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What are whole exome sequencing and whole genome sequencing? Determining the order of DNA building blocks (nucleotides) in an individual's genetic code, called DNA sequencing, has advanced the study of genetics and is one technique used to test for genetic disorders. Two methods, whole exome sequencing and whole genome sequencing, are increasingly used in healthcare and research to identify genetic variations; both methods rely on new technologies that allow rapid sequencing of large amounts of DNA. These approaches are known as next-generation sequencing (or next-gen sequencing). The original sequencing technology, called Sanger sequencing (named after the scientist who developed it, Frederick Sanger), was a breakthrough that helped scientists determine the human genetic code, but it is time-consuming and expensive. The Sanger method has been automated to make it faster and is still used in laboratories today to sequence short pieces of DNA, but it would take years to sequence all of a person's DNA (known as the person's genome). Next-generation sequencing has sped up the process (taking only days to weeks to sequence a human genome) while reducing the cost. With next-generation sequencing, it is now feasible to sequence large amounts of DNA, for instance all the pieces of an individual's DNA that provide instructions for making proteins. These pieces, called exons, are thought to make up 1 percent of a person's genome. Together, all the exons in a genome are known as the exome, and the method of sequencing them is known as whole exome sequencing. This method allows variations in the protein-coding region of any gene to be identified, rather than in only a select few genes. Because most known mutations that cause disease occur in exons, whole exome sequencing is thought to be an efficient method to identify possible disease-causing mutations. However, researchers have found that DNA variations outside the exons can affect gene activity and protein production and lead to genetic disorders--variations that whole exome sequencing would miss. Another method, called whole genome sequencing, determines the order of all the nucleotides in an individual's DNA and can determine variations in any part of the genome. While many more genetic changes can be identified with whole exome and whole genome sequencing than with select gene sequencing, the significance of much of this information is unknown. Because not all genetic changes affect health, it is difficult to know whether identified variants are involved in the condition of interest. Sometimes, an identified variant is associated with a different genetic disorder that has not yet been diagnosed (these are called incidental or secondary findings). In addition to being used in the clinic, whole exome and whole genome sequencing are valuable methods for researchers. Continued study of exome and genome sequences can help determine whether new genetic variations are associated with health conditions, which will aid disease diagnosis in the future.
Solnhofen Limestone, famous Jurassic Period limestone unit located near the town of Solnhofen, southern Germany, that contains exceptionally preserved fossils from the Tithonian Age (150.8 million to 145.5 million years ago) of the Jurassic Period. The Solnhofen Limestone is composed of thin beds of fine-grained limestones interbedded with thin shaley layers; they were originally deposited in small, stagnant marine basins (possibly with a very high salt content and low oxygen content) surrounded by reefs. The limestones have been quarried for hundreds of years for buildings and for lithographic printmaking. The Solnhofen Limestone is also known as Solnhofen Plattenkalk. More than 750 plant and animal species have been described from the Solnhofen Limestone. The most common fossils are crinoids, ammonites, fishes, and crustaceans. The most famous fossil from Solnhofen is Archaeopteryx, an ancient bird that left impressions of its feathers preserved in the rock. It is the oldest bird fossil to have been found by paleontologists. The Solnhofen is well known for the exceptional preservation of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish, squid, and insects that are not usually incorporated into the fossil record. The burial of such organisms in the fine-grained sediments of stagnant marine basins allowed even the impressions of internal organs to be preserved.
Enhance student understanding of an important scientific concept: adaptation. Developed for students in grades 3 through 5, the video and activities found here combine science and literacy learning with an emphasis on creativity and imagination. Watch the video here, or download the video file to burn onto a DVD. - Full program guide (1.2 MB) - Teacher pages (background, glossary, reference pages, rubrics, resources) - Video Worksheet (activity) - Create-a-Fish Worksheet (activity) Download the video PC users right click the link below and choose "Save As" to save the video onto your computer. Mac users click the link to save the video. See more teacher guides from the Aquarium's Teacher Resource Center.
I love to teach math concepts hands-on and there’s nothing more engaging than an edible treat! Any edible treat that comes in two different designs, colors, or sizes could be used for this activity. I started by admiring different candies, but eventually decided on animal crackers, not squishy or sticky and even nostalgic. Although many young children have a poor concept of time and age, it’s fun to relate their present to your own childhood. “I read this book when I was your age.” “I remember eating animal crackers when I was a kid.” Animal Cracker Fact Families is a hands-on, engaging way to introduce or practice addition and subtraction fact families. Using a part/ part/ whole mat helps to develop a conceptual understanding of related facts. This flexible activity can be used for direct instruction with a whole class, a small group, or individuals or for an independent math center. You will need: - Animal Cracker Fact Families Free Download - Card stock or paper - Laminator (optional) - Animal crackers (or printable ones in download) You can print on card stock and laminate for durability or simply print on paper for short term use. Print either the color or black/ gray/ white animal cracker part/ part/ whole mats (one per child). Print the two color fact family anchor charts and the color or black/ white animal cracker counters, if using. You will need to sort and bag animal crackers. Sandwich baggies are perfect for this. Each child needs 10 each of two different animal cracker designs, sizes, or flavors (for facts to 20). I found chocolate animal crackers at the grocery store and mini ones at a bulk food store. Print the recording sheets, if using. Suggestions for use: Have a list of 3 related numbers for addition and subtraction (i.e. 6, 3, 9) ready. Be sure to include doubles and zeroes (7, 7, 14; 8, 0, 8). Give each kid a mat and a baggie of presorted animal crackers. Have them show the whole, then each part of the whole on their mats. Model, by moving the animal crackers, how the parts equal the whole beginning with either part and how to write the two related addition equations. They may write these on whiteboards or the recording sheet. Model how the whole minus each part equals the other part. Then write the two related subtraction equations. Repeat the activity several times with different sets of related numbers. For a center activity, you can place selected numbers of animal crackers or counters in baggies or empty animal cracker boxes. If you use quart size bags, the animal crackers can be manipulated within the bag. For example, use 3 elephants and 8 camels or 6 vanilla and 4 chocolate. Your kids choose a set and write the family of facts on the recording sheet, using the part/ part/ whole mat, as needed. Don’t forget to set aside a few animal crackers for little nibblers! Animal Cracker Fact Families can be downloaded for free. Just click on the link. Teaching Points to Remember - Whenever possible, math instruction should flow from concrete to pictorial to abstract. - Visual cues, such as those provided by the fact family anchor charts, give kids, particularly struggling learners, something to “hang their learning on.” - National Animal Cracker Day is April 18th. - Animal shaped cookies were first imported from England in the late 1800’s, quickly gaining popularity in the United States. - Stauffer’s Biscuit Company from York, PA, still in business today, made their first animal crackers in 1871. You might also be interested in these fact family resources available in my TpT store. Just click on the picture.
Kinds of flowers Flowers have always been the most beautiful present one could send or receive due to their attractive smell and look. They have been a source of inspiration for poets and writers for centuries. Flowers have also been a symbol in folklore, mythology and religion. From a botanical point of view, the flower can be defined as a shortened, modified and compacted branch with lateral appendages. The main parts of a flower are the petals, the sepals, the carpel, the stamen and the leaves. Just like twigs, flowers appear and grow from buds. Nobody knows how many types of flowers are on this planet. However, flowers can be divided in several categories depending on their morphology, position, branches, clusters, inflorescence and bloom. Morphology of flowers The morphology of a flower is the way it is arranged from an anatomical point of view. Depending on this feature, flowers can be divided in several categories. Sympetalous flowers have joined petals. They can be partially joined or fully joined. As compared tosympetalous, polypetalous flowers present petals that are not joined. Actinomorphic flowers are characterized by radial symmetry. This means that these flowers are made of two identical parts placed along an nonexistent axis through their middle parts. These types of flowers can be divided into three categories such as campanulate, tubular and funnel shaped. Actinomorphic flowers include roses, poppies and cruciform family. Zygomorphic flowers are characterized by symmetry of both sides. This means that only one axis runs through the center and just two symmetrical parts are possible along this axis. Bilabiate flowers preset a corolla that is not regular; the top lip is made of two petals while the bottom lid is made of three petals. Papilionaceous flowers present five petals; one is placed at the top, also called standard and the bilateral ones are called wings. According to their position on the branch, flowers can be classified as follows: Terminal flowers, which can also grow as clusters of flowers are placed at the final parts of the branches or axis. We can include in this category Nerium Oleander and Magnolia Grandiflora. Axillary flowers, which can also grow as clusters of flowers grow between the stems or axis and the leaves. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Catharanthus roseus and Callicarpa Americana are axillary flowers. Flower branches, clusters and inflorescence It is to be noticed that flowers can appear as one, single piece or in clusters. The inflorescence represents the way flowers are arranged in cluster. - Single flower Single flowers grow at the tip of an elongated stalk, a branch or peduncle. Magnolia grandiflora and the tulip are single flowers. The flowers in this category are blooming together in close formation. Dianthus barbatus (sweet William), Pentas spp. (pentas), Pyracantha coccinea (firethorn), Mangifera indica (mango) and Ligustrum japonicum (ligustrum) can be included here. Cymose and racemose are two sub-types in which flowers can be divided according to their inflorescence. Flowers belonging to the racemose inflorescence present a continuous growth of the axis of the inflorescence. They bloom in the axes of the minimized bracts or leaves; the oldest flower is at the base while the newly appeared flower is close to the growing tip. In cysmose inflorescence, the terminal flower stops the upward development of the axis. The younger flowers appear the lower part of the axis while the older flower is at the top. According to their blooming period, flowers can be divided in: Annual flowers bloom for a longer time and they can be further divided in “stronger” annuals and “tender” annuals. Many annual flowers can stand bad weather and temperature fluctuations. Perennial flowers bloom for several years. One of the most popular perennial flowers is the rose. During the first blooming season, biennial flowers do not bloom. It is to be mentioned that these flowers die after the second blooming season. Now, that you know the categories in which flowers can be divided you can opt for those that you want. You may prefer biennials, perennials, annuals, with single flowers or clusters. It is your choice.
As the atmosphere warms, heat is transferred to the oceans, which causes water expansion and rising sea levels. Today, Earth’s oceans are warmer than they have been in 100,000 years, according to research published in Science in January. Scientists discovered this by using sediment cores from around the world to reconstruct sea surface temperatures from the last interglacial period, which started roughly 129,000 years ago. At that time, temperatures were similar to those from before the Industrial Revolution. The study also showed that 4,000 years later — so, 125,000 years ago — sea surface temperatures had warmed up to nearly match today’s readings. That means that, during the interglacial period, it took the planet millennia for a temperature increase that humans managed in just centuries. Alarmingly, sea levels back then were at least 20 feet higher than today’s. The study is just one of a growing number that look at how the Antarctic Ice Sheet behaved in the past and suggest sea level rise could be higher — and come sooner — than scientists expected even a few years ago. Dozens of feet of sea level rise could take millennia, but the latest estimates suggest as much as 8 feet by the end of the century on the extreme end of projections. That timeline is still one of the biggest unknowns. If Earth is now locked into many feet of ocean rise, it would be enough to flood major metro areas. And the risk to some low-lying areas will rise in mere decades, not centuries. For example, New York City is expected to see regional sea levels rise as much as 30 percent more than the global average. Mud cores pulled from marshes in the city show that the sea level is already rising faster there than at any time in the past 1,500 years, according to research published in the Holocene Journal in January. Using their sample site in the Bronx, the scientists found local ocean levels have risen by more than a foot since 1850. In New York City, studies estimate that adding several more feet of sea level rise would cause some $26 billion in damage and displace nearly 100,000 people by the end of the century. Back Bay's Wake To visualize what rising seas would look like in real life, artist Nikolay Lamm enlisted help from Climate Central scientist Remik Ziemlinski to manipulate images of major cities using the latest science. In the example below, Lamm combined sea level data and topographical flood maps to estimate how high medium tide waters would rise in Boston’s Back Bay area. The white cones on the maps indicate the exact location and direction the viewer would be facing. Lamm says his goal was to show people that the places they cherish today might not be there for future generations.
Climate change is happening faster than we actually think. Carrying on living the way we do and not thinking about what we can do to slow down climate change - and then doing it - can be dangerous. The earth could be getting warmer on its own, but many of the world's leading climate scientists think that the things people do are helping to make the earth warmer. Global warming refers to an increase in the earth's average near-surface and ocean temperatures. Global warming “facts” are hard to come by. One of the few facts that most scientists agree upon is that the current average temperature of Earth has risen over the past 100 years. According to most estimates, this increase in temperature amounts to about 0.4-0.8 °C (0.72-1.44 °F) over this period of time. A warmer earth may lead to changes in rainfall patterns, a rise in sea level, and have a wide range of impacts on plants, wildlife, and humans. When scientists talk about the issue of climate change, their concern is about global warming caused by human activities. Of most significance to low lying areas (those that are very close to, or below sea level) is that global warming has an effect on ice - glaciers or icebergs melt, raising the level of the sea water. This rising sea level then affects the land as the sea floods these areas. Even if the sea water could be stopped from flooding an area, the land is made infertile by the salt: it cannot grow crops. Land in many arctic regions of the world is lost because of this. People design homes for cold weather in Europe because most parts of Europe are very cold. With the change in global weather, these homes are now unsuitable because the weather is warmer and the houses are too warm. Habitats and ecosystems The animal and plant life living together in an area is called an ecosystem – all living things are included in and rely on these ecosystems. Many ecosystems depend on a delicate balance of rainfall, temperature and soil type. A rapid change in climate could upset this balance and seriously endanger many living things, crops and even human health. Hybrid and Fuel Cell Cars In an attempt to combat pollution and the release of carbon dioxide, car companies have, for years, been researching and testing alternative fuels for cars. They have specifically been looking at fuels that do not emit carbon dioxide when burned and those that emit lower levels of Carbon. There has also been a lot of research and development of electric and solar power cars, and hybrid cars. Out of these variants, there have been some successes with Hydrogen-based fuels, but the most successful type of car has been the hybrid. A hybrid car has a small petrol or diesel engine, and an electric motor which usually drives the wheels. The petrol or diesel engine is used to charge the batteries and provide more power to the wheels when required, and the cars usually use regenerative braking. Regenerative braking means that the electric motor in the car is used to slow the car down, but in the process generates electricity which then charges the batteries. What are the Advantages of Hybrid Cars? Most car companies manufacture hybrid cars. Some examples are Honda, Toyota, Nissan, Mazda, Ford, Chrysler, Lexus, etc. Hybrid cars are "cleaner" that traditional cars. They have much lower emissions, resulting in less pollution due to exhaust gas. These hybrid cars can be as much as three times as efficient as normal petrol driven cars. Therefore, the primary advantages of electric cars over petrol cars are their lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), and higher efficiency. Hybrid cars have a tendency to recapture significant amounts of energy during braking that is normally wasted as heat. Finally, these cars are practical in that they can be fuelled using petrol or diesel that is purchased from the local gas/petrol station. What are the Disadvantages of Hybrid Cars? The expense is the primary disadvantage of hybrid cars. They are not only more expensive than their petrol equivalents, but they are also less powerful, so they do not perform as well and would not be suitable for towing a boat or trailer. They are also more complex and expensive to service and maintain, and require mechanics with specialist knowledge, to service them. \|Anything positive in this column.\|\|Anything interesting in this column.\|\|New ideas and interesting comments in this column.\|
Formation of potash and magnesium deposits – Potash deposits were formed more than 230 million years ago through the evaporation of seawater during the Zechstein period. According to Ochsenius’ “bar theory”, the salty sea water flooded across shallow barres into lagoons, where it evaporated. Specific conditions during the solar evaporation phase resulted in the formation of deposits not only rich in potash minerals but also containing magnesium sulphate. This process repeated itself over the centuries so that two or more potash deposits were formed on top of each other. Over millions of years, the original deposits were covered by non-saline sediments, mainly variegated sandstone, shell limestone and Keuper.
Play and Socials skills are the foundations of mature learning skills that require attention and concentration, appropriate behaviour, effective language skills and the ability to plan and sequence physical skills (e.g. games) and to anticipate what might happen next. Without these skills, play skills are few and repetitive (or bossy) and social skills are underdeveloped resulting in social isolation. Both can also contribute to learning delays. Occupational and Speech Therapists are skilled in supporting children to develop play and social interaction skills, including turn taking, anticipating what’s coming next and reading facial and body gestures to help read ‘social cues’. Children who struggle with play and social skills can have difficulties with: - Attention and concentration - Staying engaged in one activity or with one person - Expressing and/or adjusting their emotions to match the activity or environment - Understanding consequences of their actions - Working independently and as a result often interrupts adults for ‘help’ - Playing with a range of toys/play - Independent play and often prefers/requires an adult to help them begin and sustain play - Following the lead of others in play and may appear bossy, telling others how to play (because they don’t know how to vary the play themselves). - Playing with toys as they are intended and may have a tendency to up-end toys on the floor to look like they’re playing but not necessarily use them, or appear destructive with toys - Taking turns/sharing - Entering a group or play with others as they don’t know how to politely join in and can appear ‘rude’ - Engaging in a two way conversation and instead speaks ‘at you’ in a conversation rather than ‘with you’ - Reading other people’s feelings based on their verbal and non-verbal cues - Maintaining a topic of conversation and instead provide irrelevant comments during a conversation - Making and maintaining/keeping friendships - Coping with winning and losing in a game
Use the boxes below to find archival collections and primary source material (both analog and digital). The freely available ebook collections may contain older texts that could be considered primary sources (depending on the context). For instance, if you are studying the history of camp life during the Civil War, you may find diaries or memoirs written by Civil War soldiers in these ebook collections. These original accounts of Civil War camp conditions would be considered primary sources. A primary source is a document or physical object which was written or created during the time period you are studying. These sources offer a contemporary view of a certain event. Examples of primary sources are: diaries, letters, photographs, official documents, interviews, and works of art. Primary sources are written by individuals who were involved in the event or lived in the time period you are studying. A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are removed from the event. While a secondary sources may include a picture or quote from a primary source (to illustrate a point), these sources were not created when the event under study took place. Examples of secondary sources are: books, articles, or websites about the effects of a certain event. Secondary sources are written by authors who did not participate and/or were not alive during the events or time period you are studying. Sometimes it can be hard to tell the difference between a primary source and a secondary source. For example, we often think of books as secondary sources, but many books contain published versions of primary sources (to make them more accessible to a wider audience; before the internet the only way to find primary sources was to either visit an archives, which could be far away from where you lived, or to use published collections of primary source material). If you are unsure whether the source you want to examine for a research project is primary or secondary, don't hesitate to get a second opinion. Contact Christy Fic, the librarian for the History Dept, or any other librarian by using our Ask Us Anything service.
In this illustrated nonfiction book, author Adrienne Mason compares planet Earth today to Noah's ark, as it travels through the universe carrying every living thing and whatever each one needs for its survival. As explained in the introduction: “For billions of years, life on Earth has been evolving. The result --- a rich biodiversity --- is the foundation of life on our planet. And just like a strong, leak-proof hull on an ark, a healthy biodiversity supports so much.” Notable features of Earth's unique biodiversity are described, with a focus on the delicate interdependencies between species, habitats, climate and more. And explained throughout are the ways in which “Planet Ark is sailing in troubled waters” because of threats such as climate change, extinction and overharvesting. Mason also includes a section on “modern-day Noahs” who are helping to protect and preserve life on Earth through responsible environmental stewardship. By breaking down the broad subject of biodiversity into smaller, more manageable topics, the material is never overwhelming but becomes instead personal and compelling. Illustrations by Margot Thompson further flesh out the concepts with details. Packed with statistics, definitions and facts, this would be a tremendous resource for life sciences classes in the early grades, when biodiversity is a key component of the curriculum. As with all the titles in the CitizenKid series, this book contains specific suggestions for ways young readers can help the cause. Useful tools include a table of contents, glossary and index.
