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A team of researchers at Imperial College London has found that attaching an array of cylindrical aluminum studs on top of a solar cell can dramatically improve the amount of light trapped inside its absorbing layer, leading to electrical current gains as high as 22 percent. In most solar cells, about half of the manufacturing costs are taken up by the absorbing layer alone. This all-important layer is where incoming photons collide with the atoms in the structure and "knock off" electrons, generating a current. In an effort to reduce manufacturing costs, scientists have been focusing on ways to reduce the thickness of the absorbing layer while keeping efficiencies high. One approach involved depositing arrays of gold and silver studs on top of the solar cells. Since these metals are known to interact strongly with light, the studs were meant to deflect photons at an angle, so that most photons would travel for longer distances within the absorbing layer, and have a greater chance of knocking off an electron. Unfortunately, that was not the case. A great portion of light was actually absorbed by the studs and, rather than increasing, the overall current produced by the cell actually decreased. Armed with a better understanding of how the internal structures of different metals interact with light, Dr. Nicholas Hylton and colleagues set out to test a similar array of aluminum nanocylinders. Besides being cheaper and more abundant than either gold or silver, aluminum is also much better at reflecting and scattering light without absorbing it. Thus, when photons hit the nanoarray, many more are deflected and travel through the absorption region for greater distances, as originally intended. "The idea with our work is that we're using plasmonic nanostructures to enhance the absorption of light in the semiconductor materials that are used to make solar cells," Hylton tells Gizmag. "In particular we used devices made from gallium arsenide (GaAs) to test the effect of using metal nanostructures and demonstrate enhancements, but the principle could be applied to other types of solar cells like those made from silicon or organic materials." Comparing the performance of a plasmonic solar cell equipped with the studs to one without the nanostructures, the researchers calculated that the nanocylinders could increase absorption efficiency by up to 22 percent. The advance could pave the way toward cheaper, thinner, higher-efficiency, perhaps even flexible solar cells. "In terms of augmenting existing solar panels, this type of technology needs to be integrated into the commercial manufacturing process and depends on our ability to make such tiny metal studs on a large scale," says Hylton. "There are a few technologies available to do this type of task, so it is really a question of how these can be integrated into existing commercial manufacturing processes. That's something we're working on and hope to take forward with industrial partners." An open-access paper describing the research is available in the journal Nature Scientific Reports. Source: Imperial College London
Your eyes are an excellent barometer of your visual and general health. In fact, many illnesses have a surprising effect on the eyes. Paying attention to changes in your eyes and vision can help y ...View Article You are using an outdated browser. Please upgrade your browser to improve your experience. With Better Handwriting and Math Getting It Down on Paper: Problems with Handwriting or Aligning Columns in Math. At Cook Vision Therapy Center, we see a large number of bright children who struggle to get their thoughts down on paper. To understand why a child might have difficulty getting things down on paper, let's try two demonstrations: Demonstration 1: Get a piece of paper and a pencil. Copy the following word: How did you do? "Waving" has six symbols. How long did it take to copy all of them? How many times did you have to look at the word in order to copy it? Now let's try another example. This time, however, we'll only ask you to copy four symbols: How did you do? What was different about copying these four symbols? In the first symbol, did you get the size and spacing correct? In the second symbol, did you get the lines all pointed in the correct directions. In copying the third symbol did you make your curves the right size? In the fourth, did you get all six lines and were the angles between the lines correct? As adults, when we write, we are using the same automatic process we used in copying the word "Waving." We just start writing and it comes out fine–more or less. When a young child copies a word, however, that child is using the same process we used when copying the four symbols. Suppose a child were copying the word Waving. The child would have to figure out how many lines there are in the letter W, to get the right curves in the a , g, and n, to get the correct, angle between the two lines of v. The child would have to figure out how far apart to put the letters and how to keep them horizontal, or perhaps, on a line. It's a lot to think about! Unless such concepts as lines and distances and angles and numbers are understood, the child is going to have difficulty learning to Only three rules apply in copying the sentence: Again, the frustration you felt in copying the sentence is the same frustration that a child with an Eye-Hand Coordination problem feels in school. All day long! It's no wonder that many such children spend as much time getting out of work as they spend completing it. Some Eye-Hand coordination problems are caused by difficulty with the hands themselves and are treated in the schools or privately by occupational therapists. Other Eye-Hand problems are due to the eyes. The child who cant comfortably coordinate the 14 muscles of his eyes (See Convergence Insufficiency) will not use those eyes to guide a pencil. If you observe such a child, you will find that often the eye are not aimed at the tip of the pencil. This is why the words are poorly spaced and float off the lines. Free Internet Screening and Phone Consultation If handwriting or if lining up the columns in math is a problem, fill out a Children's Screening Form. Then call 770-419-0400 for a Free Phone Consultation to help determine if our services are right for your child.
What lessons did the United States learn with respect to cultural or social aspects in the Vietnam War? There are at least two major lessons that we can say the US learned in terms of culture and society from the Vietnam War. One had to do with the country in which the US is fighting while the other had to do with the United States and its military. One major lesson learned was that a conflict like the one in Vietnam is fought as much in cultural and social terms as it is in military terms. This kind of war can only be won (if indeed it can be won) through winning the “hearts and minds” of the people of the country in which the US is fighting. The US has to project an image that encourages the local populace to support our cause. A second lesson learned is that we need to ensure that morale in our own military and on our own “homefront” stays high. Both of these things were missing in Vietnam. The military was not able to maintain good morale because of things like the high number of draftees in the war. Morale fell at home as well, and the lack of support from the public helped cause the war to be lost. These are cultural or social lessons that the US (we can hope) learned from the Vietnam War.
This is the newly-developed hetero-type dual photoelectrodes by Professor Jae Sung Lee and Professor Ji-Wook Jang's joint reserach team. (Image: UNIST) In the study, the research presented a hetero-type dual photoelectrodes, in which two photoanodes of different bandgaps are connected in parallel for extended light harvesting. Their new artificial leaf mimics the natural process of underwater photosynthesis of aquatic plants to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, which can be harvested for fuel. This study is expected to contribute greatly to the reduction and treatment of carbon dioxide emissions in accordance with the recent Paris Agreement on climate change. Because using hydrogen produced by artificial leaf as fuel, does not generate carbon dioxide emissions. In addition, it can be used as a cheap and stable hydrogen fuel for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Just like any other plants, marine plants also generate energy from the sun through photosynthesis. However, it is difficult to receive the full sunlight deep under the sea. Therefore, they are subjected to various types of photosynthesis that selectively utilize wavelengths reaching their depths. "We aim to achieve 10% enhanced light harvesting efficiency within three years," says Professor Lee. "This technology will greatly contribute to the establishment of the renewable-energy-type hydrogen refueling station by supplying cheap fuel for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Source: Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology
How to Analyze Children's Books There are different genres of books for children such as fiction and non-fiction. Each type has specific analytical requirements for the genre like meter and rhyme for poetry. Metrics exist for every book type but all genres have essentials that you should consider such as age and developmental appropriateness. These considerations are useful in reviewing board books, grade level books or picture books. Analyzing Books For Children Read the entire book for basic mechanics like spelling and grammar before you analyze the contents. Read the book again to evaluate the narrative. Jot down your initial thoughts on paper, a book diary or type your first impressions with a computer to record and organize your research. Write in the book diary, notes or computer about what emotions and thoughts the book created for you. Decide if you would read the book, from these initial concepts, again. Judge if the book seems emotionally and intellectually appropriate for the intended age group. Read child development books or talk to librarians and teachers about what children should be reading at different ages. Obtain a book-list or book catalog to gauge whether the book that you are analyzing is similar to the cognitive and emotional levels in the specific age or grade category. Look at the vocabulary used in the book and decide if children of that age will comprehend the words in the narrative or, for older children, if the words are below the targeted grade level. Decide if the subject and narrative is emotionally appropriate for the intended audience. Be aware that difficult topics like war, death and suffering may not be proper for young children. Read for not only age-appropriate subjects but also be sensitive to whether the book is prejudicial. Review the book for text or pictures that show ethnic groups, females or disabled people in stereotypical roles. Analyze the characters for a fiction book. Judge if the author describes the characters adequately or if the writer does not give the readers coherent descriptions of the characters’ appearances, behaviors, actions and motives. Decide if the characters use dialog that sounds like ordinary speech of the era. Be aware of how illustrations fit the character descriptions if you are reading a book with pictures. Read the narrative in both fiction and non-fiction for structural consistency where chapters should transition with resolution to the previous chapter and narrative link to the next chapter. Apply the same criticism to sentences and paragraphs. Analyze the writer’s attention to details. Review the author’s strengths in remembering, for example, the time-line in the narrative. Add research about the author’s facts if the book is non-fiction. Use other books about the subject and publications contemporary with the topic. Be wary of using the Internet for research because there are many sites with inadequately vetted information or commercial interests that might conflict with accurate facts. Use government and education websites to check the author’s manuscript for factual integrity. Items you will need - Rutgers; Notes for the Analysis of a Picture Book; Kay E. Vandergrift - Los Angelas Valley College: How to Write a Book Review - The Guardian; How do I Write a Book Review?; Philip Ardagh, Linda Buckley-Archer; May 2011 - Storymind; How to Create Great Characters!; Melanie Anne Phillips - Read, Write, Think: Help a Child Write a Book Review - Jupiterimages/Goodshoot/Getty Images
Producers for most ecosystems. organisms use light energy to drive the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and (usually) water. they feed not only themselves, but the entire living world. On land, plants are the predominant producers of food. Three major groups of land plants - mosses, ferns, and flowering plants - are represented in theis scene. In oceans, ponds, lakes, and other aquatic enviroments, photosynthetic organisms include (B) multicellular algae, such as kelp; (C) some unicellular protists, such as Euglena; (D) and the prokaryotes called cyanobacteria; and (E) other photosynthetic prokaryotes, such as these purple sulfur bacteria (C, D, E; LMs). and other autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere nourishes almost all of the living world directly or indirectly. An organism acquires the organi, compounds it uses for energy and carbon skeletons one of two major modes: autotrophic or heterotrophi nutrition. At first, the term autotrophic (Gr. autos, "self," and trophos, "feed") may seem to contradict the principle that organisms are open systems, taking in resource from their environment. Autotrophs are not totally self sufficient, however; they are self-feeders only in the sense that they sustain themselves without eating or decomposing other organisms. They make their organic molecules from inorganic raw materials obtained from the environment. It is for this reason that biologists refer to autotrophs as the producers of the biosphere. Plants are autotrophs; the only nutrients they require are carbon dioxide from the air, and water and minerals from the soil. Specifically, plants are photoautotrophs, organisms that use light as a source of energy to synthesize lipids, proteins, and other organic substances. Photosynthesis also occurs in algae, including certain protists, and in some prokaryotes (FIGURE io.1). In this chapter, our emphasis will be on plants. Variations in photosynthesis that occur in algae and bacteria will be discussed in Unit Five. A much rarer form of self-feeding is unique to those bacteria that are chemoautotrophs. These organisms produce their organic compounds without the help of light, obtaining their energy by wigdizing inorganic substances, such as sulfur or ammonia. (We will postpone further discussion of this type of autotrophic nutrition until Chapter 25.) obtain their organic material by the second major mode of nutrition. Unable to make their own food, they live on compounds produced by other organisms; heterotrophs are the biosphere's consumers. The most obvious form of this "other-feeding" (hetero means "other, different") is when an animal eats plants or other animals. But heterotrophic nutrition may be more subtle. Some heterotrophs do not kill prey, but instead decompose and feed on organic litter-such as carcassesces, and fallen leaves-and thus are known as decomposers. Most fungi and many types of bacteria get their nourishment this way. Almost all heterotrophs, including humans, are completely dependent on photoautotrophs for food, and also for oxygen, a by-product of photosynthesis. Thus, we can trace the food we eat and the oxygen we breathe to the chloroplast.
The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us from Other Animals by Thomas Suddendorf Basic Books, 2013 As recently as 30,000 years ago, several species of upright-walking, intelligent hominins shared the earth with our ancestors. Tiny Homo floresiensis made stone tools on the island of Flores in Indonesia, Denisovans inhabited caves in southern Siberia, and Neandertals, with brains at least as large as our own, ranged across Ice Age Europe and the Middle East. They learned to survive in the cold, used fire, wore clothes, cared for the sick, buried the dead and maybe even wore jewelry. These fellow members of the genus Homo most likely shared many qualities we now deem uniquely human. We can claim to be exceptional among the animals, psychologist Suddendorf writes, only because our closest relatives have gone extinct. In The Gap, Suddendorf examines the apparent chasm that separates humans from other animals. He covers six domains—language, mental time travel (thinking about the past and future), theory of mind (thinking about thinking), intelligence, culture and morality—in which multitudes of clever studies have probed the minds of animals and, for comparison, young children. What does it mean that great apes can recognize themselves in the mirror and monkeys cannot? Whales learn songs from one another, but does that count as culture? “If you set the bar low,” Suddendorf writes, “you can conclude that parrots can speak, ants have agriculture, crows make tools, and bees cooperate on a large scale.” He sets the bar higher. Although he presents both “romantic” and “killjoy” interpretations of animal ability, his sure-handed, fascinating book aims neither to exaggerate the wisdom of animals nor to promote the exceptionalism of human beings. Instead Suddendorf distills the gap into two overarching capacities: the ability to imagine different scenarios beyond what our senses perceive and a strong drive to link our minds together, by looking to one another for information or understanding. These two capacities transform common animal traits into distinctly human ones: communication into language, memory into planning, and empathy into morality. Suddendorf reminds us that many extinct hominins shared both capacities, making them more similar to us than to the great apes. Ultimately, taking measure of the current gap may be less important than understanding how it came to be. Genetic evidence shows some interbreeding between Homo sapiens and Neandertals. Nevertheless, we very likely had an unfriendly hand in their extinction, through violence or competition. Suddendorf, exercising his own fine scenario-building skills, asks whether we will continue to widen the gap by driving the great apes, already endangered, to extinction. Will our grandchildren think themselves more extraordinary for having monkeys as their closest living relatives?
Summer ozone season has arrived...protect your health and help reduce ozone pollution This summer all eyes and ears are on the potential for wildfires in our area. Smoke from wildfires is a health concern and is being monitored very closely. What is ozone and why is it a summer air pollution problem? Ozone can be "good" or "bad" depending on its location in the atmosphere. In the upper atmosphere,"good" ozone is produced naturally and protects us from UV radiation. At ground-level, "bad" ozone is a harmful air pollutant and is the key component of smog. Ground level ozone peaks on hot summer days because it is formed by a photochemical reaction between nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. Where do VOCs come from? Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are emitted to the air from a variety of activities, including: - Industrial and commercial operations - Vehicle refueling, driving - Using lawnmowers and other gas-powered equipment - Using products such as cleaners, paints/solvents, bbq lighter fluid, etc. What’s being done to reduce ozone pollution? There are a number of strategies in place to reduce emissions that contribute to ozone formation, including - Vapor recovery equipment required for storage tank filling at gas stations - Commercial emissions controls - Vehicle emissions check program - Emissions standards for new engines - Voluntary and mandated Commute Trip Reduction Programs at worksites Who’s at risk from ozone? Breathing unhealthful levels of ozone has been likened to "giving your lungs a sunburn." Children are at highest risk because their lungs are still developing. They are more likely to have asthma or other respiratory illnesses, and they are very active outdoors. Adults with asthma or other respiratory diseases are also at risk. New evidence shows ozone may cause chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, such as chronic asthma, chronic bronchitis, emphysema. Healthy adults can experience a 15-20% reduction in lung function from prolonged exposure to low levels of ozone. How can I find the current pollution levels? Spokane Clean Air monitors air quality daily, and reports air pollution levels here. While on that page, people can see a link to subscribe to EnviroFlash -- a personalized air quality email notification program, or download a smart phone app. How can I reduce ozone levels? - Reduce car trips by combining errands. Walk, bicycle or ride the bus once a week, instead of driving alone. - Refuel in the evening. This keeps ozone-forming vapors out of the air during the heat of the day. - Hold off using gas-powered lawn equipment until evening. - Use manual or electric yard and garden tools. - If you use a charcoal barbecue, start it with an electric probe instead of lighter fluid. What should I do when ozone levels rise? - Limit strenuous outdoor activity, exercise early when ozone is lower. - Pay attention to respiratory symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, discomfort. See your health provider if necessary. For more information:
To view our printable materials, you must download the latest version of the free Adobe Acrobat software. Our lesson plans are written and reviewed by educators using current research and the best instructional practices and are aligned to state and national standards. Choose from hundreds of topics and strategies. ReadWriteThink has a variety of resources for out-of-school use. Visit our Parent & Afterschool Resources section to learn more. Common Content Area Roots and Affixes \|ABOUT THIS PRINTOUT\| This printout offers 50 or so common roots, prefixes, and affixes that give students access to hundreds of key concepts across the content areas. This printout has been reproduced from the following book: Ellery, V., & Rosenboom, J.L. (2011). Sustaining strategic readers: Techniques for supporting content literacy in grades 6-12. Newark, DE: International Reading Asssociation. TEACHING WITH THIS PRINTOUT If your students are unfamiliar with the process of analyzing a word for its roots and affixes, you may need to begin by defining prefix, root, and suffix (using examples from the science, social studies, and mathematics section of the Common Content Area Roots and Affixes). Point out to students that once they are familiar with a root or affix, they can use that knowledge in multiple situations, increasing their vocabulary exponentially. Use the chart as an inquiry tool by covering the “Meaning” column and asking students to determine the meaning of the common root, prefix, or affix based on the content of the other columns. Students may be surprised at how much they already know and encouraged by the number of words their background knowledge gives them access to. MORE IDEAS TO TRY - When students have a handle on the function and structure of these word parts, model the process of dissecting words into prefixes, roots, and affixes and using knowledge of word parts to make meaning of unfamiliar words based on prior knowledge. - Have students explore the systematic effect certain suffixes have on roots. The suffix “-ism” for example, can turn an adjective into a noun, while “-ful” transforms nouns into adjective. Have students generate a list of such modifying suffixes and look for examples of them in their reading. - Ask students create a blank version of the Common Content Area Roots and Affixes chart to keep in a notebook they take with them throughout the day. Challenge them to look for roots and affixes across content areas. Keep a chart in the classroom that students are invited to add to throughout the school year, demonstrating their expanding word knowledge and know-how. \|Lesson Plans\|\|Student Interactives\|\|Calendar Activities\|\|Professional Development\|\|Parent & Afterschool Resources\| Grades 6 – 8 \| Student Interactive \| Learning About Language The Flip-a-Chip activity provides hands-on practice with affixes and roots, and also promotes comprehension through structural analysis and vocabulary in context.
Helicobacter pylori are bacteria that are considered to be the primary cause of peptic ulcers. The bacterium is found all over the world and can easily exist in a person without showing any symptoms. Once the bacterium has been able to colonize within its host, it lives between the surfaces of the epithelial cells and the overlying mucus gel layer. Studies have shown that once the bacterium has been allowed to settle in the system, it will remain for the lifespan of the individual. One of the most common conditions caused by peptic ulcers is known as peptic ulcers, which are simply small sores on the lining of the stomach or beginning of the small intestine, known as the duodenum. While the consumption of excessively spicy food can significantly aggravate the condition, it is not a direct cause of development. The condition is characterized by the prominence of a sharp pain whenever the digestive process is active. Some of the common symptoms experienced include a burning sensation in the belly or abdomen, which tends to get a lot worse when the stomach is empty. This will disappear as soon as the patient consumes some amount of food or liquid. The bacterium H. pylori is said to be contagious because of its tendency to run in families. Before going into the details of the CLO test we first need to understand the functioning of certain aspects of the body and the diseases they are prone to. The digestive system in the human body is a complicated combination of various organs and systems that runs from the mouth to the anus. Food is chewed during consumption which allows for it to be swallowed. Once food reaches the stomach, the process of breakdown begins. Food is treated with strong acids and enzymes in the stomach which work to break down the food so that its nutrients can be easily absorbed in the intestines. The lining of the stomach is therefore supposed to be very strong so that it can withstand the highly acidic nature of some of the digestive juices used. The term 'H pylori' is used for a type of bacteria that are found all across the world. Many people who host h pylori bacteria do not display any symptoms as this infestation is kept to a bare minimum. When the bacteria are able to multiply, they may break through the lining of the stomach. This will lead to the development of ulcers in the stomach. The ulcers develop when the exposed inner lining of the stomach is treated with digestive acids. This exposure can lead to painful symptoms for the patient as there will be direct contact between delicate tissue and powerful acid. In order to treat the patient for an infection by the h pylori bacteria, the doctor will first need to have a confirmed diagnosis that there is such an infestation in the body. The CLO test for h pylori is one method used to determine if the individual is suffering from an infection of this type of bacteria. The CLO test endoscopy begins with a scope being inserted through the mouth into the stomach. This scope will be used to look around the stomach to see any obvious signs of damage in the form of ulcers. At this point, the CLO test biopsy can be conducted. A sample of the mucosa is taken and the scope is then removed. The CLO test rapid urease test is a variation of the test where the biopsy sample is placed in a medium containing urea. A marker is then used to determine if a chemical reaction has taken place to suggest the presence of the h pylori bacterium. This reaction takes place quickly and can then be used as a diagnosis of an infestation by the h pylori bacterium. When the CLO test is positive, it is a fairly reliable indicator that the individual is suffering from an infection of this bacterium. However, it should be noted that the CLO test, particularly CLO test rapid urease test is prone to producing false negative results. This is why other tests including a visual analysis during the endoscopy may be important. The reason that the rapid version of the test is used is that simple cases get diagnosed quickly and effectively. The treatment for an infestation of the bacterium can then begin. In many cases, doctors may prescribe treatment for the infestation even if the result is negative. The CLO test involves an invasive endoscopy procedure. The test is therefore quite uncomfortable with patients often reporting irritation in their throat after the test. It is important for the individual to be fasting prior to the test so that the stomach is empty when the scope enters it. The patient may not even consume water for a couple of hours before the test begins. Apart from this, there is no major preparation required for the procedure. Regarding the side effects of the condition, in certain extreme cases, the patient will be admitted to the hospital for treatment. In all other cases, he or she may return home after the test is complete so that food can be consumed to nourish the body. Major and minor concers with regards to the cost of the procedure, the CLO test CPT code and so on could be discussed with the presiding doctor. CLO testing, also known as H. pylori testing, may be ordered when a patient is experiencing symptoms like a feeling of bloating or fullness, nausea, excessive belching or regurgitation and indigestion. As with any type of blood test, a blood sample will be collected from a vein, usually at the back of the elbow. Before the drawing of the blood, the area where the vein is going to be punctured will be cleansed with the help of an alcohol scrub. A leather strap will then be fastened to the top of the arm in order to stop blood flow and cause the vein to swell up - increasing the level of accuracy for the doctor to puncture it. Once the needle is injected and the blood drawn, a cotton swab will be placed over the fresh wound and some amount of force exerted to speed up the healing process. A positive clo test indicates that you have been infected with the organism. However, if the report comes back negative, this does not guarantee that you are not affected and, if the symptoms remain, the doctor may need to perform a more invasive for of diagnosis.
In response to the Soviet blockade of land routes into West Berlin, the United States begins a massive airlift of food, water, and medicine to the citizens of the besieged city. For nearly a year, supplies from American planes sustained the over 2 million people in West Berlin. On June 24, 1948, the Soviet Union blocked all road and rail travel to and from West Berlin, which was located within the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany. The Soviet action was in response to the refusal of American and British officials to allow Russia more say in the economic future of Germany. The U.S. government was shocked by the provocative Soviet move, and some in President Harry S. Truman’s administration called for a direct military response. Truman, however, did not want to cause World War III. Instead, he ordered a massive airlift of supplies into West Berlin. On June 26, 1948, the first planes took off from bases in England and western Germany and landed in West Berlin. It was a daunting logistical task to provide food, clothing, water, medicine, and other necessities of life for the over 2 million fearful citizens of the city. For nearly a year, American planes landed around the clock. Over 200,000 planes carried in more than one-and-a-half million tons of supplies. The Soviets persisted with the blockade until May 1949. By then, however, it was apparent to everyone concerned that the blockade had been a diplomatic fiasco for the Russians. Around the world, the Soviets were portrayed as international bullies, holding men, women, and children hostage in West Berlin and threatening them with starvation. The unbelievably successful American airlift also backfired against the Russians by highlighting the technological superiority of the United States. By the time the Soviets ended the blockade, West Germany had become a separate and independent nation and the Russian failure was complete.
The Treaties - 28 - Treaty Regarding Arid and Semi-Arid Zones 1. Arid and semi-arid zones comprise a group of complex natural areas distributed in various locations throughout the planet. While maintaining the identifying characteristics that distinguish them from other ecosystems, there is still great diversity within the category. 2. Arid and semi-arid zones must be considered in terms of their complementary interrelations with other ecological zones of the planet. 3. Arid and semi-arid zones exhibit a natural and cultural potential for sustainable development - biodiversity, biomass, water, soil, etc. 4. In spite of this existing potential, these zones have suffered an accelerated process of social and environmental degradation in the past decades, the principal causes of which are: a. The increasing adoption of the "Green Revolution" technology package, particularly agriculture using modern irrigation techniques b. The construction of large dams, resulting in the permanent flooding of land and the relocation of local populations c. The refusal of the emergent social and economic powers to accept traditional systems of production - excessive ranching and pastoral activities; increasing pressure on the land in small peasant and tribal communities; accelerated deforestation; and soil degradation reinforcing the processes of erosion and desertification d. Population growth is causing the over-exploitation of natural resources in some regions; while in other cases the low population density is permitting the degradation of cultivated ecosystems through the lack of adequate upkeep e. Unequal access to natural resources - land, water, biomass. 5. The rapid degradation of natural resources and the alteration of water systems in these regions has made the reduction in food production indices more visible. This in turn has put even more pressure on these resources, and accordingly local communities then attempt to compensate for the drop in production by intensifying their use of the natural resources, disregarding the natural cycles of recuperation of the ecosystem. 6. These problems, linked to global climate change, produce local climate alterations which manifest themselves in hotter and prolonged dry seasons and the occurrence of more intense and frequent droughts. 7. Desertification is another facet of this problem; it affects 1/6 (one-sixth) of the world's population and close to 3.6 billion hectares of land. 8. This desertification process provokes increases in rural poverty and accelerates migration to the cities. Conversely, the swelling cities augment the pressure on natural resources - wood, water, etc. - and thus a vicious circle is created that further accelerates the degradation of the ecosystems and the processes of desertification. 9. Politics and public works in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Third World have historically assumed the character of emergency treatment of drought and hunger, without confronting structural problems, such as access to land and water; this contributes to the perpetuation of structures which are socially unjust and which degrade the environment. Principles for an Alternative Method 10. Arid and semi-arid zones are complex ecosystems with natural potential sufficient to provide a good quality of life for their populations, if the development approach adopted is socially just, ecologically sustainable, culturally appropriate and based on a holistic vision of science and nature. 11. The development of these zones, planned and executed considering their own potential and specifications, must be intimately related to the development of the other zones of the earth, affirming a principle of solidarity among populations from areas that are ecologically different. 12. The governments of different countries need to exercise cooperation and solidarity in order to surmount the present problems of these zones. 13. The effective participation of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), of social movements and of the populations directly involved is indispensable in all stages of sustainable development, i.e. the diagnosis of problems and potentials, the definition of objectives and methods, the approval, implementation and follow-up of projects and programs, and the evaluation of socio-economic, cultural and environmental impacts. 14. The quality of life of human beings and the preservation, conservation and restoration of the environment of these zones must come before the interests of economic corporations and dominant political groups. Drought, hunger, desertification and other problems of these zones should not be used as instruments of international blackmail for the perpetuation of economic and political power for a few elite groups. 15. To support sustainable development, those working for the economic incorporation of arid and semi-arid zones should: a. seek food self sufficiency on a regional scale b. give priority to the exchange of local products between areas with production surpluses and those with deficits c. avoid the use of resources at levels that would continue to reproduce the same social, economic and environmental conditions. 16. In these zones the social and environmental costs must be analyzed and seriously considered in the evaluation procedures for all development projects, especially large scale projects like dams or irrigation. 17. A general redefinition of economic indicators is necessary in order to redirect the political economy of these zones towards food production destined for the needs of the impoverished populations. Plan of Action 18. NGOs and social movements commit themselves to realizing the following actions relating to arid and semi-arid zones: a. Extend and refine plans for reflection and action in relation to the problematic of these zones, seeking the most effective diffusion and adoption of plans based on experiences in sustainable development b. Establish mechanisms and structures of scientific, technical and financial cooperation with the objective of making this plan of action viable c. Intensify, extend and improve the exchange of information, knowledge, experience and technology that is socially just, ecologically sustainable, culturally appropriate and based on a holistic vision of science and nature d. Plan and implement environmental education schemes that affirm the ecological, economic and cultural potentials of these zones e. Participate effectively in the processes of discussion, definition and follow-up on public works at the local, national and international level f. Seek significant media coverage for campaigns which work for the population of these zones and clarify their principal social and environmental problems and the solutions that already exist g. Support and develop concrete actions forward the democratization of access, use and conservation of natural resources - land, water and biomass - promoting agreements on the rational use of these resources in areas where conflicts exist between local communities h. Reinforce the struggle for agrarian reform in regions where ownership of land is concentrated in the hands of the few i. Develop initiatives, projects and campaigns for the preservation of genetic resources and biodiversity as well as against the private appropriation of genetic capital through the patenting of living things, or any other form of monopolistic control 19. NGOs and Social movements will strive to make local, national and international officials adopt the following measures for arid and semi-arid zones: a. The development of public education: eradicating illiteracy while considering the traditional knowledge and socio-cultural organization, including the modes of production, of each locale; and integrating environmental concerns into the conventional disciplines b. The democratization of government information on the realities of the social and environmental situation as well as on the public works relating to environment and development in these regions c. The restructuring and integration of education research, outreach and rural communication in accordance with the social, cultural and environmental necessities d. The democratization of government programs to facilitate access, use and conservation of natural resources - principally land, water and biomass - to favor peasants and traditional, indigenous and tribal communities e. The achievement of agrarian reform in countries where land ownership is in the hands of the few, incorporating the politics of credit, technical assistance and efficient, adequate commercialization with the social, economic, cultural and environmental conditions of each region f. The adoption of the principle that genetic resources are the cultural inheritance of the peasants and the traditional, indigenous and tribal communities; and the creation of rigorous legislation, which guards against any form of private, monopolistic appropriation of genetic capital g. The definition of a political platform to support the dry regions, keeping in mind agricultural, pastoral and forest activities; and a restructuring of irrigated agriculture from the perspective of the integrated and sustainable use of natural resources h. The reorientation of agroindustrial politics in order to support small-scale production generated by the popular sectors, which provides incentive for local and regional development i. The reorientation of industrial politics in a manner that will consider only non-polluting industries and economic and social services that create employment opportunities and an improvement in the quality of life j. The reorientation of the political framework to promote the development of useful and artistic handicrafts in the local populations through the creation of nature reserves to guarantee the essential products and primary materials for the craft-work; in this way ensuring the preservation of popular art and culture and fortifying the local and regional economy k. The adoption of the concept and practice of participatory agro-ecology, avoiding the subordination of farmers under the conventional systems of rural development l. The effective diagnosis, evaluation and monitoring of all projects that could cause environmental, social or cultural degradation on a local and more widespread scale m. A guarantee that the local populations, NGOs and social movements will have space to negotiate on projects, programs, financial resources, etc n. The implementation of warning systems to prevent the consequences of climate change, over-utilization of resources, dislocation of populations and the resulting conflicts o. The creation of a fund, the specific purpose of which will be to support the restoration of natural resources in degraded areas, in order to make the activities of local populations viable, guaranteeing the principle of popular participation 20. The following are mechanisms which will accompany this plan of action for arid and semi-arid zones: a. Formation of a consortium of NGOs and social movements which will be active in the arid and semi-arid zones on the local, national and international level b. Creation of mechanisms of communication, using computer networks, interpersonal communication, informational bulletins, workshops and conferences at the local, national and international levels c. Establishment of specific coordination centres for each region which will function as a point of reference for the reception and diffusion of information d. Development of criteria and methodologies for the evaluation of projects and public works directed toward these zones e. Monitoring the destination of public funds, and pressuring the international banks to do an international audit of all the projects they have financed, with the participation of NGOs, social movements and the populations involved at all levels f. Evaluation of the results obtained from this accord by the end of 1994.
Stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection . It is the primary traffic regulation protocol in Ethernet networks . Compare with token ring 's contention avoidance mechanism. It works just like it says. Before a station transmits a frame, it will sense for carrier (a voltage on the wire indicating another station is transmitting.) If it senses carrier, it will hold the frame until the line is clear. Multiple access means many stations may share the same physical media or collision domain. Collision detection happens when two stations try and transmit relatively simultaneously. Mind you, this is within the maximum time it would take for a signal to propagate across the entire collision domain. This is usually on the order of milliseconds, and is why there are distance and repeater restrictions in Ethernet design--both cause this time to increase and increase the likelihood of collisions. Network collisions are not bad, necessarily.
Topics in this Section Primary hyperparathyroidism is a disorder of the parathyroid glands in which one or more enlarged, overactive parathyroid glands secretes too much parathyroid hormone (PTH). The parathyroid glands are four rice-sized glands located on back of the thyroid gland in the neck. Though their names are similar, the thyroid and parathyroid glands are entirely different glands, each producing distinct hormones with specific functions. The parathyroid glands secrete PTH, a substance that helps maintain the correct balance of calcium in the body. PTH regulates levels of calcium in the blood, release of calcium from bone, absorption of calcium in the intestine, and excretion of calcium in the urine. If one or more of the parathyroid glands secretes too much hormone, as happens in primary hyperparathyroidism, the balance is disrupted: blood calcium rises. This condition of excessive calcium in the blood, called hypercalcemia, is what usually signals the doctor that something may be wrong with the parathyroid glands. In 85% of people with primary hyperparathyroidism, a single benign tumor called an adenoma has formed in one of the parathyroid glands, causing it to become overactive. 99% of these adenomas are noncancerous. This excess PTH triggers the release of too much calcium into the bloodstream. The bones may lose calcium, leading to osteoporosis. The levels of calcium may increase in the urine, causing kidney stones. Over time, untreated primary hyperparathyroidism may cause problems with the heart and blood vessels, and patients are at higher risk of dying from cardiovascular disease. Calcium is essential for good health. It plays an important role in bone and tooth development and in maintaining bone strength. Calcium is also important in nerve transmission and muscle contraction. In most cases doctors don't know the cause. The vast majority of cases occur in people with no family history of the disorder. Only about 5 percent of cases can be linked to an inherited problem. Familial multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 is a rare, inherited syndrome that affects the parathyroids as well as the pancreas and the pituitary gland. In the United States, about 100,000 people develop the disorder each year. Women outnumber men two to one, and risk increases with age. In women 60 years and older, 1/500 will develop hyperparathyroidism each year. A person with hyperparathyroidism may have severe symptoms, subtle ones, or none at all. Increasingly, routine blood tests that screen for a wide range of conditions, including high calcium levels, are alerting doctors to people who have mild forms of the disorder even though they are symptom-free. When symptoms do appear, they are often mild and nonspecific, such as a feeling of weakness and fatigue, depression, or aches and pains. With more severe disease, a person may have a loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, constipation, confusion or impaired thinking and memory, and increased thirst and urination. Patients may have thinning of the bones without symptoms, but with risk of fractures. Increased calcium and phosphorus excretion in the urine may cause kidney stones. Hyperparathyroidism is diagnosed when tests show that blood levels of calcium and parathyroid hormone are too high. Other diseases can cause high blood calcium levels, but only in hyperparathyroidism is the elevated calcium the result of too much parathyroid hormone. A blood test that accurately measures the amount of parathyroid hormone has simplified the diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism. Surgery to remove the enlarged gland (or glands) is the only definitive treatment for the disorder and cures it in 95 percent of operations. With the use of accurate preoperative imaging studies and intraoperative parathyroid hormone measurement, minimally invasive parathyroidectomy via a 2-3 centimeter incision is possible in the majority of cases. Surgery for hyperparathyroidism is highly successful with a low complication rate when performed by surgeons experienced with this condition. Less than 1 percent of patients will have postoperative bleeding requiring repeat operation. Less than 1 percent of patients may experience damage to the nerves controlling the vocal cords, which can affect speech. Less than 1% of patients may develop low calcium following operation which requires treatment with calcium or vitamin D. Minimally invasive parathyroidectomy requires accurate preoperative imaging with ultrasound and sestamibi scan. If preoperative imaging does not demonstrate a single enlarged gland, then bilateral neck exploration is required.
Nasa's Curiosity Mars rover has carried out the first ever measurements of radiation on another planet. Its findings suggest that astronauts would be able to live on the surface of Mars for long enough to carry out extended missions. \|Curiosity data showing the relationship between Martian air pressure (blue) and radiation (red) (Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI) Observations taken by Curiosity's Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS) and Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) instruments over the rover's first 12 weeks on Mars have revealed a rhythmic link between changes in radiation and daily atmospheric changes. Seasonal and daily rhythms of air pressure changes detected by REMS were not unexpected, with the seasonal pattern resulting from the release of tons of frozen carbon dioxide from winter ice caps as spring turns to summer in the Martian southern hemisphere. The daily cycle of higher pressure in the morning and lower pressure in the evening results from daytime heating of the atmosphere by the sun, creating a "thermal tide" as the morning works its way westwards around the planet. Effects of that atmospheric tide show up in data from RAD, which monitors high-energy radiation and observed radiation levels falling and rising by 3-5% per day as atmospheric pressure increases and decreases. RAD principal investigator Don Hassler, of the Southwest Research Institute, explained that the atmosphere provides a level of shielding, so charged-particle radiation is less when the atmosphere is thicker. At present, the radiation readings are reported in arbitrary units. The RAD team is analysing the results and hopes to be able to release precise numbers in early December. Speaking at a press conference, Hassler explained why the Martian radiation environment is fundamentally different from that of Earth. Unlike Earth, Mars does not have a magnetic field to protect it from high-energy charged particle radiation. In addition, a planet's atmosphere provides shielding against radiation, and the Martian atmosphere is only about 1% the thickness of the Earth's. Radiation levels at the Martian surface are of interest because they are a life-limiting factor and therefore relevant for the past, present and future habitability of the planet. Overall, shielding effects of the thin Martian atmosphere reduce radiation doses to about half those experienced by Curiosity on its nine-month journey to the planet. Knowledge about the planet's radiation environment is vital in planning future manned missions to Mars. "Absolutely, astronauts can live in this environment," Hassler confirmed. However, an astronaut's total radiation dose throughout the entire mission, not just on the Martian surface, would need to be considered. With the journey from Earth to Mars taking 8-9 months in both directions, followed by up to 6 months spent on the planet itself and the journey home again, astronauts would need to stay within "career limits" for radiation dose. Curiosity, which landed in the Gale Crater on Mars in August, is investigating whether areas inside the crater ever have or could provide a habitable environment for microbial life. The mobile laboratory is powered by a plutonium-fuelled nuclear battery which is expected to last through the rover's initially planned two years of operations. Researched and written by World Nuclear News
Read the following sentences: 1. The boy killed the spider. 2. The spider was killed by the boy. As you can probably see both sentences express the same idea. In sentence 1, the form of the verb indicates that the person denoted by the subject (the boy) is the doer of the action. The verb killed is therefore said to be in the active voice. In sentence 2, the form of the verb shows that something is done to the person denoted by the subject (the spider). The verb is killed is therefore said to be in the passive voice. A verb is in the active voice when its form indicates that the person or thing denoted by the subject does something. A verb is in the passive voice when its form indicates that something is done to the person or thing denoted by the subject. In the following sentences, note the changes when an active sentence is converted into the passive. 1. John loves Alice. (Active) 2. Alice is loved by John. (Passive) 3. The masons are building the house. (Active) 4. The house is being built by the masons. (Passive) 5. Who did this? (Active) 6. By whom was this done? (Passive) You will have noticed that when the verb is changed from the active voice to the passive voice, the object of the transitive verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice. In sentence 1, John is the subject of the active verb loves. In sentence 2, Alice is the subject of the passive verb is loved. Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive voice. Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive voice because they do not have objects.
