiffness is relatively high, the angle of the crease will not change – and the structure will respond to the stresses by bending to create a 3D shape. In the case of the relative width of the ring, the team found that the wider the ring the more rigid the 3D structure – something that Santangelo believes could be exploited to make strong, flexible yet lightweight 3D structures. The team also extended the model to describe rings with multiple creases, which results in more complicated 3D structures. The research is described in Physical Review Letters. About the author Hamish Johnston is editor of physicsworld.com
Much of the energy used by people is delivered in the form of electric power, which is also called electricity. Its convenience and versatility make it ideal for lighting, operating home appliances, heating and cooling of homes and buildings, and many industrial and transportation applications. Its rapidly spreading availability over the last hundred years has revolutionized life for most of the world’s population. However, nearly one third of the world’s people, mostly in underdeveloped countries, do not have access to electric power and the benefits it provides. Most electric power is generated in large plants that use coal, gas, oil, or nuclear energy. Some comes from hydroelectric plants, which produce power using moving water. The sites of electric power plants are chosen based on a number of considerations, including the availability of cooling water, the ease of transporting fuel, proximity to users or transmission lines, and impact on the environment. Electric power is produced and supplied mostly by companies called public utilities. The electric utility industry in the United States began when Thomas Edison opened the Pearl Street station in New York City on September 4, 1882. That station contained six direct current (DC) generators of about 100 kilowatts (KW), each of which could serve an area of about 1 square mile (2.6 square kilometers). Following the development of polyphase alternating current (AC) systems by Nikola Tesla around 1885 and the introduction of the improved transformer by George Westinghouse in 1887, the way was opened for the modern AC power generation and distribution system. Electric utilities proliferated rapidly in other parts of the world as well. For example, led by the work of Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti, the London Electric Supply Corporation was providing AC power to much of London in 1889. Early generators were driven by reciprocating steam engines. These were replaced by large steam turbines, and the size of power plants grew to the point where the typical modern plant can generate from 500 to 4,000 megawatts (MW), or 500,000 to 4 million KW. In most countries federal, provincial, or state governments own and operate the electric utilities. In the United States, however, power generation and distribution are provided by a mix of investor-owned (private) utilities, government-owned utilities, utility cooperatives, and manufacturing industries that also produce power. About two thirds of this power is generated by the more than 200 investor-owned utilities. Utilities owned by the federal government (such as the Tennessee Valley Authority), utilities owned by local governments, and manufacturing industries each produce about 10 percent. About 900 utility cooperatives, which focus mainly on the distribution of power to rural areas, generate only a small percentage of the total. Distribution and sales of electricity in the United States are complex, with ownership of plants and power lines spread among the various public and private systems. By their nature, utilities are monopolies; that is, the customer has no choice but to buy electricity from the local utility. In the United States, state governments (and to some extent the federal government) determine rates through regulatory commissions to assure that the customer is charged a fair rate for electricity and that the utility has a fair return on its investment. Virtually all of the world’s electricity is produced by generators, which use the principle of electromagnetic induction, first described by the English scientist Michael Faraday in the 1830s. When a metal wire, which naturally contains electrons, is moved relative to a nearby magnet, the electrons are forced to move through the wire, thus creating an electric current. In Germany in the 1860s Werner von Siemens perfected the dynamo, which uses this principle to generate AC electricity. Modern generators, derived largely from Siemens’ design, use a spinning electromagnetic rotor (itself usually powered by a smaller generator called the excitor, often on the same shaft). Around this rotor is the stator, with thousands of turns of stationary wire, in which electricity is generated by the passing magnetic field of the rotor. Most generators produce three-phase alternating current, consisting of three separate currents running through separate wires, with voltages in the thousands. Power output approaches 1 million watts per generator. The generator rotor is turned by a connected turbine, which spins as the result of a gas or a liquid flowing through its blades. The power to spin the rotor often comes from high-pressure steam produced by boiling water, but it may also involve naturally flowing water or the exhaust of a gas (or combustion) turbine. Most modern power plants generate high-pressure (2,400 to 4,500 pounds per square inch), high-temperature (often over 1,000° F, or 540° C) steam in a boiler, up to ten stories high, that may be fired by coal, natural gas, or oil. The steam expands through a turbine, which is connected to a generator. The steam is then condensed back into water in a condenser and fed back to the boiler. The large amount of cooling water that is needed to condense the steam may come from a river, a lake, or the sea. It is often necessary to use large cooling towers to cool the water further. In 2005 about half of the electricity in the United States was generated in coal-fired conventional steam plants. Much smaller percentages were generated in steam plants that burn oil or natural gas, which are generally more expensive than coal. The energy source in a nuclear reactor is the heat released by the splitting, or fission, of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 atoms when they are bombarded by neutrons. The heat is transferred to a coolant, which also serves to control the reaction. Generally, the coolant then retransfers the heat to water and converts it into steam. This in turn drives a conventional turbine-generator combination. Most nuclear plants in the United States use either pressurized water or boiling water as the coolant. Other systems use liquid sodium, a pressurized gas (usually carbon dioxide), or heavy water (deuterium oxide) as the coolant, but they are not very common. In 2005 there were more than 100 operating nuclear reactors in the United States producing about one fifth of the nation’s electricity. No new orders for U.S. nuclear plants had been placed after 1978 as a result of public concern about reactor safety and the high costs of construction. However, many other countries have continued building nuclear plants, which now account for about one sixth of world electrical power production. In a few countries, including France, nuclear power provides the majority of electricity. Electricity is also produced in hydroelectric plants, which harness the energy of falling or fast-flowing water. In 2005 about 7 percent of the electricity in the United States was produced by hydroelectric plants. Water passes through a hydraulic turbine that is connected to a generator. Large plants, which depend on large volumes of water held by dams, can generate more than 2,000 MW. There are many small plants on rivers, some generating only a few hundred kilowatts. Among the largest plants in the United States are Hoover Dam, which forms Lake Mead on the Colorado River at the Arizona-Nevada border, and the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River in eastern Washington state. Hoover Dam’s installed capacity is 1,244 MW, while Grand Coulee’s is 2,025 MW. The world’s largest hydroelectric projects include Itaipú Dam on the Brazil-Paraguay border, which generates 12,600 MW. China’s massive Three Gorges Dam, which began operating in 2003, was eventually expected to produce more than 18,000 MW. The use of hydroelectric power is limited by geography and climate. It has the most potential where large rivers undergo large drops in elevation. In some places it can meet the majority of electricity needs. The lakes or reservoirs formed by dams are often useful for water management, flood control, transportation, and recreation, but they can also cover otherwise usable land and displace large numbers of people. The inability to store electric energy cheaply and efficiently requires that every utility have the capacity to adjust its power output instantaneously to meet the demand. While there is some flexibility in operating large steam-power plants, such a plant might not be able to meet a sudden peak demand. It may take as long as eight hours to start another boiler. For this reason, many utilities have installed gas-turbine peaking plants to produce additional power within a very short time. The turbines in these plants are similar to jet aircraft engines and may burn natural gas or oil-based fuels. Used alone, these plants are only about half as efficient as large plants, but they are effective for peak production. A variation on this idea is the combined-cycle plant, in which exhaust heat from gas turbines is used to boil water for steam turbines, which then generate additional power. This type of plant has increased the efficiency and economic attractiveness of gas turbines. Solar power, geothermal power, and wind-driven generators are growing as commercial sources of electricity. Even so, these sources each provide less than 1 percent of the electricity used in the United States. The proportion is much higher in some other countries, such as Denmark, where wind provides one fifth of the electricity. Electrical power can be supplied either as direct current (DC), in which the current flows steadily in one direction, or as alternating current (AC), in which the direction of the current rapidly alternates, or switches back and forth. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, but AC became the standard for commercial power by around 1890. In the United States Thomas Edison was a strong proponent of DC, claiming, among other things, that it was safer. George Westinghouse and Nikola Tesla advocated AC, arguing that it could be transmitted much more efficiently over long distances. The reason is that the voltage of AC can be made higher or lower using transformers. Before transmission, a transformer raises the voltage of the power plant output, which greatly reduces the current and therefore minimizes losses along the transmission lines. On the user’s end, a transformer lowers the voltage to a safe level. Some devices, such as AC electric motors, run at speeds proportional to the frequency with which the current alternates. Therefore, the frequency must be kept constant by assuring that the turbines and the generator turn at an exactly fixed speed. Considerable engineering effort is devoted to the controls on the steam or water flow to make this happen. In the United States the standard frequency is 60 hertz (cycles per second); in parts of South America and much of Europe it is 50 hertz, and Japan uses some of each. The most common source of DC, which is required in some applications, is the battery, though AC can also be rectified, or made one directional. Direct current has relatively little application in the electric power industry, though very high-voltage (300,000 to 750,000 volts) DC is sometimes used for very long-distance power transmission. Transmission of DC also permits the interconnection of power systems at different frequencies, such as those in parts of South America. High-voltage AC is rectified to DC using devices called thyristors, transmitted, and then converted back to AC (which can then be at a different frequency) on the other end. Electric power systems are usually controlled from a dispatch center, which collects information concerning all of the generating facilities on the system as well as transmission lines and electrical demand, or load, throughout the system. Any change in consumption of power on the system requires an instantaneous change in the output of the connected generators. Therefore, dispatchers must anticipate daily, hourly, seasonal, and weather-related fluctuations in demand and provide instructions for the generating facilities to meet the changing needs quickly and economically. Operating characteristics and fuel costs of each generating facility determine the order in which they are called into service. Capacity and characteristics of transmission lines may determine how power is routed to satisfy the load. Operating schedules for large industrial and commercial customers affect electrical load. Weather conditions affect heating, cooling, and lighting demands. Holiday seasons may bring increased lighting loads. Computers are indispensable for monitoring changing demand and distributing power efficiently. Each system must have reserve generating capacity that can be activated very quickly in the event of a sudden outage of a generating or transmission facility. Some of the reserve capacity might be in the form of gas turbines or pumped storage hydroelectric plants, which can also be used at times of peak demand. A pumped storage plant uses excess power during one part of the day (for instance, at night in the summer, when fewer air conditioners are running) to pump water into an elevated reservoir. Later, when demand for power increases, the water is allowed to fall back down through turbines to generate extra electricity. Occasionally demand exceeds a system’s reserves. For this reason, neighboring utilities are interconnected by transmission lines into networks called power grids. This interconnection enables utilities to exchange power, which is especially important during emergencies such as severe storms, when generating and transmission facilities may be disabled. System dispatchers are in constant communication with their counterparts at interconnected systems to coordinate the buying, selling, and exchange of power. Major blackouts have prompted improvements in the handling of such failures, reducing the vulnerability of the power system as a whole. Varying demand at different times in different areas can make it economically desirable for neighboring utilities to exchange power in nonemergency situations as well. Wilmington, Delaware, for example, is an industrial center that needs maximum power during the day, while nearby Atlantic City, New Jersey, is a resort area with its maximum power demand at night. By exchanging power between the two locations, both benefit from lower costs and reduce the need for additional generating units that may not be fully utilized. The electricity generated in a power plant must be transformed to higher voltages, which are more efficient for long-distance transmission. Transmission is accomplished by an extensive network of high-voltage power lines, including overhead wires and underground and submarine cables. Modern transmission lines can carry voltages of 66,000 to 765,000 volts. Transmission lines terminate at substations in which transformers reduce the voltage to the primary distribution voltage, usually about 23,000 volts. This voltage is then supplied directly to large industrial users or further transformed down to 2,300 or 4,100 volts for local distribution. Substations contain circuit breakers, which protect the lines against overloading by cutting off the current if it reaches a dangerous level. Substations also allow dispatchers to switch power to various distribution lines, routing it to the appropriate locations. Additional transformers, commonly located on power poles, reduce voltages to a safer level appropriate for use in homes. Most residential customers in the United States are supplied with 230 volts or 115 volts, depending on the building’s wiring. Power is brought to homes either aboveground (aerial) or belowground (buried) through three wires. Two of these are covered with insulation and carry the power, while the third, often bare, is the ground wire, which protects against accidents. Before entering the house, the wires go through a watt-hour meter. It measures the energy consumed, forming the basis for billing electric charges. On entering the home the wires are fed to a circuit breaker or fuse box. This contains a disconnect switch to isolate the home from the power line, a main fuse or circuit breaker, and breakers for the various circuits in the house. In the United States the 230-volt option is used for large appliances, with 115 volts available for lighting and outlets for small appliances. Modern homes are equipped with three wire connections to each outlet to provide full grounding protection. The total use of electricity in residences accounts for about one third of national electric power output in the United States. The introduction of small electric motors in the 1920s allowed factories to couple a motor to each machine. Before that time all machines were powered from one central steam engine or large motor, which drove a maze of shafts, pulleys, and leather belts to each machine. This resulted in uneconomical, noisy, and unsafe operation. Today motors can be built in a variety of sizes and speeds to meet almost any requirement. Many industries—notably the aluminum and steel industries—use large amounts of power. Electricity is required to produce aluminum from its ore. Much of the hydroelectric power produced at Niagara Falls, for example, is used by the Aluminum Company of America. Electric arc furnaces are common in steel production. They readily provide the controlled high temperatures needed to produce many special alloys. The total industrial use of electricity in the United States accounts for about one quarter of the national output. Stores, businesses, banks, theaters, hospitals, and other nonmanufacturing organizations account for about one third of the national output. Initially electric power was limited mainly to cities, where distribution costs were lower than in rural areas. Small farms especially were generally not served. By 1935 only about 11 percent of U.S. farms had electricity. In 1935 the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) began to extend long-term loans to utilities for constructing power lines and wiring farms and, more significantly, to almost 1,000 rural cooperatives. These were formed especially to distribute electric energy to rural areas and usually to purchase power from investor-owned or public-owned utilities. Today only a few isolated farms depend on their own power generation. Electric motors on the farm grind feed, pump water, and run milking machines. Electric power pasteurizes milk, refrigerates food products, and keeps newborn livestock and chickens warm. Electricity has allowed farmers to increase their productivity just as it has helped industry. The United States Energy Information Administration has predicted that world demand for electricity will more than double between 2003 and 2030. Meeting this demand is sure to be a major international issue. The mix of electricity sources will depend on many economic, political, technological, and environmental considerations. One of the greatest concerns is the continuation of global warming, an increase in Earth’s surface temperatures resulting from increasing levels of carbon dioxide and other so-called greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Many of these gases come from power plants burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. One option is to continue using fossil fuels but to capture the exhaust gases underground. This may be feasible, and the gases could even be used to force more oil out of the ground. However, storing the gases could add significantly to the cost of producing the electricity, and the chance of leakage is a concern. Alternatives to burning fossil fuels include nuclear power and renewable energy sources such as hydroelectric, wind, and solar power. Nuclear power technology has matured, uranium (the primary nuclear fuel) is fairly abundant, and costs are similar to those of other conventional sources. Nuclear plants emit no greenhouse gases, but they do produce potentially dangerous radioactive waste. The safe storage of this waste is an enduring concern, as is the possibility that the byproducts of reactors could be used to make nuclear weapons. The degree to which nuclear power helps the world meet future energy needs will be largely a political decision. Wind power, in which windmill-like turbines turn generators, has considerable potential for electricity production. The technology is fairly simple, and operating costs are low. One obstacle is the obtrusiveness of large numbers of tall wind turbines on the landscape. Solar power in some ways has great potential. The total power of all sunlight reaching the ground is more than 10,000 times current electrical needs. However, commercially available solar cells, known as photovoltaics, generally convert less than 20 percent of the sunlight striking them into electricity. They are also relatively expensive to manufacture, which has made them uneconomical compared to conventional electricity sources. Another, somewhat less expensive approach to solar power is to collect sunlight using large, concave mirrors and focus it on Stirling engines (a type of external-combustion engine) attached to generators. Wind and solar power share a common drawback: they cannot dependably provide power 24 hours a day. Variable weather conditions affect wind and sunshine, and solar power facilities have the additional disadvantage of not working at night. Wind and sunshine also vary greatly by geographic location. For these reasons, other power sources are needed to fill the gaps in production. Geothermal power, which uses heat coming from deep underground to boil water for steam turbines, is already used in some areas. The rising and falling of the tides and the motion of waves can be harnessed to produce electricity as well. Both of these sources have geographical limitations, however. Relatively few places have enough readily available geothermal heat or large enough tides to make power generation feasible. A potentially enormous and long-term energy source is nuclear fusion, the opposite of the nuclear fission reaction that takes place in traditional nuclear plants. Deuterium and tritium, which are isotopes of hydrogen, are the best fuels for fusion. Deuterium could be derived from water, and tritium could be made from lithium, a common metal. The technological challenges are formidable, including the need to contain ionized gases (plasma) of the fuels at temperatures over 180,000,000° F (100,000,000° C). Progress has been made, however, and some researchers think the technology could be ready within a few decades. Meanwhile, some of the demand for electricity could be met on a small scale. Individual solar power units and fuel cells, which convert energy produced by a chemical reaction into electricity, can meet some of the need, and any excess power can be sold to the utility-a concept known as cogeneration. In addition, municipal trash, methane gas from landfills, or biofuels made from crops can be burned to make steam for small turbines. Finally, efforts to develop sustainable sources of electric power can be complemented by conservation. For example, energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, lighting, and appliances can significantly reduce power consumption. Barnett, Dave, and Bjornsgaard, Kirk. Electric Power Generation: A Nontechnical Guide (PennWell, 2000).Cassedy, E.S. Prospects for Sustainable Energy: A Critical Assessment (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005).Goodman, J.E. Blackout (North Point, 2003).Jonnes, Jill. Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World (Random House, 2003).
When I was in graduate school, we studied a book called “Mirror Worlds”, authored by famous computer science professor David Gelernter at Yale University. This week, I noticed that Dr. Gelernter had written an article in the prestigious Claremont Review of Books. In his article, he applies his knowledge of computer science to the problem of the origin of life. Evolution, if it is going to work at all, has to explain the problem of how the basic building blocks of life – proteins – can emerge from non-living matter. It turns out that the problem of the origin of life is essentially a problem of information – of code. If the components of proteins are ordered properly, then the sequence folds up into a protein that has biological function. If the sequence is not good, then just like computer code, it won’t run. Here’s Dr. Gelernter to explain: How to make proteins is our first question. Proteins are chains: linear sequences of atom-groups, each bonded to the next. A protein molecule is based on a chain of amino acids; 150 elements is a “modest-sized” chain; the average is 250. Each link is chosen, ordinarily, from one of 20 amino acids. A chain of amino acids is a polypeptide—“peptide” being the type of chemical bond that joins one amino acid to the next. But this chain is only the starting point: chemical forces among the links make parts of the chain twist themselves into helices; others straighten out, and then, sometimes, jackknife repeatedly, like a carpenter’s rule, into flat sheets. Then the whole assemblage folds itself up like a complex sheet of origami paper. And the actual 3-D shape of the resulting molecule is (as I have said) important. Imagine a 150-element protein as a chain of 150 beads, each bead chosen from 20 varieties. But: only certain chains will work. Only certain bead combinations will form themselves into stable, useful, well-shaped proteins. So how hard is it to build a useful, well-shaped protein? Can you throw a bunch of amino acids together and assume that you will get something good? Or must you choose each element of the chain with painstaking care? It happens to be very hard to choose the right beads. Gelernter decides to spot the Darwinist a random sequence of 150 elements. Now the task the Darwinist is to use random mutation to arrive at a sequence of 150 links that has biological function. [W]hat are the chances that a random 150-link sequence will create such a protein? Nonsense sequences are essentially random. Mutations are random. Make random changes to a random sequence and you get another random sequence. So, close your eyes, make 150 random choices from your 20 bead boxes and string up your beads in the order in which you chose them. What are the odds that you will come up with a useful new protein? […]The total count of possible 150-link chains, where each link is chosen separately from 20 amino acids, is 20150. In other words, many. 20150 roughly equals 10195, and there are only 1080 atoms in the universe. What proportion of these many polypeptides are useful proteins? Douglas Axe did a series of experiments to estimate how many 150-long chains are capable of stable folds—of reaching the final step in the protein-creation process (the folding) and of holding their shapes long enough to be useful. (Axe is a distinguished biologist with five-star breeding: he was a graduate student at Caltech, then joined the Centre for Protein Engineering at Cambridge. The biologists whose work Meyer discusses are mainly first-rate Establishment scientists.) He estimated that, of all 150-link amino acid sequences, 1 in 1074 will be capable of folding into a stable protein. To say that your chances are 1 in 1074 is no different, in practice, from saying that they are zero. It’s not surprising that your chances of hitting a stable protein that performs some useful function, and might therefore play a part in evolution, are even smaller. Axe puts them at 1 in 1077. In other words: immense is so big, and tiny is so small, that neo-Darwinian evolution is—so far—a dead loss. Try to mutate your way from 150 links of gibberish to a working, useful protein and you are guaranteed to fail. Try it with ten mutations, a thousand, a million—you fail. The odds bury you. It can’t be done. Keep in mind that you need many, many proteins in order to have even a simple living cell. (And that’s not even considering the problem of organizing the proteins into a system). So, if you’re a naturalist, then your only resources to explain the origin of life are chance and mutation. As Dr. Gelernter shows, naturalistic explanations won’t work to solve even part of the problem. Not even with a long period of time. Not even if you use the entire universe as one big primordial soup, and keep trying sequences for the history of the universe. It just isn’t possible to arrive at sequences that have biological function in the time available, using the resources available. The only viable explanation is that there is a computer scientist who wrote the code without using trial and error. Something that ordinary software engineers like myself and Dr. Gelernter do all the time. We know what kind of cause is adequate to explain functioning code.
Every living thing on our planet, from plants to animals, is made up of cells. Cells are the building blocks of life, but what are they and how do they work? - All cells have vital genetic information contained within the nucleus, which sits in cytoplasm. - In animal cells, cytoplasm also contains protein-producing ribosomes, and mitochondria - which is essential for respiration. - In plant cells, salts, proteins and pigments are contained within a permanent vacuole. - Chloroplasts within cells enable plants to harness light energy through photosynthesis.
December 1, 2020 Written by: Nitsan Goldstein COVID-19 continues to spread around the world at an alarming rate. When we first wrote about neurologic complications from COVID-19 on June 30th, just under 10 million people had been infected globally. As of the writing of this post less than 5 months later, 12 million people have been infected in the United States alone, with over 58 million infections worldwide. Normally, one would not expect any major scientific advancements in 5 months on a single topic. These are not normal times, however, and the massive push to study this disease by scientists around the world has led to an outpouring of research on how SARS-CoV-2 might affect the brain. Here we will provide an update on what has been found, and the big questions that still need to be answered. As more cases are reported, possible causes of neurological symptoms (see June 30th article for symptoms) have been proposed. Direct invasion of the central nervous system Studies on live and deceased human COVID-19 patients suggest that direct SARS-CoV-2 infection of brain tissue is quite rare1,2. However, even rare complications will affect thousands of people when 58 million people are infected, so it is important to understand when and how this virus can enter the brain and cause damage. A likely route of entry to the central nervous system is through the nose. The proteins the virus needs to enter cells are present at high levels in the nasal passage3, and the frequency of anosmia (loss of smell) in COVID-19 patients suggests that the virus is damaging the sensory neurons in the nose that transmit smell information to the brain. Can the virus replicate in brain cells and damage them once it enters the brain? Previous work with the SARS-CoV virus suggested that it might be able to, but one group of researchers has now confirmed that SARS-CoV-2 can also replicate in brain tissue4. Using organoids to model human brains, scientists found that SARS-CoV-2 infects, replicates in, and damages neurons. The infection could be prevented by treating the organoids with an antibody targeting the ACE2 protein, which is the key protein used by the virus to enter cells. As with the SARS-CoV virus, SARS-CoV-2 was fatal to mice when delivered into the brain. Finally, this study examined brains of people who had died from COVID-19. They found evidence of viral infection in the brain, and showed damage likely caused by small strokes in the areas with more virus4. While it is hard to determine whether the virus actually caused the damage, the authors claim it is possible that the virus damages the brain’s blood vessels, weakening its defense system and making brain tissue more vulnerable to invasion by the virus. It is important to note that this study has not yet been peer reviewed, meaning other expert scientists have not vetted it to ensure it used the proper methodology and controls, and that the conclusions made were appropriate. Another study, however, that was peer reviewed, found similar evidence of brain invasion by SARS-CoV-2 in mice5. Even without directly infecting brain tissue, COVID-19 can cause neurologic symptoms due to a systemic (whole body) inflammatory response. The immune system is an army meant to identify and kill foreign invaders, like viruses, from attacking our body’s cells. Specialized cells, called T cells, are the soldiers that are released to find and kill cells that have been infected with virus so that it cannot replicate and infect other cells. Like soldiers, T cells have weapons, called cytokines, that are toxic to cells and used by T cells to kill the virus-infected cells. Proper immune function, however, is a delicate balance; too picky and the virus can spread rapidly throughout the body, too aggressive and the immune cells can attack and damage healthy cells. Recent work shows that in COVID-19 patients, especially in severe cases requiring hospitalization, the immune system balance is off. Namely, there are fewer T cells to fight the infection, and the ones that remain are weaker. Additionally, cytokine levels, the toxic weapons used to kill cells, are elevated.6 This condition has been referred to as a “cytokine storm,” and can result in respiratory distress and multi-system organ failure7. Whether and how this systemic inflammatory response can explain some of the neurologic symptoms observed in patients without active infection in the brain is an active area of investigation. Strokes have been reported in anywhere from 3% to 23% of hospitalized COVID-19 patients7. Strokes are more common in older patients or those that are at increased risk stroke, but have been reported in younger patients as well8. Most of these reported strokes are ischemic, which means that the brain is deprived of blood and, as a result, oxygen. Two main mechanisms have been described that would explain the occurrence of strokes in COVID-19 patients9. Evidence suggests that the blood of COVID-19 patients is hypercoagulable, or clots too easily10. While it is still not clear why this shift occurs during SARS-CoV-2 infection, it is possible that the immune responses described above are at least in part to blame. It has also been suggested that SARS-CoV-2 may infect and damage epithelial cells, which are the cells that line the body’s organs, including blood vessels10. Damage to these cells also causes inflammation, narrowing blood vessels and increasing the likelihood of strokes. It’s likely that both increased clotting and epithelial cell damage contribute to strokes in COVID-19 patients, and more work is needed to understand how to prevent these life-threatening complications from occurring in vulnerable populations. A year ago, this disease didn’t exist. Doctors and scientists had to use every tool at their disposal to understand how this virus gets into the body, which cells and organs it is most likely to attack, and whether certain symptoms are a direct result of the virus or a consequence of the body trying to fight it. Though the disease is still killing people at a devastating rate, research has led to improvements in treatments. For example, doctors are now using steroids to suppress the immune system in cases where heightened immune activity may become dangerous11. Unlike other cells in the body, brain cells cannot regenerate. Therefore, it is important to consider that neurologic complications from COVID-19 may persist long after infection, making it crucial to continue investigating exactly how this virus affects the brain, and what we can do to stop it. - Solomon, I.H., Normandin, E., Bhattacharyya, S., et al. Neuropathological features of Covid-19. N Engl J Med. (2020). - Josephson, S.A. & Kamel, H. Neurology and COVID-19. JAMA 324:1139–1140 (2020). - Sungnak, W., Huang, N., Bécavin, C., et al. SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nat Med. 26:681-687 (2020). - Song E, Zhang C, Israelow B, et al. Neuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 in human and mouse brain. Preprint. bioRxiv (2020). - Zheng, J., Wong, L.R., Li, K., et al. COVID-19 treatments and pathogenesis including anosmia in K18-hACE2 mice. Nature (2020) Epub ahead of print. - Diao, B., Wang, C., Tan, Y., et al. Reduction and Functional Exhaustion of T Cells in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Front Immunol. 11:827 (2020). - Koralnik, I.J. & Tyler K.L. COVID-19: A Global Threat to the Nervous System. Ann Neurol. 88:1-11 (2020). - Oxley, T.J., Mocco, J., Majidi, S., et al. Large-Vessel Stroke as a Presenting Feature of Covid-19 in the Young. N Engl J Med. 382:e60 (2020). - Qi, X., Keith, K.A., Huang, J.H. COVID-19 and stroke: A review. Brain Hemorrhages (2020). Epub ahead of print. - Ellul, M.A., Benjamin, L., Singh, B., et al. Neurological associations of COVID-19. Lancet Neurol. 19:767-783 (2020). - Meyerowitz, E.A., Sen, P., Schoenfeld, S.R., Neilan, T.G., Frigault, M.J., Stone, J.H., Kim, A.Y., Mansour, M.K.; CIG (COVID-19 Immunomodulatory Group). Immunomodulation as Treatment for Severe COVID-19: a systematic review of current modalities and future directions. Clin Infect Dis. (2020) Epub ahead of print. Cover Image created using BioRender
Math proficiency can be an uphill battle for children at any age. Learning challenges and disabilities are extremely common. Signs and symptoms vary depending on the level of disability and the age of the child. Symptoms of dyscalculia or math disability include difficulties recognizing numbers and mathematical symbols (e.g. +, -, x, ÷), inability to count (including by 5s and 10s), skipping numbers when counting, impairment in memorization, poor math calculations, struggles to understand math language and rules (e.g. equals, greater or less than, etc.), and problems connecting math knowledge to everyday activities or within different math concepts. Children who exhibit math disabilities often have challenges in other areas and activities as well. Some examples include memorizing facts, time management, visual-spatial awareness, discovering patterns, thinking outside the box, and conceptualizing and applying logical thinking to daily activities. In addition, math challenges frequently lead to anxiety and low self-esteem in and outside the school. Math is a complex process; it simultaneously utilizes a variety of skills, such as visualizing (e.g. picturing geometric shapes), visual-logical reasoning, memorizing details, understanding the language and concepts of math, etc. Because these skills are interlinked, gaps in any of these areas can make math a struggle. Relying entirely on rote memorization without comprehending underlying concepts and fundamentals can lead to further frustration and anxiety with math, resulting in avoidance altogether. At Little Thinkers Center, we follow Piaget’s belief that mathematical and logical thinking is a process that cannot be taught in a traditional learn-through-explanation manner. Mathematical and logical thinking is mastered though exploration, discovery, and direct experiences with physical objects and one’s surroundings. We provide our Little Thinkers with numerous developmentally appropriate opportunities and hands-on activities to discover mathematical and logical concepts in a way that is personally meaningful. We do not impose knowledge, and instead, allow our Little Thinkers to learn though practice and examination based on their individual needs, interests, and development. What is right or wrong is not as important as the continuation of new trials and experimentations provided by our thinking activities, which are carefully selected to be developmentally appropriate and mentally stimulating. As a result of developing higher levels of creativity along with logical and mathematical reasoning, self-esteem and confidence are also improved. To build true comprehension of numbers, math concepts, and properties, we often need go back to fundamentals. Through direct experience and exploration of developmentally appropriate Visual Thinking and Logical Thinking activities, our Little Thinkers master “pre-math” skills, such as matching (understanding the relationship between objects), classification (finding similar attributes to categorize objects), and seriation (comparing and grouping objects based on their differences). More complex math concepts are introduced through our advanced Logical Thinking games once these fundamental concepts are innately understood. To avoid rote memorization and encourage the “ah-ha” experience, careful attention is paid to providing optimally stimulating activities that nurture critical thinking skills without overwhelming the child. Our goal is to enable our Little Thinkers’ intrinsic understanding of math, so they don’t feel the need to make arbitrary choices and guesses. With our curriculum that tackles math challenges, your child can develop the outside-the-box thinking and logical reasoning skills needed in life. As a result, our Little Thinkers gain the tools necessary to become proficient in math.
Climate change pressure on the Gondwana Rainforests of Australia Climate change presents one of the greatest emerging challenges for the protection of Gondwana Rainforests World Heritage values. The Gondwana Rainforests World Heritage Area is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Projected climate change impacts, resulting in higher temperatures, extended periods of drought, more frequent and intense wildfire events and storms, and changes to the cloud base, mist availability or rainfall, are emerging as a high-level threat to the property’s Outstanding Universal Value. Even small climatic changes could change the distribution patterns of many endemic species and vegetation communities, particularly high-altitude species and vegetation communities with particular thermal and moisture tolerances. Climate change may already be impacting some of the World Heritage values; these impacts are expected to increase. Climate change is also predicted to exacerbate other threatening processes such as invasive species and pathogens, as well as fluctuations in rainfall patterns and altered fire regimes. In the short-term, this threat is considered ‘moderate’, however as the effects of climate change become more pronounced over the medium to long term, the threat will be considered ‘very high’. Additional research on the climate vulnerability of World Heritage values will enhance management planning, monitoring and on-ground action.
Brown Huntsman Spider Category: Arachnida Spider Facts about Brown Huntsman Spiders, Scientific name for Brown Huntsman Spider is Heteropoda jugulans". The brown huntsman spider belongs in the Sparassidae Family which was formerly known as Family Hetropodidae. They are popularly known for being hairy. They are also known for terrifying and scarring people by popping out behind the curtains. Brown huntsman spider has long and large legs. They are normally brown in color or at times you can get those that are grey in color. At times they have banded legs. These are some of the features that you can use to identify this kind of huntsman spiders. Adaptations of a Brown Huntsman Spider The Brown Huntsman Spider bodies are normally flattened. This is an adaptation that they have got so that they can be able to survive in narrow spaces, rock crevices or under loose bark. Their legs also assist them to hide. This is because instead of their legs bending vertically like their body, they have twisted joints. These joints helps the Brown Huntsman Spider to spread out laterally and forward just like a crab. Body size of Brown Huntsman Spider The brown huntsman spider has a less flattened body as compared to the other huntsman spiders. It also has got patterns in motley white, brown and black. The Brown Huntsman Spiders can grow to be very big. They can be as big as a human beings palm or even bigger. Their body can measure up to 3/4 inches (2 cm) for the females or 5/8 inches (1.6 cm) for the male spiders. Their legs can be as long as 5 7/8 inches (15 cm). Distribution, habitat and feeding of Brown Huntsman Spiders Brown huntsman spiders are highly distributed in Australia. They live in terrestrial habitats. Mostly, the Brown Huntsman Spider live under the unsuspected loose barks of trees, in cracks of rock walls and in logs. Other places you can find them are under the slabs and rocks of bark on the ground and on foliage. At times the brown huntsman spider enters the house and at times it is naughty enough to enter the car. Once it does this, it is found running across the dashboard or behind the sun visors. It feeds on insects and invertebrates. It is carnivorous, arthropod feeder and insectivorous. This is just but the least information about this crawling creature. It has much information that we cannot exhaust through writing. Spiders do not have a skeletons. They have a hard outer shell called an exoskeleton-(a rigid external covering for the body in some invertebrate animals). The exoskeleton is hard, so it can’t grow with the spider. The young Brown Huntsman Spiders need to shed their exoskeleton. The spider has to climb out of the old shell through the cephalothorax. Once out, they must spread themselves out before the new exoskeleton will harden. Know they have some room to grow. They stop growing once they fill this shell. Female Brown Huntsman Spiders are usually bigger than males. Female Brown Huntsman Spiders lay eggs on a bed of silk, which she creates right after mating. Once the female Brown Huntsman Spider lays her eggs, she will than cover them with more silk. Spiders belong to a group of animals called "arachnids", mites and Scorpions and a tick is also in the arachnid family. An Arachnids is a creature with eight legs, two body parts, no antennae or wings and are not able to chew on food. Spiders are not insects because insects have three main body parts and six legs and most insects have wings. Brown Huntsman Spiders have two body parts, the front part of the body is called the Cephalothorax-(the thorax and fused head of spiders). Also on this part of the body is the Brown Huntsman Spider’s gland that makes the poison and the stomach, fangs, mouth, legs, eyes and brain. Brown Huntsman Spiders also have these tiny little leg-type things called (pedipalps) that are next to the fangs. They are used to hold food while the spider bites it. The next part of the Brown Huntsman Spiders body is the abdomen and the abdomens back end is where there is the spinnerets and where the silk producing glands are located. The Arachnids are even in a larger group of animals called "arthropods" an invertebrate animal of the large phylum Arthropoda, which also include spiders, crustaceans and insects. They are the largest group in the animal world, about 80% of all animals come from this group. There are over a million different species. There are more than 40,000 different types of spiders in the world. Brown Huntsman Spiders have oversize brains. In the Brown Huntsman Spider the oxygen is bound to "hemocyanin" a copper-based protein that turns their blood blue, a molecule that contains copper rather than iron. Iron-based hemoglobin in red blood cells turns the blood red The muscles in a Brown Huntsman Spiders legs pull them inward, but the spider can't extend its legs outward. It will pump a watery liquid into its legs that pushes them out. A Brown Huntsman Spider’s legs and body are covered with lots of hair and these hairs are water-repellent, which trap a thin layer of air around the body so the Brown Huntsman Spiders body doesn't get wet. It allows them to float, this is how some spiders can survive under water for hours. A Brown Huntsman Spider feels its prey with chemo sensitive hairs on its legs and than feels if the prey is edible. The leg hair picks up smells and vibrations from the air. There are at minimum, two small claws that are at the end of the legs. Each Brown Huntsman Spiders leg has six joints, giving the spider 48 leg joints. The Brown Huntsman Spider’s body has oil on it, so the spider doesn't stick to it’s own web. A Brown Huntsman Spiders stomach can only take liquids, so a spider needs to liquefy their food before they eat. They bite on their prey and empty its stomach liquids into the pray which turns it into a soup for them to drink. A male Brown Huntsman Spider has two appendages called "pedipalps" a sensory organ, instead of a penis, which is filled with sperm and insert by the male into the female Brown Huntsman Spider’s reproductive opening.
Upon completion of this game, players will: - Understand that there is variability in the traits (appearances) of individual animals within a species. - Understand how variability in traits affects the ability of individual animals to survive and reproduce. - Understand how within-species variation makes it possible for a species to evolve via natural selection. - Via play, figure out how natural selection can bring about wing pattern changes in successive generations of particular species of butterflies. - Students are reminded to figure out why the butterflies become harder to catch with each level. - Understand that each level of play represents changes over many generations. - Understand that the butterflies do not have the will, or intent to change. - Interact with a bar chart to make predictions about ongoing species survivability (population dynamics). Gameplay: 8 minutes Optimized for WebGL enabled browsers Chrome and Firefox. Inspired by the movie, Amazon Adventure. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1423655. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
Indonesia is an enormous archipelagic nation in Asia. It covers 735,400 square miles (1,920,000 sq. km), making it nearly three times the size of Texas. It shares islands with East Timor, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea. Early ancestors of modern humans, Homo erectus, first began settling some of the islands of Indonesia anywhere from two million to 500,000 years ago. About ten thousand years ago these first ancestors went extinct, and the islands remained uninhabited for a time. Then, around 2000 BCE, the first Austronesians began to settle the islands, laying the groundwork for most of the modern population. The first kingdoms in Indonesia, specifically Java, began to form sometime in the 1st or 2nd centuries. Many different kingdoms and empires would follow, some controlling a mere handful of the many islands of what is now Indonesia, some controlling vast swaths of land. One important early empire was the Srivijaya Empire, which formed on the island of Sumatra and dominated many of the islands and parts of the Malay Peninsula from about the 7th century to the beginning of the 15th century. Islam began to spread in Indonesia by the 13th century, and eventually it became the dominant religion, driving out Hindi throughout the islands, with the exception of the island of Bali. The 15th century saw the rise of the Islamic Sultanate of Malacca through the Malay peninsula and the nearby islands, and the Sultanate of Mataram in Java played an important role in the spread of Islamic culture by conquering many of the islands and expanding his Sultanate. The Europeans began to vie for control of the spice trade in Indonesia beginning in earnest at the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese, who had already begun trading in the early 16th century, began settling and conquering by the end of the century. They laid the groundwork for the Dutch, who arrived in Indonesia with better weapons and tactics, and set about to systematically conquer most of the archipelago. With their base in Java, the Dutch formed the Dutch East India Company, which would quickly become a source of great wealth for the Netherlands. A Nationalist movement began in Indonesia at the beginning of the 20th century, seeking to end centuries of Dutch dominance. By the end of World War I the Dutch had clamped down hard on these Nationalist movements, attempting to quell any chance of an uprising. The outbreak of World War II effectively severed Dutch control of Indonesia, however, when the Netherlands were occupied by the Nazis. The Indonesian Nationalist movement tried to turn this into independence, and factions of this movement contacted the Japanese, asking for their assistance. The Japanese agreed to support Indonesian independence in return for trade, and when the Japanese eventually surrendered, the leader of the Nationalist faction, Sukarno, declared independence anyway. The Dutch tried to reclaim Indonesia, but after four years of fighting were eventually forced to recognize its independent status. The country began its independence with a system of parliamentary democracy, which lasted until 1957. At this point, Sukarno, now president, shifted the focus towards a new type of democracy that blended communism, nationalism, and religion into what was coined Guided Democracy. This period lasted until 1965, and was characterized by increasingly authoritarian leadership by Sukarno and a growing reliance on Communist nations such as China and the Soviet Union. In 1965, following a failed coup, a massive anti-Communist backlash occurred, in which as many as one million people were killed. President Suharto took over, leading the country until he resigned in 1998. The country began to rebuild during this period from the horrific economic condition it found itself in, and was slowly on its way to recovery when the East Asian Crisis hit. Indonesia continues to struggle with its economic position, and protests continue to push the country towards more democratic reforms, holding relatively open elections in 2006. It can be difficult to get one’s head around Indonesia. This nation is home to more than 234 million people, spread out across over 17,000 distinct islands. Although predominantly Islamic, there are entire regions where Christianity, Hinduism, or various native religions are dominant. Travel to some of the more remote islands can be a nightmare, and the security situation in places can be absolutely terrifying. Terrorism is a constant specter to most travelers, with some high profile bombings targeting Western tourists still fresh in people’s memories. Yet with all of these problems, Indonesia remains one of the most lauded tourist destinations on the planet. The nation is a virtual world unto itself, and offers a lifetime of experiences. One of the most popular destinations is the large island of Java, where the capital lies, and where one can explore various archaeological remains of cities that once were the centers of mighty empires. The jewel in Indonesia’s crown is the island of Bali, with its picturesque scenery, pods of dolphins one can swim with, amazingly colorful and beautiful culture and crafts, and kind and welcoming people. The nearby island of Lombok is also well-regarded, offering much of the beauty of Bali, but without any of the hordes of tourists. Wherever one chooses to look, these islands always have something to amaze. The capital city of Jakarta has flights arriving daily from most international hubs around the world, and the airport at Denpasar on Bali also receives international flights daily from many airports. Between the islands airlines regularly operate, although for the some of the smaller islands it can be difficult to find a flight. Ferries and ships also travel between the islands, ranging from three day trips to short hour-long trips in a speedboat.
Table of Contents - 1 How to read your balance sheet? - 1.1 Understanding current assets: - 1.2 Analyze non-current assets: - 1.3 Examine liabilities: - 1.4 Understanding the shareholder’s equity: - 2 The Importance of Balance Sheet Template: - 3 Standard formula: - 4 Conclusion: A balance sheet template is a financial written document that shows the financial health of a company or business. This document gives a detailed picture of a company’s assets, responsibilities, and shareholder capital. A balance sheet also emphasizes how each asset is financed whether through debt or equity. In simple words, we can say that it summarizes everything that; - A company owns - A company owes - The amount invested by shareholders In addition to this, it can also give useful information that can assist you in making sound investment decisions. How to read your balance sheet? If you are new in a financial sector then understanding the operations of a balance sheet is important. There are following tips on how to read your balance sheet; Understanding current assets: In financial term, current assets contain every item that a company owns. These assets can also be converted into liquid cash within a period of one year. These items include the following; Accounts receivables are the payments that your customers owe you and within a short duration, are due. They may contain an allowance. At market price or lower cost, inventory is the goods that your business is ready to sell. All the debt securities in which a liquid market exists are involved in marketable securities. Cash and its equivalents: These involve money at hand and referred as liquid cash and whether be hard cash, treasury, checks, or unrestricted bank accounts. Analyze non-current assets: Unlike to current assets, the non-current assets are those that can’t be converted into cash within duration of one year. In other words, we can say that before being changed into cash, they take long. They are classified into two; Tangible assets are physical assets. They may include machinery, buildings, computers, vehicles, to mention a few. These are the non-physical assets owned by a company such as goodwill, copywriters, and intellectual property. When you have read the assets, it is essential to pay attention on the liabilities. In simplest definition, liabilities mean everything that a company owes other parties. Furthermore, liabilities are categorized into two; Within a period of one year, these are the liabilities that are due. After the reported date on the balance sheet, these are the liabilities that are due more than one year. These often include the following; - loans, debts - deferred tax liability - the principal on bonds - pension fund liability The shareholder’s equity is the next thing after liabilities. It is the total amount of money attributable to the company’s owner. It is also referred as net worth or net asset. Additionally, during company’s formation, the amount that the shareholder invested in it referred as shareholder’s equity. The Importance of Balance Sheet Template: A professional balance sheet helps in the following; - It assists you in understanding how rapidly your customers are paying their bills. - You can identify the amount of debt your business has in relation to its equity with the help of this document. - It allows you to identify either or not your short term cash is enhancing or decreasing. - Bu using balance sheet template, you can identify the average number of days taken to fully sell your inventories. A balance sheet is categorized into two; - The debit side - The credit side In order to balance with each other, both sides must stay equal each time. There is standard formula to ensure this balance; Assets = Liabilities + Shareholder equity In conclusion, a balance sheet template formula is a mandatory financial document for your business either you are a small scale business person or an elite entrepreneur. You should template because they are straightforward and easy to read. They help you a lot in developing a strong foundation for building your business financial statement.