- An ear hematoma is a pocket of blood that forms inside the exterior portion of the ear. - Often, ear mites or an infection in the ear canal cause a pet to scratch or shake his or her head. If aggressive scratching or head shaking causes the blood vessels inside the ear to break, a hematoma can form. - Diagnosis of the ear hematoma is made by physical exam; diagnosis of the underlying condition requires examination of the ear canal and a swab of the ear contents. - Surgical correction is usually the most effective way to prevent recurrence and preserve the natural appearance of the ear. - Treatment of any underlying condition is necessary to prevent further problems. What Is an Ear Hematoma? An ear hematoma is a pocket of blood that forms within the exterior portion of a pet’s ear. Although both dogs and cats can have ear hematomas, the condition is more common in dogs. What Causes an Ear Hematoma? Ear hematomas are usually caused by some kind of self-trauma—such as when a pet aggressively scratches at the ears or shakes his or her head, causing the ears to slap against the skull. This trauma can cause blood to leave the blood vessels and pool in a pocket between the skin flaps that make up the outer part of the ear. Usually, there is an underlying cause for the scratching and head shaking, such as ear mites or bacterial and/or fungal infections of the ear canal. It is crucial to treat both the ear hematoma and the underlying parasites or infection. What Are the Signs of an Ear Hematoma? A pet with an ear hematoma will have a fluid-filled swelling on all or portions of the inner surface of the ear flap. How Is an Ear Hematoma Diagnosed? Your veterinarian can diagnose this condition with a physical exam. However, it is also important to diagnose underlying conditions that may lead to excessive scratching or head shaking. The veterinarian will most likely inspect the ear canal and swab it for a sample to examine under the microscope for signs of parasites or infection. How Is an Ear Hematoma Treated? Surgical repair is usually the most effective treatment for ear hematomas. While your pet is under anesthesia, your veterinarian will make an incision along the length of the hematoma on the inner surface of the ear. After the fluid and blood clots are removed, the inner surface of the ear is tacked down to the outer surface of the ear with sutures. The sutures hold the inner and outer surfaces against each other so that when scar tissue forms, the two surfaces are smooth and not lumpy. The sutures generally stay in place for a few weeks. The incision is left open so that fluid will continue to drain as the ear heals. Eventually, the incision will heal on its own. For dogs with droopy ears, the treated ear is often flipped up and bandaged against the head to prevent head shaking during recovery. An Elizabethan collar (a cone-shaped hood that fits over the pet’s head) is often recommended so pets can’t scratch at the ears. As an alternative, several small incisions may be made on the inside surface of the ear with a laser. In this case, sutures are not needed. Another treatment involves the placement of a small drain, or rubber tube, in the external portion of the ear. The drain is kept in place for several weeks as the fluid resolves and the ear heals. Some pets may not tolerate this, and cats’ ears are usually too small for this technique. In some cases, veterinarians may draw out the fluid with a needle and syringe. Medication may also be injected into the space to reduce swelling and inflammation. However, it is very common for the hematoma to come back with this procedure. If there is an underlying ear infection or ear mites, your pet will most likely need to have the ear canals cleaned and treated with ointment or drops. Resolution of the underlying problem will help prevent another ear hematoma. Without treatment, the ear hematoma will eventually heal on its own, but your pet will probably experience weeks of discomfort. In addition, the two sides of the ear often form thickened, wrinkled scar tissue, so the ear won’t look or feel natural. If the underlying ear condition is not treated, your pet will continue to scratch or shake his or her head, and there’s the chance that the other ear may develop a hematoma.
Speaking today at a Geological Society of America meeting, geologists are presenting research suggesting the natural gas extraction method may disturb uranium deposits, which occur naturally in Marcellus shale. "Hydrofracking" or "fracking" is usually criticized for the often undisclosed chemicals it uses during the process of injecting water and sand into natural gas wells at high pressure. This is done to fracture tight shale formations and release the natural gas. That the chemicals may leach into groundwater is the main concern, and something the. Just last week, Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell banned fracking on state land (though most occurs on private land in PA). Groundwater is also on the minds of a team of geologists from the University of Buffalo, but in regard to uranium contamination. Scanning shale surfaces taken from Pennsylvania and western New York, they created a chemical map of the rock revealing that its uranium and hydrocarbons were located together. Lead researcher Tracy Banks says in a statement: We found that the uranium and the hydrocarbons are in the same physical space. We found that they are not just physically but also chemically bound. That led me to believe that uranium in solution could be more of an issue because the process of drilling to extract the hydrocarbons could start mobilizing the metals as well, forcing them into the soluble phase and causing them to move around. Experimenting with some drilling fluids used in the industry, they found that they did react with uranium, in their lab. How much, if any, uranium fracking releases into the environment isn't known. Bank calls for a greater understanding of the metal's presence in shale in order to accurately assess how mobile the metal might become. She said while the uranium wouldn't pose a radiation threat at these levels, it is still very much a toxin. Related on SmartPlanet: Image: Flickr/Ari Moore This post was originally published on Smartplanet.com
The Napoleonic Wars raged in Europe from 1803 to 1815 and had a global impact. Wishing to remain neutral and assert its independence, the United States continued to trade with both Britain and France. Nevertheless, diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Britain deteriorated. Forced labour and deplorable conditions on British naval vessels resulted in sailor desertions to the U.S. by the thousands. The U.S. resented the impressment by the British Navy of sailors from American ships. Meanwhile, Britain’s support of the First Nations in the American northwest threatened U.S. expansion. Not all voices clamoured for war, but a persuasive American political faction called the War Hawks emerged who believed victory over British North America would be “a mere matter of marching”. On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on Great Britain. Niagara was a focal point. The British had forts at both ends of the Niagara River (Fort George and Fort Erie) to protect the peninsula from invasion. The major American military base in the region was Fort Niagara, dominating the head of the Niagara River in Youngstown, New York, across from Fort George. In October of 1812, a U.S. force invaded at Queenston Heights. For three years, Niagara was under almost constant siege. The war resumed in the spring of 1813, with better prepared U.S. forces. An American victory at York (Toronto) encouraged a new Niagara campaign. In May, a landing force captured Fort George. They held onto the Fort until December of 1813, at various times expanding and contracting from that point. Most of Niagara then was under U.S. occupation. When the Americans withdrew in December, they burned the village of Niagara (Niagara-on-the-Lake). In 1814, the U.S. invaded Niagara again. This time the focus was to the south, at Fort Erie. They captured the Fort and proceeded into the peninsula again, with engagements at Chippawa (July 5, 1814) and then Lundy’s Lane (July 25, 1814). Following these two devastating clashes, the U.S. withdrew to Fort Erie and endured a British siege of the fort (August 15 - September 17). In November, however, compelled to reinforce their eastern seaboard, the U.S. retreated across the border and the occupation of the Niagara Frontier was over. "You may consider war as inevitable. It will take place in July at the latest. Upper Canada will be the first object. Military stores of all kinds and provisions are daily sending from hence towards the lines; 13,500 militia, the quota of this state, are drawn and ordered to being readiness at a moment's notice." "We are miserably deficient." Join creator and performer Maja Bannerman and Vox Violins for an evening performance. Get into the winter spirit by decorating a wooden sleigh! LGBTQ+ In The City Presents: Coming-Out Stories Join Shine On Yoga for a FREE community yoga class.
\|Population:\|\|1,381,853 2015 intercensal estimate\| \|Popplace:\|\|Costa Chica of Guerrero, Costa Chica of Oaxaca, Veracruz, Greater Mexico City and small settlements in northern Mexico\| \|Langs:\|\|Predominantly Mexican Spanish, and 9.3% speak an indigenous Mexican language.\| \|Rels:\|\|Predominantly Roman Catholicism;\| minority of Protestantism, Animism, and Santa Muerte \|Related:\|\|West Africans, Afro-Latin Americans, and other Mexicans\| Afro-Mexicans (Spanish; Castilian: afromexicanos; afrodescendientes), also known as Black Mexicans, are Mexicans who have both a predominant heritage from Sub-Saharan Africa and identify as such. As a single population, Afro-Mexicans includes individuals descended from Spanish colonial era transatlantic African slaves imported to Mexico, as well as others of more recent immigrant African descent, including Afro-descended persons from neighbouring English, French, and Spanish-speaking countries of the Caribbean and Central America, and to a lesser extent recent immigrants directly from Africa. Afro-Mexicans are most concentrated in specific, largely isolated communities, including the populations of the Costa Chica of Oaxaca and Guerrero, Veracruz and in some cities in northern Mexico. According to recent DNA studies, although the average Mexican has a small amount of DNA dating back to Black African slave ancestors who had mixed into the predominant Mexican mestizo (mixed Spanish and Amerindian) genepool, averaging to about 5% Sub-Saharan African DNA, Afro-Mexican refers specifically to those Mexicans who, conversely, are predominantly of African ancestry. As opposed to other Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America with visible Afro-Latino populations, the history of blacks in Mexico has been lesser known for a number of reasons. Included among these reasons were their relatively small numbers as a proportion of the overall population of Mexico, irregular intermarriage with other Mexican ethnic groups, and Mexico’s tradition of defining itself as a “Mestizo” country. Although mestizo etymologically means “mixed”, the word is widely understood with the specific meaning of “mixed Spanish and Amerindian.” According to The Atlantic Slave Trade an estimated 200,000 enslaved Africans disembarked in New Spain, which later became modern Mexico. From the beginning, the slaves, who were mostly male, intermarried with indigenous women. In some cases Spanish colonists had unions with female slaves. Spanish colonists created an elaborate racial caste system, classifying people by racial mixture. This system broke down in the very late colonial period; after Independence, the legal notion of race was eliminated. The creation of a national Mexican identity, especially after the Mexican Revolution, emphasized Mexico’s indigenous Amerindians and Spanish European heritage. This resulted in the passive elimination of African ancestors and contributions from Mexico’s national consciousness. Although Mexico had a significant number of African slaves during colonial times, most of the African-descended population were absorbed into the several times larger surrounding Mestizo (mixed European/Amerindian) and indigenous populations through unions among the groups. The genetic legacy of Mexico’s once significant number of colonial era African slaves is evidenced in non-Black Mexicans as trace amounts of sub-Saharan African DNA found in the average Mexican. Evidence of this long history of intermarriage with Mestizo and indigenous Mexicans is also expressed in the fact that in the 2015 census, 64.9% (896,829) of Afro-Mexicans also identified as indigenous Amerindian Mexicans. It was also reported that 9.3% of Afro-Mexicans speak an indigenous Mexican language. About 1.2% of Mexico's population has significant African ancestry, with 1.38 million recognized during the 2015 Intercensus Estimate. Numerous Afro-Mexicans in the 21st century are naturalized black immigrants from Africa and the Caribbean. The 2015 Intercensus Estimate was the first time in which Afro-Mexicans could identify themselves as such and was a preliminary effort to include the identity before the 2020 census. The question asked on the survey was "Based on your culture, history and traditions, do you consider yourself black, meaning Afro-Mexican or Afro-descendant?" and came about following various complaints made by civil rights groups and government officials. Although the vast majority had their roots in Africa, not all slaves made the trip directly to America, some came from other Hispanic territories. Those from Africa belonged mainly to groups coming from Western Sudan and ethnic Bantu. The origin of the slaves is known through various documents such as transcripts of sales. Originally the slaves came from Cape Verde and Guinea. Later slaves were also taken from Angola and the Canary Islands. To decide the sex of the slaves that would be sent to the New World, calculations that included physical performance and reproduction were performed. At first half of the slaves imported were women and the other half men, but it was later realized that men could work longer without fatigue and that they yielded similar results throughout the month, while women suffered from pains and diseases more easily. Later on, only one third of the total slaves were women. From the African continent dark skinned slaves were taken; "the first true blacks were extracted from Arguin." Later in the sixteenth century, black slaves came from Bran, biafadas and Gelofe (in Cape Verde).Black slaves were classified into several types, depending on their ethnic group and origin, but mostly from physical characteristics. There were two main groups. The first, called Retintos, also called swarthy, came from Sudan and the Guinean Coast. The second type were amulatados or amembrillados of lighter skin color, when compared with other blacks and were distinguishable by their yellow skin tones. Mexican anthropologist Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán estimated that there were six blacks who took part in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. Notable among them was Juan Garrido, a black soldier born in Africa, Christianized in Portugal and who participated in the conquest of Tenochtitlan and Western Mexico. Another conquistador, Pánfilo de Narváez, brought an African slave who has been blamed for the smallpox epidemic of 1520. Early slaves were likely personal servants or concubines of their Spanish masters, who had been brought to Spain first and came with the conquistadors. Mexico never became a society based on slavery, as happened in the U.S. south or Caribbean islands, but its economy did use slaves for many years during the colonial period. While a number of indigenous people were enslaved during the conquest period, later the colonists imported African slaves. Over time their mulatto (black/European) descendants were also enslaved if born to slave mothers (as was typical). The demand for slaves came in the early colonial period, especially between 1580 and 1640, when the indigenous population quickly declined due to the high fatalities from new infectious diseases. Carlos V began to issue an increasing number of contracts between the Spanish Crown and private slavers specifically to bring Africans to Spanish colonies. These slavers made deals with the Portuguese, who controlled the African slave market. Mexico had important slave ports in the New World, sometimes holding slaves brought by Spanish before they were sent to other parts of Latin America and the Caribbean. Important economic sectors such as sugar production and mining relied heavily on slave labor during that time. After 1640, slave labor became less important but the reasons are not clear. The Spanish Crown cut off contacts with Portuguese slave traders after Portugal gained its independence. Slave labor declined in mining as the high profit margins allowed the recruitment of wage labor. In addition, the indigenous and mestizo population increased, and with them the size of the free labor force. In the later colonial period, most slaves continued to work in sugar production but also in textile mills, which were the two sectors that needed a large, stable workforce. Neither could pay enough to attract free laborers to its arduous work. Slave labor remained important to textile production until the later 18th century when cheaper English textiles were imported. Slave labor was most common in Mexico City, where they were domestic servants such as maids, coachmen, personal service or armed bodyguards. However, they were more of a status symbol rather than an economic necessity. Although integral to certain sectors of the economy through the mid-18th century, the number of slaves and the prices they fetched fell during the colonial period. Slave prices were highest from 1580 to 1640 at about 400 pesos. It decreased to about 350 pesos around 1650, staying constant until falling to about 175 pesos for an adult male in 1750. In the latter 18th century, mill slaves were phased out and replaced by indigenous, often indebted, labor. Slaves were nearly non-existent in the late colonial census of 1792. While banned shortly after the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence, the practice did not definitively end until 1829. Slave rebellions occurred in Mexico as in other parts of the Americas, with the first in Veracruz in 1537. Runaway slaves were called cimarrones, who mostly fled to the highlands between Veracruz and Puebla, with a number making their way to the Costa Chica region in what are now Guerrero and Oaxaca. Runaways in Veracruz formed settlements called “palenques” which would fight off Spanish authorities. The most famous of these was led by Gaspar Yanga, who fought the Spanish for forty years until the Spanish recognized their autonomy in 1608, making San Lorenzo de los Negros (today Yanga) the first community of free blacks in the Americas. From early in the colonial period, African and African-descended people had offspring with people of European or indigenous races. This led to an elaborate caste system based on ethnic heritage. The offspring of mixed-race couples was divided into three general groups: mestizo for (Spanish) White/indigenous, mulatto for (Spanish) White/black and zambo or zambaigo for black/indigenous. However, there was overlap in these categories which recognized black mestizos. Black mestizos account for less than .5 percent of the Mexican population as of today. In addition, skin tone further divided the mestizo and mulatto categories. This loose system of classification became known as “las castas.” This did have problems. For example, those with African and indigenous heritage would hide the African as indigenous had a somewhat higher status at points in colonial history. Slaves with indigenous blood would be branded to prevent this. Free persons of African blood would hide such to avoid paying head taxes, not imposed on the indigenous. Las castas paintings were produced during the 18th centuries, commissioned by the wealthy to reflect Mexican society at that time. They portray the three races, European, indigenous and African and their complicated mixing. They are based on family groups, with parents and children labeled according to their caste. They have 16 squares in a hierarchy with the most European at the top. Indigenous and black women may appear at the top if they mix with European, but similar men never do. There is evidence that those of African heritage were classed as inferior to the indigenous, such as the idea that African heritage could not be “cleansed” in future generations. Also, as the formal caste system began to erode, those classed as “castizo” (Spanish/mestizo) were considered white, but moriscos (light-skinned offspring of Spanish and mulattoes) were considered mulattoes. Genetic tests show that an average Mexican has about 4% sub-Saharan African ancestry, indicating that the Afro-Mexican population "disappeared" because it was absorbed into the larger Mexican gene pool. According to the 2015 Encuesta Intercensal, there were 1,381,853 Mexicans that self identified as Afro-descendants, or 1.2% of the country's population. This is the first time that the government of Mexico has asked citizens whether they identify as Afro-Mexican. Places with large Afro-Mexican communities are: Costa Chica of Guerrero, Costa Chica of Oaxaca and Veracruz. While Northern Mexico has some towns with a minority of Mexicans of African descent. Afro-descendants can be found throughout the country, however they are numerically insignificant in some states. There are also recent immigrants of African and Caribbean origin. The Costa Chica (“small coast” in Spanish) extends from Acapulco to the town of Puerto Ángel in Oaxaca in Mexico’s Pacific coast. The Costa Chica is not well known to travelers, with few attractions, especially where Afro-Mexicans live. Exceptions to this are the beaches of Marquelia and Punta Maldonado in Guerrero and the wildlife reserve in Chacahua, Oaxaca. The area was very isolated from the rest of Mexico, which prompted runaway slaves to find refuge here. However, this has changed to a large extent with the building of Highway 200 which connects the area to Acapulco and other cities on the Pacific coast. African identity and physical features are stronger here than elsewhere in Mexico as the slaves here did not intermarry to the extent that others did. Not only is black skin and African features more prominent, there are strong examples of African-based song, dance and other art forms. Until recently, homes in the area were round mud and thatch huts, the construction of which can be traced back to what are now the Ghana and Ivory Coast. Origin tales often center on slavery. Many relate to a shipwreck (often a slave ship) where the survivors settle here or that they are the descendants of slaves freed for fighting in the Mexican War of Independence. The region has a distinct African-influenced dance called the Danza de los Diablos (Dance of the Devils) which is performed for Day of the Dead. They dance in the streets with wild costumes and masks accompanied by rhythmic music. It is considered to be a syncretism of Mexican Catholic tradition and West African ritual. Traditionally the dance is accompanied by a West African instrument called a bote, but it is dying out as the younger generations have not learned how to play it. There are a number of “pueblos negros” or black towns in the region such as Corralero and El Ciruelo in Oaxaca, and the largest being Cuajinicuilapa in Guerrero. The latter is home to a museum called the Museo de las Culturas Afromestizos which documents the history and culture of the region. The Afro-Mexicans here live among mestizos (indigenous/white) and various indigenous groups such as the Amuzgos, Mixtecs, Tlalpanecs and Chatinos . Terms used to denote them vary. White and mestizos in the Costa Chica call them “morenos” (dark-skinned) and the indigenous call them “negros” (black). A survey done in the region determined that the Afro-Mexicans in this region themselves preferred the term “negro,” although some prefer “moreno” and a number still use “mestizo.” Relations between Afro-Mexican and indigenous populations are strained as there is a long history of hostility. Afro-Mexicans are as indigenous to Mexico as the palest Mexican with strictly European ancestry. However, the social stigma and internalized racism associated with blackness and dark skin causes many Afro-Mexicans to feel shame and deny their negritude instead of finding self-acceptance and pride in their dark skin, kinky hair, and African features. Like the Costa Chica, the state of Veracruz has a number of pueblos negros, notably the African named towns of Mandinga, Matamba, Mozambique and Mozomboa as well as Chacalapa, Coyolillo, Yanga and Tamiahua. The town of Mandinga, about forty five minutes south of Veracruz city, is particularly known for the restaurants that line its main street. Coyolillo hosts an annual Carnival with Afro-Caribbean dance and other African elements. However, tribal and family group were separated and dispersed to a greater extent around the sugar cane growing areas in Veracruz. This had the effect of intermarriage and the loss or absorption of most elements of African culture in a few generations. This intermarriage means that while Veracruz remains “blackest” in Mexico’s popular imagination, those with black skin are mistaken for those from the Caribbean and/or not “truly Mexican". The total population of people of African Descent including people with one or more black ancestors is 4 percent, the third highest of any Mexican state. The phenomena of runaways and slave rebellions began early in Veracruz with many escaping to the mountainous areas in the west of the state, near Orizaba and the Puebla border. Here groups of escaped slaves established defiant communities called “palenques” to resist Spanish authorities. The most important Palenque was established in 1570 by Gaspar Yanga and stood against the Spanish for about forty years until the Spanish were forced to recognize it as a free community in 1609, with the name of San Lorenzo de los Negros. It was renamed Yanga in 1932. Yanga was the first municipality of freed slaves in the Americas. However, the town proper has almost no people of obvious African heritage. These live in the smaller, more rural communities. Because African descendants dispersed widely into the general population, African and Afro-Cuban influence can be seen in Veracruz’s music dance, improvised poetry, magical practices and especially food. Veracruz son music, best known through the popularity of the hit “La Bamba” has African origins. Veracruz cooking commonly contains Spanish, indigenous and African ingredients and cooking techniques. One defining African influence is the use of peanuts. Even though peanuts are native to the Americas, there is little evidence of their widespread use in the pre Hispanic period. Peanuts were brought to Africa by the Europeans and the Africans adopted them, using them in stews, sauces and many other dishes. The slaves that came later would bring this new cooking with the legume to Mexico. They can be found in regional dishes such as encacahuatado, an alcoholic drink called the torito, candies (especially in Tlacotalpan), salsa macha and even in mole poblano from the neighboring state of Puebla. This influence can be seen as far west as Puebla, where peanuts are an ingredient in mole poblano. Another important ingredient introduced by African cooking is the plantain, which came from Africa via the Canary Islands. In Veracruz, they are heavily used breads, empanadas, desserts, mole, barbacoa and much more. One other defining ingredient in Veracruz cooking is the use of starchy tropical roots, called viandas. They include cassava, malanga, taro and sweet potatoes. There are some towns with few blacks in them, far north of Mexico, especially in Coahuila and the country’s border with Texas. Some ex slaves and free blacks came into northern Mexico in the 19th century from the United States. A few of the routes of the Underground Railroad led to Mexico. One particular group was the Mascogos, a branch of Black Seminoles, originally from Florida were runaway slaves and free blacks intermingled with Seminole natives. Many of these settled in and around the town of El Nacimiento, Coahuila, where their descendants remain. \|State\|\|% Afro-Mexicans\|\|Afro-Mexican population\|\|% Partial Afro-Mexicans\|\|% Total Afro-descendants\|\|Total Afro-descendant population\| \|Baja California Sur\|\|1.55%\|\|11,036\|\|0.72%\|\|2.27%\|\|16,163\| \|Estado de México\|\|1.88%\|\|304,327\|\|.45%\|\|2.33%\|\|377,171\| \|San Luis Potosí\|\|.04%\|\|1,087\|\|.51%\|\|.55%\|\|14,948\| \|Source: INEGI (2015)\| The majority of Mexico's native Afro-descendants are Afromestizos, i.e. "mixed-race". Individuals of exclusively black ancestry make up a very low percentage of the total Mexican population, the majority being recent immigrants. The following list is of notable Afro-Mexicans, a noteworthy portion of which are the descendants of recent black immigrants to Mexico from Africa, the Caribbean and elsewhere in the Americas. Mexico employs jus soli when granting citizenship, meaning that any individual born on Mexican territory will be granted citizenship regardless of his or her parent's immigration status. The comic character Memín Pinguín, whose magazine has been available in Latin America, the Philippines, and the United States newsstands for more than 60 years, is an Afro-Cuban. The Mexican government issued a series of five stamps in 2005 honoring the Memín comic-book series. The issue of these stamps was considered racist by some groups in the United States and praised by the Mexican audience who remember growing up with the magazine.