(Phys.org) -- Condensed-matter physicists the world over are in hot pursuit of a comprehensive understanding of high-temperature superconductivity, not just for its technological benefits but for the clues it holds to strongly correlated electron systems. One important avenue of investigation is pairing symmetry. Its a property of Cooper pairs, the bound electron pairs that are a hallmark of all superconductors, whether high-temperature or conventional. The paired electrons act as if they were a single particle, and the energy required to break Cooper pairs is measured by the superconducting gap. The symmetry of the superconducting gap, known as the pairing symmetry, is an important characteristic of Cooper pairs that is intimately related to the mechanism of superconductivity. In conventional superconductors, the Cooper pairs have s-wave pairing symmetry, which takes the shape of a sphere. In contrast, Cooper pairs in the cuprate family of high-temperature superconductors exhibit d-wave pairing symmetry, which looks a bit like a four-leaf clover. The leaves, or lobes, are areas where the superconducting gap is finite. At the points where two leaves join, known as nodes, the superconducting gap goes to zero. However, iron-based superconductors do not fall nicely into either of these two categories. Some members of this group exhibit characteristics of superconducting gaps with s-wave pairing symmetry, while others show signatures of nodes where the gap becomes zero, as with d-wave pairing symmetry. The key to resolving this discrepancy remained unknown until recently, when a team of scientists from Fudan University used an instrument at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource's Beam Line 5-4 to measure the detailed superconducting gap structure of the ferropnictide superconductor BaFe2(As0.7P0.3)2. They discovered a signature that could not have originated from a d-wave pairing a striking difference from the cuprate family. This finding, the first measurement of its kind, provides solid experimental evidence that iron-based superconductors fall into the regime of s-wave pairing symmetry seen in conventional superconductors, and suggests that both nodal and nodeless gaps could arise from the same mechanism. This could lead to a unified theoretical framework for both phenomena, making the research an important step toward unveiling the mechanism of iron-based superconductivity. Explore further: New complex oxides could advance memory devices
Aviation experts believe the Helios Airways plane that crashed in Greece, killing all 121 people on board, may have suffered a catastrophic loss of cabin pressure, exposing those on board to extreme cold and lack of oxygen. Aviation commentator Mark Welsh explains how modern aircraft regulate air pressure and temperature to allow safe flying. Modern commercial aircraft operate at altitudes which cannot sustain human life. Experts believe some Helios Airways passengers died before the crash To provide a comfortable environment, the cabin of the aircraft is sealed and the flow of air in and out of this "metal tube" is carefully controlled. The flow of air out is regulated by several valves in the body of the aircraft and the flow of air in is provided by compressed air taken from the engines. This air has its temperature and pressure corrected before being fed into the cabin. If the regulating valves fail or if the cabin structure is breached (by a failure of a door or window for example) then the pressure in the cabin would suddenly drop to match the outside air pressure. At high altitudes the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is much lower Starvation of the body's supply of oxygen is known as hypoxia. Early symptoms may include headache, nausea and deeper breathing as the body attempts to compensate Breathing may become shallow as the person becomes weaker and the brain realises it is expelling too much carbon dioxide and creating a harmful imbalance of oxygen to CO2 in the body. They may lose consciousness. Cyanosis - blue or purple discolouration of extremities such as the lips and fingers - occurs as hypoxia progresses If there was a failure in the air supply system then the pressure would decrease more slowly but still eventually match the outside air pressure. If an aircraft flying at an altitude of 35,000 feet were to lose its pressurisation system completely, then the occupants would have 25-30 seconds to establish an alternative oxygen supply. If they were unable to do so they would die within two minutes. To combat this threat, aircraft have a warning system which alerts the crew if the cabin altitude is approaching dangerous levels. If this alert is received, the pilots should put on masks which will provide them with oxygen while they rapidly descend the aircraft to an altitude where the occupants can breathe without assistance. While this is happening, the passengers will be provided with oxygen from drop-down masks which will give them oxygen for 12 to 15 minutes, by which time the aircraft should be at a lower level. As well as air pressure, the aircraft's occupants must be protected from the deadly outside air temperature. If the warmed flow of air into the cabin were to fail, the temperature in the aircraft would decrease until it approached the outside air temperature of -45C to -60C. The emergency oxygen supply used by the pilots is independent of that used by the passengers. Any malfunction in this system would leave the pilots with very little time to recover the situation. If they were unable to do this, it is possible that the pilots would lose consciousness, the aircraft would continue on autopilot and the cabin crew and passengers would face a situation where they were running out of emergency oxygen and the air temperature in the cabin was rapidly dropping. The cabin crew would have portable oxygen supplies and a means of opening the locked cockpit door but would not be trained to fly the aircraft to a safe altitude. With the cabin air exhausted and the temperature dropping to -50C, the aircraft would fly until it ran out of fuel. The "black box" flight data recorder stores a huge amount of data gathered from sensors around the aircraft. This includes cabin pressure, the position of the flying controls and aircraft height and speed. There is also a cockpit voice recorder which will record noises, such as cockpit warnings, and conversations within the cockpit. Older voice recorder systems record sound onto a constantly running magnetic tape loop while newer systems use digital storage devices to hold much more voice data. In the event of a plane crash, depending on the model of the recorder and whether the data can be recovered, experts will be able to analyse cockpit voice recordings for either the last 30 minutes of the flight or for up to two hours before it crashed. GREECE AIR DISASTER 1. 0900 [0700GMT]: Helios Airways Flight ZU522 leaves Larnaca bound for Prague via Athens 2. 0920 approx: Plane reaches cruising altitude of 35,000ft 3. 0937: Plane enters Greek airspace 4. 1007: Air traffic control unable to contact aircraft 5. 1030: Greek ATC issues "Renegade alert" 6. 1055: F16 fighter aircraft scramble 7. 1120: F16s intercept aircraft; pilots observed slumped over controls 8. 1205: Aircraft crashes near Grammatiko, 40km north of Athens
Introduction to Physical Oceanography Homework Set 7 Due 5 November 2008 Late homework will cost 15 points per week or part of a week it is late. In this assignment, you are asked to consider deep water types and their circulation based on the core method. - Using the T-S plot below, which is based on hydrographic data collected from the South Atlantic: - Where in the South Atlantic is the station located (relative to land or prominent bottom features)? Please be specific, "South not a acceptable answer. - Assuming mixing occurs along straight lines, draw best-fitting straight lines through the water masses (points) in the figure. Use the intersections of the straight lines to determine water types. (see figure 13.9 in the text for an example). - Do the observed data on the Temperature-Salinity curve fit the idea of water masses being formed by the mixing of waters from different water types, e.g. is the fit excellent, good, poor, or very poor? - Please give your reasons for judgment. - What are the temperatures and salinities of the water types you plotted on the figure above? Using the temperatures and salinities of the water types on the figure, and the information in Table 13.1 of the class notes, what are the names of the water types you plotted on - Using the information in Section 13.4 of the Class Notes, what is the source of Antarctic Intermediate and Antarctic Bottom Waters? At what latitude do they - The figure below shows the distribution of salinity in the Indian Ocean along 80° E from India to Antarctica. On the figure, draw the mid-line of at least one core, and sketch the possible flow of water in the core as indicated by the distribution of salinity. - List at least four different types of tracers that could be used with the core method. 13 October, 2008
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disease caused by damage to the nerve fibres in the central nervous system. This damage disrupts the signals sent to and from the brain. MS is a progressive disease that worsens over time, eventually leading to death. The central nervous system comprises the brain, spinal cord and a network of nerves that conduct messages across the body for controlling movements and actions. These nerve fibres are covered by an insulating substance called myelin that protects the nerve and aids the transport of impulses to and from the brain. In MS, this myelin becomes damaged, which interferes with conduction of the nerve signals, which may be slowed or not transported at all. Causes of multiple sclerosis MS is an autoimmune disease. Usually, the immune system protects the body against invading microbes or foreign bodies but in autoimmune diseases, the immune system mistakes healthy body tissue for foreign or damaged tissue that needs to be attacked. In MS, the immune system mistakes the protective myelin sheath for a foreign body and mounts an attack against it. This destroys the myelin, which becomes inflamed in small areas called plaques or lesions of demyelination. As the inflammation subsides, the myelin left behind may be scarred (sclerosis) and the nerve fibre underneath may be damaged. The exact cause of MS is not clearly understood but both genetic factors and environmental factors seem to play a role in causing the condition. MS is not classed as a genetic condition because no one gene has yet been identified as causing the condition. However, researchers have shown that individuals with a relative who has had MS are more likely to develop it. Studies have also shown that if a twin develops the condition, the risk of the other twin developing MS is one in four. Research into the contribution of certain gene combinations to the risk of developing MS is ongoing. Worldwide studies into MS suggest that individuals from countries that lie further north of the equator may be at a greater risk for the condition, which is more common in countries such as the UK and Scandinavia than in Ecuador or Malaysia, for example. Some studies have shown that lack of sunlight and a subsequent lack of Vitamin D may be linked to the incidence of MS. Some researchers also believe MS may result from viral infection of the nervous system and/or the immune system and the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has commonly been implicated as a cause of MS. Reviewed by Sally Robertson, BSc
The treatment for anemia depends on its cause and severity, according to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. For iron deficiency anemia, physicians typically prescribe an iron supplement or recommend dietary changes, such as increasing iron and vitamin C intake. For pernicious anemia, which is a caused by low levels of vitamin B12, vitamin B12 supplements are prescribed. In severe cases, physicians may treat anemia with a blood transfusion.Continue Reading Chronic disease may cause some cases of anemia, according to the American Society of Hematology. In these cases, physicians treat the disease first. Medication, such as erythropoietin, may be required to raise the number of red blood cells. Treatment for sickle cell anemia, a hereditary form of anemia caused by crescent-shaped red blood cells, includes pain relievers, blood transfusions and antibiotics, according to Mayo Clinic. Anemia occurs when the blood does not contain enough healthy red blood cells, according to Mayo Clinic. Without healthy blood red blood cells, the body does not receive enough oxygen. Anemia is caused by blood loss, impaired red blood production or destruction of existing red blood cells. To diagnose anemia, the doctor may perform a physical exam, order a complete blood count or CBC and check the level of iron in the blood. More tests may be conducted to pinpoint underlying causes.Learn more about Conditions & Diseases
The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) maintains three schedules for recommended vaccinations: one for children 0-6 years old, another for children 7-18 years old, and a third for adults 19 and older. At first glance, the recommended vaccines can seem like a lot, but many are required to enroll in public schools and colleges, and there is a good reason for each one. See below for a the current CDC vaccination schedules, as well as information on each disease the vaccinations are protecting against. DTaP: This vaccine helps prevent three diseases: diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. - Who should get the vaccine? Everyone. A five-dose vaccine is available for children between the ages of two months and six years; teenagers should receive their next DTaP vaccination at age 19, and then every 10 years for the rest of their lives. Diphtheria: An airborne infection caused by the Corynebacterium diphtheriae bacteria. - Transmission: The disease is spread person-to-person, usually through “respiratory droplets” secreted during a cough or sneeze. It may also spread from sores or lesions on the skin, as well as clothing or other items that have been contaminated from the discharge of lesions or sores. - Symptoms: Lack of energy, sore throat, fever, and/or swollen neck glands. - Prognosis: Complications from diphtheria include airway blockage, cardiovascular damage, nerve inflammation/polyneuropathy, paralysis, lung infection, and death. One out of ten diphtheria patients who receive treatment do not survive the infection; without treatment, the disease has a mortality rate of 50%. Tetanus: An infection caused by the Clostridium tetani bacteria. - Transmission: The tetanus bacteria lives in the soil, and is transmitted to humans through cuts or burns rendered from physical contact with contaminated surfaces or objects. - Symptoms: Headaches, stiff jaw, muscle spasms, body aches, difficulty swallowing, seizures, fever, uncontrollable sweating, and/or increases in heart rate. - Prognosis: Complications from tetanus include laryngospasm (involuntary vocal chord contraction), fractured or broken bones, arterial blockage, pneumonia, and difficulty breathing. The mortality rate for tetanus is 10 to 20%. Pertussis: An airborne respiratory infection, also known as whooping cough, caused by the Bordetella pertussis bacteria. - Transmission: The disease is spread person-to-person, usually through respiratory droplets from sneezing or coughing. - Symptoms: Runny nose, low fever, mild cough, and apnea, usually appearing one to two weeks after transmission; advanced symptoms include rapid cough, vomiting, and exhaustion. - Prognosis: Although anyone may become seriously ill due to pertussis, infants are especially vulnerable. One in four young victims will develop pneumonia, one in 100 will die, and one in 300 will develop encephalopathy (brain swelling). In teens and adults, some of the most common complications include extreme weight loss, chronic nausea, and rib fractures caused by harsh coughing. Hepatitis A: The vaccine for an acute viral disease that primarily affects the liver. - Who should get the vaccine? Children between the ages of 12 and 23 months, as well as adults who have experienced liver failure or work in a medical/clinical setting (where exposure to sick people is commonplace) - Transmission: Hepatitis A is transmitted through ingestion of fecal matter, usually from person-to-person contact or exposure to contaminated food and drink items. - Symptoms: Jaundice of the skin or eyes, fatigue, nausea, and/or loss of appetite; though many carriers remain asymptomatic. - Prognosis: The mortality rate for hepatitis A is relatively low, although liver failure is common among lifelong carriers. Hepatitis B: The vaccine for an acute liver disease caused by exposure to the hepatitis B virus. - Who should get the vaccine? A three-dose vaccine is available for children that begins at birth and ends at 18 months. Adult vaccinations are recommended for adults who have suffered liver failure or work in a field that commonly involves exposure to sick people. - Transmission: Hepatitis B may be spread through blood, semen, vaginal fluid, or other bodily liquids; transmission most commonly occurs through sexual intercourse, childbirth (mother-to-child), and sharing of needles, razors, or other instruments that draw blood. - Symptoms: Fever, body fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, discolored urine, clay-colored stool, joint pain, and jaundice of the skin and eyes; carriers may remain asymptomatic. Only a blood test can confirm a Hepatitis infection. - Prognosis: Although some people infected with hepatitis B will shed the disease as quickly as six months, others will develop lifelong chronic conditions; generally, younger victims are the most susceptible to developing chronic infections. Hib: Haemophilus Influenza Type b: This vaccine helps prevent meningitis, pneumonia, bacteremia, and other infections caused by the Haemophilus influenzae type b bacteria. - Who should get the vaccine? A vaccine consisting of three to four doses is recommended for children between the ages of 2 months and 15 months. - Transmission: Hib is transmitted person-to-person through respiratory droplets secreted during sneezing or coughing. - Symptoms: The symptoms will vary depending on the infection caused by Hib. - Meningitis: Fever, headache, stiffness in neck or body, nausea, vomiting, severe light sensitivity (photophobia), and/or an altered mental state. - Pneumonia: Fever, cough, shortness of breath, chills, excessive sweating, chest pain in conjunction with breathing, headaches, muscle pain, and fatigue. - Bacteremia: Fever, chills, fatigue, stomach aches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, shortness of breath, extreme anxiety, and/or an altered mental state. - Prognosis: Certain Hib strains can live within the body for extended periods of time without causing an infection; major complications occur when the infection enters areas of the body usually free of germs, such as the blood or spinal fluid. Advanced complications include mental deterioration/brain damage, loss of limbs, and death. HPV: Human Papillomavirus: A sexually transmitted disease linked to cancers in the female reproductive system. - Who should get the vaccine? Males and females 26 years of age or younger; young people are urged to obtain the vaccine before their first sexual intercourse experience. - Transmission: HPV is spread through sexual contact, usually through the genitals or anus. - Symptoms: Genital warts that can spread to the throat and/or cancer of the cervix, ovaries, anus, penis, or throat; although most carriers remain asymptomatic. - Prognosis: The immune systems of roughly 90% of carriers will suppress HPV within two years. But as stated above, male and female carriers may develop serious infections (such as cancer) from exposure to HPV. Influenza: The vaccination for an airborne infection commonly referred to as ‘the flu.’ - Who should get the vaccine? Everyone, beginning at birth, should obtain the Hib vaccine on an annual basis. - Transmission: Influenza is a highly contagious airborne illness caused by the influenza virus, and is spread by exposure to infected individuals who are coughing, sneezing, or simply speaking. - Symptoms: Fever (in most cases), cough, runny nose, fatigue, nausea, diarrhea, and/or headaches. - Prognosis: Most individuals who contract influenza will experience a period of severe sickness that can last up to one or two weeks. High-risk populations, including the elderly, infants, and individuals with chronic diseases, are susceptible to advanced symptoms, which include death. MMR: This vaccine helps prevent three diseases: measles, mumps, and rubella. - Who should get the vaccine? A two-dose vaccine is available for children between the ages of 12 months and 12 years. This vaccine may be offered in conjunction with the varicella vaccine. - Measles: A highly contagious respiratory disease caused by the measles virus. - Transmission: Measles is an airborne disease spread through exposure to infected individuals who are coughing, sneezing, and/or breathing. - Symptoms: Runny nose, cough, and/or a fever ― though it’s most commonly characterized by a severe rash that covers the entire body. - Prognosis: If untreated, measles can lead to ear infection, pneumonia, and death. - Mumps: An airborne disease caused by the mumps virus. - Transmission: Mumps is spread person-to-person through saliva or mucus in the nose, mouth, or throat. - Symptoms: Fever, headache, muscle pain, loss of appetite, and swollen salivary glands. - Prognosis: If untreated, mumps can lead to swelling of the cheek and jaw, as well as inflammation of the testicles, ovaries, breasts, brain tissue, and spinal cord. - Rubella: An acute viral infection, also known as German measles, that can cause a serious rash. - Transmission: Rubella is usually spread through exposure to respiratory droplets secreted through coughing or sneezing by infected individuals. - Symptoms: A fever that persists for up to three days and/or a severe rash that covers the entire body. - Prognosis: Pregnant women who contract rubella may produce children with birth defects (including deafness, cataracts, and mental retardation). Meningococcal: The vaccine that helps prevent the respiratory disease known as meningococcal meningitis (also known as meningococcus), which is caused by the Neisseria meningitidis bacteria. - Who should get the vaccine? A two-dose vaccine is available for teenagers between the ages of 11 and 16; young people who plan to attend college are strongly encouraged to obtain this vaccine. - Transmission: Meningococcal is most commonly spread through saliva during kissing and sexual activity. - Symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, extreme light sensitivity (photophobia), and an altered mental state. - Prognosis: Meningococcal meningitis is often treated with antibiotics if detected right away, and a lumbar puncture (or ‘spinal tap’) treatment may follow; in many cases, however, the disease will have spread throughout the body by the time antibiotics are administered. Long-term complications include brain damage, loss of limbs, and death. Polio: This vaccine helps prevent polio, an infection caused by a virus that originates in the throat and intestinal tract. - Who should get the vaccine? A four-dose vaccine is available for children between the ages of two months and six years. - Transmission: Polio is spread by person-to-person contact, although it is rarely encountered today. - Symptoms: Nearly three-quarters of people who contract polio will remain asymptomatic; the remaining segment will experience symptoms like fever, fatigue, nausea, and stiffness of the head and neck. - Prognosis: If untreated, polio can lead to permanent disability, partial or full paralysis, and death. PPSV: Pneumococcal Polysaccharide: This vaccine helps prevent 23 different strains of the Pneumococcal bacteria. - Who should get the vaccine? Anyone over the age of 65, as well as any individual between the ages of 24 months and 64 years with a history of addiction or chronic disease is eligible to receive this vaccination. - Transmission: Pneumococcal is spread person-to-person through mucus, saliva, and other respiratory fluids. - Symptoms: Symptoms include fever, chills, cough, irregular breathing, and/or chest pain. - Prognosis: Although most cases are mild, advanced complications may include hearing loss, brain damage, and death. Young children and the elderly are considered especially vulnerable. Rotavirus: This is the vaccine for rotavirus, a disease that causes gastroenteritis (a painful inflammation in the digestive system). - Who should get the vaccine? A vaccine consisting of two to three doses is available for children between the ages of two and six months. - Transmission: Rotavirus is transmitted from person-to-person via the feces or stool of infected children and adults. - Symptoms: Fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal aching. - Prognosis: Dehydration is the biggest concern with rotavirus; many patients are required to obtain IV treatment at a hospital. Infants, young children, and individuals with pre-existing medical conditions are considered to run the greatest risk for rotavirus. Shingles: This vaccine helps prevent shingles, a skin condition caused by the herpes zoster virus that has been linked to exposure to varicella (chickenpox). - Who should get the vaccine? The vaccine is recommended for anyone over the age of 60, particularly those who have been exposed to chickenpox. - Transmission: Shingles cannot be transmitted from person-to-person, but herpes zoster can, and is usually spread through the fluid of herpes zoster blisters. - Symptoms: In addition to painful blisters and rash, symptoms include fever, headache, chills, and nausea. - Prognosis: The most common complication of shingles is postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), a persistent pain where shingles blisters once occurred. Shingles may also lead to vision problems, pneumonia, brain inflammation, and death. Varicella: This is the vaccine used to treat the condition varicella (also known as chickenpox). - Who should get the vaccine? A two-dose vaccine is available for children between the ages of 12 months and six years ― although the vaccine is not 100% effective, and individuals who have been immunized commonly contract the disease. - Transmission: The virus is spread person-to-person by mucus, saliva, or fluid from chickenpox blisters. - Symptoms: In addition to a severe rash of red blisters, other symptoms include fever, fatigue, nausea, loss of appetite, and headache. - Prognosis: Serious complications of chickenpox can include pneumonia, infections of the joints and bones, inflammation of the brain, and toxic shock syndrome. Adults may also acquire shingles later in life due to exposure to chickenpox.
Discuss how a principle such as neutrality differs when applied in everyday situations. (Most of the time we need to take side. Think only about the political involvement of citizens that is somehow incompatible with neutrality.) Find a story from history, religion or literature in which being neutral (or not being neutral) mattered. Or write an essay exploring why we become angry when we suspect someone in authority is not being impartial in how he or she treats people. Imagine you are a humanitarian worker in one of the situations provided in this activity (or a situation inspired by them). In small groups, role-play one of the following situations: - An argument over what to do when faced with the problem - A press interview in which your decisions are criticized - Responding to complaints from dissatisfied refugees or co-workers In one class, learners imagined and dramatized an aid worker at the gate of a refugee camp. He is faced with a family that wants to enter but fears enemies inside the camp. The father insists he has to keep his gun to protect his sick wife and baby. The family is also terrified of becoming separated. After they acted out the scenario, the class discussed the principles the aid worker had to consider and whether some principles conflicted with others in this situation.
Patient Rights (cont.) IN THIS ARTICLE Part of communication in medicine involves informed consent for treatment and procedures. This is considered a basic patient right. Informed consent involves the patient's understanding of the following: Closely associated with informed consent, voluntary consent means that the patient understands these concepts; the patient rights include the following: A patient must be competent in order to give voluntary and informed consent. Thus, competent consent involves the ability to make and stand by an informed, freely made decision. In clinical practice, competence is often equated with capacity. Decision-making capacity refers to a patient's ability to make decisions about accepting healthcare recommendations. To have adequate decision-making capacity, a patient must understand the options, the consequences associated with the various options, and the costs and benefits of these consequences by relating them to personal values and priorities. Some factors may make a patient incapable of providing competent consent either temporarily or permanently. Examples include the following: Patients that are judged incompetent (often determined by two independent physicians or in some instances, by a legal decree) can have others legally permitted to make medical decisions for the patient. Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 3/27/2013 Must Read Articles Related to Patient Rights Read What Your Physician is Reading on Medscape The pediatric surgeon works at the juncture between surgery and pediatrics and, consequently, must deal with the surgical, medical, and ethical issues that concern both areas.
Use this simple tool to solve physics problem related to projectile motion. You can use this tool for any projectile fired on ground level at an angle of theta degrees with the horizontal. Simply enter the initial velocity and angle of theta degrees with the horizontal, you will able to find Velocity Components, Time of flight, Peak Height, and Horizontal Displacement for projectile. This video requires Flash Player 9 Vi = Initial velocity Vf = Final velocity Vx = Horizontal velocity component Vy = Vertical velocity component H = Peak height X = Horizontal displacement
More Liquid, Less Solid The theory that the interior of Earth may once have been less solid and more liquid than was originally believed is getting a boost from recent research. Newly uncovered evidence suggests the existence of a layer of magma running near the boundary between Earth’s core and the thick layer of rock known as the mantle. Proponents of the theory that a large sea of magma once flowed beneath Earth’s surface–and that this layer may have been trapped when the rest of the earth’s interior solidified–base their position on seismological evidence. Dramatic drops in the speeds of seismic waves (from earthquakes) have been recorded near the core-mantle boundary, indicating softer patches of material. In the new study, as reported by National Geographic News, Guillaume Fiquet and his colleagues at the Institut de Minéralogie et de Physique des Milieux Condensés at France’s Université Pierre et Marie Curie simulated the environment of the core-mantle boundary by crushing microscopic samples of magnesium oxides, iron and silicon (all materials found in the Earth’s mantle) between two diamonds. The intense pressure caused the sample materials to get extremely hot, allowing scientists to examine their atomic structure and see when they turned from solid to liquid. The melting point came around 4,200 Kelvin (7,100 degrees Fahrenheit; 3,926 degrees Celsius), a temperature similar to that of the core-mantle boundary. Hot Spot Volcanoes Though the new research doesn’t prove the existence of a “magma ocean,” it does promise to lend new insight to scientists seeking to understand how the mixture of different materials inside the Earth cooled over time and solidified into layers to form the planet as we know it today. It also has potential implications for the study of volcanoes. Like earthquakes, many of the world’s volcanoes–including Krakatoa and others in the Pacific Ring of Fire–occur at the boundary between tectonic plates. Through a process known as subduction, one plate moves sideways and downwards into the mantle beneath another plate, melting the upper mantle and generating the magma that forms the volcano. By contrast, about 5 percent of the world’s known volcanoes are located far from the margins of tectonic plates, and are thought to be caused by deep plumes of hot molten lava that shoot up from hundreds of miles below the surface. The best-known examples of such volcanoes can be found in Hawaii and Yellowstone, among other places. The molten layer of magma suggested by the new study may be an important clue to the source of these so-called “hot spot” volcanoes. “I think the plumes could have their sources in very hot regions at the core-mantle boundary that might be partially molten,” Fiquet said. Though more research is required to link the core-mantle boundary to the deep plumes associated with hot spot volcanoes, the work done by Fiquet and his colleagues has provided new fodder for the ongoing debate over how our planet was formed, and what it looks like inside.
01. May. 2006 The airships that were associated with the golden age of airship travel, which ran from the 1910's up to 1940, were essentially constructed from one large frame. The now classic airship cigar shape is the shape of this large frame, called a hull. The hull and everything within, were protected from the elements by canvas that was stretched over the hull and painted with an aluminium paint, for added protection. This is the outer most character of the zeppelin, it's public-face. Being 245 meters long, this public face was impressive (as any public face should be)! But this huge hull was merely the frame around the gasbags, for it was the gasbags themselves that did the very real job of actually floating the zeppelin. A Volatile Lifting Gas Usually around seventeen to twenty gasbags were used in a single airship, all of which were con-tained in the hull. Each one filled with the hydrogen would in turn float the airship. It seems unfeasible, perhaps even impossible, that a 245 meter long structure weighing up to 230 tons, could be rendered lighter than air. But it was the unique and extra ordinary quality of hydrogen, being the lightest element in the universe, as well as the equally unique and extraordinary quality of the gasbags themselves that enabled this. Hydrogen is the lightest element in the world because it has the least amount of particles, in fact it has just one particle. Whilst technically speaking there are tiny traces of lots of elements in air, it is mostly made up of two elements, Nitrogen and Oxygen. Nitrogen has fourteen particles and oxygen has sixteen. Quite simply, this means that hydrogen is at least thirty times less dense than air! Used as a lifting device its lightness was powerful enough to lift the several hundreds of tons of airship into the air. But having only one particle means that hydrogen tends to leak through every thing it is con-tained in. As a result the construction of the gasbags inside the airships is one of the most intricate processes associated with the whole airship subject. Flying Blind Guts The gasbags themselves are made from a material called goldbeaters skin. It is a curious material that involves a long, mysterious and once secretive, process of manufacture. The use of Gold leaf reaches back through time with some of the earli-est examples of gold leaf found amongst the shim-mering sarcophagi of the Egyptian Pharaohs and on Greek pottery dating from the 4th century BC. The process of making gold leaf these days in-volves precision rolling machinery but this is a relatively recent thing. Until the 1960's gold leaf was made entirely by hand. Whilst there is no evidence of the technique earlier than the 15th Century, it is believed that the techniques used for the adorn-ment of the Pharaohs' sarcophagi did not differ significantly to those used in the 20th century. The gold leaf would be beaten from a small ingot of gold. This would involve sandwiching the gold be-tween a kind of vellum or skin, aptly called gold-beater's skin. The process would continue until a pack of 500 gold leaves was created with each leaf separated from one another by the protective gold-beater's skin. The finished gold leaf was an unimaginable 0.000125 mm thick! To produce a piece of gold leaf in this way is an incredibly skilled task and goldbeaters would pass their cherished skills down through the family. It was the goldbeaters themselves who knew how to make the skin, which involved a similarly secretive and coveted technique. As such the process and ingredients involved were seldom written down. Goldbeaters skin is made from part of a cows intestine, the outer layer of the caecum to be precise, which is also called blind gut or even the appendix. The outer layers of the blind-gut are carefully stripped off into sheets of around 60 cm in length by 25 cm in width. They are then cleaned of fat by dipping the gut in a mild alkaline solution and scraped with a blunt knife. The cleaned gut is then stretched over a frame. One quite remarkably quality of this material is that separate sheets can be joined or welded when wet by carefully rubbing the overlap of the two sheets. Several layers can be made this way as well, for example, airship gasbags usually consisted of up to seven layers of skin. The living tissues in the sheets grew together making a seamless and Hydrogen proof join. As well as being impermeable to Hydrogen it was also light and very strong, making it the perfect gasbag material! However it was very labour intensive and time consuming to produce. Supply of goldbeaters skin ran out during the First World War, forcing the Zeppelin Company to recycle the material from older airships as well as use an inferior artificial substitute for the construction of the gasbags. The poor quality of these wartime gasbags were considered responsible for the loss of many war-time airships and their crew. Airship gasbags were big things! For example, Hindenburg had a gas capacity of nearly 212,000 cubic meters. So it becomes clear that these sheets, each one being painstakingly prepared by hand and fused with each other and done so in many layers, were also required in unimaginable quan-tities. Moreover, when only two sheets could be obtained from the intestine of one cow, we realise that an awful lot of cows were required to service the demands of the airship industry! In reality, the gut was obtained as a by-product of the meat industry. But over 200,000 sheets of gold-beaters skin were needed for the gasbags of a standard German naval airship that was used during World War One. But this type of airship was small in comparison to later models. The American mili-tary airship U.S.S. Shenandoah used 750,000 separate sheets of goldbeaters skin for its gasbags. These are mind-boggling quantities! However, without wanting to confound the confounded, the gas-bags of Hindenburg were over three times the capacity of the gasbags of the U.S.S. Shenandoah! Goldbeaters' skin seems an incongruous technology to be found associated so closely with the air-ships that were themselves so stylish and symbolic of the future, of science and of technological brilliance. The mysterious technology and culture associated with the production of this material, which in itself has strange qualities, seems more akin to the black arts and to hokum than to cutting edge technology, and seems almost brutish next to the effortless serenity it afforded the airships. Goldbeaters' skin does seem to amply denote the superficiality of the airships iconic status seems, a status that appears to have been only skin deep. The intriguing subject of the goldbeaters' skin may in itself also add to the continuing and lasting mystery and fascination that the airships continue to com-mand. However, it seems an absurd reality that what actually kept this vision of the future afloat was a technology that predated the birth of Christ! This article may be copied or quoted with MuseumsPosten, Post & Tele Museum as source. Comment this article Only serious and factual comments will be published.
Why do we celebrate at a time of year that seems to offer little to celebrate about to anyone living very much north of the Equator? Why do our celebrations involved lights and evergreen trees? The ultimate answer is axial tilt, of course. As the Earth moves around the Sun, the Sun seems to move northward, then southward, then northward, then southward, … But if you were living centuries before modern times, that would not be so apparent. What would keep the Sun from going farther and farther south until the whole world freezes? So it would be reassuring to note that the Sun would be coming back. Why lights? That’s what that time of year lacks, with the Sun rather far south and not up for very long — if at all. Why evergreens? Because they don’t drop their leaves, giving them the appearance of being alive through the winter, and not dead, like most other plants. Needless to say, winter-solstice celebrations acquired lots of other lore, like the birth of Jesus Christ, Santa Claus, his reindeer, etc. In fact, some people in recent decades have invented solstice celebrations, like Ron Karenga’s pseudo-African holiday Kwanzaa and the New Jersey Humanist Network’s HumanLight. But I’m concerned about the core here. Winter-solstice celebrations are older than Xianity. Germanic peoples celebrated Yule at that time, and Scandinavians still call Christmas by their languages’ versions of “Yule”. So we English speakers could bring back that old name. Romans had celebrated Saturnalia at about this time. Etc. It’s hard to look back much further, because of a lack of written records. But several ancient monuments mark out various astronomical landmarks like the solstices and equinoxes. Their builders must have done that because they thought those landmarks worth marking out, and likely celebrating. Monuments like Newgrange and Dowth in Ireland, and Maeshowe in the Orkney Islands, which are about 5000 years old, and which are oriented toward the Sun’s winter-solstice path. Newgrange is oriented so that the Sun shines into it when it rises on the winter solstice. But the champion so far is the 6900-year-old Goseck circle in Germany. It has gaps in it aligned to the north, to the winter solstice sunrise, and to the winter solstice sunset. So one could stand in its center and watch the Sun rise and set through its gaps on that day. And a great day it may have been back then.
In order to meet decarbonization goals and limit the impacts of climate change, national power systems need to reach 100% renewable power generation without delay. Renewables like solar and wind will be needed in vast amounts, alongside flexible technology solutions, such as engine power plants and energy storage, to balance the intermittency of these power sources. However, this change cannot happen overnight. Unlocking the final 20% to remove all fossil fuels and achieve a 100% renewable energy future before 2050 requires developments in new technologies, such as sustainable fuels and power-to-X fuels, over the next two decades. The influx of renewables entering power systems is creating the right conditions for excess clean electricity to be used as a raw material for new types of hydrogen-based, carbon-neutral sustainable fuels. Together with flexible power plants, sustainable fuels can meet the critical demand for long-term storage solutions that balance grids in an affordable and achievable way. Sustainable fuels have the potential to be the cornerstone of future global energy systems, and must be leveraged as part of any decarbonization strategy to achieve a 100% renewable energy future. While there are a wide range of sustainable fuels currently in development, hydrogen, in particular green hydrogen, has been getting the most attention lately. Green hydrogen is produced via electrolysis using renewable electricity. It can be further processed into its derivatives, including ammonia and synthetic methane, and then stored and converted back to electricity for use in balancing power plants when the grid cannot be supported entirely by renewable energy sources. Hydrogen is a promising sustainable fuel for several reasons. It’s carbon-free, has a high production energy efficiency, and with time, is predicted to become the most cost competitive fuel due to low renewable energy prices and anticipated advancements in production technologies. Infrastructure development remains a chief hurdle for widespread deployment of hydrogen, which is why the advancement of supporting technologies is critical to realizing hydrogen’s full potential. Biofuels are also promising sustainable fuels. Biofuels such as bio-methane, bio-methanol, bio-ethanol, and liquid biofuels are carbon-neutral fuels that are produced from waste products, and agricultural and forestry products. They are not only readily available, but compatible with existing gas grid infrastructure when blended with natural gas, making them a potentially important “bridge fuel” as we continue to explore hydrogen production, transportation, and infrastructure. Engine Technologies Support the Transition to Sustainable Fuels Phasing out fossil fuels and converting power plants to run on sustainable fuels is the final step of the decarbonization journey. While we have a long way to go to reach that point, we can install technology today that can support the energy transition, without putting barriers in place for the adoption of sustainable fuels. Reciprocating internal combustion engine (RICE) power plants are one of those technologies. RICE power plants possess a unique advantage in that they can run on carbon-free or carbon-neutral fuel blends today. This is important because we see the energy transition being supported by natural gas in the near term, via grid balancing engines that can adapt to the intermittency of renewables, before graduating to blends and eventually 100% sustainable fuels. The challenge to realizing sustainable fuels’ full potential is a lack of infrastructure to support production and transportation in the amounts needed to create these blends. Despite these challenges, exciting things are happening in the field of hydrogen production, as well as in methanol, a carbon-neutral fuel that holds promise for wide adoption in the shipping industry, and ammonia, which, when produced using green hydrogen, is a carbon-free fuel. However the future plays out, what is clear is that internal combustion engines are an accessible, future-proof technology that is ready to use and consume sustainable fuels as they become more available. Advancing the Adoption of Sustainable Fuels Through Research and Development Leadership In October 2022, a significant step was taken to advance the use of hydrogen as a fuel in power generation. Technology group Wärtsilä pioneered the world’s first and largest internal combustion engine to operate on a 25% hydrogen blend, in partnership with the Electric Research Power Institute (EPRI), WEC Energy Group, WEC subsidiary utility Upper Michigan Energy Resource Corporation, and Burns & McDonnell. The test results far exceeded expectations, achieving a 95% engine load using a 25% by volume hydrogen blend with natural gas, without making mechanical modifications to the engine, and demonstrating a significant reduction in carbon emissions. Most importantly, the test provided tangible proof that sustainable fuels, like hydrogen, when used in combination with reciprocating engine technology, can deliver future-proof solutions to support decarbonization in the energy sector. The cutting-edge A.J. Mihm hydrogen blending test, which was conducted at the A.J. Mihm Generating Station in Pelkie, Michigan, is one example of how Wärtsilä is taking a leadership role in advancing sustainable fuels in the energy industry. Wärtsilä has been especially active in research and development of sustainable fuel-capable engines. Our gas engines are capable of operating with up to 25% by volume hydrogen blends. These engines can be incorporated into an existing system, providing a ready-to-go solution for customers to use in their decarbonization journeys. Currently, we are developing an engine that can run on pure hydrogen, which we hope to launch by 2026. While it’s likely the infrastructure won’t be in place yet to support such an asset, the engines will be available for pilot testing wherever and whenever opportunities arise to present our vision for the future. As a large supplier to the marine industry, Wärtsilä is also involved in methanol and ammonia research and development. We have developed a methanol-capable engine that is available and sought after by customers, and we expect more developments on the ammonia front in the coming years. Sustainable Fuels Bring Certainty to an Uncertain Future While the energy transition continues to unfold, the future is very bright for sustainable fuels. Investing in engines that offer fuel flexibility brings certainty to an uncertain situation, guaranteeing performance regardless of which sustainable fuels become dominant. Wärtsilä stands poised to support generators and utilities with the technologies they need to use these fuels to their full potential. —Jon Rodriguez, PE serves as Energy Business Director of Engine Power Plants at Wärtsilä North America Inc. He has more than 20 years of professional experience with a diverse background covering power generation in multiple industries including data centers, utilities, mining, oil and gas, and commercial/industrial customers.
Fiber optics, or optical fiber, is a type of cable that uses light to transmit information. It is composed of a core, cladding, and buffer. The core is the innermost layer of the fiber, made of very pure glass that is highly transparent to the light signals being transmitted. This core is surrounded by an outer layer called the cladding. The cladding is made of a different type of glass that is highly reflective, and is designed to contain the light within the core. The cladding also provides a measure of protection to the core from external sources of damage. The outermost layer of the fiber is called the buffer. This layer is made of a plastic coating that helps protect the fiber from moisture, dust, and other environmental factors that can interfere with its performance. Fiber optics are typically used to transmit data over long distances due to their superior strength and flexibility compared to metal cables. The light signals that are transmitted through the fiber can move at speeds of up to hundreds of times faster than electrical signals through metal cables. This makes fiber optics an attractive option for many types of communications networks, such as those used for internet, phone, and television services. Additionally, fiber optics are also used for medical imaging and sensing, as well as for a variety of industrial applications such as manufacturing, oil and gas production, and security systems. Fiber optics technology has advanced significantly over the years, allowing for faster and more reliable data transmission than ever before. This is due in part to the improved construction of the cables and the use of specialized components that help optimize the performance of the fiber. In addition, the development of new types of fiber optics such as plastic optical fibers and multi-mode fibers has also enabled the transmission of higher data rates over longer distances.