Summer learning is important THIS YEAR MORE THAN EVER for your child to continue learning and to ensure a smooth transition for next school year. Bridge 2 Learning offers multiple options for summer learning to help students stay actively engaged and continue to build their reading and math skills this summer. Although summer is usually a time to slow down and enjoy the long days of warmth and sunshine, a strong body of research shows, “students lose reading skills over the summer months” (Reading Rockets, n.d.). Additionally, some students fall behind in applying previously learned math skills over the summer which leads to teachers having to spend time reviewing math content in the beginning of the school year. This is also widely known as the summer slide, and there are things you can do to prevent this from happening. Here are a few things to consider: Summer learning can help strengthen literacy and math foundations students need to succeed for the next school year. Summer learning will help to reinforce a consistent routine to ensure a smoother transition to next school year. Summer learning fosters social and emotional development necessary for self-regulation skills and academic achievement. Children lose essential reading and math skills over the summer, and many fall behind compared to their classmates who are actively engaged in reading, writing, and math activities during the summer. Children, who read a lot over the summer sustain vocabulary and reading comprehension. Likewise, students who are actively engaged in using critical analysis to apply mathematical reasoning to solve problems are more likely to sustain and improve their math skills for the next school year. If you are trying to improve your child’s reading or math abilities, there are a few things to you can do to encourage your child to engage their minds and imaginations over the summer. As parents, you can provide books that match reading levels and interests, however, you will need to monitor your child’s reading comprehension. Research indicates that it is more than just handing a book to a child to read over the summer. Improving or sustaining summer learning is most effective when parents or family members can provide guidance and critical thinking activities (Kim & White, 2008). Just by providing children with books without guidance made no significant difference in decoding skills and comprehension for younger children and only a slight difference for older children. Even having teachers or librarians encouraging students to read had little to no impact on comprehension skills. The report continues to state, “We saw a significant difference when we provided books and adults were involved to guide reading skills and understanding” (Kim & White, 2008). Parents can determine if their child understands what he or she is reading by asking questions about the story, allowing their child to refer to the text to locate specific details, and summarizing the material in order to deepen comprehension skills. All good readers use these reading techniques; however, it is essential that adults be explicit when monitoring comprehension. Reading with others and having the opportunity to critically think and discuss reading material fosters learning and skill building for vocabulary, fluency, spelling, writing and comprehension skills. Comprehension is most beneficial when children receive help from adults, who can ask questions and guide them to better understand what they are reading. This type of reading exercise will help your child to become strong readers. At Bridge 2 Learning, we are excited to announce our Summer Book Club, where students will be actively engaged in reading while using effective literacy techniques to deepen their comprehension skills. Over the course of four weeks, we will be holding 90 minute reading and discussion sessions along with writing activities in a fun environment where students can read and discuss an interesting story, while also continuing to build their literary skills over the summer months. We also offer fun and engaging game-based math activities to ensure your child is actively engaged and applying critical thinking skills over the summer to ensure their math skills are fresh and current for the next school year. We are here to help to ensure your child’s reading and math skills remain strong all summer long, and to help your child achieve success for the next school year. Contact us today or visit our website to register: Please let me know your thoughts. Happy May Everyone!
What Is Gastrointestinal Surgery? GI Gastrointestinal surgery is the treatment for diseases that affect the part of the body which helps in the digestion process. The GI surgery removes tumors or any damaged part from the gastrointestinal tract, such as intestine or pancreas. This GI surgery is also used to solve problems like inflammatory bowel disease, severe acid reflux, hernia and many other chronic diseases. Gastrointestinal surgeries are classified into two categories based on the parts of gastrointestinal tract: upper GI gastrointestinal surgery and lower gastrointestinal surgery. Upper gastrointestinal surgery: Upper gastrointestinal surgery refers to a practice of surgery which focuses on the upper parts of the gastrointestinal tract. This includes gallbladder, liver, pancreas, esophagus, duodenum and stomach. A doctor may recommend upper gastrointestinal (GI) surgery if the patient experiences symptoms such as bloating, abdominal pain, heartburn, difficulty swallowing, and acid regurgitation. Lower gastrointestinal surgery: Lower GI surgery focuses on the lower gastrointestinal tract. This includes the small intestine, colon, rectum, and anus. Diseases in each of these parts of the intestine cause different symptoms and are treated differently. Therefore it is always important to seek advice from a well known hospital when you have a new problem or notice that something is not right. Any new rectal bleeding, abdominal pain, change in bowel habits, or unexplained weight loss should be investigated immediately. A new lump or swelling also requires an immediate examination by a specialist. Which Gastrointestinal Diseases Need To Be Treated With GI Surgery? - Diverticular Diseases: A chronic condition in which small pouches or pockets form in the large intestine, causing constant pain. This condition is also known as diverticulosis. Initially, the medical team will prefer to cure it without surgery. However, when it becomes severe or inflamed, the surgeon must perform a bowel resection to remove the swollen part of the intestine. - Rectal prolapse: A serious condition in which part of the intestine slips through the anus. Gastrointestinal surgeons treat such health conditions through surgery. - Weight loss: While there are many reasons for weight loss, different types of surgery are performed if it is caused by an inflamed digestive tract such as intestinal disease or gastroenteritis. How Is Gastrointestinal Surgery Done? Surgeons use minimally invasive surgery for gastrointestinal diseases whenever possible, depending on the specific case of each patient. There are several types of minimally invasive surgical techniques, such as: - Laparoscopic surgery: In laparoscopy, a laparoscope is inserted through a small incision to perform surgery. The surgeon inserts small instruments through another small incision to gain access to the treatment area. - Endoscopic Surgery: Endoscopy uses an endoscope that is inserted through the mouth, nose, or other natural opening in the body to gain access to the treatment area. The surgeon inserts small instruments through the endoscope to perform the operation. - Robotic surgery: Using a computerized system, the surgeon controls the mechanical arm holding the camera and surgical instruments to perform laparoscopic surgery. Surgeons use consoles that provide a high-resolution, magnified 3D view of the surgical site. Robotic hands have a wider range of motion that offer greater flexibility for complex and complex procedures. How To Prevent Gastrointestinal Diseases? Many colon and rectal diseases can be prevented or minimized by maintaining a healthy lifestyle, practicing good bowel habits, and more. Prevention of gastrointestinal disease requires lifestyle changes: Eat healthier: This includes eating more green leafy vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds. Also avoid carbonated drinks such as soda and bottled water, as well as spicy or fried foods. Maintain a healthy weight: Being overweight or obese is a risk factor for a variety of conditions, including many on the gastrointestinal list. This is because it causes inflammation in many internal organs, as well as reduced immunity. Take proper sleep: Several digestive disorders have been linked to people suffering from chronic insomnia, especially those with irritable bowel syndrome. Because when you sleep, your body works to fix all the problems in your body. Don’t let stress take over your life: There are many factors that can make your life stressful. However, stress and anxiety can exacerbate symptoms of indigestion and cause you to experience stomach cramps. In addition, every aspect of the digestion process is controlled by the nervous system, which responds to stress. That’s why it’s so important to find the stress reliever that works best for you. Drinking enough water: Water intake is important to move the food through your digestive system and keep your intestines flexible. Therefore, dehydration is associated with a long list of digestive disorders. It is also one of the most common causes of chronic constipation, which in turn increases the chances of hemorrhoids. Changing your diet and exercise habits is often the recommended first step to better digestive health. If you continue to have digestive problems, seek the best hospital in India for the treatment.
Operating a heart can be almost impossible if the organ cannot be isolated and stopped temporarily. Surgeons today can provoke cardiac arrest and use heart-lung bypass, in which a machine temporarily takes over the function of both organs, to keep the patient alive during an operation. During this type of procedure, body temperature is kept at 28-32º, which slows the body’s basal metabolic rate, decreasing its demand for oxygen. After the surgery, the patient is revived. Lowering the body temperature is not a new technique. In ancient Greece, physicians already used induced hypothermia for certain conditions. Hippocrates recommended applying snow and ice to wounds to reduce hemorrhage. For decades, surgeons have been using induced hypotherma on patients when operating difficult conditions. Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest, for example, is a surgical technique that involves cooling the body to temperatures between 20°C to 25°C, stopping all blood circulation and brain function for up to one hour. It is used when blood circulation to the brain must be stopped so delicate surgery can be carried out. It is effectively a carefully managed clinical death. Emergency Preservation and Resuscitation is another technique of induced hypothermia. However, unlike deep hypothermic circulatory arrest, which is used in preplanned surgery, EPR is an experimental emergency procedure for emergency room patients who are rapidly dying from blood loss, due to life-threatening knife or gunshot wounds. The technique aims to buy surgeons time -about one hour- so they can repair damaged tissues or organs. It involves replacing all of a patient’s blood with an ice-cold saline solution, which rapidly cools the body and brain to less than 10ºC and stops almost all cellular activity. The solution is pumped directly into the aorta. Research to develop EPR began in the 1980s. American trauma surgeon Samuel Tisherman and Austrian anesthesiologist Peter Safar -who also pioneered cardiopulmonary resuscitation- published their first results in 1990. The first demostration of the technique was carried out by Peter Rhee, a military surgeon with the US Navy, and colleagues at the University of Arizona in 2000. One of the objectives of this technique is to reduce the sometimes irreparable brain damage patients suffer after such serious injuries. Because this extreme procedure has been developed to save the lives of patients in critical condition, it is frequently impossible to obtain their consent, because they are either unconscious or incapacitated when they arrive to the hospital. Community consent is therefore needed (this means the FDA allows it because the injuries are likely to be fatal and there is no alternative treatment, but the local community has to be informed via local press and people can opt out via a website). The technique is only allowed in specific cases: patients 18 to 65 years old, who have a penetrating wound, go into cardiac arrest within five minutes of arrival, and fail to respond to normal resuscitation efforts. In these cases, patients will probably have lost around 50% of their blood and their chest will be open. Chance of survival under these circumstances is estimated to be less than 7%. I first learnt and wrote about this technique in 2014, when professor Samuel Tisherman and his team received approval to start human trials at the University of Pittsburgh. Due to the lack of patients who qualified for the procedure, however, trials could not take place and were only resumed in 2016, in Baltimore, a city that has a higher homicide rate. In a recent symposium, professor Tisherman, who is director of the University of Maryland School of Medicine‘s division of critical care and trauma education, said that his team has already used the procedure on at least one patient. His team successfully put the patient in suspended animation, completely removing his/her blood and replacing it with saline solution. Technically dead, the patient was then removed from the machine and taken to a surgical room for a two-hour emergency operation. After the operation, the patient had his/her blood restored and warmed to normal temperature. Professor Tiesherman did not say, however, whether the patient –or patients- survived. The trial will continue until the end of the year and will compare men and women who have received standard emergency care with those who received EPR. Full account and results of the trials are expected in late 2020. Professor Tisherman was granted a patent for the process for achieving suspended animation in 2014 . Send this to a friend
Understanding the Importance of Steam Systems in our Hospitals Hospital Steam Systems Steam is generated in boilers, typically located in a separate building known as a boiler house. A normal boiler house is comprised of several boilers (for redundancy), a water supply, water treatment equipment, valves, and piping. The boilers heat water, known as boiler water, to produce steam at approximately 100 pounds per square inch. The steam exits the boiler house and is distributed throughout the hospital by a network of pipes. Steam is supplied to many different types of equipment, all having one thing in common: to use the heat contained in the steam to perform specific functions. For example, water used for hand washing and bathing is known as domestic hot water. Domestic hot water is heated in devices consisting of a bunch of tubes or plates know as “heat exchangers.” In the heat exchangers, steam enters on one side of the tubes or plates with domestic water on the other side. In a hospital, these two systems are separate and are not mixed. Heat exchangers are used to remove the heat from the steam and transfer it to the domestic water. Steam that enters the heat exchanger as a gas exits as liquid condensate. Efficient steam systems collect as much condensate as possible, sending it back to the boilers as boiler water to be used again and again. Figure 01. A hospital steam system schematic: the red lines represent the distribution piping connecting the boilers to the various pieces of equipment. Some uses of steam in a hospital include the following: • Building heating • Hot water for handwashing and bathing • Sterilization of surgical instruments to avoid the spread of infection • Production of cold water in large absorption chillers for air conditioning • Sterilization of medical waste in purpose-built autoclaves • Humidification of the air • Food preparation in steam powered kettles Care and keeping of Steam Systems Whether in a hospital or elsewhere, steam systems require regular maintenance. The number one factor that receives the most attention is the quality of the recycled water. With the exception of distilled water, most water contains an assortment of calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, and silica. These minerals are commonly associated with water hardness. Due to steam system temperatures and repeated steam-to-condensate-to-boiler water usage, these minerals tend to accumulate into a coating known as scale. Scale has two major drawbacks. First, scale reduces heat transfer, sometimes even by a factor of ten. A layer of scale as little as a 1/16” thick has been shown to reduce the overall efficiency of a boiler by 11%. A buildup of scale also reduces effective internal pipe diameters and thereby restricts flow, resulting in additional performance degradation. A lot of money and effort is involved in monitoring and controlling boiler water quality. A second major drawback due to scale is corrosion of steam system components, once again a factor to be considered in addressing boiler water quality. The corrosiveness of water is determined not only by the minerals present, but also the presence of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide. Untreated, the steam and condensate-boiler water flowing through the system can be expected to result in corrosion problems such as thinning of material, formation of cracks, and pitting. Corrosion byproducts themselves also lead to even further water contamination. Reliable steam system operation is a combination of proper system design, a robust boiler water treatment and monitoring program, and regular maintenance. Although important in any steam system, attention to system operation is even more important in a hospital and should be designed to deliver the required performance. Like a three-legged stool, it takes all three “legs”—system design, water treatment and regular maintenance—for a steam system to deliver stable performance. So the next time you visit a hospital and use hot water to wash your hands, know that steam is hard at work helping to keep you, the patients, and the hospital staff safe and comfortable.
Why teach preschoolers to recycle? Are they too young to ‘get it’? We don’t think so! At Rainforest Learning Centre, we build recycling and care for the environment into our curriculum. We believe it makes for responsible citizens of our future. But more than that, it teaches educational and life lessons too! In this article, we’ll discuss reasons and ideas to teach preschoolers about recycling. Teach kids sorting and categorizing with recycling bins Just like this article shows, preschools and daycares can teach kids about recycling by sorting materials that go in different bins. This not only teaches them how to recycle properly at home, and as they grow up. It also teaches skills like categorizing. In a past article, we discussed sensory development in young children, and this can be thought of as one way to encourage that. And of course, it can certainly be a primer to keeping their rooms and play areas tidy and organized! Get creative: show preschoolers how to reuse, reduce and recycle! Taking care of the environment can be quite a creative endeavour. It can force kids to see new uses for objects that they may not have noticed before. It can also show them how to maximize their materials, or lengthen their lifespan and value. This can be a great way to save money for parents too! Who needs expensive toys when you can make them out of homemade materials? Some ideas for using environmental creativity at preschool with the ‘reuse, reduce and recycle’ motto are: - Make vases or organizers out of plastic bottles (from shampoo bottles, drink bottles, etc.) - Make a crazy robot out of anything in the recycling bin! - Make a cereal box and toilet paper roll toy car garage! Or, use the same idea to make a castle! - Make a recycled paper basket - Make pretty recycled stationery organizers and boxes for mother or father’s day! - Make bottle cap letter games - Melt old crayons into colouring discs (with a parent!) - Turn old t-shirts into bags, pillows or other crafts! - Make a comic book bowl And the list goes on! We searched Pinterest for ideas, and we’re sure there are more you can try! On Buzzfeed, here are several more crafts to make from materials that usually go in the recycle bin. Another neat place to find repurposed and up-cycling projects suitable for preschoolers is the Nifty section at Buzzfeed. They come with useful tutorial videos too. Help the environment with planting and other preschool biology lessons Part of ‘going green’ with preschoolers can involve plants! Climate change lessons can include lessons on biology, and especially how plants turn carbon into air for us to breathe. You can also extend this into a lesson on seeds and reproduction, or a lesson on where our food comes from. Here are ideas to help teach preschoolers biology lessons related to environmental preservation: - Make an egg carton planter - Use old jars or cans as planters and seed starters - Use old vegetable scraps to start new plants - Adopt a duck pond, like we do! - Clean up a garden, park or community area (with lessons on safety and what not to touch first!) - Start a classroom compost - Save reusable water in the preschool centre for plants and other resource saving needs Continuously educate preschoolers on recycling and the environment Teaching our preschool-aged kids to be stewards of our environment means more than a one-time lesson on Earth Day each year. The recycling, up-cycling, reusing and reducing mentality needs to be spoken of as conversation all the time. From using less water to wash hands, to not throwing away perfectly good food, these need to become habits. One way to continuously send the message to young kids is with posters like this, which you can brainstorm with your class. You also give backstory lessons on what happens to products, like bottles, before and after they leave our sight! Here is a poster about what happens to recycled bottles, for instance. And what about ‘environmentally friendly’ consumer products? What are they made of? Why are they better? You can discuss topics like this with your class. And, a good book is always a pleasure! Try incorporating children’s books about recycling into your story time routine, such as this one (not sponsored). To conclude: teach preschoolers about recycling to keep them educated about our planet As you can see above, recycling is not just for the environmentally conscious. The activities involved in recycling can teach kids about science, and how to be resourceful with materials. It can also teach them more about the world they live in, insofar as manufacturing goes! After all, we’re not all living on cottage farms and making our own fabrics, cheeses or baskets anymore. It’s good to show kids these things don’t happen by ‘magic’! See more on our blog: - 5 Tips on how to teach preschoolers about geography at daycare - 5 examples (types) of informal education in early childhood - 10 Activities and crafts to teach preschoolers about the ocean - Preschool activities to start, grow and maintain an edible classroom garden
It would be hard to imagine a garden pond or water feature without plants. Aside from their obvious aesthetic value, aquatic plants remove nutrients from the water and shade sunlight, both of which deter nuisance algae blooms. They also produce oxygen, which supports fish and balances pH; they provide spawning sites for fish and cover against predators; and help create a natural, balanced habitat. Pond plants can be grouped into four categories: oxygenators, water lilies, emergents and floaters. Oxygenating plants are basically aquarium bunch plants, and can be easily displayed in a regular plant, or tropical fish sales tanks. Examples include: Elodea, also known as Anacharis, Hornwort, Hygrohila, Rotala and Ludwigia, although there are many, many more. They can be potted in standard aquarium gravel and placed on the bottom of the pond at a depth of no more than 18 inches. Hornwort can simply be floated at the surface. Like most aquatic plants, they do best in full, all-day sunlight. These plants grow rapidly and greatly enhance the oxygen content of the water, as well as using up algae-causing nitrates and phosphates. They also provide excellent attachment sites for goldfish and koi eggs at spawning time. Oxygenators should not be put out until the water temperature is at least 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Water lilies are typically grouped into hardies and tropicals. These are further grouped into day bloomers, the most common variety, and night bloomers. Tropical lilies are not practical for northern climates, as the growing season is usually not long enough for them to blossom. Also, they cannot be overwintered outdoors like hardies. Lilies should be potted in a soil/sand mix and placed on the pond bottom at a depth of 12 to 18 inches in containers ranging in size from 1 to 4 gallons. The floating pads of a healthy lily can create a spread of over 6 feet in diameter, so they should be spaced out in the pond appropriately. The shade produced by lily pads helps cool the pond in hot weather and also helps to prevent nuisance algae blooms. For maximum growth and flower production, lilies should be fertilized on a regular basis following manufacturers’ directions, using tablets or sticks designed specifically for water lilies. Night bloomers do just that: The blossoms stay closed by day and open when the sun goes down. Their fragrance is typically much stronger than day bloomers. Lilies come in virtually every imaginable blossom color and the tubers can be divided and repotted each year. All lilies need is full sunlight to bloom and prosper, and therefore should be housed and sold outdoors. Retailers who do not have permanent outdoor water garden facilities can display lilies outside in rolling tubs and simply bring them in at night to prevent theft or vandalism. Emergent plants grow out of the water at the edge of ponds and lakes, or along river banks, and are mostly used for their aesthetic value in home water gardens. They can be placed with their pots partially submerged on ledges or in shallow water. There are literally hundreds of choices, but familiar examples include: irises, cattails, marsh marigolds, taros, lotuses, umbrella palms, papyrus, pickerel weed, cardinal flowers, sedges, rushes and many others. Many emergent plants produce beautiful flowers and some develop into small shrubs over time, blending naturally into surrounding landscape features. Emergent plants should be potted or otherwise containerized, as many, like irises, cattails, sedges and rushes, spread rapidly and will quickly choke out neighboring plants. Retailers operating in northern climates should be sure to separate and identify tropicals from hardy plants, as tropicals will need to be brought in during winter months. Like lilies, these plants need strong full-day sun and should be displayed outdoors. They can be housed in shallow troughs with just enough water to keep their feet wet and brought into the shop at night, as described above for water lilies. Water lettuce and hyacinth are the best-known floating pond plants, but bog bean, parrotfeather, floating heart, Salvinia and Azolla are also popular. Floating plants help keep water crystal clear by trapping floating debris in their hanging roots. Their rapid growth also removes nutrients from the water and provides shade, both of which help control nuisance algae. Hyacinth produces beautiful azure blossoms when kept in full sun, bog bean has a white flower, and floating heart produces a golden yellow bloom. Water hyacinth and lettuce are not legal in many southern states, so always check local regulations before offering these plants for sale. When kept under strong artificial lighting, most floating plants thrive indoors, making them an easy seasonal addition to your plant inventory.
Reaction time is easily measured in this fun lab. But rather than using a stopwatch, we take advantage of physics and calculate the time segment by measuring the distance the ruler falls before it's caught. Is reaction time a reflex? Nope. The difference between the two is discussed within the activity. - What's the difference between reaction time and reflexes? - Can reaction time improve with practice? - How can reaction time be measured? - Reaction time is a measure of how quickly you're able to respond to a signal. - Reflexes are a nearly instantaneous response to a stimulus. - Both reflexes and reaction times are fairly fixed and don't improve with practice. meter stick, friend About 20–30 minutes, longer with included writing assignment Yes! Plus extensive teacher notes address the many questions that come up. You shouldn’t have to do outside research on this topic unless you want to. Specific charts and graphic organizers have keys. Middle School Students, Ages 11-14 - Scaffolded writing prompts & lab reporting - Diagrams for labeling
Whooping Cough (Pertussis) has been declared as an epidemic in the state of California and there is no sign of this epidemic slowing down. Our office has been in close contact with The Alameda County Public Health Department so that we may offer the most appropriate advice and care to our patients. Here is a summary of what you need to know about pertussis: Pertussis (whooping cough) is a very contagious disease caused by a type of bacteria called Bordetella pertussis. Among vaccine-preventable diseases, pertussis is one of the most commonly occurring ones in the United States. Pertussis vaccines are very effective but not 100% effective. If pertussis is circulating in the community, there is still a chance that a fully vaccinated person can catch this very contagious disease. The disease starts like the common cold, with runny nose or congestion, sneezing, and maybe mild cough or fever. But, after 1–2 weeks, severe coughing begins. Infants and children with the disease cough violently and rapidly, over and over, until the air is gone from their lungs and they are forced to inhale with a loud “whooping” sound. Pertussis is most severe for babies. People with pertussis (whooping cough) usually spread the disease by coughing or sneezing while in close contact with others, who then breathe in the pertussis bacteria. Many infants who get pertussis are infected by parents, older siblings, or other caregivers who might not even know they have the disease. It takes 5-21 days after contact with an infected individual to show sign and symptom of illness. The best way to prevent pertussis is to get vaccinated. Patients who follow our recommended vaccination schedule usually receive the vaccine at 2, 4, 6, and 18 month of age. A fifth dose is given when a child enters school at 4–6 years of age. Since 2005, the booster dose of the tetanus vaccine received at ages11 and above has contained a pertussis component to help boost immunity to this disease. Not all patients exposed to pertussis need to be treated. “Close contacts” usually need to be treated. According to Pubic Heath authorities close contacts are defined as “those who have had direct contact with respiratory, oral or nasal secretions from a symptomatic case, e.g., a cough or sneeze in the face, sharing food/eating utensils, kissing, performing a medical examination of the nose and throat, or sharing a confined space in a close proximity for a prolonged period of time (>1 hour) with a symptomatic case.” The bottom line is: - Pertussis (whooping cough) is most worrisome for infants less than one year of age, however, it can cause protracted and distressing illness for older children. - In toddlers, adolescents and adults it can appear as normal “cold.” - Children exposed at school or daycare need to be treated if they have been in close proximity to the affected person as defined above. - If your child has been in close contact with someone diagnosed with pertussis your child may need to be treated. Please call our office for advice or to make an appointment. During any epidemic, sometimes extra measures and various methodologies need to be taken into account to control the spread of the invading agent. Our office stays in close contact with the public health department to offer our patients the most up to date advice and care possible. The following are excellent websites to educate yourself about whooping cough:
The history of Bidston Hill is all about line of sight communications. From Bidston Hill, one can see (and be seen) for many miles in all directions. Fire Beacons have been deployed on Bidston Hill for centuries. We know they were prepared as part of an early-warning system during the Spanish Armada and again during the Napoleonic Wars. They may have been used even earlier. In navigation, the Windmill on Bidston Hill was used as a “day mark” long before Wirral’s first lighthouses were built in 1763. This is why many early sea charts of Liverpool Bay took pains to mark the location of Bidston Windmill. The Bidston Signals comprised more than a hundred “lofty flagstaffs” running along the ridge of Bidston Hill. Their purpose was to give the port of Liverpool notice of arriving ships. Lighthouses, too, depend on line of sight. To be useful, they must be seen. Liverpool’s first lighthouses were built in Wirral in 1763. These were navigational aids, not warning lights. By setting a course with the two lights straight ahead, mariners avoided the treacherous sand banks of Liverpool Bay. The two Sea Lights, near Leasowe, marked the safe passage through the Horse Channel, and the two Lake Lights marked the way into Hoyle Lake. This was an early (but not the earliest) use of leading lights in navigation. The first Bidston Lighthouse was built in 1771, near the Signals Station. It was needed because the lower Sea Light had been overwhelmed by storms. Bidston Lighthouse became the upper Sea Light, and Leasowe Lighthouse, still standing today, became the lower Sea Light. Being 2.3 miles further inland, the new lighthouse depended on a breakthrough in lighthouse optics, which came in the form of William Hutchinson’s invention of the parabolic reflector. In 1826, the Liverpool to Holyhead telegraph was set up. This was an optical telegraph, based on a new semaphore system devised by Lieutenant Barnard Lindsay Watson. It comprised a chain of semaphore stations at Liverpool, Bidston Hill, Hilbre Island, Voel Nant, Foryd, Llysfaen, Great Ormes Head, Puffin Island, Point Lynas, Carreglwyd, and Holyhead, a distance of 72 miles. It was capable of relaying a typical message from Holyhead to Liverpool in a few minutes, and a very short message in less than a minute. This was the first telegraph in Britain to carry commercial and private correspondence. Watson’s code was a numeric one: each station in the 1826 telegraph had a massive semaphore mast about 50 feet tall, each pole had three pairs of movable arms, and each pair of arms could signal a single digit. The 1841 telegraph had a two masts each with two pairs of arms, and a larger vocabulary of 10,000 words. All of these systems were made obsolete by the inexorable march of technology. Last to arrive and first to go was the optical telegraph, which was superseded when the electric telegraph linking Liverpool to Holyhead was finally completed in 1861, the first cables having been laid in 1858. Next to go were the signal flags. The Sea Lights were superseded by navigational buoys, which had the virtue of being moveable. By 1908, when the Lower Sea Light at Leasowe was extinguished, the sandbanks had shifted to such an extent that the Horse and Rock Channels were barely navigable, and the Sea Lights no longer provided a useful leading line. The Upper Sea Light on Bidston Hill shone alone for another five years, until sunrise on 9th October, 1913. Radio is another form of communications that depends on line of sight. The principle of propagation of electromagnetic waves was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873, the same year that the present Bidston Lighthouse was completed. Marconi won an important patent in 1896, and built the first radio station on the Isle of Wight in 1897. Then it really took off. At Bidston Lighthouse (and Bidston Observatory), radio antennae of all kinds have been installed at one time or another. Mersey Docks ordered a set of “Marconi Apparatus” for Bidston Lighthouse as early as 1908, but the Marconi Company failed to deliver, and the order was withdrawn. An antenna, probably marine, is still attached to the north face of the lighthouse tower. Amateur radio enthusiasts, notably the Wirral Amateur Radio Society, still operate from Bidston Lighthouse on annual International Lighthouse and Lightship Weekends, and other special occasions. Our webcam is brought to you over a line-of-sight wireless network. In 2014, Wirral Radio 92.1 FM moved their transmitter to Bidston Lighthouse. Line-of-sight communications are as much a part of the future of Bidston Lighthouse as its past.
Laurentian University’s Dr. Elizabeth Turner, professor of geology at the Harquail School of Earth Sciences, co-authored a paper published in the journal Nature this week. Earth is 4.5 billion years old, but the ‘normal’ fossil record consisting of marine shells and bones spans only the last 10% of its history (the Phanerozoic); the record of complex life on land is even shorter. This ‘obvious’ fossil record, visible to the naked eye, consists of fairly readily understood organisms representing most types of life - but there must have been an earlier history during which much of the diversity of life emerged evolutionarily but left no obvious record. Life in the first 90% of Earth history (the Precambrian) is commonly assumed to have been almost exclusively bacterial (prokaryotes), yet organisms that are more complex at a cellular level (eukaryotes) must have emerged sometime in the Precambrian. Investigating this early time of ‘hidden’ evolution is a challenging, hot topic in geological and paleobiological research. Specimens of a microscopic fossilised fungus named Ourasphaira giraldae were extracted from one-billion-year-old (1 Ga) shale of the Grassy Bay Formation in Northwest Territories, Canada, pushing back the date for the oldest known unambiguous fungus in the fossil record by more than half a billion years. The fossils have numerous physical characteristics typical of fungi, resembling modern fungal hyphae and spores. Image: Photomicrograph of one of the Proterozoic fungi fossils, taken by Corentin Loron, Université de Liège, Belgium Fungi are critical components of modern ecosystems because of their role in biological cycles: they decompose organic matter and make its energy and nutrients available to be reused. In deep time, they may have played an important role in the colonisation of land, contributing to the eventual success of land plants. Despite their importance, fungi have a very sparse fossil record owing to poor preservability. The existence of fungi a billion years ago has profound implications. - The microfossil assemblage containing the fungus (described in earlier publications by the same researchers) implies the existence, a billion years ago, of a complex ecosystem containing diverse, microscopic eukaryotes that occupied most roles in a modern-type food web – photosynthesising, consuming photosynthesisers, degrading organic matter (fungus), and even predation of one eukaryote upon another. Earth’s biota therefore included diverse, complex organisms much earlier than previously assumed. - Fungus and animals are known to be genetically related (forming a group called ‘opisthokonts’) and share a common ancestor. The presence of fungus 1 billion years ago indicates that the divergence of the fungal and animal lineages must have taken place before that. Some form of proto-animal must have existed already by 1 Ga, long before the earliest known fossil evidence of animals (650 million years), and well before the advent of readily identifiable animal fossils (Phanerozoic). - The Grassy Bay Formation preserves sediment that was deposited in an estuary, a type of Earth-surface environment where land and ocean meet. It is possible that the fossil fungus was derived from land rather than living in a marine environment, which could suggest the presence of some type of simple ecosystem on land as early as 1 billion years ago.
Sickle cell disease is an inherited red blood cell disorder. Red blood cells become rigid and shaped like crescent moons. When this happens, oxygen cannot get to parts of the body. This can cause fatigue, severe pain, organ damage, or stroke. What is Sickle Cell Disease? Sickle cell disease (SCD) is the most common inherited blood disorder in the U.S. It primarily affects African-Americans (1 in 365) and Hispanic Americans (1 in 16,300). It is a chronic condition that can cause severe pain, organ damage, or even stroke. Sickle cell disease (SCD) is the most common inherited blood disorder in the U.S. Clinical trials may be an option for patients with SCD. There are laws in place to ensure patient's safety during clinical trials. Signs and Symptoms of SCD All U.S. states including District of Columbia (DC) and U.S. territories require that all newborns get screened for SCD. If a baby test positive, parents are notified, but most infants do not start having symptoms until they are about 5 or 6 month old. Early Symptoms of SCD may include: - Painful swelling of the hands and feet (dactylitis) - Fatigue or fussiness from anemia - Yellowish color of the skin (jaundice) - Yellowish color in white parts of the eye (icteris) The symptoms and complications of SCD will vary in severity from person to person and can change over time. SCD Treatment Options Current treatments for sickle cell disease are limited to preventing and managing a pain crisis, which is the most debilitating symptom of SCD. - L-glutamine Oral Powder: Patients can take this oral medication to reduce acute complications in adults and children older than 5 years. - Hydroxyurea: Patients can take this oral medication to help reduces the frequency of pain crises and the need for blood transfusions. - Pain Medications: Patients can manage their pain with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), opioids, antidepressants, and anticonvulsants. - Chronic Transfusion Therapy: Patients can get regular blood transfusions to help prevent complications. - Bone Marrow or Stem Cell Transplants: Younger patients with severe SCD can consider transplants, but they are expensive, require a suitable bone marrow or stem cell donor and have serious risks. SCD and Clinical Trials Clinical trials are very important to developing more and better treatments for sickle cell disease. Your participation is voluntary. There are laws that protect your safety and your information is kept confidential. If you think a clinical trial may be right for you, talk to your doctor. You can also search for clinical trials in your area at, www.ClinicalTrials.gov.
Science, Tech, Math › Science Ohm's Law Share Flipboard Email Print This circuit shows a current, I, running through a resistor, R. On the left side there is a voltage, V. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons Science Physics Physics Laws, Concepts, and Principles Quantum Physics Important Physicists Thermodynamics Cosmology & Astrophysics Chemistry Biology Geology Astronomy Weather & Climate By Andrew Zimmerman Jones Math and Physics Expert M.S., Mathematics Education, Indiana University B.A., Physics, Wabash College Andrew Zimmerman Jones is a science writer, educator, and researcher. He is the co-author of "String Theory for Dummies." our editorial process Andrew Zimmerman Jones Updated March 18, 2017 Ohm's Law is a key rule for analyzing electrical circuits, describing the relationship between three key physical quantities: voltage, current, and resistance. It represents that the current is proportional to the voltage across two points, with the constant of proportionality being the resistance. Using Ohm's Law The relationship defined by Ohm's law is generally expressed in three equivalent forms: I = V / RR = V / IV = IR with these variables defined across a conductor between two points in the following way: I represents the electrical current, in units of amperes. V represents the voltage measured across the conductor in volts, and R represents the resistance of the conductor in ohms. One way to think of this conceptually is that as a current, I, flows across a resistor (or even across a non-perfect conductor, which has some resistance), R, then the current is losing energy. The energy before it crosses the conductor is therefore going to be higher than the energy after it crosses the conductor, and this difference in electrical is represented in the voltage difference, V, across the conductor. The voltage difference and current between two points can be measured, which means that resistance itself is a derived quantity that cannot be directly measured experimentally. However, when we insert some element into a circuit that has a known resistance value, then you are able to use that resistance along with a measured voltage or current to identify the other unknown quantity. History of Ohm's Law German physicist and mathematician Georg Simon Ohm (March 16, 1789 - July 6, 1854 C.E.) conducted research in electricity in 1826 and 1827, publishing the results that came to be known as Ohm's Law in 1827. He was able to measure the current with a galvanometer, and tried a couple of different set-ups to establish his voltage difference. The first was a voltaic pile, similar to the original batteries created in 1800 by Alessandro Volta. In looking for a more stable voltage source, he later switched to thermocouples, which create a voltage difference based to a temperature difference. What he actually directly measured was that the current was proportional to the temperature difference between the two electrical junctures, but since the voltage difference was directly related to the temperature, this means that the current was proportional to the voltage difference. In simple terms, if you doubled the temperature difference, you doubled the voltage and also doubled the current. (Assuming, of course, that your thermocouple doesn't melt or something. There are practical limits where this would break down.) Ohm wasn't actually the first to have investigated this sort of relationship, despite publishing first. Previous work by British scientist Henry Cavendish (October 10, 1731 - February 24, 1810 C.E.) in the 1780's had resulted in him making comments in his journals that seemed to indicate the same relationship. Without this being published or otherwise communicated to other scientists of his day, Cavendish's results weren't known, leaving the opening for Ohm to make the discovery. That's why this article isn't entitled Cavendish's Law. These results were later published in 1879 by James Clerk Maxwell, but by that point the credit was already established for Ohm. Other Forms of Ohm's Law Another way of representing Ohm's Law was developed by Gustav Kirchhoff (of Kirchoff's Laws fame), and takes the form of: J = σE where these variables stand for: J represents the current density (or electrical current per unit area of cross section) of the material. This is a vector quantity representing a value in a vector field, meaning it contains both a magnitude and a direction.sigma represents the conductivity of the material, which is dependent upon the physical properties of the individual material. The conductivity is the reciprocal of the resistivity of the material. E represents the electric field at that location. It is also a vector field. The original formulation of Ohm's Law is basically an idealized model, which doesn't take into account the individual physical variations within the wires or the electric field moving through it. For most basic circuit applications, this simplification is perfectly fine, but when going into more detail, or working with more precise circuitry elements, it may be important to consider how the current relationship is different within different parts of the material, and that's where this more general version of the equation comes into play.
The Tubes are Nano, the Capacitors are Super! For several years, experts from the Institute of Inorganic Chemistry SB RAS (Novosibirsk) have been working on the methods for synthesis of arrays of directional carbonic nanotubes and studying their structure and characteristics. As an electrode material, nanotubes show great potential for creating new kinds of supercapacitors and accumulators. The growing needs of the contemporary technology have resulted in the appearance of a new class of devices—supercapacitors, or ionistors. They have high capacity and accumulate energy in the double electric layer on the surface of a highly porous conductive structure. As opposed to the usual capacitors, the second electrode in supercapacitors is the electrolyte that at 1 V voltage allows a layer of ions to form on the electrode surface. The ions are in the solvate shell composed of water molecules spaced at characteristic intervals of about 1 nm. It is known that the capacity of an elementary capacitor is in proportion to the area of electrodes and in inverse proportion to the distance between them. Since in an ionistor the distance between the charged surface of the electrodes and the layer of ions of the electrolyte is very short and the specific surface of a porous conductor (for example, activated carbon) reaches 1000—1500 m2/g, the capacity of such a device can exceed 100 Farad/g. To compare, the specific capacity of traditional electrolytic capacitors is one-thousandth of ionisters’ capacity. Supercapacitors are characterized by high power and low leakage currents, they endure tens of thousands of charge-discharge cycles and can be charged in a short time. They are an effective means for reliable motor starting at low temperatures, as well as in case when the battery is dead. To provide the remarkably high capacity of the double-layered capacitor, the electrode material should display such characteristics as good electrical conduction, high specific surface, chemical and thermal durability. All of these are highly typical of carbon materials. In the recent years, the range of carbon nanomaterials promising for making electrochemically active electrodes has widened because of the mono-layered and multilayered nanotubes. Carbonic nanotubes exceed traditional materials in some parameters. A special interest is evoked by the geometry in which the array of carbonic nanotubes is predominantly perpendicular to the surface of the conducting substrate, which results both in a great increase in the effective surface of electrodes and in the improvement of the conditions of electric current flow. Today, the scientists from the Institute of Inorganic Chemistry SB RAS have developed the methods for synthesis of arrays of carbon nanotubes up to 3 mm long. The thickest array was made as a result of continuous injection of the mixture of hydrocarbon and a catalyst at 800° C. Specific capacity of the supercapacitors from the arrays of directional carbonic nanotubes in aqueous electrolytes is 100—120 Farad/g. Capacity can be increased still further by applying on the nanotube surface a substance that is able to change its structure reversibly as a result of chemical reaction affected by current. This electrochemical element is not a true supercapacitor but practically an accumulator. When it is discharged, the chemical energy accumulated in it is transformed in current. There are a number of polymers, which can be used as a structure with good redox characteristics. Scientists from the Laboratory of Physicochemistry of Nanomaterials of the Institute of Inorganic Chemistry apply a thin layer of polyanilin for modifying the surface of the nanotubes grown on silicon plates. The best samples feature a layer of polyanilin 10 nm thin, which is comparable to the average radius of the nanotubes themselves. This thickness of polymer provides perfect conditions for current collection, and current density reaches the values comparable to currents in traditional ionistors. And the specific electrolytic capacity of the developed composite materials is much higher and reaches 500 Farad/g. These composites endure a large number of recharging cycles. An important stage of the research conducted was studying the interaction of nanotubes and polyanilin. The methods of electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry, infrared and X-ray electron spectroscopy have revealed fundamental regularities of transfer of electric charge in the layer between polymer and carbon. The obtained results are important for developing prototypes of electrochemical accumulators of electric energy for the auto- and aircraft industry, and for household electric appliances.
Muttaburrasaurus was a large, plant-eating ornithopod from the Early Cretaceous of eastern Australia. It is one of the most complete dinosaurs from Australia - only Minmiis more complete - and the first to be cast and mounted for display. Muttaburrasaurushad an unusual skull with a long, rounded snout that had a hollow internal chamber, perhaps to increase the volume of its calls or enhance its sense of smell. Muttaburrasaurus was a large ornithopod that had an unusual, rounded bony snout with a hollow internal chamber. This may have enhanced the volume of its calls or its sense of smell. Muttaburrasaurus had many other features seen in other basal ornithopods, including reduced forelimbs and a long, stiffened tail. Based on the length and strength of its limbs, Muttaburrasaurus may have been able to move on either its two back legs or on all four legs. Muttaburrasaurus would have lived in araucarian conifer forests near the edge of the inland Eromanga Sea that covered vast areas of central Australia 110 million years ago. The forest understorey would have included ferns and cycads, possibly part of the diet of Muttaburrasaurus. In the more southerly part of its range (Lightning Ridge), there would have been extremes of daylight during winter and summer months, although the climate was much milder then than it is today. Muttaburrasaurus is Australia's most widely distributed dinosaur, known from both Queensland and New South Wales. It was discovered near the town of Muttaburra in central Queensland (on the Thomson River in the marine Mackunda Formation). Other Queensland Muttaburrasaurus material comes from Dunluce Station near Hughenden in the north-central part of the state, and from Iona Station southeast of Hughenden. A possible second species of Muttaburrasaurus has been found at Lightning Ridge in north central New South Wales. Feeding and diet There is no direct fossil evidence for the diet of Muttaburrasaurus although it probably included ferns, cycads, club-mosses and podocarps - all known from the area - in its diet. Although it was mainly (if not fully) a plant-eater, some scientists have suggested that, based on the shape of its teeth, Muttaburrasaurus may have occasionally eaten some meat. The holotype of Muttaburrasaurus is a partial skeleton found near the town of Muttaburra in central Queensland. This skeleton (about 60% complete) was most likely a carcass that had floated out to sea from nearby land before sinking and fossilising. Other Queensland Muttaburrasaurus material includes a second skull from Hughenden in the north-central part of the state (older and more primitive than the Muttaburra skull) and isolated teeth and bones collected from Iona Station southeast of Hughenden. Opalised teeth and a scapula (shoulder blade) of what may be a different species of Muttaburrasaurus have been found at Lightning Ridge in north central New South Wales (held by the Australian Museum). There are therefore at least two (and possibly three) species of Muttaburrasaurus although this has not been confirmed by formal description. The evolutionary relaltionships of Muttaburrasaurus are uncertain. It may be closely related to the Tenontosauridae , a group of basal ornithopods with few specializations that evolved from an early ornithopod group in the latter part of the Jurassic. Tenontosauridae includes Tenontosaurus, a large ornithopod similar to Muttaburrasaurus in shape and form (except for the distinctive snout of Muttaburrasaurus). It also resembles the small Australian ornithopod Atlascopcosaurus from Victoria, whose relationships are currently under study. - Bartholomai, A. and Molnar, R. E., 1981. Muttaburrasaurus, a new iguanodontid (Ornithischia: Ornithopoda) dinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 20: 319-349. - Molnar, R. E., 1996. Observations on the Australian ornithopod dinosaur, Muttaburrasaurus. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 39, 639-652. - Long, J. A. et al. 2002. Dinosaurs of Australia and New Zealand and Other Animals of the Mesozoic Era. New South Wales University Press, Sydney. - Cannon, L., 2006. The Muttaburra Lizard. Australian Age of Dinosaurs 4, 16-31.