- Proteins make organisms different. DNA codes for proteins, so therefore, DNA determines variation. - Alleles determine the characteristics of a gene. - Genetic diversity is reduced when a species has fewer different alleles. - Also known as artificial selection. - Involves identifying individuals with the desired characteristics and using them to parent the next generation. Alleles for unwanted characteristics are bred out of the population. - The variety of alleles is restricted to a small number of desired alleles. This leads to a population all of which possess the desired qualities, but which has reduced genetic diversity. - Plants such as wheat, the features selected for include large grains with a high gluten content, short stems and resistance to disease. 1 of 2 Genetic diversity (2) The founder effect: - When a few individuals from a population colonise a new region. These few individuals carry with them only a fraction of the alleles of the population as a whole - these alleles may not be representative of the larger population. - The new population will therefore have less genetic diversity. - This is often seen when new volcanic islands rise out of the sea. - Fewer alleles means the population is less able to adapt to changing conditions. - When some populations of a species suffer a dramatic drop in numbers. Sometimes the reason for this is a chance event, eg volcanic eruption. - The few survivors will possess a much smaller variety of alleles than the original population. - As the individuals breed and become re-established, the genetic diversity will remain restricted. 2 of 2 Similar Biology resources:
The English program teaches students to become better readers, writers, listeners, speakers, and thinkers. Students are helped to see the merit of inquiry and reflection. A strong foundation in writing conventions such as grammar, vocabulary, mechanics, and style is also an integral part of students’ mastery of the English language. WPS students improve their writing through proofreading, editing, and revision. English teachers at WPS are passionate about literature and their passion fuels classroom discussions. Students engage in both oral and written communication, enabling them to develop and refine their command of the English language. Students read novels, poetry, and drama from a diverse range of authors, cultures, and time periods reflecting and focusing on aspects of their own identities as well as the world around them. Grade 6 English incorporates the fundamental skills of literacy. Students examine themes, such as change, choice, identity, and community. They explore literature through the close study of works that may include Lois Lowry’s The Giver; Linda Sue Park’s novel A Long Walk to Water; selected scenes from William Shakespeare, and short stories from a wide variety of authors. Layered within the literature curriculum is a sharp focus on grammar, mechanics, spelling, and vocabulary. Writing includes essays, memoirs, poetry, and personal speeches. Grade 7 English students continue their exploration of literature through range of works that may include William Golding’s Lord of the Flies, S.E. Hinton’s The Outsiders, William Shakespeare’s The Tempest, and short stories and poetry from a variety of authors, time periods, and perspectives. Students are asked to make text-to-self connections and generate personal responses to the readings. Writing skills are a focus in the classroom and in assessments. Students practice organizing and drafting formal essays, with emphases on the use of textual evidence and argument. Other assessments include analytical tests, group and individual oral presentations, visual projects, acting performances, and debates. In addition, students are consistently presented with vocabulary, spelling, and grammar-building exercises designed to improve their writing and language skills. Grade 8 English students learn to generate clear, concise prose and apply textual evidence in their writing. Vocabulary, spelling, grammar, and mechanics are regularly incorporated into the literature curriculum, which reinforces the social studies curriculum. Works od study may include Sherman Alexie’s Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian; Harper Lee’s To Kill A Mockingbird, and Gene Luen Yang’s American Born Chinese, while linguistic devices and plot techniques are studied in William Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. Assessments for the course include persuasive and personal essays, visual projects, unit tests, weekly quizzes, speeches, and regular written exercises. Grade 9 English is a course designed to build upon the Middle School curriculum and to develop the more challenging reading, writing, and critical thinking skills demanded of the International Baccalaureate program. Students will read and analyze Hermann Hesse’s Siddhartha, George Orwell’s 1984, J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in The Rye, Marjane Satrapi’s Persepolis, William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, and selected poetry and short stories. Despite the differences in style, voice, and genre, these units share common themes centered on free will, fate, and the evolution of one’s own identity. Class discussions compel students to ponder how cultural, religious, and political contexts affect the development of the individual and of society. Written assessments include formal essays, personal reflections, and persuasive speeches. The writing curriculum is enhanced through regular lessons and assessments on grammar, mechanics, and vocabulary.
Sneezing is a fast and semi-involuntary expulsion of air, and sometimes mucus, through the nose and the mouth. Since the sinus does not have voluntary muscles, sneezing is a preventative reflex intended to protect our body from harmful organisms and substances. Most of the time, sneezing is an action triggered by irritants on the mucosa lining of the nasal passage or sinus. They can also be triggered by other factors that also stimulate the nerve responsible for sneezing. For example, scratching your eyebrow may trigger a sneeze, as the nerves in that area are very closely located with the "sneeze nerve," and synapses may overlap. Sneezing Can Be And Indicator For: Sneezing may be an indication or a symptom to some health conditions, such as: - Allergy: If you sneeze right after a cat has crossed your path, it does not mean that you will also have bad luck for the next seven years along with the sneeze. Instead, it may be an indication that you may be allergic to the animal. Since allergens are, in short, irritants our bodies react to, they are usually the main culprit of sneezing. But hey, at least you know what you are now allergic to! - Dry sinus: Similar to the idea of coughing due to a dry throat, sneezes can sometimes be triggered simply by a dry sinus. For individuals who often workout in an air conditioned room or live in arid spaces, the sinus may dry out. Since sneezing produces mucus that can provide lubrication, the body may induce such reaction to moisturize the sinus. - Possibility of cold or flu: Bacteria, virus, and other microorganisms irritate the nasal passage and prompt sneezes, and may indicate that a common cold or the flu is looming in the near future. Be sure to take preventative measures and boost up your immune system just in case. - Possibility of sinus problems: Continuous, wet sneezes may lead to sinus problems and inflammation if left untreated over long periods of time. Mucus and snot buildup in the sinus is an excellent breeding ground for infectious bacteria and viruses. Many times sneezing alone cannot completely expel all mucus. It can also cause inflammation, which may lead to more serious sinus problems. Be sure to see a doctor if you're experiencing a drippy nose, lots of sneezes, and no relief whatsoever. - Photic sneezing: Approximately, 25 percent of the human population has an inherited genetic condition called "photic sneezing." For these special people, their nerves are more sensitive to light than others. Hence, sunshine or a burst of sudden light may trigger sneezes in those people. Tips To Control Sneezing Thankfully, the majority of sneezes are benign and are not fatal, but some people find sneezing to be unpleasant. Here are a few tips that can help alleviate sneezing: - Take a huge breath and hold your nose - Get rid of allergens that trigger sneezes - Boost your immune system with vitamin C as a preventative measure - Think about investing in an air filtration device - Don't travel too much during pollen-heavy seasons, such as spring and fall - Wear a filtration mask when working with chemical powders, sprays, or dusty areas - Get rid of animals or plants that you are allergic to - See your doctor for proper medication that may relieve your sneezing. Some can be found over the counter, and some via prescription Sneezing Fun Facts - Your eyes will not pop out if you open your eyes during sneezing. They are firmly anchored in place by your eye muscles, and may only bulge out a bit. In fact, it is a natural reflex for the eyelids to close, so it is impossible to keep them open naturally during a sneeze. - Your heart does not stop during a sneeze. Your chest constricts right before firing off a sneeze, so it may give the illusion that your heart stopped for a beat. - It is possible to have sexually-induced sneezes. According to some studies, activation of our parasympathetic nervous system, which is also responsible for sexual arousal, happens during sneezing for some people - Some people believe that the sensation of a sneeze is 1/8th of that of a sexual orgasm. - A sneeze can travel at about 100 miles per hour and send roughly 100,000 germs into the air. - The droplet spray induced from a sneeze, usually a mix of saliva and mucus, can radiate to about five feet. - You cannot sneeze in your sleep, because simply, your nerves are also sleeping and cannot be provoked. - As sneezes are fully laden with bacteria, be sure to sneeze into your sleeve rather than your hand so you won't pass your "cooties" onto the next hand you shake or the next door handle you touch.
The Great Pyramids have towered over Egypt for more than 4,500 years, but even something as old as the pharaohs is full of secrets. You don’t get to be on the list of the seven wonders of the world for nothing, and the Great Pyramids of Giza are no exception. Built during the reign of Pharaoh Khufu, the largest of the three prominent pyramids serves as a reminder of the ruler’s architectural abilities, and it’s even suspected that the former leader’s mummified remains are housed somewhere inside the structure. And while scientists have ventured inside on many occasions to explore the rooms, it was with the help of particle physics that these respected researchers were able to discover an empty void hidden in the middle. As part of the ScanPyramids project, researchers were able to use particle physics to look inside the pyramid without disturbing the inside. And what they found is a big, empty space. "We don't know whether this big void is horizontal or inclined; we don't know if this void is made by one structure or several successive structures,” explained HIP Institute member Mehdi Tayoubi. What makes this discovery so fascinating is that there aren’t any theories as to why the void was included, or how it has remained intact for all these years. This latest discovery was the result of more than two years of studying the pyramids using cosmic-ray imaging. Essentially the scientists took x-rays of the pyramids, but instead od using radiation-packed x-rays, they used high-energy subatomic particles, also known as cosmic rays. The scans revealed a void measuring in at around 98 feet long and 50 feet high.
What are shingles? Shingles (herpes zoster) is an often very painful reactivation of childhood chicken pox (varicella zoster), typically affecting adults older than age 45, and has affected over half of all adults above the age of 60. When a child has chicken pox, the rash, fever, cough, and fatigue clears up over a number of weeks, and health is restored. Remnant virus particles not destroyed by the immune system can lie dormant in the nerve roots close to the spine for decades. If the virus is reactivated at a later date, it travels along nerve pathways often to the skin. Why would the chicken pox virus suddenly reappear decades later? There is no clearly defined reason why the virus appears much later in life as shingles. A normal reduction in immune response with age is thought to be a contributing factor. Other factors, such as illness, stress or medications, can perhaps trigger a reactivation of the virus; more often, no identifiable reason can be cited. What are the symptoms? Usually, the first noticeable symptom of shingles is a burning, stabbing or shooting pain, which may be apparent for up to a week before a rash outbreak. In more classic cases, over a three- to five-day period, a densely clustered bright red rash erupts. Occasionally, no rash appears which makes a specific pain diagnosis difficult. Typically, the symptoms only occur on one side of the body following along the single nerve path where the virus has been activated. This is called a “dermatomal pattern” and is a key sign in diagnosing shingles. The rash may occur, for example, as blisters along one side of the face or neck, or wrapping around the torso from back to front in a relatively narrow swath. Unlike the initial case of childhood chicken pox, shingles induces more pain than itching. An outbreak of shingles is usually relatively short-lived (6-10 weeks without any treatment) especially in adults over 50 years old. What is postherpetic neuralgia (PHN)? Although the shingles rash heals, the after effects of the outbreak can linger for months or years. Sometimes the nerves become severely or permanently damaged creating a painful chronic condition known as postherpetic neuralgia which can last 2-3 years, and sometimes much longer. The pain is identical to that experienced during a shingles outbreak: - sharp, burning, or deep aching - extreme sensitivity to touch and temperature change - itching and numbness The chances of developing postherpetic neuralgia increases with age. PHN constitutes a significant case of chronic pain in the elderly. What treatment options are available? A shingles outbreak is not life-threatening, but it is a serious condition because of its potential for long-term painful effects. We urge you to consult with your primary care doctor immediately. The specialists at PainCare recommend the following course of action if you should develop very painful shingles: - Anti-viral medications to alleviate symptoms, shorten the shingles outbreak, and decrease chances of PHN. - A short course of steroids which are most effectively administered by “sympathetic block,” in which anesthetic and steroid is injected around the affected nerve root to inhibit further nerve damage by the virus. - Simple self-care options, such as cold compresses; avoiding heat as well as tight or itchy clothing, such as wool; diet changes such as vitamin C and E supplements, increasing fruit and vegetable intake, and reducing sugar intake. Please note that an outbreak of shingles can cause chicken pox in anyone who has not had chicken pox. While the rash is present, you should avoid contact with those with weakened immune systems, newborns, and pregnant women. Lastly, shingles cannot be passed from one person to another.
Follow me on Twitter for my latest adventures! This is the seventh post in an article series about MIT's lecture course "Introduction to Algorithms." In this post I will review lecture eleven, which is on the topic of Augmenting Data Structures. There are some programming situations that can be perfectly solved with standard data structures such as a linked lists, hash tables, or binary search trees. Many others require a dash of creativity. Only in rare situations will you need to create an entirely new type of data structure, though. More often, it will suffice to augment (to modify) an existing data structure by storing additional information in it. You can then program new operations for the data structure to support the desired application. Augmenting a data structure is not always straightforward, however, since the added information must be updated and maintained by the ordinary operations on the data structure. This lecture discusses two data structures that are constructed by augmenting red-black trees (see the previous post on red-black trees). The first part of the lecture describes a data structure that supports general order-statistic operations on a dynamic set. It's called dynamic order statistics. The notion of order statistics was introduced in lecture six. In lecture six it was shown that any order statistic could be retrieved in O(n) time from an unordered set. In this lecture it is shown how red-black trees can be modified so that any order statistic can be determined in O(lg(n)) time. It presents two algorithms OS-Select(i), which returns i-th smallest item in a dynamic set, and OS-Rank(x), which returns rank (position) of element x in sorted order. The lecture continues with general methodology of how to augment a data structure. Augmenting a data structure can be broken into four steps: - 1. Choosing an underlying data structure, - 2. Determining additional information to be maintained in the underlying data structure, - 3. Verifying that the additional information can be maintained for the basic modifying operations (insert, delete, rotate, etc.) on the underlying data structure, and - 4. Developing new operations. The second part of the lecture applies this methodology to construct a data structure called interval trees. This data structure maintains a dynamic set of elements, with each element x containing an interval. Interval is simply pair of numbers (low, high). For example, a time interval from 3 o'clock to 7 o'clock is a pair (3, 7). Lecture gives an algorithm called Interval-Search(x), which given a query interval x, quickly finds an interval in the set that overlaps it. Time complexity of this algorithm is O(lg(n)). The lecture ends with the correctness proof of Interval-Search(x) algorithm. You're welcome to watch lecture eleven: Topics covered in lecture eleven: - [00:20] Concept of augmenting data structures. - [02:00] Dynamic order statistics. - [02:20] OS-Select operation on dynamic order statistics. - [02:50] OS-Rank operation on dynamic order statistics. - [03:49] Dynamic order statistics key idea - keep the sizes of subtrees in nodes of a red-black tree. - [04:10] Example of a tree representing dynamic order statistic. - [10:10] OS-Select algorithm. - [16:40] Analysis of OS-Select. - [17:30] OS-Rank algorithm. - [20:15] Modifying operations of dynamic order statistics tree. - [22:55] Example of inserting an element into the tree. - [26:11] Example of rotating a tree. - [29:30] Methodology of data structure augmentation. - [36:45] Data structure augmentation applied to construct interval trees. - [37:31] Example of time-intervals. - [39:48] Query operation on interval trees - find an interval in the set that overlaps a given query interval. - [41:15] Step 1, underlying data structure: red-black tree keyed on low endpoint. - [45:10] Step 2, additional node information: largest value in the subtree rooted at that node. - [50:24] Step 3, modifying ops: insert, delete. - [56:55] Step 4, new ops: Interval-Search. - [01:00:00] Example of Interval-Search algorithm. - [01:06:30] Running time of Interval-Search -- O(lg(n)). - [01:07:20] List all overlaps (k of them) in O(k*lg(n)) time. - [01:08:50] Best algorithm to find all overlaps to date os O(k + lg(n)). - [01:09:11] Correctness proof of Interval-Search algorithm. Lecture eleven notes: Have fun augmenting data structures! The next post will be about a simple and efficient search structure called skip list! PS. This course is taught from the CLRS book (also called "Introduction to Algorithms"):
Fort Niagara, post on the southern shore of Lake Ontario, at the mouth of the Niagara River, NW N.Y. It was strategically located on the water route to the fur lands. French explorer Robert LaSalle erected a blockhouse on the river in 1679; in 1726 a stone fort overlooking the river was completed. A British force, led by Sir William Johnson, captured Fort Niagara in 1759 during the French and Indian War (see under French and Indian Wars). The British held the fort until 1796, when it was turned over to the United States by Jay's Treaty. During the War of 1812, the British captured Fort Niagara but returned it to the United States in 1815. The fort remained a U.S. military post until 1946. It is now a New York state park. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
Is climate change responsible for more salt in the North Atlantic? As a result of global warming, more extremely salty water masses from the Mediterranean will be flowing into the North Atlantic through the Straits of Gibraltar. This was the conclusion of researchers from Heidelberg University working with an international research team to investigate the dynamics of Mediterranean outflow. According to Dr. André Bahr from the Institute of Earth Sciences, this process could counterbalance the predicted drop in the North Atlantic’s salt content. Experts believe that the desalination brought on by massive melt waters from the Arctic and Greenland will significantly affect global ocean circulation and possibly weaken the Gulf Stream. The findings were published in the journal “Geology”. To better understand the dynamics of the Mediterranean outflow, the researchers analysed its behaviour under different climatic conditions in the geologic past. They studied core samples from the continental shelf off of southern Spain and Portugal obtained through the International Ocean Discovery Program. “The data show that the Mediterranean current was subject to massive and in some cases extremely abrupt fluctuations over the last 150,000 years,” says Dr. Bahr. The Heidelberg researcher explains that the strength of the current depends mainly on the intensity of the African monsoon, as is evident from the origin of the water that flows into the Atlantic. It derives for the most part from the eastern Mediterranean, where hot and dry conditions raise the salt content in the surface water. In winter these water masses cool, become denser and flow west at greater depths, where they leave the Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar. If strong monsoons in Northeast Africa increase the inflow of fresh water, the formation of this dense, salty water is inhibited and the outflow of Mediterranean water into the Atlantic weakened along with it. Conversely, the very dry conditions in the eastern Mediterranean that current climate models strongly predict will boost the salt content in the surface waters and thus strengthen the current from the Mediterranean. “A comparison of the data we derived on the strength of the ocean circulation in the recent geologic past indicates that a strong Mediterranean outflow and the increased inflow of salt into the Atlantic at the end of the last warm cycle 120,000 years ago actually had a stabilising effect. This is because the circulation is significantly driven by the contrasts in salt content in the different water masses,” explains André Bahr. For this reason, the geoscientist believes that tropical and subtropical climate changes and their impact on oceanography should figure more prominently in climate prognoses. Researchers from Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, Spain, Portugal and Great Britain contributed to the study. Bahr, A., Kaboth, S., Jiménez-Espejo, F., Sierro, F., Voelker, A., Lourens, L., Röhl, U., Reichart, G., Escutia, C., and Hernández-Molina, F., Pross, J.; Friedrich, O. (2015), Persistent monsoonal forcing of Mediterranean Outflow Water dynamics during the late Pleistocene: Geology, v. 43 (11), p. 951-954. Link to publication:
Pollution and Recycling Lesson 1 of 10 Objective: SWBAT identify the reasons an author provides to support his or her point. Common Core Connection This standard ask the students to determine the author's point and reasons in the text that support the point. Selecting a text that is informative, but is also about a current cultural issue, really helps teach this standard. The text structure (title, headings, topic sentences, etc.) can also be helpful in guiding students to find the reasons that support the author's point. Check out my video on how I scaffold complex text. This is the first lesson in a series of five lessons related to the environment. I chose this topic because I felt there is a strong point being made by most author's when they write about pollution, alternate power sources, and ozone depletion. The students work in small groups throughout the lesson and transition often to keep them engaged. We begin with guided practice, transition to partner work, and present work in the end. I have videos that explain my two main engagement strategies: Peanut Butter Jelly Partners and Transitions. This time I am going to connect the students personal experiences to the curriculum to connect them to the lesson. This is a real world application as well. We recycle in the classroom and I am going to ask the class to discuss why we recycle paper. I am working on speaking and listening as the students talk, but I am also assessing how they are connecting to the lesson topic. My next prompt is to ask the class to discuss their own point of view on recycling. This is getting them thinking about point of view. Then I share the lesson goal and plan for the lesson. We chant, "I can determine the author's point and reasons that support the point."