Excerpts from Chapter 6 Phoenician Maritime Skills Phoenician Maritime Skills It has long been known that the Phoenicians had the sailing and navigational skills to make long, trans-oceanic voyages to distant continents. The reader may be surprised that this has already been documented by many historians. In 1834, Sir William Betham wrote: “The advancement of the ancients in the science of navigation has been much underrated.”29 The late Dr. Cyrus Gordon was a highly regarded archeologist and historian of modern times. A 1996 issue of the magazine, Biblical Archeologist, contained several articles devoted to his career and his many accomplishments.30 Dr. Gordon wrote the following about the Old World’s awareness of the New World. “The evidence points in the direction of an ancient maritime system of which the Mediterranean was only a part…This is reflected in the Timaeus of Plato, which tells of an…ancient Atlantic Order with interests extending from America into the Mediterranean. It is futile to…forget his plain reference to the continent that seals off the Atlantic Ocean on the West. This continent — which Plato mentions without more ado because it was well known to his reading public — can only be America.”31 (Emphasis added) The McClintock and Strong Cyclopedia, offers the following information about the navigational skills of the Phoenicians that enabled them to navigate across the oceans. “They steered by the…last star in Ursa Minor; and they could cast reckonings from the combined application of astronomy and arithmetic (Strabo, xvi, 2, 24). This nautical application of astronomy is ascribed by Callimachus to Thales, a Phoenician…”32 Thomas Moore’s History of Ireland, written in 1843, adds: “…at no time, however remote, has the interposition of sea presented much obstacle to the migratory dispositions of mankind…the Phoenicians, with far more knowledge, it is probable, of the art of navigation, than modern assumption gives them credit for, were to be seen in the Mediterranean, the Baltic, the Atlantic, — every where upon the waters.”33 Thomas Johnston’s 1913 book, Did the Phoenicians Discover America?, offers much evidence on the mechanics of Phoenician navigational skills and tools. He begins by saying “the compass…was clearly a Phoenician invention,”34 and adds that the Phoenicians determined suitable sailing seasons by the “rise and setting of the Pleiades.”35 Johnston adds: “Once…steering by a stellar object took…place (which was clearly of Phoenician origin), supplemented by the use of the magnet, which enabled the navigator when the weather was cloudy to determine his position and direction (also, it is equally clear, a Phoenician invention), then the last obstacle to a complete mastery of the sea was removed.”36 Johnston explains that early magnets utilized “loadstones,” which were stones with magnetic properties. These served as compasses by always pointing to magnetic north when suspended or when allowed to float freely in a “water compass.”37 The Phoenicians’ ingenuity was remarkable, as it allowed them to know their ships’ heading and direction, whether it was day or night, clear or cloudy. This ability would allow them to not only cross the oceans with confidence, but maintain reasonably-fixed sailing schedules, an important aspect to the commercially-minded Phoenicians. Dr. Barry Fell commented on the Phoenicians’ regular sailing schedules to ancient America, as noted earlier. The reader might justifiably wonder at this point, given the extensive evidence of Old World civilizations in ancient America, why America’s history books have not been updated with this new information. The reason is, unfortunately, that the modern academic establishment as a whole is in a state of denial regarding these discoveries because the facts overthrow “established” theories. Dr. Fell noted that some archaeologists were so deeply in denial about the realities of ancient America that they tried to dismiss clearly readable ancient inscriptions as “accidental markings made by plowshares and roots of trees…(and) colonial stonecutting drills.”38 Ancient American dolmens, megalithic monuments consisting of a large slab stone positioned atop smaller supporting stones, have been found in New York, New Hampshire, Connecticut and Massachusetts, which parallel Old World dolmens. These locations are all near the ancient Phoenician/Celtic temple and calendar complex called “Mystery Hill” in New Hampshire. These obviously man-made structures have even been called glacial “erratics”39 to deny the obvious evidence of Old World ties to ancient America. It is unfortunate that some in modern academia have resorted to such unscholarly, fanciful extremes to maintain a state of denial regarding the evidence of Old World civilizations in ancient America. As a result, the exciting story of ancient America’s history has been largely withheld from the American public. Unfortunately, the concept that “Columbus discovered America in 1492” has become such a cherished dogma that it now commands an almost superstitious devotion from modern academics. Columbus was a very brave mariner, but he was clearly preceded by other discoverers and colonists from the Old World who settled the New World millennia before Columbus. Columbus’ voyage was a courageous effort reestablishing New World links after the Dark Ages, but it is now known that such links commonly existed prior to the Dark Ages. So far, we have discussed only the Phoenician inscriptions and presence in the New World. As noted earlier, the ancient Egyptians were also allies of King Solomon during his reign. Their navies were also skilled in oceanic navigation, utilizing the Semitic inhabitants of ancient Libya as their mariners. The ancient Egyptian-Libyan fleets sailed across the Indian Ocean and sent exploration and mining expeditions into the Pacific Ocean. The Egyptians mined gold in Sumatra,40 and writings and drawings of their Pacific explorations are found as far as the Hawaiian Islands41 as “the Egyptians roamed the Indian and Pacific Oceans for gold about 1000 B.C.”42 The date “about 1000 B.C.” is significant as that is the time when the united kingdom of Israel, under Kings David and Solomon, moved to world prominence, with the Phoenicians and Egyptians serving as Solomon’s allies. That the Egyptian fleet would be searching a large portion of the world for gold during a time which included the reign of King Solomon will become most significant when we later examine King Solomon’s insatiable appetite for gold! Israelite Colonies in the New World So far, we have only scratched the surface of the subject of ancient civilizations being present in North America. Let us examine additional evidence of their presence in the ancient New World. Consider the languages of the triple alliance of Israel, Egypt and Phoenicia in the time of King Solomon. Their languages included the Semitic language shared by the Israelites and Phoenicians (with mere dialectal differences), Egyptian, and the language of the North African-Libyan sailors of the Egyptian navy. Let us now examine evidence that North America was both explored and colonized by people speaking Phoenician-Hebrew, Egyptian, and ancient Libyan. Dr. Barry Fell’s book America B.C. includes much evidence of the exploration of American soil by ancient people with the above language groups. We have already examined evidence from his book that the Phoenicians had a significant presence in North America, and that the Phoenician god Baal was worshipped at an ancient temple site in New Hampshire. Rawlinson cited the habit of the Phoenicians in bringing their religion wherever they went, and building temples in their colonies to honor their deities,43 so the existence of a temple dedicated to Baal at the ancient New England temple site is consistent with their habits. Explorations and settlements in ancient America would logically be concentrated on major inland waterways, and evidence of their presence has been found in such locales. A major archeological find, a stele inscribed with ancient Old World languages, was found in 1877 in a burial mound near Davenport, Iowa. Unfortunately, this New World equivalent of the Rosetta Stone was largely ignored because no one could read it. The false dogma that no Old World explorers prior to Columbus could have been on our continent also affected people’s perceptions. If it had been discovered in Europe, it would surely have been recognized for what it was: a tri-lingual archeological stele of ancient cultures. Since it was found in the American Midwest, it had to wait approximately a century to be appreciated. Surprisingly, one of the reasons the stele was initially rejected was that it contained “some signs resembling Hebrew and others resembling Phoenician.”44 This ancient stele contains joint inscriptions in three ancient languages: Iberian-Punic (a language related to and descended from Phoenician-Hebrew), Egyptian, and ancient Libyan.45 These are the language groups of the triple alliance that the Bible reveals began in the reign of Solomon! Since this ancient stele confirms these groups were traveling and working together in the interior of North America, it indicates that this alliance not only existed but also had a global reach! Indeed, Dr. Fell described this stele, shown above, as “one of the most important steles ever discovered.”46 Why then, is this priceless evidence of ancient exploration in North America not featured in history textbooks? Again, we are confronted by the refusal of modern academia to accept the obvious because of their devotion to the false dogma that nobody could have discovered America before Columbus. ‘ This ancient Iowan stele, attested by Dr. Barry Fell to be genuine, confirms that the language groups of King Solomon’s alliance were cooperating in joint-expeditions as far away as the American Midwest! Unless it was a well-established practice for the nations with these language groups to be in joint expeditions, there would have been no need for parallel inscriptions on the same stone. Dr. Fell dates this stele as follows: “The date is unlikely to be earlier than about 800 B.C., for we do not know of Iberian or Libyan inscriptions earlier than that date. The Egyptian text…may merely be a local American copy of some original. That original could be as old as about 1400 B.C., to judge by the writing style…it seems clear that Iberian and Punic speakers were living in Iowa in the 9th century B.C…” 47 (Emphasis added) Dr. Fell also wrote that this ancient inscription found in Iowa could date to “around 700 B.C.”48 A dating of 800-700 B.C. is very consistent with biblical accounts of that period. That these language groups were still acting in such close concert with each other that they left a trilingual inscription at that time indicates that they were still cooperating very closely in trans-oceanic voyages. The Bible reveals an alliance of these linguistic groups was established under King Solomon during the tenth century B.C. The terms “Iberian” and “Punic” indicate languages that are closely related to and descended from the Phoenician-Hebrew language. Indeed, the term “Iber-ian” comes from the name “Eber,” the forefather of the Hebrews. The term “Iberian” proclaims Hebrew roots. Dr. Fell noted the “Phoenician character” of the Iberian inscriptions on either side of the Atlantic.49 Solomon’s reign began in obedience to God, but by 800 B.C., when the Iowan stele was apparently inscribed, the Israelite-Phoenician-Egyptian alliance had embraced paganism. The makers of the Iowan stele may have been looking for raw materials to exploit; by then they had exhausted the copper mines of Lake Superior. However, because of Assyria’s growing pressure on Israel and the Phoenician city-states during 800-700 B.C., one motive for their voyage to North America may have been an effort to find a safe refuge from the Assyrian menace. The next book in this series will confirm that the Phoenician-Israelites had extensive settlements in the Iberian Peninsula, modern Spain and Portugal, during most of the first millennium B.C. The ancient stele in Iowa may have been made by Israelites and Phoenicians who sailed from Iberian settlements. A date of 800-700 B.C. for this stele confirms that the triple alliance of Israel, Egypt and Phoenicia lasted long after the lifetime of King Solomon. The Bible records that the ten tribes of Israel forsook worshipping the Creator God after Solomon’s death, and adopted the religious customs of Egypt, Tyre and Sidon. Biblical accounts show Israel and Phoenicia were still very closely allied during the reign of King Ahab of Israel (circa 850 B.C.), and there is no evidence that their alliance suffered a breach until approximately 721 B.C., when Israel ceased to be a nation in the Mideast. Also, after Israel and Judah split into two separate Hebrew kingdoms, Egypt did fight periodic wars with Judah. Peaceful relations apparently prevailed between Egypt and Israel during that time. Therefore, the Iowa stele showing that these ancient nations were still working together around 800 B.C. in the New World is consistent with biblical accounts. Dr. Fell wrote that this ancient stele and other artifacts were found in an Iowan burial mound.50 That this burial mound from about 800 B.C. confirmed the presence of Semites and Egyptians in ancient America, begs the following question: How many other burial mounds in ancient North America were made by Old World cultures? Another stele exhibiting an ancient Egypto-Libyan script was found on Long Island, New York. (See photograph on opposite page) This inscription, according to Dr. Fell, “probably dates from about the ninth century B.C.”51 In his discussion of the inscriptions found on the Davenport and Long Island steles, Dr. Fell noted clear similarities between the written script of the Micmac/Algonquin Indians and that of ancient Egypt.”52 This analysis indicates that the Egyptians continued trading with ancient American inhabitants long after the kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrians. Additionally, another stele was unearthed in Oklahoma with reference to the Phoenician and Egyptian gods of Baal and Ra, with an inscription described as “an extract from the Hymn to the Aton by Pharaoh Akhnaton [which]…dates from the thirteenth century B.C.”53 This stele is written in Iberian-Punic (related to Hebrew/Phoenician), but is dated by Fell as “scarcely older than 800 B.C.”54 This stele also supports the biblical account of Israelite-Phoenician-Egyptian cooperation. Why is Pharaoh Akhenaton mentioned in an Egyptian writing in ancient North America? At this point, some striking information about Egyptian history finds a solid parallel in biblical events. David Rohl’s book, Pharaohs and Kings, offers a revised chronology of Egypt’s dynastic rulers, which proposes remarkable parallels to biblical events and personalities. It has long been known that the reign of the “heretic” Pharaoh, Akhenaten (Dr. Fell’s “Akhnaton”), marked a temporary period in which an Egyptian ruler rejected the pantheon of Egyptian gods and required a virtually monotheistic devotion to the god “Aten” (or “Aton”). Rohl’s new chronology of Egypt’s dynasties has Akhenaten being a “contemporary” of King David of Israel!55 If this is the case, it argues that this inscription may have been made soon after the reign of Solomon, as it had to be a time when Israel, ruled by Jeroboam, had turned to paganism but when there were Egyptians still loyal to the beliefs of the “heretic” Pharaoh Akhenaten. Akhenaten’s belief-system was rejected by later Pharaohs, so it is difficult to make sense of a “hymn to Aton” (Akhenaten’s god) being present with an Egyptian contingent much past the reign of Jeroboam of Israel. The internal turmoil in Egypt caused by Akhenaten’s rejection of traditional Egyptian deities provided a golden opportunity for King David’s Israel to focus all of its attentions eastward against Assyria while devoting scant attention to Egypt as a potential rival. The Bible relates that Egypt became Israel’s ally during King Solomon’s time, so Israel’s border with Egypt was secure during his reign as well. David Rohl makes the following observation about this time: “During the period of Akhenaten’s reign and for decades afterwards Egypt became militarily impotent, due almost entirely to the politically naive rule of the heretic…The prosperous northern empire…had rapidly disintegrated…This chaotic era…would have provided the opportunity for a new state to come into being in Canaan — this is precisely what happened.”56 (Emphasis added) In other words, Egypt was “impotent” during the reign of King David and also “for decades afterwards,” that is, during the reign of King Solomon! One reason for Egypt’s relative decline was the rise of Israel to world power status. The “impotence” of Egypt was also caused by the severe internal stresses resulting from the Pharaoh’s rejection of the old Egyptian pantheon, to which the priests and much of the populace remained loyal. The internal stresses in the reign of Akhenaten would have kept Egypt at the brink of civil war, unable to project power outside its own borders. Also, since Solomon’s reign was a time of peace and Egypt was allied to Israel, there was no need for Egypt to be warlike. When Israel’s civil war later split Israel’s tribes into two rival kingdoms, Egypt quickly attacked Judah and Jerusalem, reasserting its influence over its northern regions. (I Kings 14:25-29) However, Egypt attacked only Judah, but remained an ally of the northern kingdom of Israel, formed by the ten tribes of Israel. The first king of the northern Kingdom of Israel, Jeroboam, had been a courtier and friend of Egypt’s Pharaoh (I Kings 11:40), and one of his first official deeds was to institute the worship of Egypt’s apis bulls in the northern kingdom of Israel! (I Kings 12:28-30) King Jeroboam chose to seek security in alliances with Egypt, Tyre and Sidon instead of obedience to God. Jeroboam’s rejection of Israel’s God set a pattern for future kings, which would never be reversed. While the smaller kingdom of Judah periodically had good rulers who served God, the northern kingdom of Israel never returned to God. The ten tribes were politically, socially and religiously immersed into the “Phoenician” culture that was also allied with Egypt until the fall of Samaria. The famous “Amarna tablets,” which preserve many letters to Pharaoh’s court from rulers of petty city-states in Palestine during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten, take on a whole new perspective in David Rohl’s revised chronology. It is known the Amarna Tablets were written in the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten, as they were found in the ruins of Akhenaten’s capital city, Amarna. Egypt’s other Pharaohs ruled from other cities. The events described on the Amarna Tablets coincide with biblical events and mention prominent biblical characters. In David Rohl’s words: “…the Amarna period is contemporary with the rise of the Israelite Monarchy…the Amarna letters log the whole process, beginning with the Hebrew revolt in the central hill country of Palestine at the beginning of King Saul’s reign and ending with the assault upon Jerusalem in the eighth year of King David.” 57 (Emphasis added) It is a vital clue that the Amarna tablets seem to end with the eighth year of King David’s reign. That is the year that David conquered Jerusalem and became king over all the united tribes of Israel. (II Samuel 5:1-10) When David unified all the tribes of Israel under his unified command, the petty city-state rulers who had been writing to Pharaoh Akhenaten ceased their messages. The reason is obvious. David tolerated no opponents as he consolidated the territory under his rule; rulers of city-states within his claimed domain either submitted to David or they died. The Amarna letters mention the leaders and activities of a group of people called “the Habiru,” which is an obvious term for “the Hebrews.” Rohl notes the “Sumerian logogram-form” for the word “Habiru” is “SA.GAZ.”58 The term “SA.GAZ” is a form of the root word of the Israelite forefather “Isaac,” [the “Saga,” “Sacae,” or “Saka”], which Genesis 21:12 and 48:14-16 had prophesied would be the name attached to the birthright Israelite tribes. David Rohl asserts that the Amarna Tablets identify Israel’s King Saul as “Labayu,” a king who rose to power in Palestine. King Labayu wrote letters to Pharaoh Akhenaten in the Canaanite tongue, which is “simply early Hebrew” in David Rohl’s words.59 For a full accounting of the Amarna Tablets’ description of biblical events and personalities, the reader is referred to David Rohl’s aforementioned book. However, several instances will be cited here. Many readers are familiar with the story of David’s close friendship with Jonathan, the son of Saul. This friendship infuriated King Saul (I Samuel 20:30-31), and this story is also found in the Amarna Letters. As David Rohl describes it: “In Labayu’s third letter to Pharaoh (EA 254) we learn that the king’s son…has been implicated in the activities of the Habiru [David’s rebel band]. This is without the knowledge of his father. Labayu [Saul] writes: ‘…the king wrote for my son. I did not know that my son was consorting with the Habiru. I herewith hand him over…’ Here again is a clear parallel with the story of King Saul’s reign.”60 The Bible records that Saul died fighting the Philistines in a battle that the Hebrew Israelites lost. (I Samuel 31) One of the Amarna letters to the Pharaoh is from the Philistine King of Gath, the city of Goliath, who tells Pharaoh of Labayu’s death: “Let the king…be informed that the Habiru (singular) who was raised up against the lands; the god of…my lord, delivered him to me, and I have smitten him.”61 The obsequious language of the Philistine king indicates that while Egypt was in temporary decline, the chieftains of Palestine recognized that they were still in Egypt’s “sphere of influence” and they wanted to not alienate the Pharaoh. It was not until David united all of Israel’s tribes that Egypt’s titular influence in Palestine ended. According to Rohl, the following biblical characters are named in the Amarna letters. David is referred to as “Dadua,” and Rohl supports his conclusion by noting: “In its earliest Hebrew form the name David is written Dwd [cf. I Samuel 16:13]..The Septuagint renders the name as Dad [cf. I Kings 2:33 (ALEXANDRINUS COPY) and Ecclesiasticus 47:1].”62 (Latter emphasis added) Rohl also notes that Joab, King David’s army commander, is named “Ayab” (Hebrew: “Yoab”) in the Amarna Letters,63 and that David’s father, Jesse, is called “Yishuya.”64 Non-Israelites mentioned in the Bible are also identified by Rohl in the Amarna Letters. He cites Goliath as being the “Gulatu” of the Amarna records, and he identifies biblical Syrian kings, Hadadezer of Zobah and Toi of Hamath, as being named in the Amarna Letters. Rohl also identifies one Amarna Letter (EA 256) as being from the short-lived king of Israel, Ishbosheth (Saul’s son), who mentions he cannot find “Ayab” (Joab) as he also mentions the biblical personalities of Baanah (Benenima), David (Dadua) and Jesse (Yishuya) in his account. Baanah eventually assassinated Ishbosheth and brought the king’s head to David, the son of Jesse, who executed Baanah for his regicide (II Samuel 4). It is noteworthy that all the personalities mentioned in Amarna Letter EA 256 actually do interact as contemporaries in the Bible. The Amarna Letters appear to be the account of Israel’s rise to power in the time of David. If Pharaoh Akhenaten was a contemporary of King David, it explains why Egypt was passive during the glory days of Kings David and Solomon of Israel. It may also explain why an Egyptian Pharaoh became fascinated with monotheism, the religion of the resurgent Israelites. It took time for Egypt to reassert itself after the domestic turmoil caused by Akhenaten’s reign. When Egypt allied itself to Israel, Tyre and Sidon, it was in a weaker international position. King Jeroboam of Israel later forged strong links between Egypt and the northern kingdom of Israel during his reign, and discoveries of Hebrew-Egyptian-Phoenician artifacts in ancient North America confirm this alliance lasted for centuries. We have seen evidence that Baal-worshipping Hebrew-Phoenicians were in ancient America, but what about worshippers of the God of Israel? One major barrier to finding relics of worshippers of God (Yahweh) is that such worshippers were forbidden by God to build elaborate altars. In Exodus 20:24-26, God commanded the Israelites to make plain altars of earth or natural stones which had not been shaped by any tools, and added that altars not be placed at the head of staircases. These instructions effectively eliminated the man-made religious structures that the pagans built, and which can be unearthed by archeologists today. There could have been many worshippers of Yahweh in ancient America at the time that Israel served God under King Solomon, and there would be little evidence of them because of God’s instructions on altar-building. Also, Exodus 20:23 records that God forbade making “gods of gold and silver,” and the second of the Ten Commandments forbids the manufacture of any “graven image” as part of religious worship. This further eliminates the types of artifacts (idols) which pagan worshippers commonly manufactured. God gave these instructions so people would keep their minds focused on God and His laws, and not on physical objects. However, there is evidence that worshippers of Yahweh, the God of Israel, were present in ancient America. At Hidden Mountain, near Los Lunas, New Mexico, the Ten Commandments were written on a large stone in ancient Hebrew. Dr. Fell noted that “the inscription, written in ancient Hebrew letters of the style of the Moab Stone, about 1000 B.C., was not translated until 1949.”65 A dating around 1000 B.C. would place this inscription during the reigns of Kings David and Solomon of the united kingdom of Israel when Israel was, indeed, serving the God of the Bible. (The famous “Moabite Stone,” referred to above, was found in the Mideast and refers to wars between Israel and Moab in the ninth century B.C., during the time of the separate kingdoms of Israel and Judah.) George Morehouse, a geologist who studied this ancient Hebrew Decalogue inscription, estimated the inscription to be 500-2000 years old based on the weathered patina of the rock.66 However, accurately dating the inscription on the basis of weatherization was made very difficult, if not impossible, by the fact that the inscriptions had received periodic scrubbings which removed evidence of weatherization needed for dating.67 Further complicating the dating of this ancient Hebrew inscription is the statement that “the punctuation [of the inscription] matched that of ancient Greek manuscripts, such as the Codex Sinaiticus of the fourth century A.D.”68 Dr. Fell’s discussion of this artifact stated that separation points like those in this inscription date as early as 1200 B.C., but that the oldest known record of some punctuation marks (carets to denote an insertion to correct an omission) date to the Codex Sinaiticus of the fourth century A.D. This does not date the Hebrew inscription to the fourth century A.D.,69 but is rather an example of the oldest known occurrence of a similar punctuation mark. How long such punctuation was used prior to the fourth century A.D. is not known. In view of the above, this Los Lunas inscription pre-dates the arrival of Columbus by at least a thousand years, but it most likely dates to the time of King Solomon for several reasons. The first reason is that the inscription is in the Paleo-Hebrew characters in use from approximately 1200-600 B.C., which includes the reign of King Solomon. A second piece of evidence is what the inscription says! Since it is an inscription of the Ten Commandments given by God to Moses, it was obviously made by Israelites at a time when they worshipped the God of the Bible. Since the Kingdom of Israel quickly degenerated into pagan practices after the reign of Solomon, it argues that this inscription was made during the reign of Solomon when God’s laws were the standard for the nation. I Kings 10:22 records that Solomon’s sailors undertook voyages that returned after three years with samples of wildlife, apes and peacocks, from other continents. Such fleets could easily have visited the New World during a three-year voyage. Another factor powerfully supporting a dating of this ancient Hebrew inscription to the time of Solomon are the economic and logistic realities in the ancient world. Transoceanic expeditions and colonization efforts in the ancient world required a very large commitment of monetary and human resources. The source of such resources had to be the king of a wealthy nation. Because the New Mexico inscription is in ancient Hebrew, the sponsor for that ancient expedition had to be a very wealthy king of the ancient Israelites! Solomon was the wealthiest ancient King of Israel, and he reigned at a time when the Israelites kept the Ten Commandments. The high cost of financing trans-Atlantic voyages is verified when one considers the European colonization efforts, which began when Columbus “rediscovered” America in 1492. European colonization at the beginning of the modern era required the backing and approval of national monarchs in order to occur at all. Even companies with a large presence in the New World, such as the Hudson’s Bay Company, conducted their efforts only with the support and favor of a reigning monarch. Those who would argue for a more recent date for the Los Lunas inscriptions are confronted with this major problem: What Old World nation in the fourth century A.D., or any other date more recent than Solomon’s reign, would fund exploration and/or colonization efforts in the New World which would leave behind ancient Hebrew inscriptions? Since there were no powerful and rich Hebrew-speaking nations in the fourth century A.D., any such proposed dating lacks the support of any logical historical context for its occurrence. Because the Los Lunas inscription proclaims its makers were devoted to the God of the Ten Commandments, we are limited to those kings of Israel who could have funded international expeditions during Israel’s brief period of loyalty to God. This requirement limits the prospective dating of the Los Lunas inscription to the reigns of Kings David and Solomon. The kings of Israel that followed David and Solomon were, almost without exception, apostates who served Baal and other idolatrous gods. Under later kings, any sailing fleets would have left inscriptions devoted to pagan gods, as in the inscriptions on the tri-lingual, Davenport artifact. The kings of Judah who survived until about 587 B.C., had several righteous kings whose followers served God, but Judah was a small nation with few resources to fund and mount such expeditions. Judah had interludes of resurgent national power, but there is no record that Judah was ever a naval power. I Kings 22:48-49 and II Chronicles 20:36-37 record that righteous King Jehoshaphat tried to build a fleet for Judah, perhaps to compete with the fleets of Israel-Phoenicia, but God himself intervened to stop Judah from becoming a naval power.Therefore, the only logical historical context for the making of the Los Lunas inscriptions is still during the reigns of either King David or King Solomon. Since King David was a warrior with little interest in scientific endeavors, the reign of King Solomon is the most logical milieu for any expeditions or colonization efforts which had Israelites carving inscriptions in ancient America proclaiming a loyalty to the God of the Bible. Also, King Solomon’s insatiable scientific curiosity about the world’s flora and fauna (I Kings 4:29-33, 10:22) made him eager to fund international expeditions. This author has personally visited and inspected the Los Lunas inscription, and the site is located adjacent to a large, dry river-bed. This vanished river would formerly have been a major tributary of the Rio Grande River during a wetter climate when the river flowed freely. As the dry river-bed attests, there was once enough water in the ancient Southwest to support thriving colonies. It is likely that the ancient Israelites established a colony at the Los Lunas site during the time of King Solomon when the area could be reached via sailing routes from the Gulf of Mexico and the tributaries of the Rio Grande River. When the climate reverted to its dominant arid condition, the colony would have been abandoned. In an apparent attempt to discredit the validity of the ancient Hebrew translation of the Los Lunas inscriptions, some artifacts were “discovered” in the region of the Los Lunas inscriptions and certain individuals asserted that these new “artifacts” indicated that the Los Lunas inscriptions were Greek (not Hebrew) writings from about 500 B.C. In a 1986 court trial, it was conclusively demonstrated by expert epigraphers/linguists that while the Los Lunas inscription is a valid Hebrew rendition of the Ten Commandments, the other “artifacts” and the supposed Greek translation were hoaxes.70 Additional evidence of ancient worshippers of the Bible’s God in ancient America has been noted on a “Decalogue Tablet” (an artifact bearing an ancient Hebrew inscription of the Ten Commandments) unearthed in Ohio in 1860. Besides having the Ten Commandments inscribed on it, the tablet includes a depiction of “an individual meant to represent Moses [which] has been carved in considerable detail on the ‘front’ of the tablet…[and] a ‘handle’ at the bottom of the tablet, which may have been constructed to accommodate a strap.”71 The presence of a handle on this tablet indicates that it served as a portable object, which could accompany worshippers of God as they were traveling in ancient America. This “Decalogue Tablet” was found with grave goods in an ancient American burial mound. Its presence suggests that the person interred in the mound may have been an ancient Levite present with Israelite explorers or colonists in ancient America. It has been noted that the Hebrew inscription also has some characteristics of “the old Phoenician alphabets.”72 A Hebrew inscription with Phoenician features is exactly what ancient Israelite inscriptions should be like. The Israelites were close allies of the Phoenicians and shared a common culture and navy from the time of King David until the fall of Israel circa 721 B.C. Their artifacts would naturally exhibit the traits of both cultures. While this artifact unearthed from an Ohio burial mound cannot be specifically dated, the alphabet used indicates that it was made by ancient followers of God who spoke Hebrew. While it would be tempting to date this artifact to the time of King Solomon, the fact that it was engraved with square Hebrew letters indicates a date several centuries more recent than the Los Lunas tablet, which exhibited the more ancient Paleo-Hebrew letters. This raises the possibility that there were Israelite colonists in the New World who remained loyal to the laws of God long after Old World Israelites abandoned them. Linguistic traits in the New World could also be retained for a greater length of time due to their remoteness from the Old World and its linguistic changes. More evidence of a Hebrew presence in ancient New England, in the area of the 20 acre “temple site” discussed earlier, is seen in the presence of hundreds of Hebrew-Semitic root words in the languages of the Eastern Algonquin Indians, as Dr. Barry Fell documented.73 Whatever the dating of the above artifacts, such discoveries provide firm archaeological support to the Bible’s assertion that the ancient Israelites sponsored wide-ranging fleets and were one the major nations of the ancient world. Since the Ten Commandments in ancient Hebrew have been found in both Ohio and New Mexico, it confirms that ancient Israelite explorations and/or colonizations of the New World were widespread. These facts may be disconcerting to “establishment” sources who cling to the flawed dogma that “Columbus discovered America in 1492” no matter how voluminous the evidence that Israelites and other Old World civilizations sent explorers or colonists to the New World. This evidence will become ever more voluminous and convincing as this book series continues. Hundreds of inscribed Phoenician, Celtiberian, and Basque stone grave markers, dated to 800-600 B.C., have been found in the Susquehanna Valley of Pennsylvania.74 The inscriptions on these artifacts had been identified as Phoenician decades prior to Dr. Fell’s research,75 but these facts were incompatible with the dogmas and assumptions of modern historians so they were ignored. The Egyptian presence in the New World has been found in the writing system of the Wabanaki/Micmac Indians (an Algonquin tribe) of Maine,76 in an ancient tablet found on Long Island in New York,77 and on the Iowa stele mentioned earlier in this chapter. Also, it has been documented that the ancient Egyptians sailed the Pacific Ocean as afar as Polynesia and Hawaii as they “roamed the Indian and Pacific Oceans for gold about 1000 B.C.”78 (Emphasis added) The date of “1000 B.C.” parallels the golden age of Israel’s Empire days under Kings David and Solomon when the Bible records that Egypt was allied to King Solomon’s Israelites. An inscription in ancient Ogam and Libyan, the language of Egyptian sailors, was found near the Rio Grande River of Texas, indicating North Africans sponsored by an Egyptian/Libyan king named Shishonq visited North America in ancient times.79 The ancient inscription is translated as, “A crew of Shishonq the King took shelter in this place of concealment,” and Dr. Fell’s commentary on the inscription states: “several kings of this name ruled Libya and Egypt between 1000-800 B.C., an era when North African voyagers began to explore the New World.”80 (Emphasis added) Whether this inscription dates to the reign of King Solomon or not, it further confirms that nautical travel between the Mediterranean Region and North America took place in ancient times. The phrase “Crew of Shishonq the King” may indicate that the king himself was on the voyage. Obviously, monarchs would not likely have come to the New World unless it was considered safe to leave their home kingdoms. A period of peaceful stability, as during King Solomon’s reign, would have been an ideal time for such journeys. Also, the Bible records that many monarchs did undertake international visits during the reign of Solomon. (II Chronicles 9:23-24) The Bible mentions an Egyptian ruler named “Shishak” (i.e. “Shishonq”) sacked Jerusalem during the time of King Rehoboam of Judah. (I Kings 14:25-26) While Shishak’s Egypt attacked Judah, the smaller Jewish kingdom, it did not attack the much larger, northern Israelite kingdom of Israel. Indeed, Egypt’s Shishak was a friend of King Jeroboam of Israel (I Kings 11:40), so the ten tribes of Israel in the northern kingdom of Israel likely cheered Shishak as he attacked Judah, their estranged Israelite brothers. Dr. Fell cited the work of Gloria Farley, who “made notable finds of ancient inscriptions left by Libyans, Celts and Phoenicians who ascended the Mississippi, Arkansas and Cimarron Rivers.”81 The evidence is compelling that the ancient alliance of Israel, Egypt, Tyre and Sidon extensively explored North America during biblical times, following the river courses in Phoenician ships. It is significant that Dr. Fell noted the time period of “1000-800 B.C.” as marking a period of significant Old World exploration of the New World. This time frame exactly parallels Bible records showing international travel and commerce flourished with fleets undertaking multi-year voyages and visiting other continents. This time frame begins with the reign of Kings David and Solomon, but continues through much of the history of the northern kingdom of Israel, the dominant partner in the Phoenician alliance until Israel fell circa 721 B.C. The conclusion is inescapable that the record of ancient history verifies the biblical accounts. The Bible is not a detailed history of all that happened in the ancient world, but it confirms what archaeology and epigraphy have shown about the real state of commerce and travel in the ancient world. Israel’s “Phoenician” Empire Many historical accounts confirm that the beginning of the first millennium B.C., marked a golden age for Phoenicia. Historian Philip Hitti states: “Phoenician trade on an international scale in textiles, metalwork, pottery, glass, timber, wheat and wine gave the country three centuries – beginning around 1000 B.C. – of prosperity unmatched in its history.”82 (Emphasis added) Secular evidence that Phoenicia’s greatness began around 1000 B.C. is critically important since it coincides precisely with the period during which King Hiram of Tyre allied his people to King David’s Israelites. Since the Israelites were of a common race, language and culture with the Phoenicians, the true Israelite role in “Phoenicia’s golden age” has not been recognized. In fact, it was Israel’s golden age rubbing off on the Phoenician city-states! Israel was the dominant partner in the Phoenician alliance with Tyre and Sidon serving as junior partners. This conclusion is supported by the facts that Phoenicia’s “golden age” did not start until it allied itself to Israel, and that their “golden age” ended when Israel fell. The small city-states of Phoenicia were unable to sustain any “golden age” of international power apart from their alliance with Israel. At this juncture, new observations must be made about the term “Phoenicia.” This book has so far referred to the inhabitants of the city-states of Tyre and Sidon as “Phoenicians,” and to the inhabitants of Israel as “Israelites.” However, the term “Phoenicia,” when applied to the ancient world in the time frame 1000-700 B.C., designates the combined alliance of the Israelites and the city-states led by Tyre and Sidon. It must be realized that the people we call “Phoenicia” did not give themselves that name. The term “Phoenicia” is derived from a Greek word, which the Greek historians used to describe several nations living on the Eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. George Rawlinson wrote: “At first, the term [Phoenicia] was used [by the Greeks] with a good deal of vagueness, of the Syrian coast generally between Asia Minor and Egypt.”83 (Emphasis added) The Encyclopedia Judaica states that “the Greek name Phoinike is first mentioned by Homer,”84 and it adds: “though the exact extent of the region called Phoenicia cannot be determined, the name is clearly the Greek equivalent of Canaan.”85 (Emphasis added) Lionel Casson, author of The Ancient Mariners states concerning the Phoenicians: “Even their name is a puzzle. They called themselves Sidonians, from the city that was their chief center until Tyre outstripped it about the beginning of the first millennium B.C., and their land was Canaan. It was the Greeks who named them the ‘Phoinikes’ [Phoenicians]…”86 (Emphasis added) The above accounts all indicate the term “Phoenicia” included a region much larger than just the small city-states on the eastern Mediterranean coastline. What harmony with the Bible! I Kings 5:6 also uses the term “Sidonians,” but that same chapter of the Bible shows King Hiram of Tyre becoming the leader of the Phoenician city-states at the beginning of the first millennium B.C! Casson’s account also affirms concerning the Phoenicians that the land of Canaan was “their land!” It is well-known that “the land of Canaan” was the territory of the Israelites! The Bible actually provides us with contemporary information about who was in the Phoenician alliance, and why it became so powerful as the first millennium dawned. The Greek age of Homer is identified in Halley’s Bible Handbook as being contemporary with Israel’s golden age under Kings David and Solomon.87 The Encyclopaedia Britannica lists many optional dates for Homer’s birth, including 1159 B.C., 1102 B.C., 1044 B.C., and 830 B.C. 88 The Encyclopedia Americana states: “Ancient tradition…plac[ed] Homer in the 9th century B.C….These [poetic sources] suggest a date, now widely accepted, in the last half of the 8th century B.C.”89 While no one knows the dates of Homer’s lifetime, all of the above suggested dates coincide with the period that the Israelites lived in Canaan. This is important because if Homer and his fellow Greeks originated the term “Phoenicia,” they did so at a time when the city-states of Tyre, Sidon, etc., were so closely linked to the Kingdom of Israel that they were virtually one entity. The word “Phoenicia” is, therefore, derived from an initial Greek description of the area known to us as the land of Canaan and the broader Levantine region of the Eastern Mediterranean. The term “Phoenicia” was applied to this area at a time when Israel was the dominant power in the region; therefore, the original application of the term “Phoenicia” included Israel. The Encyclopedia Americana succinctly confirms the above conclusions in these words: “The name ‘Phoenicians’ was given by the Greeks to the inhabitants of the coastal region of present-day Lebanon and the adjacent shores of Israel and Syria in the first millennium B.C. No evidence exists that they called themselves by any such name.”90 (Emphasis added) This explains why the term “Phoenicia” is absent from the Bible. Unlike modern history texts that reflect Greco-Roman perspectives, the Bible was written from a Hebrew perspective, and it records the names by which the “Phoenicians” referred to themselves. Such names included “Israel,” “Sidonians,” “people of Tyre,” and even the names of Israel’s large tribal units. After Israel fell, the term “Phoenicia” remained on the smaller city-states of Tyre, Sidon, etc., even though they lacked the manpower to sustain the empire that had existed when they were allied to the Israelites. However, during the period of 1000-700 B.C., the term “Phoenicia” meant the alliance of Israel and the city-states of Tyre, Sidon, etc. It is not technically correct to say the Israelites were “allied to the Phoenicians” because Israel itself was the dominant member of the allied people on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea who were called “Phoenicians” by the Greeks. This explains why international power and influence characterized the “Phoenicians” from approximately 1000-700 B.C., the time when Israel was in the alliance, and why the term “Phoenician” describes a people with severely reduced numbers and influence after 700 B.C., when the Israelites were absent and the city-states were left all alone. This series of books will sometimes refer to “Phoenicians” and “Israelites,” but the reader should realize that, during the lifetime of the kingdom of Israel, the term “Phoenicia” included the Israelites. Philip Hitti also notes: “around 1100 B.C., Egyptian wisdom writing reached its highest ethical point…[it] counsels against arrogance, snobbery, ill-temper, and oppressing the poor. [It]… stresses courtesy, deference, contentment, tolerance and kindness…it served as a source for certain Hebrew Proverbs.” 91 The Hebrew proverbs referred to are, of course, those attributed to Solomon at the beginning of the first millennium B.C., and found in the book of Proverbs in the Bible. Whether Solomon borrowed these from the Egyptians or whether it was in fact the other way around is a valid question. The time dating of “around 1100 B.C.” is so close to the reign of Solomon that the case can easily be made that the “wisdom” of the Egyptians was learned from their ally, Solomon. The above virtues are all regularly found in the Bible as elements of how God expects us to deal with other people. It is significant that Egyptian wisdom “reached its highest ethical point” at the general time that Egypt was allied to King Solomon, the wisest king who ever lived! The fact that Egypt’s Pharaoh became Solomon’s father-in-law (I Kings 9:16) also offered an easy pathway for Solomon’s wisdom to flow to Egypt’s elites. From the above accounts we find international power attributed to the Phoenicians and wisdom characterizing the Egyptians at a time the Bible states both had allied themselves with King Solomon of Israel, who was exceedingly powerful and wise. 29.Betham, Gael and Cymbri, p. 29 30.Lubetski, Meir and Gottlieb, Claire; Biblical Archeologist, March, 1996 issue, Article: “Forever Gordon”; Portrait of a Master Scholar with a Global Perspective” and associated articles in the same issue 31.Gordon, Before Columbus, p. 108 32.McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, Vol. 8, see “Phoenicia,” p. 154 33.Moore, Thomas, The History of Ireland, p. 26 34.Johnston, Did the Phoenicians Discover America?, Introductory, p. xvii 35.Ibid, p. 65 36.Ibid, p. 70 37.Ibid, pp. 84-85, 92-93 38.Fell, America B.C., pp. 50 and 61 39.Ibid, pp. 130-131 40.Ibid, p. 176 41.Knudsen, Ruth, “Egyptian Signs in the Hawaiian Islands,” Epigraphic Society Occasional Publications, Vol. 13, 1985, pp. 67-95 42.Ibid, p. 90 43.Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 29 44.Fell, America B.C., p. 263 45.Ibid, p. 261 46.Ibid, p. 261 47.Ibid. p. 268 48.Ibid, p. 266 49.Ibid, p. 163 50.Ibid, pp. 263 and 268 51.Ibid, p. 270-272 52.Ibid, p. 270-275 53.Ibid, p. 159 54.Ibid, p. 159 55.Rohl, Pharaohs and Kings, p. 231 56.Ibid, p. 199 57.Ibid, p. 199 58.Ibid, p. 200 59.Ibid, p. 208 60.Ibid, p. 215 61.Ibid, p. 219 62.Ibid, p. 229 63.Ibid, pp. 222, 231 64.Ibid, p. 229, 231 65.Fell, America B.C. (1989 Revised Edition), p. 310 66.Ibid, p. 310; and Morehouse, “The Las Lunas Inscriptions: A Geological Study,” Epigraphic Society Occasional Publications, Vol. 13, 1985, p. 49 67. Morehouse, (cited above), p. 48 68.Fell, America B.C. (1989 Revised Edition), p. 310 69.Fell, “Ancient Punctuation and the Los Lunas Text,” Epigraphic Society Occasional Publications, Vol. 13, 1985, p. 35 70.Leonard and McGlone, “An Epigraphic Hoax on Trial in New Mexico,” Epigraphic Society Occasional Publications, Vol. 17, 1988, p. 206 (see also whole article, pp. 206-219) 71.”Translation of the ‘Decalogue Tablet’ from Ohio,” Bloom and Polansky, Epigraphic Society Occasional Publications, Vol. 8, Part One, 1980, p. 15 72.Savage, Dana, “The Decalogue Tablet, Newark, Ohio,” Epigraphic Society Occasional Publications, Vol. 7, Part 2, 1979, p.194 73.Fell, America B.C., p. 283 74.Ibid, p. 170 75.Boland, They All Discovered America, pp. 40-47 and plates 7-9 following p. 126 76.Fell, America BC, pp. 253-260 77.Ibid, pp. 270-272 78.Knudsen, “Egyptian Signs in the Hawaiian Islands,” Epigraphic Society Occasional Publications, Vol. 13, 1985, pp. 67-95, quote on p. 90 79.Fell, America B.C., p. 185 80.Ibid, p. 185 81.Ibid, p. 186 82.Hitti, Short History of the Near East, p. 47 83.Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 1 84.Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol. 13, p. 473 85.Ibid, p. 473 86.Casson, The Ancient Mariners, Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times, p. 62 87.Halley, Halley’s Bible Handbook, p. 134 88.Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 11, Heading entitled “Homer,” p. 689 89.Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 14, Heading entitled “Homer, p. 326 90.Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 21, Heading entitled “Phoenicians,” p. 947 91.Hitti, Short History of the Near East, p. 40
The university library owns or provides access to academic books written by scholars, works of fiction such as novels or plays, biographies and a small number of university textbooks. Works of non-fiction may be single-authored or edited. A single-authored book generally has a sustained, lengthy argument about a topic. The chapters generally build an argument chapter by chapter. An edited book has many or several authors analyzing a topic from related but slightly different perspectives. Each essay in an edited book can be read on its own. For a variety of reasons, you may need to consult books while doing research. - reading an extended argument about a topic (single-authored works particularly) - conducting research on a topic of broad scope - getting context and background - using the footnotes, endnotes, or bibliography to find additional resources - in certain disciplines, like history and philosophy, scholars often prefer to publish their findings in books
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plants. It occurs chiefly at the leaves while their stomata are open for the passage of CO2 and O2 during photosynthesis. \|Discussion of gas exchange in leaves.\| But air that is not fully saturated with water vapor (100% relative humidity) will dry the surfaces of cells with which it comes in contact. So the photosynthesizing leaf loses substantial amount of water by evaporation. This transpired water must be replaced by the transport of more water from the soil to the leaves through the xylem of the roots and stem. Transpiration is not simply a hazard of plant life. It is the "engine" that pulls water up from the roots to: - supply photosynthesis (1%-2% of the total); - bring minerals from the roots for biosynthesis within the leaf; - cool the leaf. \|Discussion of water transport through the xylem.\| Using a potometer (right), one can study the effect of various environmental factors on the rate of transpiration. As water is transpired or otherwise used by the plant, it is replaced from the reservoir on the right. This pushes the air bubble to the left providing a precise measure of the volume of water used. Environmental factors that affect the rate of transpiration Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light stimulates the opening of the stomata (mechanism). Light also speeds up transpiration by warming the leaf. Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures because water evaporates more rapidly as the temperature rises. At 30°C, a leaf may transpire three times as fast as it does at 20°C. The rate of diffusion of any substance increases as the difference in concentration of the substances in the two regions increases.When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of water out of the leaf goes on more rapidly. When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf becomes increasingly humid thus reducing the rate of transpiration. When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried away and replaced by drier air. 5. Soil water A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss is not made up by replacement from the soil. When absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate of transpiration, loss of turgor occurs, and the stomata close. This immediately reduces the rate of transpiration (as well as of photosynthesis). If the loss of turgor extends to the rest of the leaf and stem, the plant wilts. The volume of water lost in transpiration can be very high. It has been estimated that over the growing season, one acre of corn (maize) plants may transpire 400,000 gallons (1.5 million liters) of water. As liquid water, this would cover the field with a lake 15 inches (38 cm) deep. An acre of forest probably does even better. 16 May 2011