ScienceIn science we believe that science has something to offer every student and suits students of all abilities and aspirations.We believe that all students are able to gain at least two good GCSEs and that all students are able to embark on KS5 courses that suit their needs. In order to achieve this, the curriculum is broad and balanced and science is contextualised. We understand that it is important for lessons to have a skills-based focus, and that the knowledge can be taught through this. Science is a set of ideas about the material world and we encourage the development of knowledge and understanding in science through opportunities for working scientifically that engage and enthuse students. Students engage in a wide variety of practical experiences both in the laboratory and outside in the environment. This ranges from practicing simple practical procedures to carrying out their own investigation work. In engaging in these activities all students are encouraged to develop their imagination and understanding by applying scientific understanding to observed phenomena. - To equip students with the scientific skills required to understand the uses and implications of science, today and for the future. - To allow students to develop and embed knowledge that can be built upon through skills based opportunities. - To highlight the importance of STEM and STEM careers so students can make informed decisions and gain access to the next stage of work life after education. - Develop investigation skills so students can confidently demonstrate a sound knowledge and understanding of designing, carrying out and evaluating scientific investigations. - Allow students to see science in context to the wider world and provide opportunities for students to explore science outside of the day to day teaching. - Provide enrichment opportunities for students, encouraging STEM subjects in all year groups to fulfil their academic and vocational potential. - Encourage, enthuse and develop students’ appreciation of Science. - Challenge and engage students’ minds and guide them to the top of their mountain. See Curriculum Map below St Aidan’s Catholic Academy considers the greatest impact of the curriculum to be high rates of pupil progress. - Ability to think independently and can overcome challenges - Knowledge and understanding of the curriculum key concepts - Development of socio-scientific discussions - Drawing conclusions and questioning the scientific world around them - Evaluating practices and procedures - Use of mathematical skills applied to scientific phenomena - Development of the enquiring mind and inherent inquisitive nature to discover and explain patterns - Understand how to access the appropriate next stages in education, training or work life.
To judge if recent, human-caused climate change is unusual or even extraordinary, it's important to understand the past climate and its natural variability. Direct measurements of temperature cover only about the last 200 years. To get further back in time we need to study proxy-data. Proxy-data are measurable items that are influenced by temperature, for example, the growth of a tree or the accumulation of ice on a glacier. A team from the PAGES 2k Consortium (which comprises 98 regional experts from 22 countries) has now compiled the most complete, high-resolution temperature curve to date, using 692 proxy-data records from 648 sites around the world, collected over the years by more than 100 scientists. The records used include tree-rings, ice-layers, layers of sediments and rocks, microfossils, the growth of corals and historic documents. By combining the various archives, the researchers were able to achieve a high temporal resolution - in some cases down to biweekly intervals. The shortest record covers just 50 years, but, the longest record provided data that covers the last 2,000 years. The new temperature curve again confirms the famous, and in the past debated, hockey stick graph that was published almost twenty years ago. Global temperatures remained mostly flat for 2,000 years, with a cooling trend in Europe and South America during the Little Ice Age, but they then shot up in the last few decades. This trend confirms also modern, direct measurements of temperatures worldwide. The paper is freely accessible at 'A global multiproxy database for temperature reconstructions of the Common Era', and it includes links to the datasets.
Cooperative learning strategy (also known as collaborative learning strategy) is based on the Social Constructivist theory whereby learning happens with the guidance of or through collaboration with others. Cooperative learning strategy is done in pair or small groups after presenting a topic to discuss solutions to a problem or to brainstorm for ideas. Below are some of the cooperative learning strategies which you can employ in your preschool classroom: - Round Robin – Each child will take turn answering a question. For example, if the class activity is to give words that begin with /s/, the first child will give one word, then the second child will give another word and so on until everyone has contributed a word. - Roundtable – Rountable is similar with Round Robin. However, the main difference is the children write their ideas. - Jigsaw – In Jigsaw, children are assigned with a number. Each number is given a part to tackle. For example, Child 1 will think of an action for stanza 1 of a poem, Child 2 will do stanza 2, an so on. Then, all of them will come together and share the actions to their group to have all the actions for that one poem. - Give One, Get One – Children will go around and ask one idea from a friend. In exchange for that, he/she should also give one idea to his/her friend. - Think-Pair-Share – The teacher will pose a question for the children to think. Then, they will find a pair and share their answers to their partner. - Numbered Heads Together – In a group, each child will have a number. The teacher will call out a number, and all children in each group with that number will come together to answer a problem. After their discussion, they will go back to their own group and share the answers to their own group. - Tea Party – Children will be in two circles or two lines. The teacher will pose a question. Those children who are facing each other will discuss the answers. After that, the outside circle or the one line will move so that they will have a new partner to discuss with. - Writearound – This is good for creative writing. The teacher will give the beginning of the story (For example, “Once upon a time, the bear went to the forest and he…”). Each child will write something to continue the story. - Gallery Walk – Children’s work will be placed on the wall or on the table for display. Children will then walk around and each child will explain their work. Other children may give comments on their friend’s work. - Quiz-Quiz-Trade – Each child will have a partner. One child will ask a question and the other one will answer. Then, they switch roles. There are a lot of cooperative learning strategies, but you can start using these ten strategies to jumpstart a collaborative work in your classroom.
Did you know that the femur is the longest bone in your body? Read about how femoral fractures are treated: What are Femoral Fractures? The femur is the long bone that connects the hip to the lower leg. It is the strongest bone in the body, but it unfortunately can fracture under certain conditions. A break in the femur bone is called a femoral fracture. What causes Femoral Fractures? The most common cause of a femoral fracture is direct trauma. The bone is very strong and therefore the force required to break it is rather strong. It is therefore seen in incidents such as road traffic accidents. Fractures are classified according to their location, severity, and the pattern or direction in which they break. Depending on the location of the fracture, there are three classifications of femoral fractures: - Proximal femoral fracture - this refers to fracture of the upper end of the femur - Middle femoral fracture - this refers to the fracture around the middle of the femur - Distal femoral fracture - this refers to fracture of the lower end of the femur Depending on how the bone is broken, there are other types of femoral fractures as well. Here are some of the classifications used to describe femoral fractures based on pattern: - Oblique femoral fracture - here the line a fracture is at an angle across the bone - Comminuted fracture - this refers to multiple small fractures in one area of the femur - Spiral fracture - this refers to a fracture that appears like a spiral around the femur - Open fracture - this is where the bone is clearly broken and bone fragments project out of the skin. Symptoms and Diagnosis The most common symptom of a femoral fracture is pain. This can be rather excruciating and patients will be unable to move the leg without experiencing pain. In cases of more proximal fractures, the length of the femur may be shortened, giving the leg an appearance of being shorter than the opposite one. The most commonly used method to diagnose femoral fractures is a simple x-ray. This can help diagnose the type of fracture and can guide treatment. In some cases, a CT scan may be performed to get a better view. How are Femoral Fractures treated? Surgical treatment is usually the only option for femoral fractures. The type of surgery depends on the type of femoral fracture. In most cases, the broken ends of the bone will be realigned and pins may be put in place to keep the bone straight. Traction may be applied to the leg so that the bones may remain in one line and fuse properly. The pins that are applied to keep the femoral bones in place may be applied through one of three techniques. The most common technique used is called intramedullary nailing. In intramedullary nailing, a surgical rod is inserted into the femur's marrow canal and across the fracture, keeping it secure. Plates and screws may also be applied to keep the fracture in place if intramedullary nailing can not be performed. If there are multiple injuries or if a temporary means of keeping the bones in place is needed before the patient can undergo a longer procedure, a procedure called external fixation may be used. In external fixation, a metal bar on the outside of the leg is connected to the pins and screws that are holding the fractured bone in place. Complications of Femoral Fractures Fracture of the femur can cause injury to the surrounding tissues. The sharp ends of the bones may injure the blood vessels and nerves causing bleeding and loss of sensation. The accumulation of blood and fluid within the muscles can increase the pressure within the leg and cause severe pain. This is called acute compartment syndrome and requires immediate treatment. Infections may occur, especially in open fractures, and require antibiotic treatment. Following treatment for femoral fractures, patients require a course of physical therapy to help them weight bear on the affected leg and regain their mobility.
The Bronsted-Lowry Theory Please note: you may not see animations, interactions or images that are potentially on this page because you have not allowed Flash to run on S-cool. To do this, click here. The Bronsted-Lowry Theory In 1923 Bronsted and Lowry proposed the proton transfer theory of acids and bases. Their theory states that an acid is a substance which donates protons, and a base is a substance which accepts protons. If we observe the behaviour of a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid, we note that the hydrogen chloride fully dissociates, forming hydrogen ion, H+, and chloride ions, Cl. The hydrogen ions are also known as protons since a hydrogen ion consists of a single proton only. These protons are donated to the water molecules forming oxonium ions, H3O+. If we now observe a weak acid such as ethanoic acid, the acid molecules are only partially dissociated in water, and so the equilibrium is established: Even so, the acid molecules donate protons to water molecules. Strong bases such as an alkali metal hydroxides are fully ionised in water: They are bases because the hydroxide ions can accept hydrogen ions: This reaction is common to all neutralisation reactions between acids and bases in aqueous solution. Note: In aqueous solutions the hydrogen ions exist in their hydrated forms, that is, as oxonium ions. If we examine an example of equilibria a little more closely, we can begin to label the species in the equilibrium mixture. The equilibrium mixture is said to consist of two conjugate pairs of acids and bases: NH3 and NH4+ are a conjugate pair. HCl and Cl- are a conjugate pair also. Note: In each conjugate pair, the acid and base only differ from one another by a proton. Each acid has its own conjugate base. A strong acid always has a weak conjugate base. A weak acid always has a strong conjugate base. The equilibrium law can be applied to aqueous solutions of acids. For example, the following equilibrium is established in an aqueous solution of ethanoic acid: The equilibrium constant is given by Ka = represents concentration. Ka is called the Acid Dissociation Constant. The acid dissociation constant is a measure of the strength of an acid. For an acid such as hydrochloric acid which is virtually fully dissociated in aqueous solution, its value is extremely large. On the other hand, for weak acids, values of Ka can be extremely small. It is often more convenient to compare the strengths of acids using pKa values, where pKa is given by pKa = -lgKa. For most acids this gives the range of values from 0-14. Strong acids have low pKa values and weak acids have large values. The electronic conductivity of even the purest water never falls to exactly zero. This is due to the SELF-IONISATION of water. This can be represented by: Applying the equiibrium law to this equilibrium, we obtain: - Kw = [H3O+][OH-] eq - Kw = [H+][OH-] eq Kw is called the ionic product of water. It has units of (concentration)2; that is mol2dm-2. The exact value depends on the temperature.At 25oC its value is 1.0 x 10-14. This gives a pKw value of 14, where: pKw = -lgKw The ionic product of water is related to the dissociation constants pKa and pKb of an acid and its conjugate base respectively. pKa + pKb = pKw = 14 (at 25o C) Thus, if the pKa value of an acid is known, the pKb value of its conjugate base can be found. Log in here
How do I set up port forwarding for the Host? Port forwarding (also port mapping) is a technique of translating the address and/or port number of a network packet to a new destination. Port forwarding allows remote computers, located on the Internet, to connect to a specific computer or service within a private local area network (LAN). Port forwarding rules are set on routers or other network devices that act as an Internet gateway for other computers in a local network. To create a port forwarding rule and access Remote Utilities Host from outside the local network, you need to know: - The Host computer local IP address (for example, - Host listening port ( You need a port forwarding rule only when two conditions are met: - You want to use a direct connection between the Viewer and Host. - The Host PC accesses the Internet from behind a router/firewall and doesn't have an external IP address of its own. If you connect using Internet-ID you don't need port forwarding. You can learn more about port forwarding on PortForward.com.
It’s been so long since I’ve seen a flower out in the wild; I’m having a hard time believing they’ll ever return! But, of course, they will, fulfilling a genetic legacy that has made flowering plants (or angiosperms) the dominant plant type on Earth. Flowering plants edged out former first-place gymnosperms (which include conifers and ferns) around 150 million years ago, but until a recent co-study from teams out of San Francisco State University and Yale, scientists were stumped (pun intended!) as to how the small, colourful plants did it. It turns out, it likely had to do with their very smallness — of their genome. The team analyzed data held by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (in London, UK), and compared genome sizes to physical properties like the number of leaf pores, and rates of leaf water loss and photosynthesis. The researchers found that the rise and continued success of flowering plants on Earth is a result of what they termed “genome downsizing.” From the BBC: “By shrinking the size of the genome, which is contained within the nucleus of the cell, plants can build smaller cells. In turn, this allows greater carbon dioxide uptake and carbon gain from photosynthesis, the process by which plants use light energy to turn carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. Angiosperms can pack more veins and pores into their leaves, maximizing their productivity. The researchers say genome-downsizing happened only in the angiosperms, and this was ‘a necessary prerequisite for rapid growth rates among land plants.’” Plants with smaller genomes were therefore far more efficient at, well, being plants, which has lead to their dominance. Their aesthetic appeal to humans is a lucky side effect! This landmark discovery has resulted in further, refined questions that scientists should have fun answering: like, why have ferns, ginkgo, and conifers still survived, if, by the metric set by this research, they are no longer the “fittest” plants? While I’m sure the answer will be fascinating, I confess I’m happy with all plants… Though at this moment deep in February, I’m not going to blame myself for treasuring crocuses or daffodils just a tiny bit more!
Editor’s note: This is Part II of a five part series that provides an essential basis for the understanding of energy transitions and use. The opening post on definitions was yesterday. Baseline calculations for modern electricity generation reflect the most important mode of the U.S. electricity generation, coal combustion in modern large coal-fired stations, which produced nearly 45% of the total in 2009. As there is no such thing as a standard coal-fired station I will calculate two very realistic but substantially different densities resulting from disparities in coal quality, fuel delivery and power plant operation. The highest power density would be associated with a large (in this example I will assume installed generating capacity of 1 GWe) mine-mouth power plant (supplied by high-capacity conveyors or short-haul trucking directly from the mine and not requiring any coal-storage yard), burning sub-bituminous coal (energy density of 20 GJ/t, ash content less than 5%, sulfur content below 0.5%), sited in a proximity of a major river (able to use once-through cooling and hence without any large cooling towers) that would operate with a high capacity factor (80%) and with a high conversion efficiency (38%). This station would generate annually about 7 TWh (or about 25 PJ) of electricity. With 38% conversion efficiency this generation will require about 66 PJ of coal. Assuming that the plant’s sub-bituminous coal (energy density of 20 GJ/t, specific density of 1.4 t /m3) is produced by a large surface mine from a seam whose average thickness is 15 m and whose recovery rate is 95%, then under every square meter of the mine’s surface there are 20 t of recoverable coal containing 400 GJ of energy. In order to supply all the energy needed by a plant with 1 GWe of installed capacity, annual coal extraction would have to remove the fuel from an area of just over 16.6 ha (166,165 m2), and this would mean that coal extraction required for the plant’s electricity generation proceeds with power density of about 4.8 kW/m2: 800 MW/766,000 m2 = 1,044.4 W/m2 An even larger area would be needed by a plant located far away from a mine (supplied by a unit train or by barge), and from a major river (hence requiring cooling towers), burning lower-quality sub-bituminous coal (18 GJ/t) extracted from a thinner (10 m) seam and containing relatively high shares of ash (over 10%) and sulfur (about 2%) and having a low capacity factor (70%) and conversion efficiency (33%). Coal extraction needed to supply this plant would proceed with power density of only about 2.5 kW/m2: With this base range in mind, we can now proceed to examine power densities of natural gas-fired generation using large gas turbines and then four major modes of renewable electricity generation. Wood-Fired Electricity Generation Photosynthesis is an inherently inefficient way of converting electromagnetic energy carried by visible wavelengths of solar radiation into chemical energy of new plant mass: global average of this conversion is only about 0.3% and even the most productive natural ecosystems cannot manage efficiencies in excess of 2%. The best conversion rates for trees grown for energy can be achieved in intensively cultivated monocultural plantations. Depending on the latitude and climate, these can be composed of different species and varieties of willows, pines, poplars, eucalyptus or leucaenas. Burning sawmill residues or wood chips in fairly large boilers in order to generate steam and/or electricity is a well-established and a fairly efficient practice — after all, energy density of dry wood (18-21 GJ/t) is much like that of sub-bituminous coal. But if we were to supply a significant share of a nation’s electricity by using tree phytomass we would have to establish extensive tree plantations that would require fertilization, control of weeds and pests and, if needed, supplementary irrigation –- and even then we could not expect harvests surpassing 20 t/ha, with rates in less favorable locations as low 5-6 t/ha and with the most common yields around 10 t/ha. Harvesting all above-ground phytomass and feeding it into chippers would allow for 95% recovery of the total field production but even if the fuel’s average energy density were 19 GJ/t the plantation would yield no more than 190 GJ/ha, resulting in harvest power density of 0.6 W/m2: Plantation of fast-growing hybrid poplars: whole-tree harvesting of this phytomass has power densities below 1 W/m2.
198 Part 3 The instruction-set processor level: variations in the processor Section 1 Processors with greater than 1 address per instruction Fig. 1. Simplified diagram showing some sources, destinations, and next-instruction sources. serves a further purpose in synchronising the input and output facilities with the high speed computer. Input on the machine is by means of Hollerith punched cards. When cards are passed through the reader the numbers on the card may be read row by row as each passes under a set of 32 reading brushes. When a row of a card is under the reading brushes, the number punched on that row, regarded as a number of 32 binary digits, is available on source 0. In order to make certain that reading takes place when a row is in position and not between rows, transfers from source 0, have the GO digit omitted and it is arranged that the Hollerith reader has the same effect as operating the manual switch each time a row comes into position. The passage of a card through the reader is called for by a transfer from any source to destination 31. No transfer of information from the card takes place unless the appropriate instruction using source 0 is obeyed during the passage of the card. Output on the machine is also provided by a Hollerith punch. The passage of a card through the punch is called for by a transfer from any source to destination 30. While a card is passing through the punch a 32 digit number may be punched on each row by a transfer to destination 28. Again synchronisation is ensured by omitting the GO digit in instructions calling for a transfer to destination 28, and arranging that the Hollerith punch effectively operates the manual switch as each row comes into position. The reader feeds cards at the rate of 200 cards per minute and the punch, at the rate of 100 cards per minute. The speed of input for binary digits is 200 x 32 x 12 per minute or 1280 per second. The output speed is 640 digits per second. Data may be fed in and out ii decimal, but it then requires conversion subroutines. The computation involved in the conversion is done between the rows of the card and up to 30 decimal digits per card may be translated. This speed of conversion is only possible because of the use of optimum coding. The facility for carrying out computation between rows of cards is used extensively particularly in linear algebra when matrices exceeding the storage capacity of the machine are involved. The matrices are stored on cards in binary form with one number on each of the 12 rows of each card, all the computation being done either between rows when reading or when punching. Times comparable with those possible with the matrices stored in the memory are often achieved in this way, when the computation uses a high percentage of the available time between rows. Up to 80% of this time may be safely used. The initial input of instructions is achieved by choosing destination 0 in a special manner. When a transfer is made to destination 0, then the instruction transferred becomes the next to be obeyed and the next instruction source is ignored. Source 0 has already been chosen specially since it is provided from a row of a card. The instruction consisting of zeros has the effect of injecting the instruction punched on a row of a card into the machine as the next to be obeyed. The machine is started by clearing the store and starting the Hollerith reader which contains cards punched with appropriate instructions. Destination 0 is also used when an instruction is built up in an arithmetic unit ready to be obeyed. Miscellaneous sources and destinations Destination 29 controls a buzzer. If a non-zero number is transferred to destination 29 the buzzer sounds. Source 30 is used to indicate when the last row of a card is in position in the reader or punch. This source gives a non-zero number only when a last row is in position. The operation of the arithmetic facilities on DS14 may be modified by a transfer to
This amazing toy gives us an insight into the behaviour of metals at an atomic level! There are two perspex tubes, and each has a circular lump of metal at the bottom. They appear pretty much identical. If you drop a ball bearing into the first tube, it falls onto the piece of stainless steel at the bottom, and it bounces a few times before stopping. The kinetic energy that it had originally has been dissipated. Some of it has been converted into sound - we hear the ball bearing hitting the metal. However there are other ways in which the kinetic energy is dissipated. Most metals, including stainless steel, have a crystalline structure. This means that the atoms in the structure arrange themselves in an ordered manner, in which a small repeat unit called a 'unit cell' can be identified. This unit cell, which in some cases contains just several atoms, is repeated in all three directions, and in this way, the entire structure is built up. This unit cell description of a crystalline structure implies the atoms are arranged in perfect order, which is only true in an ideal solid. All crystalline solid structures contain missing atoms, called defects, impurity atoms of other elements, and misaligned planes of atoms called dislocations, or 'slip planes'. Because this helps the atoms to slide past one another, this is an important way in which energy is absorbed. Now, drop a ball bearing into the other tube, and watch what happens. The ball bearing bounces back almost to the point at which is was dropped, and it continues to bounce for a considerable length of time. How is this happening? On top of the lump of stainless steel is a disc of a metal alloy, called 'amorphous metal'. This alloy, which was discovered in 1993, consists of 5 metals - Zirconium, Beryllium, Titanium, Copper, and Nickel. The atoms in an amorphous material are not arranged in any ordered structure, rather they have a tightly-packed, but random arrangement. Amorphous materials are formed by cooling the liquid material quickly enough to prevent crystallization; the atoms do not have time to arrange themselves into an ordered structure. Liquidmetal® is an amorphous alloy (also known as a metallic glass) containing five elements, with the elemental composition is 41.2% zirconium, 22.5% beryllium, 13.8% titanium, 12.5% copper, and 10.0% nickel. Because of the varying sizes of these atoms, and their random arrangement in the solid, there are no groups of atoms that can easily move past one another. Because there are no planes of atoms in an amorphous material, the atoms are gridlocked into the glassy structure, making the movement of groups of atoms very difficult. One consequence of this atomic gridlock is that some amorphous metals are very hard. Liquidmetal® is more than two times harder than stainless steel. However, besides being a very hard material, this amorphous alloy has a low elastic (or Young's) modulus. The combination of hardness and elasticity of amorphous metals gives them their unusual properties.
This preview shows page 1. Sign up to view the full content. Unformatted text preview: ike function notation. For example, if P (n) is the sentence (formula) ‘n2 + 1 = 3’, then P (1) would be ‘12 + 1 = 3’, which is false. The construction P (k + 1) would be ‘(k + 1)2 + 1 = 3’. As usual, this new concept is best illustrated with an example. Returning to our quest to prove the formula for an arithmetic sequence, we ﬁrst identify P (n) as the formula an = a + (n − 1)d. To prove this formula is valid for all natural numbers n, we need to do two things. First, we need to establish that P (1) is true. In other words, is it true that a1 = a + (1 − 1)d? The answer is yes, since this simpliﬁes to a1 = a, which is part of the deﬁnition of the arithmetic sequence. The second thing we need to show is that whenever P (k ) is true, it follows that P (k + 1) is true. In other words, we assume P (k ) is true (this is called the ‘induction hypothesis’) and deduce that P (k + 1) is also true. Assuming P (k ) to be true seems to invite disaster - after all, isn’t... View Full Document
Courtesy Opabinia regalis Understanding proteins and how they work is very useful. One type of protein called an enzyme is like a nano sized factory that can take apart molecules or build new molecules out of smaller parts. Plant cellulose can be turned into ethanol fuel. Oil slicks could be digested into non-pollutants. Custom designed proteins will soon allow "living" factories that can manufacture almost anything we can imagine. Protein "hackers" are creating synthetic antibodies — proteins designed to bind tightly to specific targets, such as tumor cells, which can then be destroyed. To accomplish this goal, DARPA is investing in the development of new tools in diverse areas such as topology, optimization, the calculation of ab initio potentials, synthetic chemistry, and informatics leading to the ability to design proteins to order. At the conclusion of this program, researchers expect to be able to design a new complex protein, within 24 hours, that will inactivate a pathogenic organism. Protein Design Processes (DARPA) Proteins are made from a complex chain of amino acids. Several resources are helping to illuminate the complex relationship between the sequence of a chain of amino acids, the shape into which that chain will ultimately fold, and the function executed by the resulting protein. The Protein Data Bank is an ever growing data bank of detailed schematic protein information. Another program that is helping to understand how proteins are shaped is the Rosetta@Home project which allows thousands of home computers to determine the 3-dimensional shapes of proteins being designed by researchers. "Would you like to play a new computer game and help scientists analyze protein chemistry -- at the same time? Here is a fun and interesting computer puzzle game that is designed to fold proteins -- the objective is to correctly fold a protein into the smallest possible space." Grrlscientist Watch this video to learn how to "fold-it" I am a blood donor – and if you are not, and are able to, I would encourage you to be a donor too. The process of blood donation is relatively simple, and sort of painless. And although all blood looks the same, and is made of the same basic elements, there are actually eight different common blood types: A(+/-), B(+/-), AB(+/-), and O(+/-). The letters A and B stand for two antigens that can be present on the surface of a red blood cell. Someone with the A antigen can’t donate to someone with the B antigen, and vice versa. For example, I have type A blood, meaning the A antigen is present on my blood cells. My blood can be donated to persons who have types A or AB blood and I can get blood from donors who are also type A or who are type O. If I received type B blood I would suffer a serious, possibly fatal, hemolytic reaction. It is therefore very important that the blood type of a donor and a recipient be properly identified. To further complicate matters, blood types are also either positive or negative for the presence of another antigen, Rh. If you have the Rh antigen on the surface of your red blood cells you have Rh+ blood, if you do not have the Rh antigen, you are Rh-. So, if you have Rh- blood you can only receive blood from others of the same blood type (A, B, AB, or O) who also have Rh- blood. But, if you are Rh+ you can receive from both Rh+ and Rh- blood types. Now, type O blood (called type zero in some countries) has neither the A or B antigen and therefore, type O negative blood can be given to anyone. Persons with type O negative blood are referred to as “universal donors”. If everyone had type O negative, blood transfusions would be less risky – unfortunately, only about 7% of Americans have type O negative blood. Recently a company called ZymeQuest in Massachusetts announced that it had discovered two enzymes, called glycosidases and derived from bacteria, that could be used to strip A or B antigens from the surface of the red blood cells, essentially enzyme-converting them to type O cells. By converting all A-negative, B-negative and AB-negative blood into O-negative blood would increase the availability of “universal donor blood” from 7% to 16%. While we’re likely far away from this blood conversion being used in patients, it is currently being tested in the U.S. and in Europe. Play a game to see if you can match the right blood donor to the right recipient here.
CBSE STUDY MATERIALS - ENGLISH 1-THE FUN THEY HAD 2- THE SOUND OF MUSIC 3-THE LITTLE GIRL 4-A TRULY BEAUTIFUL MIND 5-THE SNAKE AND THE MIRROR 1-THE ROAD NOT TAKEN 3-RAIN ON THE ROOF 4-THE LAKE ISLE OF INNISFREE 5-A LEGEND OF THE NORTHLAND SUPPLEMENTARY READER (MOMENTS) 1-THE LOST CHILD 2-THE ADVENTURES OF TOTO 3-ISWARAN THE STORYTELLER 4-IN THE KINGDOM OF FOOLS 5-THE HAPPY PRINCE Books To Prepare To Score Better SAMPLE NOTES - ENGLISH IX “The Duck And The Kangaroo” is a humorous poem. The poet has tried to make us understand that one can let the difficult task done by others through polite behaviour. SUMMARY OF THE POEM: - The presented humorous poem "The Duck And The Kangaroo" has been composed by Edward Lear. The poet has made us clear that one can let the tedious work done by others through polite and sweet behaviour. The poem can be summarised in following ways: - Sweet and Polite conversation: -Edward Lear has opened the poem with sweet and polite conversation between the duck and the kangaroo. The duck who lived in a pond, requested the kangaroo for a ride over his back. It was because his life in the pond was boring. The duck wished to hop like the kangaroo and longed to see the beautiful world sitting still on his back. Objection: - The kangaroo heard the request of the duck and thought deeply. He objected and told the duck that his feet were too wet and cold to have a ride, because they would trouble him. Sweet Reply by Duck: - The duck replied hearing the words of the kangaroo immediately. The duck told him that it had bought four pairs of socks to keep his feet neat and warm. It had bought a cloak and would smoke a cigar daily. Fulfillment of desire: - The kangaroo agreed. In the moonlight, the duck arrived and sat on the steady tail on the kangaroo balancing itself. They hoped the world three times. In this way Edward Lear has proved that our polite and selfless behaviour can help us to fulfill our desire. I even helps to complete difficult tasks with the help of others.
What You Need to Know About : Critical Theory At first glance, critical theory appears to be quite negative. It sounds like a tool of analysis to denigrate things, people, and ideas. Criticism is something many associate with negativity, disparagement, and disapproval, yet despite the severe name, critical theory is very useful to the study of communication. Specifically, critical theory offers frameworks to analyze the complexities and contradictions of marginalization and resistance in societies. It is important to note at the outset that critical theory is not a theory proper but a set of complementary theoretical frames that examine structures of domination in society in order to open possibilities for the emancipation of people, meanings, and values. This two-pronged approach means that critical theorists see theory and action as inextricably interwoven. Critical theory is also oriented toward people, meaning that critical theorists use social life and lived experience as the site of inquiry for analysis and interpretation with the hope that they might find ways to make societies more open and equitable for marginalized groups. Finally, critical theorists are interested in the discursive and material practices of oppression and resistance. To understand how critical theorists arrive at this intellectual focus, this entry will discuss the historical emergence of critical theory, the primary concepts of critical theory, the contemporary forms of criticism in critical theory, and the applications of critical theory in communication studies. Littlejohn, Stephen W and Karen A.Floss. (2009). Encyclopedia of Communication Theory.USA:SAGE.306 Penanggungjawab naskah : Edwina Ayu Kustiawan
Why is Earth's upper atmosphere cooling? Higher concentrations of greenhouse gases are cooling Earth's upper atmosphere while warming the planet's surface. Temperatures at the earth's surface have increased by between 0.2 and 0.4 degrees C in the past 30 years. The vast majority of scientists attribute this warming trend to higher concentrations of greenhouse gases – CO2, methane, CFCs, and others – which warm both the earth's surface and lower atmosphere by holding heat in. But one of the seeming paradoxes of more greenhouse gases is that while they seem to warm the earth's surface, they also seem to be cooling the higher layers of the atmosphere: Surface temperatures have gone up in recent decades, but they've declined to varying degrees in the stratosphere (above 20 km), the mesosphere (above 50 km), and the thermosphere (above 90 km). In the lower and middle mesosphere, for example, temperatures have fallen by between 5 and 10 degrees C during the past three decades. And the outermost part of the atmosphere, around 350 km high — the so-called thermosphere — has, as would be expected by cooling, contracted. (Here's a review of these observed changes in Science, the journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.) The science behind the observed stratospheric cooling is complex, but important to understand. Some people cite this cooling as evidence that greenhouse gases aren't warming and that human-induced climate change isn't happening. But the conclusion, it seems, should be the opposite. In 1989, scientists predicted that more greenhouse gases would cool the stratosphere. Indeed, Venus, which many say has a "runaway" greenhouse effect — its atmosphere is 97 percent carbon dioxide and temperatures at its surface can reach 900 F. — has a stratosphere that's four to five times cooler than ours. It's also worth remembering that Earth supports life as we know it only because of a greenhouse effect. Without some heat-trapping ability, Earth's surface temperature should be, on average, around -0.4 F. Instead, it's a nice 57 F. So why is our stratosphere cooling? As Dr. Elmar Uherek of the Max Planck Institute explains, human activity affects the stratosphere in two ways: 1. By ozone depletion. 2. By increasing carbon dioxide. Cooling by ozone depletion is the simpler of the two mechanisms. Stratospheric ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun as it enters Earth's atmosphere. Once absorbed, the radiation has, in effect, transferred its energy to the ozone molecule and warmed it. By inadvertently depleting this ozone layer with CFCs, we've lessened its ability to absorb that energy. It now passes on to lower layers of the atmosphere, or the surface of the Earth itself, and is absorbed there instead. (Here's a nice graphic of what wavelength is absorbed where in Earth's atmosphere ) The second mechanism is slightly more complicated, and underlines how trace gases act differently at different pressures and densities in the atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere is made almost entirely oxygen (21 percent) and nitrogen (78 percent). Both gases are largely invisible to infrared radiation emitted by Earth, or by other greenhouse gases, such water vapor, methane, or carbon dioxide. In the troposphere, greenhouse gases slow the dissipation, eventually to space, of energy emitted by Earth as infrared radiation. They do so by intercepting the outgoing heat radiation, and re-emitting it back down to the earth's surface. But in higher, thinner layers of the atmosphere, the increased carbon dioxide has a cooling effect by improving these layers' ability to emit heat radiation into the void of space. In the stratosphere, heat is transferred between molecules mostly by radiation or conduction. Conduction means molecules exchanging energy by slamming into each other, and radiation means they exchange energy by emitting and absorbing radiation. Just as in lower atmospheric layers, carbon dioxide molecules here can release energy they absorb from jostling as radiation. But at these heights, photons released like this — traveling at infrared wavelengths — have a good chance of escaping directly back into space. There's not much around to absorb them. Thus, the cooling ability of these higher layers is enhanced by increased carbon dioxide. One important facet, say some, of the observed stratospheric cooling is the following: It seems to debunk the notion that the sun is behind the warming of the earth's surface during the past 30 years. That's a point made by Real Climate's Gavin Schmidt. If increased solar activity were warming Earth, we'd expect it to warm not just the troposphere, but Earth's stratosphere as well. Editor’s note: For more articles about the environment, see the Monitor’s main environment page, which offers information on many environment topics. Also, check out our Bright Green blog archive and our RSS feed.
Wildfires in Oregon - Oregon Smoke Information Blog Get current local air quality information from Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) and learn if there is a health advisory in your community. Health Threats from Wildfire Smoke Smoke from wildfires is a mixture of gases and fine particles from burning trees and other plant materials. Smoke can hurt your eyes, irritate your respiratory system, and worsen chronic heart and lung diseases. Know if you are at risk - If you have heart or lung disease, such as congestive heart failure, angina, COPD, emphysema or asthma, you are at higher risk of having health problems from smoke. - Older adults are more likely to be affected by smoke, possibly because they are more likely to have heart or lung diseases than younger people. - Children are more likely to be affected by health threats from smoke because their airways are still developing and because they breathe more air per pound of body weight than adults. Children also are more likely to be active outdoors. Recommendations for people with chronic diseases - Have an adequate supply of medication (more than five days). - If you have asthma, make sure you have a written asthma management plan. - If you have heart disease, check with your health care providers about precautions to take during smoke events. - If you plan to use a portable air cleaner, select a high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter or an electro-static precipitator (ESP). Buy one that matches the room size specified by the manufacturer. - Call your health care provider if your condition gets worse when you are exposed to smoke. Recommendations for everyone: Limit your exposure to smoke - Pay attention to local air quality reports. Listen and watch for news or health warnings about smoke. Find out if your community provides reports about the Environmental Protection Agency's Air Quality Index (AQI). Also pay attention to public health messages about taking additional safety measures. - Refer to visibility guides if they are available. Not every community has a monitor that measures the amount of particles that are in the air. In the Western part of the United States, some communities have guidelines to help people estimate the Air Quality Index (AQI) based on how far they can see. - If you are advised to stay indoors, keep indoor air as clean as possible. Keep windows and doors closed unless it is extremely hot outside. Run an air conditioner if you have one, but keep the fresh air intake closed and the filter clean to prevent outdoor smoke from getting inside. Running a high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter or an electro-static precipitator (ESP) can also help you keep your indoor air clean. If you do not have an air conditioner and it is too warm to stay inside with the windows closed, seek shelter elsewhere. - Do not add to indoor pollution. When smoke levels are high, do not use anything that burns, such as candles, fireplaces, or gas stoves. Do not vacuum, because vacuuming stirs up particles already inside your home. Do not smoke, because smoking puts even more pollution into the air. - Do not rely on masks for protection. Paper "comfort" or "dust" masks commonly found at hardware stores are designed to trap large particles, such as sawdust. These masks will not protect your lungs from smoke. There are also specially designed air filters worn on the face called respirators. These must be fitted, tested and properly worn to protect against wildfire smoke. People who do not properly wear their respirator may gain a false sense of security. If you choose to wear a respirator, select an “N95” respirator, and make sure you find someone who has been trained to help you select the right size, test the seal and teach you how to use it. It may offer some protection if used correctly. For more information about effective masks, see the Respirator Fact Sheet provided by CDC’s National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. For the public Is your air quality hazardous to your health? Fact Sheet: Hazy, smoky air: Do you know what to do? Frequently Asked Questions: Wildfire Smoke and Your Health Public health guidance for school outdoor activities during wildfire events For more information, schools should contact their local health department. Please contact Oregon OSHA for employer resources. For pregnant women and infants Information for pregnant women and parents of young infants For public health, health care and providers See Also: Clean Air at Home
The Frequency Response The frequency response is the representation of the system open loop response to the sinusoidal input at the varying frequencies. The output of the linear control system to the sinusoidal input is the also sinusoid and at the same frequency but it is with different amplitude and with different phase. The frequency response is the amplitude and the phase differences between the input and output of a control system. The open-loopfrequency response of the control system is done to find the behaviour of the closed-loop system. The frequency response of the control system is done in two different ways: It can be through Bode plot and through Nyquist plot. To plot the frequency response from any of the method, it is necessary to create the vector of the frequencies that are varying from zero to infinity and find the system transfer function at the frequencies. If G(s) is defined as the open loop transfer function of the control system The phase margin is defined as the difference between the phase, which is measured in degrees of the output signal with the input signal and with 180°. It is a function of the frequency. The phase margin is taken as the positive at the frequencies; the open-loop system phase first crosses 180°. It is like the signal is inverted, or we can say anti phase. For the negative feedback, the negative phase margin at the frequency so the loop gain exceeds unity and so there is a proper operation of the system. In the negative feedback systems with the non-reactive feedback, the phase margin is at the frequency where open loop gain of the system is same as the desired closed loop DC system gain. The phase margin and the gain margin, are measures the stability of the closed loop control systems. The phase margin indicates the relative stability, and the tendency to oscillate at the frequency response to the input the step function. The Gain Margin The stability of the negative feedback system by the gain margin and the phase margins of system. The gain margin is based on the gain expression for the negative feedback system. The gain margin abbreviated as GM is the factor by which the gain is less than the neutral stability value of the gain. For the typical case it can be draw directly from the open loop Bode plot or from Nyquist plot of the system. The gain margin is a factor by which the controller’s gain can be changed before the control system goes unstable. The gain margin is determined from the open loop Bode plot by finding the frequency ω where At ω the magnitude is the gain margin. The control system is unstable when - not in dB The good gain margin for the control system is > 9 dB. Our email-based homework help assistance offers brilliant insights and simulations which help make the subject practical and pertinent. Transtutors.com provides timely homework help and assignment help at reasonable charges with detailed answers to your Electrical Engineering questions so that you get to understand your assignments or homework better apart from having the answers. Our tutors are remarkably qualified and have years of experience providing Control Systemhomework help or assignment help.
Teachers Using Technology in Classrooms Students Using Technology in Classrooms 1. Students can take virtual tours of art museums around the world. 2. Students can use art programs to draw pictures. For younger kids, you can use Kid Pix. 3. Have students complete a multimedia presentation on an artist. The students can use the Internet along with other resources to research information. They also can use a scanner or digital camera. 4. Have students demonstrate how to complete a drawing, painting, or other technique by videotaping themselves to show the class. 5. Throughout the year, have the students compile their work to create a digital portfolio. Their images can be captured in a CD, or on a web site.
I like to start by playing this game to compare numbers: MegaMath. I play the game as a whole group, pulling random names or calling on random students to come to the board and answer the question. To keep the class engaged during the game, I ask higher order questions about the problem (such as, "how would you solve this?" or "why was that the right answer") to students that are on the carpet. This lesson specifically addresses the standard 1.NBT.B.3, which requires the students to compare two digit numbers based on comparing the tens and ones place of a number. After playing the game, I write the following on the board/chart paper: 49 < 51 I then ask the following questions: I then write the following on the board: _____ < 36 _____ = 36 _____ > 36 I have three volunteers to come to the board and answer the questions. I allow them to draw a quick picture to make the comparison true if needed. I ask the volunteers: This allows students a chance to explain their rationale for selecting the numbers they chose. I then write the following on the board and have three more volunteers to come up to the board: 21 is _________ 24 24 is _________ 24 30 is ________ 24 I have them draw a picture to model how to determine how to make the sentence true, using < , > or =. Ask the volunteers to explain their rationale for how they determined which sign to use. For the independent practice portion of this lesson, I like to hand out Use Symbols to Compare_Worksheet.docx. For struggling students, I like to review the meaning of the < and > symbols. I remind children that the symbols point to the number that is less, whit the open end toward the number that is greater. I tell them, it’s like the greedy gator – the open end is toward the bigger number. To close out the lesson, I write the numbers 20-40 on index cards. Each student gets an index card and a white board with a marker. We then mix, pair, share – when students pair up they write their number and their partners number on their white board and use the correct symbol to compare.