1897 A European Jewish political movement, the Zionist movement, has for some years been wanting to find a national home for the Jewish people. The Zionist conference of 1897 settles on Palestine, then part of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire. 1917 The Balfour Declaration: the British Government promises Lord Rothschild a ‘national home’ for Jews in Palestine, while upholding ‘the civil and religious rights of the existing non-Jewish communities’. (At this time only 5% of the population is Jewish — 95% are Palestinian Arabs.) 1918 After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Britain occupies Palestine and from 1918 to 1948 sponsors Jewish colonial immigration from Europe and the US. Britain crushes all Palestinian revolts. 1948 After some terrorist attacks by Zionists, Britain leaves and passes the issue over to the UN, which assigns 55% of Palestine to the proposed state of Israel. At this time Jews constitute only 33% of the population and own only 6% of the land. 1948–49 Israel kills 13,000 Palestinians and drives 750,000 from their towns and villages in the Nakba (‘Catastrophe’), ending up with 78% of historic Palestine (map 3). Descendents of these refugees live today in some 100 refugee camps in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, the West Bank and Gaza. UN resolution 194 calls on Israel to allow the return of the refugees; the resolution is ignored. Over 400 Palestinian villages are destroyed. 1967 Israel occupies the West Bank, East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip (the ‘Occupied Territories’) during the 6-day war with Egypt, bringing all of historical Palestine under Israeli rule. UN resolution 242 calls on Israel to withdraw from the territories. It fails to do so, and initiates a system of increasingly brutal military control over the territories. 1987 The Palestinians in the Occupied Territories rise up in the first non-violent Intifada (‘uprising’), calling for self-determination and an independent Palestinian state. 1993–5 The US brokers a series of agreements between the Israeli and Palestinian leaderships. The ‘Oslo Accords’ are intended as a first step towards Palestinian self-rule, with a staged withdrawal from the Occupied Territories by Israeli troops. However, illegal Israeli settlements in the Occupied Territories double in number during the ‘peace process’. By the year 2000 there are about 350,000 Israeli settlers in the Occupied Territories. 2000 Israel’s increasingly brutal military rule and its widespread theft of Palestinian land for settlement building ignites a second Intifada. Thousands of Palestinians are killed as they resist Israel’s huge army. 2002 The Arab governments declare they are prepared to recognise Israel within the pre-1967 borders at the Beirut Conference. Israel ignores this offer, violently invades every Palestinian city except Jericho and starts building a separation apartheid wall, largely on Palestinian land. 2005 Israel pulls out its 8000 illegal settlers from the Gaza Strip (which has a population of 1.4 million Palestinians) — and settles another 30,000 in the West Bank. It then seals off the Gaza Strip, making access virtually impossible. 2006 Democratic general elections in the Occupied Territories bring Hamas to power. The US, supported by the EU, immediately imposes severe sanctions on the Palestinians. 2008/9 Israeli military action in Gaza killed more than 1 400, including some 400 children, and caused mass devastation on infrastructure for billions of dollars, leaving Gazans in even greater squalor and inhuman conditions than they were suffering before the onslaught.
George Herbert Mead focuses on three essential themes in “Mind”. The first theme is Mind, the second is Symbols and Language, and third is the Essence of Meaning. Mead defines the first theme “Mind”, as a process or behavior that allows the conscious to control their actions. This means that the mind of the conscious plays out different scenarios in order to choose which choices it will make. Symbols are objects or depictions that hold meaning to someone. Mead believes that through Symbols and Language, people adjust their behaviors. Mead makes an interesting point about how we interpret symbols and govern our actions and behaviors based on them. “To hold within our minds the meanings of things-that allows us to mentally rehearse lines of action without actually performing them.” We think and conjure different situations based on our own symbolic meanings of objects. The Essence of Meaning according to Mead is a threefold relationship between: Individual’s gesture, response to the gesture by another person, and competition of the social act between the person who initiated the gesture and the person receiving the gesture. The Essence of Meaning refers to the gesture and it’s response that is socially meaningful, or significant, but only if it produces the desired response for the person who initiated the gesture. In order for these gestures and responses to successfully occur and complete, there must be a common ground for interpretation or understanding of symbols. Mead defines this as Significant Symbols, which are words and gestures that have the same meaning for everyone involved in the social act. Without a common ground for understanding, it would be very difficult for people to interact involving gestures, for people will not know what is required.
Grade 1 Science: Basic Aspects of Winter In this lesson plan, students will learn the difference of weather and season. It maybe difficult to teach by just relying on books. Let kids uses their senses to understand your lesson. Like letting them touch a block of ice to let them know that is how they would feel when winter comes. Click for Printing Tips
- Web sites External Web sites - American Academy of Family Physicians - Ulcers - HealthCentral - Ulcer - How Stuff Works - Health - Alternative Medicines for Ulcers - How Stuff Works - Health - Herbal Remedies for Ulcers - How Stuff Works - Healthguide - Stasis Dermatitis And Ulcers - How Stuff Works - Healthguide - Ulcers - The Nemours Foundation - Teens Health - Ulcers - UCSF Childrens Hospital in California - Ulcers - WebMD - Ulcer - World Health Organisation - Buruli Ulcer Fact sheet on this mycobacterial infection. Includes details about its prevalence, causes, symptoms, and treatments. - World Health Organisation - Buruli Ulcer Britannica Web sites Articles from Britannica encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. - ulcer - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) A potentially serious condition, an ulcer is a break in the skin or mucous membrane with a loss of surface tissue and the disintegration and sloughing off of the epithelial tissue, leaving an open sore. Ulcers can occur in any tissue or organ as the result of injury, disease, or chronic irritation or inflammation. The most common type in humans is the peptic ulcer, found in the gastrointestinal tract.
The Incredible Plants and Trees that Withstand the Time – check out these amazing oldest living beings that are even older than the history. First, let’s read about the oldest plants that still populate the Earth: 1. The Posidonia Oceania Sea Grass – 100 000 years The Posidonia Oceania Sea Grass, AKA Mediterranean tapeweed or Neptune Grass, is an aquatic grass endemic that grows in the Mediterranean sea. The Posidonia grass grows in the coastal area that are in sheltered areas. It’s a plant that helps a lot the ecosystem because its roots are stabilizing the seabed. It’s also a well known protective environment for sea creatures. This grass has a very slow growing process, and this fact helped the scientists approximate age of the grass to about 100 000 years old. Wow, that’s impressive for a species of grass. 2. Pando – 80 000 years The Pando tree system, AKA The Trembling Giant, is an enormous grove of quaking aspens. We could say that the forest is a giant living being. It acts like a single organism because all the trees are interconnected through the same root. Every single tree is a stem of a massive clone that literally creates the forest. The clone has 6615 tones and 107 acres. The Trembling Giant is endangered since new stems have been spotted rarely. The deer and elk are to blame for overgrazing the forest. 3. Kings Lomatia – 43 000 years The Kings Lomatia grows in Tasmania is one of the oldest plants living on earth. The entire population numbers only 500 members, making the species be an endangered one. It grows green leaves and pink flowers, but not fruits or seed. The plant has a vegetative reproduction. This means when a branch fells off, it will grow roots and create as a new plant. 4. Jurupa Oak – 13 000 years The Jurupa Oak is a plant similar to a shrub that grows in California. At first glance, you wouldn’t notice anything unusual about this living thing. However, the researchers who studied the Jurupa Oak found out that it’s reproducing with the help of the clones. This plant is similar to the previous plant we’ve talked about, The Trembling Giant. It reproduces by stems. Using carbon isotopes, the scientists came to the conclusion that the age of this plant is 13 000 years. We hope they will be able to live other ten thousands of years, but the conditions tend to harden year by year. 5. Mohave Yucca – 12 000 years The Mohave Yucca, AKA the “Spanish Dagger” or Yucca schidigera is a small shrub living in Chihuahuan Desert, Mojave Desert, Sonoran Desert of southeastern California, New Mexico, Baja California, southern Nevada and Arizona. It can grow up to 3 940 feet and is a flowering plant. The plants are all interconnected by a single root and have a circular growing pattern. The Mohave Yucca is an edible plant and its parts are used to make ropes, sandals or soap. 6. King Clone – 11 700 years The King Clone plant has the real name Larrea tridentata, and it lives in Mojave Desert, California. It can grow up to 67 feet in diameter. The bushes grow from a single plant and share the same roots. The process is similar to the other plants we’ve mentioned before. The stems of this plant tend to grow in a concentric distribution. The saddest part is that this plant is growing in an unprotected area. 7. Old Tjikko – 9550 years The only remnant of the enormous colonial family of Spruce Gran Picea from Sweden is the Old Tjikko. The researchers analysed using carbon isotopes the roots of the tree. The branches found at the base of the tree are around 9500 years old, while the top of the tree is 50 years old. This solitaire tree is the witness of the climate change, but also the victim of it. Written with love and coolness by karrinah on March 1, 2014 in Amazing Stuff How do you rate this article?
The Orders of Greek Architecture Of the three great styles or orders of architecture (Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian), the Doric was the earliest and the one in which the noblest monuments were erected. Theories of the origin of the Doric order are numerous. The great remaining examples of the 6th cent. B.C. are found chiefly in Sicily and at Paestum in Italy. After 500 B.C. the archaic features of the Doric disappeared; harmonious proportions were achieved; and the final exquisitely adjusted type took form at Athens, in the Hephaesteum (465 B.C.), the Parthenon (c.447–432 B.C.), and the Propylaea (437–432 B.C.). The Greek colonies of the Asia Minor coast had evolved their own special order, the Ionic order, stamped with Asian influences. This style appeared in temples in Greece proper after 500 B.C., challenging with its slenderly proportioned columns and carved enrichments the supremacy of the simple, sturdy Doric. The most magnificent Ionic temples were those at Miletus. In Greece proper the Ionic appeared in only one temple of major importance, the Erechtheum at Athens, and otherwise the form was restricted to minor buildings, as the temple of Nike Apteros, Athens (438 B.C.), and to interiors as in the Propylaea, Athens. The third Greek order, the still more ornate Corinthian order, appeared in this period, reached its fullest development in the mid-4th cent. B.C., but was comparatively little used. The chief examples, both at Athens, are the choragic monument of Lysicrates (c.335 B.C.) and the Tower of the Winds (100 B.C.–35 B.C.). Later, the Romans used the Corinthian order extensively and adapted it into their widely used composite order. Sections in this article: More on Greek architecture The Orders of Greek Architecture from Infoplease: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Architecture
Dark matter, the mysterious substance estimated to make up approximately more than one-quarter of the mass of the Universe, is crucial to the formation of galaxies, stars and even life but has so far eluded direct observation. At a recent UCLA symposium attended by 190 scientists from around the world, physicists presented several analyses that participants interpreted to imply the existence of a dark matter particle. “The likely mass would be approximately 30 billion electron-volts“, said the symposium’s organizer, David Cline, a professor of physics in the UCLA College of Letters and Science and one of the world’s experts on dark matter. The physicists at the Feb. 26–28 event were in agreement that “there seems to be an excess in the available data that could be due to dark matter“, Cline said. “At this symposium, it was obvious that excitement is building in the fields of dark matter theory and, especially, detection“, said Cline, who noted that there are several ways dark matter can be observed and that all were discussed at the UCLA meeting. “Because dark matter makes up the bulk of the mass of galaxies and is fundamental in the formation of galaxies and stars, it is essential to the origin of life in the Universe and on Earth“, Cline said. The first evidence for dark matter was discovered in 1933 using the Mt. Wilson telescope outside of Los Angeles. More recently, various theoretical models and detector improvements have made it possible to search for dark matter particles at extremely sensitive levels, some of the most sensitive measurements made by any scientists in the world. One search technique involves using the vast amount of dark matter in our galaxy. The NASA Fermi Satellite Telescope, an international collaboration involving NASA, the Goddard Space Flight Center and the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, searches for gamma rays, very high-energy light particles, from this dark matter. There are models of dark matter that would allow a signal in the galactic dark matter consistent with the claims at the meeting and provide a small interaction consistent with the “null results” in the direct dark matter searches all over the world. Much larger direct dark matter detectors are being planned in the U.S., Italy, Canada and China (including Xenon 3 Ton, LUX-ZEPLIN 7 Ton and DarkSide, which will weigh five tons). “These larger detectors potentially could see a dark matter signal in the next few years“, Cline said. Dark matter is widely thought to be a kind of massive elementary particle that interacts weakly with ordinary matter. Physicists refer to these particles as WIMPS, for weakly interacting massive particles, and think they originated from the Big Bang. WIMPs are thought to be streaming constantly through the solar system and the Earth. Another search method is to look for an interaction of a WIMP with xenon or argon nuclei and others (like germanium) in very low-background laboratories deep underground in Italy, the U.S., Canada, China and other countries. While these experiments have seen no signal of a WIMP above 30 billion electron volts, “there is no incompatibility with the interesting excess in the FERMI data“, Cline said. “The discovery of the Higgs boson, which won the 2013 Nobel Prize in physics, plays a role in the search for dark matter“, Cline said, adding that this topic was discussed in detail at the meeting. “Dark matter“, he said, “could consist of axions, WIMPs or sterile neutrinos, all of which were discussed at the symposium” (post). The UCLA dark matter symposium is convened every two years; this was the 11th such meeting. Cline said he and his colleagues hope to clarify the dark matter puzzle at the 2016 symposium. It was at this same dark matter symposium in 1998 that two groups of scientists reported that the Universe is accelerating, as well as expanding, a finding Cline described as “one of the greatest discoveries in the history of science”. See more on last week’s conference.
Half-life is the time required for the quantity of a radioactive material to be reduced to one-half its original value. All radionuclides have a particular half-life, some of which a very long, while other are extremely short. For example, uranium-238 has such a long half life, 4.5x109 years, that only a small fraction has decayed since the earth was formed. In contrast, carbon-11 has a half-life of only 20 minutes. Since this nuclide has medical applications, it has to be created where it is being used so that enough will be present to conduct medical Here is a on-line calculator that will calculate the activity of some radionuclides at some time after it is formed.
Practice the questions given in the worksheet on calculating speed. Learn how to solve different problems on calculating speed. We know, the formula to calculate speed = distance/time 1. Ron walks 22.5 km in 5 hours, find his speed. 2. A train covers 168 km in 4 hours. Find its speed. 3. Rachel travelled 240 km in 4 hours by train and then travelled 120 km in 3 hours by car and 3 km in 1/2 hour by cycle. What is the average speed during the whole journey? 4. A car moves from A to B at a speed of 50 km/hr and comes back from B to A at a speed of 30 km/hr. Find its average speed during the journey. 5. A car covers a distance of 600 m in 2 minutes whereas a train covers a distance of 75 km in 50 minutes. Find the ratio of their speed. 6. A car covers a distance of 60 km in 3 hours. However, for the first 40 km it travels 16 km/hr. At what speed must it travel for the rest of the distance in order to complete the journey on time? 7. A bus covers a certain distance in 60 minutes if it runs at a speed of 60 km/hr. What must be the speed of the bus in order to reduce the time of journey by 40 minutes? Answers for the worksheet on calculating speed are given below to check the exact answers of the above questions on different problems. 1. 4.5 km/hr 2. 42 km/h 3. 48.4 km/hr 4. 37.5 km/hr 6. 40 km/hr 7. 180 km
The global positioning system (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system providing location data coupled with time information worldwide. This coverage is predicated on an unobstructed line of sight between the user and the dedicated satellites. The service is funded by U.S. taxpayers and maintained by a department within the U.S. government. Anyone with a GPS receiver can access the system without charge. As a navigational resource, the orbiting satellites provide critical capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. It is intended to become the backbone for modernizing the global air traffic system. The project was conceived in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous ground-based navigation systems. GPS was created and undertaken by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in 1994 and was fully commissioned with 24 satellites. In recent years, three additional orbiting units have been added to enhance worldwide coverage. As of December 2010, there were 30 operational satellites orbiting the earth actively broadcasting positioning, navigation, and timing messages to users, 24/7, around the globe. In addition, five older satellites are maintained in orbit in a standby mode that can be brought back to operational status if required. Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to modernize the GPS system and implement the next generation of GPS III satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX).In 2000, U.S. Congress authorized a modernization effort. Renovation of the constellation, which should enhance the performance and capabilities of the system, began with the launch of eight GPS Block IIR-M satellites during 2005-2009 and the first of 12 GPS Block IIF satellites in May 2010. The next generation of satellites, GPS III, is currently in development and on schedule for a first launch in 2014. In addition to the U.S. owned network, the Russian GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was in use by only the Russian military, until it was made fully available to civilians in 2007. A Galileo project is in works by the European Union along with the Chinese Compass Navigation System, and Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System. Signals from satellites The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio-navigation systems, such as LORAN. A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS satellites high above the earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages that include the time the message was transmitted, precise orbital information (the ephemeris), and general system health including the orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac). The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each message and computes the distance to each satellite. These distances along with the satellites’ locations are used to compute the position of the receiver. This position is then displayed, perhaps with a moving map presentation or latitude and longitude. Elevation information may also be included. Many GPS units show derived information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes. Three satellites might seem enough to receive information to resolve a position since space has three dimensions and a position near the earth’s surface can be assumed. However, even a very small clock error multiplied by the very large speed of lightcoupled withthe speed at which satellite signals propagate would result in a large positional error. Therefore, receivers use four or more satellites to solve the receiver’s location and time. The accurately computed time is not displayed in all applications. A few specialized devices do use the time; these include time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations. Having four satellites in view is required for most operations, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship or aircraft may have a known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions (such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer) to give a less accurate (degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible. Like all radio-based services, GPS is subject to interference from both natural and human-made sources. A civilian GPS unit can lose reception in the presence of a device designed for intentional radio jamming. This can also occur during a solar flare. For this reason, the U.S. government strongly encourages all GPS users to maintain backup capabilities for positioning, navigation, and timing. In addition, new GPS signals that are more resistant to jamming are being developed. Even conditions within the earth’s Ionosphere impact satellite transmissions. All satellites broadcast on several frequency bands termed L1 through L5. Basic military applications use two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal) while civilian receivers monitor the L1 transmission. The satellite network uses a Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technique where the message data is encoded with a pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver is programmed to be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the message and extract the required information. The L5 frequency band at 1.17645 GHz was added in the process of GPS modernization. This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under normal circumstance. One recent situation involving communications service provider LightSquared resulted in a reassessment of a plan to launch a nationwide broadband service using frequencies bordering those of GPS. LightSquared is trying to build a cell phone network out of satellites, but the technology may, potentially interfere with GPS. LightSquared wants the military and other federal agencies to refit its equipment with filters. There have been reports of aircraft onboard GPS anomalies where data transmissions broadcast through the Inmarsat satellite communications systems have been identified as the culprit. This is another system utilizing filters to prevent interference. When troubleshooting reports GPS problems it is often beneficial to employ techniques common in diagnosing basic radio problems. Signal interference is often difficult to detect but can render the GPS useless so finding out when and where the problem occurred is a good starting point. Many aircraft are equipped with dual receivers so questioning the status of both systems can provide direction to problem resolution. An aircraft inside a metal hangar is often blinded to satellite signals so installing a GPS repeater unit can be a value. This device includes an antenna that can be affixed to a building exterior, a receiver transmitter unit that will accurately reproduce satellite transmissions, and a transmit antenna that can be located within the hangar. This is a means to allow system alignment while the aircraft is indoors plus a valuable tool when on a fault-finding mission. Solar activity is another known detractor of GPS reception. An improperly bonded receiver antenna can render the navigation feature useless. Portable receivers or even remote antennae located in the cockpit may become blinded by electrically anti-iced windshields which may result in signal error. GPS is no more than measuring time and distance to determine where you are. But when it comes to the actual measuring, there are so many external factors to be accounted for that without the benefit of high tech you could easily be thrown off by half a continent. Jim Sparks has been in aviation for 30 years and is a licensed A&P. He can be reached at [email protected].