SUBSCRIBE TO OUR NEWSLETTER Coral reefs support a quarter of all marine life and offer natural coastal protection against powerful waves. They also provide jobs and income to millions of people. However, corals currently face multiple stresses, such as increases in temperature, ocean acidification, and overfishing. All of them create damaging changes to the ecosystem that could put coral reefs at risk of disappearing entirely. To counter that, many groups are exploring innovative techniques for the restoration of coral. Active coral restoration refers to planting and raising corals in nurseries that rejuvenate depleted reefs and enhance coral cover in areas affected by warming ocean temperatures, hurricanes, disease, and other sources of coral loss. Despite their plant-like appearance, corals are actually colonial animals that share ancestry with jellyfish and anemones. Some corals exist as single anemone-like structures. Meanwhile, many are colonial structures or clones constructed of thousands of individual coral polyps. Each polyp has a circular mouth surrounded by tentacles that can strain small floating plants and animals, referred to as plankton, from the water. Hundreds of such polyps can combine to function as a single animal. Inside the tissues of many coral species, particularly those that make reefs, are symbiotic microalgae. Called zooxanthellae, they can photosynthesize during the day, capturing sunlight and carbon dioxide to make sugar for the coral. This sort of relationship is called symbiotic mutualism, where both the coral and the algae live together and mutually benefit. The algae provide extra food that they share with the coral in sugars. Meanwhile, the coral provides both safe housing and extra nutrients. Many coral colonies are sessile, which means that they are fixed in one spot. Meanwhile, some soft corals are capable of moving about (much to the alarm of some first-time aquarium owners!). One of the most remarkable adaptations that hard corals have is the ability to draw calcium carbonate from the water and form hard structures for the soft polyps to grow on. This incredible process forms coral reefs. It is also an important way in which the ocean can help trap carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Corals come in a staggering array of sizes, shapes, colors, and textures. They form the foundation of many shallow, clear, warm-water, tropical marine ecosystems. However, some species of coral exist even in frigid polar waters, in the gloomy plumes of sediment that flow from the Amazon river, and in the total darkness of the deep sea. Corals make up a good chunk of the diversity of the Cnidaria phylum. It also includes jellyfish, anemones, and many bizarre gelatinous creatures you maybe haven’t heard of, like siphonophores. Within this group, corals make up the Anthozoa class that can be further subdivided as follows: Up close, the polyps of this subclass have six tentacles. These corals are the ones that create a hard foundation of calcium carbonate on which the fleshy polyps grow. The continuing cycle of thousands of corals slowly building their skeletons, dying, and new ones settling builds the massive reefs that protect small islands and provide food and homes for countless marine creatures. This subclass comprises some of the most famous coral species around the world, often referred to broadly as hard and stony corals. Examples include the iconic Staghorn and Elkhorn coral that are now threatened species but once made the main building blocks for Caribbean and Floridian reefs. As the name suggests, corals in this subclass have eight tentacles that grow symmetrically away from each other. More practically, this group includes soft corals, such as the previously mentioned ones that can move around, gorgonian sea fans, and sea pens. Unlike the so-called stony corals, the corals of this subclass do not build reefs of calcium carbonate. They do, however, grow on them. They also rely on their tentacles to filter feed rather than having algae to photosynthesize. This means that they can thrive in total darkness in some places and often grow in areas with high flow-through of water. In much of the Caribbean and the reefs around Florida, sea fans are prominently waving in the currents with the motion of the waves. Interestingly, most sea fans in the Indo-Pacific are stiff and cannot flex far without breaking. They do not have a hard exoskeleton and, instead, have small sclerites that give them individual structure. There are many different species of corals. Some are boulder-like structures, whereas others form incredibly intricate branching patterns like plates or petals of a flower. These are foundational species on which many organisms depend and collectively form reefs big enough to be seen from space. Corals can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Asexual reproduction involves budding or fragmentation. When budding occurs, new polyps bud from their parent polyps to form new colonies. Meanwhile, fragmentation occurs when a piece of the colony breaks off to form a new one, often from the concussive force of waves during storms, disturbance by large marine animals, or hapless humans! Most fragments that are broken off and rolling loose on the reef do not survive the trauma unless they happen to get wedged into a protected spot where they can continue to grow. In addition to that, corals can reproduce sexually, using sperm and eggs. Some species produce eggs and sperm simultaneously, while in other species, colonies may produce either eggs or sperm. As most corals can’t move in order to maintain a sex life, so to speak, corals engage in broadcast spawning. Male and female corals release their reproductive cells. When the egg and sperm successfully meet, they will form baby corals. These baby corals, called planulae, float until they find a hard surface they can attach to and continue growing. What governs where larval coral will settle and successfully grow is a complex question that many scientists have spent decades studying to better understand how reefs recover or die after disturbance. Spawning is a mass event that occurs annually on most reefs. Many species somehow coordinate with queues from the moon, the water, and perhaps chemical signals from each other to release their reproductive material all in one night. This can help them to overwhelm predators and maximizes chances of successful fertilization. It is a mysterious and awe-inspiring natural phenomenon to observe! In the last 30 years, over 50% of the world’s coral cover has been lost. Many Caribbean reefs have lost as much as 80% or more of their coral cover. What were once colorful aquatic cities bustling with fish and invertebrates are now turning into barren, degraded ocean cemeteries. But why? Years ago, people would ask, “If the climate is changing, why aren’t we seeing any signs?” Today, sadly, the signs could hardly be more shocking. Dramatically-changing weather patterns and increasingly severe storms cause potentially irreversible effects on the diversity of life on our planet. When sea surface temperatures increase, the various stresses that corals experience, such as nutrient pollution, runoff from urban and cleared landscapes, overgrowth with algae caused by the loss of herbivorous fish, invasive species, and more, all work together and can push corals over the edge. A stressed coral can’t just call up a therapist for a chat. When the water temperature gets too hot for too long, reef-building corals seem to panic and kick out the symbiotic algae that turn sunlight into sugars in a phenomenon called bleaching. In a single day, a mass bleaching event can turn a vibrantly colored coral reef into a bleached white ghostly graveyard. If temperatures fall or a reef is otherwise healthy, many of the corals can pick up new algae and survive. Far too often, though, our fragile, slow-growing corals are simply too stressed, and huge numbers bleach and die. Today, a third of all emissions have been absorbed by the oceans. As a result, global ocean temperatures enhancing by 0.14 degrees Fahrenheit or 0.08 degrees Celsius every decade since 1971. Keep in mind this is an average number across the entire ocean. Individual reefs will experience far greater increases locally when extreme conditions of weather, currents, and tides combine. Even a sustained shift as low as 2.7-3.6 degrees Fahrenheit or 1.5-2 degrees Celcius held for a period of weeks can produce coral bleaching. Moreover, the increased carbon dioxide absorbed by the ocean is causing it to acidify. This makes it harder for coral to form calcium carbonate and slows the overall growth rate of coral reefs everywhere. When coral reefs are severely degraded or disappear, the animals that depend on them do as well. Along with that, the ecosystem benefits they provide for humanity, like coastal protection, fisheries, and tourism, decline often with major economic consequences. In 2016, temperatures reached a record-breaking high, causing mass bleaching on a global scale. This one event altered 93% of reefs in the Great Barrier Reef, one of the biggest and most diverse ecosystems on the planet. By 2050, reefs are predicted to erode and deplete faster than they can restore themselves, causing net reef ecosystem dissolution and increased coral disease. Although corals have previously been exposed to different climatic conditions, the current rate of climate change seems to be unprecedented. Without significant intervention, our coral reefs around the globe may disappear entirely or shrink to the sad shadows of what they once were. People are exploring coral reef restoration efforts to improve coral reef resilience in various places worldwide, especially in areas where coral recruitment is limited. Consequently, people now perform coral gardening and have become coral farmers and new reef managers. Some culture coral larvae. Others propagate coral colonies through fragmentation and then attach small healthy corals to underwater structures. This process catalyzes re-growth in damaged areas. By selecting corals that are seemingly more resilient to high temperatures and diseases, then raising them in coral nurseries, scientists may be able to cultivate stocks of coral that can be planted back out on the reef. This can help replenish corals in areas where reefs have been damaged or disappeared. It may also help reefs withstand warming temperatures, giving them a fighting chance. Divers transplant young coral fragments from a coral nursery to old reefs using either cement, epoxy putty, or even zip ties depending on the approach to fix them to the surface of natural or artificial reefs in the hopes of stimulating reef regrowth. Another problem surrounds the fact that coral and marine algae, aka seaweeds, are locked in a constant battle for reef domination. Coral relies on healthy populations of herbivorous fish to be their allies in fighting back against algae that can overgrow and smother them and even wage chemical warfare that can itself cause bleaching. Many of these algae are native to reefs, while some are introduced. On countless reefs around the world, the loss of herbivorous fish from overfishing and run-off from areas humans have cleared of native vegetation are tilting the battle in the favor of invasive species. Coral gardening can also involve the removal of algae in cases where the herbivorous fish cannot keep up. In order to restore coral reefs and improve ecosystem services, conservationists are using a variety of reef restoration techniques. They are also creating innovative technologies to record coral depletion, plant coral fragments, search for genetically resilient coral populations, and protect reefs globally. Active restoration may help keep coral reefs alive and sustain the livelihoods of local communities around them while the world works on global and local policy efforts to curb the most damaging effects of climate change, pollution, runoff from degraded land, and overfishing. Most corals grow extremely slowly, sometimes only centimeters in a year. This is why being careful while enjoying coral environments is so important. While diving or snorkeling, do not get too close to the corals in case your gear knocks them. In addition, refrain from touching them. If you are not an experienced diver and do not have good buoyancy control, sign up for a PADI Peak Performance Buoyancy course prior to swimming in and around reefs. Not only can you undo decades of growth to a given coral with a careless fin kick or bump with a tank, but you can also injure yourself! It is not solely pollutants in the atmosphere and coming from the land that are causing harm to corals. The pollutants visitors release into the water without realizing it during their visits to reefs can be harmful, too. Ingredients in sunscreens, such as oxybenzone, octocrylene, and octinoxate, can cause significant toxic damage to marine and tropical reef ecosystems. These chemicals leach into coral tissues, enhance bleaching, alter DNA sequences, and meddle with sexual coral reproduction. Always look for “reef-safe” or “coral-safe” sunscreen. In general, though, it’s a better idea to simply cover up with “stinger suits” or “rash guards.” These thin material coverings have the added advantage that you will use less sunscreen. They cause less pollution and also provide protection against small stinging organisms sometimes encountered in the water. “Leave only footprints (or, in this case, bubbles)” or “Leave the place better than you found it” are both phrases you’ve probably heard before. Yet, people still struggle to implement them fully. Of course, we all want to see and experience coral reef systems to better understand and appreciate them. Part of that is being mindful to look but not touch coral. However, it’s also on you as a visitor to make sure you do not contribute to the massive problem that is litter and human rubbish in the ocean. Be sure whether entering from the beach or the boat to minimize and be mindful of rubbish that might get blown by a breeze into the sea. In addition, check your pockets before jumping in. Even better, if you want some good coral reef karma and are a more experienced diver, consider designating a zip pocket where you and your buddy can collect trash you find on reefs to dispose of properly. That said, be careful as coral is very fragile. It’s not hard to do more damage than good, for instance, removing a fishing line from a branching coral. If in doubt, point it out to an experienced diver or trained dive professional. They will decide how best to proceed. It’s also a good idea to see if you can join a beach clean-up day. You can also contribute to a local organization that takes care of removing litter from the beaches or reefs. When overfishing in reefs occurs, the coral reef ecosystems quickly collapse. In healthy coral reefs, fish such as parrot fish and surgeon fish eat seaweed and maintain non-harmful algal growth rates. When overfishing occurs, reefs can get out of balance, and algae can completely overwhelm corals causing bleaching and death. When there is no more coral, even species that fishing doesn’t target will begin to decline. A healthy coral reef is crucial to fisheries, and local economies. Over 25% of sea life depends upon coral reefs for survival. Ship groundings, trawling, and blast fishing also dangerously affect the active restoration and ecosystem services coral reefs provide for their surrounding environment. Avoid restaurants that offer live reef fish you can pick to eat. Many of these rely on damaging practices like cyanide fishing. They stun fish and collect them, causing damage to corals and reef fish communities. Choose to buy sustainably caught fish, advised by organizations like the Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch. You can help maintain a healthy ocean that can provide for human populations today and protect reef systems for future generations. Ultimately, your habits and choices as a consumer can enhance the health of the ocean and govern significant improvements in the seafood industry and its sustainability. People choosing to pay a bit more for a sustainable seafood option, asking about where the fish comes from, and refusing unsustainable or unknown options play an important role in shifting the direction of seafood sustainability Reduce, reuse, recycle, and don’t leave your trash on the beach or in the ocean. In fact, don’t simply avoid buying single-use plastic but invest in a reusable bottle and equipment that will not pollute coral reefs or affect their active and passive restoration. Fertilizers applied to gardens and agriculture near reefs will often leach into local waterways. From there, they flow into the sea, causing harmful algal blooms and damaging corals. Generally, using less fertilizer in sensitive areas can go a long way to keeping reefs healthy. Ecologically friendly gardening techniques like organic fertilizers, natural pest controls, compost, and mulch, can allow gardens and reefs to co-exist. Paying attention to the gardening practices in the places you choose to stay. When appropriate, encourage or reward financially (think tips!) places that garden responsibly can make an important difference, incentivizing better practices. Managing nutrient pollution can reduce coral bleaching. Therefore, it can make coral colonies more resilient to temperature increases and enhance coral reproduction, coral growth, and reef restoration. In many tropical reef destinations, you can also find opportunities to visit biodiversity-friendly farms that use sustainable agricultural practices to produce delicious foods that are also good for the environment. Agro-forestry systems like those that produce shade-grown chocolate or coffee can help recover deforested land and reduce runoff to reefs. It’s worth keeping an eye out for these products. In addition, look into opportunities to visit farms like this to support their environmentally friendly approaches. Reefs can be quite sensitive to fishing pressures. Both physical damage by anchors or trawling, as well as the biological effects of losing important reef fish, affect coral reefs. Reef managers keep an eye on active fishing gear used around coral gardens or by fishing trawlers that scrape along the sea bed and destroy corals. If you are planning on fishing in tropical ecosystems, ensure that you and/or your operator are respecting local laws of marine protected areas as well as local customs. If you find yourself on a boat that is damaging reefs with its anchors, have respectful conversations with the operator about alternative methods like established fixed moorings to which the boat can attach. A healthy reef can provide an abundance of fish for people to enjoy, whether as observers or fishing. Unfortunately, many reefs are too vulnerable to fishing pressure in their current state of stress. There are volunteer programs all over the world that allow you to see firsthand the physical impacts of climate change on reefs and understand coral reef restoration techniques. Coral Restoration Foundation in Florida is one of the largest organizations providing such opportunities. You can learn more about how you can join and help here. A high abundance of volunteers has worked in recent decades with community managers in marine protected areas. They learn how to scuba dive as well as take part in coral restoration and planting of new corals. If you are unable to volunteer or just want to amplify your impact, donating can also be an important way to help. When it comes to ecological engineering and coral restoration, there is a lot to learn about. At the heart of sustainability is education, and spreading the word about the significant impacts climate change is continuing to have on damaged reefs, and coral reef conservation efforts are key. Our ability to grow corals and the small-scale restoration success conservationists are having in various places around the globe can help inspire people to act, volunteer, and educate others about the importance of coral reef restoration. The ocean also needs outspoken advocates to advocate for both local and global changes in policy to curb greenhouse gas emotions, reduce pollution, and improve the health of fisheries. There are various resources available online, such as interactive webinars by the Reef Resilience Network. It’s an online community for marine conservation managers to connect with experts and resources on coral restoration. The tourism sector has huge opportunities to change the way the general public interacts with natural environments and enhance coral reef restoration at the same time. Where available, choose tour operators that have eco certifications and can prove how they are giving back and adding to the preservation of particular ecosystems that face global extinction. In remote locations where such programs do not exist, engage your operator in conversation about issues surrounding sustainability and conservation. Make clear this issue is important to your choices as a visitor. At the heart of all our tours and work is sustainability. We believe that wherever you go, you should leave it in the same or a better state than you found it. That’s why we promote tours that will give back to particular ecosystems and environments, connect with the local community, and educate our guests on how to be better stewards for the planet and save coral reefs. Would you like to help support our planet? WildVoice allows you to easily pick and sign up for wildlife and nature conservation volunteering events across Hawaii, South Florida, and California. If you’d like to explore these regions sustainably, check out our wildlife tours.
STEM is an approach to learning and development that integrates the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Through STEM, students develop key skills including: Why is STEM important? The global economy is changing. Current jobs are disappearing due to automation and new jobs are emerging every day as a result of technological advances. The continual advances in technology are changing the way students learn, connect and interact every day. Skills developed by students through STEM provide them with the foundation to succeed at school and beyond. Employer demand for STEM qualifications and skills is high, and will continue to increase in the future. Currently, 75 per cent of jobs in the fastest growing industries require workers with STEM skills. To be competitive, the Australian workforce needs people who can adapt to a changing workplace. STEM empowers individuals with the skills to succeed and adapt to this changing world.
SummaryRead the full fact sheet - Gardening is a healthy activity that can be enjoyed by people of all ages. - An edible garden can be started in a very small area or in containers or pots. - Make sure your plants are non-toxic varieties and are edible. - Don’t use chemical sprays or fertilisers in your edible garden. Gardening has many health and therapeutic benefits, and can be enjoyed by everyone. People with disabilities, older people and children can find it especially rewarding to spend time in the garden tending plants and growing their own food. With some planning and thought, you can create an interesting, productive and pleasant space that can be used as an edible garden. An edible garden is a garden that contains flowers, herbs, seeds, berries and plants that you can eat. It does not have to be large. Your garden can start small with a few pots and containers, or even just a window box with a few herbs. Benefits of growing an edible garden Research shows that gardening is a healthy activity. Working in the garden provides benefits that include: - enjoyment – from the physical activity - exercise – physical activity improves your endurance, strength, mobility and flexibility - relaxation – helps you relax and reduce stress levels - fresh food – provides you and your family with a healthy source of inexpensive fresh food - appreciation of food growing – provides an understanding of foods and their origin. Designing an edible garden When planning your edible garden, some of the key considerations include: - how much space you have – remember, an edible garden can be as small as one plant in a pot - the best place – a sunny position with easy access to water will work well, but many edible plants will also grow well in partial shade - the nature of your soil – well-draining soil with plenty of organic matter is ideal - what you would like to grow and eat - who the garden is for and how they will access it – consider how much room may be required for wheelchair access and whether you will need to construct raised beds - what you hope to achieve in the garden – you might need space for group activities or meal preparation - what infrastructure you might like to include – a shed, cupboard or potting bench can be useful for storing materials and potting up plants. An edible garden can be any size An edible garden can be started in a small area. Courtyards, balconies, porches and very small gardens are all suitable sites. If you don’t need a raised garden bed for easy access, you can plant directly into the ground. Suitable containers for an edible garden There is a variety of containers that can be adapted for growing plants. These include: - old wheelbarrows – these are great because they can be moved about - old bathtubs or laundry tubs with holes for drainage - plastic and terracotta pots – if these are on castors they can be moved around easily - large pots, barrels, large terracotta pipes and recycled containers - raised garden beds, which can be purpose-built to suit your needs. Where to position an edible garden The area selected for your edible garden should be flat and receive reasonable amounts of sunlight and some shelter from the wind. There should be a garden tap nearby so you can water plants easily. Make sure the walking surface will not become slippery. The best soil for an edible garden The ideal soil for growing edible crops is: - free-draining, but still able to retain moisture and nutrients - rich in organic matter - neutral pH to slightly acidic (pH 6 to 7) - rich in soil life, such as earthworms. To determine if your soil is free draining, dig a few small holes about 60 cm deep in different positions around your garden. Fill them with water and let it drain away, then refill it and time how long it takes to drain. The result will tell you: - If the rate of drainage is less than 2.5 cm (one inch) per hour, then you have poorly draining soil. This is a common feature of clay soils, and can be improved by adding and digging in gypsum and compost. Alternatively, you may wish to plant plants that are suited to a waterlogged environment. - A rate of 2.5 to 15 cm (one to six inches) per hour indicates good drainage. You should be able to grow most edible crops well. - A drainage rate of faster than 15 cm (six inches) per hour is excessive, and is a common characteristic of sandy soils. Fast-draining soils can be improved by digging in plenty of organic matter such as compost and manure. Alternatively, you may wish to plant drought-tolerant plants, such as local Australian natives. You can use a pH kit to determine the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of your soil. These are available from plant nurseries and hardware stores. An ideal soil pH for your edible garden is neutral to slightly acidic (pH 6 to 7) .An acid soil can be adjusted by digging in calcium in the form of dolomite or lime. Alkaline soils are harder to correct, but may improve over time with the addition of sulphur and compost. Planning what to plant in your edible garden When planning what to plant in your edible garden, things to think about include: - what your favourite fruits, vegetables, herbs and other edible plants are – if you plant what you love to eat then you will be enthusiastic about your gardening project - sensory appeal – grow plants you like to see, smell or touch - which plants you need a small amount of, often – herbs are a good example - which edible plants are rarely found in the shops – perhaps there is a variety of tomato you can’t buy at the supermarket - the climate where you live – consider which plants are best suited to the local climate - seasonality – consider which plants will grow best at the time of year when you are planting. Seed packets or labels on seedlings will give you an idea, or talk to staff at your local plant nursery. Flowers and herbs can be used in salads, can add flavour to cooked dishes, and can be made into teas or used as a garnish. Vegetables, fruits and many plants can be eaten raw or cooked. Examples of flowers, herbs and plants that are suitable for an edible garden include: - flowers – borage, carnation, chamomile, chrysanthemum, fuchsia, geranium, hibiscus, hollyhock, honeysuckle, impatiens, lavender, lemon blossom, lilac, marigold, nasturtium, pansy, rose, salvia and violet - herbs – rosemary, basil, chives, sage, mint, oregano, parsley and thyme - seeds and berries – blueberries, mulberries, pumpkin and sunflower seeds - vegetables – lettuce, tomatoes, silverbeet, corn, capsicum and beans - fruits – rhubarb (stems are edible, but the leaves are poisonous), kiwi fruit, strawberries and passionfruit - plants and trees – all sorts of fruit trees, including lemons, apricots and apples. Even the leaves from bay trees are great for use in stews and casseroles. Tips for growing an edible garden Hints that will help you to create a successful edible garden include: - If you have a north-facing wall, consider growing suitable plants or vines up the wall in containers. - Remove weeds regularly as they rob the soil of valuable nutrients, and will compete with your crops. - Compost most garden materials (leave out the problem weeds), and all vegetable and fruit scraps from the kitchen. Make sure scraps are shredded well before composting. - Use organic fertilisers. - Mulch to conserve water. - Rotate crops regularly (every season or at least every year) to make sure that the soil retains nutrients and the risk of diseases is reduced. - Use non-chemical remedies such as garlic and chilli spray or milk to ward off pests. Where to get help - Malakoff, D., What good is community greening?, American Community Gardening Association. - Organic gardening, Organic Gardening From Down Under, Australia. - Soil basics, 2010, Cornell University, Department of Horticulture.
Math Science Chemistry Economics Biology News Search Liceo Scientifico Enrico Boggio Lera, Catania, Italia In this article I would like to explain how Ethology was influenced by the study of Evolution, without it, in fact, it would have been impossible to formulate those principles that are the basis of this discipline, as the classification of animal species and their adaptation to the environment. We could not use the term Ethology if we did not consider the theses of evolution as the growth factor of this subject; Ethology spread with the Evolution, otherwise Ethology wouldn’t have sense, so it is fundamental. Ethology is that part of Zoology which studies the behaviour of animals, we can say it provides some answers to certain stresses from the environment, so to whatever stimulus, a new behaviour corresponds performed in a totally mechanical way, without the use of the intellect. The first scientist who gave great contribution to Ethology was Jean Baptiste Lamarck, who studied evolution. He was the first to speculate that animals, including Homo Sapiens, descended from other species; he stated the genetic heredity of acquired characters, so that acquired characteristics were inheritable; for example he thought that a bodybuilder could transmit his musculature to his children. This hypothesis was disassembled by the scientist Charles Darwin who, 50 years later, presented a new Theory on Evolution and on genetic inheritance more reliable than Lamarck’s. Darwin stated that the cause of Evolution did not depend only on environmental adaptation, but it also depended on sometimes random genetic mutations that, in time, determined morphological changes in a species; it was up to nature to select only organisms that could live inconditions dictated by the environment; this process is called Natural Selection. In the following years there were further discoveries which brought interest for Ethology on higher levels. Skinner formulated a lot of important theories about Ethology; he emphasized that there is a learning mechanism in whatever animal which can be defined as by trial and error; behaviours followed by a prize or by a reward tend to be repeated and retained, while those followed by a punishment, on the contrary, tend to decrease not to be repeated in future. This procedure performed instinctively was called Operating Conditioning. Skinner showed the validity of the term with some tests carried in his laboratory: he inserted some mice inside special cages called Skinner Box built by him, where there was a lever that, when pressed, gave a piece of cheese to the animal. In the first tests the mice acted randomly and moving here and there they accidentally pressed the lever; repeating the tests a number of times, they started to associate the gesture of pressing the lever to the delivery of a reward. The true initiator of Ethology, also considered as the father of this discipline, is certainly Lorenz Konrad; when he was 6 he had the opportunity to observe that wonderful event of Imprinting, a term coined by himself; it is a learning mode of vertebrate in which the animal concerned is particularly impressionable by the first moving object it sees, coming to associate to the latter a mother figure. Lorenz since young was so attracted by the wild geese that he would have raised one; not given the opportunity, he contented himself with a duck he bought as a chick, it became attached to the scientist who spent long time with it during the period of imprinting or during the 36 hours subsequent the hatching of the egg. Konrad also explained how some animals perform certain actions mechanically; he explained that a wild goose that, whenever one of its egg slid away from the nest, collected it with a precise movement of its beak; this movement also was performed if to completed is the egg was removed during the process.
This May, we took a look back at the inventions that helped us get where we are today. We’re writing these words and you’re reading these words thanks to the creation of social media, the Internet and the world wide web, of course, the computer itself. (Even if you’re reading this on your phone, your phone is essentially a computer with a phone built in). Take a minute to learn the basic evolution of the computer that was born in America’s precious Silicon Valley. Today, computers are secured to our wrists proudly sporting either Fitbit or Apple logos. Decades ago, they used to sit on the desk underneath monitors. Half a century ago, they took up entire walls of rooms and even a full room itself. Yet, the very first computer dates back to the ancient Greeks circa 100 BC. A handmade device known as the Antikythera Mechanism is believed to be the world’s original analog computing device, which at the time was created to “calculate astronomical positions.” About 1700 years later, the slide rule was invented after the world was introduced to the logarithm. Devices like these brought a new trend–focusing more on mathematical operations. By 1830, a new device by Charles Babbage, known as the “father of the computer” created an instrument that incorporated both mathematical operations and navigational calculations. Babbage created both the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine. Essentially, these two devices gave way to the innovation of the future. They incorporated punch cards, a curve plotter, a printer and a bell to provide information on a hand-held medium. Compared to computers of today, the “wheels were being turned” and the very first modern computing devices were brought into existence. The Rubber Hits The Road The rubber didn’t hit the road until computers were created as programmable. The first and second of programmable computers made history were named the Colossus and the ENAIC, respectively. (A picture of the ENAIC can be seen to your left). Colossus is most known for its use during the first World War. A total of ten Colossus machines were built and put into service by February, 1944 to successfully break German military codes. The ENAIC–Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer–was much faster and larger than the Colossus and outlived Colossus. The ENAIC was used by the U.S. Army from 1943 to 1945. It was capable of several thousand mathematical operations a second such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and square roots. ENAIC was enormous in size and price; it weighed 60,000 pounds, took up over 2,000 square feet and cost half a million dollars. Today, that figure would be more accurate as $6.78 million. Up until 1947, computing devices primarily used vacuum tubes, which controlled electric current between electrodes in a container.Transistors carried and amplified electric currents once carried by vacuum tubes. Once 1947 came around, transistor components replaced vacuum tubes and cut down immensely on size and cost and double functionality almost overnight. The birth of silicon valley revolved around transistor circuits. More components could fit into a computer housing per se, but the true reduction from room-size computers to desk-sized computers came from the invention of the microprocessor. Microprocessors were as large as the average thumb nail (no pun intended) and outperformed the transistor. They could manage data and programs by themselves. In 1971, the first microprocessor called the “4004” was developed in the glorious Silicon Valley. Astoundingly, the 1/16-by-1/8-inch chip had the same computing power as the room-wide ENAIC from 26 years earlier. Both transistors combined with microprocessors and years of development brought microcomputers to the consumer market. From there, two Harvard students named Bill Gates and Paul G. Allen were hired by a company called Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (“MITS” for short). Together, they created a computer kit called the Altair for consumers to build themselves. At the same time, they put their earnings from Altair into developing software. The software made the Altair easier to use. It was here in 1975, that opportunity knocked. Allen and Gates took their software idea to the next level and started a then-small company called Microsoft. A year later, the great and powerful “Woz” and his partner Steve Jobs developed an improvement upon the Altair. This improvement was known as the Apple I. At this point in time, the personal computer or PC revolution had officially begun. From there, inventions, programs, applications, developers, demand and need for computers exploded. Thank you for your attention! To receive a free copy of this blog as a PDF, click the eBook below!
More and more young Australians are playing video games during their leisure time. Fortunately, video game manufacturers have introduced “exergames” in an effort to make this typically sedentary activity more physically engaging. These “active” video game consoles, like the Nintendo Wii, offer gamers sporting experiences that mimic the real game or sport. Health and physical education (HPE) teachers have embraced this technology in their classes to motivate children who show a lack of interest in traditional physical education activities. However, these exergames don’t provide the same skill development as traditional physical education. Research shows benefits are not the same for Exergames At the University of Tasmania, researchers in the Active Work Laboratory are investigating exergames and their contribution to skill development in children. More specifically, they have looked at how children develop the ability to process or prepare for complex movements that involve crossing the midline of the body. The ability to cross the midline is important because it helps the right and left sides of our brains communicate. This link allows both sides of the body to move together more efficiently to perform a wide variety of everyday tasks such as reading, writing, crawling or riding a bike. These types of skills are often utilised in high-level sports like tennis, and should be taught during physical education. In our previous research, we showed that teaching children deliberate ball-bouncing strategies can improve how quickly they are able to process complex movements. To see if exergames could produce similar results, we randomly assigned boys and girls between the ages of seven and 12 to one of three groups: - a Nintendo Wii tennis group that required children to perform midline-crossing movements across the body, - a Nintendo Wii bowling group that did not require midline crossing movements, - and a control group of seated children who only played a hand-held video game requiring no arm or leg movements. Children’s ability to process movements was measured before and after they participated in their training groups. Our results showed exergame training was not sufficient to produce the same improvements children gained from the ball-bouncing games. We concluded that teachers should be wary of replacing traditional physical education instruction with the use of exergames. There are several possible reasons for these results. Exergames have a greater margin of error Previous research has found games involving actual movements require more focus and brain activity than the movements necessary for success during video gameplay. Exergames allow for a greater margin of error to be successful. This greater range might allow for a player to have slower processing speed and still win the game, but in a real ball- bouncing game, the same slower processing speeds would result in a failed catch. These real games require the player to organise several muscles to produce both gross and fine motor movements with precision to catch a ball. Real gameplay, then, might “train” the brain to physically perform the movements better than virtual gameplay. Variability in feedback Feedback a player receives during gameplay, both virtual and real, has the potential to promote skill development. Exergames are designed to make this virtual feedback seem as real as possible through visual graphics, auditory prompts, and haptic feedback (such as vibrations made by handheld game controllers). However, moving the exergame controller through space does not accurately replicate moving an actual object such as a tennis racket or bowling ball, because of differences like weight, grip and aerodynamics. Performing movements with actual sporting equipment also allows for greater variability in feedback. For example, the “feeling” of hitting a well-timed tennis shot versus a poorly-timed one. The decreased authentic feedback available during exergame play might contribute to less improvement in movement processing speeds. Exergames are “one-size-fits-all” Another important factor in skill development is the ability to tailor activities during training to the needs of the learner. Traditional physical education allows for increases in task difficulty as soon as a student is competent. In contrast, exergame training requires repetitive movement skills and only allows for advancement once the present stage is completed. This code is hard-wired, and the time for each stage cannot be changed by teachers or students. This difference prevents the physical educator from providing training experiences tailored to each child’s skills or level. The exergame environment is still a “one-size-fits-all” experience that lacks the individualisation abilities of traditional physical education. Exergames are better than nothing, but not better than real exercise While parents should encourage their children to play exergames instead of sedentary video games during leisure time, we do not recommend HPE teachers replace traditional physical education with exergames when motor skill improvement is the primary goal of the lessons. This article was written by Vaughan Cruickshank, Course Co-ordinator – Health and Physical Education, Maths/Science, Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania; Dean Cooley, Associate Professor Professional Experience, Federation University Australia; Scott Pedersen, Senior Lecturer, Motor Behaviour, University of Tasmania. The piece first appeared on The Conversation.
Most industrial treescapes and other wooded landscapes will have some form of documented history (see section ‘documentary sources’). Such sites were of economic importance to their owners over long periods of time. In many cases their management histories have survived in great detail which will allow you to build up a detailed picture for your particular site. The ‘woodland history’ section gives background information on how industrial treescapes have developed in the East Peak area. It charts the transition from common to coppice-with-standards to high forest, abandonment to amenity use today. Having an understanding of the history of an industrial treescape allows you to interpret the evidence on the ground. Using ecological and archaeological evidence alone can make it much harder to be sure of past conditions, events and the management practices which were carried out, exactly when and for how long. Archaeological features can be divided into those which are - OF the woodland: directly associated with woodland management and industrial activities e.g. charcoal making - IN the woodland: not associated with woodland management or activities eg. coal mining, stone quarrying, field systems. It isn’t usually possible to identify which pits, platforms, boundaries, trackways and ditches are OF and which are IN at first glance. This is where detailed recording and background historical work is essential. Some of the most common features you may find are shown in the ‘hearths, pits & platforms’ and ‘banks, ditches and routeways’ sections. Help to get you started in carrying out a survey is in the ‘Recording features’ section with more detailed information in the survey guide.
Learning Goals and Targets Teacher-facing learning goals appear at the top of lesson plans. They describe, for a teacher audience, the mathematical and pedagogical goals of the lesson. Student-facing learning goals appear in student materials at the beginning of each lesson and start with the word "Let's." They are intended to invite students into the work of that day without giving away too much and spoiling the problem-based instruction. They are suitable for writing on the board before class begins. These appear in student materials at the end of each unit. They describe, for a student audience, the mathematical goals of each lesson. We do not recommend writing learning targets on the board before class begins, because doing so might spoil the problem-based instruction. (The student-facing learning goals (that start with “Let’s”) are more appropriate for this purpose.) Teachers and students might use learning targets in a number of ways. Some examples include: - targets for standards-based grading - prompts for a written reflection as part of a lesson synthesis - a study aid for self-assessment, review, or catching up after an absence from school How to Assess Progress The materials contain many opportunities and tools for both formative and summative assessment. Some things are purely formative, but the tools that can be used for summative assessment can also be used formatively. - Each unit begins with a diagnostic assessment (“Check Your Readiness”) of concepts and skills that are prerequisite to the unit as well as a few items that assess what students already know of the key contexts and concepts that will be addressed by the unit. - Each instructional task is accompanied by commentary about expected student responses and potential misconceptions so that teachers can adjust their instruction depending on what students are doing in response to the task. Often there are suggested questions to help teachers better understand students’ thinking. - Each lesson includes a cool-down (analogous to an exit slip or exit ticket) to assess whether students understood the work of that day’s lesson. Teachers may use this as a formative assessment to provide feedback or to plan further instruction. - A set of cumulative practice problems is provided for each lesson that can be used for homework or in-class practice. The teacher can choose to collect and grade these or simply provide feedback to students. - Each unit includes an end-of-unit written assessment that is intended for students to complete individually to assess what they have learned at the conclusion of the unit. Longer units also include a mid-unit assessment. The mid-unit assessment states which lesson in the middle of the unit it is designed to follow.
The Desert Bighorn Sheep Scientists have found evidence that desert bighorn sheep existed in ancient times. Small sculptures of the animals have been found inside caves in the Grand Canyon. These canyon animals, which display a muscular body and white-furred muzzles, rumps, and bellies feature notable horns. The male of the species, or rams, show off curved and big horns while the females or ewes display short horns that are slightly curved. The largest of the indigenous canyon animals, bighorn rams can weigh as much as 250 pounds or 113 kilograms. Where They Live When visiting the South Rim or West Rim of the canyon, you normally see these animals on steep sandstone cliffs. Desert bighorn sheep call the Sonoran Desert, Grand Canyon, and Mojave Desert home in the U.S. Southwest. Therefore, the spotting of this iconic animal makes a trip to the Grand Canyon an exciting event. As their name suggests, desert bighorn sheep adapt well to desert climates and can go for long periods without drinking winter. These socialized animals gather into herds of about 10 sheep. However, herds in the Grand Canyon, along the Colorado River, may contain twice that amount. A Decline in the Population As you might guess, the males, or rams, dominate herd activities, charging at one another until one of the retreats. Of all the Grand Canyon wildlife, desert bighorn sheep stand in a visitor’s memory. However, in recent years, the population of bighorn sheep has steadily declined, due, according to scientists, to changes in the climate. Variables in the climate, such as increasing temperatures and reduced rainfall, affect the availability of food or dependable water sources. While the sheep can go for a long time without water, ewes still need water every day while they are lactating. Fortunately, members of the national park system in coordination with other interested parties use standardized testing to assess the impact of climate change and to check the habitats and herds. A Perfect Habitat for Desert Bighorn Sheep The Grand Canyon features an ideal habitat for desert bighorn sheep, given its rocky and steep terrain. The sheep like to zigzag up one side of a cliff face and can adroitly take hold of ledges a mere two inches wide. They can run as fast as 30 miles per hour over a level landscape and scramble up inclines at half that speed. Their sharp-edge, concave, and elastic cloven hoofs serve them well when navigating the rocky terrain. If you visit the Grand Canyon, you may see one of these majestic animals. While you can view pictures of bighorn sheep online, seeing them up-close and for real is much more satisfying. According to the National Park Service, the desert bighorn sheep in Grand Canyon National Park play a big role in U.S. Southwest conservation. While hunting, transplantation, or grazing do not occur inside the park, these activities do happen on park boundaries, thereby impacting the population. Protect and Respect the Environment Evidence also shows that some sheep ingest food wrappers and related materials left by hikers or people rafting the river. The consumption of these materials affects populations by having an adverse effect on the animals’ digestive tracts. Remember to respect the animals in the park when you plan a visit.
Black bears (Ursus americanus, Figure 1) are the smallest and most widely distributed of the 3 species of bears in North America. They are massive, strongly built animals. Black bears are protected by federal and state laws and regulations throughout their range. Black bears that live east of the Mississippi River predominantly are black, but in the Rocky Mountains and westward, shades of brown, cinnamon, and blond are common. The head is moderately-sized with a straight profile and tapering nose. The ears are relatively small, rounded, and erect. The tail is short (3 to 6 inches) and inconspicuous. Each foot has 5 curved claws, about 1 inch long, that are non-retractable. Bears walk with a shuffling gait but they can be quite agile and quick. It is important to distinguish between black bears and grizzly bears (also called brown bears). Guard hairs of grizzlies have white or silver tips, giving the bears a frosted or “grizzly” appearance. Grizzly bears have a pronounced hump over the shoulder, a shortened, often dished face, relatively small ears, and long claws (Figure 2). Adult black bears weigh 100 to 400 pounds and measure 4 to 6 feet in length. Some adult male black bears weigh over 600 pounds. Grizzly bears typically are much larger than black bears, ranging from 400 to 1,300 pounds. Black bears historically ranged throughout most of North America, except for the desert southwest and the treeless barrens of northern Canada. They still occupy much of their original range, with the exception of the Great Plains, Midwestern states, and parts of the southeastern coastal states (Figure 3). Distributions of black and grizzly bears overlap in the Rocky Mountains, Western Canada, and Alaska. Tracks and Signs Tracks of bears are recognized by their shape and size (Figure 4). The tracks are dimorphic, with the front foot rarely showing the heel. Front feet average 4½ inches in length and 4 inches in width. Rear feet are 7 x 3½ inches. Bears normally are silent when travelling. They emit grunts with young and may blow and click their teeth if they are upset. Loud, staggered grunts are used by females to threaten males that are unwanted. Moans are uttered when bears are behaving subordinately.