This article provides an overview of the concept of alienation in social theory. It begins with a detailed discussion of the origins of alienation in the work of Karl Marx, including the relationship of alienation to wage labor and the industrial system. Next, it provides a summary of different theorists' opinions on whether or not alienation can be overcome, and if so, how. Finally, it presents views on alienation from a number of other classical and contemporary social theorists, including postmodern thinkers. Theorists discussed include Arendt, Berger, Baumann, Baudillard, Durkheim, Simmel, Adorno, Bourdieu, Harvey, and Sartre. Keywords Alienation; Anomie; Capitalism; Class; Communism; Dehumanization; Enlightenment; Empirical; False Consciousness; Fragmentation; Ideology; Modernity; Norms; Objectivity; Postmodernity; Rationality; Rationalization; Reification; Religion; Self; Theory; Wage Labor; Work According to the Oxford English Dictionary, alienation means the "action of estranging." What the object of estrangement is, however, can vary. Throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries the term was used frequently in legal discussions to refer to the separation of affections between two people, the transfer of ownership or property, or the illegitimate use of some good. Though it is easy to see how the sociological use of the term might derive from this etymology, alienation has quite a different meaning to sociologists and social theorists. The theorist mostly closely associated with the notion of alienation in the social sciences is Karl Marx. Today, Marx is best known as a theorist of capitalism, history, and economics; he used the term alienation to explain some of what he saw as the more problematic outcomes of the transition to a capitalist economy. He argued that alienation stemmed from the engagement in wage labor in the capitalist economy. Prior to the emergence of factory labor during the industrial revolution, people were intimately and directly connected to the products of their labor. For instance, a farmer knew the land he worked, and the farmer and his family consumed the produce that grew on that land. Similarly, a shoemaker knew the details of every pair of shoes he made, including who bought them and for how much money. In the factory system, this was no longer true. Individual workers were responsible for only one small step in the production process, leaving them distant from the ultimate product. Observing this shift, Marx argued that alienation occurs when workers, through participation in wage labor, become estranged from the products of their labor (in other words, the goods they are producing). In fact, the notion of alienation is quite a bit more complicated than this simple tale would show it to be. The worker's estrangement from the product of his or her labor leads the him or her to see this product as an alien object. Whereas farmers or shoemakers would have seen the product of their labor as an essential part of their daily lives, factory workers or wage laborers see the product of their labor as just another object. Thus, life and labor become in some sense separate and distinct, even as labor becomes a larger and larger part of workers' lives. Marx noted that industrial workers spend two-thirds of the time that they are awake engaged in labor for someone else-labor that is nothing more than meaningless activity. While contemporary labor laws provide for a minimum wage and, in some countries, define the maximum hours a person can spend at work, the difference is only one of extent. Today, we still spend a considerable percentage of our lives at work, thinking about work, and commuting to work. A worker, for instance, who sleeps eight hours a night, works forty-five hours a week, and spends one hour per day commuting will spend roughly half of his or her waking life at work (and that is counting the weekends). Ultimately, Marx argued that the objectification of the product of work combined with the all-encompassing nature of wage labor leads workers to view their own labor power, too, as nothing more than an object. Alienation is not just about the separation of people from the products of their labor. It is also about the separation of people from their own essential nature. Therefore, the essential distinction underlying Marx's notion of alienation is the distinction between labor that is undertaken by an individual for his or her own benefit, in order to express his or her own personality, relationships, and ideals, and labor that is one for the satisfaction of external motivations, most particularly to secure the means of subsistence, or the money and other material goods necessary to people for survival. Marx sees this latter form of labor as a form of self-sacrifice and the cause of the estrangement between people and their essential beings. To Marx, in other words, industrial laborers have not only sold their labor power to the capitalist, but have also lost their souls. Marx identified four different types of alienation: the individual can be alienated from his or her self, from his or her fellow person, from his or her labor, or from the product of that labor. • Alienation from the product of one's labor occurs when one does not control the product. Rather, it is under the control and ownership of the capitalist, and the worker cannot use the product no matter how much he or she needs it. • Alienation from one's labor occurs when one does not have control over the conditions of that labor. Whereas in the traditional mode work could be a creative enterprise, within an industrial context it instead becomes a space of oppression wherein the capitalist, or the employer, tells the worker what to do and how to do it. • Alienation from fellow people results from two cause. First, Marx argues that the capitalist economic system inherently produces class conflict and that this conflict leads us to be alienated from others. Second, human relationships to a great extent become defined by economic exchange rather than by personal interest or affection. • Finally, we become alienated from ourselves when the domination of the capitalist system eliminates our essential human nature as conscious shapers of the world. In summary, Marx argues that alienation develops out of the emergence of capitalism. According to him, private ownership of industry leads to the development of factory wage labor systems in which individual workers sell their labor power to capitalists in return for a cash wage. The fragmented and depersonalized labor process then results in the estrangement of the worker from the product and from his or her essential self. In sum, wage labor leads directly to alienation. Resisting and Reversing Alienation Some authors argue that alienation is an irreversible process, or at least that reversing it would be extremely difficult and unlikely. For instance, Jean-Paul Sartre suggested that the estrangement between individuals that arises from alienation makes the coordination of resistance to oppression difficult and unlikely, thus perpetuating our alienation from one another. Similarly, David Harvey's argument that individuals have become fragmented and without the ability to pursue a better future suggests the lack of the spark that would lead to social change. Baudrillard similarly suggested that individuals can no longer perceive alternatives in societies in which alienation has become pervasive. Yet other theorists have presented arguments on how alienation could be limited or reversed. In his writings on alienation, Karl Marx continued his well known advocacy for communism, arguing that the communist revolution would end alienation. This end would occur, he though, because, under communism, each worker would own a portion of the industry and would therefore be able to exert control over the process of production, thus enabling all workers to reconnect with the products of their labor. Hannah Arendt proposed a less political response to alienation. While she believed that alienation comes from the removal or withdrawal of the individual from public life, she believed that individuals could potentially continue to reveal their true selves in individual, face-to-face interactions. Alienation is not a central part of Arendt's thinking, but it is worth noting that if, as she believed, it is possible for an individual's true self to emerge under capitalism, collective resistance may yet arise. Zygmunt Bauman saw still another way for humanity to resist alienation. To Bauman, it is the critical potential of creating new ways of thinking and being that provides the opening for possibility and thus the escape from alienation. Such transformations are possible because humans retain the capacity to build ethical relationships with one another. Alienation, he argues, is not natural, and we can always do something about it. While Marx is the theorist with whom the notion of alienation is most closely identified, a variety of other social theorists have refined the concept... (The entire section is 4064 words.)
Dr. Edwin Ethridge holds his “moon in a bottle” experiment in his lab at the Marshall Center. Ethridge's team has successfully extracted water from simulated lunar soil using a standard one-kilowatt microwave oven. His research is opening new doors of opportunity to harvest water from the moon to sustain life and produce rocket propellant for future lunar missions Interest in the presence of water on the moon has been high recently, what with Chandrayaan finding traces of it and NASA crashing a rocket into the satellite to confirm the same. Dr. Edwin Ethridge was intrigued by NASA lunar missions in the 1990s which suggested the existence of ice within craters at the moon’s poles. After five years of research, using a conventional kitchen microwave and lunar soil stimulant, Ethridge and his team have literally cooked water out of the soil! “Water is one of the most plentiful compounds in the universe,” said Ethridge, the principal investigator for the Research Opportunities in Space and Earth Science (ROSES) project at the Marshall Space Flight Centre. The extraction process has shown to be able to retain 99 per cent of the ice it targets. This new discovery could lead to the moon becoming a lunar outpost for further space exploration, as we could harvest water in the form of ice from the moon to sustain life and produce rocket propellant, Ethridge said. “Finding water ice on the moon and Mars creates a potential for In Situ Resource Utilization, or ISRU,” he added. ISRU is the use of resources found on other astronomical objects, like the moon, to complete a science mission. HOW IT WORKS To construct the lab experiment, the team used a standard, one-kilowatt microwave oven, a quartz container with a simulant and a separate liquid nitrogen-cooled container with a simulant to mimic the ground under the top layer of lunar soil, also known as regolith. They assembled a turbo-molecular vacuum pump to simulate the moon’s vacuum environment and sealed a vacuum line from the pump to the flask collecting the water, frozen from a liquid nitrogen cold trap. They placed both containers of simulant in the microwave and heated them for two minutes. “Cooking” the simulant helped the team understand how the molecules in the soil react to microwave energy. The primary advantage of using that energy is that microwaves penetrate the soil, heating it from the inside out. The team found that when regolith is warmed from minus-150 degrees Celsius to minus-50 degrees, the water vapor pressure greatly increased. The simulated lunar vacuum drew the water vapor to the surface, permeating through the regolith particles. Then the water vapor collected on the cold trap and condensed back into ice. This process – called sublimation – uses heat to convert a solid into a gas and cools it to condense it back to a solid form without liquefaction. As the lunar regolith absorbs the microwaves, the energy is converted to heat. Heat is what is needed to vaporize the water, making the process energy efficient, Ethridge said. “To extract the ice, we need to heat a large volume of regolith and the best way is using microwaves,” Kaukler added. “Solar heating is not an option because the ice on the moon is in the shadowed craters where there is no sunlight. In addition, because the regolith is a superinsulator, other heating methods like solar, laser or electric heating only heats the surface. Microwave heating allows for deeper penetration into the soil.” The regolith simulant and the cold trap were weighed before and after the experiment. The team found that 95 percent of the ice added to the regolith simulant was extracted in about two minutes. “Of the extracted ice, 99 per cent was captured in the cold trap,” said team member Dr. William Kaukler. THE VARIOUS BENEFITS IT OFFERS The extracted ice can be used for multiple purposes to meet human needs at a lunar outpost. Water also can be split into hydrogen and oxygen by a process known as electrolysis, which separates materials with the use of an electric current. Once split, the hydrogen and oxygen molecules could be used as a fuel or oxidizer. “Having water, we can obtain oxygen and have the ability to generate rocket fuel. This makes the moon a more viable test bed for space exploration,” said Ethridge. “With our experimental metrics using a one-kilowatt microwave, we found that if we could extract two grams of water ice per minute, we could collect nearly a ton of water per year,” he added. “That would meet the initial manned lunar outpost water resupply requirement.” There are multiple benefits of microwave extraction of ice as well. Microwaves of lower frequency can penetrate a meter or more into the regolith and release the ice without digging or disturbing the surface. “Eliminating the need to excavate saves equipment payload and more importantly, doesn’t kick up dirt that could adversely affect the astronauts’ spacesuits or equipment,” Kaukler noted. Ethridge said his team is anxiously awaiting the findings from NASA’s Lunar Crater Observing and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) mission which impacted a lunar crater Oct. 9 in search of water. Spectral analysis of the impact plume will help quantify how much ice is hidden in the polar regions of the moon. “It is very important to know how much water there is and how deep it is under the lunar surface,” Ethridge added. “Hopefully, LCROSS will find large quantities of ice and will help us know how much water we have to cook.”
What the Zoo Can do for You - Schedule a field trip and take your students for a walk on the wild side as they visit us here at the Zoo! - Provide your students and chaperones with Field Trip Activities to help focus their experience. - Get your students ready to visit the Zoo with the Zoo Preview. - Bring the Zoo to Your School! We offer many Wildlife Lessons topics, including Creature Classification, Fabulous Food Chains, Investigating Invertebrates, and Vanishing Species, just to name a few. Each Lesson includes a visit with a live animal ambassador and a hands-on experience with items such as animal skulls and pelts. - Invite your students to come to the Zoo for our annual Career Day, always the second Saturday in November. Post this Career Day Flyer at your school. - What else can we do for you? Contact [email protected]. No workshops are being offered at this time. If you are interested in attending workshops in the future please contact [email protected]. Animal Systems: Grades K-2 Each animal is its own system made up of body parts that help it to survive. Get suggestions for how to teach your students about animals as living systems and help guide them to more easily understand systems as a whole. Ecosystems: Grades 3-5 Every animal is its own system living within an ecosystem. Learn how to help your students identify the parts of living systems and to apply this knowledge to understanding the concept of sustainable ecosystems. Introducing Climate Change for K-5 Students: Join the Zoo’s education specialists to discover some effective ways to introduce young students to global warming and climate change. Learn more about these challenging subjects and hear examples about how various species of wildlife are impacted. Come away with resources and simple activities and tips to help you and your students take action to “green” your school. Polar Science Weekend at the Pacific Science Center in Seattle, WA is a great event for students of all ages to attend with their families to learn about climate change from climate scientists. This four-day family friendly event includes hands-on activities, live demonstrations and exhibits presented by scientists who work in some of the most remote and challenging places on earth. Polar Science Weekend happens annually over the first weekend in March. Zoo Educators will be there Friday and Saturday with cool biofacts and fun activities. Stop by and say hello! Click here for a list of Global Warming and Climate Change resources. Be Cool Be Green Cool the Earth If you are looking for a great way to motivate your students to fight climate change, this program will give you the recipe and even some of the ingredients to make a difference. Tell them Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium sent you! Washington Green Schools Engage students as environmental stewards and leaders while creating a greener, healthier school by reducing environmental and carbon footprints. Eco-Schools USA - National Wildlife Federation Green your school inside, outside, and throughout your curriculum! Join over 50 other countries in this international initiative designed to encourage whole-school action for the environment.
Most of Cape Cod was shaped by the last great glaciation in North America, the Wisconsin glacial stage of the Pleistocene, approximately 75,000 to 10,000 years ago. A vast ice sheet (the Laurentide ice sheet) advanced south from northern New England and Canada and transported eroded rock debris scoured from the underlying Paleozoic crystalline bedrock until it reached its southernmost limit at Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Island. Late in this time period, the coalescing Buzzard's Bay, Cape Cod Bay, and South Channel glacial lobes of the Laurentide ice sheet deposited the glacial drift that now comprises much of Cape Cod (Oldale, 1980; 1992) (Figure 2.1). The glacial history of the Cape Cod area was rapid in geologic terms. The minimum radiocarbon age of material found in the glacial drift indicates that the ice had reached Cape Cod more than 21,000 years ago. The maximum advance of the Laurentide ice sheet in the New England area is marked by the terminal moraines on Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket. At the time of maximum ice advance, sea level was about 300 feet lower than its present level, and the coastal plain extended far to the south of Cape Cod, out to the present edge of the continental shelf. South of the ice margin, meltwater streams flowed across the coastal plain to the sea (Oldale, 1980; 1992) (Figure 2.1). Retreat of the ice must have begun earlier than 18,000 years ago as the ice is thought to have retreated as far north as the Gulf of Maine by that time. This means that the ice had vanished from the Cape Cod area in less than 3,000 years and that most of Cape Cod's glacial landforms were created within about 1,000 years. Individual features may have formed in as little as several hundred years (Oldale, 1992). Through the interpretation of landforms, the relative timing of depositional events during glacial retreat has been fairly well determined. Forward progress of the ice sheet was often balanced by melting at the leading edge, so that the ice front maintained its position (ablation) even as it began to retreat. While the ice front was stationary, frequent warm periods caused large amounts of water to melt from the glaciers. The meltwater from the Buzzards Bay Lobe and Cape Cod Bay Lobe carried huge quantities of sediment from the glacier. This sediment formed the gently sloping outwash plains of stratified drift, several miles long, that now comprise much of the inner Cape (Oldale, 1992) (Figure 2.2). Minor re-advances of the ice sheets formed the thrusted Buzzards Bay and Sandwich Moraines located along the north and west margins of the upper Cape (Figure 2.2). No moraine deposits have been identified on the lower Cape. When ice retreat resumed, the central Cape Cod Bay Lobe of the Laurentide ice sheet retreated faster than the surrounding lobes, and meltwater flooded the newly vacated lowlands to form glacial Lake Cape Cod in the area currently occupied by Cape Cod Bay. The lake was dammed to the north by the Cape Cod Bay Lobe, to the east by the South Channel Lobe, to the west by the Buzzards Bay Lobe, and to the south by the moraine and outwash plain deposits of Cape Cod (Figure 2.2). Fine grained clay and silt settled to the lake bottom leaving behind seasonal bands which together represent annual layers or varves as evidence for the lake in the Cape Cod Bay area. The lake periodically broke through the moraine and outwash deposits and partially drained. The escaping water left eroded lowlands, one of which would later be exploited for the construction of the Cape Cod Canal. The lake drained for the last time when both the Cape Cod Bay Lobe and the South Channel Lobe retreated far enough to allow the water to escape to the ocean (Oldale, 1980). Later stagnations of the South Channel Lobe to the east of Glacial Lake Cape Cod allowed the four outwash plains of the lower Cape to be built. The Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro and the Highland outwash plains are the dominant morphologic features of the lower Cape. This outwash material was built up by deposits from braided meltwater streams flowing west into Glacial Lake Cape Cod. Isolated blocks of ice buried in the outwash deposits of both the inner and the lower Cape melted slowly, long after the glacial lobes had retreated far to the north. As sediments collapsed around the melting ice blocks, kettle holes formed within the outwash plains (Figure 2.3) (Oldale 1980; 1992). After the last of the ice had retreated from the area, winds deposited eolian layers on top of the drift and sea level rose nearly 300 feet (Masterson and Barlow, 1994). Approximately 6,000 years ago, sea level rose high enough to flood Vineyard and Nantucket sounds. Marine reworking of the glacial sediments became an important process. The coastline was smoothed as glacial headlands were eroded back. Marine scarps were formed by the attack of storm surge waves, and the sediment was carried by long-shore drift to form bars and spits. In the early period of deglaciation, sea level rise was about 50 feet per 1000 years. From 6,000 to 2,000 years ago, when most of the ice sheets had vanished, sea level rise had slowed to about 11 feet per 1000 years. Since then sea level rise has been approximately 3 feet per 1000 years. At the current rate of sea level rise, Cape Cod will continue to battle the waves for about another 5,000 years before succumbing to the sea (Oldale, 1980; 1992; Strahler, 1966). The landforms of the lower Cape are either glacially derived or a product of later marine and eolian reworking of glacial sediments (Oldale, 1980; 1992). Outwash plain deposits comprise the major geologic features of the lower Cape. They are predominantly stratified fine to medium sand and medium to coarse sand and gravel with lenses of fine silt and scattered boulders. Although lithologic variations over short distances can be extreme, grain size generally decreases with depth and distance from the former ice margin (Masterson and Barlow, 1994). Outwash plain surfaces are commonly pocked and pitted by kettle holes (e.g., the Wellfleet pitted outwash plain). When the kettles are deep enough to intersect the water table, a pond is formed. Thus pond level provides a close approximation of the water table. A kettle pond in Wellfleet yielded the oldest radiocarbon dated material at 12,000 years. (Winkler, 1985). This date, as much as 5,000 years after the ice retreated north, indicates that the buried ice blocks may have persisted for several thousand years after the glaciers retreated (Oldale, 1980; 1992). Small streams and rivers, like the Pamet River, currently occupy oversized valleys within the outwash plains. The valleys were likely cut by ground water springs contacting the land surface at a time when a large proglacial lake, formed by large volumes of trapped meltwater, supported higher water tables. Later, with glacial retreat, catastrophic lake drainages enlarged the channels. Today, the streams appear undersized for the older valleys (Oldale, 1980; 1992). The portion of Truro north of High Head and all of the Provincetown land area are not glacially derived. These areas consist of material derived from coastal erosion of the glacial outwash plains, transported northward, and redeposited by marine and eolian action as a series of recurved sand spits and dunes during the last 6,000 years (Ziegler et al., 1965). The soils on the lower Cape are relatively young, having formed since the end of the last glaciation approximately 16,000 to 18,000 years ago. They exhibit only slight alteration of the original parent sand and gravel material and are well drained (U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1993). Depth of soils on the Cape range from just a few inches in new dune and beach areas of the Province Lands to several feet in others; however, average depth is less than 6 inches. The soil on lower Cape Cod is predominantly a podzol, characteristic of climates that are both cold and humid. Cold temperatures inhibit bacteria and promote frost action, while humid conditions leach water soluble materials downward and support the growth of a vegetative cover (U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1993; Oldale, 1992). A podzol soil profile typically consists of an upper organic layer undergoing decay, a middle layer of mixed humus and mineral grains, and a lower layer of mostly mineral grains (Oldale, 1992). The historic cultivation and burning of the land on the lower Cape, the associated current abundance of conifers, and the near shore ammonium loss through cation exchange with sea salts create acidic and nutrient poor soil conditions which contribute to stunted vegetative growth (Barnstable County Soil Survey, 1993; Brownlow, 1979; Blood et al., 1991; Valiela et al., 1997). Soil type on the Cape is very important because it has a direct relationship to the rate at which infiltrating waters are purified. Soils which are coarse and sandy are highly permeable and allow effluent waters to travel quickly over large distances. Low organic matter and clay content provide little contaminant removal through soil sorption or cation exchange. Low organic content of the soils also decreases bacterial immobilization of nutrients as well as denitrification of nitrate-nitrogen. As a result, Cape Cod ground water is susceptible to contamination (Brownlow, 1979). According to the Barnstable County Soil Survey General Soil Map (1993), there are three principle soil types on the lower Cape: (1) Carver soil is characteristic of outwash deposits. It is the most common soil type on the lower Cape and is a poor filter for septic systems, sewage lagoons, and sanitary landfills.; (2) Hooksan- Beaches-Dune Land soil is characteristic of wind-blown deposits found in the Province Lands and on beaches. It is a poor filter for septic systems, sewage lagoons, and sanitary landfills.; (3) Ipswich-Pawcatuck-Matanuck soil is poorly drained and limited to lowland areas (e.g., the Pamet River, Little Pamet River, Herring River and Salt Meadow) (Figure 2.4). It has flooding and ponding potential when used for septic systems, sewage lagoons, and sanitary landfills. Geologic materials that are saturated with abundant freshwater are called aquifers. The ability of a material to hold and transmit water is largely dependent on its porosity, that is the number, size, and interconnectedness of the pore spaces between particles. Deposits consisting primarily of large sized sand and gravel particles (e.g., outwash deposits) transmit more water than deposits of finer grained silt and clay size deposits (e.g., lake deposits). Well sorted, stratified sediments (e.g., outwash deposits) are not so easily compacted and are described as having a high hydraulic conductivity or transmissivity (Fetter, 1994). Poorly sorted sediments of mixed grain sizes (e.g., till) have a poor capacity to transmit water because the smaller particles fill the voids between the larger particles. The thick, glacial sand and gravel outwash plain of the lower Cape can be thought of as a huge sponge with a large capacity for water storage. Precipitation on the land surface easily percolates down through the soil until it comes to a level saturated with water. This level is the water table. Pore space above the water table, where water and air mix, is known as the unsaturated zone. Below the water table is the ground water or saturated zone, where all pore space is completely filled by water. An unconfined aquifer is one in which the water table forms the upper boundary (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). A confined aquifer is one that lies between two layers of geological material having very poor capacity to transmit water, such as silt and clay. Unconfined aquifers occur near land surface, whereas confined aquifers tend to occur at depth. Most of the ground water on the lower Cape occurs under unconfined conditions, although there are small areas of confinement in the vicinity of localized silt and clay lenses (Strahler, 1966). Lenses of silt and clay commonly exhibit conductivities of less than 1 foot per day creating a serious impediment to vertical flow (Martin, 1993). The outwash deposits present by far the best opportunities for ground water development on the lower Cape. They are not only thick, but consist of sand and gravel which has high hydraulic conductivities of 100 to 500 feet per day and provides excellent well yields. In these conditions, two foot diameter wells with a 10 foot screened length commonly yield 250 to 1000 gallons per minute (LeBlanc et al., 1986; Guswa and LeBlanc, 1981). Thousands of years of melting glacial water and precipitation have built up four distinct subsurface reservoirs of fresh ground water hundreds of feet thick on the lower Cape. Since fresh water is less dense than salt water, rain infiltrating the subsurface rests atop and depresses the surface of the salt water. In each of the lower Cape's four aquifers, a lensshaped body of fresh water exists, which is thickest at its center. A vertical cross section of the lower Cape's aquifers would show that the fresh and salt waters meet on a surface that starts near the shoreline and slopes steeply down below the center of the peninsula from both sides (Figure 2.5). The upper surface of the freshwater lens, defined by the water table, is convex up and the lower surface, defined by the fresh water-salt water interface, is convex down. The maximum thickness of fresh water, therefore, is toward the center of each lens (Oldale, 1992). The top of the aquifer is marked by the water table and the bottom by the contact between fresh and salt water (depth to bedrock on the lower Cape is far below the deepest extent of fresh water). The Ghyben-Herzberg principle states that in unconfined coastal aquifers, the fresh ground water will extend below mean sea level about forty times deeper than the height that the water table rises above mean sea level. This principle is based on a mathematical relationship between the relative densities of fresh and salt water (Fetter, 1994), and can be applied to Cape Cod ground water. For example, in Wellfleet, water levels in the ponds are about 8 feet above sea level, and fresh ground water extends to about 320 feet below sea level. Freshwater lenses are as much as 200 feet thick in Truro, 250 feet thick in Wellfleet, and 275 feet thick in Eastham (Oldale, 1992). The water table on the lower Cape is not a perfectly horizontal surface, but has a gentle slope or hydraulic gradient. Ground water moves slowly down slope under the influence of gravity. The lower the hydraulic conductivity of the materials through which the water seeks to travel, the greater the energy required to accomplish that movement and the steeper the resultant slope of the water table. Flow through the very highly conductive materials of the lower Cape outwash plains requires very little hydraulic gradient. Therefore, the slope of the water table is less steep than it would be in less conductive materials. The highest ground water levels occur in the center of each ground water lens and create a linear band of high water table along the center of the outer Cape. The hydraulic conductivity in localized areas of silt and clay may be several orders of magnitude less and produce a steeper hydraulic gradient (Oldale, 1992). Ground water flows slowly and radially from higher areas to lower areas down-gradient towards the perimeter of the aquifer where it finally discharges to the sea, salt water bays, inlets, canals and streams (Figure 2.5) (Oldale, 1992; Strahler, 1966). Blood, D., L. Lawrence and J. Gray. 1991. Fisheries-oceanography coordinated investigations. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Technical Information Service, Seattle , WA . Brownlow, A.H. 1979. Cape Cod environmental atlas. Department of Geology, Boston University , Boston , MA . Fetter, C.W. 1994. Applied Hydrogeology. Macmillan College Publishing Company, New York , NY Guswa, J.H. and D.R LeBlanc. 1981. Digital models of ground water flow in the Cape Cod aquifer system, Massachusetts . U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Open File Report 80-67. U.S. Geological Survey, Boston , MA. LeBlanc, D., J. Guswa, M. Frimpter and C. Londquist. 1986. Ground water resources of Cape Cod , Massachusetts . U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-692. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston , VA. Masterson, J.P. and P.M. Barlow. 1994. Effects of simulated groundwater pumping and recharge on groundwater flow in Cape Cod , Martha's Vineyard , and Nantucket Island basins, Massachusetts . U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 94-316. U.S. Geological Survey, Marlborough , MA . Oldale, R. 1980. A geologic history of Cape Cod . U.S. Geological Survey, Washington , D.C. Oldale, R. 1992. Cape Cod and the islands, the geologic story. Parnassus Imprints, East Strahler, A. 1966. A geologist , s view of Cape Cod . The Natural History Press, Garden City, NY. U.S. Soil Conservation Service. 1993. Barnstable County soil survey. U.S. Department of Agriculture ; Soil Survey. Washington , D.C. Valiela, L, G. Collins, J. Kremer, K. Lajtha, M. Geist, B. Seely, J. Brawly and C.H. Sham. 1997. Nitrogen loading from coastal watersheds to receiving estuaries: New method and application. Ecology Applied, 7:358-380. Winkler, M.G. 1985. A 12,000 year history of vegetation and climate for Cape Cod , Massachusetts . -,' Quaternary Research, 23:301. Zeigler, J.M., S.D. Tuttle, G.S. Giese, and H.J. Tesha. 1965. The age and development of the Provincelands Hook, outer Cape Cod , Massachusetts . Limnology and Oceanography 10:298' 311. Cape Cod resembles a flexed arm of sand thrust out into the Atlantic Ocean. It owes its origin to glaciers, which were active in the area as recently as 14,000 years ago. Since that time, waves and nearshore currents have extensively reshaped the sedimentary deposits left by these glaciers into a variety of coastal environments, for example, sandy beaches flanked by towering sea cliffs and bluffs and discontinuous chains of barrier islands, many with elegantly curved sand spits. Remarkably, the 40-mile-long eastern coastline of Cape Cod, despite its proximity to Boston, possesses few shore-protection structures; it is the longest, pristine shoreline of sand in New England (Pinet, 1992). About 15,300 years ago, a huge ice sheet, which flowed southward from Canada, covered all of New England. As the ice mass crept across the continental shelf, one of its ice lobes—the Cape Cod Bay Lobe—deposited sediment at its margin and formed a morainal ridge—the terminal moraine—that can now be traced across Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, the two principal islands south of the Cape. In addition to the terminal moraine, recessional moraines also indicate the presence of the former ice sheet in southeastern Massachusetts. As the ice sheet retreated northward, meltwater trapped by the recessional moraine formed Glacial Lake Cape Cod. Stratified muds, silts, and deltaic sands accumulated in this glacial lake, which covered an area amounting to about 400 square miles. A river outlet cutting into the recessional moraine drained water out of the lake, presumably in the area of Eastham and Town Cove section of Nauset Beach. The South Channel lobe was just to the east, and its meltwater carried huge quantities of sediment from the glacier. This sediment formed the gently sloping (towards the west) outwash plains that are several miles long and now comprise much of the Outer Cape. When the ice sheet disappeared, the landforms of the Cape looked quite different than they do today. As the ice melted, sea level rose and flooded the area. Paleogeographic reconstructions of the shoreline indicate it was quite irregular at that time—a series of headlands and embayments composed of unconsolidated glacial sediments (glacial drift). This original coastline was located as much as three miles seaward of the present shoreline. Since then, sediment redistribution by waves and nearshore currents has changed the morphology of the landforms. Landscapes change quickly in Cape Cod, and the retreat of the ice sheet is no exception, taking less than 3,000 years. Likewise, the creation of landforms after glacial retreat happened quickly, some taking as little as several hundred years. Outwash plain deposits, which are commonly pocked and pitted by kettle holes (e.g., the Wellfleet pitted outwash plain), are the major geologic feature of the lower Cape. When the kettles are deep enough to intersect the water table, a pond is formed. Pond level provides a close approximation of groundwater level. The encroachment of the sea following deglaciation permitted wave currents to erode and rework the glacial drift. As waves refracted, energy was focused on the headlands. Consequently, peaks of land were worn down by wave erosion, creating a system of steep, wave-cut cliffs. The sediment moved by nearshore currents sequentially formed a series of sand spits and barrier islands (Uchupi et al., 1996). Prior to 6,000 years ago, the longshore drift of sand was predominantly to the south. This prevailing pattern of sediment movement formed the southern barrier island system of Nauset Spit, and eventually, Monomoy Island. The crest of Georges Bank, far offshore, still stood above sea level and afforded the northern shoreline of the Cape protection from erosion by large ocean waves approaching from the southeast. About 6,000 years ago, however, the rising sea submerged Georges Bank, exposing the Cape to wave attack from the southeast, resulting in the northerly transport of sand that eventually formed the curved spit system of Province Lands surrounding Provincetown. The appearance of the spit sheltered the northern shoreline and resulted in a northward transport direction on the bayside, whereas further south littoral transport was directed southward along Cape Cod Bay. Erosion of the glacial deposits produced imposing marine cliffs, many of which are currently retreating at alarming rates. Although scarp retreat of the eastern shoreline averages 0.67 m/yr, specific coastal sites are losing land to the sea at higher rates. For example, the cliffs below Wellfleet-by-the-Sea are retreating approximately 1.0 m/yr (Pinet, 1992). Because most of this erosion occurs during storm events, cliff retreat is not constant over time. A summary of Cape Cod’s geology is not complete without mention of sand dunes. This feature epitomizes Cape Cod itself—migrating constantly yet somehow enduring. Dunes are shaped by the prevailing winds and migrate constantly. On the Provincetown spit, there are parabolic dunes, or “U” shaped dunes, with the open end facing the wind. These are formed when the wind blows away the sand in the middle of the dune, exposing the underlying beach deposits. The eroded sand is transported by the wind and deposited along the advancing leeward face of the dunes (Oldale, 1998). The parabolic dune orientation is driven by strong winds from the northwest predominantly in the winter, but occasionally important in the summer (Allen et al., 2001) Active coastal dunes are dynamic landforms whose shape and location are ever-changing. Youthful, unvegetated dunes are on the move as the sand, exposed to the prevailing wind, is picked up, transported, and redeposited repeatedly. When the dunes become vegetated, they stabilize and tend to remain unchanged for a time. If the dunes lose the protective vegetation, they will move again. This can be seen along US Route 6 in Provincetown, where once stable dunes are advancing on the forest and highway and are filling Pilgrim Lake (Oldale, 1998). The General park map handed out at the visitor center is available on the park's map webpage.For information about topographic maps, geologic maps, and geologic data sets, please see the geologic maps page. A geology photo album has not been prepared for this park.For information on other photo collections featuring National Park geology, please see the Image Sources page. Currently, we do not have a listing for a park-specific geoscience book. The park's geology may be described in regional or state geology texts. Parks and Plates: The Geology of Our National Parks, Monuments & Seashores. Lillie, Robert J., 2005. W.W. Norton and Company. 9" x 10.75", paperback, 550 pages, full color throughout The spectacular geology in our national parks provides the answers to many questions about the Earth. The answers can be appreciated through plate tectonics, an exciting way to understand the ongoing natural processes that sculpt our landscape. Parks and Plates is a visual and scientific voyage of discovery! Ordering from your National Park Cooperative Associations' bookstores helps to support programs in the parks. Please visit the bookstore locator for park books and much more. Information about the park's research program is available on the park's research webpage. For information about permits that are required for conducting geologic research activities in National Parks, see the Permits Information page. The NPS maintains a searchable data base of research needs that have been identified by parks. A bibliography of geologic references is being prepared for each park through the Geologic Resources Evaluation Program (GRE). Please see the GRE website for more information and contacts. NPS Geology and Soils PartnersAssociation of American State Geologists Geological Society of America Natural Resource Conservation Service - Soils U.S. Geological Survey Currently, we do not have a listing for any park-specific geology education programs or activities. General information about the park's education and intrepretive programs is available on the park's education webpage.For resources and information on teaching geology using National Park examples, see the Students & Teachers pages.
Nucleus is one of the most important parts of living organism that controls most of the activity of a cell. In fact it is the basic portion of cell that has DNA, RNA and all other essential component for effective functioning of the body. Structure of nucleus is not that simple to understand. Since nucleus consists of most of the genetic material, the main structure is the membrane that makes the nuclear envelop of eukaryotic cells. It is double layered and divides nucleus component with the cytoplasm part. Beside this, nuclear pore is the other basic part of nucleus that helps in the exchange of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm. Only small proteins and molecules can pass through the nuclear pore complex whereas other materials need some career molecules for its transportation. Apart from this basic component, nuclear lamina, nucleolus and chromosome are other important structure of the nucleus. All these terms are correlated but each has its individual function that helps in the growth and proper functioning of any cell. Some of the important yet basic functions of the nucleus are: - Nucleus carries main function of the cell; therefore without nucleus life of eukaryotes is almost impossible. - It helps to built protein and controls overall the cellular activity of the cell. - It maintains integrity of DNA - Controls metabolic function, growth and reproduction. - It helps in gene expression. This is only some of the basic structure and function of nucleus. Students having cell biology need to extensively learn and gain information on nucleus. Small part of information can only be a brief idea on the topic but it will not make them able to face difficult and complex questions. Learning and gaining knowledge completely from textbook can be hectic and sometimes a boring job. In fact, when assignments are given to students on this topic they gets worried because they had to go through complete information and read several text books to frame and meaningful parts. Therefore, to lower down students stress and problem, myassignmenthelp.net is there to help you. Students can freely browse to this site and get access to all the information that they need. In fact, this online site have some of the well renowned teachers from this field who can help them work out with their assignment very well and engrave some of the valuable information’s in the written work. Apart from assignments on nucleus, this assignment help site also assist students by providing tutoring help and project making on this topic. They can visit this site and get to know more about nucleus and its related information’s in affordable price and within the given time period.
Calibrating the Geological Time Scale This activity is part of a collection under development by participants in a June 2006 workshop. Tested versions will be available in Spring 2007. Calibration of the geological time scale requires numerical age determinations of distinct events in Earth history defined by the rock record. However, relatively few geologic boundaries are dated directly. Thus boundary ages must be extrapolated from other sections with datable material. This exercise demonstrates the methods of time scale calibration and explores the scientific uses of an accurate and detailed geological time scale. Students will construct geologic time scale calibration curves and use them to assign absolute dates to the geological boundaries observed in the rock record. They will use this time scale to discuss the temporal framework of geological processes and events occuring during that interval. 2. Students will create a composite geologic section to illustrate the discontinuous nature of the rock record. 3. Students will retrieve numerical age dating information from either original sources or secondary compilations. 4. Students will create time scale calibration curves determined from numerical age data and a composite geologic section. 5. Students will identify geological characteristics that make a section of the rock record distinct. Context for Use The activity may require up to two weeks (4 to 6 one-hour periods) of in-class activity and discussion along with student work outside of class. It requires proficiency with the tools on the CHRONOS website (see Teaching Tips below). Parts of this activity can be adapted for shorter stand-alone class exercises. Background required for the exercise - Prior class discussions and readings on biological and geological events throughout Earth's history to permit students to identify an intriguing interval of geologic time for this calibration exercise. - Students should have completed a basic exercise in graphical correlation that results in the creation of a composite core section. Description and Teaching Materials We envision a poster with supporting material constructed from CHRONOS and other tools and similar to the K-T boundary poster (from CHRONOS.ORG), but with the calibration diagram as a centerpiece. The poster forms a basis for more detailed class discussion of biological changes and geolgical events that occured during this interval of time. Flow of the Activity: 1. Class discussion on how geologic boundaries are defined in the rock record and why the intervals between these boundaries are of interest to geologists. Students break into groups of 2-5 and choose an interval of time to investigate. 2. Instructor provides a basic introduction to the CHRONOS website. Homework: Each student should access the CHRONOS website and learn about its capabilities. A class discussion should follow. 3. Students will meet in their groups to organize their work. Each student in the group will choose one of the tools in CHRONOS (Age-Depth Plot, Age-Range Chart, PSICAT, Timescale Comparison/Timescale Creator), or other sources (other internet sources, primary literature) to find the information about the time interval. Examples of information that could be gathered might include: Age-Depth plot, Diversity Plot, Examples of Microfossils, including descriptions and photographs, image of a representative core/section etc. One student should be assigned the task of learning how to use the CONOP9 tool. 4. Each group will use CHRONOS to search for core samples that cross the time interval being investigated. Information regarding depth and fossil content should be gathered for the compilation of a composite section. The student assigned to learn about CONOP9 could be assigned this task, or the instructor may consider having each student search for appropriate core samples and having the group decide which samples to choose for their composite. When these have been chosen, a composite section should be generated by CONOP9. 5. Each student will construct a calibration diagram using the group composite cross section and the numerical age data for that interval from a published source, (e.g. Gradstein et al.). The student should draw a calibration line and provide a written explanation (one typewritten page) for their curve. 6. When the calibration graphs are completed, students should meet as a group and discuss their results. Each group must produce a graph that they agree upon. 7. Using the calibration line each student should construct the geological timescale for their time interval on the group's calibration graph. 8. Each group will create a poster that includes the calibration diagram and the background information gathered by the group. The CHRONOS KT poster shown below can be used as a model for making posters. Groups will present their poster to the class, explaining the various types of information shown, as well as describing the reasoning behind their calibration graph. Teaching Notes and Tips When introducing the CHRONOS website, the instructor may want to hold class in a computer lab or a room that is capable of displaying internet webpages. The instructor may want to create a CHRONOS scavenger hunt as a homework assignment. In the case of a lower level course, the instructor should gather data from the CRONOS website and distribute it to the class when the exercise begins. Also, the creation of the composite core section should be done by the instructor outside of class, or as a class demonstration. If the exercise is used in a lower level course, the instructor may want to review how graphs are made and interpreted before beginning the exercise. Questions relating to the concepts inherent in the creation of a calibration curve can be used to determine mastery.
Researchers discovered an engraved image of an aurochs on a limestone slab found in a rock-shelter called Abri Blanchard, south-western France. The image is dating 38000 years to the past and is one of the earliest known images of nature made by modern humans. The site of Abri Blanchard was excavated in the early 20th cent. but a new investigation has been carried out by archaeologists since 2011, and the slab was found in 2012. It contains a complex image of an aurochs, also called urus, or wild cow, surrounded by rows of dots. The findings from the site are connected with early modern humans’ Aurignacian culture, which existed from approximately 43000-33000 years ago. The site, together with nearby Abri Castanet are known for one of the oldest artefacts of human symbolism, as hundreds of personal ornaments have been discovered there, including pierced animal teeth, pierced shells, ivory and soapstone beads, engravings, and paintings on limestone slabs. The discovery sheds new light on regional patterning of art and ornamentation across Europe at a time when the first modern humans to enter Europe dispersed westward and northward across the continent, (after& Heritage Daily)
October 29, 2003 Background: Effect of Temperature on Fermentation Temperature changes have profound effects upon living things. Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are especially sensitive to small changes in temperature. Because of this, the metabolism of a poikilotherm, an organism whose internal body temperature is determined by its environment, is often determined by the surrounding temperature. Bakers who use yeast in their bread making are very aware of this. Yeast is used to leaven bread (make it rise). Yeast leavens bread by fermenting sugar, producing carbon dioxide, CO2, as a waste product. Some of the carbon dioxide is trapped by the dough and forms small “air” pockets that make the bread light. If the yeast is not warmed properly, it will not be of much use as a leavening agent; the yeast cells will burn sugar much too slowly. In this experiment, you will watch yeast cells respire (burn sugar) at different temperatures and measure their rates of respiration. Each team will be assigned one temperature by your teacher and will share their results with other class members. You will observe the yeast under anaerobic conditions and monitor the change in air pressure due to carbon dioxide released by the yeast. When yeast burn sugar under anaerobic conditions, ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and carbon dioxide are released as shown by the following equation: + 2 CO2 + energy glucose ethanol carbon dioxide Thus, the metabolic activity of yeast may be measured by monitoring the pressure of gas in the test tube. If the yeast were to respire aerobically, there would be no change in the pressure of gas in the test tube, because oxygen gas would be consumed at the same rate as carbon dioxide is produced.
Say’s Law of markets was rooted in the mainstream of supply-oriented classical economics. J.B. Say, a French economist of the 19th century, asserted that: “supply creates its own demand.” This appears to be a simple proposition, but has had many different meanings, and many sets of reasoning underlying each meaning — not all of these by J.B. Say. Basically, Say’s Law contends that the production of output in itself generates purchasing power, equal to the value of that output: supply creates its own demand. It is argued that, “Production- increases not only the supply of goods but, by virtue of the requisite cost payments to the factors of production, also creates the demand to purchase these goods.” The core of Say’s Law of Markets is that the supply of a product through the process of production generates the necessary income (earned by the factors of production in the form of wages, interest, rent and profits) to demand the goods produced. By this method an equivalent demand is created in accordance with supply. According to Say, the main source of demand is the flow of factor incomes generated from the process of production itself. Any productive process has generally two effects: (1) Due to the employment of factors of production in the process, an income stream is generated in the economy on account of the payment of remuneration to the factors of production (2) a certain output results which is supplied to the market. Thus, according to Say’s Law, additional output creates additional incomes, which create an equal amount of extra expenditure. Therefore, every product produced generates an equivalent amount of purchasing power (income) in the economy which ultimately leads to its sale. In short, a new production process, by paying out income to its employed factors, generates demand at the same time as it adds to supply. Thus, every increase in production soon justifies itself by a matching increase in demand. Then, by doubling production, the producer would invariably double sales too.
Margot Lee Shetterly’s Hidden Figures (2016) offers an account of the little known history of black women mathematicians who were responsible for John Glenn’s first orbit around Earth and who were responsible for sending Neil Armstrong to the moon. Although these women had teaching positions in segregated schools in the South, they knew their minds and talents were needed to advance the modern American space program; they answered the nation’s call for their help. These brilliant black women contributed significantly to shaping our modern space program. Reared in Hampton, Virginia, where she met many of these black women pioneers she discusses in Hidden Figures, Margot Lee Shetterly, a recipient of the Virginia Foundation for the Humanities research grant and an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellowship, divulges how black women were able to make historic contributions to the space program, even though Science and Mathematics have always been largely dominated by white men. Shetterly explains that the genesis of black women’s contributions as mathematicians at Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in Hampton,Virginia is in the 1940s. In the 1940s, Langley hired its first black employees as “computers,” considering their duties were to perform mathematical computations. Before the 1940s, racist policies prevented black people from accessing these jobs at Langley. Refusing to accept black exclusion from any workplace, A. Philip Randolph and other freedom fighters tirelessly and effectively championed the cause of anti-discrimination, especially as it pertains to race, in employment. Philip Randolph threatened to send 100,000 protesters to march on our nation’s capitol in Washington, D.C. to generate national awareness about the economic violence of racial discrimination in employment. The efforts of Randolph and other civil rights leaders were successful: In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, which forbid racial discrimination in the national defense industry, and Executive Order 9346, which led to the assembling of the Fair Employment Practices Committee to fight racial discrimination in employment. FDR called for racial equality in federal employment. These efforts led to black women being able to work at Langley, albeit in a segregated work environment. Although most of these black women have not received the honor due to them, Katherine Johnson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor, in 2015. World War II afforded these black women a special opportunity: a great number of new airplanes were needed and a corresponding increase in the need for more mathematicians to aid in designing these airplanes; these black women capitalized on the opportunity. Langley was so desperate for more mathematicians that no other choice was left but to hire them. Shetterly reveals that the number of women who worked at Langley between 1943 – 1980 is unknown; it could have been hundreds or thousands. She estimates around 70 black women worked at Langley during the aforementioned period, though. Despite the constant ugly racism and discrimination they faced on the inside of Langley, black women like Katherine Johnson excelled. Their white colleagues could not have accomplished what was necessary without them. Dr. Antonio Maurice Daniels University of Wisconsin-Madison
When I was in elementary school, the color wheel had three primary colors — red, yellow, and blue. Mixing these three colors formed secondary colors — orange, green, and purple. In the six-color arrangement, there were three pairs of complements, blue/orange, red/green, and yellow/purple. The traditional form of the color wheel is still being taught today, but I prefer to use an alternative color system developed by Albert Munsell. The primaries are red, yellow, green, blue, and purple. Secondaries are combinations of these colors, red-yellow (also known as orange), yellow-green, etc. The color wheel on the right is a simplified version of Munsell’s arrangement. There is less space between red and yellow, so the complements are different from what we learned in school. For example, the complement of red is blue-green instead of green. Complements are aligned so that they produce the greatest visual vibration when placed next to each other and produce a neutral gray when mixed. Understanding a color wheel is the basis for designing any type of color scheme. Complements will produce the most exciting color schemes. If you prefer less excitement, try combining analogous colors which are close together on the color wheel. You can also develop interesting color combinations by combining triads of colors spaced one-third of the way around the color wheel from each other. In part 1 of this series, I asked you to start collecting photos and objects with colors that appeal to you. Have you started your collection? Post some comments describing what you have found. Keep adding to your collection, and next week we’ll talk about how to make sense of your personal colors. Read the other parts of the series..