Soil Teacher Resources Find Soil educational ideas and activities Showing 61 - 80 of 7,361 resources Soil and Water Differential Heating In this differential heating experiment, students conduct an experiment using the scientific method, analytic measurement, and experimental design and setup of soil and water. Then they graph their results and write a report that includes their methods, results, and discussion of what occurred. 10th - 11th Science 3 Views 10 Downloads Soil Runoff Challenge Students find ways to decrease soil runoff for an African Village as a part of a Peace Corps project. In this soil runoff lesson, students play a soil runoff challenge online. Students complete online activities and view a slide show to further learn ways to decrease soil runoff and solve Peace Corps problems. 4th - 9th Science 3 Views 7 Downloads Discovering Rainforest Locations How many rainforests are there, where are they, and do global factors effect their locations? These are great questions that have great answers. Children in grades four through eight use several different maps to determine why rainforests occur where they do and what environmental factors cause them to grow. 4th - 8th Science 39 Views 55 Downloads CCSS: Adaptable Population Vs Consumption: Which is a Bigger Problem for the Environment & Who is Getting the Lion's Share of the World's Resources? Students develop critical thinking and awareness about the complexity of natural resource use, wealth distribution, population densities, poverty, and the environment. They think about people living in different parts of the world and about the varying effects of population vs. 9th - 12th Social Studies & History 21 Views 72 Downloads Get The Dirt On Soils Students examine the various soils and list the parts of the ecosystems. In groups, they investigate the soils to determine its texture and the permeability rates. They give examples of how soil information is used to determine human land uses. 4th - 8th Math 3 Views 23 Downloads "Investigating Soil Color and Texture" Ninth graders will identify/understand the differences between soil and dirt. They will classify soil color accurately and use Munsell notation to describe it (Munsell books provided).Students will classify soil texture using the feel method (hand out provided). 9th Science 3 Views 4 Downloads Soil Nutrients - Phosphorus Lab Lesson Plan Students list sources of phosphorus in soil. They explain how phosphorus is removed from the soil and used by plants. Students list the symptoms of insufficient or excess phosphorus. Students perform experiments to examine the effect of nutrients and their affect on plant growth. 5th - 8th Science 3 Views 4 Downloads Soil Nutrients - Nitrate Lab Lesson Plans Young scholars perform experiments to review the importance of nutrients and their affect on plant growth and nutrition. Students explain how nitrogen is removed from the soil and used by plants. They list the symptoms of insufficient or excess nitrogen. 5th - 8th Science 3 Views 7 Downloads The Delicate Balance - Iowa's Natural Resources Discover the natural resources in Iowa by studying it's history. In this environmental lesson, your learners will observe a topographical map of Iowa and identify where its most valuable resources are. They complete an Iowa name matching game and other activities based on the state's history. 3rd - 12th Science 4 Views 37 Downloads Renewable vs. Non-Renewable Resources Here's a fine instructional activity on renewable and non-renewable sources of energy for your 5th graders. In it, learners list a number of natural resources on the board, then try to sort the resources into appropriate categories. This helps them to define and understand renewable vs, non-renewable resources. 5th Science 18 Views 41 Downloads The Happy Game: Natural Resources Can't get enough of the Happy Game? Here it is again, this time students help Happy get a healthy lunch by answering questions related to the environment and natural resources. This is a great game to play prior to a lesson, to get an idea of what students already know, or play it again after a lesson to show them how much they have learned. 1st - 2nd Science 15 Views 59 Downloads Bill Nye The Science Guy on Rocks and Soil Rock the classroom with this hip video clip about dirt and rocks! Contents and the process of producing soil and sand are explained in the forest and on the beach. Time, pressure, and high temperatures are introduced as the requirements for creating metamorphic rock. 2 mins 3rd - 6th Science 12 Views 18 Downloads New Review Albert Sabin and Bioethics: Testing at the Chillicothe Federal Reformatory Do the ends justify the means? Getting a drug approved in the US is a long and involved process. But at some point out, it involves testing on humans. The ethics of such testing is the focus of a resource that uses Dr. Albert Sabin's testing of his polio vaccine on inmates at the Chilliothe Federal Reformatory to explore bioethics. 9th - 12th Science 3 Views 1 Download CCSS: Designed Independent Plant Growth Experiment This is an awesome lesson filled with tons of engaging learning activities. Over a period of weeks learners will make observations, collect plant and analyze plant data, read and review agricultural articles, design and conduct an experiment based on a developed hypothesis, conduct research, and work toward having a strong paper and product for the science fair. 6th Language Arts 18 Views 79 Downloads
Family Name: Vespidae Scientific Name: Vespula vulgaris The Common wasp and the German wasp nests underground and in cavities in trees and buildings, The Tree wasp nests suspended from the branches of trees or constructed underground. Norwegian wasp constructs small nests on twigs e.g. on gooseberry bushes and hawthorn. Cuckoo wasp, the worked caste lacking. It is parasitic usually laying its eggs in the nests of the Red Wasp. Red wasp nests underground. Hornet nests in hollow trees and occasionally buildings. Mason wasps are solitary wasps which nest under the ground and in soft mortar. Biology and Behaviour Up to 30mm long; yellow and black coloured. Hornets are the largest wasps, but relatively uncommon. Wasps are typically social insects with new nests constructed each year. The queens which are larger than the workers overwinter. They emerge in the spring and feed on nectar and sap. In the autumn, new queens and males are produced. The latter fertilise the queens who then search for hibernation sites. With the onset of severe weather the nests die out.
Hubs/repeaters are used to connect together two or more network segments of any media type. In larger designs, signal quality begins to deteriorate as segments exceed their maximum length. Hubs provide the signal amplification required to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance. Passive hubs simply forward any data packets they receive over one port from one workstation to all their remaining ports. Active hubs, also sometimes referred to as multiport repeaters, regenerate the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal. Hubs are also used in star topologies such as 10BaseT. A multi-port twisted pair hub allows several point-to-point segments to be joined into one network. One end of the point-to-point link is attached to the hub and the other is attached to the computer. If the hub is attached to a backbone, then all computers at the end of the twisted pair segments can communicate with all the hosts on the backbone. An important fact to note about hubs is that they only allow users to share Ethernet. A network of hubs/repeaters is termed a shared Ethernet, meaning that all members of the network are contending for transmission of data onto a single network (collision domain). This means that individual members of a shared network will only get a percentage of the available network bandwidth. The number and type of hubs in any one collision domain for 10BaseT Ethernet is limited by the following rules: \|Network Type\|\|Max Nodes Per Segment\|\|Max Distance Per Segment\| While repeaters allow LANs to extend beyond normal distance limitations, they still limit the number of nodes that can be supported. Bridges, routers and switches, however, allow LANs to grow significantly larger by virtue of their ability to support full Ethernet segments on each port.
I’m going to point out a few things about this manuscript, and then you’re going to take over to help me transcribe and then translate parts of it. Remember that transcribing is just figuring out what the Latin letters and words are and writing them down. Translating would be expressing that Latin into another language of your choice. The first thing that pops out to me are the huge letters that spell “Liber”. A close look at these remarkable letters pays off. The latin word liber means book. The scribes who wrote this were monks, so it shouldn’t be too surprising that this is a religious book. Latin was the language for science and religion in the Western world for centuries, and this is one of the reasons why learning Latin is so useful for a deep understanding of history. First, let’s do some transcription: 1. Look above the letters ER in liber, at the Latin that begins with incipit. Using the guide on page 35 for the under case letters, transcribe the two lines (four words). 2. Look closely and try to transcribe the two smaller words that are above the two lines you just translated. Do you think that’s Latin? If so, what is it? If not, what else is it? 3. Using the guide for upper case letters, transcribe the first two lines that begin below liber, but stop at the S in the second line. 4. This is a Latin word. Find its definition. Can you think of any English words related to this Latin word? 5. Try to transcribe the rest if you are up for the challenge. One hint, the symbol in the last line that looks like a circle with a line through it is a strange version of the letter F that your guide doesn’t point out. In your transcription, also include any markings that exist above the letters, because they are significant. Notice the similar markings in the Latin at the very top of the manuscript. 6. Transcribe the two Latin words at the very top of the manuscript, beginning with the capital M. 7. When you have verified your transcriptions with me, I’ll give you the password so that we can begin translating!
During guided reading, another tool that's extremely useful is miniature whiteboards. The whiteboards give each student an opportunity to share their ideas in a very comfortable setting, and be able to erase their ideas if they're not quite sure about what they're being asked to do. Our current unit in guided reading is asking questions, so we can use whiteboard markers to think about what are the questions we have before we read the text, and they're in red. We can think about during reading, what were the questions I had, and using a blue whiteboard marker the student can write down something during the read of the story. After they've read they might be still wondering about something, you can color-code that in black so that you've got a reference for before, during, and after what the students were thinking as they were wondering and asking questions. The whiteboard can be used for any reading strategy in any kind of guided reading atmosphere, and every time you change your group, you erase the whiteboard and you start fresh. What Is Guided Reading?: http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/strats/guided/guided.html The goal of A Tool for Reading: Using Whiteboards during Guided Reading (Virtual Tour) is to provide students with an opportunity to share their ideas during small group instruction and to help students organize their ideas in order to improve their comprehension while reading. - Small-group instruction provides opportunities for the teacher to offer guidance and feedback to all students. - Guided reading sessions should be kept between 10-20 minutes and can be of mixed-ability or leveled groupings, depending on lesson begin taught. Choose texts that are appropriate for your lesson. - Focus on a reading strategy with which a small group of students are having difficulty. Introduce vocabulary and invite the students to make predictions before reading. - Have the students read the text silently. As students read to themselves invite each group member to read aloud in a quiet whisper voice. Record anecdotal notes in a conference binder.
Anaplasmosis is an infectious disease of cattle caused by several species of the blood parasite Anaplasma. A. marginale is the most common pathogen of cattle. (Smith, B.P.) Sheep and goats are much less commonly affected. Anaplasmosis is also called “yellow bag” or “yellow fever” as affected animals can develop a jaundiced appearance. Anaplasmosis is seen worldwide and has been reported in at least 40 states in the U.S. (Smith, B.P.) It is a common disease in the southern U.S. The highest incidence of anaplasmosis in Virginia seems to occur throughout the Piedmont area of Central Virginia. It is an important disease in Virginia as it tends to cause outbreaks in a herd, which can lead to the death of adult cattle. Other economic losses include abortions, decreased weight gain, bull infertility, and treatment costs. (Stokka and Faulkner) A. marginale can be transmitted two different ways. First, it can be transmitted mechanically when red blood cells infected with A. marginale are inoculated into susceptible cattle. This can occur through needles, dehorners, ear taggers, castrating knives or other surgical instruments, and tattoo instruments. Mechanical transmission can also occur through the mouthparts of biting insects, such as biting flies. Face flies, houseflies, and other non-biting insects do not transmit the disease. Horn flies, although they bite, typically do not go from animal to animal so they are not thought to spread Anaplasma. Mechanical transmission of infected red blood cells must occur within a few minutes of the blood leaving the infected animal, as the blood parasite does not survive more than a few minutes outside the animal. Second, Anaplasma can be transmitted through its biological vector. The parasite receives nourishment from, and may even multiply in, the biological vector. The biological vector for anaplasmosis is the dermacentor, or wood, ticks. Once in the tick, the parasite can remain active throughout the lifecycle of the tick and can be transmitted several months later. Once susceptible cattle are infected with Anaplasma, the organism multiplies in the bloodstream and attaches to the animal’s red blood cells. The animal’s immune system destroys the infected red blood cells in an attempt to fight off the infection. Unfortunately, uninfected blood cells are also destroyed. When the number of blood cells being destroyed exceeds the number of blood cells that the body can produce, the animal becomes anemic. It takes 3 to 6 weeks for clinical signs to appear after the animal is infected. (Smith, B.P., SR6011) Although many outbreaks of anaplasmosis occur in the spring and summer, they can occur at any time of the year. The many ways it can be transmitted and the potential for carrier animals makes the source of an outbreak confusing. If an outbreak occurs in spring or summer, it suggests that the source of the infection is from insect vectors. If the outbreak occurs 3 to 6 weeks after cattle are processed, that suggests Anaplasmawas transferred from an infected animal to a susceptible one during processing. If an outbreak occurs at other times, new arrivals or increased stress should be considered as the source of the disease. When any outbreak occurs, it suggests that carrier animals are present either in your herd, or a neighboring herd, as carrier animals are an efficient source of infection. (Eriks et al.) Carrier animals carry Anaplasma in their bodies, but do not show clinical signs and are able to infect other animals. Later, clinically ill animals can continue to spread the disease. Anaplasmosis is unusual because the clinical signs are most severe in adult animals. Calves less than a year old that are infected with A. marginale usually do not show clinical signs of the disease, but will become carriers. Carrier animals have immunity against anaplasmosis, so even if they are infected later in life, they will generally not get sick. Cattle 1 to 3 years old will show increasingly more severe clinical signs. Recovered animals will also become carriers. Newly infected adult cattle over 3 years will show the most severe clinical signs, and 30 percent to 50 percent will die if they are not treated early. Unless cattle are being watched carefully, dead cows are frequently the first thing noticed with an anaplasmosis outbreak. If cattle are carefully observed, weakness may be the first clinical sign that is noticed with anaplasmosis. Infected cattle will fall behind the rest of the herd and will not eat or drink. Cows with light skin will initially look pale around the eyes and muzzle, but later this can change to a yellowish color (jaundice). This jaundice is due to the destruction of the blood cells and their contents being released into the blood stream. Weight loss is rapid. Cattle can become extremely aggressive if they are oxygen deprived due to the severe anemia. Oxygen deprivation can also result in abortions in pregnant cows. Constipation, high fever, and labored breathing can also be seen. The most critical period is the first 4 to 9 days after clinical signs appear. (Richey and Palmer; Richey, 1992) Cows that survive this period have an increased chance of survival. Treatment of anaplasmosis is most effective if given in the early stage of the disease. A single dose of longacting oxytetracycline (ex. LA-200®) is administered subcutaneously at 9 mg per pound of body weight. Blood transfusions are occasionally used. Animals in later stages of the disease may be so anemic that the stress of handling them will kill them. There is also evidence that antibiotics at this stage are not effective. (Richey, 1999) Therefore, for very weakened or belligerent cattle, antibiotic treatment is not recommended. Contact your veterinarian if you suspect anaplasmosis on your farm. This will allow a positive diagnosis of anaplasmosis to be made and the best course of treatment implemented. All affected animals should be provided with easy access to food and water and a low-stress environment. It may take surviving animals up to 3 months to completely recover from the disease. Animals treated with a single dose of antibiotics and those not treated at all will both become carrier animals. Carrier animals can be cleared of anaplasmosis with repeated injections of long-acting oxytetracycline or prolonged feeding of chlortetracycline. (see Table 1) Control programs for anaplasmosis will be different depending on the prevalence of the disease in the area. The prevalence can be categorized as follows: • Heavily infected area • Moderately infected area • Non-infected area In some areas of the country, anaplasmosis is so widespread that there are advantages to having a 100 percent carrier status on the farm. This will prevent death loss of adult cattle as they will not be susceptible to the disease. This is often achieved naturally as anaplasmosis is so widespread that all of the cattle have been exposed at a young age when they do not develop clinical signs of the disease. There is some risk that an animal would not be exposed and would therefore be susceptible to disease as an adult. To prevent animals from not being immune, animals over 6 months of age and new arrivals may be vaccinated for anaplasmosis so they also become carrier animals, or chlortetracycline can be fed in the mineral mix (see Table 1, Prevention of Clinical Disease Only), which will not prevent infection but will prevent losses from disease. Vaccinating will not prevent susceptible cattle from becoming infected either, but will reduce the clinical signs of the disease. Vaccination requires a first injection and a booster 4 weeks later. Both injections must be completed 2 weeks before the vector season, and the manufacturer recommends an annual booster vaccine. The disadvantage of this control program is there are federal regulations governing the interstate movement of anaplasmosis carrier animals. Vaccinated animals will test positive for anaplasmosis, and they cannot be distinguished from animals with reactions due to infection. For owners of purebred herds or others who sell cattle, animals to be sold must be negative for anaplasmosis, but protected from disease. Chlortetracycline can be added in the mineral mix year-round to prevent the disease (see Table 1, Prevention of Clinical Disease only). However, cattle can still be infected and test positive for anaplasmosis. These carrier animals can be cleared of the infection with an antibiotic regime (see Table 1, Carrier Elimination) but many will test positive for several months after the treatment, so they must be tested +/- treated several months before being sold. To reduce the chance of cattle to be sold becoming carriers, a higher dosage of chlortetracycline can be given in the feed during the vector season (see Table 1, Prevention of Disease and Infection). Additionally, you should take care when processing cattle to avoid exposing the animals to be sold. In a moderately infected area, there are two different strategies available. The first is to keep your herd negative for anaplasmosis but protect them from disease by feeding chlortetracycline in the mineral mix year-round, mixing it in the feed, or oxytetracycline injections during the vector season. (see Table 1) Generally in Virginia, the goal of anaplasmosis control programs is to eliminate it from the herd. One method of prevention is to control insect vectors. While not all insects can be prevented, reducing the number will help reduce the chance of a herd outbreak. Periodic spraying, dust bags, and back rubbers are all feasible methods of decreasing the number of insects. Pasture management can be helpful. Have animals graze areas where insect numbers are the lowest (hillside pastures) in the spring and summer, and then in the fall and winter move them to areas where the spring and summer insect numbers were the highest (pastures next to creeks or ponds) when the insects are no longer present. When processing cattle, take care to disinfect equipment after each animal. A quick rinse in a bucket of disinfectant is all that is needed. Bleach or Nolvasan diluted to 3 ounces per gallon of water can be used. In a moderately infected area, it is best to change needles between cattle. You cannot disinfect needles as that will inactivate the vaccines you are giving. If carrier animals are identified, they should be cleared of infection with an antibiotic regime. (see Table 1) The policy of testing bulls for anaplasmosis for BCIA sales is in effect in Virginia. This has been adopted to prevent infected bulls from carrying the disease to non-infected herds. Bulls coming from Central Virginia, where the disease is prevalent, should be tested before introduction to herds in clear areas. The second strategy is to vaccinate all animals over 6 months of age for anaplasmosis. This will protect cattle from developing the disease as they become adults, but you will face the same the same challenges as someone selling cattle from a heavily infected area. In a noninfected area, careful monitoring is recommended. Watch for signs that anaplasmosis is present. A veterinarian should examine cows that have died from unknown causes. Often the first thing noticed in an outbreak is a dead cow. Unfortunately, often several cows die unnecessarily before a diagnosis is made. The above recommendations regarding insect control and processing precautions should be followed. If anaplasmosis is present on your farm, consistent management and treatment programs are necessary to prevent a devastating outbreak. Working closely with your veterinarian to institute treatment and prevention programs is essential. During an outbreak, sick animals should be treated as discussed above, and should be isolated from the rest of the herd. It is best to move the healthy animals, if possible, so additional stress is not placed on the sick animals. All cattle should be tested for anaplasmosis. High number of infected cattle. If there is a high number of infected cattle, several options are available: Low number of infected cattle. If there is a low number of infected cattle, all carrier animals should be cleared of the infection. Again, animals may be given prophylactic antibiotics. (see Table 1) There are advantages and disadvantages to all of the control programs listed above. The strategies chosen during an outbreak will not only depend on the number of cattle infected during the outbreak, but also the prevalence of anaplasmosis in your area. As stated earlier, in Virginia, it is most likely that you would want your herd anaplasmosis free. The advantages of an anaplasmosis- free herd are the ability to sell animals that are negative for anaplasmosis and adult cattle will not be infected by carrier animals in the herd. Once you have an anaplasmosis-free herd, careful management and monitoring will be necessary. All outside additions to the herd should be from “free” herds or tested for anaplasmosis. The previously described management programs for insect control and processing techniques should be instituted. In addition, you can give antibiotics by injection or in the mineral/feed mix to prevent cattle from developing severe clinical signs of the disease. Your veterinarian will have up-to-date information about the prevalence of anaplasmosis in your area and can help you decide if antibiotic protection is necessary, either during the vector season or year-round. To maintain an anaplasmosis-free status, at least 20 percent of the herd must be tested negative each year. (Zaugg) Anaplasmosis is an infectious disease of cattle that causes anemia, abortions, and death. Adult cattle have the most severe symptoms of the disease. Virginia farmers should be concerned about anaplasmosis, as it can present significant economic loss. If you have anaplasmosis on your farm, work closely with your veterinarian to develop the best management program based on the number of animals affected and the prevalence of anaplasmosis in your area. If anaplasmosis has not been a problem on your farm, management programs and monitoring will help your herd continue to be anaplasmosis free. Virginia Cooperative Extension materials are available for public use, re-print, or citation without further permission, provided the use includes credit to the author and to Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, and Virginia State University. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia State University, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating. Edwin J. Jones, Director, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg; Jewel E. Hairston, Administrator, 1890 Extension Program, Virginia State, Petersburg. May 1, 2009