Dinosaurs had special nasal passages that helped them cool off Size was definitely an advantage during the Cretaceous period when giant dinosaurs ruled the Earth. But although bigger was better in some instances, it also came with some considerable hurdles, like overheating. Large dinosaurs like Panoplosaurus and Euoplocephalus, two species of ankylosaurs, were particularly at risk of overheating because of how little surface area their bodies had in comparison to their volume. Combine this fact with the hot Cretaceous climate and you have the perfect recipe for heatstroke, which is what can happen when the body overheats and warm blood from the core is sent up to the brain. Researchers from Ohio University and Arkansas State University’s New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine discovered the underlying mechanisms that prevented large dinosaurs from overheating and the answer lies in their nasal passages. Ankylosaurs, a group of club-tailed dinosaurs, had built-in air conditioning thanks to their twisty nasal passages, according to the study published in the journal PLOS ONE. “The huge bodies that we see in most dinosaurs must have gotten really hot in warm Mesozoic climates,” said Jason Bourke. the lead author of the study. “Brains don’t like that, so we wanted to see if there were ways to protect the brain from cooking. It turns out the nose may be the key.” The nose is a delicate appendage that does much more than just smell. It also helps trap bacteria and foreign bodies as well as making sure air is moist and at an ambient temperature before it reaches the lungs. Ankylosaurs had long, coiled nasal passages similar to a crazy straw, but the reason as to why remained unknown until now. The researchers used both CT scanning and computational fluid dynamics to simulate air movement through the nasal passages of Panoplosaurus and Euoplocephalus and discovered that the twisty nasal passages of ankylosaurs helped cool air and blood near the near the nasal passages. The researchers created an ankylosaur model using different sizes of nasal passages and simulated air movement to see if the length and shape of the coiled nasal passages made a difference in air flow and temperature. “When we stuck a short, simple nose in their snouts, heat-transfer rates dropped over 50 percent in both dinosaurs. They were less efficient and didn’t work very well,” said Bourke. The study provides some key insights into how the dinosaurs kept cool despite their huge mass and size. “When we look at the nasal cavity and airway in dinosaurs, we find that the most elaborate noses are found in the large dinosaur species, which suggests that the physiological stresses of large body size may have spurred some of these anatomical novelties to help regulate brain temperatures,” said Lawrence Witmer a co-author of the study.
African-Americans in Ohio Because of its social stance as an anti-slavery state, Ohio was a destination for a number of escaped slaves before the Civil War. As early as the 1870s, members of the Society of Friends (a Peace Church within the Quaker faith) actively assisted former slaves in their search for freedom. Ohio was important in the operation of the Underground Railroad. While some escaped slaves passed through Ohio on the way to Canada, a large number settled in Ohio, particularly in growing cities like Cleveland and Cincinnati. By 1860, almost 37,000 African-Americans lived in Ohio. You can also learn more about Ohio’s role in the Underground Railroad by visiting Cincinnati’s National Underground Railroad Freedom Center. George Washington Williams George Washington Williams, who was originally born in Pennsylvania, moved to Cincinnati and became the first African- American elected to the Ohio Legislature in 1879. Williams retired from politics after one term as state representative. However, he continued to serve as a leader and spokesman for the black community and later wrote History of the Negro Race in America 1618-1880. The publication of this two-volume, 60 chapter work made Williams the first African- American to write a history of his race. Jesse Owens, who grew up in Cleveland and attended The Ohio State University, won four gold medals at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin. Prior to the Olympics, Owens set three world records and tied a fourth in the span of 45 minutes during a Big Ten track and field meet on May 25, 1935. Following the 1936 Olympics, Owens retired from competition. In 1993, Lorain native Toni Morrison became the first African-American woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature. Morrison has earned several honors for her work, including a Pulitzer Prize for her 1987 novel Beloved. Morrison, who earned degrees from Howard University and Cornell University, has also worked as an editor and played a significant role in bringing African-American literature into the mainstream. Paul Laurence Dunbar Paul Laurence Dunbar, an author from Dayton, was the first nationally-recognized African-American poet. The child of two former slaves, Dunbar’s work often dealt with the efforts of African-Americans to achieve equality in the United States. Aside from having his work published in a number of periodicals of the day, Dunbar also produced 12 books of poetry, five novels, four books of short stories and one play. Stephanie Tubbs Jones Stephanie Tubbs Jones represented the east side of Cleveland in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1999 to 2008. Tubbs Jones was the first African-American woman elected to Congress from Ohio. Prior to serving in Congress, Tubbs Jones was a municipal judge, trial court judge and Cuyahoga County prosecutor.
ABOUT ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE Alzheimer's is a neurodegenerative disease of adulthood and aging. Alzheimer's disease involves a progressive neuropathology characterised by 2 key hallmarks at the microscopic level : i. extracellular accumulation and deposits of the protein peptide beta-amyloid (producing amyloid or 'senile' plaques), ii. intracellular inclusions of the tau protein (producing neurofibrillary tangles) within neurons of the brain. Plaque and tangle formation leads to death and loss of neurons in the brain, resulting in global brain atrophy, which can be detected in brain scans. Degeneration in the brain (in particular loss of neurons in the 'thinking areas' of the neocortex and hippocampus) results in the progressive symptoms of dementia - memory loss, confusion, disorientation, mood changes, Progression of the mental and physical deterioration is relentless, leading to death 10 to 30 years after initial symptoms and diagnosis. Alzheimer's disease is the commonest (~65%) cause of dementia. In rare cases it is known to be due to a single gene mutation and these genetic cases tend to be of younger age of onset ('presenile cementia), whereas the majority of cases of sporadic onset in old age ('senile dementia') are due to mixed genetic and lifestyle factors. Alzheimer's disease affects approx. 1.6% of the total population, rising to sbout 1 in x of people over 65, and 1 in x of those over 80. With aging populations, Alzheimer's disease. The European Commission has estimated that there are about 7.3 million people living with dementia across the EU, about 65% of these are attributed to Alzheimer's disease This is a major economic burden on the health and wealth of all western societies, a situation which will only get worse as beneral improvements in health and healthcare leads to longer lifespans and a progressively ageing population. There is currently no effective treatment or cure It is only through high quality scientific research that we can hope: to understand the causes of Alzheimer's disease, to develop new medicines to halt its progression to treat its worst symptoms, to find a cure for those already affected, to block its onset for future patients. Support C.A.R.E. -- Give hope to patients and families blighted by this devastating disease.
What Are the Factors Affecting Reading Performance? 27 JUN 2018 A child's reading ability can be affected by many factors including background knowledge, ability, home environment, school experiences and interest level. However, pure reading performance is most directly linked to a child's success with five early literacy skills--phonemic awareness, alphabetic principle, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. By understanding and nurturing these five fundamental skills, parents and teachers can better encourage successful reading performance. 1 Phonemic Awareness Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear and orally manipulate the individual sounds that make words. This skill is performed entirely with oral, not written, language. Students with strong phonemic awareness are better prepared to sound out words while reading and more likely to become fluent, proficient readers. Phonemic awareness includes the ability to segment words into individual sounds, blend sounds to produce words, recognize words with sentences, distinguish syllables and identify and produce rhyming words. Phonemic awareness can be a difficult task for young students and must be explicitly taught to early readers. 2 Alphabetic Principle The alphabetic principle encompasses recognition of letters, an understanding that words are made from individual letters and the ability to connect sounds with letters in print. Working with the alphabetic principle means deciphering the alphabetic code of words. Decoding, or sounding out words, is an essential skill involved with the alphabetic principle. However, the English alphabet is complex and difficult to master. Many letters have more than one possible sound and many sounds have more than one possible letter. Rigorous practice with identifying letters, connecting sounds to the letters and utilizing these skills within words encourages a strong grasp of the alphabetic principle. Fluency involves the accuracy and speed of a student's reading. A fluent reader is able to read text correctly, quickly and with appropriate voice tone. Gaining fluency makes reading a more pleasurable and less stressful experience for students. Fluent readers are usually able to read almost effortlessly. This allows them to concentrate their efforts on comprehension and vocabulary as opposed to decoding and recognizing words. For a student to become a proficient reader who gains meaning from text, she must first become a fluent reader. Vocabulary involves gaining meaning from words while reading. Essentially, a student cannot comprehend or construct meaning from text without understanding the words within the passage. A child with strong vocabulary knowledge is able to read more fluently and with more purpose. A child's vocabulary grows daily through conversation, reading, direct instruction and life experiences. Reading aloud to children everyday and explicitly teaching selected words help nurture strong vocabulary knowledge. Comprehension involves constructing meaning from what is being read. Reading truly has no purpose without comprehension. In order to comprehend text, a reader must actively and intentionally think about and analyze meaning while reading. Good comprehension requires strong abilities in all four of the other fundamental literacy skills. Students must consider many bits of information while reading to comprehend the text such as genre, text structure, the author's purpose and familiar and unfamiliar words. Strong comprehension encourages self-directed learning and lifelong reading.
Sometimes one discovers a tool that is incredibly useful, yet surprisingly not as widely known as it should be. Wolfram Alpha, an intelligent search engine that responds to queries with answers as opposed to a list of links, has been around since 2009, but many teachers and students still haven’t heard of it. This is surprising because there might not be another online tool that is as applicable in as many academic subjects as Wolfram Alpha. Because it is based on Mathematica, one of the top computational software packages used by scientists, mathematicians, and engineers all over the world, it is clearly extremely good at answering math questions. Beyond complex numeric computations, it can do symbolic computation (like factoring polynomials) that is much harder than simply crunching numbers. This computational power applies to mathematics and all of the sciences (is math a science?) but Wolfram Alpha is more than just a fancy online graphing calculator. It is actually an intelligent system that taps into a myriad of online data sources that enable it to answer questions in almost any field. For example, suppose you wanted to know the identities of the characters in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream. A simple query would yield the answer and provide additional details. To give a sense of the scope of it’s knowledge engine, Wolfram has conveniently created a page of sample uses that covers a wide range of human activities. If you have never heard of Wolfram Alpha, you will be surprised when you first use it.
Models of scientific understanding are examined, leading to the claim that knowledge acquisition is a necessary but insufficient condition for succ Online interactive science resources covering a range of science topics. Activities designed to encourage children to think about the characteristics of a range of animals, including humans. NEW guidance on Outdoor Learning, Assessment and Senior Leadership. ASE Education Group ASE Research Committee The British Council has been considering what makes a 'good' STEM teaching resource and what has to be done to make such resources work i This Year 3 (ages 8/9) class teacher chose a focus on inspirational women in science through the ages and across the world as a means to take a fre Alan Haigh discusses why we need to teach children to think and how best to do it. Alan J. Hesse In our Primary Science interview, science educators Alan Peacock and Mick Dunne reflect on their own experiences of what science was like in Englan Championing research-informed teaching through exploration of the EEF Improving Secondary Science guidance and ways of implementing research into p An article about research-informed practice focusing on preconceptions – children's naive ideas about science; through learning theory, teachers ca
COVID-19 will be part of our life for some time to come as the world races to find a vaccine for the disease that has affected tens of millions of people across the world. Humans are engaged in an unprecedented battle for the survival of its kind amid economies crumbling all around us. Let us take a look at the key words that has emerged to the fore to define the times that represent our lives now. An antibody is a protein your immune system makes in response to an infection. This is the test to determine if you have antibodies in your blood. The presence of an antibody in your body indicates that you have been infected with the virus in the past. It is also called a serology test. Antigen An antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against it. When it enters your body, your immune system recognises it as a foreign substance and tries to fight it off. This is a faster diagnostic method to determine if you're currently infected. The test looks for proteins (antigens) in a sample taken from your nose or throat. These are faster than PCR tests and hence called rapid tests. However, they have a higher risk of false positives, which means they are more likely to say you have the infection when you don’t. People who do not show any symptoms of the disease even after contracting them. These people can still spread coronavirus while they themselves do not show any signs. Case fatality rate (CFR) An estimate of the risk of mortality from a contagious disease. The CFR is calculated by dividing the number of deaths caused by a disease by the number of cases of that disease in a given time period. The Case Fatality Rate of a disease varies with time and location. Other factors that can influence the CFR includes speed of diagnosis of cases, health system capacity, age and other demographic characteristics. Close contact or Primary contact A person who may be at risk of contracting the contagious disease because of their proximity or exposure to a known case. For COVID-19, a close contact is anyone who has been within 6 feet of a person infected with the virus for a prolonged period of time, or has had direct contact with the infected person’s secretions. Also called primary contact. It refers to the spread of an illness within a particular location, like a neighbourhood or town. During community spread, there's no clear source of contact or infection. Public places that can get crowded and where contact with infected people can happen. This includes places like malls, theatres, and grocery stores. The process of identifying, assessing, and managing people who have been exposed to the disease to prevent onward transmission. When systematically applied, contact tracing will break the chains of transmission of an infectious disease and is thus considered an essential public health tool for controlling infectious disease outbreaks. Convalescent plasma therapy In this treatment method, blood from someone who has antibodies to a certain disease is taken and plasma is separated and given to someone who is sick with the same disease. This technique has been used to treat many different diseases with varying degrees of success but is still considered experimental for treating COVID-19. A family of viruses that looks like a corona (crown) when viewed under a microscope and hence the name. There are many different coronaviruses and most of them cause respiratory illnesses. The name of the illness caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. COVID-19 stands for coronavirus disease 2019. The virus and the disease it caused were never known before. COVID-19 spread across the world from Wuhan city of Hubei, a province in China, starting from December 2019. A tiny moist particle that is released when you cough or sneeze. You are likely to contract the coronavirus when you’re close to the carriers and if your mouth, nose, or eyes come into contact with droplets they have released. A situation where a large number of cases of a particular disease happens in a given area or a community within a short period of time. Flattening the curve The process of controlling the rate of new cases of an epidemic, in this case COVID-19. The ‘curve’ refers to a graph showing the upward surge or a spike in COVID-19 cases that happen over a period of time. By using various measures, we can slow down the spread and this is called the ‘flattening’ of the curve. Flattening the curve reduces the numbers of people needing healthcare at one time. This allows hospitals to treat patients throughout the pandemic. An inanimate object such as clothes, towels, or surgical instruments that can be the vehicle for transmission of an infectious agent. There is evidence that coronavirus spreads via fomites although, this is a less common route of transmission. When the majority of people in an area are immune to a specific infection, even the other members of the population (herd) are protected simply by being around them. For herd immunity to kick in, anywhere from 50% to 90% of the population would have to have antibodies to COVID-19. Home isolation A common method for separating persons with COVID-19 symptoms or those with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 from other healthy individuals. Such patients with no other complications are directed to stay at home until they are recovered. A medicine used to treat or prevent malaria. It was used to treat patients with COVID-19 based on very limited data showing it is effective against SARS-CoV-2. WHO later discontinued its use after trials showed that hydroxychloroquine produce little or no reduction in the mortality of hospitalized COVID-19 patients when compared to standard care. The body's innate ability to resist or fight off an infection. The immune system is a network of cells throughout the body that help you avoid getting infected and help you get better when you are infected. The term describes someone who has an immune system that can't resist or fight off infections like most other people. This can be caused by several factors including certain illnesses, some treatments for illnesses, etc. The time it takes for someone with an infection to start showing symptoms. For COVID-19, symptoms normally appear within 2-14 days after infection. N95 respirator (mask) Personal protective equipment used to protect the wearer from airborne particles and from liquid. Unlike a surgical or cloth mask, N95 masks are designed to prevent the wearer from breathing in tiny particles. When worn properly, they filter out at least 95% of large and small particles. Rooms specifically designed for patients with contagious diseases that contain any circulating air in the room and prevent it from being released into any other part of the hospital. A disease that spreads to many countries of the world in a very short period. PCR test stands for polymerase chain reaction test. This is a diagnostic test that determines if you are infected by analyzing a sample to see if it contains genetic material from the virus. PPE or personal protective equipment includes masks, face shields, gloves, gowns and other coverings that healthcare workers use to prevent the spread of infection to themselves and other patients. If you’re pre-symptomatic, you have contracted the virus and may soon feel symptoms, but you don't have any at the moment. It may be possible to spread COVID-19 to others during this phase. The practice of staying home and away from others for 14 days after you've been exposed to COVID-19 to see if you get symptoms and avoid spreading the virus if you are in fact carrying it. R0 / reproductive rate An epidemiologic metric used to describe the contagiousness or transmissibility of infectious agents. It is an estimate of the average number of new cases of a disease that each case generates, at a given point in time. If R0 is 1, it means an infected person will pass on the virus to one person. If it’s two, each infected person will pass it to two people. If the number is greater than 1, the number of people with the virus will rise; if it’s less than 1, the number is in decline. R0 estimates for the virus that causes COVID-19 are usually around 2 to 3. An antiviral drug made to treat Ebola (but never approved for that purpose), remdesivir is one of the medications being studied for its potential to treat COVID-19. A process used by healthcare workers to decide if someone actually needs a coronavirus test. It basically involves a series of basic questions about your health condition and recent history. Screening may also include other simple healthcare procedures, like taking your temperature. Also called self-quarantine. Separating yourself when you’re sick from healthy individuals to prevent spreading disease. Shelter in place or Reverse Quarantine Reverse quarantine is mostly used for the protection of the elderly and the children in a COVID-19 situation. People are asked to stay where they are and not leave the place for their own protection. It means ensuring that there is enough space between yourself and other people at all times. The goal is to slow down the spread of an infection. The WHO recommends keeping at least six feet between you and others around you in public. Social distancing also includes avoiding crowds and groups in public. A type of diagnostic test that involves taking sample from the back of your nasal and analysing it in a lab to see if it contains the virus. When a person shows signs of an illness. For COVID-19, the signs includes cough, fever or shortness of breath. A machine that supplies oxygen to a patient with severe lung issues. People with severe cases of COVID-19 can't provide enough oxygen to their body and a ventilator is used in such situations. Viral load refers to the amount of virus you are exposed to. Someone who is exposed to a relatively small amount of the coronavirus might not get any symptoms, while someone who is exposed to a large amount is more likely to get severe symptoms. The release of virus from an infected person into the environment, where it can infect others. In the case of COVID-19, most viral shedding occurs through the respiratory tract via a cough or sneeze. However, the virus may also be shed though the gastrointestinal tract and show up in the stool. This refers to a disease which was originally detected in animals, but is now infecting people also.
Operations performed on expressions include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents, and roots. The order of operations is a set of rules indicating which calculations to perform first to simplify a mathematical expression. Following the order of operations ensures that different people simplifying the same expression will get the same result. The first step in the order of operations is to simplify within any grouping symbols. Grouping symbols, such as parentheses , brackets , and braces , that are used to separate a part of an expression. Some operation symbols, such as fraction bars and radicals, may also function as grouping symbols. For nested grouping symbols , start with the innermost set, and work to the outside. Then simplify any exponents, then all multiplication and division from left to right, and then addition and subtraction from left to right.Memory aids, such as GEMDAS and PEMDAS, are sometimes used to help remember the order of operations. However, it is important to remember that multiplication and division are performed together from left to right; do not perform all multiplication and then all division. Similarly, addition and subtraction are performed together from left to right. Simplify the expressions within grouping symbols. Start with the innermost grouping symbol and then work outward.Simplify the expression in parentheses first. Perform the multiplication and then the subtraction. Perform multiplication and division from left to right.The fraction represents division. So, divide: Perform addition and subtraction.Calculate from left to right by first performing the subtraction and then the addition.
Researchers at McMaster University have made an interesting discovery about those “gut feelings” we sometimes have. It’s a big discovery linked to little organisms. They have conclusive evidence that bacteria residing in the gut can influence brain chemistry and behavior. The findings are significant because many common types of gastrointestinal disease, like including irritable bowel syndrome, are usually linked to anxiety or depression. Furthermore there have been assumptions that some psychiatric ailments, such as late onset autism, may be associated with an abnormal bacterial content in the gut. "The exciting results provide stimulus for further investigating a microbial component to the causation of behavioral illnesses," said Stephen Collins, professor of medicine and associate dean of research at the Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine. Collins and Premysl Bercik, assistant professor of medicine, conducted the research in the Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute. The research appears in the online edition of the journal Gastroenterology. The gut of every human is a group home for about 1,000 trillion bacteria that we live peacefully with. These tenants are responsible for a number of tasks that are essential to health: They gather energy from the diet, protect against infections and provide nutrition to cells in the gut. Interfering with these friendly bacteria can result in lethal conditions, like antibiotic-induced colitis from infection with the "superbug" Clostridium difficile. In work with healthy adult mice, the researchers demonstrated that disrupting the normal bacterial content of the gut with antibiotics leads to changes in behavior; the mice became less cautious or anxious. This change was partnered with an increase in brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which has been linked to depression and anxiety. When oral antibiotics were stopped, bacteria in the gut went back to normal. "This was accompanied by restoration of normal behavior and brain chemistry," Collins said. To check whether bacteria can influence behavior, the researchers colonized germ-free mice with bacteria taken from mice with a different behavioral pattern. They observed that when germ-free mice with a genetic background connected to passive behavior were colonized with bacteria from mice with higher exploratory behavior, they became more active and daring. Likewise, normally active mice became more passive after getting bacteria from mice whose genetic background is associated with passive behavior. While past research has dealt with the role bacteria play in early brain development, Collins said this latest research shows that while many factors determine behavior, the nature and stability of bacteria in the gut appear to influence behavior and any disruption from antibiotics or infection might produce changes in behavior. Bercik said that these results lay the foundation for exploring the therapeutic potential of probiotic bacteria and their products in the treatment of behavioral disorders, particularly those associated with gastrointestinal conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome. The next time you wonder why someone behaves the way they do, keep in mind there might be a good chance that it’s coming from the gut, and not their brain.
Henry Gray (18251861). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918. trapezoid body. This consists of fibers which arise from the cells of the cochlear nucleus, and will be referred to in connection with the cochlear division of the acoustic nerve. In the substance of the trapezoid body is a collection of nerve cells, which constitutes the trapezoid nucleus. The longitudinal fibers, which are continuous with those of the medulla oblongata, are mostly collected into two fasciculi on either side. One of these lies between the trapezoid body and the reticular formation, and forms the upward prolongation of the lemniscus; the second is situated near the floor of the fourth ventricle, and is the medial longitudinal fasciculus. Other longitudinal fibers, more diffusely distributed, arise from the cells of the gray substance of the pons. The rest of the dorsal part of the pons is a continuation upward of the formatio reticularis of the medulla oblongata, and, like it, presents the appearance of a network, in the meshes of which are numerous nerve cells. Besides these scattered nerve cells, there are some larger masses of gray substance, viz., the superior olivary nucleus and the nuclei of the trigeminal, abducent, facial, and acoustic nerves (Fig. 696). 1. The superior olivary nucleus (nucleus olivaris superior) is a small mass of gray substance situated on the dorsal surface of the lateral part of the trapezoid body. Rudimentary in man, but well developed in certain animals, it exhibits the same structure as the inferior olivary nucleus, and is situated immediately above it. Some of the fibers of the trapezoid body end by arborizing around the cells of this nucleus, while others arise from these cells. 2. The nuclei of the trigeminal nerve (nuclei n. trigemini) in the pons are two in number: a motor and a sensory. The motor nucleus is situated in the upper part of the pons, close to its posterior surface and along the line of the lateral margin of the fourth ventricle. It is serially homologous with the nucleus ambiguus and the dorso-lateral cell group of the anterior column of the spinal cord. The axis-cylinder processes of its cells form the motor root of the trigeminal nerve. The mesencephalic root arises from the gray substance of the floor of the cerebral aqueduct, joins the motor root and probably conveys fibers of muscle sense from the temporal, masseter and pterygoid muscles. It is not altogether clear whether the mesencephalic root is motor or sensory. The sensory nucleus is lateral to the motor one, and beneath the superior peduncle. Some of the sensory fibers of the trigeminal nerve end in this nucleus; but the greater number descend, under the name of the spinal tract of the trigeminal nerve, to end in the substantia gelatinosa of Rolando. The roots, motor and sensory, of the trigeminal nerve pass through the substance of the pons and emerge near the upper margin of its anterior surface. 3. The nucleus of the abducent nerve (nucleus n. abducentis) is a circular mass of gray substance situated close to the floor of the fourth ventricle, above the striæ medullares and subjacent to the medial eminence: it lies a little lateral to the ascending part of the facial nerve. The fibers of the abducent nerve pass forward through the entire thickness of the pons on the medial side of the superior olivary nucleus, and between the lateral fasciculi of the cerebrospinal fibers, and emerge in the furrow between the lower border of the pons and the pyramid of the medulla oblongata. 4. The nucleus of the facial nerve (nucleus n. fascialis) is situated deeply in the reticular formation of the pons, on the dorsal aspect of the superior olivary nucleus, and the roots of the nerve derived from it pursue a remarkably tortuous course in the substance of the pons. At first they pass backward and medialward until they reach the rhomboid fossa, close to the median sulcus, where they are collected into a round bundle; this passes upward and forward, producing an elevation, the colliculus facialis, in the rhomboid fossa, and then takes a sharp bend, and arches lateralward through the substance of the pons to emerge at its lower border in the interval between the olive and the inferior peduncle of the medulla oblongata.
This toolkit is for childcare professionals, parents and teachers to work together to help improve the transition process for children starting school. There's regular debate about what "school ready" actually means. In recent research, PACEY found that early years professionals, parents and teachers agreed that "school ready" should mean that children: - have strong social skills - can cope emotionally with being separated from their parents - are relatively independent in their own personal care - have a curiosity about the world and a desire to learn. If you're caring for a child who's about to start school, you'll find the tools we've developed will help them achieve and build on these skills. Here you'll find information on the specific stage of the transition your child is at. Discover ideas, information and activities within the toolkit sections below: Getting ready to go to school The first few days at school Settling in and making the most of learning This toolkit was developed by PACEY as part of a government-funded Starting School Together project. Part of the project was to create a range of activities for parents, childcare providers and teachers to do with children to help them prepare the skills they need to start school successfully. The actvities have all been linked to the Early Years Foundation Stage outcomes in England. Help develop skills to prepare for school
Being obese or overweight can significantly increase the risk of heart disease, diabetes, and even decrease your lifespan. When extra weight is accumulated during childhood, a child is at risk for developing diseases more commonly associated with adults, such as high blood pressure and high cholesterol . Children that are obese are also much more likely to become obese adults. Weight gain often happens as a result of lifestyle choices, such as food choices and lack of physical activity. Researchers in Boston wanted to determine if habits common to teens were linked to an increase of body mass index (BMI). BMI is a measurement based on height and weight that helps determine ideal weight ranges and obesity. The study found that a lack of sleep, time spent on the internet, and alcohol use were linked to more gains in BMI for adolescent girls. About the Study The cohort study sent surveys to more than 5000 girls 14-21 years of age. The surveys asked about internet usage, sleep, and coffee (caffeinated) and alcohol consumption in the previous year (2000 to 2001). The survey also asked for height and weight measurements from the beginning and end of the year. Researchers accounted for factors that would also affect BMI, such as growth and development and activity levels. At the end of the year, habits that were associated with increases in BMIs included: - higher amounts of internet time - higher levels of alcohol intake (two or more servings per week) - less sleep time (five hours per night or less) The habits were also highly associated with each other (eg, higher internet time was linked to less sleep). Drinking coffee was not linked to weight gain and was not associated with increased internet time. High levels of all of these habits led to nearly four pounds of weight gain over one year. How Does This Affect You? A cohort study is an observational study. This means that the study cannot establish a cause and effect relationship, it can only suggest a connection. The information was also gathered from memory recall of the participants who may over- or under-estimate sleep, alcohol, coffee, and internet time. However, other research has suggested a connection between lack of sleep and weight gain, which strengthens these findings. Teens and young adults may need as many as nine hours of sleep per night. Developing a sleep schedule and having a comfortable environment are important steps to a good nights sleep. Set a timer on your computer to remind you to log off at least an hour before your bedtime. This will keep you from absently surfing hours into your sleep time. Try to keep a regular sleep routine, even through weekends; it will make it easier to fall asleep each night. Also keep in mind that alcohol can disrupt the quality of your sleep. Most steps of weight management require some work—take advantage of a step that only requires some sleep. - Reviewer: Brian P. Randall, MD
The skeletal bones make up more than 200 short, long, irregular, and flat structures. Inside the bones is calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and RBCs, or marrow, which produces and generate red blood cells. The bones work alongside the muscles. The muscles and bones afford support, defense for the internal organs, and locomotion. The skeletal muscles are our source of mobility, which supports the posture. The muscles work alongside the posture by shortens and tighten it. The bones attach to the muscles via tendons. The muscle then starts to contract with stimulus of muscle fibers via a motor nerve cell, or neuron. The neurons consist of axon, cell bodies, and dendrites, which transport to the nerve impulses and are the essential makeup of our functional components within the larger system of nerves. (Central Nervous System-CNS) CNS is a network or system of nerve cells, fibers, etc., that conveys and transmits sensations to the brain, which carries on to the “motor impulses” and onto the organs and muscles. Skeletal muscles supply movement for the body and the posture; as well, the skeletal muscles also submit energies to create contractions that form from ATP or adenosine Triphosphate and hydrolysis, ADP or adenosine Diphosphate and finally phosphate. The skeletal muscles also preserve muscle tone. What happen are the skeletal acts as a retainer by holding back a degree of contractions and breaking down acetylcholine by cholinesterase to relax the muscles? Muscles are made up of ligaments. Ligaments are robust bands combined with collagen threads or fiber that connect to the bones. The bands, fiber, and bones join to encircle the joints, which gives one a source of strength. Body weight requires cartilages, joints, ligaments, bones, muscles, etc. to hold its weight. Next to ligaments are tendons. Tendons are ligaments and muscles combined, since it connects to the muscles and are made of connective proteins, or collagen. Tendons however do not possess the same flexibility as the ligaments do. Tendons make up fiber proteins that are found in cartilages, bones, skin, tendons, and related connective tissues. Joints are the connective articulated junctions between the bones. Joints connect to two bones and its plane and provide stability as well as locomotion. ROM is the degree of joint mobility, which if ROM is interrupted, the joints swell, ache, and cause pain. The pain often affects various parts of the body, including the back. Joints connect with the knees, elbow, skull, bones, etc., and work between the synovium. Synovium is a membrane. The membrane lines the inner plane of the joints. Synovium is essential since it supplies antibodies. The antibodies combined with this membrane create fluids that reach the cartilages. The fluids help to decrease resistance, especially in the joints. Synovium works in conjunction with the cartilages and joints. Cartilage is the smooth plane between the bones of a joint. The cartilage will deteriorate with restricted ROM or lack of resistance in the weight bearing joints. This brings in the bursa. Bursa is a sac filled with fluid. Bursa assists the joints, cartilages, bones, and synovium by reducing friction. Bursa also works by minimizing the risks of joints rubbing against the other. In short, bursa is padding. If fluids increase, it can cause swelling, and inflammation in turn causing body pain, and including back pain. Sometimes the pain starts at the lower back, yet it could work around various areas of the body. The assessments in this situation revolve around symptoms, including pain, fatigue, numbness, limited mobility, joint stiffness, fevers, swelling, and so on. The results of skeletal muscle difficulties can lead to muscle spasms, poor posture, skeletal deformity, edema, inflammation, and so on. As you see from the medical versions of the skeletal muscles, back pain results from limited ROM, joint stiffness, etc.
This article is part of the series on: \|Introduction to Genetics\| \|General flow: DNA > RNA > Protein\| \|special transfers (RNA > RNA, RNA > DNA, Protein > Protein) \|Transcription (Transcription factors, (functional groups, peptides, \|ask a question , edit\| Translation is the first stage of protein biosynthesis (part of the overall process of gene expression). In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) produced in transcription is decoded to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide, that will later fold into an active protein. Translation occurs in the cell's cytoplasm, where the large and small subunits of the ribosome are located, and bind to the mRNA. The ribosome facilitates decoding by inducing the binding of tRNAs with complementary anticodon sequences to that of the mRNA. The tRNAs carry specific amino acids that are chained together into a polypeptide as the mRNA passes through and is "read" by the ribosome in a fashion reminiscent to that of a stock ticker and ticker tape. In many instances, the entire ribosome/mRNA complex will bind to the outer membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and release the nascent protein polypeptide inside for later vesicle transport and secretion outside of the cell. Many types of transcribed RNA, such as transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, and small nuclear RNA, do not undergo translation into proteins. Translation proceeds in four phases: activation, initiation, elongation and termination (all describing the growth of the amino acid chain, or polypeptide that is the product of translation). Amino acids are brought to ribosomes and assembled into proteins. In activation, the correct amino acid is covalently bonded to the correct transfer RNA (tRNA). The amino acid is joined by its carboxyl group to the 3' OH of the tRNA by a peptide bond. When the tRNA has an amino acid linked to it, it is termed "charged". Initiation involves the small subunit of the ribosome binding to 5' end of mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF). Termination of the polypeptide happens when the A site of the ribosome faces a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA). No tRNA can recognize or bind to this codon. Instead, the stop codon induces the binding of a release factor protein that prompts the disassembly of the entire ribosome/mRNA complex. A number of antibiotics act by inhibiting translation; these include anisomycin, cycloheximide, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, streptomycin, erythromycin, and puromycin, among others. Prokaryotic ribosomes have a different structure from that of eukaryotic ribosomes, and thus antibiotics can specifically target bacterial infections without any detriment to a eukaryotic host's cells. The mRNA carries genetic information encoded as a ribonucleotide sequence from the chromosomes to the ribosomes. The ribonucleotides are "read" by translational machinery in a sequence of nucleotide triplets called codons. Each of those triplets codes for a specific amino acid. The ribosome molecules translate this code to a specific sequence of amino acids. The ribosome is a multisubunit structure containing rRNA and proteins. It is the "factory" where amino acids are assembled into proteins. tRNAs are small noncoding RNA chains (74-93 nucleotides) that transport amino acids to the ribosome. tRNAs have a site for amino acid attachment, and a site called an anticodon. The anticodon is an RNA triplet complementary to the mRNA triplet that codes for their cargo amino acid. Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase (an enzyme) catalyzes the bonding between specific tRNAs and the amino acids that their anticodons sequences call for. The product of this reaction is an aminoacyl-tRNA molecule. This aminoacyl-tRNA travels inside the ribosome, where mRNA codons are matched through complementary base pairing to specific tRNA anticodons. The amino acids that the tRNAs carry are then used to assemble a protein. The energy required for translation of proteins is significant. For a protein containing n amino acids, the number of high-energy Phosphate bonds required to translate it is 4n-1. The rate of translation varies; it is significantly higher in prokaryotic cells (up to 17-21 amino acid residues per second) than in eukaryotic cells (up to 6-9amino acid residues per second) Whereas other aspects such as the 3D structure, called tertiary structure, of protein can only be predicted using sophisticated algorithms, the amino acid sequence, called primary structure, can be determined solely from the nucleic acid sequence with the aid of a translation table. This approach may not give the correct amino acid composition of the protein, in particular if unconventional amino acids such as selenocysteine are incorporated into the protein, which is coded for by a conventional stop codon in combination with a downstream hairpin (SElenoCysteine Insertion Sequence, or SECIS). There are many computer programs capable of translating a DNA/RNA sequence into a protein sequence. Normally this is performed using the Standard Genetic Code; many bioinformaticians have written at least one such program at some point in their education. However, few programs can handle all the "special" cases, such as the use of the alternative initiation codons. For example, the rare alternative start codon CTG codes for Methionine when used as a start codon, and for Leucine in all other positions. Example: Condensed translation table for the Standard Genetic Code (from the NCBI Taxonomy webpage). AAs = FFLLSSSSYY*CCWLLLLPPPPHHQQRRRRIIIMTTTTNNKKSSRRVVVVAAAADDEEGGGG Starts = ---M---------------M---------------M---------------------------- Base1 = TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG Base2 = TTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGG Base3 = TCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAG Even when working with ordinary Eukaryotic sequences such as the Yeast genome, it is often desired to be able to use alternative translation tables—namely for translation of the mitochondrial genes. Currently the following translation tables are defined by the NCBI Taxonomy Group for the translation of the sequences in GenBank: 1: The Standard 2: The Vertebrate Mitochondrial Code 3: The Yeast Mitochondrial Code 4: The Mold, Protozoan, and Coelenterate Mitochondrial Code and the Mycoplasma/Spiroplasma Code 5: The Invertebrate Mitochondrial Code 6: The Ciliate, Dasycladacean and Hexamita Nuclear Code 9: The Echinoderm and Flatworm Mitochondrial Code 10: The Euplotid Nuclear Code 11: The Bacterial and Plant Plastid Code 12: The Alternative Yeast Nuclear Code 13: The Ascidian Mitochondrial Code 14: The Alternative Flatworm Mitochondrial Code 15: Blepharisma Nuclear Code 16: Chlorophycean Mitochondrial Code 21: Trematode Mitochondrial Code 22: Scenedesmus obliquus mitochondrial Code 23: Thraustochytrium Mitochondrial Code Example of computational translation - notice the indication of (alternative) start-codons: VIRTUAL RIBOSOME ---- Translation table: Standard SGC0 >Seq1 Reading frame: 1 M V L S A A D K G N V K A A W G K V G G H A A E Y G A E A L 5' ATGGTGCTGTCTGCCGCCGACAAGGGCAATGTCAAGGCCGCCTGGGGCAAGGTTGGCGGCCACGCTGCAGAGTATGGCGCAGAGGCCCTG 90 >>>...)))..............................................................................))) E R M F L S F P T T K T Y F P H F D L S H G S A Q V K G H G 5' GAGAGGATGTTCCTGAGCTTCCCCACCACCAAGACCTACTTCCCCCACTTCGACCTGAGCCACGGCTCCGCGCAGGTCAAGGGCCACGGC 180 ......>>>...))).......................................)))................................. A K V A A A L T K A V E H L D D L P G A L S E L S D L H A H 5' GCGAAGGTGGCCGCCGCGCTGACCAAAGCGGTGGAACACCTGGACGACCTGCCCGGTGCCCTGTCTGAACTGAGTGACCTGCACGCTCAC 270 ..................)))..................)))......))).........)))......)))......)))......... K L R V D P V N F K L L S H S L L V T L A S H L P S D F T P 5' AAGCTGCGTGTGGACCCGGTCAACTTCAAGCTTCTGAGCCACTCCCTGCTGGTGACCCTGGCCTCCCACCTCCCCAGTGATTTCACCCCC 360 ...)))...........................))).........))))))......))).............................. A V H A S L D K F L A N V S T V L T S K Y R * 5' GCGGTCCACGCCTCCCTGGACAAGTTCTTGGCCAACGTGAGCACCGTGCTGACCTCCAAATACCGTTAA 429 ...............))).........)))..................)))...............* Annotation key: >>> : START codon (strict) ))) : START codon (alternative) * : STOP
This installation, drawn from the permanent collections of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum and the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, highlights the changing course of the avant-garde over the first half of the 20th century. During that time, Europe experienced some of its most decisive historical events: the consequences of industrialization, the Russian Revolution, the Spanish Civil War, and two world wars. These dramatic circumstances had an impact on artistic practices as well. In the first decades, artists formed myriad associations and coalesced into movements, defending new ideals that broke more than purely aesthetic ground; such groups were known as the avant-garde. It was the avant-garde that spearheaded the critical rebellion against tradition-laden society and questioned the great legacy of figurative Western art. The individual Modern work became increasingly self-referential, subject more to the laws of art than of nature. From then on, the source and justification of art was to be found in internal mental states rather than visible phenomena. The early years of this century were marked by many of the revolutionary ideas that emerged prior to 1900. It was against this background that a number of artists began to explore a series of new approaches. Around 1907, Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso pioneered what came to be known as Cubism, one of the most influential and innovative art movements of the 20th century. Artists such as Picasso, Robert Delaunay, Lyonel Feininger, Albert Gleizes, and Juan Gris broke with traditional perspective and the illusory depiction of depth. Objects were shown simultaneously from a number of different points of view and fragmented into geometric planes. By contrast, the Expressionists focused their attention on the artist's inner world. Heinrich Campendonk, Vasily Kandinsky, Ernest Ludwig Kirchner, Oskar Kokoschka, Franz Marc, Emil Nolde, and Egon Schiele used bright, unnatural colors and agitated brushstrokes in their search to explore subjective emotions. Kandinsky was later to shed virtually all vestiges of the natural world in his Improvisations, influenced as he was, like Paul Klee, by the example of music. Two poles of abstraction flourished almost simultaneously for several decades, one promoting a rational aesthetic that emphasized principles of geometry and color theory, the other inspired by the world of the unconscious and advocating an art of pure imagination. Geometric abstraction arrived during World War I with the work of groups of artists from Germany and Russia. Abstraction's major proponents sought to eliminate all references to objective life from their compositions and eventually came to see "life through pure artistic feeling." At the same time, in Holland, a radical movement was developing around the journal De Stijl. Piet Mondrian, De Stijl's foremost exponent, advocated a universal aesthetic language combining geometric forms with predominantly primary colors, in addition to black and white. Functionality and technology loomed large in the ideas of the leading theorizers and artists from the Bauhaus, the German school of architecture and the applied arts, which had an enormous influence on the development of 20th-century architecture and art. Josef Albers, Kandinsky, Klee, and László Moholy-Nagy, among others, taught classes at the Bauhaus headquarters and consolidated the radical formal changes initiated by Cubism and Expressionism in a move toward total abstraction. In marked contrast, the Surrealists aimed to transfer the world of the unconscious onto the canvas. Influenced by Freudian psychoanalytic theory, they used techniques of psychic automatism as a means to access their own dreams, and to create idiosyncratic works that blend the rational and the irrational. The Surrealists revealed extraordinary imagination in their innovative, often child-like hallucinatory and oneiric images, which had an enormous impact on conventional society. Through the influence of Joan Miro's paintings and Jean Arp's sculptures and reliefs, biomorphic forms also became a primary element in much Surrealist work. The rise of fascism and the advent of World War II caused many European artists to flee to the United States, particularly to New York. Among these refugees were former Bauhaus teachers, like Albers, and leading representatives of the Surrealists, who went on to exert a major influence on new generations of American artists, including the Abstract Expressionists. As a result, the United States inherited the legacy of Europe and became the new center of the art world in the west. Abstract Expressionism, often called Action Painting, was the first major artistic movement in postwar America. The foremost painters of the New York School sought to unite form and emotion, focusing the content of their paintings on introspective expression. Some, like William Baziotes, Willem de Kooning, Adolph Gottlieb, and Robert Motherwell, painted in a mode characterized by energetic brushwork. In addition to traditional brushes, they used novel procedures for applying paint (such as dripping and pouring paint directly from the can) thereby affirming the importance of the painted surface. With these methods, forms were often distributed imprecisely over the canvas, lending the works an air of spontaneity. Other artists, such as Mark Rothko and Clyfford Still, investigated the universal nature of human aspirations and spirituality through painting vast planes of color, prompting some critics to use the adjective "mystical" when describing their works.