The earliest North American coral species that reappeared following the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction were found at New York Canyon in Nevada. This sheds light on the corals' survival and recovery. Using fossilized structures known as melanosomes, researchers concluded that an ancient bat species was reddish-brown in color. More importantly, the study suggests that melanin desposits from fossils can be used to determine the color of ancient species. A new hadrosaur species, a type of duck-billed dinosaur, was excavated from Alaska. This species represents the northernmost dinosaur known to date and likely endured dark winter months and snowy conditions, researchers say. Researchers excavating ancient salmon chum bones from the Upward Sun River site in Alaska have found that Ice Age humans had a broader diet than previously surmised and used specialized tools to fish. Using fossilized teeth, researchers found that humans adapted a grass-based diet 400,000 years earlier than previously thought. This sheds light on how habitat change shaped human evolution. A new online program called Fossil Finds allows people to become archaeologists in their own homes. Satellite images captured by drones and kites are uploaded for people to examine for fossils. Three new fossil whale species were found in New Zealand. This provides valuable insight on how baleen whales evolved from their toothy ancestors. Fossils excavated from the Rising Star cave in South Africa were identified as a new species of human ancestors. The researchers note that this new species has a lot in common with modern humans. Researchers recently found well-preserved sea turtle fossils in Colombia. They determined that these remains are 25 million years older than the previously known oldest sea turtle fossils. A now-extinct monkey's one-million-year-old fossil was found embedded in limestone in an underwater cave in the Dominican Republic. This adds to findings about New World monkeys in the Caribbean. Researchers recently discovered an ancient sea predator in a fossil-rich site in Iowa. They named the new species after a Greek warship. There are lots of cold cases that have long eluded scientists, but now researchers may have found evidence of the world's oldest murder with puncture wounds in a prehistoric skull.
August 24, 79 - Mount Vesuvius in the Bay of Naples erupts, burying the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum killing thousands. The cities, buried under a thick layer of volcanic material and mud, were pretty much forgotten. In the 1700s, they were rediscovered and excavated, providing an unprecedented record of the everyday life of an ancient civilization. At noon, the mountain exploded sending a 10-mile mushroom cloud of ash and pumice into the stratosphere. For the next 12 hours, ash and pumice stones showered Pompeii and some of the residents decided to flee. About 2,000 people stayed, holed up in cellars or stone structures, hoping to wait out the eruption. Everyone who remained were killed the next morning when a cloud of toxic gas poured into the city and suffocated those in hiding. A flow of rock and ash followed, collapsing buildings and burying the dead. Wind protected Herculaneum from the initial eruption, but then a giant cloud of hot ash and gas raced down the western flank of Vesuvius (pyroclastic flow most likely), filling the city and burning or asphyxiating all who remained. This was followed by a flood of volcanic mud and rock which buried the city. Pompeii was buried under 14 to 17 feet of ash and pumice. Herculaneum was buried under more than 60 feet of mud and volcanic material. The remains of 2,000 were found at Pompeii. After they died their bodies were covered with ash that hardened and preserved the outline of their bodies. As the bodies decomposed they left a kind of mold behind in the shape of the bodies that had once laid there. Archaeologists who found these molds filled them with plaster, revealing the death pose of the victims. The whole city is frozen in time. The first human remains weren't found until 1982 and were found at Herculaneum. These skeletons found in a cave near the coast bear horrible burn marks that are evidence of a horrible death.
Isaac Newton is probably one of the smartest people of all time. Aside from discovering the foundations of physics, he was also the first person to describe the force of gravity. He designed the first practical reflecting telescope and explained how colours work based on the phenomenon of white light splitting into a rainbow after passing through a prism. He has been credited with inventing ridge-edged coins (to fight counterfeiting) and the cat-flap door (seriously), and was an influential religious philosopher. But my favourite story about Newton is the following. Around 1666, Newton locked himself in his room for a while and, basically, invented calculus. Calculus is a set of concepts and techniques, completely new to the usual addition-subtraction-multiplication kind of math, which allowed people to finally use numbers to describe changes — like the change of position (velocity) or the change of velocity (acceleration). But despite the enormous importance of this invention, for some reason, Newton didn’t tell anyone about it for years afterwards. He mentioned some of the basics in an annotation to a footnote somewhere, and actually used calculus in his major physics works, but never published the original paper on calculus itself. A few years later, a man named Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz also invented calculus, completely independently of Newton’s work. Newton got fairly upset about this, accusing Leibniz of plagiarizing from, well, the papers that he had failed to show anybody. - If any math historians are currently reading this, please forgive the impreciseness in this paragraph. ↩
The Neutrinos are the main antagonistic force in the film 2012. These Neutrinos come from deep in the Sun, and they can interact with matter, making them different, and more dangerous, than the regular Neutrinos. The Neutrinos first came from the Sun in 2009, and in 2010 they had settled inside the Earth. They immediately began heating up the Earth, over a long period of time, and the inside of the Earth began to get like a microwave because the Neutrinos were destabilizing it. The effects continued throughout 2010 and 2011, and in 2012 the Neutrinos reached their peak in December twenty-first, 2012, which coincided with many prophecies from the Mayan people and other groups. The Neutrinos were destabilizing the core, then the crust, of the Earth, causing minor earthquakes and other disturbances. Finally on December twenty-first, the Neutrinos reached their critical mass and wrenched open huge portions of the crust of the Earth, causing massive global earthquakes, and making some parts of certain continents fall into the sea or inside the core of the Earth. The Neutrinos then over-reached critical mass and they caused deadly tsunami, much bigger than any other tsunami on Earth, and this destroyed much of humanity and flooded huge continents. Finally, after the disastrous time, the Neutrinos burned themselves out and thus posed no more threat to society. It was implied that the Neutrinos had been visiting Earth every sixty million years, and were responsible for the mass extinctions, such as the one in the Cretaceous.
Preschool and Kindergarten Thanksgiving Activities, Crafts, Lessons, Folder Games, and Printables. Thanksgiving is a time for tradition, sharing, gathering with family, and giving thanks for what we have. The first Thanksgiving in the USA was a feast in 1621, shared by the Pilgrims to celebrate a successful harvest. Celebrate Thanksgiving, the pilgrims, and the harvest with our crafts, activities, games and many more resources for preschool and kindergarten. To start your Thanksgiving unit, read the book Thanks for Thanksgiving by Julie Markes. Talk with children about what it means to be thankful. List some of the things that you are thankful for. Then, ask children to share some of the things that they are thankful for. Discuss that we are all thankful for our family and our friends at school. Hold hands and sing the song together. Let's Be Thankful (Tune: Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star) Let's be thankful for this day, For our friends and for our play. Let's be thankful; let's be glad For the food and things we have. Let's give thanks for you and me And our home and family. On a white large napkin write the names of your family or of the children in your class. Decorate with glitter pens or glue on some sparkly gems. This will be your Thankerchief. Use it to play a game of Thankerchief. Arrange children in a circle. Recite the poem and pass around the “thankerchief." At the end of the poem, the player holding the "thankerchief" shares a thing for which he/she is thankful for. Continue the game until each child had a turn. Thankerchief, thankerchief, around you go Where you’ll stop, nobody knows. But when you do, someone must say, What they are thankful for this day. Free Happy Thanksgiving Color by Letter Worksheet (Letter recognition and visual discrimation) When all the leaves are off the boughs, And nuts and apples gathered in, And cornstalks waiting for the cows, And pumpkins safe in barn and bin, Then Mother says, "My children dear, The fields are brown, and autumn flies; Thanksgiving Day is very near, And we must make Thanksgiving pies!" Water or Sand Table Add some corn husks, cornmeal, and kernels to your sand table. Provide measuring spoons, a strainer, and small containers. Let children use the spoons to fill the small containers with corn kernels and cornmeal. Corn Investigation Station Provide magnifying glasses, Indian corn, corn on the cob, and corn husk leaves. Let children use the magnifying glass to explore the different items. Add tweezers and let children take the corn kernels off the Indian corn. Cranberry Spoon Race Use real cranberries in a relay race game. If any cranberries fall of the spoon during the race the runner must start again. Thanksgiving Dinner Game Have players sit in a circle. The first player starts by saying, "At Thanksgiving dinner I like to eat turkey." The next player must repeat "At Thanksgiving dinner I like to eat turkey . . ." and add another dish. This continues all the way around the circle with each player reciting the dishes in the exact order they have been given and then adding a new one. If a player makes a mistake, he or she must slide out of the circle and the game continues. The person left who can perfectly recite the Thanksgiving menu wins. Play music of your choice and encourage children to move like: BIG turkeys, little turkeys, tired turkeys, happy turkeys, scared turkeys, etc. Cut a small ring from a brown paper roll. Trace and cut some turkey pieces out of craft paper. Glue together. Fold napkin into a fan and push through the turkey napkin ring and place on plate. This makes a very cute Thanksgiving table decoration. (Patterns available in our KidsSoup Resource Library.) Turkey Napkin Holder Craft Handprint Flower Turkey Have child make a print of his or her hand on a white piece of craft paper. Paint hand and fingers in different colors. Let dry. When dry, draw the turkey's head, feet, and beak. Use red craft paper to make the waddle. Cut a mum flower close to the flower head and put a generous amount of glue on the dry turkey. Finish decorating the turkey's head with a wiggly eye. \|Harvest Activities and Crafts\|\|Scarecrow Activities and Crafts\|\|Thanks for Thanksgiving Activities\|\|Food and Harvest Activities\| \|Thanksgiving Table Decoration Craft\|\|Turkey Feathers Writing\|\|"I'm thankful for" Craft and Activity\|
Jefferson molecular biologists have created an oral vaccine against botulism which they believe can be used as a prototype to develop vaccines for other diseases such as diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus. Eventually, they say, their discovery may lead to a range of oral vaccines that could be inserted into common foods. The Jefferson scientists reported their research findings in a recent issue of the Journal Infection and Immunity. The researchers are Lance Simpson, PhD, Professor of Medicine, Jefferson Medical College, and Director of the Jefferson Clinical Center for Occupational and Environmental Medicine, and his colleagues, Nikita Kiyatkin, PhD, and Andrew Maksymowych, PhD. Using the sophisticated tools of molecular biology, the Jefferson team created a modified and non-toxic version of botulinum toxin. Nature's deadliest poison, the toxin causes the disease botulism, and is ordinarily seen as a form of food poisoning. In severe cases, the toxin can cause paralysis of the nervous system and death. The researchers created a novel form of the toxin that can enter the general circulation but not poison nerves, thus acting as an effective oral vaccine against botulism. Animals such as racehorses and farmyard chickens are susceptible to botulism, making such a vaccine of interest to the pharmaceutical industry, says Dr. Simpson, who sees further applications of the work in both veterinary and human medicine.
Schematic representation of the development of a wave cyclone along a frontal zone. It depicts all the four stages of the development of a travelling wave cyclone (extratropical cyclone). However, the diagram represents graphically the life cycle of an extratropical cyclone in the northern hemisphere. The four stages in the life cycle of an extratropical cyclone are: (1) the initial state, (2) the incipient stage, (3) the mature stage, and (4) the occlusion stage. (1) The initial Stage: In the initial stage the polar and the tropical air currents on the opposite sides of the polar front blow parallel to the isobars and the front. In the cold air mass to the north of the polar front the flow of air is from east to west. In the warm air mass to the south of the front the flow of air is from west to east. Therefore the wave disturbance is produced; the front is quasi-stationary and is in perfect equilibrium. The wedge of cold air mass lies under the warm air. There is complete absence of wind shift. The weather is fine. However, along the slanting surface of discontinuity where the opposing air currents meet, there is a sudden change in the direction of wind. This is called wind-shear. (2) The incipient stage: In the second stage a wave has formed on the front. Cold air is turned in a southerly direction and warm air in a northerly direction. There is an encroachment of each air mass into the domain of the other. This results in the readjustment in the pressure field as a result of which the isobars become almost circular in shape. A cyclonic circulation is initiated around a low centre at the apex of the wave. The whole cyclonic vortex is carried along with the winds prevailing in the warm-air region at approximately the speed of the geostrophic component of the wind. It may be pointed out that the new depression developing at the crest of the wave is called the nascent cyclone. The process of the birth of a new cyclone is commonly called cyclogenesis. (3) The mature stage: In the third stage the intensity of cyclone increases. The curvature and amplitude of the wave also undergo a marked increase. The air in the warm sector starts flowing from the southwest towards the colder air flowing from the southeast. Now, the cyclone is fully developed. There are well marked warm and cold sectors. The idealized circulation of a mature cyclone is shown in Figure 35.4c. The warm air in this stage moves faster than the cold air. The direction of movement is perpendicular to the warm front. In fact, the warm air is moving into a region previously occupied by the cold air. In the rear of the cyclone cold polar air is under- running the air of the warm sector, thus a cold front is generated there. Each of these fronts is convex in the direction of its movement. Throughout the cyclone, there is an ascending air along the entire surface of discontinuity. If the rising air mass is moist, there will be cloudiness and precipitation along the warm as well as cold fronts as shown by the shaded areas. The precipitation released at the warm front is more widespread and steady, whereas the cold front precipitation is confined to a narrow zone. Since the position of the cold front advances faster than the warm front, the warm sector becomes progressively narrower. This is the beginning of occlusion. This particular phenomenon marks the maturity of the cyclone. This is obviously the period of maximum intensity. (4) The occlusion stage: In the final stage the advancing cold front ultimately overtakes the warm front which results in the formation of an occluded front. Occlusion starts first near the apex of the wave where warm front is closest to the cold front. Gradually the process of occlusion comes down to the more open part of the two fronts. Thus, the warm sector is slowly pinched off and finally the two cold air masses mix across the front. This eliminates the occluded front. Now, the cyclone dies out. The life span of a single frontal cyclone is normally about five to seven days.
What is ACL? Access Control List is a packet filtering method that filters the IP packets based on source and destination address. It is a set of rules and conditions that permit or deny IP packets to exercise control over network traffic. What are different Types of ACL? There are two main types of Access lists:- 1.Standard Access List. 2.Extended Access List. Explain Standard Access List? Standard Access List examines only the source IP address in an IP packet to permit or deny that packet. It cannot match other field in the IP packet. Standard Access List can be created using the access-list numbers 1-99 or in the expanded range of 1300-1999. Standard Access List must be applied close to destination. As we are filtering based only on source address, if we put the standard access-list close to the source host or network than nothing would be forwarded from source. R1(config)# access-list 10 deny host 192.168.1.1 R1(config)# int fa0/0 R1(config-if)# ip access-group 10 in Explain Extended Access List? Extended Access List filters the network traffic based on the Source IP address, Destination IP address, Protocol Field in the Network layer, Port number field at the Transport layer. Extended Access List ranges from 100 to 199, In expanded range 2000-2699. Extended Access List should be placed as close to source as possible. Since extended access list filters the traffic based on specific addresses (Source IP, Destination IP) and protocols we don’t want our traffic to traverse the entire network just to be denied wasting the bandwidth. R1(config)# access-list 110 deny tcp any host 192.168.1.1 eq 23 R1(config)# int fa0/0 R1(config-if)# ip access-group 110 in Explain Named ACL and its advantages over Number ACL? It is just another way of creating Standard and Extended ACL. In Named ACL names are given to identify access-list. It has following advantage over Number ACL - In Name ACL we can give sequence number which means we can insert a new statement in middle of ACL. R1(config)# ip access-list extended CCNA R1(config)# 15 permit tcp host 10.1.1.1 host 184.108.40.206 eq 23 This will insert above statement at Line 15. R1(config)# int fa0/0 R1(config-if)# ip access-group ccna in What is Wildcard Mask? Wildcard mask is used with ACL to specify an individual hosts, a network, or a range of network. Whenever a zero is present, it indicates that octet in the address must match the corresponding reference exactly. Whenever a 255 is present, it indicates that octet need not to be evaluated. Wildcard Mask is completely opposite to subnet mask. Example:- For /24 Subnet Mask - 255.255.255.0 Wildcard Mask - 0.0.0.255 How to permit or deny specific Host in ACL? 1.Using a wildcard mask "0.0.0.0" Example:- 192.168.1.1 0.0.0.0 or 2.Using keyword "Host" Example:- Host 192.168.1.1 In which directions we can apply an Access List? We can apply access list in two direction:- IN - ip access-group 10 in OUT - ip access-group 10 out Difference between Inbound Access-list and Outbound Access-list? When an access-list is applied to inbound packets on interface, those packets are first processed through ACL and than routed. Any packets that are denied won’t be routed. When an access-list is applied to outbound packets on interface, those packets are first routed to outbound interface and than processed through ACL. Difference between #sh access-list command and #sh run access-list command? #sh access-list shows number of Hit Counts. #sh run access-list does not show number of Hit Counts. How many Access Lists can be applied to an interface on a Cisco router? We can assign only one access list per interface per protocol per direction which means that when creating an IP access lists, we can have only one inbound access list and one outbound access list per interface. Multiple access lists are permitted per interface, but they must be for a different protocol. How Access Lists are processed? Access lists are processed in sequential, logical order, evaluating packets from the top down, one statement at a time. As soon as a match is made, the permit or deny option is applied, and the packet is not evaluated against any more access list statements. Because of this, the order of the statements within any access list is significant. There is an implicit “deny” at the end of each access list which means that if a packet doesn’t match the condition on any of the lines in the access list, the packet will be discarded. What is at the end of each Access List? At the end of each access list, there is an implicit deny statement denying any packet for which the match has not been found in the access list. - Any access list applied to an interface without an access list being created will not filter traffic. - Access lists only filters traffic that is going through the router. They will not filter the traffic that has originated from the router. - If we will remove one line from an access list, entire access-list will be removed. - Every Access list should have at least one permit statement or it will deny all traffic.
Distinguish, differentiate, compare and explain what is the difference between uniform and nonuniform motion in physics. Comparison and Difference between uniform and nonuniform motion - Uniform motion travels an equal distance in an equal interval of time. Non-uniform motion travels unequal distance in equal interval of time. - The distance time-graph for a body having a uniform motion is a straight line. The distance-time graph for a body having a nonuniform motion is a curved line. - The Example of Uniform motion: a car moving at a constant speed at 10m/s i.e. it means car covers equal distance of 10m in the equal time of one second. The Example of Non-uniform motion: the motion of a free falling body.
Also found in: Wikipedia. one of the first early class states in Southeast Asia; in existence from the first to six centuries B.C. Funan occupied the region along the delta and middle course of the Mekong River. The capital was Vyadhapura. Some scholars believe that the inhabitants of the state spoke ancient Indonesian languages and later the Khmer language. The history of Funan is reflected most fully in the notes of the Chinese ambassadors at the court of the state’s rulers. In the first century A.D. an Indian Brahman named Kaundinya founded the first royal dynasty of Funan. In the early third century the state made vassals of settlements on the Malay Peninsula and of a number of neighboring states, including Chenla, Chentou (in the Chao Phraya River basin), and Phan Rang (in what is now the southern part of Vietnam). In the 270’s and 280’s Funan fought wars in alliance with Champa against what is now the northern part of Vietnam, but it was defeated in these wars. In the sixth century Chenla’s vassalage to Funan ended, and shortly thereafter Funan in turn became a vassal of Chenla, into which it was incorporated in the first half of the eighth century. Funan’s economy was largely based on commerce; the port of Oc Eo was one of the largest trading centers of Southeast Asia. Slaveholding and slave trading were well developed in the state; however, scholars do not yet know under which stage of development to categorize it. Throughout its history, Funan had a despotic form of government; the ruling circle was composed of the hereditary leader, the priests, and the landed and service aristocracy. The religion was Buddhism and later Hinduism. The culture of Funan had a considerable influence on the development of the culture of Cambodia (Angkor) and other early states in Southeast Asia. REFERENCESHall, D. G. E. Istoriia Iugo-Vostochnoi Azii. Moscow, 1958. (Translated from English.) Migot, A. Khmery. Moscow, 1973. (Translated from French.) L. A. SEDOV
Cloud Vortex Off the Coast of Chile33.9S 71.3W Thick clouds hugging the coast of Chile spiral into a vortex over the Pacific Ocean. A cloud is a visible mass of droplets, in other words, little drops of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth (or another planetary body). On Earth the condensing substance is typically water vapor, which forms small droplets or ice crystals, typically 0.01 mm (0.00039 in) in diameter. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals they become visible as clouds. Dense deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible range of wavelengths. They thus appear white, at least from the top. When air currents cause clouds to form in a spiral, with the motion of the water vapor swirling rapidly around a center, the result is called a cloud vortex.
Our Analysis: Long-slit Spectra Reduction When light is passed through a prism or a diffraction grating, it gets separated out into its constituent colors. The resulting pattern of colors is called a spectrum, and a great deal of information can be gleaned from these spectra. For many sources of light like the sun, or a light bulb the spectrum appears as a continuous range of colors, from red to blue (for the optical wavelengths; all of this can be extended to wavelengths beyond human vision, of course), while for thin clouds of gas (such as those we are looking at) we get a discrete spectrum, due to the quantized nature of atomic energy levels. On spectrum above, the vertical (up/down) axis represents the spatial axis along the slit. Going up and down corresponds to going left and right along the slit shown below. The horizontal axis respresents the wavelength dispersion with shorter wavelength (bluer) on the left and longer wavelenth (redder) on the right. Looking at known spectral lines (researched in great depth in labs here on Earth) from the distant galaxies, we can determine several things right away. One of these is red-shift (a shift in the wavelength due to relative motion of emitter and observer), which in turn gives velocity and even a rough idea of distance. Our research went even further, and uses the relative strengths of different lines to determine such physically interesting quantities as temperature, density, extinction (extinction is the amount that light gets scattered or absorbed between the source and our instruments; this may be due to the atmosphere or extraterrestrial factors and it can affect different wavelengths differently). For stars, we usually just get the spectra of a point, so there is one dimension in the spectrum, that of wavelength. But in our case, we wanted a cross-section of the galaxy, so we used a long, narrow slit (hence ³long-slit spectrum²). This provided a second dimension in our spectra, a spatial direction. This slit could be oriented in various directions to facilitate the study of a maximum number of HII regions in the various galaxies.On to data reduction explanation Do you not understand some of the vocabulary? Check out the glossary.
Osteoarthritis is a degenerative condition in which the joint surface, known as the articular cartilage, wears away. Articular cartilage resembles a layer of teflon on a frying pan. As the “teflon” wears away, it leads to bone rubbing against bone causing pain and stiffness. Osteoarthritis can start with pain in the groin. It causes a limp and reduced walking distance. Osteoarthritis is an age-related disorder but there is also often a strong hereditary component, as it can run in families. Previous injury to the hip joint and obesity are also possible causes. Some patients develop arthritis in the hip as a result of improper formation of the hip joint at birth, known as developmental dysplasia of the hip.
- slide 1 of 7 National Dog Week Celebrated annually during the fourth week of September, National Dog Week is a time to honor and celebrate dogs as pets and best friends. Second grade teachers can use this week to teach their students more about dogs including caring for dogs, communicating with dogs, and different breeds of dogs. - slide 2 of 7 Discussion and Prior Knowledge - What is a dog? - Who has a pet dog? - What breed is your dog? - How do you care for a dog? All second graders should be able to answer question one with some combination of dogs are animals, mammals, or pets. The students who have pet dogs should be able to identify the type of breed their dog is such as golden retriever or shih tzu or by stating that the dog is a mixed breed or mutt. All second graders with pet dogs should be able to describe some or all of the basic care that a dog needs such as water and dog food, baths, playtime, and walks. If the students cannot successfully answer the first question, then the teacher should provide a review of basic dog facts. Two of the books listed in the reading section—Dogs and Cats by Steven Jenkins and Dogs by Teri Crawford Jones—are recommended titles for a basic review. - slide 3 of 7 Dogs and Cats by Steve Jenkins is a double-sided nonfiction book that is recommended for readers in kindergarten through fifth grade depending on the reading level of the individual student. This cleverly illustrated text teaches children about canines through visual and written information including the origin and history of the pet dog. One side of the book is entirely about dogs while the opposite side contains information about cats. Puppies! Puppies! Puppies! by Susan Meyers is a book written in rhyme that follows the journey of puppies from birth when puppies are born with their eyes closed to adulthood when puppies move in with human families and learn to behave like grown-up dogs. This illustrated book, which teaches young readers about the growth and development of dogs, is recommended for readers in kindergarten through second grade. Letters from a Desperate Dog by Eileen Christelow is a comical book for students in kindergarten through third grade that chronicles the misadventures of a dog named Emma who feels misunderstood by her owner because of her tendencies to sleep on the couch, dig through the garbage, and bark at the door next door. Second grade teachers can use this book to teach children about common, albeit seemingly naughty, dog behavior as well as the special relationships between humans and pet animals. How to Talk to Your Dog by Jean Craighead George is a humorous but informative book recommended for second through fifth graders about learning to understand the communication system of dogs. This illustrated text explains in a conversational style how dogs use sounds, facial expressions, and body language to communicate with humans as well as other dogs. Dogs by Teri Crawford Jones is a title in the Children's Nature Library series that includes chapters on dog history, dog care, dog jobs, and dog breeds. Teachers can read this photo-illustrated book aloud to the class cover to cover or select individual chapters on specific topics. - slide 4 of 7 Dog Breed Research Project The main dog activity that each second grader will complete during National Dog Week is the dog breed research project. At the beginning of the week, each student will choose a dog breed to research. For this activity to be the most educational, each student should choose a different breed. After choosing breeds to research, the teacher should then handout worksheets for the students to fill out with information about the specific dog breed. By the end of the week, each student will create a presentation to share with the entire class about their chosen dog breed. Some suggested information to research includes: - Origin of dog breed - Description of dog breed - History of dog breed - Fun facts about dog breed - Images of dog breed Some recommended website sources for information on dog breeds include: - American Kennel Club Complete Breed List: http://www.akc.org/breeds/complete_breed_list.cfm - Animal Planet Dog Breed Directory: http://animal.discovery.com/breedselector/dogselectorindex.do - Just Dog Breeds List of Dog Breeds A to Z: http://www.justdogbreeds.com/dog-breeds.html Some recommended print sources for information on dog breeds include: - Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds by D. Caroline Coile Ph.D. - The Complete Dog Book for Kids (American Kennel Club) by American Kennel Club - The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Dogs (Dog Breeds & Dog Care) For a sample project, please download the printable Dog Breed Research Project Sample. This project allows second grade students to practice their research skills, writing skills, and public speaking skills. The teacher can tailor the specifics of this research project to the skill level, interest, and needs of the class. - slide 5 of 7 Dog Art Activities Another fun activity for second graders to complete during National Dog Week is to color printables of dogs with which to decorate the classroom. Some websites that provide dog themed coloring pages include: - All About Coloring: http://www.coloring.ws/dogs.htm - Print Activities: http://www.printactivities.com/ColoringPages/Dog/Dog-Coloring-Pages.html - Free Printable Coloring Pages: http://www.freeprintablecoloringpages.net/category/Dogs The teacher can provide multiple copies of multiple coloring pages to each student and then decorate the classroom with the finished dog coloring activities. - slide 6 of 7 At the end of National Dog Week, review what the students learned by talking about the following discussion points: - What is a dog? - What is a dog breed? - Name some breeds of dogs. The second graders should be able to answer all three questions correctly after reading one or more of the age-appropriate books about dogs, coloring dog printables, and research specific dog breeds. Second grade students will love celebrating a week about dogs and will learn more about dogs in the process. - slide 7 of 7 - All ideas courtesy of the author, Heather Marie Kosur - Espen, Espen and Dogs, Espen and Puppies, Espen and Letters © 2009 James Allen Johnson - All other images courtesy of the author, Heather Marie Kosur
An introduction to friction stir welding A relatively new joining process, friction stir welding (FSW) produces no fumes; uses no filler material; and can join aluminum alloys, copper, magnesium, zinc, steels, and titanium. FSW sometimes produces a weld that is stronger than the base material. Friction stir welding (FSW) is a relatively new joining process that has been used for high production since 1996. Because melting does not occur and joining takes place below the melting temperature of the material, a high-quality weld is created. This characteristic greatly reduces the ill effects of high heat input, including distortion, and eliminates solidification defects. Friction stir welding also is highly efficient, produces no fumes, and uses no filler material, which make this process environmentally friendly. Friction stir welding was invented by The Welding Institute (TWI) in December 1991. TWI filed successfully for patents in Europe, the U.S., Japan, and Australia. TWI then established TWI Group-Sponsored Project 5651,"Development of the New Friction Stir Technique for Welding Aluminum," in 1992 to further study this technique. The development project was conducted in three phases. Phase I proved FSW to be a realistic and practical welding technique, while at the same time addressing the welding of 6000 series aluminum alloys. Phase II successfully examined the welding of aerospace and ship aluminum alloys, 2000 and 5000 series, respectively. Process parameter tolerances, metallurgical characteristics, and mechanical properties for these materials were established. Phase III developed pertinent data for further industrialization of FSW. Since its invention, the process has received world-wide attention, and today FSW is used in research and production in many sectors, including aerospace, automotive, railway, shipbuilding, electronic housings, coolers, heat exchangers, and nuclear waste containers. FSW has been proven to be an effective process for welding aluminum, brass, copper, and other low-melting-temperature materials. The latest phase in FSW research has been aimed at expanding the usefulness of this procedure in high-melting-temperature materials, such as carbon and stainless steels and nickel-based alloys, by developing tools that can withstand the high temperatures and pressures needed to effectively join these materials. How Does FSW Work? In FSW, a cylindrical, shouldered tool with a profiled probe is rotated and slowly plunged into the weld joint between two pieces of sheet or plate material that are to be welded together (Figure 1). The parts must be clamped onto a backing bar in a manner that prevents the abutting joint faces from being forced apart or in any other way moved out of position. Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant welding tool and the material of the workpieces. This heat causes the workpieces to soften without reaching the melting point and allows the tool to traverse along the weld line. The resultant plasticized material is transferred from the leading edge of the tool to the trailing edge of the tool probe and is forged together by the intimate contact of the tool shoulder and the pin profile. This leaves a solid-phase bond between the two pieces. The process can be regarded as a solid-phase keyhole welding technique since a hole to accommodate the probe is generated, then moved along the weld during the welding sequence. The process originally was limited to low-melting-temperature materials because initial tool materials could not hold up to the stress of"stirring" higher-temperature materials such as steels and other high-strength materials. This problem was solved recently with the introduction of new tool material technologies such as polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN), tungsten rhenium, and ceramics. The use of a liquid-cooled toolholder and telemetry system has further refined the process and capability. Tool materials required for FSW of high-melting-temperature materials need high"hot" hardness for abrasion resistance, along with chemical stability and adequate toughness at high temperature. Material developments are advancing rapidly in different tool materials, each material offering specific advantages for different applications. FSW produces excellent weld quality with these features: - Low distortion. In butt welding aluminum, for example, from 2.8 mm and thicker, the plate distortion in a properly built FSW machine is more or less zero. Tests on 12-m lengths have been carried out (Figure 2) in which sideway bends smaller than 0.25 mm (0.01inch) were achieved, and no twist was seen with material thicker than 2.8 mm. In thinner materials, a slight upward bend occurred, but no twist or side bends were seen. - Low shrinkage. FSW produces the same predictable amount of shrinkage each time, normally found lower than 2 mm on 6-m-wide aluminum panel application. - No porosity. Because the base material does not melt, there is no porosity. - No lack of fusion. Because this is an extruding and forging joining method with a more accurate control of the heat, no lack of fusion is seen. - No change in material.When joining aluminum, material properties change little from the parent material as the maximum temperature during the joining process is approximately 450 degrees C, and no filler material or anything other than heat is added to the joint (Figure 3). Due to the resultant finer grain structure in the weld nugget, the weld sometimes is stronger than the base material. In steels, most of these same advantages apply. Advantages of FSW For joining nonferrous materials, no filler material or shielding gases are required in this process, making FSW an economical joining method. For joining nonferrous materials, the tool is not consumed and is regarded as a spare part. For example, one tool typically can be used for more than 2,000 m of welding in 6000 series aluminum alloys. This method also requires minimum surface preparation (normally only degreasing is needed), and uses only 20 percent heat input compared to traditional gas metal arc welding (GMAW or MIG) processes. In both high and low melting temperature alloys, no fumes or toxic gases are produced that could threaten the health of the operator, and operators and other personnel are not exposed to radiation from any arc flash. The resulting surface is ready to use, as no spatter has been produced. The root side is a perfect copy of the backing, and the top side has a smooth, scalloped appearance caused by the shoulder of the tool. Another advantage to FSW is that dissimilar materials and alloys can be joined together (Figure 4). This has been demonstrated in combining copper with aluminum, aluminum with magnesium, and in the cladding of aluminum to steel. Today most aluminum alloys have been welded with excellent results. Success has also been seen in welding copper, magnesium, zinc, steels, and titanium. Research continues to produce the data that is needed to facilitate the use of FSW in production for these and other nonweldable materials.
‘About 400 light years from our solar system, there is a celestial body that looks like Saturn on steroids. Its rings are about 200 times larger than its counterpart here, measuring about 75 million miles in diameter. The ring system is so large, in fact, that scientists aren’t sure why it doesn’t get ripped apart by the gravity of the star it orbits. One reason the rings might stay intact has to do with the direction in which they spin around the object at their center, called J1407b. Scientists are not sure whether J1407b is a gigantic planet that measures many times larger than Saturn, or a failed star called a brown dwarf.’ Source: New York Times
Your Parathyroid Glands Parathyroid glands are small glands of the endocrine system that are located behind the thyroid. There are four parathyroid glands which are normally about the size and shape of a grain of rice. They are shown in this picture as the mustard yellow glands behind the pink thyroid gland. This is their normal color. The sole purpose of the parathyroid glands is to regulate the calcium level in our bodies within a very narrow range so that the nervous and muscular systems can function properly. Although they are neighbors and both part of the endocrine system, the thyroid and parathyroid glands are otherwise unrelated. The single major disease of parathyroid glands is overactivity of one or more of the parathyroids; that's hyperparathyroidism. To make information about parathyroid disorders more understandable, we have separated our parathyroid pages into specific topics. Once you read about a topic, more detailed information is available if you want it.
Inside Earth: The Crust, Mantle and Core Let’s talk about digging a hole Imagine a team of drillers who set out to drill a hole to the other side of Earth. Because who wouldn’t want to build a shortcut to the other side of the Earth, right? So, our team of drillers hire a brilliant engineer to design the strongest drill possible. After several designs, the engineer has the perfect drill to get the job done. How far do you think the team of drillers make it? We’ll get back to our team of drillers in just a second. But first let’s get to know inside our Earth. What’s inside Earth? For example, the heaviest material like iron and zinc are in the core. Finally, lighter silicate rocks remain on top to form a crust. Now, we know Earth density is highest in the core and lighter in the crust. Let’s start with the lightest which is the lithosphere. 1. Earth’s crust On the outer shell, Earth’s crust is thin and rigid. The crust is all around us. Unless you’re not floating in outer space right now, it’s the layer you live on. In comparison to other layers, the crust is mostly made up of rocks with a density from 2.7 to 3.3 g/cm3. The lithosphere is split between continental and oceanic crust. But both turn out to be very different from each other. All oceanic crust forms in the same way. First, long chains of underwater volcanoes spew out lava. It’s at these mid-oceanic ridges where plates move apart from each other. The lava it ejects turns into oceanic crust. As a result, the youngest geological rocks on Earth are found under the ocean at oceanic crust. But continental crust is completely different than oceanic crust. Continental crust is thicker and less dense than oceanic crust. It’s too buoyant to sink compared to the heavier mantle rock underneath. Because continental crust floats on the surface of the mantle, continents can have rocks over 4 billion years old. 2. Earth’s mantle As we move down through the crust into the mantle, we get into denser and heavier rocks. It’s not only density. But the further we go, the hotter it becomes. Similar to how temperature fluctuates in the air on our planet, the temperature in the mantle varies. But it turns out that variation is even more extreme deep inside Earth. The mantle’s structure is mostly silicates with density ranging from 3.2 to 5.7 g/cm3. Because the mantle and crust are made of rock, the transfer of heat is through convection. The hotter, fluid mantle causes the less dense crust to rise which consequently results in transfer of heat. The asthenosphere (averaging 80-200 km) lies beneath the lithosphere. Unlike the rigid and brittle properties of Earth’s crust, the asthenosphere behave soft and plasticky. In fact, this fluid property is what provides the necessary lubrication for plate tectonics. So, the crust sits on top of the asthenosphere, which is part of the upper mantle. Then, it’s carried enormous distances through a process called “continental drift”. The upper mantle (35-670 km) contains the asthenosphere. When you go about 100 km down into the Earth, the temperature is already in the range of 450-900°C. Actually, it’s so hot that you would just see white and pressure is remarkably intense. The upper mantle has a density of 3.9 g/cm3. The upper mantle and crust (outermost layer) together, make up the lithosphere. The lower mantle (670-2900 km) represents a significant amount of volume of Earth. It contains about 56% of the total volume filling in the transition zone and upper core. The lower mantle has a significantly higher density than the upper mantle. It averages about 5.0 g/cm3 of mostly solid rocks. 3. Earth’s iron core If you dig beneath the mantle, you get a mix of liquid and solid in the core of Earth. The core is shaped like a ball with a radius of about 1,220 km. The pressure is remarkably intense with temperatures up to 5500°C. Seismologists suggest that the core is rotating faster than the mantle. This plays an important role in generating a magnetic field. Like a force field, the magnetic field protects us with a never-ending stream of charged particles from the sun. Earth’s outer core is liquid with a thickness of about 2,400 km. It’s composed mostly of nickel and iron with a density between 9.9 to 12.2 g/cm3. Because the core is made of metal, electrical conduction transfers from the core to the mantle. The transition between the inner and outer core is 5,150 km beneath Earth’s surface. At the center of the Earth, it’s about 5500°C. The pressure is remarkably intense. Earth’s inner core has the highest density at 12.9 g/cm3. How do we know what’s inside Earth? We can’t physically go inside the Earth. And unfortunately, light doesn’t travel through rock so we can’t see inside it either. To overcome this, we use imaging and seismic tomography to see what’s inside Earth. During an earthquake, seismic waves pulse through rocks in the crust and mantle. Overall, the speed at which the waves travel gives you rock characteristics. For example, waves propagate faster for cooler rocks than hotter rocks. By understanding the time it takes for waves to travel, we can get a clearer picture of what’s inside Earth. Because of seismic waves, we now have images of inside the Earth. Back to our team of drillers… It turns out that a team of drillers is a bit of a true story. I don’t think they were trying to drill to the other side of the world, but a team of Russian drillers did try to dig the longest hole in 1970. The hole they dug is called Kola Superdeep Borehole. And the deepest they were able to dig was about 12.7 kilometers into the Earth. But the Earth has a radius of 6,371 km from the center to surface. This means they’ve barely scratched the surface. What happened? How come they couldn’t drill any deeper? It turns out that because the conditions became so inhospitable, the drill bits couldn’t withstand the pressure and heat inside Earth. But because we can analyze seismic waves during earthquake events, we can begin to understand what’s really inside Earth.
Full course description Largely, information about how the brain is involved in learning absent from preparation of educators’ programs. Certainly, teachers and principals cannot (and need not) know everything about the brain. However, basic understanding of how the brain is involved in learning can inform their work and provide a foundation for very successful schooling. Without such knowledge even the noblest intentions, the finest standards, and the most reliable and valid assessments cannot succeed. The purpose of this course is to provide insight into some of the current research from cognitive science and neuroscience about how the brain learns and opportunities to consider how to use this information at school to improve students’ academic achievement and personal well-being. The greatest benefit of this course is that, instead of providing simple answers, “tricks,” or teacher-proof lesson plans, it treats participants as a professional capable of finding own answers to the specific teaching challenges in the particular circumstances. The course focuses on how learners learn and invites to consider how teachers teach. As a result, participants will become more skilled at inventing teaching strategies to improve students’ learning.
The latest Ebola epidemic has claimed hundreds of lives, making it the second deadliest to date. While concerns about this highly-infectious disease have resurfaced, there’s a lot of misinformation when it comes to the virus. Here are 10 essential facts about Ebola: 1. Scientists Believe Ebola Starts in Animals and Spreads to Humans While the exact cause of Ebola isn’t known, experts believe the virus is animal-borne, with fruit bats being the suspected hosts. Bats that carry the virus can transmit it to other animals. (2) Ebola is introduced to humans through close contact with the blood, secretions, or organs of infected animals, such as fruit bats, gorillas, chimpanzees, monkeys, forest antelope, or porcupines. Humans can also contract Ebola by eating or handling infected bushmeat — the meat of wild animals. (3) 2. You Can Catch Ebola Through Contact With Body Fluids — and Even Dead Bodies! Once Ebola reaches the human population, it spreads via direct contact with the bodily fluids of an infected person. When someone touches these secretions, the virus can gain entry through broken skin or mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, or mouth. It can be passed on through sexual contact and needle-sharing. Surfaces, materials, and objects may also harbor Ebola. Direct contact with a deceased body of someone who had Ebola is another way to contract the disease. People remain contagious as long as their blood contains the virus. (2,3) 3. The Worst Ebola Outbreak Occurred in 2014–2016 The 2014–2016 Ebola outbreak in West Africa was responsible for more than 28,600 infections and 11,325 deaths. To date, it’s the deadliest Ebola epidemic. The Zaire strain of the virus was the culprit. (4) Experts believe many factors contributed to the severity of this outbreak, including a shortage of medical professionals, a lack of preparation, and a delay in efforts to control the spread of the virus. Additionally, the region was recovering from years of civil war. (5) 4. The Second-Worst Outbreak Is Happening Now The 2018 outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo is considered the second deadliest. This is the Congo’s 10th Ebola epidemic since 1976 — and its second this year. (1) Health officials say trying to contain the virus has been challenging due to ongoing armed conflict in the region and a lack of community engagement. North Kivu province, which includes the cities Beni, Kalunguta, and Mabalako, is the center of the outbreak. Cases have also been reported in the neighboring Ituri province. (6) 5. Early Symptoms of Ebola Mimic Other Illnesses Early Ebola symptoms include fever, headache, body aches, cough, stomach pain, vomiting, and diarrhea. Because these could be symptoms of other diseases, it's difficult to diagnose Ebola early on. (7) 6. Ebola Is Not a Risk to the General Public in the United States You’re not at risk for Ebola unless you’re in direct contact with the blood or other bodily fluids of someone with the virus when they have symptoms, such as fever, vomiting, or cough. New cases come from close contact with an infected person — especially through blood, body fluids, or contaminated needles — late in the disease when viral levels are high. (8) 7. Bleeding Is Common in the Later Stages of Ebola Later symptoms of Ebola can appear quickly, within a few days after the onset of early symptoms. Due to internal and external bleeding, the patient's eyes may become red. The person may vomit blood, have bloody diarrhea, and suffer cardiovascular collapse and death. (8) 8. Ebola Is Often Fatal According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the average death rate for Ebola is about 50 percent, but this number can range from 25 to 90 percent, depending on the outbreak. (3) Scientists aren’t exactly sure why some people survive the disease, while others don’t. Early supportive care may be one way to improve your chances of survival. 9. Vaccines Are in the Works and Are Already Being Used A vaccine called rVSV-ZEBOV has shown promise in clinical trials. Results of one large study showed that of the 5,837 people who received the vaccine, no cases of Ebola were recorded 10 days or longer after vaccination. But 23 Ebola cases were recorded among those who didn’t get the vaccine. (3) The Democratic Republic of Congo is currently offering the vaccine to protect people against the virus. (9) 10. There’s No Cure, but There Are Promising Treatments Being Studied While there’s no therapy approved to cure Ebola, several experimental options are being studied. Currently, the standard treatment is something called “supportive care.” This involves giving patients extra fluids and oxygen, maintaining blood pressure levels, replacing lost blood, and treating other infections. Using oral medicines to reduce fluid loss from vomiting and diarrhea is crucial. Other therapies are being looked at to help the disease, including blood transfusions from survivors and mechanical filtering of blood from patients. Experimental medicines, such as ZMapp, mAb 114, GS-5734, and REGN-EB3, are also being studied and given to patients affected by the current Congo outbreak. (6,10) Editorial Sources and Fact-Checking - Feleke, B. and Scutti, S. “Up to 319 people dead as Congo Ebola outbreak worsens.” CNN. 2018. - What is Ebola Virus Disease? Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2018. - Ebola virus disease. World Health Organization (WHO). 2018. - 2014-2016 Ebola Outbreak in West Africa. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2017. - Factors that contributed to undetected spread of the Ebola virus and impeded rapid containment. World Health Organization (WHO). 2015. - Chalmers, V. “Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo continues to spiral as death toll reaches 319.” Daily Mail. 2018. - Ebola Virus Disease: Signs and Symptoms. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2018. - Ebola virus and Marburg virus. Mayo Clinic. 2017. - Soucheray, S. “Ebola hits 539 cases as outreach efforts extend in Beni.” University of Minnesota: Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy. 2018. - Ebola Virus Disease: Treatment. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2017.