To Timbuktu--A Journey with Ibn Battuta Teacher Notes \| Task \| Step-by-Step \| Learning Advice \| Project Time Line \| Evaluation Criteria \| Conclusion \| Reflection \| Group Evaluation Form Ibn Battuta (1304-1369) is to this day known as one of the great travelers of all time. His journeys covered the entire Moslem world of his day plus Ceylon, Byzantium, China, and southern Russia. The length of his travels is estimated to be 75,000 miles. His last trip was to West Africa, across the Sahara to the Kingdom of Mali in 1353. This journey lasted until 1355, when he returned to his home in Morocco to stay. Scenario for Students The following sign has been spotted near the Moroccan home of Ibn Battuta: Wanted: Four strong young travelers of good character to accompany the great Ibn Battuta from here to Timbuktu. Travelers will be expected to keep an account of their trip in the form of a journal which will include descriptions of the peoples, climate, and geography encountered as well as maps for others to follow. Be prepared for a journey of two years. "A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step." (Ancient Chinese proverb perhaps heard by Ibn Battuta when he visited China in 1345.) At the end of this journey you will present to your class an account of your travels in the form of a written journal complete with maps. This journal will include the following: A biography of Ibn Battuta. Who was he? Where had earlier travels taken him? What interesting things had he discovered along the way? Descriptions of the land through which you are traveling. What does it look like? Do we have a name for this type of land such as desert, savannah, etc.? What vegetation do you see? Is it natural vegetation or crops grown by farmers? What is the weather like when you are there? At other times of the year? Where does water come from for this place? Descriptions of the peoples you meet. How do they live? Are they farmers or nomads? Do they engage in trade? What do they use for trade? Can you comment on any local customs or traditions? How do they prepare their food? What do they wear? Is theirs a matrilineal or patrilineal society? Who is in charge? Do they have a written language? Maps for others to follow. Include an overall map of your journey along with more detailed maps of local areas. Illustrate your maps with pictures or drawings of architecture, scenery, animals, and people. Include keys for climate zones, trade routes, population density, or anything else you think would be important to fellow travelers. Step 1: Meet with your group and decide who will be in charge of the following elements of the task: 1. Who will be responsible for coordinating the entire project. 2. Who will research the people you meet along the way. 3. Who will research the geography you will be covering. 4. Who will write which parts of the journal (journalists). 5. Who will draw which maps (cartographers). Step 2: Gather information. Discuss what resources you will use and how you will divide the work. It is not necessary for each person to use every resource. Assign members to standard references (encyclopedias, atlases, etc.), other print resources (books and magazines), and the computer. Each person in the group is expected to contribute to the efforts of others in the group. Be prepared to help someone else when asked to do so. Time on-line in the classroom or in the library will be limited. When it is your group's turn at the computer, use your time as efficiently as possible. When you find something you think will be useful to you, print it out for later analysis. Do not tie up computer time by trying to read everything on-line. Note: With your teacher, please review your school's acceptable use policy for work on the Internet. Also, links to the Web often change. Tell your teacher when you find a poor link in this guide. Step 3: Writing and mapping. You may wish to create a time line to represent the two years of your journey. Then, knowing when you are where, organize the information you have for each place along the way and begin writing your journal. While the journalists are writing, the cartographers are creating their maps. Cartographers should check the following Web site before beginning any work: Coordinate your efforts with the journalists so that your map doesn't, for example, illustrate the dry season at a place when you are there during the wet season. Remember, your map should reflect the style of maps done in the 14th century. Check the maps in the Catalan Atlas for ideas. Step 4: Plan your presentation. Remember that the focus of your map and journal is West Africa in the 14th century. When you arrive in Mali and are resting in Timbuktu, be sure to explore the influence of their great king, Mansa Musa. People will still be talking about his trip to Mecca and the impact it is having on their lives. What has happened to Mali since Mansa Musa's death? Here are some web sites which may prove useful. Brainstorm with your group for key words to expand your search. For information on: The Catalan Atlas--14th Century maps Project Time Line Plan your time to adhere to the following schedule. Decide who will be responsible for which part of the work. Groups meet to share information and plan further reshearch. Library reshearch as needed. Groups meet to organize information and begin writing. Cartographers decide on materials needed to produce maps. Journalists finish writing first drafts. Cartographers key maps to journals. Groups meet to critique map and journal drafts and suggest changes. Complete final drafts of journals and maps. Plan presentations. Brainstorm questions to ask other groups during presentations. Both your teacher and your classmates, using criteria agreed upon prior to the beginning of the project, will evaluate your work. You will be graded on: This project has been designed to provide an opportunity for you to learn more about the medieval trading kingdoms of sub-Saharan West Africa by "traveling" with one of the great travelers of all time, Ibn Battuta. I hope you increased your knowledge of the geography and climate zones of the area, as well as the people and places and their history. Write a brief (one page or less) reflection on this project. Discuss what you learned. What did you find most interesting? Why do you say so? Is there anything you would like to know more about? How will you find out about it? Also discuss what you learned about working with your group. Did your group work well together? Did you have some problems but worked them out? How did you solve problems? Did your group not work well together? Why not? What did you do best? What would you have done differently? Technical questions on the website to: [email protected]
The fertilized ovule is called seed and possesses an embryo, endosperm and a protective coat. Seeds may be endospermous (wheat, maize, barley and sunflower) or non endospermous. (Bean, Mango, Orchids and cucurbits). Cicer seed (example for Dicot seed) The mature seeds are attached to the fruit wall by a stalk called funiculus. The funiculus disappears leaving a scar called hilum. Below the hilum a small pore called micropyle is present. It facilitates entry of oxygen and water into the seeds during germination. Each seed has a thick outer covering called seed coat. The seed coat is developed from integuments of the ovule. The outer coat is called testa and is hard whereas the inner coat is thin, membranous and is called tegmen. In Pea plant the tegmen and testa are fused. Two cotyledons laterally attached to the embryonic axis and store the food materials in pea whereas in other seeds like castor the endosperm contains reserve food and the cotyledons are thin. The portion of embryonal axis projecting beyond the cotyledons is called radicle or embryonic root. The other end of the axis called embryonic shoot is the plumule. Embryonal axis above the level of cotyledon is called epicotyl whereas the cylindrical region between the level of cotyledon is called hypocotyl. Oryza seed (example for Monocot seed) The seed of paddy is one seeded and is called Caryopsis. Each seed remains enclosed by a brownish husk which consists of glumes arranged in two rows. The seed coat is a brownish, membranous layer closely adhered to the grain. Endosperm forms the bulk of the grain and is the storage tissue. It is separated from embryo by a definite layer called epithelium. The embryo is small and consists of one shield- shaped cotyledon known as scutellum present towards lateral side of embryonal axis. A short axis with plumule and radicle protected by the root cap is present. The plumule is surrounded by a protective sheath called coleoptile. The radicle including root cap is also covered by a protective sheath called coleorhiza. The scutellum supplies the growing embryo with food material absorbed from the endosperm with the help of the epithelium
The European Starling is a medium-sized, black songbird with short, triangular wings, spotted plumage, and a short tail. The adult in breeding plumage has a distinctive thin, pointed, yellow bill and black, speckled plumage with purple-green iridescence. The non-breeding adult has a black beak and light spots. Juveniles are drab gray-brown overall. Males and females look alike. Starlings are typically associated with disturbed areas and human-altered settings. They can be found in practically all habitats, with the exception of large tracts of undisturbed forests and undeveloped alpine areas. They usually forage in open areas, especially lawns, agricultural fields, or other developed areas, but require nearby nesting cavities. European Starlings tend to form flocks year round, but flocks are generally larger'and often huge'in fall and winter. They often forage with other species, including Red-winged Blackbirds, Brown-headed Cowbirds, American Robins, House Sparrows, crows, and Rock Doves. When foraging, they generally walk or run along the ground and probe the soil with their bills, looking for food. Starlings can be aggressive and will persistently harass other species to take over nesting cavities. They will also mob predators in flight, gathering into tight flocks and dive-bombing a hawk or other predator. Starlings are intelligent and adaptable, and are capable mimics. Starlings eat a diverse, omnivorous diet of invertebrates, berries and other fruit, grains, and seeds. They commonly come to seed and suet feeders. Starlings are generally monogamous, but can be polygamous. They begin nesting early in the breeding season. Males establish territories and choose nest sites, then attract females. European Starlings are cavity nesters, and nests are generally located in natural hollows, old woodpecker holes, birdhouses, or building eaves and crevices. The male generally starts the nest, and the female finishes the job, often removing material that the male placed initially. The nest is a loose pile of twigs, weeds, grass, feathers, leaves, and other material, with a depression in the middle. Both members of the pair help incubate 4 to 6 eggs for about 12 days. Females will sometimes lay eggs in other starlings' nests. Both adults help brood the young and bring food to the nest. The young leave the nest after about three weeks. The parents may continue to feed the young for a day or two after they fledge, but the young can forage on their own at that time. If this is the first brood, the female typically starts laying a second brood shortly after the first one fledges. The male may provide support for up to 12 days after the young leave the nest, and the young often join other newly fledged young on communal roosts. European Starlings appear to be partially migratory, but patterns vary regionally and individually. Many birds move into valleys and urban areas during the winter. It is hard to imagine now, but European Starlings were purposefully introduced into the United States from Europe. The effort failed twice before a successful introduction of about 60 birds was made in New York City's Central Park in 1890. Those birds reproduced and spread quickly across developed and other human-altered habitats. European Starlings were first recorded in Washington in 1943, only 53 years later. The first confirmed breeding was in 1951, and by then starlings had crossed into western Washington. The first record in the Puget Sound region was in 1949, and the first western Washington breeding was in 1955. By 1977, only 34 years after they first appeared in Washington, European Starlings were abundant throughout the state. The Breeding Bird Survey recorded only a slight, not statistically significant, increase in Washington between 1966 and 2002. However even if the population increase is leveling off, current numbers are high enough that European Starlings are considered pests. European Starlings have had a strong negative impact on many cavity-nesting birds, Western Bluebirds, Lewis' Woodpeckers, and Purple Martins among them. A number of control methods have been proposed, but as yet no successful, cost-effective, sustainable methods have been discovered. When and Where to Find in Washington European Starlings are abundant year round in most lower-elevation habitats throughout Washington, especially in proximity to human development. Click here to visit this species' account and breeding-season distribution map in Sound to Sage, Seattle Audubon's on-line breeding bird atlas of Island, King, Kitsap, and Kittitas Counties. \|Pacific Northwest Coast\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\|\|C\| Washington Range Map North American Range Map \|Federal Endangered Species List\|\|Audubon/American Bird Conservancy Watch List\|\|State Endangered Species List\|\|Audubon Washington Vulnerable Birds List\|
To determine position on the open seas, one need to measure the Latitude (north and south) and Longitude (degrees east and west). But longitude is a more difficult task. - Latitude: how far north or south, referenced to the equator (halfway between the north and south poles). - Longitude: how far east or west from some agreed upon position (now-a-days pinned to the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England). From Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system) While it is possible to determine the longitude by observing the stars (or even the moons of Jupiter), these measurement require a degree of accuracy impossible on the rolling deck of a ship at sea. A solution to this problem is the use of accurate timepieces. - …Two observers note the time when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky - …The difference in time is directly related to the angle between the two observers on the surface of the earth - …24 hours = 360 degrees - …Each hour of difference = 15 degrees - …The angle between the position of the two observers can be use to determine distance - …Each degree = (circumference of the earth)/(360 degrees) = 69.2 miles where the circumference = 24900 miles. - …Using Nautical miles, each degree = (21639 nautical miles)/(360 degrees) = 60 nautical miles - …So that each minute of angle (60 minutes to a degree) = 1 nautical mile - …So for each hour of difference between the two observers, they are 60 nautical miles apart (or 69.2 land miles). - Easy. Right? Well, it’s only easy if the two observers are using clocks that have been synchronized and keep accurate time. Today, any pair of inexpensive wristwatches would suffice. However, not until the eighteenth century, could such accurate clocks be constructed. Prior to the 18th Century, navigators could determine latitude (distance north or south) but could only guess their east-west position by dead reckoning (estimating the speed of their ship, estimate of the direction of travel, and estimating their time duration). Hence the name “dead” reckoning. In my time-travel, alternative history novels, common wristwatches become a highly valued navigational aid. (In your story, make sure they run on internal springs and not batteries!). The tale of John Harrison’s construction of an accurate chronometer in the 18th Century is well told in “Longitude” by Dava Sobel.
By Patrick Lynch NASA's Earth Science News Team Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. A NASA-led team of scientists took to the Chesapeake Bay this summer to study a diverse yet close-to-home ecosystem in a field campaign that will help the agency determine how to study ocean health and air quality in coastal regions from space. Two weeks of research cruises throughout the Chesapeake during a steamy July provided scientists with a detailed wealth of data on what might be called the fundamentals of the ecosystem. How do nutrient levels, pollutants, organic matter, water temperature and dissolved oxygen change throughout the day? What is the makeup of particulate matter in the air, and how does poor air from nearby urban and industrial regions move around above the water and ultimately influence the bay? And how does the air, water and land – or in this case, wetland – affect one another? Antonio Mannino, an oceanographer at Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md., and Maria Tzortziou, an oceanographer and physicist at the University of Maryland and Goddard Space Flight Center, led the campaign as chief scientists. Both are working toward what would be a first for NASA and a significant milestone for their field: a geostationary satellite designed to make detailed measurements of ocean color and air quality along the coasts. Current and former NASA satellite instruments have measured ocean color – in essence, a measure of the amount of sediment, dissolved organics and phytoplankton in the water – from polar orbits. These have provided significant and long-term global data on the composition, productivity and health of the oceans. But NASA has never had a geostationary satellite – meaning it would occupy the same spot hundreds of miles above Earth, rather than orbiting around the planet – for ocean color. This would provide constant coverage of dynamic ecosystems, providing important information of the sort Mannino,Tzortziou and more than 20 other scientists from nine US academic and research institutes were gathering directly in the field this summer – how do air and ocean qualities change throughout a day, not just over long periods of time? And how can we measure this from space? The Geostationary Coastal and Air Pollution Events (GEO-CAPE) mission was outlined by the National Research Council in its 2007 Earth science decadal survey as one of the most important goals for Earth science research from space. While it is years from being scheduled for launch, scientists such as Mannino and Tzortziou continue to lay the groundwork for a successful mission. Like with any mission, Mannino said, "We can't build our dream instrument because of the cost. We're trying to understand what can we study given certain specs." To that end, ten full days on the Chesapeake gave scientists plenty to start with. The Chesapeake was chosen because the campaign could tie in to a series of flights over the Baltimore -Washington region during the month of July as part of NASA's DISCOVER-AQ mission . But the diversity of the bay's different nooks and regions was an added benefit. Leaving from Annapolis, Md., every morning, a group of about 20 researchers made transects in all directions, released a drifter to take measurements wherever the currents led, anchored in one location throughout the day, and took a trip on a Zodiac inflatable power boat to sample shallow water near the marshes of the Blackwater Wildlife Refuge. One key question Tzortziou has been investigating is the influence of marshes and wetlands on nearby water quality and carbon cycling."The idea was to go as close as possible to wetlands, which act as sources of dissolved organic and inorganic carbon, and look at the tidal exchanges of carbon and nutrients at the land-ocean interface where rapid processes occur," Tzortziou said. "How far into the main stem of the Bay can you detect the signal of the marsh? And how can we use satellite observations to capture and understand wetland influences on estuarine biology and biogeochemistry?" Scientists are studying nutrients, dissolved and particulate carbon, organic nitrogen, phytoplankton, chlorophyll pigment, primary production, and dissolved oxygen concentrations. They are also studying optics in the water, necessary to link biological and chemical measurements to satellite ocean color data, and levels of compounds deposited in the water by air pollution. The bay's notorious water quality struggles, particularly during the height of summer, revealed themselves one day as the ship came upon a fish kill of dozens of striped bass, one of the Chesapeake's signature species. "Unusually high nutrient pollution levels have resulted in a particularly large dead-zone in the Bay this year," said Tzortziou. "We wanted to see how the biology, biogeochemistry, and optics were changing over time," Mannino said of the suite of measurements. "Typically with satellites, we're comparing pixels over a week or month. With GEO-CAPE, we expect to quantify changes such as phytoplankton growth more directly instead of inferring this from models and limited satellite data". From the research ship (NOAA SRVx; NOAA Marine Sanctuaries Program) and from three research airplanes that performed flights over the ship and spiraled downward close to the water surface, the scientists measured trace gases and particulates in the air to get a measure of the impact of nearby major cities, traffic arteries and industry. These measurements will help toward GEO-CAPE's goal to measure both coastal air quality and marine ecosystem processes. Like with any field campaign, the part in the field is only the beginning. Mannino and Tzortziou said the campaign team has only just begun to process and analyze its data. In addition to scientists from Goddard and the University of Maryland, researchers from NOAA, University of New Hampshire, University of South Florida, Old Dominion University, East Carolina University, Johns Hopkins University, and the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center participated in the Chesapeake field campaign. High school, undergraduate and graduate students were involved in the campaign, gaining "hands on" experience at the field. The Chesapeake turned out to be an ideal location, because it was both accessible and diverse. The northern bay, near Baltimore and Annapolis, provided a sediment-heavy region due to freshwater flow from the Susquehanna River. More polluted waters (and air) near Baltimore provided an opportunity to contrast the shallows near the more pristine Blackwater refuge. And waters farther south in the bay gave scientists a look at some of the clearer regions of the estuary. Future field campaigns will likely fill in knowledge gaps and answer questions toward making GEO-CAPE a reality, Mannino said. "Ultimately, we're looking for the best satellite instruments possible for observing coastal ecosystems – instruments that will be able to make high quality ocean color observations within regions with high levels of sediment, colored dissolved organic matter, and phytoplankton," he said. "High resolution space-based observations from such instruments will help us understand ecosystem processes in highly dynamic coastal regions" added Tzortziou. "Having observations from such a diverse array of environments will help us plan future expeditions."