The most deadly aspect of cancer is its ability to spread, or metastasize. Cancer cells initially group together to form a primary tumor. Once the tumor is formed, cells may begin to break off from this tumor and travel to other parts of the body. This process is metastasis. These cancer cells that travel through the body are capable of establishing new tumors in locations remote from the site of the original disease. Metastasis is a very complicated process that still has yet to be completely understood. To metastasize, a cancer cell must break away from its tumor, invade either the circulatory or lymph system, which will carry it to a new location, and establish itself in the new site. The body has many safeguards to prevent cells from doing this, yet many cancer cells have the ability to overcome these safeguards. Research is now focused on understanding in what ways cancer cells have mutated to circumvent the body’s defenses and freely travel to other locations. When cancer is diagnosed, it may be discovered in a site that is not the location of the primary tumor. Through various means of testing, doctors will locate the primary tumor, and determine to what extent it has spread from that location to other areas of the body. Localized tumors that have not had the opportunity or time to metastasize have the best prognosis for cure. Cancers which have metastasized usually indicate a later stage disease, and treatment becomes more complicated, with poorer outcomes. In late stages, patients with oral cancer for example, may succumb to a cancer in the lungs or the brain, which was not the location of the original, primary tumor. Metastasis most commonly occurs by way of the bloodstream or the lymphatic system. Just like normal cells, cancer cells must have a blood supply in order to function. They have access to the bloodstream just as healthy cells do. This access allows detached malignant cells from the tumor to enter the bodies’ general bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, the cancer cells now have access to every portion of the body. The lymphatic system has its own channels throughout the body like the circulatory system, through which a malignant cell can travel. When surgeons remove a tumor, they may also remove nearby portions of the lymph system including the lymph nodes, as these are frequently the first sites of the cancers’ metastasis. Once metastasis to the lymphatic system has occurred, the prognosis for cure drops significantly. To begin the process of metastasis, a malignant cell must first break away from the cancerous tumor. In normal tissue, cells adhere both to one another and to a mesh of protein filling the space between them. This protein mesh is known as the extracellular matrix. This attachment between the cells and the extracellular matrix is particularly characteristic of the epithelia, which are the cell layers that form the skin and the lining of the mouth, stomach, lungs, and other organs. For a malignant cell to separate, it must break away, not only from the cells around it, but also from the extracellular matrix. Cells are held together with cell-to-cell adhesion molecules. This adhesion also allows interactions between numerous proteins on the cell surface. In cancer cells, the adhesion molecules seem to be missing or are compromised. Cadherins, a family of intercellular adhesion protein molecules, play a big part in keeping cells together. One subtype in this family, E-cadherin, is the adhesion molecule found in mammalian cells. This molecule seems to be the important factor in cell-cell adhesion. In cancer cells, E-cadherin is either partly or entirely missing. This allows cancer cells to detach from each other, and from the matrix which holds everything in place. Clinical studies involving the manipulation of E-cadherin, have proven that this molecule is important to stopping metastasis. One study has shown that blocking E-cadherin in cancer cells turns them from noninvasive to invasive. This work established the importance of cell adhesion. These studies revealed cell adhesion’s ability to inhibit a cancer cell’s capacity to invade, by keeping it bound to other cells. If cell adhesion is compromised, cancer cells have the opportunity to metastasize and invade other areas of the body. Relating to oral cancer, research has shown that saliva provides a good environment for metastasis. Saliva is rich in naturally occurring hyaluronic acid (HA), a molecule that binds to the surface of a cell, making it easier for the cell to move around. This helps the cell escape adhesion to other cells and allows it to move more freely. Besides binding to each other, cells also adhere to the extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of connective tissue proteins such as collagen and elastin which interact to form highly insoluble materials. The extracellular matrix not only binds cells together, it also allows cells to survive and proliferate. Research has shown that cells have anchorage dependence. This means that a cell cannot reproduce unless it is attached to a surface. This attachment is made possible through cell surface molecules called integrins, which bind to the extracellular matrix. Only after the cell has attached to a surface will it begin its reproductive cycle. Unattached cells neither reproduce, nor grow. A nuclear protein called E-CDK2 regulates the growth and division of cells. If a cell is not attached to anything, inhibitory substances in the nuclei shut down E-CDK2, and the cell stops growing. Many cells that cannot find anchorage, not only stop reproducing and growing, but they also begin apoptosis, or programmed cell death. The halting of growth and reproduction of unattached cells is one of the body’s safeguards to maintain the integrity of tissues. Normal cells have specific places in which they must stay in order to survive. However, cancer cells are able to exist without being anchored. Their E-CDK2 protein remains active and allows the cancer cells to grow and reproduce. The reason E-CDK2 remains active is unknown, but researchers think that oncogenes may be responsible. Oncogenes are mutated versions of proto-oncogenes, which are present in healthy cells, and are capable of turning normal cells into malignant cells. It is possible that in cancer cells, proteins made by oncogenes may convey a false message that the cell is attached when it is not. This allows the cancer cell to continue to grow and reproduce when it should be engaging in apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Once a cancer cell has detached from other cells and the extracellular matrix, it must make its way into a blood or lymphatic circulatory system to transport itself. A common way for transport is the bloodstream, since blood vessels are often nearby. Tumors are capable of creating new blood vessels (angiogenesis) because of their need for nutrition, and this gives cancer cells ample opportunity for transport. Entry to the blood vessel requires penetration of the basement membrane. The basement membrane is a thin layer of specialized extracellular matrix. Basement membranes surround blood vessels but they are also present with epithelial cells. Epithelial cells which are the most common sources of cancer, have a basement membrane separating them from the rest of the body. With cancerous tumors that develop in epithelial cells, a cancer cell must penetrate two basement membranes, the epithelial and blood vessel, for transport. To breach the basement membrane cancer cells release enzymes called metalloproteinases(MMPs). These enzymes dissolve basement membranes and other extracellular matrices, allowing penetration of the basement membrane of blood vessels, giving the cancer cells access to other parts of the body. Once in the bloodstream, the cancer cell must fight the body’s defenses and try to reattach itself in a new location. Fewer than 1 in 10,000 cancer cells survive circulation to create a new tumor. The circulation of the blood plays a significant role in determining where cancer cells travel. The cancer cells usually get trapped in the first set of capillaries they encounter downstream from their point of entry. Frequently these capillaries are in the lungs, since returning deoxygenated venous blood leaving many organs is returned to the lungs for reoxigenation. From the intestines, the blood goes to the liver first, so cancer cells leaving the intestines will go there. The lungs and the liver are the two most common sites for metastasis in the human body. Once in a new site, the cells must again penetrate the basement membrane of the blood vessel and establish itself in the new tissue. In the primary tumor itself, only certain cancer cells can metastasize. Not all cancer cells have the tools to survive the journey to another area of the body. Many circulating cancer cells die because they are not equipped for the entire process of metastasis. Properties in the tumor itself, such as deformability, aggregation, and expression of adhesive molecules, prevent cancer tumor cells from surviving detachment from the tumor. The host also has weapons, such as blood turbulence, platelets, T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages, that kill circulating cancer cells. Tumor cells that reach their destination may not be able to respond to specific organ factors, and this will kill the tumor cells as well. A study done on mice found that less than .1% of injected B16 melanoma (a malignant tumor) cells survived to metastasize. This small survival rate encourages the idea that a selective growth of unique subpopulations of tumor cells, endowed with special properties, exists. These cells have the tools needed to complete the process of metastasis successfully, while most of the cancer cells die at some point in the journey. In studies, these cells have been identified and isolated, proving that not all cancer cells have metastatic capabilities. There are also studies that have led to the conclusion that certain tumors only produce metastasis to specific organs. The studies have shown that even though cancer cells may reach all organs in the body, they only have an affinity for certain organs. It is only when the cells reach those specific organs that they anchor and reproduce. Ivan Stamenkovic of Harvard Medical School supported this theory when he was able to direct the metastatic spread of tumor cells by inserting a certain adhesion molecule into a mouse’s liver. The tumor cells homed in on the liver because of the inserted molecules. The inserted adhesion molecules had the right markers that tumor cells were looking to bind to. This and many other experiments show that both the tumor cells and the host tissue determine the ultimate site of metastasis.
The moon has been Earth's trusty sidekick for billions of years. And as it endlessly cruises around our planet, once in a while this scrappy satellite precisely aligns within Earth's shadow, taking on an eerie, reddish glow. And what's this phenomenon known as? A lunar eclipse, of course. Interest in astronomy stretches back to the Stone Age. Ancient civilizations in Greece, China and Babylonia were fascinated by the celestial events unfolding across the skies above them. Records of eclipses exist in their writings, giving us glimpses of how previous cultures described and interpreted these astronomical happenings. For example, Yuanshi (History of the Yuan Dynasty) details the timing of a total lunar eclipse on May 19, 1277 in traditional double-hours and marks [source: Encyclopaedia Brittanica]. Chinese astronomers used their findings to eventually help predict eclipses with startling precision. In addition, records like the ones detailing lunar eclipses can help pinpoint when, where and how major historical events occurred. Dating all the way back to 500 B.C., ancient peoples correctly understood the basics of why the moon went through different phases and why eclipses occurred. They often recorded when solar and lunar eclipses took place -- especially when they corresponded to major happenings back on Earth. Typically, they regarded solar eclipses and lunar eclipses as unlucky omens, a frightening sight when either occurred. In some cases, eclipses impacted the course of history. For example, a lunar eclipse that occurred during the Peloponnesian War enabled the Syracusan army to defeat the Athenians. The eclipse, as both omen and event, greatly frightened and unnerved the Athenian soldiers and sailors so they postponed their intended retreat from Syracuse [source: Encyclopaedia Brittanica]. This delay gave the Syracusan army time to destroy the Athenian forces. People have been examining and studying eclipses for 3,000 years, so we better carry on the tradition and learn about the phenomenon for ourselves today. Go to the next page to learn about what happens during a lunar eclipse.
Since they can be carried many hundreds of kilometres by winds, acid pollutants emitted in one country may be deposited as acid rain in other countries. As industrialisation expanded across Europe during the 1970 and 1980s, with the use of tall chimneys in industry and power generation increasing, acid deposition became a particularly prevalent problem. Within Europe, emissions of air pollutants vary greatly, depending upon many factors such as size of population, degree of industrialisation, pollution control equipment used, agricultural practices, number of road vehicles and political attitudes on environmental issues. Across Europe the amounts of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides being emitted from a country were found to be different to the amounts of acidic pollution being deposited there. Some countries were emitting only small quantities of pollutants yet deposition was observed to be several times greater, for example in Norway, Sweden, Austria and Switzerland. Other countries such as Bulgaria, Italy, the Czech Republic and the UK emit more pollution than is deposited in their country because of prevailing wind directions. In a response to clean up Europe’s air, in 1979 the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) implemented the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Pollution, with the aim of reducing acidic emissions. Since its implementation, sulphur emissions across Europe have fallen significantly, but with the increase in vehicle traffic nitrogen oxides emissions have been reduced only slowly. Acid rain in Europe will therefore continue to be a problem in Europe until these emissions can be dramatically reduced.
In proving results in combinatorics several useful combinatorial rules or combinatorial principles are commonly recognized and used. The rule of sum, rule of product, and inclusion-exclusion principle are often used for enumerative purposes. Bijective proofs are utilized to demonstrate that two sets have the same number of elements. The pigeonhole principle often ascertains the existence of something or is used to determine the minimum or maximum number of something in a discrete context. Many combinatorial identities arise from double counting methods or the method of distinguished element. Generating functions and recurrence relations are powerful tools that can be used to manipulate sequences, and can describe if not resolve many combinatorial situations. Rule of sum The rule of sum is an intuitive principle stating that if there are a possible outcomes for an event (or ways to do something) and b possible outcomes for another event (or ways to do another thing), and the two events cannot both occur (or the two things can't both be done), then there are a + b total possible outcomes for the events (or total possible ways to do one of the things). More formally, the sum of the sizes of two disjoint sets is equal to the size of their union. Rule of product The rule of product is another intuitive principle stating that if there are a ways to do something and b ways to do another thing, then there are a · b ways to do both things. The inclusion-exclusion principle relates the size of the union of multiple sets, the size of each set, and the size of each possible intersection of the sets. The smallest example is when there are two sets: the number of elements in the union of A and B is equal to the sum of the number of elements in A and B, minus the number of elements in their intersection. Generally, according to this principle, if A1, ..., An are finite sets, then Bijective proofs prove that two sets have the same number of elements by finding a bijective function (one-to-one correspondence) from one set to the other. Double counting is a technique that equates two expressions that count the size of a set in two ways. The pigeonhole principle states that if a items are each put into one of b boxes, where a > b, then one of the boxes contains more than one item. Using this one can, for example, demonstrate the existence of some element in a set with some specific properties. Method of distinguished element The method of distinguished element singles out a "distinguished element" of a set to prove some result. Generating functions can be thought of as polynomials with infinitely many terms whose coefficients correspond to terms of a sequence. This new representation of the sequence opens up new methods for finding identities and closed forms pertaining to certain sequences. The (ordinary) generating function of a sequence an is A recurrence relation defines each term of a sequence in terms of the preceding terms. Recurrence relations may lead to previously unknown properties of a sequence, but generally closed-form expressions for the terms of a sequence are more desired. - J. H. van Lint and R. M. Wilson (2001), A Course in Combinatorics (Paperback), 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00601-5
However, most of the above cyclotrons are not of sufficient power to produce large quantities of Iodine 123, which is the focus of Quasar Group’s main initiative and to solve a severe shortage in the United States and to a lesser extent in Europe. The type of cyclotron that is needed for this project are 30 MeV (million electron volts) that can produce large quantities of Iodine 123 utilizing Xe 124 gas target systems. This method produces an extremely high purity product and is the most easily managed compared to lower energy production methods utilizing Te 123 solid targets. HOW CYCLOTRONS WORK A cyclotron consists of two large dipole magnets designed to produce a semi-circular region of uniform magnetic field, pointing uniformly down. These are called Dee’s because of their D-Shape. The two Dee’s are placed back to back with their straight sides parallel but slightly separated. An oscillating voltage is applied to produce an electric field across this gap. Particles injected into the magnetic field region of a Dee trace out a semicircular path until they reach the gap. The electric field in the gap then accelerates the particles as they pass across it. The particles now have a higher energy so they follow a semi-circular path in the next Dee with larger radius so reach the gap again. The electric field frequency must be just right so the direction of the field has reversed by their time of arrival at the gap. The field in the gap accelerates them again and they enter the first Dee again. Thus the particles gain energy as they spiral around. The trick is that as they speed up, they trace a larger arc and so they always take the same time to reach the gap.This way a constant frequency electric field oscillation continues to always accelerate them across the gap. The limitation on the energy that can be reached in such a device depends on the size of the magnets that form the Dee and the strength of their magnetic fields. To learn more about cyclotron technology, visit the website of one of the major manufacturers - Ebco Technologies or IBA Worldwide.
What is Distance Learning?Distance learning is an educational process where students receive instruction through online classes, video recordings, video conferencing, or any other audio/visual technology medium. It enables people to receive education without having to be physically present in a classroom. Properly designed distance learning programs can be a very convenient and effective way to acquire more education. This may seem difficult without students and teachers interacting in a classroom, but people enrolled in distance learning programs can learn just as much away from a classroom as in one. Distance learning and education are interchangeable terms. Distance learning is not a recent phenomenon. The origins of distance learning can be traced back to the advent of the modern postal system and the mass production of printed publications, which made it possible to spread information rapidly throughout the world. Why Distance Learning?Distance learning has made education more accessible to larger groups of people. It is a convenient way to obtain work experience while completing college or other vocational training. Many organizations, such as the military, large corporations, and government agencies rely on distance education to train service members and employees. Education has also changed as communication technology has revolutionized society. In most cases, education or specialized training is a requirement for most high paid jobs. The availability of the Internet has increased the number of online courses. These courses are offered at online colleges, such as Argosy University, University of Phoenix, Capella University, and Kaplan University. Who Uses Distance Learning?More students today are taking advantage of distance learning programs. Working professionals, high school students, and even traditional college students enroll in distance learning classes. Companies and other organizations frequently utilize distance learning programs to train employees. The following are some of the reasons people enroll in distance learning programs: - Students living in rural areas or those unable to attend traditional classes utilize distance learning - Students from all over the world can enroll in online courses offered at specific colleges - Companies utilize distance learning programs to train employees, especially those working in distance regions Distance learning is very flexible.Although distance learning can fit into anyone's schedule, students must take the initiative to study and complete their course work. Distance learning programs are not easy or automatic, so lazy students will probably not successfully complete courses they enroll in. However, even students that are busy or have numerous responsibilities should find the time to study because of the flexibility of these programs. What technology is used for online distance learning?Many different types of technology are utilized to enhance online learning. Special computer programs, high speed Internet, and webcam broadcasting technology are just a few of the modern technologies utilized in distance learning. As a result, learning opportunities that never existed for people living in distance or rural areas can obtain a college education or specialized job training. It's not uncommon for a student living in a rural region of South Dakota to complete a course offered by a college in California. Students often interact with teachers using video conferencing, satellite, and Internet technology. They can also communicate with other students enrolled in the same course using modern telecommunications technology. Since students can complete courses wherever the Internet is accessible, many often take time during a work break or while staying in a hotel during a business trip to complete their school work. The flexibility of distance learning is one of the main appeals of these programs. What is the experience like for online distance learners?Since distance learning is slowly becoming a popular way to complete college or job training, many people still have reservations about it. The details provided below will give those considering distance learning an idea of what it's like: - Students usually interact with classmates and teachers in chat rooms and other instant messaging services. This makes it possible to ask questions and share comments without sitting in a classroom. Teacher lectures are frequently broadcast online, and many students and teachers stay in touch via conference calling technology. - Group work is completed in chat rooms and special rooms on websites. Students also use e-mail, instant messaging, and web broadcasting technology to discuss project ideas with classmates. - Course assignments completed by students are competed on a website or submitted as e-mail attachments. Students are usually not permitted to submit work completed on websites after due dates. - Most reference materials, such as documents and books, are accessible online for students. As a result, students usually do not have to visit libraries to complete traditional research. Many of the books students need are scanned and placed online. - Questions for instructors can be asked over the phone, through an e-mail, or in a chat room. Instant messaging technology is becoming a very popular way for students and teachers to interact.
Solar panels produce electric power according to their size, efficiency and how much sunlight they receive. For homeowners and small businesses, roof-mounted panels are a typical option. Solar panels rated at 100 to 200 watts cover about 10 square feet (1 square meter). The power you get from a 100-watt solar panel depends on how much sunlight it receives, and on a daily basis the total power is much less than the rated wattage. Other People Are Reading There are three main types of solar panels for home and business applications. Each type is a trade-off in energy efficiency and manufacturing costs. Solar panels are semiconductors that collect sunlight and convert it into electricity. This is called the photovoltaic effect. The amount of power a solar panel can generate depends on how much sunlight it receives, how efficiently it can convert the sunlight into electricity, and how big the solar panel is. A larger solar panel will create more power. Wiring several solar panels together is the way to get the 120 volts required to run most household appliances, and more appliances need more amps to run. Volts times amps equals watts, or power. A typical high-end solar panel produces around 180 watts in bright sunlight. Tax credits may be available to consumers that install solar panels (http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=tax_credits.tx_index#s4).> The first useful solar panels were invented in Bell Laboratories in 1954. Once used mostly for spacecraft and satellites, solar panels are now used for many applications including powering homes. Advances in the production of silicon, materials used for "doping" the semiconductor, increasing absorption, and anti-reflective techniques and more have all led to increased efficiency. Engineers design solar panels to make the most energy out of sunlight. Most of the sunlight that strikes a solar panel is not converted to electricity- it has to be the right wavelength (colour) and it has to be absorbed (not reflected). Typical panels available for home or commercial use have efficiencies less than 20 per cent, meaning only 20 per cent of the power of the sunlight reaching the solar panel is converted to electricity. This is already figured into the rated wattage for a solar panel. Electric power is rated over time by watts per hour, or kilowatt hours. The power a solar panel can achieve and the power it delivers are two different matters. If a given panel is rated at 180 watts, then it will perform up to that level in the brightest sunlight (1,000 watts per square meter). However, unless you live on the Equator, your solar panel will not receive that much sunlight. The amount of sunlight that reaches the ground in your region (called "insolation," averaged in watts per square meter) divided industry-standard bright sunlight (1000 watts per square meter) will tell you what fraction of the rated wattage your panel will produce. A simpler method is to find the number of "peak sun hours" your location receives each day. Any reputable vendor will have this information. A peak sun hour is one hour of 1,000 watts per square meter sunlight (http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov/docs/glossary.htm). Most locations in the United States receive less than six peak sun hours per day. You can predict how much power a given solar panel can generate by multiplying the watt rating of a solar panel by the number of peak sun hours for your location. Note that the sun hours will vary by season, and are lowest during the winter. Factors other than the maximum potential of your solar panel have to be considered. Is your panel in full sunlight? Is it positioned properly to attain the maximum exposure? Cloud cover will reduce the power by up to 30 per cent or more. Snow and dust will limit the amount of light that reaches the panel and reduce power output. Predicting the 24-hour performance of a panel in a given location can be estimated by noting its power production during the noon hour (brightest sunlight) and assuming approximately 20 per cent of that power will be produced each hour averaged over a 24-hour period. - 20 of the funniest online reviews ever - 14 Biggest lies people tell in online dating sites - Hilarious things Google thinks you're trying to search for
Since scientific research of any type loses value if its results are not communicated to others, a lab report is written to thoroughly describe the research process, explain why and how it was done, what the findings were, and whether the findings matched the expected results. Stated succinctly, in a lab report, you provide accurate and factual information about research. Steps for Writing a Lab Report - Determine the structure of your lab report. Lab reports consist of five sections: an abstract, an introduction, an experimental section, results, and a discussion. - Write the introduction first. Its main goal is to introduce the experiment to the reader and explain its objectives and its significance. Formulate the hypothesis and the prediction of the experiment in a concise, clear manner and define terminology. You can also provide readers with the background needed for them to understand the experiment. - Write the results. Provide readers with data that was obtained during experiments and analyze it. - Proceed to the discussion section. Here you must interpret the results, state whether your findings were consistent with the hypothesis, discuss their significance, and acknowledge possible sources of errors. You can also introduce possible alternative explanations for your findings and point out any flaws in the study. - Write the experimental section. In it, you must list methods and materials that were used during the experiment. It doesn’t necessarily need to be detailed; however, it must contain enough information to allow another person to replicate the experiment. Significant observations made during laboratory work should also be included in this section. - Write the abstract. Though it is the first part of a lab report, it is more convenient to write the abstract when you have all the important information systematized. The abstract is not detailed. It is a concise summary of the entire work, which serves to briefly introduce the results of the experiment and intrigue the reader. - List the citations you used. Usually, MLA or APA bibliography formats are used. Make a title page. Laboratory reports are written for experiments and conducted by students. Therefore, the topic of a lab report depends on the discipline and on the nature of the experiment that has been conducted. For example, lab reports can be written for such experiments as: - conducting a Briggs-Rauscher reaction - qualitative reactions to sulfate, carbonate, silicate ions - the adsorption of nitrogen dioxide by carbon - determining the length of a electromagnetic wave with the help of Lecher’s method - the interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter Key Points to Consider - The title of your lab report should be brief and concise but still remain an accurate reflection of its content. The title is the first aspect of your lab report readers see, so it must help readers understand whether your report is relevant to their scientific interests or not. - An easy way to check the quality of your lab report is to ask yourself whether someone could successfully replicate the experiment you’ve conducted using only the information from your report. - Lab reports should follow a standard format so that readers can easily find the information they need immediately without searching for it in the whole report. - Readers don’t necessarily read the lab report in order. They read the abstract first to see what the report is about. If they find it intriguing, or if it corresponds with their scientific interests, readers will apparently skip to the conclusions. And in the case of the conclusions being intriguing, or especially unexpected, readers will most likely read the rest of the report. - Lab reports must be written in a strict scientific style. This means, first of all, you should limit the use of personal pronouns, emotional words, and inexact terms. Also, it is necessary to be concise, since long sentences and excessive word quantities may confuse the reader. Therefore, use one word instead of two where possible and try to break long sentences into smaller ones. Dos and Don’ts Common Mistakes When Writing a Lab Report – Trying to write a whole lab report the day before it must be submitted. You leave almost no time to analyze and interpret your results properly. – Rounding off too early in calculations. This procedure should be done at the end of your calculations, when you already have the result. If you round off insignificant figures in the beginning, your data will probably be incorrect. – Confusing analyses with interpretation. Analyses assume you’ve figured out what the data received during the experiment shows and what trends are present in them. Analyses are reported in the results section. Interpretation implies speculating on the data and explaining what they mean. Interpretation is carried out in the discussion section. – Using the word “data” as a singular noun. “Data” is a plural form of “datum.” Therefore, it is correct to write “data were received,” and “the datum is reliable.” – Confusing the meaning of “i.e.” and “e.g.” abbreviations. The “i.e.” abbreviation is from the Latin phrase, “id est,” which means “that is.” You should use this abbreviation if you want to provide readers with an explanation of the material. The “e.g.” abbreviation is from “exampli gratia,” which means “for example” and is used to illustrate the material. 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- Principles of Chemistry I: Honors Fall 2015, Unique 49310 Lecture Summary, 13 October 2015 Hydrogen Atom Continued: We will examine the radial and angular parts of the hydrogen atom wavefunction separately. This is done for several reasons. Solving the Schrodinger equation for the hydrogen atom exactly is most easily done through the separation of variables technique, which naturally results in a full wavefunction, psi, that is the product of the radial and angular components. Second, the energy of the wavefunction is dependent only on n, so being able to evaluate r separately from theta and phi might be useful. Third, it will be significantly easier to visualize the size and shape of the resulting atomic orbitals if we can look at the radial and angular parts separately. The radial and angular parts of the wavefunction for the hydrogen atom are given in Table 5.2 in your book. Your book has lots of figures of the resulting wavefunctions and probability distributions, and you should spend some time getting comfortable looking at these shapes and interpreting the information they reveal. Here is also a good web resource: Wikipedia page on atomic orbitals s orbitals (l = 0): Table 5.2 shows that when l = 0, the angular part of the wavefunction is a constant - i.e. does not depend on angle. This means the orbital is spherically symmetric about the nucleus. The probability distribution function shows that as n increases, there are nodes in the radius where the electron cannot be located. These figures also show that even when n > 1, there is a small probability that the electron will be found close to the nucleus. p orbitals (l = 1): Table 5.2 shows that when l = 1, the angular part of the wavefunction does depend on theta and phi, so the amplitude of the wavefunction will vary not just by distance but also by angle. The angular wavefunction describes an orbital with two lobes of different phase, meaning that there is one angular node between them. When the wavefunction is squared (to find the probability distribution), we are left with the characteristic "dumbbell" shape of the p orbitals. d orbitals (l = 2): These orbitals now have 2 angular nodes (spot a pattern?), resulting in 4 lobes with maximum amplitude separated by 90˚. By convention, four of the d orbitals have the same 4-leaf clover shape, just oriented differently in Cartesian coordinates. The 5th orbital looks a bit strange, but you should convince yourself that it also has two angular nodes. The Schrodinger equation cannot be solved exactly for any atom with more than one electron. It can, however, be approximated using several different techniques, and it has been shown to produce accurate predictions of experimental observations. We will therefore use the atomic orbitals that we built up for our hydrogen atom for multi-electron systems.
Before you know about the attributes of @property, you should know what is the use of @property. - @property offers a way to define the information that a class is intended to encapsulate. If you declare an object/variable using @property, then that object/variable will be accessible to other classes importing its class. - If you declare an object using @property in the header file, then you have to synthesize it using @synthesize in the implementation file. This makes the object KVC compliant. By default, compiler will synthesize accessor methods for this object. - accessor methods are : setter and getter. Example: “.h” File @interface XYZClass : NSObject @property (nonatomic, retain) NSString name; Example: “.m” File Now the compiler will synthesize accessor methods for name. XYZClass obj=[[XYZClass alloc]init]; NSString name1=[obj name]; // get 'name' [obj setName:@"liza"]; // first letter of 'name' becomes capital in setter method List Of Property 1. atomic //default 1. atomic : atomic is the default behavior. If an object is declared as atomic then it becomes thread-safe. Thread-safe means, at a time only one thread of a particular instance of that class can have the control over that object. If the thread is performing getter method then other thread cannot perform setter method on that object. It is slow @property NSString name; //by default atomic` @property (atomic)NSString name; // explicitly declared atomic` 2. nonatomic : nonatomic is not thread-safe. You can use the nonatomic property attribute to specify that synthesized accessors simply set or return a value directly, with no guarantees about what happens if that same value is accessed simultaneously from different threads For this reason, it’s faster to access a nonatomic property than an atomic one. @property (nonatomic)NSString name; 3. retain : retain is required when the attribute is a pointer to an object. The setter method will increase retain count of the object, so that it will occupy memory in autorelease pool. @property (retain)NSString name; 4. copy : copy If you use copy, you can’t use retain. Using copy instance of the class will contain its own copy. Even if a mutable string is set and subsequently changed, the instance captures whatever value it has at the time it is set. No setter and getter methods will be synthesized. @property (copy) NSString name; NSMutableString nameString = [NSMutableString stringWithString:@"Liza"]; xyzObj.name = nameString; name will remain unaffected. 5. readonly : readonly If you don’t want to allow the property to be changed via setter method, you can declare the property readonly. Compiler will generate a getter, but not a setter. @property (readonly) NSString name; 6. readwrite : readwrite is the default behavior. You don’t need to specify readwrite attribute explicitly. It is opposite of readonly. @property (readwrite) NSString name; 7. assign : assign will generate a setter which assigns the value to the instance variable directly, rather than copying or retaining it. This is best for primitive types like NSInteger and CGFloat, or objects you don’t directly own, such as delegates. Keep in mind retain and assign are basically interchangeable when garbage collection is enabled. @property (assign) NSInteger year; 8. strong : strong is a replacement for retain. It comes with ARC. @property (nonatomic, strong) AVPlayer player; 9. getter=method : getter=method If you want to use a different name for a getter method, it’s possible to specify a custom name by adding attributes to the property. In the case of Boolean properties (properties that have a YES or NO value), it’s customary for the getter method to start with the word “is” @property (getter=isFinished) BOOL finished; 10. setter=method : setter=method If you want to use a different name for a setter method, it’s possible to specify a custom name by adding attributes to the property. The method should end with a colon. @property(setter = boolBool:) BOOL finished; 10. unsafe_unretained : unsafe_unretained There are a few classes in Cocoa and Cocoa Touch that don’t yet support weak references, which means you can’t declare a weak property or weak local variable to keep track of them. These classes include NSTextView, NSFont and NSColorSpace,etc. If you need to use a weak reference to one of these classes, you must use an unsafe reference. An unsafe reference is similar to a weak reference in that it doesn’t keep its related object alive, but it won’t be set to nil if the destination object is deallocated. @property (unsafe_unretained) NSObject *unsafeProperty; If you need to specify multiple attributes, simply include them as a comma-separated list, like this: @property (readonly, getter=isFinished) BOOL finished;
We rely on high yields to feed a population of 7 billion, and these are made possible by our ability to create an ideal environment for the crop. Ironically, the methods used to do this can create conditions which are increasingly unsuitable for growing crops in. To combat drought we add water, causing problems such as water shortages and soil salinisation. To ensure that a crop’s nutritional needs are met we add fertilisers containing nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. Fertilisers have direct impacts on the local environment, with nitrogen leeching leading to a loss of wildlife. In addition to nitrogen which is lost to the environment, a small percentage is converted to nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential about 298 times that of carbon dioxide. The contribution of nitrogen fertilisers to global warming doesn’t end there: the Haber-Bosch process used to create them is energetically expensive, and is a major source of carbon dioxide emissions from agriculture. The same is true of the farm machinery used to spread fertiliser on the field. Nitrogen use has risen dramatically in recent decades, but this can’t continue. Estimates suggest that without the Haber-Bosch process global food production might only be able to support about half of today’s population, yet we need a more sustainable approach to providing food for a growing population in an increasingly uncertain climate. There is a growing interest in using agroecology to reduce the need for synthetic fertilisers and other inputs, along with a focus on creating plants which are resilient to stresses such as nitrogen shortages. The complexity of creating a plant which uses nitrogen more efficiently means that many scientists have turned to genetic engineering to attempt this. Trials have taken place in a variety of crops using different genes, and there have been many experimental successes over recent years. In 2007 field trials, for example, GM canola plants maintained yields even with 40% less nitrogen than is normally applied. In 2016, Professor Mechthild Tegeder created soybeans which fixed twice as much nitrogen as their conventional counterparts. Soybean is a legume, so bacteria in its roots turn nitrogen from the air into a form which is available to the plant. By engineering soybeans to increase the flow of nitrogen from the bacteria into the seed-producing organs, Professor Tegeder and her colleagues increased yields in their glasshouse experiments. These are just two examples of successes in experiments designed to increase nitrogen use efficiency. However, one problem faced by many of the promising studies is replication. Nitrogen pathways in plants are complex and not fully understood, so it is perhaps unsurprising that results can be unreliable in field conditions. Whilst these studies are encouraging, it will be a long road to commercialisation, and the road towards nitrogen efficient crops which benefit poorer farmers might be even longer. New genome editing techniques have allowed some research groups to set their sights even higher, creating cereals such as rice or wheat which can use nitrogen from the air so it doesn’t need to be added to the soil. This could either be done by modifying the cereal plant to encourage bacterial symbiosis, as happens in legumes, or by adding a nitrogen fixing enzyme from bacteria into the plant itself. Such crops could theoretically bring great environmental benefits where nitrogen fertiliser is currently applied, and yield benefits in parts of the world where access to fertiliser is limited. For now, however, there are many technical, regulatory and commercial barriers to be overcome.
Lymphoma Awareness Color: Lime Green Lymphoma Awareness Month: September Lymphoma is cancer that starts in the lymphatic system and then spreads to the rest of the body. Many cancers begin in other organs and then spread to the lymph nodes, but those cancers which begin in the lymph nodes and tissues are referred to as Lymphoma. Lymphoma is described as being either "Hodgkin Lymphoma" or "Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma." Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is sometimes also referred to as 'lymphoma.' The type of lymphoma is determined based on examination of cancer tissues. Because each type of cancer acts and reacts very differently, they are often treated as completely separate diseases. *Sources: American Cancer Society: http://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-hodgkinlymphoma/detailedguide/non-hodgkin-lymphoma-what-is-non-hodgkin-lymphoma Cancer that begins in cells of the immune system. There are two basic categories of lymphomas. One kind is Hodgkin lymphoma, which is marked by the presence of a type of cell called the Reed-Sternberg cell. The other category is non-Hodgkin lymphomas, which includes a large, diverse group of cancers of immune system cells. Non-Hodgkin lymphomas can be further divided into cancers that have an indolent (slow-growing) course and those that have an aggressive (fast-growing) course. These subtypes behave and respond to treatment differently. Both Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas can occur in children and adults, and prognosis and treatment depend on the stage and the type of cancer.
A condition is a supposition on which a statement is based. A conditional sentence commonly consists of two clauses: The protasis: the conditional, or subordinate, clause, expressing a supposed or assumed case ( The apodosis: the conclusion, or principal clause, expressing what follows if the condition is realized. The truth or fulfilment of the conclusion depends on the truth or fulfilment of the conditional clause. a. The protasis has its name from πρότασις, lit. The protasis usually precedes, but may follow, the apodosis.2282 The protasis is introduced by εἰ a. Homer has also αι', which is an Aeolic (and Doric' form.2283 With the subjunctive mood, ει' commonly takes ἄν (Epic εἴ κε or εἴ κεν, not ἐά_ν). a. There are three forms, ἐά_ν, ἤν, ἄ_ν. ἐά_ν is the ordinary form in Attic prose and inscriptions; ἤν appears in Ionic and in the older Attic writers (the tragic poets and Thucydides); ἄ_ν, generally in the later writers (sometimes together with ἐά_ν), very rarely in Attic inscriptions. In Plato ἄ_ν is commoner than ἐά_ν. Xenophon has all three forms. b. ἤν is from εἰ ἄν, ἄ_ν from η' (another form of εἰ) + ἄν. The etymology of ἐά_ν is uncertain: either from η' ἄν or from εἰ ἄ_ν. The particle ἄν is used in the apodosis: (1) with the optative, to denote possibility (cp. cross1824); (2) with the past tenses of the indicative, to denote either the non-fulfilment of the condition ( cross1786) or, occasionally, repetition ( cross1790).2285 The apodosis may be introduced by δέ or ἀλλά, less often by αὐτάρ. See under Particles. νῦν δέ The negative of the protasis is μή because the subordinate clause expresses something that is conceived or imagined. μή negatives the conditional clause as a whole. On οὐ adherescent in protasis, see cross2698. The negative of the apodosis is οὐ, in case the principal clause states the conclusion as a fact on the supposition that the protasis is true; μή, when the construction requires that negative ( cross2689).2287 The indicative, subjunctive, and optative moods, and the participle may stand in protasis and apodosis. The imperative and infinitive may be used in the apodosis. The future optative is not used in conditional sentences except in indirect discourse. The tenses in conditional sentences, except unreal conditions, have the same force as in simple sentences.2288 Instead of a formal conditional sentence the two members may be simply coördinated, the protasis having the form of an independent clause. σμι_κρὸν λαβὲ παράδειγμα, καὶ πάντα εἴσει ἃ βούλομαι Herbert Weir Smyth [n.d.], A Greek Grammar for Colleges; Machine readable text [info] [word count] [Smyth].
the series of related events occuring in a story the location/area in which the story takes place the concept or central message that is conveyed in the story when the author provides hints of what is later to come in the story the highest point of the story, what the conflicts and complications build up to changes in some way throughout the story against the main character the main character in the story, usually the "good guy" a type of figurative language in which a nonhuman subject is given human characteristics comparison between two unlike things using "like" or "as" person/thing/animal appearing in a story. character in the story, but is not of great importance. character that remains the same throughout the story an exaggeration, over-statement when the opposite of what is expected happens character that usually shows many sides of personality and shows growth or maturity throughout the story character that usually only shows one side of his/her personality and shows growth a reference in literary work to a person, place, or thing in histroy or another work of literature. one who tells the story point of view a way the events of a story are conveyed to the reader the tension that the author uses to create a feeling of discomfort about the unknown struggle between opposing forces the personality a character displays word whose sound imitates/suggests its meaning Please allow access to your computer’s microphone to use Voice Recording. We can’t access your microphone! Click the icon above to update your browser permissions above and try again Reload the page to try again! Press Cmd-0 to reset your zoom Press Ctrl-0 to reset your zoom It looks like your browser might be zoomed in or out. Your browser needs to be zoomed to a normal size to record audio. Your microphone is muted For help fixing this issue, see this FAQ.