Learning an instrument and playing in a band enhances diverse methods of thinking and cognizance. This is a severely underrated benefit that children gain when they are introduced to music at any time during their childhood. Yet, this is not the only overlooked benefit that children gain from music. In this article, we will take a look at the skills and traits developed by music education. Music lessons Singapore programs are packed with formative comments and evaluation, where educators constantly evaluate and offer comments during the learning procedure. The consistent specialist exhibition, feedback, and dialogue establish a powerful learning relationship that ensures self-efficacy and drives to learn. Music develops cognitive capabilities Music classes supply a means for students to come to grips with feelings and learn how to share them as they grow. They experience teamwork and an awareness of collective good and how to develop it, including goal setting, motivation and aspiration and how to acquire it, and artistic creation for its intrinsic worth. The “neurological benefits of music education and its contribution to personal and skills growth” were showcased in the ABC TELEVISION series ‘Do not Stop the Music’. The support and advancement of this production were aided by the Australian Society for Music Education (ASME), the top body supporting music education and advocacy nationwide. Further, my research on the learning processes involved in acquiring improvisational music abilities shows how efficient music education establishes layered metacognitive capabilities for learning and creativities across individual, teacher-to-student, and group/ensemble tasks. Other benefits of learning music Music training helps create language and thinking Pupils who have early musical training will establish the regions of the mind related to language and reasoning. The left side of the mind is better built with music, and songs can aid imprint information on budding minds. A proficiency in recollection skills Even when playing with sheet music, pupil musicians are frequently utilizing their memory to perform. The ability of recollection can offer pupils well in education and learning and beyond. Students learn to boost their work Learning music supports workmanship, and trainees learn to desire to create good work rather than mediocre work. This wish can be applied to all topics of research. Similar to playing sports, playing, and dancing to music helps kids cultivate their motor abilities. Making music involves more than just the voice or fingers; you also make use of ears and eyes, as well as large and small muscles, all together. This assists the body and the mind interact. Success and discipline Learning music educates youngsters to work towards temporary goals, establish habits, and practice self-control. Allowing regular time for practice establishes dedication and perseverance. Mastering a new piece of music brings about a feeling of satisfaction and success and helps children to learn the value of self-control.
What may be learnt from the New England colonists’ treatment of the Indians David J Phillips There is no land that does not ‘belong’ to someone. Everyone has a landscape with which they identify and use for subsistence. Before the invasion of the Europeans, the area of New England was occupied by a number of Amerindian tribes, who were masters of the land. In the area now known as Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode island were living hunter gatherer nomads with varying degrees of sedentation for shifting agriculture. The land was fertile for those with the ‘know how’ to cultivate and while each Indian community had sufficient hunting within reach of their fields and without conflict with their neighbors, they stayed settled only for a short period of years. Subsistence was the aim by securing hunting and fishing rights, without disturbing their neighbors with their small fields near to their settlements of simple dwellings. Land belonged communally, without fences; what ‘belonged’ to the individual or the family was the carcase of animals and fish he or they hunted and fished, and the produce from what they had planted. The landscape that provided them belonged to no one and everyone.The population of the natives around 1500 in New England is estimated to have been 70,000 to 140,000 (Daniels 2012.169). By the beginning of the 17th century there were many European vistors to the New England coast and trade in furs and fish was established with the Indians. By 1610 some two hundred British vessels were visiting the coast apart from other Europeans (Mann 2006.47). The Indians even learnt to use sails on their boats for their own coastal trade. The coast and the fertile river valleys were well populated, with well established villages,which discouraged earleir plans to establish European settlements; also the Indians soon dissauded any stay of any length (Mann:2006.39). However later reports reaching England gave the impression that much was largely unoccupied and therefore open to be taken by who would make use of it. This was not only becaue of the lack of fences and human habitations. It was not realised that the native population had been reduced by infections brought by these earlier contacts with European seamen, especially by an epidemic in 1616-17, possibly of smallpox or budonic plaque or measles that killed a third of the Wampanoag (Daniels 2012.169). The tribes living in the area of present day Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island were: In the west on the Connecticut River in Massachusetts were the Pocumtuc; the Nipmuck were settled in central Massachusetts. The Massachusetts and Wampanoag occupied the coast from Boston to the southern coast and the Nauset occupied Cape Cod. The Narrraganset lived in what later would be Rhode Island while to the west of them were the Pequot and Mohegan in eastern Connecticut. We take as an example the Wampanoag, as they feature first in the relationship with the English invasion, being a help to the Plymouth Pilgrims. They numbered thousands due to the fertile soil and good fishing, but earlier visits of Europeans to the coast had brought epidemics to which the Indian had no immunity, and between 1615 and 1619 a plague, once thought to be smallpox, but probably leptospirosis, nearly wiped them out. The Pilgrims found this out from Squinto, who befriended them. John Winthrop, leader of the Puritans, on the way to Boston, saw it a benevolent providence, as both colonies would have space and land for initial settlement (Johnson 1998.33). Wampanoag means ‘people of the dawn’ or ‘easterners’, their language was Wopânânk or Massachusetts one of the Algonquian linguistic family. The last speaker died a century ago, but there is a project in 1993 to revive it. The Wampanoag were semi sedentary hunter gatherers and shifting agriculturists, moving seasonally between regular sites favorable to these activities. Their lodges consisted of branches and skins of various animals which they packed and took with them to a new site. The Indians would be hospitable to colonial visitors, Thomas Morton wrote, allowing the tired visitor to sleep, and then awaken him a meal. They moved seasonally, winter ans summer to not to exhaust fuel and hunting in one place (Morton 1637). The men were the hunters, fishers and warriors, the women gathered and tended the fields, especially cultivating maize, beans and squash. They would plant the crops mixed in the same field, which the colonists found strange (Morton 1637). They did not domestic animals. Each group had defined areas for game and fish, and the colonies were to disrupt this system. They traded by barter with each other and had a currency of shells called wampum (Morton 1637). Their society was based on the nuclear family and was matrilinear, the women owned the shelter and domestic and agricultural belongings, which their daughters inherited and a new couple would live matrilocally. Premarital sex was not condemned, but both were expected to be faithful after marriage. Polygamy and divorce were common. Loyalty was to the family, the clan and the people. Women could be leaders or sachems of the groups. The society was organized into a confederation of of groups, each with its sachem, with and overall sachem. Prior to the coming of the colonists, explorers had captured Indians and sold them as slaves. Such was Squanto, who escaped from Spain to London, learnt English, and returned to New England to find his clan dead, and the Pilgrims arrived at New Plymouth. He lived with the Pilgrims for a time, helped them to plant their first crops, and introduced them to Massasoit, the overall sachem of the Wampanoag. Massasoit asked the Plymouth people to give English names to his sons: Wamsutta became Alexander and Metacom Philip (Willeson 1945.390). The Wampanoag beliefs were based on their shaman manipulating the spirits (manito) in the landscape for healing or for projecting misfortune at a distance on those that displeased them. Their Great Spirit was Kehtannit the creator, but he or it was never personalized, and had not moral attributes or gender. According to Morton they had a concept of the creation of a first man and woman, believed that a flood had killed wicked men, and looked forward to life after death with the Great Spirit (Morton 1637). The colonies that settled in New England were the New Plymouth Pilgrims arriving in 1620, the Cape Ann and Salem group north of Boston in 1618, and the Massachusetts Bay Colony settling around Boston beginning in 1630 and further migrations made the Bay the largest colony. The Dorchester Company of investors of colonization had as one of its goals the evangelization of the Indians. They commenced a settlement at Cape Ann north of present Boston where the fishing was good, but the land was not fertile to have expansive agricultural settlement. The Massachusetts Bay Company obtained a charter from Charles I, glad to be rid of Puritans who would disrupt his church policies, in 1629. John Winslow joined the enterprise, although his family thought he should stay in England to realize his aims there. His aims for the colony were to curb the spread on Roman Catholicism in America. The Jesuits were active in French Canada to the north and the French and Spaniards to the south in Florida and Mexico and if judgment fell on England there would be an example of Reformation society left in America. Therefore many saw one of the aims of the colonies was to enable the natives to be brought from error to sincere Christianity (Johnson 1998.26). Roger Williams saw them as descendents of the lost tribes of Israel due to apparent similarities of customes (Daniels 2012.171). The Pilgrims of Plymouth established a peace treaty with the nearby Wampanoag in the first terrible winter of 1620 defined a basis of mutual reciprocity in behavor and property (Daniels 2012.172). Much of the Indians culture and physique was admired in New England’s Prospects (1634) by William Wood (Daniels 2012.174). John Winslow leader of the Bay company liked their task as ‘A city set on a hill’, quoting Christ’s words (Matthew 5:8), that His disciples should be an example in the life style and behavior to the world. Winslow fervently wished they be an example to the world how they believed church and society should be shaped by the Bible. This is how the Christians saw their enterprise of settling in New England, including a goal to convert the Indians. Growth in English Migration As the reigns of the Stuart kings tried to establish an absolute monarchy with Catholic tendencies, the civil wars and further two reigns of Stuarts, many thousands emigrated to America for religious freedom. In this way they avoided outright religious persecution and also the economic pressures as the rising middle and rural classes suffered the lack of farming land (Johnson 1998.22). From the start there was recognized a distinction between those with a religious commitment and those for various motives were seeking a better economic life. From the compact on the Mayflower 1620, Plymouth colony was divided between between ‘saints’ and ‘strangers’, those who sought a more biblical form of church and those who sought a new life. The Mayflower brought 41 ‘saints’ and 40 ‘strangers’ with 23 servants. With subsequent migrants there were a total 108 ‘saints’ and 133 ‘strangers’ with 121 servants and others not identified (Willison 1945.454). So that the ‘Pilgrims’ with a religious commitment beyond nominal membership of the Church of England, were soon outnumbered. The Bay colony around Boston started by seeking to be an example society according to Puritan principles with a unity of church and society to give the cohesion for survival. This it attained, and compared to the Pilgrims at Plymouth, it attracted thousands of immigrants, with some 20,000 arrived in the 1630s. During the Civil Wars in England migration paused, and some colonists returned to fight on the side of the Parliamentary forces. The colony suffered economic distress, but this led to new industries being established, so as not to be dependent on England. Family as the fundamental social unit In comparison to other colonies, the Puritans emphasized the family unit with children and servants. The women were partners with their husbands in the family enterprise, whether farming, a craft or a profession (Daniels 2012.155), and widows inherited a third of the husband’s estate (Morgan 1956.42-44). Family as a unit was so important that single persons were obliged to join a family either as a boarder or as a servant (Morgan 1956.27, 145) and immigrants arriving, leaving a spouse in England, were sent back on the next ship (Morgan 1956.39). This contributed a greater social cohesion to the northern colonies. The Puritans believed that the family was ordained by God in creation and the institutions of church and state were added after the Fall of man to supervise the family (Morgan 1956.134, 142). The church was a voluntary association of families based on the individual confession of faith of the parents, children included until old enough to make their own confession. Although women did not have the vote in civic and town meetings, they were equally church members on confession of faith with the men. Servants often had to make their own confession. Daily devotions and Christian instruction was an obligatory part of life (Morgan 1956.139). So when the missionaries settled the Indians into towns, it brought them into a well established social structure of Christian living. Servants were either voluntary employees in industrial or domestic service, or apprentices. Slavery was not favored, except in the case of captives from a ‘just war’ or as a punishment for theft, to compensate for the loss (Morgan 1956.110). Some Irish, Indians and some Africans were slaves, but they had to be provided for by the families in which they were placed, as other servants. Secular motives predominate With in fifty years, the colonies spread taking more land from the Indians; John Winthrop considered the land a ‘vacuum’ because the Indians had not ‘subdued’ it, presumably meaning it had not been extensively cultivated with mills and other industries to develop the produce. Therefore the Indian did not have a legal right to it (Zinn 2005.14). Together with this growing occupation of land also the religious goals of the colonies became moderated. The Puritans believed that they were still part of the Church of England, but they had reformed it according to the Reformation, hence ‘pure’. Church and state were united so that every citizen was obliged to attend the state’s church. But many of the migrants were not ‘Puritan’ with a real Christian commitment, so in order to maintain the union between church and society the Halfway Covenant was adopted in 1662, where by peoples baptized in infancy, which meant anyone and everyone in 17th century England, were accepted as church members and therefore had civil rights as well. The Puritans themselves distinguished between the ‘civil man’ who was outwardly a good citizen, whose behavior was motivated by social restraint and education. But civilization was not the way to salvation. The true citizen was motivated by faith and justification by God. Therefore many a ‘civil man’ was not a member of the church (Morgan 1956.4). The majority of immigrants were reasonably prosperous gentry, merchants and skilled craftsmen with their servants and apprentices. In contrast to other colonies the migrants came because religious or political motives, some under threat of arrest and persecution. Except for the brief reign of James II, 1685-88, the religious threat faded in England and was less an issue for the majority of colonists. Coming from England where land was in short supply, the excess of available land produced a prosperous trading society with Europe. In 1664 Roger Williams complained of the trinity of profit, preferment and pleasure. By 1698 there was one trading ship, home ported in New England, for every 400 residents (Daniels 2012. 200f). There was a waning of piety, with the second and third generations (Daniels 2012.121); as the religious issues in England became remote, the colonies spread out, in fact the frontier was quite porous as others came with differing views. Many immigrants described the land as fair and prosperous. Well could the Indians seem threatened. Seeing the land as undeveloped by the natives, the colonists spread out. By 1643, 56 English towns had been founded in the areas of modern Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Hampshire (Daniels 2012.54). Each town needed the approval of the colony government, and the Indians occupying the land paid. They started with 25 to 60 families, located near a river for transport, the town could occupy on average over 100 square miles. The land was held communally to start with, pasture and agricultural strips in open fields being allocated according to the number of persons in the families (Daniels 2012.88). Relations with the Indians can be divided into two periods, the first from the landing of the Pilgrims,1620, to the Pequot war 1637, when both Indians and English had a mutual respect for each other. The colonists learnt from the natives methods of agriculture and fishing, admired their physique and the industry of their women (Daniels 2012.170,173). Plymouth colony formed a treaty with the Wampanoag,as between two equal nations (Daniels 2012.172). The majority of the colonists viewed the Indians either as useful in the fur trade or a dangerous obstacle to peaceful extension of their colony. The wars were a pretext to take more land, by what Roger Williams called ‘a depraved attitude after the great vanities, dreams and shadows of this vanishing life, great portions of land’ (Zinn 2005.16). By the time of the so called King Philip’s War, 1675 to 1678, there was an adult generation born and grown up in the colony, that saw the Indians as primitive and a threat. But during this first period of mutual respect, mission began to the Indians. Reaching the Indians However there were those who sought the fulfillment of mission mandate. Pastor Roger Williams arrived in Boston in 1631, and considered being a missionary to the Indians early in his troubled time as a pastor in the Bay (Willeson 1945.388). As pastor at Salem, then later at Plymouth, he spent time with the Indians, visiting Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoag and Canonicus, sachem of the Narragansett, and learnt the language. He had a plan to settle among the Narragansett and preach to them (Beade 1988). However he then returned to Salem as assistant pastor. He disagreed with the authorities of the Bay, because they considered themselves still loyal to the Church of England hoping for its reformation, which Williams considered beyond hope. He also argued that the state had no jurisdiction over the church, the two should be separate, while the colony held them close together. Finally and fundamentally, he rejected the validity of the right of the white man to dispose of the land of the Indian, whether by Royal charter or decision of the Colony. The land belonged to the Indians and he circulated a tract declaring this obvious truth (Willison 1945.347). These three issues undermined the very foundations of the authority and existence of the colony. He was called before the court and in 1635, he was banished from the colony and threatened with deportation to England where at that stage he might have faced prison or death from the Anglicans led by Archbishop Laud. He fled south west with some friends from Salem and survived the harsh winter helped by first the Wampanoag, then crossed the Seekonk River to be received by the Narragansett as neetop. or ‘my friend’ (Beade 1988). He bought land from the Indians and with his friends established Providence, later Rhode Island. When his colony’s existence was threatened by the other colonies he journeyed to England, then in the midst of the Civil War, to get a charter for his colony, confirming what he had arranged with the Indians. On the way he arranged peace between the Dutch in New Amsterdam (now New York) and the local Indians. On the voyage he wrote and published in London a ‘A Key Into the Language of America‘, which contained a phrase book with observations about the Indians culture and life style. He again argued the land belonged to the Indians (Beade 1988). He scoffed at the English who considered the Indians uncivilized, as they, in their way, partook of the sociability of the nature of mankind, caring for their poor and children. Thomas Morton also noted that native children respected their elders, and as adults cared for their aged elders; behavior better than some ‘civilized’ people (Morton 1637). The Pequot War A change in the colonies relationship with the Indians came with the Pequot War. Many of the Indians saw the presence of the colonies as a deterrent against attack from other tribes to the west, however the Pequot would not accept this. ut trouble erupted when the English started settlements in the Connecticut Valley and the seizure of lands belonging to the Pequot. They attacked settlers in the Connecticut valley (Cryer 1965.190), destroying small settlements, in which the men were killed and scalped and the women and children captured, which culminated in the Pequot War 1636-38. The Pequot then attempted to sue for peace (Daniels 2012.179). In fact the colony hierarchy had made a trade treaty with the Pequot and Mohican in 1637 without consulting the people, and for this Eliot opposed it. Roger Williams immediately became a peacemaker, persuading the Narragansett not to join the Pequot in war against the colonies. He even informed the colonists of the tactics of the Pequot. The immediate cause of the war was that the Indians had killed two English dishonest traders, thinking they were Dutch. When Pequot refused to hand over the murderers the colony went to war, against their Governor’s advice. The war decimated the Pequot nation, and the massacre of 400 Indians at Mystic, offended even the Indian allies of the colonists. The survivors joined other tribes. This war, 1637-1638, showed that the majority in the colony saw the Indians as a threat to the survival of the colony. The colonists shared as much as the blame for provoking hostilities (Daniels 2012.179). The decimation of the Pequot helped an English takeover of the northern part of New Netherland (New York), along the Connecticut River. Now the colonies has the ascendency over the remaining Indians. The Gospel Progresses In 1646, the General Court of Massachusetts passed an “Act for the Propagation of the Gospel amongst the Indians”. This initiative came from alert individuals backed by the colony government. John Eliot came to the colony in 1631 and soon settled into the pastorate of Roxbury church, south of Boston. After 12 years in the pastorate Eliot befriended a young Indian and spent two years learning the language. In September 1646, he set out with pastors Richard Mather and John Allen a few miles westwards to a village on the south side of the Charles River, where he first preached to the Nipmuc Indians through an interpreter. This place is now Newton MA which he called Nonantum or Place of Rejoicing. The number of converts made him think of the possibility of integrating the Indians into colonial society. Eliot wrote a number of tracts describing the Indian work. At the Synod meeting in 1647 he described the advance of the Gospel among the Indians (Cryer 1965.205). Eliot continued to make many visits to Natick, and was soon preaching in the native language. The first chief called Waban,was converted, and the Indians asked whether their children might live with the English to learn the ‘right way’. This was on October 28, 1648, and the chief asked whether the Indians asked for land to build their own town. Within two years Indian converts, with various motives, were congregating at Natick to form one of the first Praying Towns. This is celebrated, today, in the mural of the Puritan minister ‘John Eliot leads Natick Indians in Christian Prayer’, as depicted on the rotunda on the Massachusetts State House in Boston. In the winter of 1649 John Winslow wrote his The Glorious Progress of the Gospel among the Indians in New England and Edward Winslow presented it to Parliament in London the next year. Parliament was now dominant after two civil wars and the execution of Charles I, and favorable to the Puritans. The Puritans believed that all men were created equal in families, and the institutions of the church and society had been added to aid salvation and to live of God honoring lives. Therefore all three institutions must contribute in making the colony an example to the world, a city set on a hill. Eliot as a Puritan believed ignorance of Scripture was the reason for sin; the Catholic church had kept this knowledge to the clergy, but the Reformation had brought Scriptural knowledge to the masses with the opportunity of salvation (Morgan 1956.89). ‘Every grace entered the soul by understanding’. They knew Scripture truth and the habits learnt did not guarantee salvation, but prepared for God to work regeneration (Morgan 1956.90-91). Though believing in predestination, the Puritans believed salvation should be actively sought and encouraged by society (Morgan 1956.96). Instruction gave both the opportunity and the need for the new birth. It was the responsibility of every family to teach the basics of the faith by catechism and Bible reading to children and servants in the home, supplemented by teaching in church (Morgan 1956.97,100). The parents were to teach by example and gentle discipline, rather than the rod, to prepare their household for Christian living. This was aided by Reading and Writing schools giving Bible literacy as well as preparing for useful employment (Morgan 1956.101). Martin Luther had championed schools for both girls and boys for the same reason a hundred years before. This was followed by the Grammar schools that taught the classics and for a few, the liberal arts at Harvard, and some to study theology for the ministry. If this was true for those raised in Christian families, how much more for the Indians who did not have these advantages, so education was vital to the reaching of the Indians. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England was set up with 1,700 pounds sterling for salaries and scholarships for promising Indians students (Willinson 1945.334). Havard, the first university in America, struggled financially soon after its founding in 1636, but the Society raised funds for Indian education and the college waived tuition and housing costs for Indians. Later the Harvard Charter of 1650 dedicated the college to ‘the education of the English and Indian youth of this country in knowledge: and godliness’. The Indian College was the first brick building on the site and five Indians were students. It housed a printing press to print Eliot’s translation of the Bible in 1663, using the Natick dialect, known as ‘Mamusse Wuneetupanattamwe Up- Biblum God‘ (Massachusett language is the same as Natick or Wampanoag). The Indians has little immunity to European illnesses and students quickly succumbed, so the building was little used for housing students, and was pulled down in 1693. The Mission develops Other pioneers were also taking up the spiritual and social cause of the Indians. Eliot was assisted for many years by pastor Samuel Danforth and Major Daniel Gookin (Cryer 1965.212). Gookin arrived from Virginia in 1644 and resided with Eliot, but returned to England to service Cromwell. Fled back to New England with to signers of the death warrant of Charles 1st. He was appointed the first Superintendent of the Praying Towns and wrote two books on the Indians. Pastor Thomas Hooker, who had taught Eliot at Cambridge and proved to be his mentor, preceded him to New England by a year. He was a pioneer in defining democracy, ‘that the foundation of authority is laid, firstly, in the free consent of the people’ (Cryer 1965.1993). He soon disagreed with the Bay colony authorities and moved, in 1636, west to the Connecticut River, to the future Hartford and founded the colony of Connecticut with Pastor Samuel Stone and one hundred other colonists. In 1630s the Valley was in conflict as the Pequot sought to control the fur trade and other trade against the other tribes. The Pequot attacked Wetherfield, south of Hartford, in 1636. After the Pequot War Connecticut had treaties with the Narragansetts and Mohegans. In the next century, a few miles to the north, at Northampton, Jonathan Edwards and his would be son in law David Brainerd would work among the Indians. Richard Bourne, arrived in 1634 and founded the town of Sandwick on Cape Co. He was instrumental in the continued peace with the Indians; he learned the Indian language and assisted Pastor Leveridge in teaching the Indians as early as 1652 and is listed as being paid for some of this work with the Indians. At one time, when the Indians had decided to attack the small town of Sandwich, Bourne, hearing of it, was able to persuade them to stop. He was often called upon to translate between the settlers and Indians. He gave 50 square miles for the Praying Indians, as the converts became known, and the Indians established the ‘Kingdom of Mishpec’ with self government supported by Bourne’s counsel. He preached among them until his death in 1688 (Willison 1945.389). John Cotton, while pastor at Plymouth, learnt the language and preached to five congregations of Indians. Samuel Treat, pastor at Eastham trained four Indians as school teachers and four more as preachers; he taught them from a translation of the Westminster Confession of Faith (Willison 1945. 389). Thomas Mayhew junior preached to the Gayhead section of the Wampanoag on the island of Martha’s Vineyard (Willison 1945). The Mayhew family had great success with their fair treatment of the Indians, so that the Island protected from the bloodshed. After the disappearance of the son in a vovage to England, Mayhew senior became a missionary in his place. In 1646, the General Court of Massachusetts directed the pastors to select two among them to serve as missionaries to the natives. His nephew, Experience Mayhew, continued the ministry. There were soon congregations on Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard. A situation arose in which the rapid spread of farms, clearing the forest and fencing in the land, depleted the game and many of the Indian became impoverished but resisted becoming the slaves of the colonists. Forest, that had supported game for the Indians, was turned into pasture with fences for the cattle, horses, sheep, oxen, pigs and goats brought from Britain. Other areas were broken up with plough and harrow. All this was alien to the Indian’s view of land as communal property, each tribe and community would have mutually understood areas of forest for hunting and for their fields. There was a tendency for tribes weakened by the loss of their land, such as on Cape Cod, to convert more easily to gain assistance from the colonists (Willisdon 1945.389). The Indians often opposed the Gospel because of the taking of their land. Most of the colonists just took land without permission or payment. When John Eliot asked the Podunk near Hartford if they would accept Christ they replied: ‘No! We have lost most of our lands, but we are not going to become the white man’s slaves’. Massasoit, while an ally of Plymouth, with a treaty with them, resisted conversion and asked the Pilgrims not to draw his people away from their gods. The Indians were treated with contempt by most of the colonists, and kept them at a great disadvantage in trade deals, and their insatiable hunger for land generated mounting bitterness. So when Eliot asked Philip, Massasoit’s, son, to convert, he replied, taking hold of a button on the missionaries coat, ‘I care no more for your gospel than that’ (Willison 1945.392). Above all the Indians saw the religion of the white man did not work because of the vices of the colonists and their attitude to the Indians. The failure of the Gospel to convert the behavior of the professed Christians was a conclusive barrier to the reaching of the unconverted. 1. The Praying towns arose from Eliot’s vision that progress in Christianity would depend on the Indians having a more settled life (Cryer 1965.208). The tribes, already weakened by disease and the loss of hunting grounds by the colonies, saw being allied to the colonists would deter other tribes from attacking them. The colonists saw the towns as a way for the Indians to renounce their way of life, ceremonies and beliefs to become ‘Red’ Puritans. The hunter-gatherer lifestyle appeared disorderly to those who considered God had established order in society from creation that would glorify God (Morgan 1956.16). The Puritans did not believe that civilization made a Christian; that was only a work of the Holy Spirit (Morgan 1956.2), but separation to a more Christian environment removed the danger of backsliding or syncretism, and also was practical as hunting grounds were taken over by farming. 2. By 1650 Eliot formed Natick as the first village for Praying Indians. By 1660 seven Praying Towns were established in Nipmuc territory. By 1675 there were fourteen praying towns, with populations varying between 100-150. Total population about 2,300 by 1674 (Richter 2001.95). The 14 towns were in Massachusetts and 19 smaller ones in the area of New Plymouth. As the Indian population in 1675 in southern New England was between 11,600 and 20,000, this meant between 8 and 14 percent were in the Towns (Daniels 2012.185). This brought the Indians within the regime of the God ordained order for creation, of the family as the basic unit for spiritual and material well-being, as with the supervision of church and state of the colony that supervised the family from the dangers of sinfulness. 3. Land was assigned by the Colony council, against the protests of neighboring colonists. Natick was guaranteed two thousand acres or 810 hectares. Eliot sought land grants for all the towns. To safeguard the land being sold if the Indians indulged in short-sighted gain, any change need to be approved by the Colony Council. The towns would have streets, a townhall, a chapel, houses and a school of simple construction. Natick soon had also a bridge across the Charles River and a fort. 4. Employment. The Indian women had always worked the fields, woven cloth, raised children, etc. Therefore their role continued and even improved in the Praying Towns. However the men’s role was hunting, fishing and warfare which came to an end with the spread of the settlements. The warriors had difficulty to adapt to other forms of work, and from this arose the slander that they were lazy. In 1662 the Council laid down Proposals concerning the employment of the Indians for trade between the Towns and the colonists. It was suggested that they trade in hemp, wheat, flax, tar and hay. Gookin persuaded the Council to provide the means to do this. Eliot encouraged basket making and the spinning and weaving of wool and cotton, which the women already had ability to do. The aim was for the towns to trade for things the colonists produced (Cryer 1965.213). 5. The spiritual genuineness of the conversions was questioned by some. From 1652, Eliot encouraged the Indians to testify in their meetings of their faith in Christ and repentance. Preaching the Word was the occasion for God to regenerate the heart and establish faith, but this might take time as the Indian attended to the message. Although it was not until 1659 that some were admitted into membership of the Roxbury congregation. Natick was recognized as independent local church in1660 by the colony’s pastors. 6. At Natick evangelists were trained to evangelize more Indians, and an Indian pastor Daniel led the work. Two sons of a chief, Sampson and Joseph went as Christian missionaries to another town for four years, a ministry which resulted in better constructed huts and a greater yield of the harvests. Twenty four evangelists were trained. 7. Eliot wrote Rules of Conduct for towns, consisting of the Ten Commandments and eight others, setting monetary penalties for idleness, eating lice, promiscuity, wife beating, women tying up their hair and that the men should cut their hair. 8. The Puritans rejected hierarchical ecclesiology, that relied on a clergy providing ritual. The individual had access to Scripture to read it for themselves. Therefore Eliot immediately translated the Ten Commandments and the Lord’s Prayer. He taught the Catechism, which he translated in 1654, Genesis and the Gospel of Matthew followed in 1655. The complete New Testament was printed in 1661, but the Old Testament was delayed in print until 1664 as it had to include a set of metrical Psalms. Other Christian books followed to form an Indian Library. Eliot produced a Harmony of the Gospels in 1678. 9. Education in the home, at church and in the schools, was seen as essential to spiritual growth; all men being equal and responsible to seek salvation, they needed to read the Bible for themselves. The Puritans believed that the mind had to be regenerated. A primer was produced for the Indians to learn to read their own ‘heart’ language as well as in English. Eliot found that few English were willing to teach the Indians, so Indian Teachers were trained. An Indian Grammar was produced for English people to learn the language. Money was voted by the Long Parliament in England for training of Indian teachers. Although the Indian College building at Harvard was not used as intended for residential students, Indians were were taught elsewhere, such as at the Grammar School at Cambridge, Mass. 10. Civil government in the towns was conducted in the Indian’s own language. They elected their own officials which gave a certain continuity with their own tribal practice, and often their own natural leaders merely assumed the new roles. Some English roles were introduced such as magistrate and constable. The Indians were given, what the Puritans considered divinely ordered society, for their spiritual material good, as family, church and state. 11. The loss of the shaman and the healing by the spirits was substituted by Eliot and others teaching anatomy and ‘Physick’ (Cryer 1965.215). This teaching with a Bible worldview, would counter the fear of the spirits and of evil spells. 12. The colonists as a whole still treated the Indians as second class or with disdain. Eliot’s vision for the towns was to give a measure of assimilation into colony society failed. Indians had difficulty in accepting the impersonal way rules of conduct were considered in the colony, while their way was by establishing personal relationship and conduct was a matter of reciprocal giving. Most colonists viewed the Indians with suspicion or hostility. King Philip’s war 1675 -76, led by Massasoit’s son Metacom, or Philip, was to be a disaster for the Indians. Many were killed, others were sold as slaves to Bermuda and elsewhere. Roger Williams worked for the security of the Narragansett from invasions of their lands by the other colonists. He tried to stop the war but at least succeeded in keeping the Narragansett from joining in (Beade 1988). The war broke up the Indian nations in New England and ended their resistance to the spread of the colonies. Some of the Praying Towns were closed down and the Indians imprisoned on an island in the Bay. Other prisoners of war were sold as slaves to the West Indies. The continued mission The task continued with the well known ministries of David Brainerd, Jonathan Edwards, Eleazer Wheelock and the founding of Moor’s Charity School and Dartmouth College, and Indian pastors like Samson Occom. Brainerd ministered in five different places in a few years, Kaunamsek, NY, Forks of the Delaware (PA), Crossweekdung and Cranberry (NJ) and points on the Susquehanna River (PA). Edwards taught Job Strong, Joseph Bellamy, Samuel Hopkins and Gideon Hawley while at Northampton who later became missionaries to the Onohquagas and others. Edwards preached to Mohegan and Mohawk peoples for seven years from 1751 in the isolated mission place of Stockbridge, which he had previously helped set up (Gibson 2011). Edwards in 1755 sent his nine-year-old son, also called Jonathan, with Hawley, who was setting out to begin work among Indian tribes at Onohoquaha, already 200 miles west of Stockbridge. Jonathan junior would learn the Mohawk language in the hope that, when he grew up, he might himself become a missionary among them (Macleod 2007). Samson Occum, who knew English, Hebrew and Greek, pastored survivors of the Pequot on Long Island and the Mohegan in Connecticut. Dartmouth College, formed part of Wheelock’s so called “Grand Design”,of an educational institution for Native Americans and English missionaries that would be an instrument of salvation for native populations in the Northeast. David Brainerd’s brother John had a long ministry among the Indians. John Sargent was at Stockbridge before Edwards. Azariah Horton labored among the Montaukett Indians of eastern Long Island from 1741. He found three women who had had previous Christian contact and knew a hymn from memory. A few were baptized. The Moravian missionaries established themselves with the Mohicans and Delaware at Gnaddenhutten, Ohio, in 1772. In the war of 1754, these Indians adopted the pacifist doctrine of the Moravians, against other Mohican and Mohawk who were allies of the English. In the Revolutionary War they were suspected of aiding the other side. The Indians were evicted and starved; others were massacred by the Pennsylvania militia. A sharp division between the national society and the minority of Christians, who cared and served the Indians, has persisted ever since. Those who had the interest and respect for the Indians were a small minority, with motives based on Scripture and supported by Puritan leadership in the Colony and by the Puritan government in England. The majority of the colonists treated the Indians with disdain for their way of life and as an obstacle to obtain more land, or as useful for trade or knowledge for survival. However the Puritan missionaries faced the same challenges and put into practice various methods that have been followed by their Evangelical successors in Brazil and elsewhere. Initiative. The Puritans destroyed the myth that Protestants, except for the Moravians, did not engage in foreign missions, until around 1790 with Carey and Fuller. The Puritans were thinking of mission to the Indian before they landed, a century before the first Moravians in 1728. The failed attempt at settlement by French Calvinists in Rio Bay with contact with the Indians predated them (1555), and the Dutch in North East Brazil organized Reformed churches among the Indians from 1630. They demonstrated that mission is a priority for the Christian church. Imperialists and destroyers of culture? The missionaries were a minority seeking to limit the injustice of colonization. If the Puritans had not gone to New England others would have, and the threat to the Indian way of life and culture came from the massive expansion of the colony, not from the efforts of the missionaries. On the other hand the establishment of the colonies was providential in fulfilling the Gospel mandate; missionaries were to use colonialism, while criticizing its abuses. In the future many missions would see colonialism as unjust yet also as a means to evangelize and protect native peoples social injustice, as from the slave trade, as Livingstone, for example. Mission medical work provided physical survival for many a people while linguistic work provided a key element in the survival of the culture. Motivation. The initiative of befriending the Indians came from an understanding of Scripture, that every ethnic group should be offered salvation; a belief in predestination did not hinder this, but rather saw it as the divine purpose, key men becoming God’s instruments in that purpose. Some held exotic ideas that the Indians were the ten lost tribes of Israel, but Puritan way of life required all activity should be based on Scripture. Compassion based on a view that the Indian way of living was wretched compared to the European also contributed. We note the pastors themselves took responsibility for mission and did not leave it to subordinate specialists. This at a time when their church buildings were merely windowless barns under a thatched roof; while in Brazil there are many cases where priority is given to enlarge and beautify the buildings and leave missionaries without financial support. Holistic. The method included every aspect of the Indians life: spiritual, education, health, employment, moral rehabilitation and a degree of assimilation with colonial life. Health was previously the responsibility of the shaman. Witchcraft is still the cause of dissension an even murder today among Brazil’s Indians. Medical and dental visits, the training of indigenous health workers in the villages is necessary to give the Indian and similar level of health care as the national society. Understanding. The missionaries sought to have an understanding of the Indian, way of life and opinions to the point of being involved in inter-tribal relationships. This involved systematic contact to learn the language, the social relationships and the material way of life, to the point of empathy. Cultural anthropology is a useful tool in this process, which many missionaries have yet to appropriate. As Incarnation was the method of the Gospel, God becoming man, so an disciplined effort to see the world as the Indian does is vital. Exposition. The missionaries expounded the Bible. Eliot believed that the Gospel could be communicated in the Indian’s language but preached at first through an interpreter. His first text was Ezekiel 37:3, but he continued with a summary of the whole Biblical theology, of creation, fall, law and judgment, the coming of Christ, heaven and hell (Cryer 1963.202). A century later Jonathan Edwards, regrettably, considered the language ‘barbarous’ and ‘unfit to express moral and divine things.’ He preached by interpreters, but chose texts mainly from Matthew and Luke, particularly the parables, making use of imagery and metaphors in his Indian sermons (Gibson 2011). He wrote 200 new sermons for the Indians. Brainerd learned the language and preached Christocentrically, deriving other doctrines from the Person and Work of Christ (Thornbury 1963.54). Conversion. The conversion of the Indians may take longer, as the existence of a surrounding Christianized culture needs to be taken into account, which the colonists brought with them, but the Indian did not have. Contextualizing the message must be accompanied by contextualizing the pattern of the Christian life and worship, and including aspects of the culture that are not a threat to faith, feathers and all. Pastors in Brazil affirm that it takes two years for an Indian to be converted. Education. Teaching not only the basics of faith in Christ, but the construction of a Biblical world-view is essential for conversion. Understanding was the basis for a sound change of life. The thorough use of all-age Sunday school as well as Biblical literacy in the ‘heart’ language aids the individual to take responsibility for his or her own spiritual growth. Otherwise much of Christian living will become merely the imitation of Evangelical habits. Resistance. Failure to see more converts was due not only to the hold of the shaman and the Indians’ belief system, but also the perceived failure of the Christianity to change the behavior of the majority of the colonists. In Brazil the ‘Cristão‘ is the logger, gold prospector, farmer who invades Indian lands, destroys the environment, disregards laws to protect Indian lands, and sends genocidal gunmen or deliberately infects the Indians with diseases for which they had no immunity. The example of the Indian pastor or missionary is important to make a distinction between national society and the national Christian. Land rights. The missionaries understood the rights of the Indians to the land, and the presumption that the land had no ownership because because of the Indian communal concept and semi nomadic life style, and could therefore be taken, was considered an injustice. The invasion of Indian lands is a constant reality in Brazil, and the Indian’s prior claim must be upheld in decisions of Indian Lands. Literacy. The missionaries rightly sought mastery of the Indian language as key to befriending and evangelizing, but they also saw the need of Indian literacy and education as a crucial asset to Indians survival, spiritual and secular welfare. A literate culture imposed writing on an oral culture but this lead to the survival of the languages. Isolation is no longer an option, and a purely oral mode of communication is not possible in the modern inter-cultural situation. Worldwide, Evangelicals have saved many languages from extinction, by the emphasis on Bible translation, so the Indians have an essential tool to maintain their separate identity. Literature. Eliot recognized the need of a translation of the Bible and other texts so developed an Indian library. The missionaries recognized the need for literature for the non-Indian to both understand the Indian and to learn his language. In Brazil, Evangelical missions have emphasized the need for the Indian to face spiritual issues as well as associated changes in culture and assimilation within their mother tongue. Life style. They also identified the Indians life style as contributing to sin and resistance. They confused assimilation to English colonial life and sedentary agricultural subsistence and trade with living as a Christian. However taking the long term view, with the spread of the colonies the establishment of the Praying Towns and the assimilation was they only viable way forward. The Jesuits set up their ‘mission’ towns for enforced assimilation in Brazil. Salesians destroyed the communal houses and imposed boarding schools, in which even the Indian languages were forbidden. Evangelicals have concentrated on allowing the Indian to adapt to the level assimilation they desire, ‘redeeming’ their languages from extinction, putting the Bible and other aids into the Indian’s hands to make his own decisions. Later in New England Wheelock was also concerned about the corrosive influence on Indian culture of the English vices. Contact inevitably bring change of culture and lifestyle, and most of that contact is by those who have no regard for the Indians’ welfare or very life, in order to further their profits by exploiting the natural resources. In New England, as in Brazil, the missionary’s contact aims at the welfare and voluntary modification of the Indians’ life style. Separation. The Praying Towns involved taking the converted Indians out of the immediate company of non Christian Indians. The social unity of the sib or clan in a village creates a difficulty for those not participating in the rites and (im)morality of the traditional religion. In Brazil we have villages divided between Christians and traditional religionists, but also villages consisting solely of Christians. However, it is just as necessary to find separation from the vices of the national society. Brainerd also felt the need to move the Crossweeksung Indians to Cranberry (NJ) where the land was more fertile and where they could live together, which the Indians did (Thornbury 1963.57). Indigenous leadership. The importance of training examples of Indian evangelists and pastors was recognized from the start and had a good measure of success. Pastors continued to serve into the next century. In Brazil the training of indigenous leadership, at various academic levels, is a priority. Employment. Training and opportunities have to be given to the Indians, both men and women to trade with the surrounding colonial society, both for the Indians’ welfare and their acceptance in society. While some of the ready available roles, such as gardening and weaving benefited the women’s traditional roles, the missionary had to be creative to provide a substitute for the warrior and hunter status of the men. Social programs to aid the Indian in being fulfilled and supporting families economically and being able to obtain industrial goods are essential. The ideal of the colony as whole, to be a witness to a biblical, reformed society, ‘a city set on a hill’, ultimately failed in its treatment of the Indians. The colonists were men of their age in which death penalties, fear of witchcraft and war were common and violent ways to decide disputes. The very ecclesiastical motives for the Puritans exiling themselves from England were key motives for the Civil Wars in England 1642-1651. The Thirty Years War and the violence of the Netherland’s struggle against Spain, in which Protestantism was threatened with extinction was fresh in their minds (Daniels 2012.177). The wars against the Indians led to the closing of most Praying Towns, the imprisonment or exile of the Indians, and captives were sold as slaves to the West Indies. However a minority of dedicated Christians courageously fulfilled the Lord’s mission mandate, often misunderstood by both Indian and colonist, but their work was blessed with a qualified success, with a broad holistic program, that continued into the next century. - BEADE, Pedro, 1988, ‘ Roger Williams: ‘The Man who talked with the Indians’,Washington, DC, The World and I, Washington Times. - BREMER, Francis J.1976: The Puritan Expeiment, New England Society from Bradford to Edwards,London: St James Press. - CHARLES, n.d., The Massachusetts Bay Colony: The History and Legacy of the Settlement of Colonial New England, Charles River Editors, accessed September 2016. - CRYER, Neville B., 1963 ‘John Eliot’ in Pioneer Missionaries, Edinburgh: Banner of Truth. - DANIELS, Bruce C., 2012, New England Nation: The Country the Puritans Built, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. - GIBSON, Jonathan, 2011, ”Jonathan Edwards: A Missionary?”, Themelios, Vol 36 Issue 3, The Gospel Coalition.org - JOHNSON, Paul, 1998, A History of the American People, London: Orion Books Ltd. - MACLEOD, Kenneth D., 2007, “Jonathan Edwards: Stockbridge and Princton,’ Banner of Truth,March 16th, 2007. - MANN, Charles C., 2006, 1491- The Americas before Colombus, London: Grantia Publications. - MORGAN,Edmund S.,1956, The Puritan Family, Religion and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth Century New England, New York: Harper Torchbooks. - MORTON, Thomas, 1637, ‘New English Canaan . . .Description of the Indians in New England,’ reprinted in Old South Leaflets (Boston, 1883), vol. 4. www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/bdorsey1/41docs/08-mor.html accessed 10 October 2016. - RICHTER, Daniel, 2001, Facing East from the Indian Country: A Native History of Early America, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. - SHERBININ, Alex de, 2011, ”Eleazar Wheelock:The Man and His Legacy”, New York: Columbia University. www.columbia.edu/~amd155/Wheelock_Biography.pdf , accessed 5 Oct 2016. - THORNBURY, John, 1963, ‘David Brainerd’ in Pioneer Missionaries, Edinburgh: Banner of Truth. - WILLISON, George F., 1945, Saints and Strangers, New York: Reynal and Hitchcock. - ZINN, Howard, 2005, A People’s History of the United States, New York: Harper Collins.
In both the approaches, we override the run() function, but we start a thread by calling the start() function. So why don’t we directly call the oveerridden run() function? Why always the start function is called to execute a thread? What happens when a function is called? When a function is called the following operations take place: - The arguments are evaluated. - A new stack frame is pushed into the call stack. - Parameters are initialized. - Method body is executed. - Value is retured and current stack frame is popped from the call stack. The purpose of start() is to create a separate call stack for the thread. A separate call stack is created by it, and then run() is called by JVM. Let us see what happens if we don’t call start() and rather call run() directly. We have modified the first program discussed here. Thread 1 is running Thread 1 is running Thread 1 is running Thread 1 is running Thread 1 is running Thread 1 is running Thread 1 is running Thread 1 is running We can see from above output that we get same ids for all threads because we have directly called run(). The program that calls start() prints different ids (see this) This article is contributed by kp93. If you like GeeksforGeeks and would like to contribute, you can also write an article using contribute.geeksforgeeks.org or mail your article to [email protected]. See your article appearing on the GeeksforGeeks main page and help other Geeks. Please write comments if you find anything incorrect, or you want to share more information about the topic discussed above. Attention reader! Don’t stop learning now. Get hold of all the important Java Foundation and Collections concepts with the Fundamentals of Java and Java Collections Course at a student-friendly price and become industry ready. To complete your preparation from learning a language to DS Algo and many more, please refer Complete Interview Preparation Course.