A Patient’s Guide to Scheuermann’s Disease The section of spine from below the neck to the bottom of the rib cage is called the thoracic spine. From the side, the thoracic spine appears slightly rounded. Its shape is like the letter “C” with the opening facing the front of the body. This normal curve is called kyphosis. With excessive kyphosis, the thoracic spine takes on a hunchbacked appearance. Scheuermann’s disease (also called Scheuermann’s kyphosis) is a condition that starts in childhood. It affects less than one percent of the population and occurs mostly in children between the ages of 10 and 12. It affects boys and girls with a slightly higher number of boys affected. Those who do not get proper treatment for the condition during childhood often experience back pain from the spinal deformity as adults. Sometimes Scheuermann’s disease doesn’t develop until adulthood. This guide will help you understand - how the problem develops - how doctors diagnose the condition - what treatment options are available What parts of the spine are involved? A healthy human spine has three gradual curves. From the side, the neck and low back curve gently inward. This is called lordosis. The thoracic kyphosis (outward curve) gives the mid back its slightly rounded appearance. These normal curves help the spine absorb forces from gravity and daily activities, such as lifting. The angle of normal kyphosis in the thoracic spine varies. During the growth years of adolescence, a normal curve measures between 25 and 40 degrees. If the curve angles more than 40 degrees, doctors consider the kyphosis a deformity. In general, kyphosis tends to be more exaggerated in girls. The angle increases slightly throughout life both in women and men. Scheuermann’s disease causes the thoracic kyphosis to angle too far (more than 45 degrees). The 12 thoracic vertebrae are known as T1 to T12. The main section of each thoracic vertebra is a round block of bone, called a vertebral body. A ring of bone attaches to the back of the vertebral body. This ring surrounds and protects the spinal cord. In Scheuermann’s disease, the front of the vertebral body becomes wedge-shaped, possibly from abnormal growth. This produces a triangular-shaped vertebral body, with the narrow, wedged part closest to the front of the body. The wedge puts a bigger bend in the kyphosis of the thoracic spine. The vertebral bodies are separated by a cushion, called an intervertebral disc. Between each disc and vertebral body is a vertebral end plate. Sometimes one or more discs in patients with Scheuermann’s disease squeeze through the vertebral end plate, which is often weaker in patients with Scheuermann’s disease. This forms pockets of disc material inside the vertebral body, a condition called Schmorl’s nodes. A long ligament called the anterior longitudinal ligament connects on the front of the vertebral bodies. This ligament typically thickens in patients with Scheuermann’s disease. This adds to the forward pull on the spine, producing more wedging and kyphosis. The disease usually produces kyphosis in the middle section of the thorax (the chest), between the shoulder blades. The condition sometimes causes kyphosis in the lower part of the thoracic spine, near the bottom of the rib cage. Related Document: A Patient’s Guide to Thoracic Spine Anatomy Why do I have this problem? Famed for discovering this disease, Scheuermann himself thought a lack of blood to the cartilage around the vertebral body caused the wedging. Though scientists have since disproved this theory, the root cause of the disease is still unknown. Mounting evidence suggests wedging develops as a problem vertebral body grows. During normal growth, the cartilage around the vertebral body turns evenly and completely to bone. If the change from cartilage to bone doesn’t happen evenly, one side of the vertebral body grows at a faster rate. By the time the entire vertebral body turns to bone, one side is taller than the other. This is the wedge shape that leads to abnormal kyphosis. Other theories of how Scheuermann’s kyphosis starts include - childhood osteoporosis - mechanical reasons Researchers have suggested that this disease can be passed down in families. Studies have shown multiple families who have passed the disease through inheritance of certain types of genes. The genetic link is uncommon but remains under investigation. One medical study found that some patients with Scheuermann’s disease had mild osteoporosis (decreased bone mass) even though they were very young. Other studies did not show problems with osteoporosis. More research is needed to confirm the role of osteoporosis in Scheuermann’s disease. Related Document: A Patient’s Guide to Osteoporosis These include strains from bending, heavy lifting, and using poor posture. This theory makes sense because the back braces used in treating kyphosis work. If a back brace can straighten a bent spine, then perhaps mechanical forces could cause more kyphosis than naturally occurs in the spine. (Back braces are discussed in more detail later.) Some experts think that tight hamstring muscles (along the back of the thigh) pull on the pelvis contributing to spinal deformity. Scientists are not convinced that mechanical reasons cause the disease; rather, these factors likely aggravate the condition. And in some cases, it is difficult to tell which came first: the mechanical changes causing the deformity or the deformity resulting in the anatomical and thus mechanical changes. Other theories put forth that might help explain the cause(s) of Scheuermann’s disease include biochemical changes in the collagen that make up the end-plates altering bone growth, above-average disc height, and increased levels of growth hormone. What does the condition feel like? Hunched posture or a round back in children usually alerts parents or teachers to the need for a doctor visit. Children don’t typically complain of back pain or other symptoms. This is not the case in adolescents who are nearing puberty and have kyphosis in the lowest part of the thorax, near the bottom of the rib cage. In these patients, back pain is the overriding problem. This happens most often to young, active males. Doctors suspect this unique form of the disease occurs because the condition is overlooked during childhood, delaying treatment. Adults who’ve lived with the hunched posture for many years may note worsening pain. They may be disturbed by the physical changes and deformity that develop.The pain and/or the physical changes typically causes them to seek medical help. Besides having a forward curved spine, most people affected by Scheuermann’s report back pain, stiffness, and loss of flexibility. The neck and low back try to compensate by increasing the natural lordotic curves in these two areas. Since the person cannot straighten the thoracic spine, the cervical and lumbar spines increase their curves to compensate for the round back. All of these changes in posture are usually accompanied by tight shoulder, hip, and leg muscles. Degenerative spondylosis is also reported as part of the natural history in middle-aged adults with Scheuermann’s kyphosis. Degenerative changes in the spine (usually from aging) can cause bone spurs to form around the spinal joints. The joint spaces start to narrow. This condition is called spondylosis, which can also contribute to pain and stiffness. Patients of all ages who experience pain generally report feeling discomfort along the sides of the spine, slightly below the main part of the abnormal curve. Exaggerated kyphosis can lead to an increased lordosis (inward curve) in the low back. This puts extra strain on the tissues of the low back. Over many years, this added wear and tear may produce low back pain. This mainly occurs in adults who have extra lumbar lordosis from years of untreated Scheuermann’s disease. In rare cases, the spinal cord is affected. A severe kyphosis stretches the spinal cord over the top of the curve. This can injure the spinal cord. Also, patients with Scheuermann’s disease have a greater chance of having a herniated thoracic disc. This is where the disc material from inside the disc begins to squeeze out and press on the spinal cord. Spinal cord symptoms for both situations include sensations of pins and needles and numbness. The leg muscles may feel weak. Symptoms from an injured spinal cord can also include changes in bowel and bladder function. Related Document: A Patient’s Guide to Thoracic Disc Herniations When the kyphosis angle exceeds 100 degrees (rare), the sharply bent spine puts pressure on the heart, lungs, and intestines. When this occurs, patients may tire quickly, suffer shortness of breath, feel chest pain, and lose their appetite. How do doctors diagnose the problem? Doctors start with a complete history and physical examination. However, X-rays are the main way to diagnose Scheuermann’s kyphosis. Taken from the side, an X-ray may show vertebral wedging, Schmorl’s nodes, and changes in the vertebral end plates. Doctors use X-ray images to measure the angle of kyphosis. Doctors diagnose Scheuermann’s disease when three vertebrae in a row wedge five degrees or more and when the kyphosis angle is greater than 45 degrees. Scheuermann’s disease or kyphosis is diagnosed as either being typical (Type I) or atypical (Type II). These two forms of the disease affect different parts of the spine. The typical form (most common type) has the thoracic kyphotic pattern described in this section. The lower (lumbar) spine compensates by becoming hyperlordotic. Lordosis is the spinal curve exactly opposite of kyphosis. Hyperlordotic means the curve increases beyond what is considered “normal.” The atypical form of Scheuermann’s (Type II) affects the low back known as the lumbar spine. The upper lumbar spine (where the thoracic spine transitions to become the lumbar spine) is involved. Type II is seen most often in young boys before puberty who are active in sports activities. They experience pain that goes away with rest and change in position or activity level. A side-view X-ray can also show if the spine is flexible or rigid. Patients are asked to bend back and hold the position while an X-ray is taken. The spine straightens easily when it is flexible. In patients with Scheuermann’s disease, however, the curve stays rigid and does not improve by trying to straighten up. From the front, X-rays show if the spine curves from side to side. This sideways curve is called scoliosis and occurs in about one-third of patients with Scheuermann’s kyphosis. X-rays can show signs of wear and tear in adults who have extra lumbar lordosis from years of untreated Scheuermann’s disease. Computed tomography (a CT scan) may be ordered. This is a detailed X-ray that lets doctors see slices of the body’s tissue. Myelography is a special kind of X-ray test. For this test, dye is injected into the space around the spinal canal. The dye shows up on an X-ray. This test is especially helpful if the doctor is concerned whether the spinal cord is being affected. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses magnetic waves rather than X-rays to show the soft tissues of the body. This machine creates pictures that look like slices of the area the doctor is interested in. The test does not require special dye or a needle. What treatment options are available? A child or youth with mild kyphosis may simply need to be observed. Unless the curve or pain becomes worse, no other treatment may be needed. Some children who don’t require treatment eventually improve and have no long-term problems. Others may always have a mild thoracic kyphosis but are able to function normally without pain or other problems. If the doctor is concerned that the curve will worsen, he or she may suggest bracing and exercise. A brace is most effective when used before the skeleton matures at about age 14. Doctors commonly chose a Milwaukee brace, which is designed to hold the shoulders back and gradually straighten the thoracic curve. The brace won’t reverse the curve in a fully developed spine. Nor is it helpful for rigid curves that angle more than 75 degrees. The Milwaukee brace is made of molded plastic that conforms to the waist. On the back, two upright, padded bars line up along the sides of the spine. Pressure from the upright bars straightens the spine. Patients usually remove the brace to shower, but they keep it on at night. Younger patients (under 15) generally wear the brace all the time. The doctor adjusts the brace regularly as the curve improves. When the thoracic curve has improved enough, the brace is worn part-time (eight to 12 hours per day) until the skeleton is done growing, typically around age 14 or 15. A physical therapist may show the patient recommended exercises. When used in combination with a brace, exercises appear to maximize the effect of the brace by strengthening muscles that help align the spine. Certain exercises, such as general conditioning and stretching, are also worthwhile for helping patients control pain. Core training for spinal stabilzation is an important part of the pain management program. However, exercises alone don’t reduce kyphosis in Scheuermann’s disease. Doctors may prescribe anti-inflammatory medication for pain. Younger patients generally use this medicine on a short-term basis, in combination with other treatments. Adults who have ongoing pain sometimes require long-term use of anti-inflammatory medication. Sometimes adults obtain partial correction of the kyphosis and pain relief with bracing even though they have reached full bone growth. Bracing for pain relief in adults is also considered when surgery is not an option. Surgeons rarely recommend fusion surgery for Scheuermann’s disease. Certain situations may require it, however. For example, surgery may be needed if pain becomes severe and doesn’t go away with nonoperative treatment or if pressure on the spinal cord or spinal nerves is causing problems. Some people request surgery if the deformity is severe enough that their appearance causes them considerable psychologic and/or emotional distress. Patients whose skeletons are done growing may require surgery. Patients with a rigid kyphosis that angles more than 75 degrees may also need surgery. The entire length of the kyphosis is fused. Two procedures commonly used to treat thoracic kyphosis are - posterior fusion - combined fusion In a fusion operation, two or more bones are joined into one solid bone. Surgeons perform posterior fusion for Scheuermann’s disease on the rare patient who prefers not to use a brace and whose spine is still growing, is mildly flexible, and has a kyphosis of less than 65 degrees. This surgery is done through the back (posterior) of the spine. After making an incision in the back, the surgeon applies pressure to straighten the kyphosis. Small strips of bone graft are then laid over the back of the spinal column. These strips encourage the bones to grow together. Metal rods are attached along the spine to prevent the vertebrae from moving. The rods hold the spine in better alignment and protect the bone graft so it can heal better and faster. The posterior-only approach has the advantage of less blood loss than an anterior approach and does not interfere with major anterior blood supply to the spinal cord. Surgical time is shorter with the posterior-only method. Improved instrumentation and surgical technique has improved results for posterior-only fusions. Many more surgeons are using this approach with fewer problems even with more rigid curves. Combined fusion is actually two fusion surgeries, one from the back (posterior) and one from the front (anterior) of the spine. In the past, two separate operations were needed, but now some surgeons do both fusions in the same operation. This surgery is commonly used if the spine is finished growing and the kyphosis angle is more than 75 degrees. The surgeon starts with anterior fusion. With the patient on his or her side, the surgeon cuts away a piece of rib to make a small opening on the side of the thorax. The rib opening is spread apart so the surgeon can reach the spine better. The surgeon operates on the front of the spine through the chest cavity. A section of the anterior longitudinal ligament is cut. This makes it easier to straighten the hunched spine. The intervertebral discs in the problem area are taken out, and the spaces between the wedged vertebrae are filled with bone graft. One method is to take a graft of bone from the pelvis and tamp it into the place of each removed disc. This requires another incision over one side of the pelvis. A second method is to grind up the piece of rib that was removed and place it in the disc spaces. As the grafts heal, the vertebrae become fused into solid bone. The second part of surgery is an involved form of posterior fusion using special rods and hooks. This part of the operation can be done right after the anterior fusion or scheduled for one week later. First, the surgeon makes an incision over the back of the spine. The skin and muscles are spread apart. Then strips of bone graft are laid across each vertebra to be fused. Long rods are inserted along the sides of the spine. The rods have hooks attached on both ends. Wire is wrapped between the top and bottom hooks. Tightening the wires causes the spine to straighten. The rods help hold the spine steady as the bone grafts heal. The rods are usually left in permanently. What should I expect as I recover? Children and adolescents treated nonsurgically sometimes work with a physical therapist. Certain exercises are beneficial when used in combination with a brace. Upper back exercises, such as gentle back bends (extension) can improve posture and prevent the spine from slouching forward. Hamstring stretches and pelvis exercises improve posture by preventing extra lordosis in the low back. Aerobic exercise improves heart and lung health and combats pain. Pain is also addressed by the physical therapist. The therapist may apply heat, cold, ultrasound, and massage treatments. Adults who’ve had kyphosis for many years (and the resulting low back pain from too much lordosis) benefit from postural exercises to reduce the lumbar curve, followed by stabilization exercises to help them keep better posture. Patients benefit most when these exercises are done regularly and for a lifetime. Rehabilitation after surgery is more complex. Although some patients leave the hospital shortly after surgery, some surgeries require patients to stay in the hospital for a few days. Soon after surgery, a physical therapist may visit patients who stay in the hospital. The treatment sessions help patients learn to move and do routine activities without putting extra strain on the back. During recovery from surgery, patients should follow their surgeon’s instructions about wearing a back brace or support belt. They should be cautious about overdoing activities in the first few weeks after surgery. Many surgical patients also need physical therapy outside of the hospital. Patients normally wait up to three months before beginning a rehabilitation program after fusion surgery for Scheuermann’s disease. They typically need to attend therapy sessions for eight to 12 weeks. Full recovery may take up to eight months. Upon completing physical therapy, patients are in charge of doing their exercises as part of an ongoing home program. Final results are overall favorable following surgery. The majority of patients report being satisfied with their cosmetic appearance. Some patients even experience complete relief from their pain. There may be some low back pain or discomfort with strenuous activity. Complications are rare but can include infection, loss of correction, spinal cord injury or other neurologic problems. In a small number of cases, a second surgical procedure may be required.
Reading is taught across the curriculum, in discrete lessons and as part of other subjects: it is a golden thread that runs through our curriculum. The use and application of phonic knowledge is instrumental in developing children’s reading and writing skills. The daily short, sharp teaching of mixed-ability phonics is a method for teaching reading and writing by developing learners' phonemic awareness—the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate phonemes—in order to teach the correspondence between these sounds and the spelling patterns (graphemes) that represent them. Pupils enjoy high quality, multi-sensory phonic sessions daily and a wide range of reading interventions are also run through the school year (e.g. ‘15 Minutes a Day’). We currently use Little Wandle, which links to our previous use of Letters and Sounds, but we are planning to invest further in phonics for September 2022. The Phonics Screening Check The phonics screening check in Year 1 is a national standardised decoding test and only words that are phonically decodable have been included. It also requires that pupils can: - apply phonic knowledge and skill as the prime approach to reading unfamiliar words that are not completely decodable; - read many frequently-encountered words automatically; - read phonically decodable three-syllable words; - read a range of age-appropriate texts fluently; - demonstrate understanding of age-appropriate texts. It is expected that teachers will ensure that elements of early reading not assessed in this phonics screening check are also taught, such as reading and discussing books. Children who have not reached this level re-take the phonics screening check the following year. The Reading Curriculum The Greenways reading curriculum offers carefully planned shared, guided and independent reading. Our aim is to ensure that reading is the golden thread that runs through the curriculum. Reading is taught as a discrete lesson across all year groups and weaves its way into all subjects across the school. We are currently in the process of implementing a programme called ‘Accelerated Reader’ across the school. This programme puts the children in the driving seat and through assessments, ensures that books are matched to their current reading level that are both challenging and engaging. Teachers are able to monitor the children’s progress and adapt their teaching accordingly. More information will follow on this. Children are encouraged to take books home from our school library and ideally read 5 times a week at home.
During this course the student will learn all the basic concepts on microwave circuits. In order to do that, the student will acquire knowledges in these areas: - Analysis and design of passive devices and introduction to active microwave circuits. - Study of the tools for the analysis and design of microwave circuits: Smith chart, S parameters. - Analysis and design of passive microwave circuits: matching networks, power dividers, directional couplers, resonators and filters and non-reciprocal devices. - Introduction to active circuits Concerning skills, these can be generic or specific: - Review of the guided-wave propagation fundamental topics (taken from the course in Electromagnetic Field Theory) and transmission line theory. - Knowledge of circuit theory to analyze microwave circuits: o Knowledge of transmission line as a circuit: Smith chart. o N-port network analysis: scattering (S-) parameters. - Skills for the design of passive microwave circuits: o 2, 3 and 4-port networks: power dividers, combiners and directional couplers. o Resonator analysis o Analysis and design of microwave filters. o Introduction to passive non-reciprocal circuits. - Introduction to microwave measurements: impedance measurement and network analyzers. -Introduction to microwave amplifiers. - Understanding the roll that RF front-ends have in a communication system. The student will be able to apply his mathematics and physics knowledges to design circuits for transmitting or receiving communication signals. - The student will be able to identify the necessary circuits for designing an RF front-end with simulation tools (AWR or ADS software) and measure the corresponding prototypes (networks analyzer). - The student will be able to work in group and present the results of their work in an effective way. - The student will understand the need of developing a continuous learning in order to update all the technological advances.