Information about the prevention of cancer and the science of screening appropriate individuals at high-risk of developing cancer is gaining interest. Physicians and individuals alike recognize that the best “treatment” of cancer is preventing its occurrence in the first place or detecting it early when it may be most treatable. Lung cancer is the most common cancer in the world and is the leading cause of cancer death, with 160,000 deaths in the U.S. annually. There are three main types of lung cancer. The most common are non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer (SCLC), which together account for over 90% of all lung cancers. Malignant mesothelioma is a rare cancer that develops in the tissues that comprise the lining of the lung. The chance of an individual developing cancer depends on both genetic and non-genetic factors. A genetic factor is an inherited, unchangeable trait, while a non-genetic factor is a variable in a person’s environment, which can often be changed. Non-genetic factors may include diet, exercise, or exposure to other substances present in our surroundings. These non-genetic factors are often referred to as environmental factors. Some non-genetic factors play a role in facilitating the process of healthy cells turning cancerous (i.e. the correlation between smoking and lung cancer) while other cancers have no known environmental correlation but are known to have a genetic predisposition. A genetic predisposition means that a person may be at higher risk for a certain cancer if a family member has that type of cancer. Heredity or Genetic Factors While lung cancer has mainly been associated with environmental factors, there is emerging evidence that indicates that some individuals have a genetic predisposition for the disease. For example, individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease appear to have an increased risk of developing lung cancer regardless of whether or not they smoke. Research is ongoing to further define the genetic factors associated with lung cancer. Environmental or Non-Genetic Factors Lung cancer is primarily associated with environmental factors, especially smoking. Several environmental agents have been associated with the development of lung cancer. Some are more easily avoidable than others. Cigarettes: There is a large body of research that indicates that individuals who smoke are at a significantly increased risk of developing lung cancer. Approximately 85% of the lung cancer cases diagnosed each year can be associated with smoking. Over time, carcinogens in cigarettes damage the cells in the lungs and eventually, these damaged cells may become cancerous. Several factors contribute to a smoker’s risk of developing lung cancer, such as the age at initiation of smoking, the number of years smoked, the depth of inhalation, and the number of cigarettes smoked daily. Cigars and Pipes: Individuals who smoke cigars or pipes appear to be at an increased risk of developing lung cancer, although this risk appears lower than that of cigarette smokers. Again, the number of years smoked, the amount smoked and the depth of inhalation all play a role in whether or not lung cancer will develop. Researchers have speculated that the reason for the decreased risk among cigar and pipe smokers when compared with cigarette smokers may be that cigar and pipe smokers do not inhale as deeply as cigarette smokers because cigar smoke tends to be more irritating. Cigar smokers also tend to smoke less each day, as it takes about 1-2 hours to completely smoke a cigar, whereas it takes less than 10 minutes to smoke a cigarette. Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS): Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (also called secondhand smoke) is often referred to as involuntary or passive smoking. Prolonged exposure to ETS has been associated with an increased risk for developing lung cancer. Like smokers, nonsmokers who are exposed to ETS absorb nicotine and other carcinogens, however these carcinogens are less concentrated than if they were directly inhaled. Still, the carcinogens from ETS pose health risks for nonsmokers. Researchers have estimated that ETS is responsible for approximately 3,000 lung cancer deaths per year among nonsmokers in the U.S. In addition, children of smokers appear to have reduced lung function and more respiratory tract infections than children of nonsmokers. Lung Diseases: Some lung diseases, including tuberculosis (TB), have been associated with an increased risk of developing lung cancer. Lung diseases leave scarred tissue on the lungs that appear to increase susceptibility to lung cancer. Air Pollution: Although the relationship between lung cancer and air pollution has not been clearly defined, some research indicates that exposure to certain air pollutants may be associated with lung cancer. These air pollutants include by-products of fossil fuel combustion, exhaust from motor vehicles and diesel engines, and emissions from power plants and industrial centers. Asbestos: Asbestos is the general name applied to a group of naturally occurring minerals that form fibers. These asbestos fibers have been used in a variety of applications such as textiles, cement, paper, wicks, ropes, floor and roofing tiles, water pipes, wallboard, fireproof clothing, gaskets and brake linings. Asbestos fibers easily break into particles. When inhaled, these dust particles can lodge in the lungs and cause damage that leads to an increased risk of lung cancer. It is estimated that since the beginning of World War II, approximately 8 million people have been exposed to asbestos in the workplace. Approximately 5% of the lung cancer cases diagnosed each year are caused by asbestos. Clinical studies have demonstrated that individuals who are exposed to large amounts of asbestos have a 5 times greater risk of developing lung cancer than individuals who have not been exposed. In addition, individuals who smoke and are exposed to asbestos have an even greater risk. Studies show that smokers who are exposed to asbestos are 90 times more likely to develop lung cancer than individuals who do not smoke and have not been exposed to asbestos. Asbestos also increases the risk of developing mesothelioma, a rare type of lung cancer that develops in the lining of the lung. Mesothelioma can result from neighborhood or environmental exposure to asbestos, occupational exposure, and household contact with asbestos dust. The rates of mesothelioma peaked for individuals born around 1910 and have steadily declined over time. Currently, there are about 2,000 cases of mesothelioma each year. This is primarily an asbestos-related cancer; only a fraction of mesothelioma cases are unrelated to asbestos exposure. Individuals involved in shipbuilding during World War II have an increased risk of mesothelioma. In fact, several shipbuilding areas such as Virginia, England, Wales and Japan, have higher rates of mesothelioma. In addition, workers who are heavily exposed to asbestos bring the dust into their homes on their clothing, hair and skin, thus exposing their family members and placing them at a higher risk of developing mesothelioma. Smoking does not appear to increase the risk of developing mesothelioma. Radon: Radon is a carcinogen that can cause damage to the lungs that may eventually lead to lung cancer. It is estimated that radon is responsible for about 10% of the lung cancer cases diagnosed each year. Individuals who smoke and are exposed to radon are at an even higher increased risk of developing lung cancer. Most of the cancer deaths associated with radon occur among smokers. Radon is a naturally occurring, invisible radioactive gas. It is present in soil and rocks and can seep into homes and other buildings. In situations where ventilation is restricted, radon can accumulate in the atmosphere and lead to higher levels of exposure. Individuals who work in mines are often exposed to higher concentrations of radon than the general population. However, radon can also be present in many homes. Some geographic areas have higher concentrations of radon, but radon can also seep into homes in geographic areas that are not considered high risk. When ventilation is restricted in basements in order to conserve energy, radon can seep from the soil into the basement and accumulate in the poorly ventilated area. Cancer is largely a preventable illness. Two-thirds of cancer deaths in the U.S. can be linked to tobacco use, poor diet, obesity, and lack of exercise. All of these factors can be modified. Nevertheless, an awareness of the opportunity to prevent cancer through changes in lifestyle is still under-appreciated. Research is ongoing to determine the causes of lung cancer and find ways to prevent it. Avoiding the environmental risk factors may help to prevent lung cancer. In particular, refraining from smoking is an important factor in the prevention of lung cancer. Radon: The only way to determine if a home has elevated radon levels is to perform a test. Homeowners can purchase kits designed to test the radon levels in their homes. Geographic location is not a good indicator of radon levels. Homes that are located in the same area often have different indoor radon levels. Several factors contribute to increased radon levels including soil composition under and around the house and ventilation conditions. In addition, barometric pressure and precipitation can cause radon levels to vary over time. Because of the variances in radon levels, homeowners can utilize both short and long term tests to measure the radon levels in their homes. The tests are simple and inexpensive. Usually, a local or state radon official can assist homeowners in choosing the appropriate test. If elevated radon levels are detected in a home, the homeowner will need to take steps to reduce the radon levels. Once a radon problem is addressed and corrected, the risk is permanently eliminated. Asbestos: Nearly everyone has been exposed to asbestos at some point. Asbestos is widely used and small amounts may be found in a variety of products. In addition, the breakdown of asbestos products as well as natural deposits of the fiber can cause the release of asbestos particles into the environment. Three agencies are responsible for regulating the use of asbestos products and the exposure caused to the general public. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates asbestos in buildings, drinking water and the environment. The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) regulates asbestos in consumer products. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) monitors asbestos contamination in food, drugs and cosmetics. Still, individuals may be exposed to asbestos at work or in other environments. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has issued regulations for employers regarding the treatment of asbestos exposure in the workplace. In addition, the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) regulates mine safety. Often, workers are provided with protective equipment and instructions regarding work practices and safety procedures. Individuals concerned about asbestos exposure at work may wish to discuss safety precautions with their employers or request information from OSHA.Individuals who are or have been exposed to asbestos should refrain from smoking. Diet: Diet is a fertile area for immediate individual and societal intervention to decrease the risk of developing certain cancers. Numerous studies have provided a wealth of often-contradictory information about the detrimental and protective factors of different foods. There is convincing evidence that excess body fat substantially increases the risk for many types of cancer. While much of the cancer-related nutrition information cautions against a high-fat diet, the real culprit may be an excess of calories. Studies indicate that there is little, if any, relationship between body fat and fat composition of the diet. These studies show that excessive caloric intake from both fats and carbohydrates lead to the same result of excess body fat. The ideal way to avoid excess body fat is to limit caloric intake and/or balance caloric intake with ample exercise. It is still important, however, to limit fat intake, as evidence still supports a relationship between cancer and polyunsaturated, saturated and animal fats. Specifically, studies show that high consumption of red meat and dairy products can increase the risk of certain cancers. One strategy for positive dietary change is to replace red meat with chicken, fish, nuts and legumes. High fruit and vegetable consumption has been associated with a reduced risk for developing at least 10 different cancers. This may be a result of potentially protective factors such as carotenoids, folic acid, vitamin C, flavonoids, phytoestrogens and isothiocyanates. These are often referred to as antioxidants. There is strong evidence that moderate to high alcohol consumption also increases the risk of certain cancers. One reason for this relationship may be that alcohol interferes with the availability of folic acid. Alcohol in combination with tobacco creates an even greater risk of certain types of cancer. Exercise: Higher levels of physical activity may reduce the incidence of some cancers. According to researchers at Harvard, if the entire population increased their level of physical activity by 30 minutes of brisk walking per day (or the equivalent energy expenditure in other activities), we would observe a 15% reduction in the incidence of colon cancer. Screening and Early Detection For many types of cancer, progress in the areas of cancer screening and treatment has offered promise for earlier detection and higher cure rates. The term screening refers to the regular use of certain examinations or tests in persons who do not have any symptoms of a cancer but are at high risk for that cancer. When individuals are at high risk for a type of cancer, this means that they have certain characteristics or exposures, called risk factors that make them more likely to develop that type of cancer than those who do not have these risk factors. The risk factors are different for different types of cancer. An awareness of these risk factors is important because 1) some risk factors can be changed (such as smoking or dietary intake), thus decreasing the risk for developing the associated cancer; and 2) persons who are at high risk for developing a cancer can often undergo regular screening measures that are recommended for that cancer type. Researchers continue to study which characteristics or exposures are associated with an increased risk for various cancers, allowing for the use of more effective prevention, early detection, and treatment strategies. No screening procedure for lung cancer has been proven to decrease the number of lung cancer deaths. For this reason, routine screening for lung cancer is not cost-effective. However, despite the fact that they do not reduce the number of lung cancer deaths, some screening procedures are effective at detecting lung cancer at earlier stages. Early detection of lung cancer leads to a better chance of a cure. Therefore, while screening for lung cancer is generally not considered cost-effective, individuals who smoke and/or are at a high risk of developing lung cancer may wish to undergo screening. There is currently no consensus as to the best way to screen for lung cancer. Historically, physicians have used imaging tests and sputum cytology to detect lung cancer. Although new screening procedures are being evaluated and refined, these methods are still widely used. Chest X-rays: Historically, chest x-rays have been used as a preliminary method to detect lung cancer. Japanese researchers have had some success improving lung cancer survival rates with the mass use of annual chest x-rays in high-risk populations. Some research indicates that chest x-rays combined with sputum cytology are effective in detecting early lung cancer. Although the tests appear effective in detecting lung cancer, there is not a large body of research that supports the routine use of these procedures, as they do not appear to reduce the lung cancer death rate. Computed Topography or CT Scan: A CT scan is a technique for imaging body tissues and organs, during which X-ray transmissions are converted to detailed images, using a computer to synthesize X-ray data. A CT scan is conducted with a large machine positioned outside the body that can rotate to capture detailed images of the oranges and tissues inside the body. This method is more sensitive and precise than the chest x-ray. Sputum Cytology: Sputum cytology is a procedure used to examine mucus that is coughed up from the lungs or breathing tubes. The mucus is examined under a microscope in order to detect cancer cells. Strategies to Improve Screening and Prevention Researchers continue to search for effective screening procedures for lung cancer. The potential for earlier detection and higher cure rates increases with the advent of more refined screening techniques. In an effort to provide more screening options and perhaps more effective prevention strategies, researchers continue to explore new techniques for the screening and early detection of cancer. Spiral CT Scan: A spiral CT scan is a new and better version of the old CT scan. During a spiral CT scan, the patient lies on a table that passes through the CT machine, which rotates around the patient. A computer then combines the images to create a 3D model of the lungs. This allows the physicians to view any potential areas of concern from infinite angles and to detect subtle changes in shape and contour. In recent studies, spiral CT scans have proven effective in detecting tumors as small as 1-2 millimeters. Research has shown that there is a decrease in cure rate for every millimeter increase in tumor size. Therefore, the use of spiral CT scans to focus on finding lung cancers below 1 centimeter holds promise for diagnosing early stage lung cancer. In addition, spiral CT scans can detect early emphysema. In a recent clinical study, the Early Lung Cancer Action Program (ELCAP) evaluated the benefits of using low-dose spiral CT scans. The results indicated that spiral CT scans could detect early lung cancer and early emphysema. One unexpected result of these early emphysema diagnoses was that many smokers in the study quit smoking after learning that they had emphysema. Thus far, low-dose spiral CT scans show potential for the early detection of lung cancer in high-risk people and offer the promise that more people could be cured. Further study will determine the validity of these results. In the meantime, individuals at a high risk of developing lung cancer may wish to undergo spiral CT scans despite the fact that this test is not yet routinely covered by insurance.
In modern times, lions symbolize power and courage for their dominance in the wild. Global efforts have helped prevent the species from becoming endangered or extinct, yet they are still vulnerable. Their prehistoric relatives were not as fortunate. The Eurasian cave lion, most closely related to the modern lion species and the largest lion species to ever have lived, roamed the Bering land bridge from Europe to Alaska until its extinction 14,000 years ago. What is known about the lion has been garnered from fossils and prehistoric art-like etchings on cave walls, created by Upper Paleolithic humans. Based on a fossil found in Germany, an adult Eurasian cave lion was measured at 3.9 feet tall and 6.9 feet long without its tail – a similar size to the modern lion. Experts believe that the Eurasian cave lion’s extinction was the result of several factors, such as over-hunting, climate change, a change in prey numbers, or species replacement. Recent research has focused on prehistoric humans’ hunting of the Eurasian cave lion for its fur, which may have contributed to its extinction. Archeological evidence had previously shown that early humans living from 40,000 to 10,000 years ago hunted small and large carnivores with little evidence showing they preyed upon lions. A team of experts from the University of Cantabria in Spain, led by Marian Cueto, aimed to shed new light on the hunter-prey relationship of Upper Prehistoric humans and the Eurasian cave lion. The team studied nine fossilized cave lion toe bones from the Upper Paleolithic cave site, La Garma in northern Spain. The La Garma site, located in 1995, was associated with prehistoric human rituals, and cave lions were likely symbolic animals for Upper Paleolithic humans. The toes showed human modification using stone tools. Markings on the bones show that early humans used a similar method to modern hunters when skinning an animal to keep the claws attached to the removed fur. As the research team revealed in the journal Plos One, “All cutmarks reveal a cutting action to an angle from the proximal to distal areas, in a repeated action, demonstrating an in-depth knowledge of animal processing and anatomy.” Researchers believe that the toe bones are probably part of a single lion pelt that was spread across the floor of the cave for decoration or warmth. The fact that there was only one lion pelt in the cave suggests, “…a sporadic, isolated, and rare event of large carnivore hunting (although other scenarios cannot be excluded like scavenging). The presence of the remains of other carnivores, such as bears at the site, that also show anthropic modifications, reveal the successful hunting of dangerous carnivores”, the team wrote. Researchers did not hypothesize how early humans would have been able to capture and kill the Eurasian cave lion, a muscular, huge, and dangerous carnivore. They instead theorized that Eurasian cave lion hunting might have been a coming-of-age ritual. Cave drawings from Upper Paleolithic sites show the hierarchical position of lions in the early symbolic world of humans, giving them an important role in the culture as a motif. The team wrote, “This mystification of dangerous prey could explain the evidence in the Upper Palaeolithic cave of lion hunting and pelt exploitation, as it could have been motivated by ideological considerations that justify its presence in a context interpreted as the practice of ritual activities”. Although the research did not determine with certainty that Upper Paleolithic humans exploited the Eurasian cave lion for its fur, researchers surmise that hunting the lions was likely a factor in their eventual extinction. This shows that early humans were no different from modern humans in terms of their desire to hunt, whether for symbolic or financial reasons. What the story of the Eurasian cave lion does is illustrate that modern humans must continue their conservation efforts of lions today in order to ensure that they are not extinct tomorrow, Mail Online reported.
Youth Employment: Decent Work for All Young People, Everywhere Youth is best understood as a period of transition from the dependence of childhood to adulthood’s independence and awareness of our interdependence as members of a community. Youth is a more fluid category than a fixed age-group. However, age is the easiest way to define this group, particularly in relation to education and employment. Therefore “youth” is often indicated as a person between the age where he/she may leave compulsory education, and the age at which he/she finds his/her first employment. This latter age limit has been increasing, as higher levels of unemployment and the cost of setting up an independent household puts many young people into a prolonged period of dependency. The world is facing a worsening youth employment crisis: young people are three times more likely to be unemployed than adults and almost 73 million youth worldwide are looking for work. The ILO has warned of a “scarred” generation of young workers facing a dangerous mix of high unemployment, increased in activity and precarious work in developed countries, as well as persistently high working poverty in the developing world. Based on the UN World Youth Report 2012, out of 1.2 billion youths in the world, close to 75 million are unemployed. Thus, youth unemployment is a serious global problem. Young people without jobs not only face destitution but also become a source of political instability and socioeconomic disruption. The impact of high youth unemployment is particularly severe in developing countries where poverty is rampant and the social security system to support the unemployed is non-existent. - Many young people in countries across the world often work unacceptably long hours under informal, intermittent and insecure work arrangements - Young people are often working below their potential, in part-time, temporary, casual or seasonal employment - Most of the world’s youth work in the informal economy, both in rural and urban areas. They lack adequate incomes, social protection, security and representation. - The “transition gap” between completion of initial education and training, and entry to employment has tended to lengthen; those who find work tends to spend more time in temporary, insecure jobs. - In some countries, many young people fail to find jobs on completing their education or training, even when they have gone relatively far in the educational system (the “educated unemployed”) because of the mismatch of their skills with labour market requirements. - Lack of opportunities for work experience, combined with the absence of adequate labour market information, vocational guidance and counselling, poor job placement mechanisms and inadequate demand exacerbate the problem of getting a decent job - There are a number of factors that impact on the ability of some young people to get a decent job while not on others. These factors include discrimination, economic hardship and access issues Read the rest of this entry As we saw in the past, there are many more rules, laws, conventions are made for protecting the environment but there is no effective implementation . For this implementation youth play a vital role. Young people constitute a large part of the world’s population and young people will have to live longer with the consequences of current environmental decisions than will their elders. Future generations will also be affected by these decisions and the extent to which they have addressed concerns such as the depletion of resources, biodiversity loss, and long-lived radioactive wastes. Young people can play an active role in protecting and improving the environment. They can change their lifestyle and how it affects the environment. They can make their homes, schools and youth organizations more environmentally friendly by adopting environmentally friendly practices, recycling of different materials as well as preserving resources such as water and electricity. Engaging youth in environmental protection not only creates direct impact on changing youth behaviors and attitudes, but possibly influence their parents, relatives and families. Youth are back bone of the nation. They can change the future of the society with their well being and courageous behavior. Unfortunately today we find the youth those who are more interested in other places which are not useful to them as well as nationally. They choose to spend their days doing drugs and playing video games. They spend their nights partying and living it up, so to speak. More and more young men of this age group are sitting at home in front of their televisions playing games all day instead of bettering themselves or going to work. They have no vision and if they do have dreams they do not have the drive to make any attempt at achieving them. The environment is simply defined as our surrounding, including both living and non-living things and youth are the young people. Environmental protection is a broad subject Environmental problems are rising day by day and everyone is concerned about global warming and climate change as globally but local and national environmental problems are less concerned. Protecting the environment starts with pollution control therefore, youth can help reduce waste by paying attention to minor details in their daily lives, for example, not to take extra plastic bags when we go shopping. Actually there are many other tips for greener environment. By applying the greening knowledge at home and schools, we can help to market city, a greener city. Discarding computers, electrical appliances and rechargeable batteries can seriously harm the environment. Youth role is to implement recycling programs for used computers and electrical appliances. You can arrange for collection services with them. There are also many collection points for recycling of rechargeable batteries, so do not simply throw them away. Youth have a role to play in environmental and conservation efforts that will improve livelihoods. Going Green In House .1. Close the running tap water, when not needed. 2. Use the dishwasher, when the dishes are full. Try to avoid using it more often i.e. for each single plate. 3. Try to be cautious in using water. Turn off taps when not used. By this way, it is estimated every home can save more than a gallon of water, which is very high when combined in a local. 4. Turning off Lights and saving electricity as much as possible is also a way to go green. During the daytime, it is good to open windows and screens to let sunlight in and fill house with warmth. After all, sunlight is essential for body in the form of vitamin A. 5. The local power company would be able to provide a free presentation on how to make the home a better energy efficient home. Going Green with Recycling and Reusing 1. Giving away unwanted or unusable materials to free service organizations is a better way to start going green. 2. Reusing the furniture would save some extra money spent on newer furniture. For example, one can remodel a table by adding sheets of wood to it and create his own wardrobe. 3. Recycling paper, plastics, glass and metals could also be done by making use of the local trash pickup service. 4. Instead of simply throwing older items, one can use his creativity in creating the essence out of them. For example, the older screen cloth could be stitched with flat sheets and made as curtains or cloth piece covering the shades of the lamp. They are easy and cheap in terms of interior decorating materials. 5. Choosing reusable water bottles in comparison with plastic bottles every month is a nice way to avoid using plastics and reusing the water bottles. They may be expensive at the beginning, but once getting used to it, they would prove worthy providing health and hygiene besides going green. Going Green with Transport 1. Carpooling or vehicle pooling is the best way to save environment from three or four times the pollution. Carpooling can be done with friends, neighbors, or relatives working in the same direction as yours, not necessarily the same company. 2. Maintaining the vehicle regularly and providing it for service near a service station would help minimize its pollution output. 3. Many companies have started offering the plan ‘Work while you are at home’. Enjoying this benefit not only saves green, but also enables one to spend quality time together in a family and allowing to save costs of travelling and fuel. These are some of the going green tips. Following them will give a healthy and wealthy life. I hope these going green tips are useful to you and that they will help you to make your life better
Word count :507words Global warming means an increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans that is causing a continuous threat on global environment”. Global warming is like a heater that is continuously warming up our environment. If we don’t switch it off it will definitely burn us all. Causes of Global Warming Global Warming is caused by the Greenhouse effect. There are four steps in the Greenhouse effect. The heat generated by the sun is absorbed by the atmosphere and are trapped by greenhouse gases. The gas then absorbs the light and is remitted back to the Earth’s surface and warms it even more. Some of the naturally occurring greenhouse gases are Methane and carbon dioxide. This is the way the Earth keeps itself warm enough for humans to live on it. But the cause of concern is the human activities that are causing an alarm are emitting of excess carbon dioxide and CFC. The continuous increase in pollution is another major cause of rapid increase in our mother earth’s temperature. Effects of Global Warming Earth is showing us signals of hazard which we must recognize. The temperature over the past century has risen one degree Fahrenheit over the last century. These last few decades have been the warmest this century. The sea level has risen 4 to 10 inches, and mountain glaciers world-wide have begun to retreat. We can also notice the change in temperature and decrease in rainfall in recent years The effects will have a huge impact on our lives in the coming years One event is major drought all around the world. With the warming of the planet, the water on the ground would quickly evaporate causing the rivers and lakes to quickly dry up. This would lead to crops dying from lack of rain, which would lead to food prices to skyrocket, which would lead to people dying from hunger .Another event that would occur from global warming is the drastic rise in sea level. As the Earth warms up, the polar ice caps will start to melt. All cities along the coast would be flooded from the rise in sea level. This would cause people to move inland, and with more people inland, it would cause a shortage of space in some areas. Global Warming would also cause extreme weather. Thunderstorms would be more powerful than they have ever been. Tornadoes would be stronger than they normally would. With the warming of the surface it would also warm the ocean over time. This would cause hurricanes to be numerous and stronger than they have ever been. It is time we must understand that human activities and climate is interdependent and inter related. If we don’t stop emitting harmful like carbon dioxide and CFC one day soon we will burn in the same fire we lit, as it is said “You will reap as you bow” So we must understand “The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's need but not every man's greed.”
What is the diaphragm? The diaphragm is a muscle that helps you inhale and exhale (breathe in and out). This thin, dome-shaped muscle sits below your lungs and heart. It’s attached to your sternum (a bone in the middle of your chest), the bottom of your rib cage and your spine. Your diaphragm separates your chest from your abdominal cavity (belly). In addition to helping you breathe, your diaphragm increases pressure inside your abdomen. This helps with other important functions, such as getting rid of your urine (pee) and feces (poop). It helps prevent acid reflux by putting pressure on your esophagus (food tube in your throat). Your esophagus and several nerves and blood vessels run through openings in the diaphragm. Many different conditions can affect how the diaphragm works. The most common conditions include hernias and nerve damage from surgery or an accident. Neuromuscular disorders such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) can also weaken the diaphragm. These conditions can cause difficulty breathing, heartburn and pain in the chest and belly. What does the diaphragm do? The diaphragm plays a critical role in the respiratory system. When you breathe in, your diaphragm contracts (tightens) and flattens, moving down towards your abdomen. This movement creates a vacuum in your chest, allowing your chest to expand (get bigger) and pull in air. When you breathe out, your diaphragm relaxes and curves back up as your lungs push the air out. Several nerves, soft tissues and blood vessels pass through the diaphragm. These include the: - Aorta, a big artery that carries your blood away from your heart to the rest of your body. - Esophagus, a hollow tube that connects the throat to the stomach. Food and liquids move through the esophagus to the stomach. - Inferior vena cava, a vein that carries blood to your heart. - Phrenic nerve, which controls the diaphragm’s movement. - Thoracic duct, a vessel that carries a fluid called lymph through the body as part of the lymphatic system. - Vagus nerve, which has many important jobs, including helping to control the digestive system. Conditions and Disorders What conditions and disorders affect this system? Many conditions, diseases and injuries can affect the diaphragm, including: - Hernias: A hiatal hernia happens when the top part of your stomach bulges through an opening in the diaphragm. A diaphragmatic hernia occurs when an organ in your abdomen bulges into the chest cavity. These hernias can be present at birth or they can result from trauma, age and obesity. Hernias may require surgical repair. - Phrenic nerve damage: Nerve damage can result from cancer, autoimmune diseases or trauma. It can also happen during surgery including heart bypass surgery and lung transplants. A tumor, aortic aneurysm or cervical spondylosis can compress or damage the nerve. Conditions such as HIV and diseases like West Nile virus and Lyme disease can cause the nerve to become inflamed (swollen). - Spasms: During a diaphragm muscle spasm, the diaphragm doesn’t relax and curve back up when you exhale. It contracts (tightens), causing a cramp in the abdomen. Strenuous exercise can cause this type of spasm, which some people call a “side stitch.” It usually gets better with rest. - Weakness or paralysis: Neuromuscular disorders can cause diaphragmatic palsy (weakness of the diaphragm muscle). These may include multiple sclerosis (MS) and ALS. The diaphragm can also weaken as a result of diabetes-related neuropathy, spinal cord injuries or lung issues like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). What are the symptoms of diaphragm problems? Symptoms of diaphragm problems may only last a short time, or they may be permanent. They include: - Acid reflux, heartburn, cough and difficulty swallowing. - Changes in skin color (skin may turn blue). - Fast heart rate, chest pain and tightness or trouble breathing (especially when lying down). - Hiccups that don’t go away or come back often. - Pain or pressure in the chest, back, side, shoulder or abdomen (usually under the lower rib cage). Belly, chest and back pain might be worse after eating. - Pulsing or fluttering in the belly under your ribs. Some signs of diaphragm problems are similar to symptoms of a heart attack. If you have shortness of breath, chest tightness or chest pain, get immediate medical help. How common are these conditions? Phrenic nerve damage from trauma (either through surgery or an accident) is the most common cause of diaphragm problems. The risk of phrenic nerve damage (and muscle weakness) after cardiac bypass surgery may be as high as 20%. Hiatal hernias are common, especially in people over 50 who are obese. About 55% of people over 50 have a hiatal hernia. How can I keep my diaphragm healthy? Your diaphragm is a muscle. Just like any other muscle in your body, you can strengthen it with exercises. Diaphragmatic breathing exercises can help your diaphragm work more efficiently. They also reduce stress and help you feel better. To keep your diaphragm healthy, you should: - Eat smaller meals and avoid foods that cause heartburn. - Get regular checkups if you have a condition that puts you at a higher risk of diaphragm problems. - Maintain a healthy weight. - Warm up before you exercise to allow your diaphragm time to stretch. Don’t overdo it when exercising. Frequently Asked Questions When should I call my doctor? If you have any symptoms of diaphragm problems, see your provider. Some symptoms are similar to signs of a heart attack. Get immediate medical help if you have chest pain or pressure or shortness of breath. Symptoms of diaphragm problems may also be signs of other conditions. It’s essential to see your provider for an evaluation. How do I know if I’m at risk for diaphragm problems? You have a higher risk of developing problems with your diaphragm if you have: - Autoimmune disorders such as lupus. - COPD, lung cancer or other lung problems. - Heart disease that requires surgery. - Lyme disease. - Neuromuscular disorders such as MS. - Viruses, including HIV. A note from Cleveland Clinic Your diaphragm plays a critical role in helping you breathe and keeping you healthy. Several conditions, diseases and injuries can damage the diaphragm. If you have a condition that puts you at a higher risk of diaphragm problems, talk to your provider about getting regular checkups. Get help right away if you have shortness of breath, chest pain or difficulty swallowing. You can strengthen this important muscle with special breathing exercises. These exercises help your diaphragm work as it should. 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Parkinson’s disease is an irreversible nervous system disorder that primarily affects musculo-skeletal movement. While the progressive disorder can cause stiffness and slow movements, signs and symptoms vary greatly among patients. Common symptoms include: Parkinson’s disease is caused by the gradual breakdown of brain cells called neurons. The loss of neurons leads to a decrease in dopamine levels, leading to abnormal brain activity. Only 5% of Parkinson’s cases occur before the age of 40, with incidence increasing with age. A majority of cases seem to be sporadic and of unknown origin – however, like most diseases, there is a significant genetic component. Recent theories about the causes of Parkinson’s disease are based on abnormal fibrin production and deposition in the brain. Also known as the “amyloid hypothesis,” researchers have been looking at the role of abnormal protein aggregation in Parkinson’s and other neurodegenerative disorders, like Alzheimer’s disease. There seems to be a correlation between fibrin deposits and brain tissue degeneration, suggesting that the fibrin contributes to cellular death in these diseases. Similar to Alzheimer’s disease and Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease involves the mis-folding of a specific protein, eventually leading to fibrin deposits. There are several theories as to the underlying cause of Parkinson’s, from oxidative damage to environmental toxins – but the latest research seeks to understand why the dopamine-containing neurons are affected so greatly. In fact, by the time a Parkinson’s patient presents with symptoms, about 70% of the dopamine-containing neurons have already been lost. Current therapies aim to address dopamine deficiencies, but future therapies seek to address the prevention of neuron degeneration (cellular death of the brain cells). Although systemic enzymes are implicated for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, their use in similar neurodegenerative diseases has yet to be studied. Specifically nattokinase, which has been shown to directly dissolve the aggregated protein found in Alzheimer’s disease, may be an option available to those suffering from Parkinson’s disease. Nattokinase is a natural systemic enzyme that helps to decrease fibrin levels in the blood. Nattokinase is also able to reach areas where fibrin has already accumulated – helping to restore blood flow and inhibiting cellular death due to oxidative damage. Perhaps the most promising aspect of systemic enzyme therapy is its ability to be used concurrently with other medications. The only restriction is upon the use of nattokinase, which should be discussed with a doctor prior to adding it to a regimen with prescription blood thinners. However, it should be noted that systemic enzymes do not cause adverse side effects or drug-drug/drug-nutrient interactions.
Peasants' War(redirected from Peasant War) Peasants' War, 1524–26, rising of the German peasants and the poorer classes of the towns, particularly in Franconia, Swabia, and Thuringia. It was the climax of a series of local revolts that dated from the 15th cent. Although most of the peasants' demands were economic or political rather than religious, the Reformation sparked the explosion. When the peasants heard the church attacked by Martin Luther and other reformers and listened to traveling preachers expound such doctrines as the priesthood of all believers, they concluded that their cause had divine support and that their grievances would be redressed. At Stühlingen, near the Swiss border, a revolt broke out in 1524. The peasants of Swabia and Franconia organized armies, and within a year the war spread over W and S Germany. Aid was given by some discontented nobles, such as Florian Geyer, Götz von Berlichingen, and Ulrich I, dispossessed duke of Württemberg, as well as by large numbers of townsmen. A program called the Twelve Articles of the Peasantry listed among the demands liberty to choose their own pastors, relief from the lesser tithes, abolition of serfdom, the right to fish and hunt, restoration of inclosed common lands, abolition of death duties, impartiality of the courts, and restriction of the demands of landlords to their just feudal dues. These articles were modified variously to suit local conditions. Some atrocities by the peasants (e.g., the massacre of Weinsberg) marked the war, but those committed by their enemies were worse. The revolt received the blessing of the Swiss reformer Huldreich Zwingli and in Thuringia was led by the radical Anabaptist leader Thomas Münzer. Martin Luther, however, condemned the revolt, thus contributing to its eventual defeat. Lacking unity and firm leadership, the peasant forces were crushed (1525) largely by the army of the Swabian League. It is estimated that 100,000 peasants were killed. In Austria, where the revolt continued until 1526, the peasants won some concessions, but in most areas they suffered continued or increased restrictions and had to pay tribute. The peasants' defeat dissuaded further attempts by the peasantry to improve their social and political position. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia™ Copyright © 2022, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
In an article for the Hechinger Report, Stanford mathematics Professor Jo Boaler argues that, contrary to popular belief, true math skills come from deep understanding rather than memorization. This erroneous assumption is widespread and detrimental to math learners who come to believe they simply aren’t “math people.” The Common Core math standards do, she says, recognize the value of conceptual learning in math, opening the door for more math learners: Mathematics is a broad and multidimensional subject. Real mathematics is about inquiry, communication, connections, and visual ideas. We don’t need students to calculate quickly in math. We need students who can ask good questions, map out pathways, reason about complex solutions, set up models and communicate in different forms. All of these ways of working are encouraged by the Common Core. Boaler and other math and technology professionals contend that math is about much more than calculation. It’s about understanding the key concepts, which the new standards strive to promote by emphasizing depth versus breadth of knowledge. That’s good for students of all abilities and makes math more approachable to abstract and creative thinkers. Read the article here.
Juvenile delinquency has traditionally been defined as behavior exhibited by children and adolescents that has legal ramifications, such as engaging in illegal activity (statutory and criminal). Juvenile delinquents include youth who have contact with law enforcement and those who are adjudicated through juvenile court for a crime. These are behaviors that violate the rules of a society and result in contact with the juvenile justice system. Originally, the juvenile justice system was created as a separate entity from the adult legal system in recognition of the developmental differences between children and adults. As such, the juvenile justice system was primarily concerned with early intervention and rehabilitation of children and adolescents. It is generally acknowledged, however, that the system has become more punitive, which has led to increasing calls for reform of the system. For example, the U.S. Surgeon General has recently asked that youth involved in delinquent behavior be identified appropriately and that empirically validated treatment programs be implemented with them and their families. Rates of delinquency are often under-representations of actual behavior. Because most statistics rely solely on official contacts with law enforcement, all other illegal activity that is undetected remains unreported. To enhance information obtained from official records, self-report data from children and adolescents have become a beneficial component of juvenile delinquency research. Arrest rates for violent crimes, including criminal homicide, robbery, aggravated assault, and forcible rape, increased from 1983 to 1993–1994. Factors hypothesized to have played a significant role in this increase were youth involvement in gangs, increased drug use, and access to and use of guns. Data from 1993 to 1999 have shown a decline in arrests. The overall arrest rate for all crimes committed by juveniles was 2.4 million in 1999. During this time period, juveniles were involved in 16% of all violent crime arrests and 32% of all property crime arrests. Another indicator of juvenile violence, self-report of crime, showed no decrease in the amount of violent behavior between 1993 and 1999. One potential reason for this discrepancy between arrest rates and self-report of problem behavior may be that there has been a decline in youth’s use of firearms and some decline in gang membership that has resulted in less severe problem behavior that may not be detected by the authorities. Other statistics show that 30% to 40% of boys and 16% to 32% of girls have committed a serious violent offense by the age of 17. There are differences in arrest rates across gender and race, with significantly more boys than girls arrested and significantly more African Americans arrested than whites or other minority groups. Risk And Protective Factors Research examining risk and protective factors involved in juvenile delinquent behavior has typically focused on four core domains: individual, family, peer, and school/community. A summary of key risk and protective factors for each domain is presented in Table 1. Youth who display delinquent behavior often have significant co-occurring problems. Comorbid mental health disorders and substance abuse have been found to be more prevalent among delinquent youth, as well as early sexual activity, truancy, and school failure. Family correlates of delinquent behavior include family conflict, marital conflict, and parental inconsistency with rules and consequences. Assessments of children and adolescents who exhibit delinquent behavior are often court ordered and have a primary focus of assessing the youth’s potential for future harm and his or her amenability to treatment. Evaluations are used to assist officials in planning probation requirements for the youth as well as potential placement decisions. A standard evaluation should assess the risk factors associated with future behavior, including past behavior, substance use, social stressors and support, opportunity to commit problem behavior, and characteristics of a future residence. Table 1 Risk and Protective Factors Associated With Delinquent Behavior in Juveniles In addition, there are several key areas that should be evaluated in order to accurately assess delinquents, including individual, family, peer, and community factors. Individual factors include the range of antisocial behavior, cognitive skills, and personality functioning of the youth. In addition, vocational skills may also be assessed to see how the youth may be able to adapt to his or her environment. Another important area is family dynamics, including parenting strategies, family conflict, and warmth. Deviant peer relationships are one of the best predictors of delinquent behavior and as such ought to be included in any assessment. Finally, community factors need to be considered, such as support systems for the youth and family, as does neighborhood cohesion or support of delinquent behaviors. Effective treatment of juvenile delinquents has historically been a challenge. During the past decade, however, several programs have been empirically validated for the prevention and treatment of delinquent behavior. In general, studies have shown that programs targeting multiple systems that are short term, family based, and intensive are more effective in treating difficult behavior. Particular programs identified to show change in juvenile behavior and that are cost-effective include Functional Family Therapy, Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care, Multi-systemic Therapy, Prenatal and Infancy Home Visitation by Nurses, and the Seattle Social Development Project. Unfortunately, many communities continue to fund programs that have not been shown to be effective, such as gun buy-back programs, boot camps, residential programs, milieu treatment, waivers to adult court, and individual counseling. Much research has been done on the risk factors and developmental trajectories for delinquent youth. Most of the research to date has identified two developmental pathways, including early-onset and late onset problem behavior. Youths with early-onset delinquency are more likely to increase in severity of problem behavior over time and continue to engage in behaviors across adolescence and into adulthood. Risk factors have been identified by age and also across individual, family, school, peer group, and community domains (see Table 1). In addition, some protective factors have been identified that may assist youth in having a more positive outcome. Having a risk factor does not guarantee that a youth will develop problematic behavior, but the more risk factors that accumulate, the greater the likelihood that the individual will develop more severe delinquent behavior. Researchers have identified three potential developmental paths of antisocial behavior. An overt pathway begins with minor aggression to physical fighting and then leads to violence. An authority conflict pathway moves from stubborn behavior to defiance and disobedience to authority avoidance. Finally, a covert pathway proceeds from minor covert behavior to property damage, more serious delinquency, and then serious delinquent acts. Further research will continue to delineate the factors related to persistence of delinquent behavior in order to strengthen our treatment of this population. - Grisso, T. (1998). Forensic evaluation of juveniles. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource - Juvenile Justice Information Center, http://www.juvenilejustice.infocenter.com - Loeber, , & Farrington, D. P. (2000). Young children who commit crime: Epidemiology, developmental origins, risk factors, early interventions, and policy implications. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 737–762. - Loeber, , Farrington, D. P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Van Kammen, W. B. (1998). Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: Explanatory factors in childhood and adolescence. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. - Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org - Oregon Social Learning Center, http://www.oslc.org - Patterson, G. , Forgatch, M. S., Yoerger, K. L., & Stoolmiller, M. (1998). Variables that initiate and maintain and early-onset trajectory for juvenile offending. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 531–547. - Rutter, , Giller, H., & Hagell, A. (1998). Antisocial behavior by young people. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. - Snyder, (2000). Juvenile arrests 1999. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. - S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Youth violence: A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: Author.
What is Argo? Argo is an international program that collects information from inside the ocean using a fleet of robotic instruments that drift with the ocean currents and move up and down between the surface and a mid-water level. Each instrument (float) spends almost all its life below the surface. The name Argo was chosen because the array of floats works in partnership with the Jason earth observing satellites that measure the shape of the ocean surface. (In Greek mythology Jason sailed on his ship the Argo in search of the golden fleece). What are its aims? The data that Argo collects describes the temperature and salinity of the water and some of the floats measure other properties that describe the biology/chemistry of the ocean. The main reason for collecting these data is to help us understand the oceans’ role in earth’s climate and so be able to make improved estimates of how it will change in the future. For example, the changes in sea level (once the tides are averaged out) depend partly on the melting of icecaps and partly on the amount of heat stored in the oceans. Argo’s temperature measurements allow us to calculate how much heat is stored and to monitor from year to year how the distribution of heat changes with depth and from area to area. As ocean heat content increases, sea level rises, just like the mercury in a thermometer. Comparison of Argo’s measurements with the Jason observations continue to give us new insights into how the oceans “work” that can be used to improve climate models. At present (2020) Argo is collecting 12,000 data profiles each month (400 a day). This greatly exceeds the amount of data that can be collected from below the ocean surface by any other method. Argo plans to continue its data collection for as long as those data remain a vital tool for a wide range of ocean applications of which understanding and predicting climate change is but one. To learn more about Argo’s mission, click here. Each Argo float (costing between $20,000 and $150,000 depending on the individual float’s technical specification) is launched from a ship. The float’s weight is carefully adjusted so that, as it sinks, it eventually stabilizes at a pre-set level, usually 1 km. Ten days later, an internal battery-driven pump transfers oil between a reservoir inside the float and an external bladder. This makes the float first descend to 2km and then return to the surface measuring ocean properties as it rises. The data and the float position are relayed to satellites and then on to receiving stations on shore. The float then sinks again to repeat the 10 day cycle until its batteries are exhausted. To learn more about floats and their cycle, click here. The float measurements are sent to regional data centres where they are given rigorous quality checks and then passed to two global data centres from where they can be accessed by anyone wishing to use them. Some users have applications that require rapid access and so Argo aims for most “real-time” data to be available within 12 hrs. Other applications need a higher-quality version that replaces the real-time data after lengthy comparisons between nearby floats and between float data and information from research ships. A fundamental rule for Argo is that all data are freely and openly available. To learn more about how to access Argo data, click here. Argo data are stored in data files that first must be decoded before being readable. To address this difficulty for non-experts, several websites and web applications have been developed to showcase and interact with Argo data and metadata without having to understand how to decode it. To learn more about the available data visualizations, click here. There is no central funding for Argo. Each of the 30 countries that operate floats obtains their own national funding to buy floats, prepare and launch them and to process and distribute the data. The Argo Program is managed by teams of scientists and data experts who ensure that the program is run as efficiently and effectively as possible and that standards are maintained at the highest possible level. Argo is part of the Global Ocean and Global Climate Observing Systems. The total annual cost of Argo is estimated at $40million each year. To learn more about the organization of Argo, click here. Profiling floats similar to those used by Argo were first developed in the late 1990s. Float design has continuously incorporated new technologies to improve battery performance, satellite communication and sensor stability. It has also had to keep track of changing demands made on Argo by scientists and by operational weather and climate forecasting centres. Because floats spend almost of their life (which may be as long as 10 years) below the ocean surface and are unable to communicate, the technological challenge of Argo is in many ways greater than that of space science. Floats are manufactured by commercial companies and by research institutions but all must maintain common and high standards set by the international steering team. Since Argo started in 2000, innovative new float designs have allowed floats to profile deeper, to work in ice-covered regions and to measure other ocean properties beyond the basic salinity temperature and pressure. To learn more about developing float technology, click here. All techniques used to obtain information about our environment come with some impact and Argo is no exception. However, its impact is small and both the float manufacturers and Argo scientists are always looking for ways to reduce that impact. The vast majority of floats fail when their batteries are exhausted and they continue to drift at depth until they eventually leak and sink to the seabed. A few fail at the surface and eventually drift to shore where they may be recovered. All deployed floats are considered expendable since the cost and environmental impact of sending ships to find and recover them would be enormous. Each year the floats that fail add 90kg of copper, 45kg of zinc, 180kg of lithium, 180 kg of lead and 17 tons of aluminum to the ocean. All these elements occur naturally in all oceans. The only non-natural annual contributions from “dead” floats are 1.8 tons of plastic, and 9kg of the chemical tributyl tin oxide (TBTO) without which salinity measurements cannot be made to the required accuracy. As a comparison, it is estimated that hundreds up to ten thousand containers are lost off ships each year. If 200 containers are lost, with the capacity of holding 60,000 lbs, that would contribute 6,000 tons of garbage each year into the ocean compared to Argo’s less than 2 tons per year. To learn more about Argo’s environmental impact, click here. What has Argo delivered? Argo has been described by New York Times science writer Justin Gillis as “one of the scientific triumphs of the age”. The triumphs have been technological and scientific. The free access to Argo data means that there is wide usage – over 4000 scientific publications have referred to or used Argo data as have 350 PhD theses. To learn more, click here. Two science outcomes are worth highlighting. Argo has greatly reduced the uncertainty of global heat storage estimates and hence projections of sea level rise. The changes in salinity monitored by Argo also allow changes in global rainfall patterns to be studied. Finally, the ready access to the data provides an educational resource to give the general public an ability to look inside the ocean. Curious to learn more? Click here to learn how Argo’s 20 years of observations have revolutionized the way scientist learn about the ocean.