In this Article This tutorial demonstrates how to use the Excel MIN Function in Excel to calculate the smallest number. MIN Function Overview The MIN Function Calculates the smallest number. To use the MIN Excel Worksheet Function, select a cell and type: (Notice how the formula inputs appear) MIN function Syntax and inputs: array – An array of numbers. How To Use The MIN Function The MIN Function returns the smallest value from a range of values. It is the exact opposite of MAX Function. Here let’s use the MIN Function to find the lowest textbook price. Empty Cells or Cells With Text The MIN Function ignores cells that are empty or that contain non-numeric values. Since Excel stores date as serial numbers, we can use the MIN Function to find the minimum date. VLOOKUP & MIN In our above example, we used the MIN Function to find out the lowest textbook price. We can use the VLOOKUP Function to find out the cheapest textbook by using the following formula. =VLOOKUP(MIN(A2:A9), A2:B9, 2, 0) Notice how the MIN Function calculates the lowest textbook price and returns that value to the VLOOKUP Function. Afterwards, the VLOOKUP Function returns the textbook associated with the lowest price by searching the second column (as indicated by “2” in our formula) of the table. Note: For the VLOOKUP Function to work, the textbook prices must be placed in the first column. MINIFS Function returns the minimum value from a set of values by applying one or more conditions. Let’s say we want to find the lowest textbook price that has been sold out. =MINIFS(C2:C9, B2:B9, "Sold") Notice how the formula looks for the “Sold” status from B2:B9 and creates a subset of textbook price. The minimum value is then calculated from only the relevant set of data – the sold textbooks. To learn more about how the MINIFS Function works, read our tutorial on MAXIFS and MINIFS. Note: MINIFS Function is only available in Excel 2019 or Excel 365. If you have an older Excel version, you can use Array Function to make your own MIN IF. If you are using older Excel versions, you can combine IF Function with MIN Function using an Array Function. Taking the same example as above, use the formula: =MIN(IF(B2:B9 = "Sold", C2:C9)) Note: When building array functions, you must press CTRL + SHIFT + ENTER instead of just ENTER after creating your formula. You’ll notice how the curly brackets appear. You can not just manually type in the curly brackets; you must use CTRL + SHIFT + ENTER. The IF Function helps narrow down the range of data and MIN Function calculates the minimum value from that subset. In this way, the price for the cheapest text that has been sold can be calculated. Note: The above formula uses absolute references (the $ signs) to lock cell references when copying formulas. If you aren’t familiar with this, please read our Excel References Guide MIN function in Google Sheets The MIN function works exactly the same in Google Sheets as in Excel. The MIN Function returns the smallest number in a series. Logical values (TRUE and FALSE), and numbers stored as text are not counted. To count logical values and numbers stored as text use MINA instead. MIN Examples in VBA You can also use the MIN function in VBA. Type: For the function arguments (array, etc.), you can either enter them directly into the function, or define variables to use instead. Assuming that we have the following range we can get the minimum number in th range A1:D5 with the following VBA statement Which would return 14, as this is the smallest number in that range The MIN function can also accept a table as a parameter, so the following statement is valid as well, provided that there is a table named “Table1” in our worksheet We can also use the MIN fuction by directly entering numbers as parameters, like the following example WorksheetFunction.Min(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) which will return 1 as a result Return to the List of all Functions in Excel
Tuning into Music Tuning In to Music consists of tracks that are designed to help children and adults with profound learning difficulties understand and enjoy songs, by breaking the music down into the separate sounds, patterns and motifs of which it is made up. There are 20 of these ‘deconstructed’ songs, represented in each of four levels, as follows: Start by choosing a song and play the ‘Sounds’ track. Observe any reaction to what is heard. Play the track again and see what happens. If the child or adult you are caring for or working with appears uninterested or makes a negative response, then try the ‘Sounds’ track from a different song. If, on the other hand, they seem to enjoy what they hear, move on to the corresponding the ‘Patterns’ track, and repeat the process. If positive responses continue to be made, try ‘Motifs’ and finally ‘Songs’. Keep a careful note of what happens, using the Soundabout Tracks Record Sheets. Developments may occur over hours, weeks or even years. Or the person concerned may be perfectly content to engage with music at a particular level, and not have the capacity or the wish to move on. But the important thing is that the opportunities for them to engage in music in new ways are always there, and presented in a non-judgmental way. Learn to enjoy the musical experiences in the moment, and value them in their own right. Encourage the person you are caring for or working with to engage with the Tuning In to Music tracks by responding with sounds, patterns, motifs or songs themselves. Start by modelling participation yourself, and encourage them to do the same through intensive interaction. Once you are familiar with the patterns, motifs or songs, feel free to make up new materials along similar lines and try using those. Listen carefully to any sounds, patterns or motifs that the person that you are caring for or working with makes, and use their contributions as the basis for further interaction. To proceed, select a level from the menu below.
A/B testing (also known as bucket testing or split-run testing) is a user experience research methodology. A/B tests consist of a randomized experiment with two variants, A and B. It includes application of statistical hypothesis testing or “two-sample hypothesis testing” as used in the field of statistics. A/B testing is a way to compare two versions of a single variable, typically by testing a subject’s response to variant A against variant B, and determining which of the two variants is more effective. A/B test is the shorthand for a simple controlled experiment. As the name implies, two versions (A and B) of a single variable are compared, which are identical except for one variation that might affect a user’s behavior. A/B tests are widely considered the simplest form of controlled experiment. However, by adding more variants to the test, this becomes more complex. A/B tests are useful for understanding user engagement and satisfaction of online features, such as a new feature or product. Large social media sites like LinkedIn, Facebook, and Instagram use A/B testing to make user experiences more successful and as a way to streamline their services. Today, A/B tests are being used to run more complex experiments, such as network effects when users are offline, how online services affect user actions, and how users influence one another.
OR WAIT null SECS In the past 15 years, two outbreaks of severe respiratory disease were caused by coronaviruses transmitted from animals to humans. In 2003, SARS-CoV (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus) spread from civets to infect more than 8,000 people, leading to a year-long global public health emergency. MERS-CoV (Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus), first identified in 2012, consistently jumps from dromedary camels to people, resulting in periodic outbreaks with a roughly 35 percent fatality rate. Evidence suggests that both viruses originated in bats before transmitting to civets and camels, respectively. While many other coronaviruses in nature are not known to infect people, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV are notable for their ability to infect a variety of different species, including humans. New research published in Cell Reports from scientists at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) shows how MERS-CoV can adapt to infect cells of a new species, which suggests that other coronaviruses might be able to do the same. NIAID is part of the National Institutes of Health. To cause infection, a virus must first attach to a receptor molecule on cells of the host species. This interaction is highly dependent on the shape of the receptors, which the host genes control. To evaluate how MERS-CoV evolves to infect host cells, the scientists tested 16 bat species and found that the virus could not efficiently enter cells with receptors from the common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus. They then grew virus on cells that had vampire bat receptors and observed the virus evolving to better infect the cells. After a few generations, the virus had completely adapted to the vampire bat receptor. By studying how the shape of MERS-CoV changed over time to attach to the new host receptor, the scientists found similarities with prior studies of SARS-CoV. Thus, while these two viruses are different, they use the same general approach to enter the cells of new species. Understanding how viruses evolve to infect new species will help researchers determine what is required for viruses to emerge and spread in new hosts. These findings also may be important for developing new vaccines, which viruses often evolve to avoid. The scientists, part of a viral ecology group at NIAID's Rocky Mountain Laboratories, next plan to work with other, related viruses to determine if they also efficiently adapt to new species. Reference: M Letko et al. Adaptive evolution of MERS-CoV to species variation in DPP4. Cell Reports DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.07.045 (2018). Source: National Institutes of Health (NIH)
In 1968, the U.S. Congress passed the “National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act” which made it the policy of the United States that certain selected rivers of the Nation, and their immediate environments, that possess outstandingly remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural or other similar values, should be protected in free-flowing condition for the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations. As of December 2014, 160 rivers have been designated in 36 states. The Partnership Wild and Scenic River model has been used for over 20 years and was developed to meet the needs of rivers characterized by private land ownership and well-established local processes for governance and stewardship of river resources. For Partnership Wild and Scenic Rivers, communities protect their own outstanding rivers and river-related resources through a collaborative approach. A locally developed management plan must be in place. There currently are thirteen Partnership Wild and Scenic Rivers, primarily located in the northeast. For a Partnership Wild and Scenic River Study, the suitability determination for designation includes factors such as (1) development of a non-regulatory, locally developed comprehensive management plan to protect watershed resources; (2) evidence of existing local resource protection measures, such as local ordinances, to protect river resources; and (3) public support by non-federal entities that will have a role in implementing a plan for protection. For More Information: NPS Report (2016), Partnership Wild and Scenic Rivers – 20 Years of Success Protecting Nationally Significant River Resources through Locally Based Partnerships
Year 1897 marks the discovery of electrons by Sir JJ Thomson. This Nobel Prize went on to design the first mass spectrometer in 1910, called parabolic spectrograph. What is it? Mass spectrometry is an analysis technique allowing the detcetion and identification of molecules by measuring their mass. Very powerful and sensitive, it allows qualitative and quantitative analysis of solid, liquid or gaz compounds. Furthermore, the possibility to join this technique with separative methods (such as liquid phase chromatography) makes spectrometry even more effective.Its application fields are : metabolomics, proteomics and even studies in environmental pollution! How does it work? Its principle resides in the gaz phase separation of charged molecules (ions). The ionised molecule gets in an excited state which will lead to its fragmentation. Each of the formed ion is characterized by its mass/charge (m/z) relation, the device is then able to separate these ions and characterize them. A spectrometer is composed of 3 parts: An ionization source producing gaz phase ions from solid, liquid or gaz state molecules. A dispersive system capable of breaking up ions and separating them acording to their mass and charge. Detector counting ions and amplifying their signals. Since parabolic spectrograph, mass spectrometry has evolved a lot, different ionization sources (electrospay, MALDI...) or dispersive system (TOF...) have been developed. For what means? For identification using the obtained mass spetrum which could be specific for a molecule and recognized thanks to spectrum banks. It is also possible to determine the molecular formula with the monoisotopic mass acquired with the dispersive device. Do you need a mass spectrometry service for your researches? Look at our offers in mass spectrometry on Labtoo and find the Expert you need!
Sunbirds and spiderhunters Crimson Sunbird (male above, female below) Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Suborder: Passeri Family: Nectariniidae 15, see text The sunbirds and spiderhunters are a family, Nectariniidae, of very small passerine birds. There are 132 species in 15 genera. The family is distributed throughout Africa, southern Asia and just reaches northern Australia. Most sunbirds feed largely on nectar, but also take insects and spiders, especially when feeding young. Flower tubes that bar access to nectar because of their shape, are simply punctured at the base near the nectaries. Fruit is also part of the diet of some species. Their flight is fast and direct on their short wings. The sunbirds have counterparts in two very distantly related groups: the hummingbirds of the Americas and the honeyeaters of Australia. The resemblances are due to convergent evolution brought about by a similar nectar-feeding lifestyle. Some sunbird species can take nectar by hovering like a hummingbird, but usually perch to feed. The family ranges in size from the 5-gram Black-bellied Sunbird to the Spectacled Spiderhunter, at about 45 grams. Like the hummingbirds, sunbirds are strongly sexually dimorphic, with the males usually brilliantly plumaged in iridescent colours. In addition to this the tails of many species are longer in the males, and overall the males are larger. Sunbirds have long thin down-curved bills and brush-tipped tubular tongues, both adaptations to their nectar feeding. The spiderhunters, of the genus Arachnothera, are distinct in appearance from the other members of the family. They are typically larger than the other sunbirds, with drab brown plumage that is the same for both sexes and long down-curved beaks. In metabolic behaviour similar to that of Andes hummingbirds, species of sunbirds that live at high altitudes or latitudes will enter torpor while roosting at night, lowering their body temperature and entering a state of low activity and responsiveness. Distribution and habitat Sunbirds are a tropical Old World family, with representatives in Africa, Asia and Australasia. In Africa they are found mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar but are also distributed in Egypt. In Asia the group occurs along the coasts of the Red Sea as far north as Israel, with a gap in their distribution till Iran, from where the group occurs continuously as far as southern China and Indonesia. In Australasia the family occurs in New Guinea, north eastern Australia and the Solomon Islands. They are generally not found on oceanic islands, with the exception of the Seychelles. The greatest variety of species is found in Africa, where the group probably arose. Most species are sedentary or short-distance seasonal migrants. Sunbirds occur over the entire family's range, whereas the spiderhunters are restricted to Asia. The sunbirds and spiderhunters occupy a wide range of habitats, with a majority of species being found in primary rainforest, but other habitats used by the family including disturbed secondary forest, open woodland, open scrub and savannah, coastal scrub and alpine forest. Some species have readily adapted to human modified landscapes such as plantations, gardens and agricultural land. Many species are able to occupy a wide range of habitats from sea level to 4900 m. Sunbird are active diurnal birds that generally occur in pairs or occasionally in small family groups. A few species occasionally gather in larger groups, and sunbird will join with other birds to mob potential predators, although sunbirds will also aggressively target other species, even if they are not predators, when defending their territories. The sunbirds that breed outside of the equatorial regions are mostly seasonal breeders, with the majority of these species breeding in the wet season. This timing reflects the increased availability of insect prey for the growing young. Where species, like the Buff-throated Sunbird, breed in the dry season, it is thought to be associated with the flowering of favoured food plants. Species of sunbird in the equatorial areas breed throughout the year. They are generally monogamous and often territorial, although a few species of sunbirds have lekking behaviour. The nests of sunbirds are generally purse-shaped, enclosed, suspended from thin branches with generous use of spiderweb. The nests of the spiderhunters are different, both from the sunbirds and in some cases from each other. Some, like the Little Spiderhunter, are small woven cups attached to the underside of large leaves; that of the Yellow-eared Spiderhunter is similarly attached but is a long tube. The nests of spiderhunters are inconspicuous, in contrast to those of the other sunbirds which are more visible. In most species the female alone constructs the nest. Up to four eggs are laid. The female builds the nest and incubates the eggs alone, although the male assists in rearing the nestlings. In the spiderhunters both sexes help to incubate the eggs. The nests of sunbirds and spiderhunters are often targeted by brood parasites such as cuckoos and honeyguides. Relationship with humans Overall the family has fared better than many others, with only seven species considered to be threatened with extinction. Most species are fairly resistant to changes in habitat, and while attractive the family is not sought after by the cagebird trade, as they have what is considered an unpleasant song and are tricky to keep alive. Sunbirds are considered attractive birds and readily enter gardens where flowering plants are planted to attract them. There are a few negative interactions, for example the Scarlet-chested Sunbird is considered a pest in cocoa plantations as it spreads parasitic mistletoes. - FAMILY NECTARINIIDAE - Genus Chalcoparia (sometimes included in Anthreptes) - Ruby-cheeked Sunbird, Chalcoparia singalensis - Genus Deleornis (sometimes included in Anthreptes) - Genus Anthreptes (c.12 species) - Genus Hedydipna (sometimes included in Anthreptes) - Genus Hypogramma - Purple-naped Sunbird, Hypogramma hypogrammicum - Genus Anabathmis (sometimes included in Nectarinia) - Genus Dreptes (sometimes included in Nectarinia) - Sao Tome Sunbird, Dreptes thomensis - Genus Anthobaphes - Orange-breasted Sunbird (sometimes included in Nectarinia) - Genus Cyanomitra (sometimes included in Nectarinia) - Genus Chalcomitra (sometimes included in Nectarinia) - Buff-throated Sunbird, Chalcomitra adelberti - Carmelite Sunbird, Chalcomitra fuliginosa - Green-throated Sunbird, Chalcomitra rubescens - Amethyst Sunbird, Chalcomitra amethystina - Scarlet-chested Sunbird, Chalcomitra senegalensis - Hunter's Sunbird, Chalcomitra hunteri - Socotra Sunbird, Chalcomitra balfouri - Genus Leptocoma (sometimes included in Nectarinia) - Genus Nectarinia (8 species in the strict sense) - Bocage's Sunbird, Nectarinia bocagii - Purple-breasted Sunbird, Nectarinia purpureiventris - Tacazze Sunbird, Nectarinia tacazze - Bronze Sunbird, Nectarinia kilimensis - Golden-winged Sunbird, Nectarinia reichenowi - Red-tufted Sunbird, Nectarinia johnstoni - Malachite Sunbird, Nectarinia famosa - (the Orange-breasted Sunbird, Anthobaphes violacea, is sometimes included in the Necarinia.) - Genus Cinnyris (sometimes included in Nectarinia) - Olive-bellied Sunbird, Cinnyris chloropygius - Tiny Sunbird, Cinnyris minullus - Miombo Sunbird, Cinnyris manoensis - Southern Double-collared Sunbird, Cinnyris chalybeus - Neergaard's Sunbird, Cinnyris neergaardi - Stuhlmann's Sunbird, Cinnyris stuhlmanni - sometimes included in C. afer - Prigogine's Sunbird, Cinnyris prigoginei - sometimes included in C. afer - Montane Double-collared Sunbird, Cinnyris ludovicensis - sometimes included in C. afer - Northern Double-collared Sunbird, Cinnyris preussi - Greater Double-collared Sunbird, Cinnyris afer - Regal Sunbird, Cinnyris regius - Rockefeller's Sunbird, Cinnyris rockefelleri - Eastern Double-collared Sunbird, Cinnyris mediocris - Moreau's Sunbird, Cinnyris moreaui - Beautiful Sunbird, Cinnyris pulchellus - Loveridge's Sunbird, Cinnyris loveridgei - Mariqua Sunbird, Cinnyris mariquensis - Shelley's Sunbird, Cinnyris shelleyi - Congo Sunbird, Cinnyris congensis - Red-chested Sunbird, Cinnyris erythrocerca - Black-bellied Sunbird, Cinnyris nectarinioides - Purple-banded Sunbird, Cinnyris bifasciatus - Tsavo Sunbird, Cinnyris tsavoensis - sometimes included in C. bifasciatus - Violet-breasted Sunbird, Cinnyris chalcomelas - Pemba Sunbird, Cinnyris pembae - Orange-tufted Sunbird, Cinnyris bouvieri - Palestine Sunbird, Cinnyris oseus - Shining Sunbird, Cinnyris habessinicus - Splendid Sunbird, Cinnyris coccinigaster - Johanna's Sunbird, Cinnyris johannae - Superb Sunbird, Cinnyris superbus - Rufous-winged Sunbird, Cinnyris rufipennis - Oustalet's Sunbird, Cinnyris oustaleti - White-breasted Sunbird, Cinnyris talatala - Variable Sunbird, Cinnyris venustus - Dusky Sunbird, Cinnyris fuscus - Ursula's Sunbird, Cinnyris ursulae - Bates' Sunbird, Cinnyris batesi - Copper Sunbird, Cinnyris cupreus - Purple Sunbird, Cinnyris asiaticus - Olive-backed Sunbird, Cinnyris jugularis - Apricot-breasted Sunbird, Cinnyris buettikoferi - Flame-breasted Sunbird, Cinnyris solaris - Souimanga Sunbird, Cinnyris sovimanga - Seychelles Sunbird, Cinnyris dussumieri - Madagascar Sunbird, Cinnyris notatus - Humblot's Sunbird, Cinnyris humbloti - Anjouan Sunbird, Cinnyris comorensis - Mayotte Sunbird, Cinnyris coquerellii - Long-billed Sunbird, Cinnyris lotenius - Genus Aethopyga - Gray-hooded Sunbird, Aethopyga primigenia - Mount Apo Sunbird, Aethopyga boltoni - Lina's Sunbird, Aethopyga linaraborae - Flaming Sunbird, Aethopyga flagrans - Metallic-winged Sunbird, Aethopyga pulcherrima - Elegant Sunbird, Aethopyga duyvenbodei - Lovely Sunbird, Aethopyga shelleyi - Handsome Sunbird, Aethopyga belli - Gould's Sunbird, Aethopyga gouldiae - White-flanked Sunbird, Aethopyga eximia - Green-tailed Sunbird, Aethopyga nipalensis - Fork-tailed Sunbird, Aethopyga christinae - Black-throated Sunbird, Aethopyga saturata - Western Crimson Sunbird, Aethopyga vigorsii - sometimes included in A. siparaja - Crimson Sunbird, Aethopyga siparaja - Scarlet Sunbird, Aethopyga mystacalis - Temminck's Sunbird, Aethopyga temminckii - sometimes included in A. mystacalis - Fire-tailed Sunbird, Aethopyga ignicauda - Genus Arachnothera - spiderhunters (10-11 species) - ^ Prinzinger, R.; Schafer T. & Schuchmann K. L. (1992). "Energy metabolism, respiratory quotient and breathing parameters in two convergent small bird species : the fork-tailed sunbird Aethopyga christinae (Nectariniidae) and the chilean hummingbird Sephanoides sephanoides (Trochilidae)". Journal of thermal biology 17 (2): 71–79. doi:10.1016/0306-4565(92)90001-V. - ^ a b c d Cheke, Robert; Mann, Clive (2008). "Family Nectariniidae (Sunbirds)". In Josep, del Hoyo; Andrew, Elliott; David, Christie. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 13, Penduline-tits to Shrikes. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 196–243. ISBN 978-84-96553-45-3. - ^ Cade, Tom; Lewis Greenwald (1966). "Drinking Behavior of Mousebirds in the Namib Desert, Southern Africa" (PDF). Auk 83 (1). http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v083n01/p0126-p0128.pdf. - ^ http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/205/16/2325 - ^ Downs, Colleen; Mark Brown (2002). "Nocturnal Heterothermy And Torpor In The Malachite Sunbird (Nectarinia famosa)". Auk 119 (1): 251–260. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2002)119[0251:NHATIT]2.0.CO;2. - ^ a b Lindsey, Terence (1991). Forshaw, Joseph. ed. Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds. London: Merehurst Press. pp. 207. ISBN 1-85391-186-0. - Sunbird videos on the Internet Bird Collection Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
Thursday, August 13, 2015 Educational Subjects Breakdown Resources This language arts resource has a bundle of various activities that highlight different aspects of this core subject. From vocabulary worksheets to interactive visual activities-your little one is sure to be challenged to learn through their resources. Now, there are many resources for you to choose from for this core subject-but we want to encourage you to really delve into a hands on approach for this topic. That is why for this subject's resource we encourage you to investigate your local library. At Teen with a Dream's local library there is designated story times, interactive readings and lessons at the library. The wonderful part is the hand's on approach that this resource perpetuates! MATH landing provides you with endless opportunities to view lesson plans and activities. This resource allows you to choose from numerous topics which makes it the perfect fit for anyone! This site covers cultures, economics and delves into the United States history! Check out this wonderful resources and utilize the interactive timelines and work sheets! National Science Teachers Association This website provides essential articles to vamping up your child's science education. It highlights topics from fossils to hands on science experiments A great resources to begin a fabulous foreign language journey with support for parents and students alike!
Students who choose to study Design Technology will prepare themselves to contribute to an ever increasingly technological world. Students will get the opportunity to work creatively when designing and also develop technical and practical expertise. The exam board studied at GCSE is AQA Design Technology. Year ten is where the students amalgamate all the skills that they have learnt within key stage three and apply this knowledge to the range of practical and skill based projects. Project 1: Iterative design / sketching and drawing Students will begin the year learning how to sketch / draw and how to render their designs. They will learn how to develop a concept design into a 3d Model using a range of materials and 3D Printing techniques. Quickly moving on to modelling techniques and developing their own ideas as a prototype. They will begin the year looking at iterative designs and modelling techniques. There are to refine practical skills and developing the complexity of a design and build project. Design Technology Specification. 3.1.1 New and emerging technologies Project 2: Systems and Control Students will then look at how electrical circuits are implemented within everyday life, and how the systems and control process is influenced by Input-Process-Output. They will learn how to independently, operate the laser cutter, and how to wire a pre-manufactured circuit board. Design Technology Specification. 3.1.4 Systems approach to designing Project 3: Metal work Students will learn about the categorisation and properties of materials from the raw source to the stock form. Within Thornleigh pupils will have the opportunity to use the brazing hearth gas torch whilst developing a project that uses the low melt metal Pewter. Students will learn the physical properties of materials related to use and knowledge applied when designing and making. Design Technology Specification. 3.1.6 Materials and their working properties Project 4: Flat Pack Furniture: Using the skills that they have accumulated over the year, the students will partake in a focused practical task. Pupils will be guided on how to develop a portfolio. (In lines with the year 10 and 11 NEA examples). Students will then develop their own flat pack furniture influenced by a range of differing designers. Design Technology Specification. 3.2.1 Selection of materials or components Year eleven students will be required to develop a NEA GCSE portfolio based on an exam board theme. They are to follow the GCSE examiners brief and complete a range of pages to demonstrate their ability to follow a design brief. Students will be expected to manufacture their product using a variety of techniques from laser cutting, 3D printing to hand manufacturing of parts of the project. As this aspect of the course is 50% of their overall grade, it is important to be resilient and to invest as much time and effort within the allocated examination time. Students will also sit their GCSE exam in May and this will be the remaining 50% of their course grade. Students are to take every opportunity to use the Design Technology revision guides in order to enhance their grades further and gain a successful GCSE grade.
Using physical objects and activity to explore issues. - A wide range of materials that could be included in the sculpture:- Tools (scissors - felt-tipped pens - etc).- Joining materials (glue - sticky tape - etc).- Sculpting materials (paper - cardboard boxes - bits of wood - garden canes - modelling clay - objects like tin cans - small items of furniture like waste-bins that may be to hand)- Encourage group members to bring along material they have gathered themselves Ideal conditions: Individuals could construct their own sculptures, but preferred is a group approach Pre-Work Required: gathering materials, facilitator needs to think about how much time will be needed Type of Facilitator-Client Relationship: Facilitator and Client are working closely together One Possible Procedure: 1. Familiarisation of the problem with open group discussions, including any work they may already have been attempted on the problem. 2. The facilitator clarifies the task and sets an overall time limit. 3. Alternatively this exercise could be combined with a walking Excursion (qv) activity in which participants gather materials they find and that strike them as interesting - e.g. natural objects such as leaves or branches, or found objects like old keys, magazines, or used drink cartons. 4. A little time can now be spent by the group experimenting to see what can be done with the tools and materials they have so far. 5. The group then starts to assemble a sculpture that is felt to characterize some feature or property of the problem situation. It is probably best if the sculpture simply 'emerges' in a relaxed and crude way as the group collectively and individually work with the materials, rather than being formally designed and planned. There is no requirement for an explanation as to why they think it represents the problem situation, and can be as serious or as light-hearted as the group wish. 6. A break would be appropriate when the time limit is up. 7. Participants then return to the work area and spend a few moments considering their sculpture, writing down privately any solution ideas that the sculpture and the experience of building it suggest to them. 8. Once the flow of ideas slows down, those that they have come up with are shared with the rest of the group via a round robin, leading to open discussion and brainstorming. Usual or Expected Outcomes: a variety of ideas which will lead to discussions and brainstorming in the end Source: originally described by Ole Faafeng of the Norwegian Management
Every year, thousands of people in the United Kingdom are diagnosed with asbestos-related illnesses. These illnesses are normally caused by prolonged exposure to asbestos fibres, although some people do fall ill after very limited exposure. Most illnesses are caused when asbestos fibres become lodged in soft tissue and create scarring in the respiratory system. This leads to thickening of the tissue which causes pain and difficulty breathing. Treatments for asbestos-related diseases are limited. Asbestosis does not develop immediately after exposure. Most people will not begin to display symptoms until years after they have first inhaled asbestos fibres. Asbestosis is characterised by shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing, fatigue and chest pains. In some cases, patients may experience swelling in the extremities (fingertips and toes) due to reduced oxygen flow to these areas. Some people who have experienced fibre irritation and scarring in the windpipe will also have trouble swallowing. As the disease develops it is likely to lead to high blood pressure and heart disease as the heart is forced to work harder to pump the blood around the body in order to get sufficient amounts of oxygen to vital organs. In order to diagnose asbestosis, doctors will normally require patients to undergo a chest x-ray and lung function test. A lung biopsy may also help to confirm the presence of microscopic asbestos fibres. Because asbestosis develops due to years of damage to the lungs, there is no cure for the condition. Treatments are designed to prolong life and reduce the suffering of the patient. Morphine may be given to patients to reduce their pain levels. As a primary form of treatment, patients will be asked to make lifestyle changes. Quitting smoking can help to reduce breathlessness and increase oxygen uptake into the blood. Patients can obtain support from their GP to help them to quit smoking. This support includes access to support groups and nicotine withdrawal aids. Because asbestosis makes patients more vulnerable to infections, they may also be given booster vaccinations to reduce risks. Asbestosis patients are recommended to visit their GP every autumn to get a flu vaccination before the winter period. For patients who are experiencing severe breathlessness, oxygen therapy may be recommended. An oxygen concentrator is used to purify the air to give it a higher oxygen concentration. Patients are then able to breathe concentrated oxygen through a face mask or nose cannula. Although small ambulatory oxygen tanks may allow patients to spend short amounts of time out of the house, most patients will be confined to their oxygen room for long periods of time. High concentrations of oxygen are highly flammable, so patients must not smoke when they are near their oxygen concentrator machine. Mesothelioma is a type of cancer that affects the soft tissue lining of internal organs. Although it is most common in the lining of the lungs, it can also present itself in the lining of the stomach, heart or testicles. Mesothelioma may spread to different areas as the cancer progresses. Mesothelioma often develops as a result of asbestosis. Many of the symptoms of mesothelioma are similar to the symptoms of asbestosis, so asbestosis patients may require regular check-ups to make sure that their illness has not developed into cancer. Symptoms of mesothelioma include; shortness of breath after minimal exertion, chest pains, high temperature, sweating after minimal exertion, a persistent cough, loss of appetite, unexplained loss of weight, and swelling in the extremities (clubbed fingertips). Swelling develops because the extremities are not receiving enough oxygen in the blood. If the patient is suffering mesothelioma of the tummy lining, the patient may also experience sickness and diarrhoea, frequent nausea, swelling of the stomach and pain in the tummy area. It is very difficult to treat mesothelioma in patients, and most patients who are diagnosed have a poor outlook. Around 50% of those who are diagnosed will survive for longer than a year, but only around one in ten patients will live for longer than 5 years. Treatment is largely palliative or supportive. Patients may be given chemotherapy to try to reduce the size of the cancer and to prevent is from spreading. Alternatively, radiotherapy may be considered to try to kill the cancer cells and control new cancerous cell growth. Both of these treatments can be tough and there are a lot of negative side effects.
Carnivores play an important role in keeping ecosystems balanced. Feb 6, 2017 - This worksheet has images of several types of animals, and asks students to identify which type of consumer each animal is. Organisms that eat herbivores, carnivores, and plants are referred to as omnivorous. Insects that eat other insects are carnivorous and some plants are carnivorous as well. Lions, Tigers, and Other Cats (Family Felidae) Usually, the first animals that spring to mind when … B. ComprisedÂ of eight species of fur seals and an equal number of sea lions, eared seals, as their name implies, can be distinguished by their small external ear flapsâunlike the earless seals of family Phocidae. This is a natural way to often group animals. If you want to learn more about carnivorous animals along with examples and fun facts, stay with us at AnimalWised and read on! Bob Strauss is a science writer and the author of several books, including "The Big Book of What, How and Why" and "A Field Guide to the Dinosaurs of North America.". Oddly enough, even though they're classified as carnivores, skunks are mostly omnivorous, feasting in equal measure on worms, mice and lizards and nuts, roots and berries. Here are some examples of carnivorous birds or birds of prey: Most reptiles are carnivorous. Much like with teeth in mammalian carnivores, the shape and size of raptor's talons indicate the techniques they use for immobilizing prey and therefore provide clues as to the animals that make up their diet. PLoS One, 4(11).https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776979/, 2. However, as we said before, carnivorous animals do not necessarily eat only meat, and they often complement their diets with fungi, fruits, vegetables, nectar or other substances. What's most important about these animals is that they're extremely "basal," or undeveloped, compared to other "feliform" mammals like cats, hyenas and mongooses, clearly branching off millions of years ago from a low point of the carnivore family tree. )Â Closely related to both earless and eared seals, walruses can weigh up to two tons, and are equipped with huge tusks surrounded by bushy whiskers; their favorite foods are bivalve mollusks, though they have also been known to eat shrimp, crabs, sea cucumbers, and even their fellow seals. Keep in mind that if you take an apex predator out of its natural ecosystem and place it in another, it may lose its place at the top of the food chain. In fact, there exist carnivorous animals such as black bears and red foxes that occasionally feed on plant matter, and herbivorous animals such as eastern gray squirrels and ostriches that primarily rely on plant matter, but do feed on insects and other small animals at times. This helps preserve diversity in the ecosystem. (There are, however, three Odobenus subspecies: the Atlantic walrus, O. rosmaris rosmaris; the Pacific walrus, O. rosmaris divergens, and a walrus of the Arctic Ocean,Â O. rosmaris laptevi. Carnivores get energy and nutrients by consuming the tissues of other animals. Unlike most other meat-eating mammals, cats are "hypercarnivorous," meaning they obtain all or most of their nutrition from prey animals (even tabbies can be considered hypercarnivores since soft cat food and kibble is made of meat). If you are looking for examples of carnivorous mammals, here are some of the most well known: Carnivorous birds - often called birds of prey or raptors - primarily use their talons for killing prey, and their sharp beaks for ripping and eating. Dogs (Canis familiaris) are by far the most common canid species, but this family also includes wolves, foxes, jackals and dingoes. In order to be able to chase, hunt and eat other animals, carnivores have evolved particular traits. For example, carnivores typically feed on herbivores, regulating the number of plant-eating animals in one area. The largest family of carnivorous mammals, comprising nearly 60 species, mustelids include animals as diverse as weasels, badgers, ferrets, and wolverines. Marcel Burkhard/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 2.0 DE. Fowler, D. W., Freedman, E. A., and Scennella, J. For instance, unlike other bears, polar bears are obligate carnivores because there is no vegetation in their habitat. Examples of Piscivorous animals. Nutrition - Nutrition - Herbivores: Plant cell walls are constructed mainly of cellulose, a material that the digestive enzymes of higher animals are unable to digest or disrupt. Discover surprising insights and little-known facts about politics, literature, science, and the marvels of the natural world. The panda no one ever talks about, the red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is an uncannily raccoon-like mammal of southwestern China and the eastern Himalayan Mountains, complete with a bushy, striped tail and prominent markings along its eyes and snout. Carnivores are animals that eat other animals. You might infer from this that mongooses like to kill and eat snakes, but in fact, this is a purely defensive adaptation, meant to keep pesky snakes at bay while the mongooses pursue their preferred diet of birds, insects and rodents. Here are examples of some common carnivorous reptiles: Carnivorous or predatory fish eat other fish or meat. There are various kinds of species found in the world. It is important to understand that all carnivores are not necessarily mammals. Most carnivorous animals, especially apex predators, play a very important role in maintaining the balance in their ecosystem. As you can see, there is huge variation in sizes and habitats among different mammal carnivores. Felice, R. N., et al. Although true seals spend most of the time at sea, and can swim for extended periods of time underwater, they return to dry land or pack ice to give birth; these mammals communicate by grunting and slapping their flippers, unlike their close cousins, the eared seals of family Otariideae. Carnivores. There are about 600 species of carnivorous plants, the most well-known being the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula). Procyonids may be the least carnivorous of all carnivores; these mammals are mostly omnivorous and have pretty much lost the dental adaptations required for devoted meat eating. The fur of some mustelids is especially soft and luxurious; innumerable garments have been manufactured from the hides of minks, ermines, sables and stoats. Along with meat, these animals will also eat fruits, vegetables and fungi. The wolf is a carnivore that hunts large herbivores such as elk or moose, thus preventing overgrazing and creating a wider habitat for other animals. Carnivores that eat insects as the main food called insectivores example, chameleons and spiders, while carnivore that eats fish as its main food called piskivora example, penguins, seals, and dolphins. Many animals that eat fruit and leaves sometimes eat other parts of plants, for example roots and seeds.Usually, such animals cannot digest meat. Are you looking for examples of carnivorous animals? Examples of Carnivores. An omnivore is an animal that eats both plants and animals, which may include eggs, insects, fungi, and algae.Many omnivores evolved to their current state after many years, and are opportunistic feeders. But there are some marine herbivores that are well-known. Probably the most obscure animals on this page, fossas, falanoucs, and a half-dozen species confusingly referred to as "mongooses" comprise the carnivore family Eupleridae, which is restricted to the Indian Ocean island of Madagascar. Dietary niche and the evolution of cranial morphology in birds. As we have said, carnivorous mammals are known for their claws and the sharp cutting teeth - or carnassials - on either side of their jaw. Moreover, not all animals that eat animal tissue are carnivores. As you already know if you own a golden retriever or a labradoodle, canids are characterized by their long legs, bushy tails, and narrow muzzles, not to mention their powerful teeth and jaws suited (in some species) for crushing bone and gristle. Apex predators also feed on other carnivores, the so-called mesopredators that rank in the middle of the food chain. Bears are characterized by their doglike snouts, shaggy hair, plantigrade postures (that is, they walk on the soles rather than the toes of their feet), and unnerving habit of rearing up on their hinds legs when threatened. Not all carnivores exclusively eat animal tissue either, as some of them supplement their diet in other ways. October 6, 2018, 7:15 pm. An example of a marine herbivore is the manatee. Some are said occasionally to resort to berries and other fruit for food, but as a rule they are carnivorous, feeding chiefly on birds and their eggs, small mammals, as squirrels, hares, rabbits and moles, but chiefly mice of various kinds, and occasionally snakes, lizards and frogs. Learn about the 15 basic groups, or families, of carnivores, ranging from the familiar (dogs and cats) to the more exotic (kinkajous and linsangs). They rely on both vegetation and animal protein to remain healthy. in Animals, Examples. Many marine animals are omnivores or carnivores. There are believed to be less than 10,000 red pandas in the world today, and even though it is a protected species, its numbers continue to dwindle. Carnivoresâby which we mean, for the purposes of this article, meat-eating mammalsâcome in all shapes and sizes. Usually, the first animals that spring to mind when people say the word "carnivore," lions, tigers, pumas, cougars, panthers, and house cats are all intimately related members of the Felidae family. What are the most common traits of carnivores? While these physical characteristics are not absolute, it is generally true that carnivorous mammals have evolved sharp teeth - like carnassials - and claws, while birds of prey have evolved sharp talons and beaks, which fulfill a similar function. Let's enjoy some (occasionally surprising) examples of omnivores. Herbivore Carnivore Omnivore Download the entire collection for only $99 (school license) This is one of 1058 premium worksheets […] Depending on the kind of animals and kind of tissue they eat, carnivores can be classified into types that include the following: Not all carnivores feed the same way. The word carnivore is derived from Latin and literally means “meat eater.” Wild cats such as lions, shown in Figure 2a and tigers are examples of vertebrate carnivores, as are snakes and sharks, while invertebrate carnivores include sea stars, spiders, and ladybugs, shown in Figure 2b. Carnivores areorganisms that need to obtain energy from food by eating another living organism that is not a plant. This does not mean that carnivorous animals are always on the prowl for food. Predatory functional morphology in raptors: interdigital variation in talon size related to prey restraint and immobilisation technique. Buddington, R.K. et al. We're so glad we could be helpful to you! Whether they live on land, in the water, or in the air, there is always a bigger animal waiting to prey on a smaller animal. Like much of the wildlife of Madagascar, many euplerids are severely endangered by the encroachment of human civilization. They are a subgroup within the animals called carnivores , within the classification that separates the animals according to their source of food. These animals depend on other animals for their diet. Some of them inject venom or secrete poison, while others have learned to hide in their environment (camouflage) or pass as other animals (mimicry). Raccoons, foxes and coyotes are “accepted” examples of meso-carnivores. Size Matters . - List And Examples. Some fish are also omnivores, consuming pant matter to supplement their carnivore diets. Now that you know exactly what carnivorous animals are, some fun facts about carnivores and examples of carnivorous animals, why not tell us which ones are your favorites? Click hereto get an answer to your question ️ Differentiate between herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Some types of sea turtles, such as the green turtle, are carnivorous during their youth and development but eventually develop an omnivorous diet. Carnivorous animals are an animals that eat other animals meat, in this list of carnivorous animals there was 168 animals arranged alphab An insectivore is a carnivorous plant or animal that eats insects. Superficially resembling weasels and raccoons, civets and genets are small, nimble, pointy-snouted mammals indigenous to Africa, southern Europe, and southeast Asia. What an animal uses for fuel can … The 15 or so species of earless seals, also known as true seals, are well-adapted to a marine lifestyle: these sleek, streamlined carnivores lack external ears, the females have retractable nipples, and the males have internal testicles and a penis that's pulled into the body when not in use. In case you've never been to Indonesia or the Bay of Bengal, linsangsÂ are slender, foot-long, weasel-like creaturesÂ with distinctive markings on their coats: head-to-tail bands with tabby-like tail rigs on the banded linsang (PrionodonÂ linsang), and leopard-like spots on the spotted linsang (PrionodonÂ pardicolor).Â Both of these linsang species live exclusively in southeast Asia; analysis of their DNA has pegged them as a "sister group" to the Felidae that diverged from the main evolutionary trunk millions of years ago. They are also known to have an excellent sense of smell, and keen vision and hearing, all of which are useful for hunting prey. There are only eight species of bears alive today, but these carnivores have had an outsized impact on human society: everyone knows about efforts to preserve the polar bear and the panda bear, and it's always news when a brown bear or grizzly mauls an overly confidentÂ party of campers. You can find examples of carnivores in every ecosystem on earth. Carnivorous animals are an animals that eat other animals meat, in this list of carnivorous animals there was 168 animals arranged alphabetically but in some letters I can't found any carnivore animals. While it is generally known that carnivores are meat eaters, most people aren't sure of the exact characteristics that define these animals. Eared seals are also the most sexually dimorphic mammals in the animal kingdom; male fur seals and sea lions can weigh up to six times as much as females. Carnivores are also classified into two types depending on how they obtain or find their food: Carnivores are usually presented as the opposite of herbivores, or animals that eat an exclusively vegetable diet. Plant eaters are herbivores, meat eaters are carnivores, and animals that eat both plants and animals are omnivores. As they don't have to digest cellulose - which takes ruminant animals a long time - carnivores have shorter digestive systems. The facts and information are very good. Not all carnivorous animals are hunters or predators, as some carnivores are scavengers. Some insects, like ants and yellowjackets, also consume animal tissue. The intestines of carnivorous fish: structure and functions and the relations with diet. (2019). This is the name given to the predators at the highest trophic level, that is, those who prey on others but aren't preyed on. Are you looking for examples of meat-eating fish? Ran Kirlian/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 4.0. We often forget that carnivorous animals eat amphibians, insects and other invertebrates as well as mammals, birds or fish. Granivorous birds and their diets; Ruminant animals: Full list and fun facts; If you want to read similar articles to Examples of Vertebrate and Invertebrate Animals, we recommend you visit our Facts about the animal … As we said before, a carnivorous animal consumes animal tissue - flesh, bones, organs - in order to feed and gain energy. As for other types of animals, such as amphibians, you should know that almost all adult frogs are carnivorous. A classic example of an ecologically important apex predator is the gray wolf. 2020 examples of carnivorous animals
After reading the chapter about formal elements, you should note two things. First, if you change even one formal element, it can make for a very different game. Each formal element of a game contributes in a deep way to the player experience. When designing a game, give thought to each of these elements, and make sure that each is a deliberate choice. Second, note that these elements are interrelated, and changing one can affect others. Rules govern changes in Game State. Information can sometimes become a Resource. Sequencing can lead to different kinds of Player Interaction. Changing the number of Players can affect what kinds of Objectives can be defined. And so on. Because of the interrelated nature of these parts, you can frame any game as a system. (One dictionary definition of the word “system” is: a combination of things or parts that form a complex whole.) In fact, a single game can contain several systems. World of Warcraft has a combat system, a quest system, a guild system, a chat system, and so on… Another property of systems is that it is hard to fully understand or predict them just by defining them; you gain a far deeper understanding by seeing the system in action. Consider the physical system of projectile motion. There is a mathematical equation to define the path of a ball being thrown, and you could even predict its behavior… but the whole thing makes a lot more sense if you see someone actually throwing a ball. Games are like this, too. You can read the rules and define all the formal elements of a game, but to truly understand a game you need to play it, usually more than once. You need to see how the various pieces of the game system interact with each other given different game states. Only then can you understand how the game system might be improved. This chapter was adapted from Level 3 of Ian Schreiber’s Game Design Concepts course.
Conclusion: The attitude toward heresy and the reason for its formation and the church’s opposition to it is stated in general terms.Heresy was the term used to characterize those groups of religious sects that challenged in some way or another, the ideology that came to be accepted at orthodox Christianity. While many of the heretic groups differed in their beliefs and norms they were united by a common notion that the Church did not represent their particular values and beliefs. They were predisposed to reject and isolate themselves from the Church and its one-dimensional views of Christianity. The Church, in turn, viewed these detractors as heretics and rejected them, isolating them and persecuting them for their dissension.The Church itself, while adamantly opposed to heresy did not go beyond identifying these groups. The persecution of these groups was left entirely up to governmental control. The Church would merely turn heretics over to the secular government and leave it with the political establishment to run interference. Allegations and persecution of heretics became prevalent during the period spanning from 1100-1500.2 In order to understand the prevalence of heresy in the Early Christian Church during this period this study will focus on the heretic groups evolving during this time. These groups reflect the socio-economic and political climate existing at the time and how these movements and ideologies influenced the emergence of heresy and the Church’s opposition to it. The relevant groups are the Beguines, the Cathars, the Hussites, the Joachimites, the Lollards and the Waldensians.During The Middle Ages, women were expected to conform to a male-dominated society. Conventional wisdom at the time dictated that women adhere to the rigid strictures of the good wife and/or mother in a Medieval household guarded by the dominant male. Another accepted method of male guardianship was under the auspices of the Church by virtue of the orthodox convents.
Andrew Goldsworthy, a botanist, believes plants developed their weather forecasting ability to gear up their metabolism for an expected downpour. It could explain what every gardener knows - that plants look particularly healthy after thundery weather. According to Goldsworthy this is an effect that cannot simply achieved with a sprinkler. The theory is that if plants are watered unexpectedly they cannot react quickly enough to gain the maximum benefit. But if they could tell in advance when it was likely to rain, they could prepare for growth by switching on the necessary biochemical machinery. Goldsworthy has carried out experiments at Imperial College, London, which show that plant cells react to electric current. In thundery weather, even before the storm breaks, very high voltage gradients build up. Goldsworthy believes plants have evolved a way of exploiting these conditions. He told New Scientist magazine: "Plants are very clever at sensing the environment and if there's any signal they could possibly use, my guess is they'll use it."Reuse content
Light-emitting diode projectors represent a significant advance over traditional projectors. Instead of using a bulb filled with gas at high pressure, they use an array of LEDs to generate the light that shines through, or off of, the image element to project an image. LED projectors run cooler, consume less energy, have more accurate color and can last longer without a replacement bulb than a traditional projector, making them ideal in many ways for use in an business environment. How LEDs Work The LEDs in an LED projector use a process called "electroluminescence" to produce light. In a bulb, electricity passes through a wire, making it heat up to the point that it glows. LEDs, on the other hand, use semiconducting materials which allow certain types of energy to pass through them. When an electrical signal passes through the material in an LED, it kicks off electrons that are too big to pass through. To shrink themselves, they give off a photon, which is a particle of light, which then allows them to fit through to the other side. Since this process generates very little heat, it consumes much less power than a traditional bulb. It also puts much less stress on the LED, which is why it lasts so much longer than a regular lamp. How Projectors Use LEDs Instead of a bulb, projectors have arrays of red, green and blue LEDs. When mixed, they generate a very accurate color of white light. This light then gets reflected off of an array of tiny mirrors (in a projector with a Digital Light Processing chip) or gets passed through a sandwich of liquid crystal display layers (in an LCD projector). In other words, LED projectors are almost exactly the same as any other projector, except for the bulb. LEDs run much cooler than traditional bulbs, so LED projectors can be smaller and quieter, since they do not need as much airflow or insulation to protect their users from a hot bulb. The combination of red, green and blue LEDs makes a white light that is a better representation of true white than most bulbs can generate. This gives LED projectors the ability to reproduce more colors than other projectors. Finally, because LEDs last so much longer than bulbs, LED projectors should never need a replacement. A 20,000 hour bulb will run for eight hours a day, seven days a week, for six years and ten months. It will last for over 27 years if used for four hours a day, five days a week. LED projectors have one key drawback. As of the time of publication, they have the same problem as LED light bulbs – LEDs are expensive. While LED projectors are available at roughly similar costs to projectors with traditional lamps, they usually have much lower light output ratings. For example, one manufacturer's lineup includes a 3,000 lumen model, a 2,600 lumen model and a 500 lumen LED projector, all with similar suggested retail prices and specifications. - Samsung: Lamp or LED: Which Projector is Right for Your Business? - PC World: Ultraportable Projectors: LED Models Arrive - Projector Reviews: LED Projectors - HDTV Magazine: HDTV Expert - Useful Gadgets: Optoma ML300 LED Projector - Techlinea: How Do LEDs Work? - Aaxa Technologies: LED Projectors Versus UHP Projectors - NEC: Multimedia Projectors - Ryan McVay/Photodisc/Getty Images
The morphological structure of words in modern English The word formation linguistic disciplines and subject of it research. The concept of derivation and its main issues. General characteristics of word formation. The morphemic structure of English Language. Compound words in Modern English Language. \|Рубрика\|\|Иностранные языки и языкознание\| \|Размер файла\|\|26,4 K\| Отправить свою хорошую работу в базу знаний просто. Используйте форму, расположенную ниже Студенты, аспиранты, молодые ученые, использующие базу знаний в своей учебе и работе, будут вам очень благодарны. Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru Ministry of Education Science of Ukraine Pavlo Tychyna State Pedagogical University Chair of the Theory and Practice Of Foreign Language «The morphological structure of words in modern English» Prepared by Inna Shlapak Uman - 2014 TITLE I. The word formation linguistic disciplines and subject of it research 1.1 The concept of derivation and its main issues 1.2 General characteristics of word formation TITLE II. The morphemic structure of English Language 2.3 Compound words in Modern English Language 2.4 Minor types of word formation The object is to study the original word formation of words. Until recently derived words studied mainly from a formal point of view, that is in terms of expression and content remained unexplored. So should not have been, because the specificity of word formation in the diversity of its links and any unilateral Consider the derivation does not reflect fully the problems of word formation. In this paper derivative is considered in the lexical-semantic system of English, as "the whole area of the semantic relations of lexical items, the uniqueness of types of interaction with one another and with elements of other aspects of language, terms and forms of linguistic expression results varying semantic verbal signs". linguistic english word morphemic Although the synopsis is sufficiently processed and scientists, but in language there are always new words, so there is a need for their research and detailed examination of the means of education. This synopsis will be relevant as long as there will be a developed language. Word formation plays an important role not only in the English grammar, but also in lexicology, phonetics and other linguistic sciences. Summary consists of an introduction, main pats, which are divided into two sections and four subsections, conclusions and a list of references, which consists of eleven sources. TITLE I. THE WORD FORMATION LINGUISTIC DISCIPLINES AND SUBJECT OF IT RESEARCH 1.1 The concept of derivation and its main issues The term "word formation" has two basic meanings, which should be clearly distinguished. In the first sense it is used to express the constant process of creating new words in the language. It is in a constant state of development, which consists of individual language processes, including the process and the creation of new words. This process is called "word formation". In the second sense, the term "derivation" means a branch of science that deals with the study of the process of creation of new lexical items. The subject of research is the study of word formation process of creation of new lexical items and the means by which this process occurs (suffixes, prefixes, infix etc.). Taken together, lexical words are the foundation of language. Words change in speech for grammatical laws. Definitions word as a unit of language, a lot depending on the criteria approach angles. In the lexical sense it is defined as a unit of naming, which is the lexical-semantic content and can be formulated to express the concept. In this respect, the word has a broad lexical and grammatical range: parts of speech can be changed by varying with the value of the word, and some forms of its value is stored, e.g. night - nightly. The word is part of the phrase the closest grammatical units, through which it is realized in a sentence. Hence it has characteristics opposition bilateral character: morpheme word phrases (or phraseological unit). Morpheme enters directly into the structure of the word. 1.2 General characteristics of word formation Morpheme a combination of some meaning and phonetic form. However, morpheme, as opposed to the word, not an autonomous unit, although some words may consist of only one morpheme. Of course the English word there are two or three (sometimes - more) morpheme. For example, the word students have three morphemes - roots stud with a value of "learning" suffix-ent with the value of active action and end with -s plural grammatical meaning. Further segmentation of morphemes leads only to highlight certain sound systems that do not matter. Free and dependent morphemes. Morpheme as part of speech is more dependent than free. This is understandable, because in this case the part should belong to the whole. A free morpheme is regularly played by model language and can be used independently, without changing its value. The verb stand, stand noun are free morphemes that retain the appropriate lexical-semantic meaning. These morphemes can be called minimal free forms. However, the root of the stand can be a part of other words, e.g. withstand, standing. The morphological state changes so that the verb withstand actually consists of two free morphemes with a preposition and verb stand, a participle standing freestyle and dependent morphemes suffixes -ing alone is not used. Vocabulary, concepts initially calls every day, usually consisting of a free morpheme, which forms a single word, e.g. cow, sheep, boy, top, go, run, etc. The history of these words suggests that their grammatical variation in some cases reflect the presence of two morphemes - man - men, but such cases in the language a bit. Root with affixes (prefixes and suffixes) forms the basis of the word. Simple foundation - it often, the same root word that can be used separately, e.g. awe, change, note, seem. If the base strip affixes, and it will not homonymous any free word of the same root, then this will be dependent basis. Thus, the widely used word conduct and lexical-semantic set that surrounds it - conductor, deduct, deduce, seduce, seductive, and others. Prefix con- can be separated only formally. The root is left, borrowed from Latin ducted - "am" and does not form a single word. This framework and call dependent. This phenomenon is natural, because the foundation of borrowed words arose and took the path of historical development in other language, e.g. cour-age, facul-ty, hon-est, mat-ure, royal-ty, senti-ment, un-cert-ain . The root is considered the main elements, which after removal of functional affixes derivational not subject to further analysis. In English the root is often identical with the word. Phonetic phenomenon often occurs in monosyllabic words, e.g. aim, cat, get, hat, pig, set. Match the shape of the root word is the result of historical development patterns proper English words in the late medieval period, there was a disappearance endings. As a result of this process since English words do not have formal features (endings) that would indicate membership in a particular part of speech. Most of monosyllabic words a productive derivational roots by which the formation of new, derived words. While the root to some extent independent of the word, affixes always dependent elements of the structure. And the suffix and prefix with semantic load, but they are not used as independent linguistic units. Suffix derivative (derived) element at the end of words (between the root and the end) which is or has been a productive part of word formation. The suffix is lexical-semantic meaning, but is not used in isolation, thus no evidence of a particular part of speech. However, when the same word with different suffixes belong to the same part of speech, then the suffix different lexical-grammatical classes of words, eg suffixes -er and -est for top and superlatives: bigg-er - the bigg-est, sweet-er - the sweet-est. Purely semantic changes occur in the word by changing the suffix and allow the word to refer to the same part of speech: collect-able, collect-ible. Finally, various suffixes can form both simple and double opposition of various parts of speech, such as: cold -cold-ish (adjective) - cold-ly (adverb) - cold-ness (noun). Because for each suffix stored lexical-semantic meaning, the use of the latter on certain groups of words leads to the corresponding parts of speech. This suffixes - an important type of word formation in English with types prevailing historically. The prefix - a morpheme standing before the root word, and modifies its value. Prefixes in Modern English is always derivative. Prefix hardly helps to differentiate parts of speech except when it is present as part of a verb or word category status, eg a dress - to undress, dust - adust, float - afloat. Sometimes using a prefix can distinguish transient and intransitive verb: cry - outcry, play - outplay. Also noteworthy is a fundamental difference between the end and the suffix, in English often expressed by one morpheme. In grammar, they are sometimes called inflectional suffixes. Keep in mind that the inflectional suffixes - exponents of grammatical meaning while derivational suffixes - are carriers of lexical meaning is the lexical morpheme. Grammatical form, thus form words with inflectional suffixes and lexical of the derivative. This different and relevant paradigm: the inflectional paradigm is illustrate - illustrates - illustrated, derivational - illustrate - illustrative - illustration. Thus, as the theoretical part, in modern English there are a number of means of word formation, some of which are quite common and productive (suffixes, prefixes), while others use much less and are part of other means of word formation. There are in modern English as well as secondary word formation. More details of each of these species will be discussed in the following sections of this essay. TITLE II. THE MORPHEMIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE Prefixation as word formation, is the modification of the base, to which the prefix is attached. Prefixes are different in origin: they may come from their own language, or other language -be. Modifying the lexical meaning of the word, prefix often changes the grammatical nature of the word as a whole, so simple word and its prefix-derivative in most cases belong to the same part of speech, e.g. .: abuse - dis-abuse, approve -dis -approve, believe - dis-believe. Lexical-semantic load prefix determined by the method of transmission based on hue value that reflects the mode of action, place, time, degree of completion and more. Actually English prefixes derived from individual words. There are not many prefixes - a-, be-, fore-, mid-, un-. The prefix mis- - mixed type (Ger. Mis, Lat. Minus, fr -Me, -mess). The prefix a-, which is derived from the Old English preposition an, used with a noun, adjective and verb and conveys meaning condition, situation, e.g. aback, afloat, agaze, alike, anew, apiece, arise, asleep, atrembie, awake. Along with its own prefix a- in the English language has the prefix a-, borrowed from Greek that matters opposites, e.g. amorphous, anomalous. This prefix is used rarely, mostly consisting of borrowed words. From preposition comes prefix be- (unstressed form of by-). The main value of the prefix (as a preposition) - "near", but in the shades of meaning related derivative instruments are divided into several subgroups. That part of words where the prefix forms adverbs, small, and some adverbs are perceived as mere words, e.g. .: before, beyond. In cases where an ancient form by remaining emphasized formed derived words that are written through the line, e.g. .: by-gone, by-law. In modern English prefix be- is used mainly to form verbs. Among them are: 1) Sub-transitive verbs, which adds a prefix meaning "everywhere, everywhere," e.g. belays, beset, bedeck. 2) Sub-transitive verbs followed by a value of finality or redundancy actions, e.g becall, betray. 3) subgroup, where prefix leads to the transformation of intransitive verbs transitive, e.g. bespeak, bethink. 4) subgroups, which are formed by prefix Transitive verb with the general meaning "to create, make", e.g. belate, belittle. 5) subgroup, where a prefix formed transitional words with general meaning "so called", formed from nouns, e.g. bedevil, befool. 6) Sub-transitive verb meaning "to surround; affect things; treat someone a certain way ", formed from nouns, e.g. .: becalm, befriend, becloud. Using the prefix be- nouns are also formed from adjectives meaning neglect, e.g. beneaped. The value of the subgroup falls adjective beloved. To a single group are words with the prefix be-, which historically constitute an indissoluble basis: beneath, between, beware, beyond. Generalized values to take in the historical development of the verb and become begin. English belongs to its own prefix for-. The prefix was productive in Old English period of language development, but in recent times it can be seen in ten words, though the value assigned to it, reaching (prohibition of exclusivity, pass, fail, failure). Common words with the prefix: forget, forgive, forbid, forsake. Signs archaic observed in the subgroup that includes the words: forbye, forbear, forgo, forswear, fordo. Uncertain nature of morphological forms fore- led to that opinion on it differed: American linguists consider it a combining form English - adverb and preposition freely used as a prefix verbs, participles, verbal nouns. Undeniably signs with prefix for-, form fore-, due to its phonetic structure, used much more widely than the prefix for-. The value that the prefix fore- Add as verbs and nouns, distributed as follows: 1) "in front of": a) foregoer, forerunner; b) fore-run, foreshow. 2) "beforehand, in advance": forebode, forego, foreknow, foresee. 3) "front": forecourt, forefinger, forefront (one of psevdoutvoren), foreground, foreman. 4) "Front part of": forearm, forehead, foreshore. 5) "of, near or towards the stem of a ship or connected with the foremast": forecabin, foresail, foretop. 6) "anticipating, precedent": forefather, foreplane, foretime. The prefix mis-, which has counterparts in the old Germanic and Latin languages, is used with verbs, participles, gerunds and adjectives, giving them meanings reversible - "badly, unfavorably, wrongly". Compatibility with the verbal prefix vocabulary is much wider than that of borrowing. 1) Germanic mis-: misbecome, misbehave, miscall, misgive, mislay, mistake, mistrust, mistreat. 2) Latin mis - minus: mischance, mischief, misplace. The prefix non- is a morphological variant of particle no, as used before adjectives value prefix indicates negation, e.g. non-operational, non-skid prefix and is used in the formation of nouns, e.g. non-priority, non-utility. Overall, this prefix can be used spontaneously almost every noun or adjective, indicating a lack of quality. The prefix used with on- participle, herundiyem, verbal nouns and noun-agent (carrier effect), ending in the suffix -er. Feature prefix is its ability to be used in derivative nouns and verbs that get along with him idiomatic meaning. This come such pairs of words as to come on - oncoming, to flow on - onflow, goings-on - ongoings. Actually the English prefix out- one of the most common language. Along with the prefix un- it is the most common English morphemes word formation; estimated and he and the other members of the nearly thousand words each. The use of the prefix rather branched. The main ones are: 1) The prefix can be used with each verb, which is equivalent to the phrase, e.g.to outspeak - to speak out, to outspread - to spread out. 2) Often the verb form with prefix participle, gerund and the verbal noun, thus gaining more importance, e.g. outclearing (costs of laundry), outfighting (Locomotive wheelslip a distance the length of the hand), outstanding (outstanding). 3) The formation of nouns from verbs, which can be used after the preposition out, from simple verbs and nouns derived values occur: a) Process: outbreak, outcry, outrush. b) The effects of: outcome, outcrop. c) Passive depending on the action: outlay, outlook, output. d) The place or time of action: outfall, outlet, outset. 4) In the formation of adjectives from nouns with descriptive qualities prefix attaches importance: a) External features or characteristics: outback, outline, outside. b) Separate features that are inherent in general: outhouse, outfield, outworker. 5) In the formation of adjectives from nouns prefix gives them value regardless of the object or subject of action: outdoor, outlaw. 6) The prefix may provide new meaning to the word excess. This group includes different parts of speech: outbrave, outmatch, outjump, outswim, outstay. Such use is observed even with their own nouns: to outnapoleon, to outzola. The prefix over- is also one of the most common English structural word means. The prefix significant impact on meaning, joined; the emphasis in the words that have two syllables necessarily transferred to the prefix. In the process of tumor prefix it can acquire the characteristics of a particular part of speech. This property is observed in cases of derivation, when combined with the concurrence of the part of speech prefix over- serves as: 1) Adjective meaning "haughty, high": overhand, overtime. 2) A preposition that takes the value "over": overland, oversize, overhead. 3) Preposition that modifies the meaning of the verb, increasing the intensity of action: to overcome, to overpass; in some cases, the prefix determined by the degree of intensity: to overmaster. 4) Adverbs, indicating a surplus, the need for executable actions, attributes or quality of the subject: overbusy, to overbuy, to overhaste. In the use of Transitive verb prefix can point to the negative consequences of the actions performed: to overdrink, to oversleep. Un- - proper English prefix. The current prefix un- is used with virtually unlimited number of verbs, giving them return (negative) semantic features: unclose, unlay, unpack. By verb meanings are, and those that reflect the selection, move, stop, break, reducing others. In combination with adjectives, verbal forms, specific nouns prefix or a simple value "not", or gives them a return characteristics: unfair, ungraceful, unhappy. The prefix is under- opposition prefix over-. Its main compatibility associated with the verb to which it provides extra service "under, below": undercut, underplay. In the sense of "not enough" prefix of verbal forms and some adjectives: underdone, undersized. Nouns that are used with this prefix few: underground, underflow. A small number of entities have with the prefix n- (a negative value), to-, with-: never, any; together; withdraw. Some appeared as a result of the formation of a combination of its own language and words of Latin and Greek prefixes, but such things - not the exception in borrowings. Prefixes Roma origins were taken at different times of the language and different ways - directly from the classical languages, and through the French. In this regard, there is varying forms of the same prefixes. The prefix ad- has several options that reflect the assimilation of the consonant d at the beginning of words and is the result of borrowing from different languages: al- belongs to the Arabic language. Prefix оptions are as follows: ac-, af-, ag-, al-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, at-: acclimatize, affirm, allocate, arrest. All variants retain the ability to enhance the meaning of adding features that it gets created word. The prefix bi-, bin- having options and bis- - Latin origin and means "double": binocular, bivalent. The prefix co- means relational, which originate from the action or process and has options col-, com-, con-, cor-: concord, correct. Several etymological meanings must prefix de-, including: depend, deduce, declare, deceive. In the sense of "deny" prefix is the same as another prefix dis-. The latter has the power to reverse opposition to a value words: charge - discharge, close - disclose. However, the prefix dis- cannot compete with the prefix un-, which is used almost every verb. The prefix en- comes from the Latin in-. Its use is associated with the provision of verbs multiple values, such as: "who cares, cover" - entrust; "To place one object to another" - enjewel; "To bring to a certain state" - enslave; "Grant subject to heavy signs" - encourage. Double origin and prefix eh-. Latin eh- on this form is used before consonants h, c, p, q, s (the latter is often skipped), t; f option is used to ef-; before other consonants - E. Formed with the words take additional values: "on, then" - exit; "Up, up" - extol; "Thoroughly" - excruciate; "Dismiss" - expatriate. Adjectives with prefixes eh-, E have negative signs. The prefix occasionally used with nouns, giving them meaning "former": ex-chancellor, ex-President. Eh- The prefix of Greek origin used less frequently: exodus; before consonants it has the shape es-: ecclesia. Fairly common variation is the prefix in-. Final assimilated into l n before a consonant l, in m before labial b, m, p and r before a consonant r. Formed prefixed adjectives have to "or-, non-" nouns - "lack of something": illiberal, immortal, irregular, inaction. In modern English prefix in- often alternates with the prefix un-, preferred in words borrowed from Latin: uncertain. Certain words are used with both prefixes: instable - unstable, unless the prefix in- cannot be used because of sonority: unindicted. Alternating prefix does not apply when shape hardly used without prefix: unbeknown. A large group of morphemes that are used as prefixes, are borrowing later period - ante, extra, hyper, intra, meta, para, tetra. This phenomenon is associated with the development of technology and the involvement of these formative elements continues today. Some classical languages were used as independent words in the English language but these elements have no independent value, not used alone but are a word-formation element. Summarizing all the above, it should be emphasized that prefixation gained wide usage in the English language due to lack of endings. Alignment of case endings and verb inflections disappearance led to deep lexical distinctions caused by the use of prefixes. How derivational elements function as suffixes affixed morphemes that lies between the root and finish and is part of the base. Not applications independently suffix -but has the semantic load that affects new writing. This has led to numerous classifications of suffixes as to their origin, formed by them to parts of speech, performance, inefficiency, frequency of use, common values and emotional coloring. Some morphemes may carry a dual function - as a means of creating grammatical and lexical. Morphemes -ed, -er can express grammatical categories (-ed ending as verbal past tense and perfect; -er - as adjectival ending higher degree of comparison) and, on the other hand, form a lexical derivatives: colored, foreigner. Thus, the difference between the end and the extension is that the former takes the grammatical function, and the second is dominated by lexical meaning. Derivative suffix - a two morphemic word that is used as a whole and grammatically equivalent to simple words in all possible syntactic structures. Morphemes are bearing signs of grammatical categories of time, or case number, defined as the end because they do not form new words and word forms only. Suffix word formation varies depending on: 1) From the suffix that comes with its own language: darkness. In these cases, the emphasis neoplasm does not change, even in the words of three syllables: commonness. 2) From the borrowed suffix that is attached to both the verbal and borrowed to the roots, without changing emphasis: movable, serviceable. 3) From the borrowed suffix that is used with other language roots, changing the emphasis and or vowel or consonant root: China - Chinese. When the borrowed words formed by means of foreign suffix joins another, the verbal suffix, such a formation called correlated: president - presidency. Suffixes as word formation is much wider than prefixation. The proportional part of the verbal suffixes also greater than that of prefixes. This means that the active borrowing of Latin, Greek and French suffixes are not replaced derivational elements of their own language, the performance of which may be updated from time to time. There is a reverse process: the actual English words twofold threefold superseded word formed using Roman suffix - (b) le: double. Subgroups of different origin suffixes can form a certain class of languages. For such common features of different suffixes that form: 1) The names of specific names: -er (driver), or (sailor), -ing (darling), -ee (refugee), -ice (apprentice), -ician (politician), -ist (socialist), -ite (erudite), -ent (absolvent), -ant (emigrant). These nouns can be divided into two subgroups with superior features: a) one indicating an action, and b) one that applies to it. 2) What are abstract names: -age (bondage), -ance (alliance), -ancy (discrepancy), -ation (adoration), -ence (efficience), -dom (freedom), -hood (childhood), - ing (gazing), -ion (invention), -ism (behaviorism), -ment (betterment), -ness (happiness), -ship (friendship), -ty (naivety). 3) Some lexical and grammatical category, there are several suffixes, forming feminine nouns: -ess (stewardess), -ette (usherette), -ina (regina), -ine (heroine). 4) A large number of suffixes call on the emotional coloring. 5) First of all, the suffixes that reflect characteristics reducing: -en (maiden), -et (bullet), -kin (s) (Malkin), -let (ringlet), -ock (bullock). More common vzhyvanist have extensions that alternate with each other: -in (-eu) -ie: Betty, Mickey, laddie. Suffixes are used effectively to appeal - both in their own names, and in general the type of doggie, granny, daddy. In everyday speech suffix can form colloquialism type nightie, bookie. Diminutive features gives its significance half-suffix -mini: minicab, mini-skirt. Several extensions reflecting negative qualities and attributes of things. However, this feature is not unique to all form: -ard (drunkard, but standard), -ster (gangster, but the lobster). Noteworthy synonyms suffixes. Semantic overlay values - a phenomenon quite common in the language and the preservation of a variant of the basic lexical-semantic center - exponent values of several tokens observed among words with the suffix -an, -ese, - er, -or, -ite. Subject to this phenomenon, mainly on the etymology of the suffix. Formation Family doctor - physician, except that they have a peculiar additional semantic features, differ in origin suffix. Both suffixes -or and -an indicate the profession. These nouns are associated with the term "doctor", but the significance of the first noun in terms much broader - it's a scientist and physician, and the second word means only those who practiced treatment with drugs and surgery. In the use of adjectives with the suffix -is -isal and in some cases, the law of linguistic economy; terms such as botanical, historical, geographical might be used in a shortened version. However, the difference in the values stored: economic (based on profit) - economical (saving) person, tropic parallel. 2.3 Compound words in Modern English Language Compound words - is a specific unit, defined special morphemic and derivational characteristics. The structure of the composite includes at least two bases, which, depending on their morphological characters, enter the special relationship. Fundamentals of composites are mostly denotative meaning, and their combination is combinative conditions for minimal environment that defines and provides a composite of its existence. Compound words and semantically, and structural components that make up these words. Relationships between components are complex because the formation of a compound word, meaning they can change. In addition, they will influence each other and are subject to certain grammatical rules. The most active means of formation of composites is the addition of two bases. Compound words are as follows: 1. In terms of belonging to different parts of speech. Most compound words - a sophisticated type of nouns and adjectives moonshine, white-faced. Compound verbs are usually formed from compound nouns by conversion: to bad-taste. Compound adverbs and conjunctions constitute a small fraction of the total number of composites and neologisms among them. 2. Compound words are allocated in accordance with the types of word formation (derivation and compounding). A simple combination of two bases that already exist in the language, leading to the formation of compound words actually. Much of the existing composites a complex nouns and adjectives: egg-cup, absent-minded. Advanced verbs compared with a subgroup of compound nouns and adjectives, much less. Among the many pieces of verbs further derivation: to weekend, to self-love. Composites of secondary derivation are divided into two subgroups: 1. The words formed by conversion of the foundations compound nouns: to team-work, to safety-pin. 2. Verbs formed by back bases word formation of compound nouns: to dish-wash, to atom-smash. Compound adverbs and conjunctions constitute a small part: within, outside, indoors. These cases can be attributed to this type of word formation as prefixation, since the first part of this composite prefix. Derived words such as cold-hearted as different from each other and the nature of the composite samples, which they are formed. This compound adjectives, which in modern English a lot, especially the first type. Compound adjectives type of love-sick, life-long formation of a base noun (sometimes adjectives, or verbs), which joins the adjective, giving the word of all the characteristic features of the adjective. Type of compound adjectives i bare-footed, ill-fated, weak-minded - in modern English a lot. Some researchers believe this type of compound words most productive at this stage of language development. Most of these composites derived words. The first part of this composite - an independent word, and the second - the participle; both entering the compound word, grammatical losing independence. Fundamentals of words ill-fated and under., With the addition of the suffix -ed converted into a single word, the foundation does not exist outside of the composite. Derived Composites type right-handed are not divided into independent segments as adjectives handed type of language does not exist. -ed Suffix refers not only to the second component, but also to the whole compound word, defining quality of the object. By derivative compound words include compound nouns and derivatives: a hold-up, a cast-away. Conversion in these cases turns gerunds phrases into words. Compound words can be formed as a result of the semantic limitations of free phrases. Appearing in the lexical-semantic merging, compound words belonging to different parts of speech: go-ahead - a difficult word - imperative (imperative mood) and a go-ahead research, where the go-ahead - an adjective meaning "best", do -it-yourself, get-well. Quite active in recent years and the process of derivation of complex words: peace-lover, policy-maker, money-getter. Sometimes there are compound words with complex components: a milk truck-driver. According to some researchers, compounding the main direction of development of vocabulary language, because it is - the most productive type of word formation. The essence of the compound word is in terms of a single concept, but a combination of individual word-building elements involves unequal amount of lexical-semantic meaning. 2.4 Minor types of word formation The most common types of word formation is a minor reduction (oral and written), and conversion. Reduction - a part of a word that is used after the loss of its individual elements. The transmission of any part of the word comes from the phenomenon of generalization and factors relating to language economy. Most of the cuts that we use derived from the complete analogies and familiar speaker. The reduction in speech - a truncation or omission of the morphemic structure of words. Reducing emerged at the beginning of a new English period, and acquired much of the twentieth century. In recent times emerged following abbreviations: ad - address, dad - daddy (father), stud - student, bus - autobus, phone - telephone. The reduction in speech always co-exists along with the full form: doc - doctor, prof - professor. Distinguish them only stylistic and emotional, which increase in oral language. Reduce to a certain extent - a reduction of words to one of its parts, and the full form may lose the beginning, middle or end. New education is able to be used as free forms. In most cases, the short form is easily correlated with the corresponding full form. Lost part of the full form is easy to find; this is one of the prerequisites for reducing a linguistic phenomenon. Oral reductions mainly mono symmetrical: com - commander, memo - memorandum, sem - semester. However, among the reductions observed as homonymy and synonymy: ball - balloon "ball balloon" coincides with the title shot, cop - corporal "Corporal" - the slang nickname policeman. With the reduction of new forms of belonging, of course, to the same part of speech to which it belongs and the prototype. Most of the cuts - is the nouns and adjectives, and adjectives are much rarer. Among the adjectives shortcuts include: civy - civil, nogo - no good one, prep - preparatory "whose dress." Verbs shortcuts - either diachronic formation type to mend - to amend, to tend - to attend, or reduce origin: to phone, to taxi. Regarding the form of reduced distinguish three types of cuts: the final (Apocope), intermediate (syncope) and primary (apheresis). Include the following types Apocope prevails, especially in English, where the emphasis falls mainly on the first syllable: cap - captain, stip - stipend, gym - gymnasium, lad - laboratory. When simplified start and end of the prototype, produced contraction of the middle part one: fridge - refrigerator. In summary review of secondary species derivation, we can say that at this stage of language development rather productive means neoplasm is downsizing. This type of word formation covers large segments of language, as means of creating variety. Conversion is more characteristic conversational style, although it is used in other language styles. This essay made it possible to achieve the goal of the question that was posed as follows: find out what the word formation that this word formation means that their views are in modern English, to determine the most important means of word formation and consider further use of newly created words. The goal outlined in the introduction essay, can be achieved by processing of scientific papers and articles researchers linguists working with dictionaries and other aids grammar and lexicology of modern English. This essay helped to conclude that the most common means of word formation in Modern English are suffixes, based on adding to the end of stemming suffix. Despite the fact that in addition to their own English suffixes, there are many suffixes borrowed from Latin, Greek, French and other languages, their own suffixes still prevail in the language. Using suffixes form nouns (both common and proper names, as abstract and specific names), adjectives, verbs and others. The next most common means of word formation in Modern English prefixation is based on joining the early foundations of the word prefix. She came in a number of assets, because in English no end and it is prefixing helps differentiate parts of speech. Prefixes, unlike suffixes, do not change the grammatical nature of the word, and the newly formed words refer to the same parts of speech as their base. The third tool is word formation compounding, which is based on the addition of two or more bases, with possible further amendments newly formed composite. Some scholars put compounding the first place, because they consider the most productive means of word formation in Modern English. The most active means of forming a new composite is adding two and sometimes more bases. Through word formation form compound nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals and so on. There are minor types of word formation, such as the reduction (oral and written), and conversion. Thus, as seen in this essay, modern English has sufficiently strong and productive means of word formation to supplement vocabulary speech. 1. Арнольд І.В. Лексикология современного английского языка. - М., 1959; 2. Ахманова О.С. Словарь лингвистических терминов. - М., 1969; 3. Ботчук Е.Н. Словообразование в современном английском языке. - К., 1988; 4. Карощук П.М. Словообразование английского языка. - М., 1977; 5. Кубрякова Е.С. Что такое словообразование. - М., 1965; 6. Леонтьев А.А. Семантическая структура слова. - М., 1971; 7. Мешков О.Д. Словообразование современного английского языка. - М., 1976; 8. Мостовий М.І. Лексикологія англійської мови. - Х., 1993; 9. Collins Cobuild, English Grammar., 1994; 10. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English., 1999; 11. Rozina R.I. Course of English Lexicology. - М., 1995. Размещено на Allbest.ru The general outline of word formation in English: information about word formation as a means of the language development - appearance of a great number of new words, the growth of the vocabulary. The blending as a type of modern English word formation. курсовая работа [54,6 K], добавлен 18.04.2014 The structure of words and word-building. The semantic structure of words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms. Word combinations and phraseology in modern English and Ukrainian languages. The Native Element, Borrowed Words, characteristics of the vocabulary. курс лекций [95,2 K], добавлен 05.12.2010 The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs. Structural types of words. Principles of morphemic analysis. Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words. реферат [11,3 K], добавлен 11.01.2004 Loan-words of English origin in Russian Language. Original Russian vocabulary. Borrowings in Russian language, assimilation of new words, stresses in loan-words. Loan words in English language. Periods of Russian words penetration into English language. курсовая работа [55,4 K], добавлен 16.04.2011 Background of borrowed words in the English language and their translation. The problems of adoptions in the lexical system and the contribution of individual linguistic cultures for its formation. Barbarism, foreignisms, neologisms and archaic words. дипломная работа [76,9 K], добавлен 12.03.2012 Grammar in the Systemic Conception of Language. Morphemic Structure of the Word. Communicative Types of Sentences. Categorial Structure of the Word. Composite Sentence as a Polypredicative Construction. Grammatical Classes of Words. Sentence in the Text. учебное пособие [546,3 K], добавлен 03.10.2012 The oldest words borrowed from French. Unique domination of widespread languages in a certain epoch. French-English bilinguism. English is now the most widespread of the word's languages. The French Language in England. Influence on English phrasing. курсовая работа [119,6 K], добавлен 05.09.2009 Traditional periodization of historical stages of progress of English language. Old and middle English, the modern period. The Vocabulary of the old English language. Old English Manuscripts, Poetry and Alphabets. Borrowings in the Old English language. презентация [281,2 K], добавлен 27.03.2014 The Concept of Polarity of Meaning. Textual Presentation of Antonyms in Modern English. Synonym in English language. Changeability and substitution of meanings. Synonymy and collocative meaning. Interchangeable character of words and their synonymy. курсовая работа [59,5 K], добавлен 08.12.2013 Specific character of English language. Words of Australian Aboriginal origin. Colloquialisms in dictionaries and language guides. The Australian idioms, substitutions, abbreviations and comparisons. English in different fields (food and drink, sport). курсовая работа [62,8 K], добавлен 29.12.2011
PA Academic Standards: 8.1.6.A.3- Understand chronological thinking and distinguish between past, present and future time. - People and events in time. 8.1.6.B.4- Explain and analyze historical sources. -- Multiple historical perspectives 8.2.6.D.5- Identify and explain conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations.- Military conflicts 8.3.6.C. 4- Explain how continuity and change has influenced US history form beginning to 1824.- Politics 8.3.6.D.1- Identify and explain conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations in US history from beginnings to 1824. -- Domestic instability Goal of this lesson: The goal of this lesson is for the students to acquire an understanding as to what happened after the colonies gained their independence from England. Materials: Text book Power point slides and projector Materials for project: colored paper scissors- 2 pair Clerical/Administrative Tasks: Set up LCD projector, computer and screen Have textbook and power point disk Have and organize activity materials on desk Instructional Objectives (Student-centered, observable, and precise statements of what students will be able to do) - TSWBAT design and create a flag that they will construct on their unique ideas about how they think the new United States flag should have been represented and describe their creation. (Psychomotor/Affective) - After class lecture, TSWBAT to justify the colonists' reasons for revolution by listing 4 specific reasons why the colonists wanted to break away from England. (Cognitive/Affective) - TSWBAT define key terms of the Revolutionary War on a take home worksheet due tomorrow. (Cognitive) Introduction (attention getter, anticipatory set, discrepant event, open-ended problem scenario, engagement) - Do you believe that the colonists had the right to revolt against England, based on yesterday's discussion on how life was like as a colonist? If you were a colonist, would you have supported the Revolution or not, why? Developmental Activities (Instructional components that provide opportunities for students to make progress toward intended instructional objectives) Engage- Introduction- (10 min) Do you believe that the colonists had the right to revolt against England, based on yesterday's discussion on how life was like as a colonist? If you were a colonist, for what reasons would you have supported the Revolution or not, why? Explore- Allow students to continue coming up with ideas as to why they support or why they would not. Encourage debate and discussion between the students who agree and those who do not. Transition- Let's go over the results of the Revolutionary War and how the colonists were affected by it. Explanation- (20 min) Provide students with information about the end of the Revolutionary War and the immediate results that came from it by having the students take notes on your power point slides. Evaluate- (5 min) Questions and comments session for the students to ask any questions they may have or say something they would like to share with the class. Transition- Now we're going to begin an activity in which you will design your own flag. Elaborate- (15 min) Flag Activity and clean up- see direction sheet - If time permits allow students to share their flags and explain them to the rest of the class. If not make sure that it gets done first thing next class period. Assessment/Evaluation (How you and the students will know that they learned. May be formative or summative) - Before we start the activity, do you have any comments that you would like to make about the Revolutionary War? - Do you have any questions about the material we just discussed? Do you understand everything? - Make sure you answer all questions before moving on. Conclusion (Closure; a planned wrap-up for the lesson) - Ask for final questions about the lesson. - If time permits, have the students share their flags and explain why they designed theirs the way that they did. Accommodations/Adaptations for Students with Special Needs: ADHD Make sure that the student is seated in the front row of the class, directly in front of the teacher so that you can keep an eye on the student and classroom distractions are behind them. Maintain eye contact during verbal instruction. Make your directions clear and concise, repeat them if you feel that the student did not hear or was not paying attention to what you said. Make sure that your directions are simplified and try to avoid multiple commands that may cause the student to lose attention. Also you should make sure the student comprehends the instructions before beginning the task. During the flag activity make sure that you assist the student with tasks that may take a long time like cutting out the pieces of paper or gluing. - Did the students enjoy the flag making activity? - Did the students comprehend the material that was presented to them? - Did they actively participate in the questions and comments section? - Was the lecture too long? Were the students interested in what we were talking about? - Were the power point slides effective? Could all the students see them clearly? Teacher Instruction Sheet - Remind students of what they just learned. Brief overview of the results of the Revolutionary War. - Now we are going to imagine that we are the revolutionists of the newly freed colonies. Imagine that we are among those patriots who want to do something for our new country. - I want all of you to imagine that you are going to create a flag that represents America and its beliefs. - That is your task today. Your task is to create an American flag that you think should have represented the colonists. You can be as creative as like, try different colors, patterns, designs, anything goes. - I have set out the paper, markers, rulers and scissors that you can use for this task in the front on the table. Feel free to take what you need and remember to share the markers. Remember to be careful when using the scissors. - You will have 15 minutes to do this task and clean up the materials. All scraps of paper must be thrown in the garbage and all scissors, glue and rulers must be back on the table when we are finished cleaning up. - If time permits, allow the students to share their flags with the rest of the class and explain why they designed theirs they way that they did. - Walk around the room and make sure that the students are working on their flags and staying on task. - Help students if they are lacking in ideas or creativity. **Remember that it is important to go over the rules of internet use in the classroom with your students before hand so they know how to use the computers in an educational way and avoid any controversial material. No Computer- Have the students create their flags using scissors, rulers, markers and glue sticks. Once they have completed their flag, the students can present them to the class using the overhead projector. One Computer- While you are explaining the flag activity, have a photo of the original colonial flag on the overhead projector. You can do a Google image search and pictures will come up, choose the one that you like best. Having the colonial flag visible to the students while they work on their project can help inspire them and enhance creativity. Six Computers- Divide your class into groups of 2 or 3, placing each group at 1 computer. Allow the groups to do an image search for pictures of the colonial flag. This will not take long, so have the students remain in their groups and create a flag together. Computer Lab- Make sure to reserve the computer lab in advance. Have the students work in Paint or any other image studio that may be on your computers. The students can create their flags using the computer and then print them out. Make sure that you have access to a colored printer so that the students intended artwork can be fully shown. After they print them out, have them explain them to the class. Wireless Laptop- After the students create and discuss their flags. Have them go to the World Fact Book website at http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/flagsoftheworld.html. On this page there are all of the different flags on the world. The students should pick a flag that is interesting to them. Research the country that they have chosen and write a brief 1 page description of the flag and location of the country that they chose. They will present this to the class.
Weaving together movement and history, Mark Matthews teaches students community dances like squares, contras and circles or couples dances like the jitterbug, waltz, two-step and foxtrot while explaining the history behind the dances. He focuses on how Native American, European and African styles of dance and music blended together to form America’s unique popular culture. Dancing encourages eye contact, is a way to playfully interact, and teaches respectful physical contact in a setting that includes both genders. Like sports, dancing improves physical coordination and cardiovascular health, as well as relieving tension and strengthening social bonds. At the end of Matthew’s intensive workshops with students, community members are often invited to public dances in the evening where children share their new skills and knowledge with parents and friends.
Some of us remember a time when jets flying overhead routinely created a sonic boom: a thunderous boom which usually came in pairs whenever a jet plane flying overhead was flying faster than the speed of sound. A plane pushes up pressure waves out in front of itself as it flies, much like a boat does on water. These pressure waves travel at the speed of sound — around 700 mph depending on the altitude and air density. If the plane speed reaches the speed of sound, the pressure waves cannot get out of the way so they build up and generate a shock wave which can be heard at a considerable distance from the plane. A second shock wave is generated by the plane's tail as the air pressure returns to normal. Jets are rarely allowed to create sonic booms over populated areas anymore because the booms were so disruptive.
How do we respond to Climate Change Climate change is a challenge that everyone needs to address, all the way from government through to individuals – with business, science, research, government, non-governmental organisations and communities all playing a part. Actions in response to climate change generally fall into two categories: mitigation and adaption. In broad terms, climate change mitigation is about reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change adaptation is about anticipating and adapting to the impacts of climate change. Mitigation is about taking action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions so that the severity of climate change will be lessened. Examples are the setting of emission reduction targets at the international level to limit average global temperature rise (e.g. Paris Agreement), national level (e.g. New Zealand’s proposed target of net zero carbon emissions by 2050) and local and individual levels (e.g. by measuring and reducing the carbon emissions of organisations and individuals). Adaptation anticipates and deals with the effects of climate change, helping to build greater resilience by harnessing innovation and responding to impacts such as rising sea levels and coastal hazards or droughts. Most adaptation action takes place at a local and community level (e.g. through land use planning). Mitigation and adaptation are closely linked: the more we take action to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions, the better the chance that we will have fewer impacts to adapt to in the future. Some actions we can take contribute to both areas, for example, planting coastal vegetation which absorbs carbon (mitigation) and protects properties at the same time by stabilising coastlines (adaptation).

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.