Our Teacher's Guide offers a collection of lessons and resources for K-12 social studies, literature, and arts classrooms that center around the achievements, perspectives, and experiences of African Americans across U.S. history. Our literary glossary provides a comprehensive list of terms and concepts along with lesson plans for teaching these topics in K-12 classrooms. Whether you are starting with a specific author, concept, or text, or teaching a specific literary term, but do not have a lesson or activity for students to work with, teachers and students will find what they're looking for here. Poet. Orator. Actress. Activist. Writer. Singer. Phenomenal Woman. These and many more superlatives are used to describe the incomparable Maya Angelou. Gone too soon in 2014 at the age of 86, Dr. Angelou’s legacy will live on through the words she used to eloquently, powerfully, and honestly express emotions, capture experiences, and spread hope. For more than 400 years, Shakespeare’s 37 surviving plays, 154 sonnets, and other poems have been read, performed, taught, reinterpreted, and enjoyed the world over. This Teacher's Guide includes ideas for bringing the Bard and pop culture together, along with how performers around the world have infused their respective local histories and cultures into these works. Based on this model oral history experience, the toolkit includes instructional concepts, ideas, and strategies for use by educators to design a curriculum that reflects their instructional goals and the needs of their students while appreciating Vietnam veterans in their community. After more than 30 years in prison and an historic election that for the first time in the nation's history included all citizens regardless of race, Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela became President of the Republic of South Africa on May 10, 1994. This Teacher’s Guide includes resources for teaching about the brutality of apartheid, the resilience of the nation’s people, the leadership of Nelson Mandela, and primary source materials that will inform discussion about the country’s emergence in the world.
Search SAMHSA Publications and Digital Products Main page content Published: July 2014Research shows that parents and caregivers who spend at least 15 minutes a day talking with their children or teens help build strong relationships, and prevent bullying. SAMHSA’s free KnowBullying app will help you boost your children’s confidence, resilience, and build effective strategies for facing bullying. Published: August 2008This activity book encourages parents and caregivers to spend at least 15 minutes a day listening to and talking with their child or children to prevent youth violence. It provides interactive questions to start conversations with children about bullying and bullying prevention.
Can you remember what your 5th grade teacher's name was? Can you remember what you had for dinner last night? While these questions are both trying to access your memory, your brain is not going to look for the answers in the same place. It will need to access different forms of memory. Much like humans, computers also have long-term and short-term memory. We know about DRAM memory (dynamic random access memory) and how it holds much of the computer's long-term memory. But what about short-term? This is where cache memory comes into play. What is it? Cache memory or SRAM (static random access memory) is a component of a computer that acts as temporary storage for data that can be accessed by the CPU much faster than if the CPU was trying to get this data elsewhere. \u00a0It is usually on the CPU itself or is a chip on the motherboard with its own separate BUS to connect to the CPU or it can go by the name CPU memory because of how interlinked it is with the processor. \u00a0Cache memory, when compared to RAM memory, is smaller and more expensive but it makes up for that with raw processing power. Up to 100 times faster than DRAM memory. This is wildly helpful in increasing the computer's speed and efficiency. Hits and Misses So how does cache memory work? When the CPU requires data it will check in with the cache memory to see if it contains a reference to that data from the RAM memory address. If it does, it will then pull that data from the cache memory instead of from RAM.\u00a0 This is called a cache hit.\u00a0 If the processor cannot find the data it is looking for in cache, it will then go on to the standard RAM which takes longer. This is called a cache miss. Primary \/ Secondary \/ Levels There are two different types of cache memory: primary and secondary.\u00a0 Primary cache memory is found on the CPU itself whereas secondary cache memory is found on a separate chip close to the CPU. Although, as time has progressed, the secondary cache has become rather obsolete as most caches are found on the CPU. There are 3 different levels of cache memory that can be on a motherboard:\u00a0 L1: Extremely small and is located on the CPU itself. It is extremely fast but houses only around 32KB of data per core.L2: Can be located on the CPU or rarely on its own chip near the CPU. Larger than L1 but not as fast.L3: While slower than L1 and L2, it is double the speed of standard DRAM. These are the basics of cache memory. If you have any other questions feel free to connect with any of the support team at General Technics and they would be more than pleased to help further.
The 2030 Agenda cannot be reached without universal access to nutritious food. Every year approximately 600 million people are still ill from bacterial, viruses, toxins, or chemicals-contaminated food, and 420,000 of them die. Children are unable to learn and adults are unable to function when food is safe. The lack of access to nutritious food, in other words, hampers human growth. The World Food Safety Day takes place every year on 7 June, to highlight the vital role that healthy food plays in promoting health and ending hunger. Its purpose is to attract and encourage action aimed at preventing, detecting, and managing risks associated with food safety, public health, economic growth, agriculture, access to markets, tourism, and sustainable development. Below are 5 tips for ensuring food safety in the society 1. Grow food safely Food manufacturers need to follow good practices to ensure adequate global healthy food supplies while mitigating their effect on the environment and climate change adaptation. With food production processes evolving and adapting to changing circumstances, farmers need to think carefully about how to deal with potential risks and how to ensure food is healthy. Integrating plant and animal health, for instance, may contribute to discouraging antimicrobial resistance and reducing 700 000 deaths annually from antimicrobial-resistant infections worldwide. 2. Keep that food safe Preventive checks will solve most food safety issues for business operators. All food operating participants – from manufacturing to retail – must maintain compliance with programs such as the HACCPframework, a system that recognizes, assesses, and monitors important food safety dangers. Aside from reducing the potential for disease, good manufacturing, storing, and preserving … Read the rest
When Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) was asked by a company called AeroVironment to develop a small, bird-based flying machine, they were given a list of constraints. These included “no thrusters, no propellers, just flapping wings.” The results surprised even the most avid Nano Aerial Vehicles (NAV) fans; this prototype, dubbed “Mercury,” looks eerily similar to a hummingbird in flight. “Mercury” can be controlled and operated from a distance, and has maneuverability that far exceeds that of the everyday pigeon– the faux birds can swoop, dive, glide, and hover by simply flapping their wings, something that our current fixed-wing aircraft and rotary-wing helicopters can not achieve. This makes similarly constructed designs desirable. HOW IT WORKS: To develop this fascinating technology they turned to nature for inspiration. As versatility and precision were key, they took particularly interest in observing the mechanisms that drive a hummingbird in flight. The team, spearheaded by engineers, built a robotic aircraft whose wings are able to change angle swiftly, and equipped it with a state-of-the-art control system that acts like the hummingbird’s tail features to help maneuver the tiny machine. Each piece was custom-built using a small microscope and Swiss watchmaker’s lathe. Formally called the ‘Nano Hummingbird,’ (also known as the robo-hummingbird) this tiny battery-powered aircraft has a wing-span of 16 centimeters (6.5 inches) and can safely travel at speeds reaching 17 km/h (10.56 mph), whilst resisting gusts of wind of 8 km/h (4.97 mph) — all of this weighing about 19 grams (2/3 of an ounce) or less than an AA battery. It can also climb and descend vertically, fly horizontally- forward, backward left and right, as well as rotate both clockwise and counter-clockwise. Future applications may include military surveillance, search-and-rescue missions and perhaps they may eventually have their own place in planetary exploration. The sky is literally the limit for this one.
NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Social Science Geography Chapter 4: Agriculture help students to score good marks in the exams. These NCERT Solutions are prepared by expert teachers and available with free PDF download option. Here we have provided answers to all the questions in a very easy language. Class 10 Geography Chapter 4 Agriculture free PDF \|Book\|\|NCERT Class 10 Geography\| Question 1: Multiple choice questions (i). Which one of the following describes a system of agriculture where a single crop is grownon a large area? (a) Shifting Agriculture (b) Plantation Agriculture (d) Intensive Agriculture Answer: (b) Plantation Agriculture (ii) Which one of the following is a rabi crop? Answer: (b) Gram (iii) Which one of the following is a leguminous crop? Answer: (a) Pulses (iv) Which one of the following is announced by the government in support of a crop? (a) Maximum support price (b) Minimum support price (c) Moderate support price (d) Influential support price Answer: (b) Minimum support price Question 2: Answer the following questions in 30 words. (i) Name one important beverage crop and specify the geographical conditions required for itsgrowth. Answer: Tea is an important beverage crop. To grow well, the tea plant needs tropical or sub tropical climates, and deep and fertile well-drained soil which is rich in humus and organic matter. (ii) Name one staple crop of India and the regions where it is produced. Answer: Rice is a staple food crop of India. It grows in the plains of north and north-east India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions. (iii) Enlist the various institutional reform programmes introduced by the government in theinterest of farmers. Answer: The various institutional reform programmes introduced by the government for the benefit of farmers are − Minimum Support Price policy, provision for crop insurance, subsidy on agricultural inputs and resources such as power and fertilisers, Grameen banks, Kissan Credit Card and Personal Accident Insurance Scheme. (iv) The land under cultivation has got reduced day by day. Can you imagine its consequences? Answer: A declining area of land under cultivation coupled with increasing population can lead to serious food grain shortages. This would in turn increase imports of food grains, thereby causing the economy to reel under huge debts. Question 3: Answer the following questions in about 120 words. (i) Suggest the initiative taken by the government to ensure the increase in agricultural production. Answer: To ensure increase in agricultural production, the government prioritised collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari system. ‘Land reform’ was the main focus of the First Five Year Plans. In the 1960s and 1970s, agricultural reforms were the order of the day. The Green Revolution and the White Revolution (Operation Flood) were aimed at improving Indian agricultural productivity. During the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land development programme was initiated. Under this, various technical and institutional reforms were introduced by the government for the benefit of farmers, e.g., Minimum Support Price policy, provision for crop insurance, subsidy on agricultural inputs and resources such as power and fertilisers, Grameen banks, Kissan Credit Card, Personal Accident Insurance Scheme, and special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes like ‘Krishi Darshan’ on national television. (ii) Describe the impact of globalisation on Indian agriculture. Answer: The impact of globalisation on Indian agriculture has been felt since colonial times. Raw cotton and spices were important export items from India. In 1917, Indian farmers revolted in Champaran against being forced to grow indigo in place of food grains, in order to supply dye to Britain’s flourishing textile industry. Thus, globalisation has had its boons and banes for Indian agriculture. Post-liberalisation, Indian farmers face new challenges in the form of competition from highly subsidised agriculture of developed nations. This prompts the need for making Indian agriculture successful and profitable by improving the conditions of small and marginal farmers, countering the negative effects of Green Revolution, developing and promoting organic farming, and diversifying cropping pattern from cereals to high-value crops. (iii) Describe the geographical conditions required for the growth of rice. Answer: Rice is a kharif crop grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and deltaic regions. It requires high temperatures (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In areas with less rainfall, it grows with the help of irrigation via canals and tubewells. More study materials for CBSE Class 10 \|NCERT Solutions for Class 10\|\|CBSE Notes for Class 10\| \|CBSE Sample Papers for Class 10\|\|Important Questions for Class 10\| \|RS Aggarwal Solutions For Class 10\|\|RD Sharma Solutions For Class 10\|
Non-Chordata/PRACTICE PAPER 2 PRACTICE PAPER 2 1. Differentiate between the following pairs of terms: a) Nematoblasts and colloblasts b) Protonephridia and metanephridia c) Protostomes and deuterostomes d) Hemimetaboly and paurometaboly e) Definitive host and intermediate host 2. Write the location and the function: a) Paraflagellar body c) Botryoidal tissue e) Uricose gland 3. Define the following: a) Biradial symmetry d) Gastrovascular cavity 4. Briefly describe the various modes of nutrition in protozoa. Support your answer with well labeled diagrams. 5. Describe the canal system and its significance in Sycon. 6. Write about the process of sexual reproduction in syconoid sponges. 7. Give a detailed account of the structural organization in Pleurobrachia. 8. Explain the phenomenon of polymorphism in cnidaria. Add a note on its significance and origin. 9. Describe the life cycle and pathogenicity of Ascaris lumbricoides or Leishmania donovani . 10. Discuss the adaptive radiation in polychaetes with respect to their habitat. Explain your answer with the help of suitable examples. 11. Explain the process of torsion in gastropoda. Describe its importance in the molluscan life. 12. What is water vascular system? Discuss its structure, function and significance in detail. 13. Give a detailed account of the larval forms in crustacea. 14. Write short notes on any two: a) Respiration in Periplaneta b) Metamerism in annelida d) Parasitic adaptation in trematoda e) Metamorphosis in Insecta
Nowadays, thousands of aeroplanes are flying over our heads all the time. Flying is an everyday activity that forms part of our lives, and we see it as completely normal. However, a hundred years ago flying was a real adventure that was fraught with all kinds of risks. At the time, aeroplanes were heavy and inefficient. Moreover, weather conditions could often constrain flights, and many countries were reluctant to have aeroplanes flying over their territory, especially if they were from foreign countries. It was in this context that the figure of Pierre-Georges Latécoère emerged. He was a businessman with great initiative, a visionary and a humanist with strong convictions. And he was determined to use those precarious aeroplanes, made of duralumin, wood and canvas, to provide services for normal civilians. His goal was to unite people on three continents, departing from Toulouse and arriving (with passengers, cargo and mail) at Santiago de Chile. When Latécoère conceived the project in 1918, his plan was unthinkable. The technical, human and economic resources needed for the endeavour were enormous. But he did it. During the first era of flying, in 1919, flights were carried out between Toulouse and Rabat, which involved crossing Spain and using some of its airfields as stopovers. This meant that Latécoère’s airline was the first regular commercial airline for passengers, cargo and mail to operate in Spain, transforming the airfields it operated in into the Iberian Peninsula’s first airports. Latécoère’s obsession with punctuality and the need for both passengers and mail to reach their destination on time was unwavering. For this reason, there were always several spare aeroplanes in each airfield, as well as mechanics and pilots who had to ensure that all time schedules were complied with as scrupulously as possible. Some of the greatest pilots of the time flew with this airline. Names such as Henri Guillaumet, Jean Mermoz, Didier Daurat, Henri Lemaître and Antoine de Saint-Exupéry (the famous author of The Little Prince) stand out. There may never have been another such group of exceptional people in the history of aviation pioneers. That is why a project that on paper seemed impossible would be successfully carried out. It was a hundred years ago that Latécoère created the airmail line (La Ligne) that linked France, Spain and Africa. In this infographic we show some data that help explain and contextualise the importance of that project and everything that came after it.
A parse tree or parsing tree or derivation tree or (concrete) syntax tree is an ordered, rooted tree that represents the syntactic structure of a string according to some context-free grammar. The term parse tree itself is used primarily in computational linguistics; in theoretical syntax the term syntax tree is more common. Parse trees are distinct from the abstract syntax trees used in computer programming, in that their structure and elements more concretely reflect the syntax of the input language. They are also distinct from (although based on similar principles to) the sentence diagrams (such as Reed-Kellogg diagrams) sometimes used for grammar teaching in schools. Parse trees are usually constructed based on either the constituency relation of constituency grammars (phrase structure grammars) or the dependency relation of dependency grammars. Parse trees may be generated for sentences in natural languages (see natural language processing), as well as during processing of computer languages, such as programming languages. A related concept is that of phrase marker or P-marker, as used in transformational generative grammar. A phrase marker is a linguistic expression marked as to its phrase structure. This may be presented in the form of a tree, or as a bracketed expression. Phrase markers are generated by applying phrase structure rules, and themselves are subject to further transformational rules. Constituency-based parse trees The constituency-based parse trees of constituency grammars (= phrase structure grammars) distinguish between terminal and non-terminal nodes. The interior nodes are labeled by non-terminal categories of the grammar, while the leaf nodes are labeled by terminal categories. The image below represents a constituency-based parse tree; it shows the syntactic structure of the English sentence John hit the ball: The parse tree is the entire structure, starting from S and ending in each of the leaf nodes (John, hit, the, ball). The following abbreviations are used in the tree: - S for sentence, the top-level structure in this example - N for noun Each node in the tree is either a root node, a branch node, or a leaf node. A root node is a node that doesn't have any branches on top of it. Within a sentence, there is only ever one root node. A branch node is a mother node that connects to two or more daughter nodes. A leaf node, however, is a terminal node that does not dominate other nodes in the tree. S is the root node, NP and VP are branch nodes, and John (N), hit (V), the (D), and ball (N) are all leaf nodes. The leaves are the lexical tokens of the sentence. A node can also be referred to as parent node or a child node. A parent node is one that has at least one other node linked by a branch under it. In the example, S is a parent of both N and VP. A child node is one that has at least one node directly above it to which it is linked by a branch of a tree. From the example, hit is a child node of V. The terms mother and daughter are also sometimes used for this relationship. Dependency-based parse trees The dependency-based parse trees of dependency grammars see all nodes as terminal, which means they do not acknowledge the distinction between terminal and non-terminal categories. They are simpler on average than constituency-based parse trees because they contain fewer nodes. The dependency-based parse tree for the example sentence above is as follows: This parse tree lacks the phrasal categories (S, VP, and NP) seen in the constituency-based counterpart above. Like the constituency-based tree, constituent structure is acknowledged. Any complete sub-tree of the tree is a constituent. Thus this dependency-based parse tree acknowledges the subject noun John and the object noun phrase the ball as constituents just like the constituency-based parse tree does. The constituency vs. dependency distinction is far-reaching. Whether the additional syntactic structure associated with constituency-based parse trees is necessary or beneficial is a matter of debate. Phrase markers, or P-markers, were introduced in early transformational generative grammar, as developed by Noam Chomsky and others. A phrase marker representing the deep structure of a sentence is generated by applying phrase structure rules; this may then be undergo further transformations. Phrase markers may be presented in the form of trees (as in the above section on constituency-based parse trees), but are often given instead in the form of bracketed expressions, which occupy less space. For example, a bracketed expression corresponding to the constituency-based tree given above may be something like: As with trees, the precise construction of such expressions and the amount of detail shown can depend on the theory being applied and on the points that the author wishes to illustrate. - See Chiswell and Hodges 2007: 34. - See Carnie (2013:118ff.) for an introduction to the basic concepts of syntax trees (e.g. root node, terminal node, non-terminal node, etc.). - See Alfred et al. 2007. - See for example Ágel et al. 2003/2006. - Ágel, V., Ludwig Eichinger, Hans-Werner Eroms, Peter Hellwig, Hans Heringer, and Hennig Lobin (eds.) 2003/6. Dependency and valency: An international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. - Carnie, A. 2013. Syntax: A generative introduction, 3rd edition. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. - Chiswell, Ian and Wilfrid Hodges 2007. Mathematical logic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. - Aho, Alfred et al. 2007. Compilers: Principles, techniques, & tools. Boston: Pearson/Addison Wesley. - Syntax Tree Editor - Linguistic Tree Constructor - phpSyntaxTree – Online parse tree drawing site - phpSyntaxTree (Unicode) – Online parse tree drawing site (improved version that supports Unicode) - Qtree – LaTeX package for drawing parse trees - TreeForm Syntax Tree Drawing Software - rSyntaxTree Enhanced version of phpSyntaxTree in Ruby with Unicode and Vectorized graphics - Visual Introduction to Parse Trees Introduction and Transformation - OpenCourseOnline Dependency Parse Introduction (Christoper Manning)
Our thermal resistance calculator is the place to just go if you need to calculate the thermal resistance of a plate, hollow cylinder, or hollow sphere quickly. Simply, give the inputs in the input field and click on the calculate button, that provides you the result. Thermal Resistance Calculator: Our tool will calculate the thermal resistance value when you select the shape of your object and enter geometric and material data. This tool can be used to convert thermal conductivity to thermal resistance for a particular geometry. Would you like to learn more about the interesting concepts and calculations that go into making our calculator work? Please continue reading to understand more about thermal resistance and the formula for calculating it. The rate of change in temperature of a material per unit of energy delivered is measured by thermal resistance. To put it another way, heat energy flow resistance. The formula for Thermal Resistance Thermal resistance is calculated using the formula below. R = X / AK R = absolute thermal resistance (K/W) X = thickness of the material parallel to heat flow (m) A = cross-sectional perpendicular to heat flow (m^2) K = thermal conductivity of the material (W/(Km)) The following points will show you how to use our calculator to determine an object's thermal resistance: To begin, determine the thickness of your plate. Now input the cross-sectional area of the plate (A). At the bottom of the calculator, you will find the advanced mode where you can insert explicit values for length and width. A hollow cylinder Enter the inner and outer radii, then the length of the hollow cylinder. A hollow sphere A hollow sphere Enter the hollow sphere's inner and outer radii. You can also determine the critical radius of insulation for hollow cylinders and spheres using the following guidelines: To calculate the critical radius of insulation for your hollow item, enter the convective heat transfer coefficient value in the "Heat transfer coefficient (k)" box and the thermal conductance value in the "Conductance (k)" box. Make use of these best calculator tools to get instant results. Click out physicscalculatopro.com 1. How is thermal resistance calculated? Kelvins per watts (K/W) is the unit for thermal resistance. The temperature difference T2 - T1 and the heat flow Q1-2 between two places are defined as the thermal resistance R. R = (T2 - T1) / Q is the equation for thermal resistance. 2. What is the definition of thermal resistance? The ratio of the temperature difference between two sides of a material to the rate of heat flow per unit area is known as thermal resistance. 3. What is the difference between R-value and K-value? Insulation performance can be quantified in terms of "R-value" and "K value," but the two values mean two distinct things. K-values indicate how much heat goes through a material, whereas R-values indicate how well heat passes through the material.
Dolphins coloring pages Dolphins are part of large group of animals called whales. Generally, they are among the smaller whales. Dolphins are from 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) to 4 metres (13 ft) long, but the largest dolphin, the killer whale (or orca), can be up to 8 metres (26 ft) long. There are more than 35 species of dolphin. They are divided into two groups: oceanic dolphins and river dolphins. Oceanic dolphins live in all of the world's oceans. The most widespread species are the common dolphin and the bottlenose dolphin. Three of the four species of river dolphins live in fresh water rivers of South America and Asia, while La Plata dolphin lives in saltwater estuaries and the ocean coastline waters. The name 'dolphin' comes from the Ancient Greek δελφίς (delphis) meaning "with a womb", because it was first thought to be a fish with a womb. It is now known to be a mammal. Dolphins breathe air. A dolphin's nose is on top of its head so the dolphin can easily breathe on the surface of the water. The skin of a dolphin has no scales. It is grey, soft and smooth. However, it is very firm, due to how much muscle they have. Dolphins are always social. They can help each other fight off predators. Dolphins have fought off sharks in this way. They can kill large sharks by ramming them over and over again with their snouts and heads. They look after the young, when the mothers need to leave their calves to hunt for food. Since the food may be in deeper waters while the young need to breathe more often than the adults.
Perfect World Science What happens when you invite the science specialists from Kindergarten through high school to come together to talk about science instruction in Loveland? Well, you get some super nerdy jokes - and a ton of positive energy! As part of the instructional cycle in Loveland, K-12 science teachers participated in a series of work sessions to review our science instruction and resources in the district. Teachers from all grade levels rarely have the opportunity to meet and learn together so it was hard to know exactly what might happen. The team was given the opportunity to talk about what science instruction would look like if there were no limits. What would Loveland science look like in a perfect world? Through this exercise the team was able to develop key ideas that became the constant threads from Kindergarten through high school. What happened was inspiring. Loveland teachers developed their vision for science instruction that not only informed their choices for resources, but now serves as the foundation for their work and professional growth over the next four years. Science instruction should be active and inquiry-driven. We should plan our learning to be student-centered and differentiated to meet students where they are in their current understandings. Students should be asked to read and write about science. They should be expected to collaborate with others. Technology should be used to help students understand challenging concepts or increase access to other scientists. Student assessment should be performance-based and should include teacher observations. Assessment of student understanding should be used to inform the teacher’s planning. Our resources should help us make connections to our community. Our school culture should include ongoing teacher development in science. We should increase student access to STEM lessons. We should encourage curiosity. The newly-developed instructional cycle empowers teachers to focus on how to engage students in their understanding and application of the content standards. Our teachers have identified several “non-negotiables” that will guide their work. Science teachers will collaborate with their grade level colleagues to develop instructional units, common assessments, and a pacing calendar to ensure that all students receive the same high expectations for achievement regardless of which teacher they are fortunate enough to encounter. They will set aside time annually to ensure a vertical progression through our school system that provides a variety of experiences. Teachers will then use their individual creativity to deliver lessons that are inquiry-based and differentiated to the interests and understanding of their students. Lessons will be developed to use technology when appropriate and provide opportunities for students to “do” science as well as read and write about science. The Loveland science planning team has selected the resources that they feel are best-suited to meet their needs in the classroom. More importantly, however, our teachers are focused on their own professional growth around providing “Perfect World Science” to our Tigers. So, how do you organize for the best science instruction? You “planet.” In service to our Tigers, Dr. Amy Crouse Assistant Superintendent of Teaching and Learning
Heart is one of the most important organs of the body. It is basically a kind of pump which supplies blood to different parts of the body. This blood supplies oxygen and other nutrients that is needed for proper functioning of the body. At the same time, carbon dioxide and other wastes are removed through the body through the blood. Arteries supply fresh blood to the tissues while veins carry the waste blood. The heart contains electrical “pacemaker” cells, which cause it to contract — producing a heartbeat. Even a momentary lapse in functioning of the heart can have far reaching consequences, which can often be fatal. Cardiovascular disease refers to different heart or blood vessel problems & usually indicates damage to your heart or blood vessels. Heart disease typically occurs when the blood vessels that lead to the heart are blocked or not functioning correctly. When your arteries get blocked partially, the amount of blood that can be supplied to organs is reduced and the heart needs to exert more pressure. This gives rise to increased blood pressure. High blood pressure often precedes a heart attack/ heart failure/ cardiac arrest. Arteries and other blood vessels can be blocked because of medical conditions as well as lifestyle choices. This includes: – High cholesterol level, which is usually linked to diet. Cholesterol creates plaque, which is a waxy substance that gathers in blood vessels and eventually slows the passing of nutrients. – High blood pressure/ hypertension – Increased blood sugar/ diabetes – Habits such as smoking While factors like age and genetics may not be in one’s control, one can reduce the chances of heart disease by making healthier choices. This includes healthy diet, regular exercise, avoiding tobacco and alcohol etc. In addition, regular monitoring can help you keep a track of your health and take measures to prevent heart disease.
Where did they live? The Minoans lived on the island Crete, this was their main center. They also had control over Thera and Rhodes, two Greek islands, along with having had some control over the coast of Turkey. What did their structures look like? The Minoans built houses of stone and brick, but their most elaborate buildings were palaces and shrines of stone. Uniquely in the Mediterranean, the Minoans did not build defensive walls around their cities. Instead, their palaces had many open porches lined with red columns, and many windows to admit the Mediterranean sunlight. They adorned the edges of their roofs with curving ornaments that looked like bull's horns. Each of their palaces centered around a large open courtyard, where they held dances and athletic events. Many of the palace walls were covered with frescoes, or paintings in which the paint is mixed with the plaster on the wall. Some frescoes showed men and women, ships, farmers, fishermen, dancers, nobles, and all sorts of people living very elegant, happy lives. Others showed dolphins leaping in the sea, or imaginary animals like griffins, which are half-lion and half-eagle. Many frescoes show a sport commonly known as "bull-jumping", whereby the competitors would try to somersault over an angry bull as it charged around. Whether this practice was religious or a sport is unknown. Some people think it might be mythological and may have never happened at all. What did they eat? The island of Crete was rich in natural resources. They had access to wood, copper, farmland, stone and coastal areas. The Minoans were successful with farming and grew grain, herbs, olives and fruit. Much of the spare food was traded to make money for the island. What did their writing look like? The Minoans used a style of writing that scholars today call Linear A. Towards the end of Minoan Civilization a new style of writing began to appear in Crete and elsewhere on mainland Greece. This was named Linear B. Unfortunately there are not enough examples of Linear A to enable us to decipher the script at present. Linear B, however, was deciphered in the 1950s by Michael Ventris who discovered that it was in fact a very early form of Ancient Greek, used at that time by the Mycenaeans. The presence of clay tablets with the Linear B script in Crete suggests the presence of Mycenaeans on the island during that last part of Minoan civilization, though it cannot be said with any certainty in what capacity they were present on the island. It is possible that after the collapse of Minoan civilization the Mycenaeans invaded Crete and took over the island. The Minoans wrote their language on long, thin tablets of clay with a stylus or stick. The writing has lots of different symbols, and scholars believe it is a type of writing called a syllabary, in which one symbol stands for a consonant-vowel combination. There are many Linear A symbols that may stand for whole words, though, because many of the tablets were found in storage rooms where the Minoans kept supplies of food, drink and equipment. The tablets which have come down to us exist because they were "fired" in the high temperatures created by the fires that destroyed the main palaces of Minoan Crete. What did they believe? Because no one knows how to read Linear A, no one knows exactly what the Minoans believed. Because there are so many women in the frescoes on the walls of Minoan palaces, some people think that women ruled the Minoans. It is possible that they worshipped a female god, because there are very few statues of male gods at Minoan archaeological sites, while there are a great many female goddess statues. One of the most common types of Minoan goddess statue is of a woman, wearing traditional Minoan clothing -- the skirt and bodice. However, two snakes twine around her arms, and a bird of some sort perches on top of the crown on her head. Some of these statues are made of pottery; others are made of ivory and gold. They are found at a great many sites all around Crete and on some other Mediterranean islands. Another god that the Minoans may have worshipped was a sea-god. Many Minoan palaces are adorned with curving shapes of stone that look like the horns of a bull. These horns may represent just the bull, but some scholars believe they mean more than that. The Greeks told stories about a king of Crete who had a very dangerous monster with a bull's head trapped under his palace, and that the monster, called the Minotaur, regularly ate both men and women. Scholars think this may have been a story about a Minoan god who accepted human sacrifices. What is their history? Small, basic tribes of people lived on the island from around 6000 BC. They lived this way for thousands of years, until in 2000 BC they rapidly advanced into the first civilization of Europe. The reason for this is not known, but some people think that Egyptians may have traveled to Crete and bought ideas and technology with them. The Minoans were successful because of their farming and fishing - they were not a military power. They also controlled the trade in the Aegean Sea and this made them very rich. Their navy was one of the strongest in the world and because of this they did not have to build walls or towers on their island. The Minoans suffered from natural disasters. The palace of Knossos was destroyed in 1700 BC and rebuilt. Around 1550 BC, the volcano Thera erupted and may have caused a tidal wave which devastated the coast of the Minoan kingdom. From then onwards, their control of trade weakened and they were not so successful. Many people believe that the Minoans were eventually invaded by barbarians who attacked mainland Greece first and then Crete itself. The civilization had died out by 1000 BC. Are some Cretans famous even today? There are two famous Minoans in mythology. The first is King Minos, from whom these people and their civilization are named by scholars today. King Minos was believed to be a just and honest ruler, and the ancient Greeks believed that when he died, the king of the underworld made him a judge over the dead. The second famous Minoan is Ariadne, king Minos's daughter, who helped Theseus, a Greek hero, defeat and kill the Minotaur, and later became the wife of the god Dionysus. Minoan civilization was destroyed, and all signs of its culture largely vanished. However, later centuries did produce some great minds. Gortyn was a lawmaker from Crete. Though he lived after the destruction of Cretan civilization, he ordered his laws to be carved on a stone wall. These laws still exist today, and they are one of the oldest examples of Greek writing in the world. Epimenides the Cretan was a philosopher from Crete. He was the first to express what math teachers call the Epimenides Paradox. His most significant achievement was this saying: "all Cretans are liars." Since he was a Cretan himself, he must have lied when he said that Cretans tell lies. But that would mean that Cretans tell the truth. However, if Cretans tell the truth, then Epamonides must have told the truth, which means that he (as well as all other Cretans) would be liars. Mathematicians call this a strange loop, because choosing one explanation of the statement means that you have to accept the opposite meaning immediately, circling around the question forever. What is left of them today? In around 1550 BC, a volcano on the island of Thera ninety miles north of Crete erupted, and blew two-thirds of a whole island into ash and flying rock and hot gas. The volcano caused an earthquake, which knocked down many buildings on Crete and killed many people. Afterwards, a tidal wave rolled out from Thera, and washed several miles inland on Crete. The palaces and other monuments of the Minoans were further damaged, many people died during the earthquake and the tidal wave, the Minoans themselves entered a period of decline. Sometime around 1480 BC, another Civilization from mainland Greece crossed the sea, and invaded Crete. The Minoans were still recovering from the Earthquake and tidal wave, they didn't know that another Civilization was coming to destroy them, they tried to defend the town but the army was still weak they failed, the other civilization conquered the ruined towns and built their own palaces to replace those destroyed in the earthquake and tidal wave. They used the Minoan alphabet to write their own language, called Linear B, and took control of the Minoan towns, fields, and fishing grounds for themselves. Another theory is that the Minoans were not invaded until much later, and had continued to survive, despite not being as successful as before. Although some of the people on Crete today might be descendants of the Minoans, the Minoan culture has vanished completely today. The legacy of Linear A, the writing system, has still not been translated and continues to be a mystery.
5 Elements of Learning to Read Online When learning to read online, there are five key elements that your child needs to master in order to become a fluent reader that reads for meaning. These 5 key elements are: Phonemes are the units of sound that make up a word. For instance, the word ‘hat’ is made up of three phonemes, /h/a/t/. When a child develops phonemic awareness, they are able to hear, identify and manipulate these individual phonemes. Developing phonemic awareness is the first critical skill young readers need to attain in order to progress on their journey toward reading fluency. Once a child has developed phonemic awareness, the next step in their reading development is understanding phonics, that is, how letters link to particular sounds (phonemes). By developing this fundamental skill a child is able to recognise a letter from its graphic form and instantly know what sound it makes. Regular reading of different kinds of books is essential to developing a child’s vocabulary. The more varied your child’s reading, the more words they will be exposed to. As your child learns to recognise and pronounce an increasing bank of words, they will be able to dedicate less of their mental efforts toward deciphering individual words and focus more on deriving meaning from what they have read. Fluency of reading develops once a child has made some inroads towards mastering the above three skills. By reading to your child, you can also provide them a resource critical to their reading development, that is, a vocal model of a fluent reader. By having this vocal model your child can learn how to pronounce words correctly as well as learn when and how to emphasise for punctuation and changes in tone. Comprehension of a text’s meaning is the end goal of reading. Strategies for assisting readers with text comprehension include teaching children how to: - answer questions about a text - ask questions of a text - monitor their own comprehension - use graphic organisers of a text (otherwise known as putting a jumbled-up text back in order) - recognise story structure Learning to read online can be fun and motivational for your child with ABC Reading Eggs. The program instructs children in all five of these critical literacy areas with lessons, games and activities brought to life with colourful visuals and animations, catchy music, fun sound effects and heaps of exciting rewards. Try a FREE 14 Day Trial today!.
Toxicology is the study of the nature, effects, and detection of poisons. A subset of toxicology, ecotoxicology, is the study of the harmful effects of chemicals (natural and synthetic) upon ecosystems. Environmental toxicologists trace the movement of chemicals through air, soil, and water and assess the effect of substances, not just on human health, but on individuals, populations, and communities within an ecosystem. In a hazard assessment, scientists assess the toxicity of the substance to evaluate the potential adverse consequences from a particular chemical or other substance; that is, they determine if a substance may cause harmful effects to humans or other organisms. This process is a weight of the evidence evaluation of data from various kinds of research practices, including animal studies, epidemiological studies, and studies of human cells (toxicogenomics). It is usually not possible to test the toxic effect of a substance on human populations directly (although some data is available from accidental exposures), so laboratory animal testing is typically used. Many of these tests require giving animals massive doses over a short period of time to assess levels of harm. The potential harm to humans is then based on extrapolating from these massive dose levels to a level that humans could typically encounter, using mathematical models based on certain assumptions. Chronic toxicity tests measure the adverse effects that can occur as a result of repeated exposure to a chemical on a daily basis or for the majority of an organism’s lifespan. For example, to assess the carcinogenic potential of chemicals, chronic exposure studies may be conducted on mice over the course of a year or more. Acute toxicity, or the adverse effects that can occur within a short period of time (24 hours or less) after exposure to a substance, is also measured. Because individual organisms can have differing reactions to the same dose of a poison, acute toxicity is often measured at the population level using the concept of LD50: the amount at which a single dose will kill 50 percent of the population. There are many uncertainties in estimating toxicity and other dose effects. Since it is generally not feasible to evaluate all possible health effects, toxicity tests are typically limited to observations of mortality, growth, and reproduction. Questions also arise as to whether it is the massive dose which may be harmful and whether the degree of risk from smaller doses may be overstated. Since human exposure is often thousands or even tens of thousands of times lower than doses given to tested animals, this is difficult to determine. Moreover, the differences between animal and human physiology can be significant; thalidomide, for example, causes no adverse effects on animals tested, but can cause severe birth defects in humans. Conversely, doses which are beneficial to humans can have severe physical and behavioral changes in other organisms. To help address the uncertainties and limit variables there has been a movement away from chronic bioassays in favor of shorter-term tests for possible chronic effects. Some of these examine the potential effects of toxic exposure in the critical early life stages of organism development as a stand-in for traditional, long-term bioassays. Introduction to Applied Toxicology The University of Edinburgh describes how chemical interactions, climatic conditions, and bioaccumulation affect the toxicity of substances in the environment. Also see their useful Directory of Sites in Occupational & Environmental Health. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Company, 4th edition, 2006.
Madagascar’s wetlands are in a ‘profound’ state of decline, according to a study by WWT and Durrell published in the journal PLOS ONE. The findings reveal that without intervention, wetland habitats and wildlife in Madagascar could be lost for good. The island’s famous rainforests and lemurs are familiar from natural history programmes and Hollywood animations. As such, conservation projects have focused almost entirely on woodlands and the country’s vast wetland systems, with their distinctive wetlands, have been overlooked. Until recently no wetland areas on the island were officially protected, and the study - the first of its kind - suggests that what protection is now in place may not be enough to reverse the damage. The researchers warn that this could have devastating consequences for the country, which is one of the poorest in the world. More than half of Madagascar’s population takes drinking water directly from rivers and lakes, which also supplies most of the county’s staple foodstuffs such as rice. The paper strongly links human disturbance with the loss of biodiversity. Dr Andrew Bamford, one of the authors of the paper and based at WWT Slimbridge, said: “It’s very concerning. The data revealed high levels of wetland destruction across Madagascar. In total 82% of marsh at the sample sites had been cleared for agriculture". “Freshwater ecosystems are the most threatened major habitat type globally. Despite this, conservation research and investment in freshwater habitats are disproportionately low, with tropical wetlands particularly vulnerable to overexploitation due to relatively high levels of poverty in much of the region.” The research team visited 37 lakes during the study, using the presence of water birds and benthic invertebrates as indicators of the health of the wetland ecosystems. They showed that presence of these indicators was related to human disturbance levels, but found very few lakes free of human disruption. Dr Richard Young, Head of Conservation Science for Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust said: “The widespread degradation of Madagascar’s wetlands has severely impacted freshwater biodiversity but also local people that rely on now diminishing fisheries, flood regulation and clean water". “In the short-term, we need to work with local communities to reduce threats to these lakes and marshes. Over the longer term, we must identify how to restore these once magnificent and diverse wetlands”. The main threats to wetlands globally are habitat destruction and degradation, invasive species and pollution. The paper concludes that further research is needed to help decide what efforts will most benefit wildlife, and until then, conservationists must support local people and the national government to reduce the impact of farming and fishing. WWT and Durrell are currently taking this approach in Lake Sofia in Madagascar, where conservationists are working with local communities to improve all aspects of wetland management, with the aim of improving conditions for wildlife and the people who live there. They are also working with the government to produce official guidance on wetland management.
Several different species of insect live within bamboo and feed on it. Because bamboo is a type of wood, the presence of starch and other types of carbohydrates attract insects that eat the wood and use it for nutrients. Over time, insects can significantly degrade the bamboo. Insects that live in bamboo include bamboo mealybugs, powder-post beetles, termites and bamboo spider mites. Video of the Day Bamboo Mealy Bugs The noxious bamboo mealybug, or Antonina pretiosa, is especially prevalent in Australia. Male bamboo mealy bugs have wings and can fly, while females do not fly. These insects feed on the sap of the bamboo and weaken the plants. They also produce sugary honeydew, which can grow molds and attract ants to the bamboo. Bamboo mealy bugs are especially prone to attacking soft, lush new bamboo growth. Bamboo spider mites, or Schizotetranychus celarius, live and feed on several species of bamboo including pleioblastus, phyllostachys, and sassa bamboo. These mites thrive in dusty, dry climates. They spin durable silken webs within the bamboo and lay their eggs within the webbing in order to protect the eggs and young mites after hatching. Damage by bamboo spider mites can weaken the plant and reduce its ability to photosynthesize. Termites live in colonies that can have a population of up to a million insects. Both subterranean and drywood termites are known to feed on bamboo, using the natural cellulose within the plant for nutrients. Subterranean termites make tunnels out of soil and their own fecal matter. They build the tunnels to the bamboo and then enter the bamboo culm, chewing at it from within. Drywood termites build their nests within the bamboo culm. Often, because termites eat from the inside out, damage is not noticeable until it is severe. The powder-post beetle can consume an entire bamboo culm and leave only a thin outer shell of the former plant. The beetle larvae feed on the sugars and starch found within the parenchyma cells of the bamboo culms. The powder-post beetle gets its name because of the powdery dust that it creates when consuming bamboo. This dust falls out of holes within the culm where the beetles have burrowed.

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