The Battle of Gettysburg: Why Was it a Turning Point? The Battle of Gettysburg was a very harsh battle that turned the tables in the Civil War. There were more than 20,000 casualties on each side. The Civil War was into it’s third year before the Battle of Gettysburg took place. The general who led the Confederates was General Robert E. Lee, the general of the Union was General George Meade. In each army there was about 75,000 soldiers. Stated in the background essay, “Over the next three days Gettysburg would change from a little known farm town in southern Pennsylvania to the most famous battle site in American history. Soon everyone would know about the small town of Gettysburg. The Battle of Gettysburg was a turning point in the Civil War because of the many casualties in the war, the major battle campaigns of the war, and the Gettysburg Address and excerpts from letters. There were many casualties in the Civil War, it is the bloodiest war in American history, but the bloodiest battle was the Battle of Gettysburg. The total amount of casualties for the Union Army in the Battle of Gettysburg was 23,040(Document B). The total amount of casualties for the Confederate Army in the Battle of Gettysburg was 20,000- 25,000(Document B). The army that was hurt most by their losses was the Confederate Army because the Confederate’s lost 30%-34% of their men and the Union lost 27% of their army(Document B). The wounded for both armies takes up a lot of both their men. For the Union’s army wounded the amount was 14,530 and for the Confederate’s army wounded the amount was 12,000(Document B). Document B helps explain why Gettysburg was a turning point in the Civil War because the Confederate’s lost more of their army than the Union Army. Most of the battles in the Civil War took place in the South, that’s also another reason the Battle of Gettysburg is so unique, it took place in the North. In Document A’s map, you can see all the armies tracks in the South except for the Battle of Gettysburg. The South had just won one of their most bloodiest battles, the Battle of Antietam so General Robert E. Lee continued marching North to Gettysburg. General Robert E. Lee’s army then tried to invade Gettysburg but failed and that’s when the tables turned, suddenly the North started winning and the South started losing all their battles. The Battle of Gettysburg is considered a major turning point in the Civil War because it’s one of the only battles in the North because the South tried to invade the North but failed. The Gettysburg Address helps address that the Battle of Gettysburg was a major turning point in the Civil War. This speech is said by Abraham Lincoln beginning with the famous words “Four score and seven years ago… (Document D) The main idea of the Gettysburg Address is that those who have died on the Gettysburg battlefield are to be remembered for their cause. Lincoln even goes so far as to say that we should give “the last full measure of devotion” to this cause. Meaning that we should devote everything we have to finishing the work that those who died fought for. This address supports the idea that Gettysburg was a turning point by saying that there were plenty of men who died on that battlefield therefore they should finish and restore the unity in America. In Document C, two letters to the Confederate President Jefferson Davis, General Robert E. Lee tells how he lost multiple of his fellow generals. He says in the first letter (Dated July 4): “It is believed that the enemy suffered severely in these operations, but our own loss has not been light. ” (Doc C). This tells that there were many losses and that these losses made a large impact. In the second letter, dated August 8, Lee this time request for more troops because he says: “I cannot even accomplish what I myself desire. (Doc C). These letters suggest that there were great losses in the war, by Lee writing out each of the generals who were lost in battle. The Battle of Gettysburg didn’t only affect Confederate America however, President Lincoln addresses the nation about this battle’s affects. The Battle of Gettysburg is a major turning point because of the many casualties in the war, the major battle campaigns of the war, and the Gettysburg Address and excerpts from letters. General Robert E. Lee’s army just wasn’t as strong as General George Meade’s. The Battle of Gettysburg was the bloodiest battle of the Civil War as well as in American History. In the beginning of the war it clearly looked as if the South would win but then in the Battle of Gettysburg happened and the North started to take charge. The Battle of Gettysburg was most clearly a turning point in the Civil War because of the many casualties in the war, the major battle campaigns of the war, and the Gettysburg Address and excerpts from letters.
Microbiota of the Skin By: Jacob Lucht Purpose: The purpose of this experiment was to determine the type or types of bacteria living in each person’s skin by taking a sample from the nose and plating it on a selective, differential media to culture it and then using polymerase chain reactions to amplify the DNA of the bacteria and gel electrophoresis to determine which type of bacteria was present. Theory: The human body has a large number of bacterial species living on and within it. These bacteria are typically beneficial and work with the body. One of the most popular places for these bacteria are found on the 2m2 of skin that act as a protective covering for the human body. The skin, along with beneficial bacteria, protects potentially dangerous bacteria, fungi, and viruses from getting into the body and preventing the pathogens from growing. Many species, including Micrococcus luteus, Proppionibacterium sp., and the two Staphylococcus species: Staphylococcus aureus (SA) and Staphylococcus epidermidis (SE). SA can be differentiated from other species because of its ability to ferment mannitol and cause hemolysis when grown on blood agar. The species also produces a nuclease called nuc which can exist outside the bacteria and is thermostable. Both Staphylococci species are common causes of nosocomial infections, which are drug-resistant strains that are difficult to treat. The two most common drug-resistant strains are methicillin-resistant S. aureus also called MRSA and methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis or MRSE. These species are methicillin resistant because they produce β-lactamase encoded by the blaZ gene and are able to resist the β-lactams that the antibiotic methicillin utilizes to fight the infections. They also have two other mechanisms of resistance; one is the penicillin-binding protein PBP2a which is encoded by mecA and the other is the synthesis of aminoglycoside modifying enzymes (AMEs) which are the factors involved in resistance with aminoglycosides in staphylococci. Two types of media were used in this experiment: MSA and blood agar. MSA stands for Mannitol salt agar, which is both a differential and selective media. The selective portion is the high salt content which most other bacterial species cannot survive in. The differential, the mannitol, allows us to distinguish between the two species of Staphylococcus: SE appear as small, circular, white colonies, while SA appear yellow in color and are also circular. Staphylococcus aureus also has the ability to ferment mannitol which means will change the medium from red to yellow because the pH indicator phenol red is in the medium. The second type of media used in this experiment is blood agar media, which acts as a differential medium. Staphylococcus aureus will hemolyze the blood while Staphylococcus epidermidis will show no change when plated on blood agar. In order to accurately identify the bacterial species present in the skin, it was necessary to extract the DNA and amplify it using polymerase chain reaction. To extract the DNA from the bacteria, restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA at specific areas called restriction sites. Restriction enzymes are produced by bacterial species as a means of defense against bacteriophages. The enzymes are 4 to 8 base pairs long cleave the DNA on both strands to create restriction fragments. These fragments can then be seen using gel electrophoresis, which allows us to distinguish between fragments based on their size. Before injecting the DNA into the agarose gel, it must first be amplified using the polymerase chain reaction. This reaction allows us to take a small amount of template strand and amplify a specific piece of that DNA that allows us to identify the species by the specific sequence. This process begins by denaturing the DNA into two separate strands by heating it to 94°C. The second step is the annealing of the oligonucleotide primers, which bind to complementary sequences of the single-stranded DNA at each end. For this step to occur the temperature must be brought down to somewhere between 50 and 65°C so the primers can bind to the strands of DNA. The third and final step is elongation in which a DNA polymerase (usually TAQ polymerase which is stable at high temperatures) synthesizes a complementary strand of DNA template to make a new double-stranded piece of DNA. The PCR cycle typically goes between 25 to 40 cycles with each cycle creating twice as many copies of the fragment of DNA. The experiment began by swabbing the inside of our nose and plate it onto a mannitol salt agar plate. The plate was then incubated and given to us during the next lab. Five to ten colonies were then removed from the plate with a toothpick and placed on blood agar plates and allowed to incubate. Then we removed another colony from the MSA plate and set up two PCR reactions. This began by suspending the colony in 50ul of water within an Eppendorf Tube and incubating the tube by placing in boiling water within a 400 ml beaker with foil covering the top. This was done for approximately five minutes and then immediately after we centrifuged the tube at 1300 RPM for approximately ten minutes. Next we obtained two PCR tubes, one was set up with SE primer set and the other was either SA specific primer set if the reaction was positive for mannitol or with the nuc gene if it was negative for mannitol. The following amounts were put into each tube; 7 μl of the supernatant fluid from the centrifuged tubed, 12.5 μl of 2X Mastermix that we had sit on ice and 5.5 μl of the appropriate primer mix. The next step was to amplify the mixture. This was achieved by denaturing for eight minutes at 95°C then one minute at 94°C next 30 seconds at 51 – 54°C and finally 90 seconds at 72°C. Lastly we prepared the 2% agarose gel. This followed by loading the 100 base pair ladder in well #1 and loading the PCR products in the following wells. Finally we ran the gel electrophoresis at 120 V for 40-45 minutes and checked the results under a UV illuminator. Figure 3 is the result of the gel electrophoresis of 3 different samples from nose swabs of three different students. Well 1 has the one hundred base pair ladder. It goes from 1000 base pairs at the top, to 100 base pairs at the bottom. Wells 4 and 6 had my bacterial sample mixed with SA and SE primer respectively. Wells 5-8 were bacterial samples from two other students with SE primer in well 4, nuc primer in well 5, SA primer in well 6, and SE primer in well 7. The results of the MSA plate indicated that the bacterial species swabbed from the individual’s nose was Staphylococcus epidermidis. This conclusion was reached because the colonies were white in appearance and there was no color change in the medium indicating that the mannitol was not fermented. The lack of fermentation led me to believe that SE was present on the plate rather than SA. The results of the blood agar plate, however, indicated the opposite. Most of the colonies showed alpha-hemolysis of the blood which indicates that Staphylococcus aureus was the bacteria present in the skin. From this result it was thought that there was a mixture of both SE and SA because most of the colonies effectively hemolyzed the blood on the plate. At this point, all evidence indicated that the nasal swab had a mixture of both SE and SA. Next, the DNA samples were loaded in a gel with a 100 base pair ladder and electrophoresis was performed. The loading dye unfortunately did not work. This may have happened because the loading dye wasn’t properly made or because when the loading dye was inserted into the gel, we slightly punctured the gel with the pipettor. Thus we didn’t have anything to compare our results to, so we were not able to identify for sure what bacteria was in the nose of the student. Overall I was able to learn the steps and skills necessary to identify microorganisms from the human skin. I also learned the importance of creating a ladder correctly. Scheurle, Daniela. General Microbiology Laboratory Manual. 3e. Florida Atlantic University: 2010. Pg 157-158. Skin Microbiota Handout. Pages 1-3.
Volume IV, Issue I Heather Clayton, the author of Making the Standards Come Alive!, is the principal of Mendon Center Elementary School in Pittsford Central School District, New York. She is also a co-author of Creating a Culture for Learning published by Just ASK. Teaching Argument Writing: An Inquiry Process The aim of an argument or discussion should not be victory, but progress. – Joseph Joubert, French essayist My father used to say, “Don’t raise your voice; improve your argument.” – Desmond Tutu The Common Core has placed importance on critical thinking, not only in the area of reading, but also in writing. According to George Hillocks Jr., “Argument is at the heart of critical thinking and academic discourse, the kind of writing students need to know for success in college.” The purpose of argument writing is to use logic and evidence to convince an audience of the validity of claims. Students, by nature, are argumentative. They argue points with their peers, parents, and siblings. They do not, however, always anchor their arguments with meaningful evidence or acknowledge opposing viewpoints. Our goal in teaching argument writing is to ensure that students can argue logically and thoughtfully in real world situations. Students need explicit instruction and feedback in argument writing as they are not likely to learn to develop strong arguments by themselves. Learning to write arguments well depends on the teacher’s approach to instruction and how they prepare students to broaden their knowledge, develop ideas, and communicate effectively using relevant and authentic evidence. Argument writing is just as much about thinking critically and reasoning effectively as it is about the structure of the writing itself. It is a process of inquiry, with the goal of seeking truth, information, and knowledge. Tenets of Teaching Argument Writing Students need to gain familiarity with the structure of argument writing. Prior to asking students to write arguments, they must first have a vision for the kind of writing they will be asked to do. Students should understand and have seen examples of essays that include a thesis statement or claim, followed by supporting evidence and a conclusion. Without understanding the fundamentals of essay writing, it will be a challenging task for students to write a well-developed argument. To support that learning process, access a collection of annotated argument and opinion writing samples, K-12, by the Vermont Writing Collaborative with Student Achievement Partners and CCSSO. The document includes both on-demand writing, as well as a variety of discipline-specific tasks written for different audiences and purposes. Each writing sample is annotated using the language from the Common Core. Another source of annotated writing samples that illustrates the criteria outlined in the standards for argument, informative/explanatory, and narrative writing at different grade levels is the Common Core Appendix C. Each writing sample meets the writing standards for the identified grade level. We all have an enormous responsibility to bring to the attention of others information they do not have, which has the potential of causing them to rethink long-held ideas. – Howard Zinn, American Historian Students should begin by looking at the data before asserting their claim. Contrary to the beliefs of many, according to Hillocks, the teaching of argument should not begin with the writing of a claim, or thesis statement. In fact, the best arguments are developed when students begin by examining the data, or information, that will later become the basis for their argument. After all, students will present the most compelling arguments when their claims grow from a deep understanding of the topic they have chosen. Students will arrive at their claim once they have collected data and critically thought about their topic. Students gather and examine information in a variety of ways. For instance, students can strengthen their knowledge of their chosen topic by examining a single text or a set of texts depending on the nature of the assignment. The texts that students are using should be thought-provoking, represent multiple perspectives, and inspire questions that allow for many different interpretations. Students may also use videos, online resources, photographs, artifacts, and visuals to further develop their ideas. For our English language learners, the use of close captioned videos and digital-supported text can help them to gain content knowledge. When reading to grow ideas, students should read texts multiple times for different purposes. By doing so, students will begin to notice patterns and connections that lead to the formation of questions. As students pose, interpret, and answer their questions, they are actually generating their claim. Notes can be recorded in any format, depending on the structure of the text, nuances of the topic, and style of the learner. No matter the format, students should include not only the essential information about the topic, they should include their own questions and responses to the information they have gathered. The use of sticky notes and two-column charts are beneficial when documenting reactions to sections of text. The notes gathered for argument writing are used for a distinct purpose; as key evidence that will rationally shape the thinking of the reader and convince them of the authenticity and relevance of the argument. Therefore, as students gather information and author their notes, they should consider the importance of those notes for later writing. For example, after reading that krill, a whales’ main source of food, is threatened by increasing ocean temperatures and melting ice near Antarctica, a student may write “Whales are losing their food source.” This point could then give way to other big ideas and questions like “How can we protect our whales?” and “What is the larger impact of global warming on different species?” The answers to these questions then become the basis for the argument. Guiding Questions for the Reading and Note-making Process Armed with data, students establish a claim. Once writers have collected information on a topic, they need to re-read their notes and consider the questions they have asked. The questions that lead to high quality claims are interpretative questions that can be viewed from different angles. When students draw conclusions and attempt to answer a question of significance, they then have the ingredients necessary for a defensible claim. According to Lucy Calkins in her Curricular Plan for the Writing Workshop, well-written claims also embed a counterclaim. By doing so, the writer has assurance that the claim is arguable. In order to write strong claims, students need exposure to many examples. Students may also benefit from the use of sentence frames. Examples of Claims That Also Highlight an Opposing Argument Sentence Frames to Assist Students When Writing Claims Although some feel ______, one can argue that _______. While some believe ______, in reality ______. Despite the fact ______, ______ actually illustrates that ______. Even though ______, it can be argued that ______. Guiding Questions to Support the Development of Claims A common pitfall in the writing of claims is the attempt to write a thesis statement, or claim, too early or students create a claim that is indefensible and doesn’t represent an argument. When writers attempt to begin by writing a claim rather than gathering data as a part of an inquiry process, they often generate claims that are based on assumptions, hunches, or hear say. This in turn creates problems for students as they attempt to substantiate their claims with evidence. As Lucy Calkins reminds us, claims should “encompass the counterargument within them. This is a valuable step to teach children because it guarantees a strong thesis, preventing children, at the very outset, from writing an argument essay from something that has no real opposition or potential for argument.” Another pitfall is that students may confuse claims and evidence. A claim is an arguable statement, whereas evidence is the information that is undisputed and supports the claim. Students will often confuse the two. In order to prevent this, prior to writing and finalizing their claims, students would benefit from practice distinguishing between the two and understanding the claim is the idea to be argued and the evidence does not contain an opinion. Providing students with examples and non-examples of claims and having them sort them is one way to show students the difference between the two. Harvard’s Project Zero provides a thinking and reasoning routine entitled Claim/Support/Question. This routine can be useful in helping students develop thoughtful interpretations. A checklist from the International Reading Association poses these questions to help students generate evidence-based claims. - What words, lines, ideas, and phrases seem important and interesting in this text? (These ideas may come from responses to text dependent questions or other close reading activities.) - What patterns do you see? What connections seem to exist among these important ideas and details? - What evidence-based claims would these patterns allow you to make about the text? What conclusion that you can draw from the text that you could then support with evidence from the text? The only way in which a human being can make some approach to knowing the whole of a subject, is by hearing what can be said about it by persons of every variety of opinion. – John Stuart Mill, British philosopher When developing an argument, students should consider all angles. It is important for students to understand that in order to present a solid argument, they need to know the evidence for the opposing arguments just as thoroughly as they know the evidence for the argument they are trying to make. One way to move students to this type of thinking is to consider one piece of evidence from more than one perspective. For example, extreme sports can be considered an empowering way to build confidence and discipline or a danger to young athletes. When reading a text and gathering evidence in support of a claim, the reader should continually be asking “What’s another way to look at this?” NEA provides a valuable resource that presents more than 40 controversial issues in a non-biased pro-con format. Guiding Questions for Considering Opposing Arguments If students have written their claims to include the counter claim, they will already know which opposing argument to address. Students should then go to their notes and review the data that supports the counter argument. Then, it is their job to identify why this evidence is not supportive enough to make a case for the opposing argument. For example, students could say that it is inaccurate, incomplete, or misleading. Some of the evidence students have collected in support of their claim may in fact discredit the opposing evidence. When students choose to debate a claim, they can use words like in spite of, however, in fact, and actually. Education must enable one to sift and weigh evidence, to discern the true from the false, the real from the unreal, and the facts from the fiction. The function of education, therefore, is to teach one to think intensively and to think critically. – Martin Luther King, Jr. Evidence determines the effectiveness of the argument. Writers can gather evidence from a number of different sources, including print and electronic sources, as well as from observations, interviews, surveys, experiments, studies, and their personal experience. Once evidence has been collected, it is not enough to just state the evidence. Writers also need to explain why and how the evidence supports their argument. What makes it a piece of evidence, after all, is its connection to the claim. The evidence the writer presents will be for or against a claim, and the writer should make that clear to the reader. Guiding Questions for Presenting Evidence As students are building expertise in using evidence in argumentative writing, three issues often surface. - Evidence that is irrelevant to the claim is included. - When students are choosing which evidence to include in their argument, it is helpful to have them use Calkin’s Boxes and Bullets approach. - Students write their claim in a box. - Using bullets, students list their evidence under the box. - After writing each piece of evidence, students re-read what they have written and ask “Does this evidence support my claim?” If it does not, students cross out that piece of evidence and replace it with evidence that ties to the claim. - Insufficient evidence is provided. It is nearly impossible to make a good argument without enough evidence. Students can provide evidence in the form of quotations, summaries, anecdotes, facts, statistics, or examples. - The writing lacks warrants, or information on how the evidence supports the claim. Argument essays need to include warrants, or reasons the evidence supports the claim; additionally, warrants inform the writer as to whether or not they have included sufficient evidence. In order for students to write appropriate warrants, they need to see many examples and determine how the warrant makes an argument effective. Consider having students search for examples of warrants in published writing. Prompts that scaffold student use of warrants include: - If…, then… - This suggests… - This evidence shows… - This evidence proves my claim by… In conclusion, when students follow an inquiry process and collect data, wonder, and interpret prior to establishing their claim, their arguments will inevitably be stronger. It is important to provide models of argument writing, ample time for inquiry, constructive and immediate feedback, and opportunities for students to verbally rehearse their arguments before putting them to paper. This scaffolding, discussion, and explicit instruction will lay the groundwork for high quality writing. Resources and References Calkins, Lucy. A Curricular Plan for the Writing Workshop, Grade 5, 2011-2012. Portsmouth NH: Heinemann, 2011. Common Core Appendix A Hillocks, George, Jr. “Teaching Argument for Critical Thinking and Writing: An Introduction.” English Journal. This article outlines what students need to know about argumentation for college and career, along with background on the construction of an argument. Access at www.ncte.org/library/nctefiles/ej0996focus.pdf McCarthy, Ryan. “The Usual Suspect: Solving the #1 Problem in Argument Writing.” Access at www.teachingchannel.org/blog/2014/05/22/biggest-problem-in-argument-writing/ Evidence-Based Argument (EBA) Checklist. International Reading Association. Access at www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson-docs/EBAChecklist.pdf Truth Routines. Harvard’s Project Zero. This series of thinking routines is designed to help students understand multiple perspectives and explore truth. Access at www.visiblethinkingpz.org/VisibleThinking_html_files/03_ThinkingRoutines/03f_TruthRoutines.html Permission is granted for reprinting and distribution of this newsletter for non-commercial use only. Please include the following citation on all copies: Clayton, Heather. “Teaching Argument Writing: An Inquiry Process.” Making the Common Core Come Alive! Volume IV, Issue I, 2015. Available at www.justaskpublications.com. Reproduced with permission of Just ASK Publications & Professional Development (Just ASK). ©2015 by Just ASK. All rights reserved.
Seafood is an essential staple in the diets of people around the world. Global consumption of fish and shellfish has more than doubled over the last 50 years, and is expected to keep rising with global population growth. Many people assume that most seafood is something that we catch in the wild with lines, trawls and traps. In fact, aquaculture (aquatic farming) accounts for just over half of all the seafood consumed worldwide. Today aquaculture is the fastest-growing food sector in the world. Most farmed seafood is currently produced in freshwater environments such as ponds, land-based tanks and raceways, but some producers are expanding to the open ocean. Aquaculture dates back thousands of years, but has only recently become an essential part of our global food system. However, most of the world’s wild fisheries are already fished at their maximum sustainable yield, so aquaculture will have to be the primary source of our seafood now and into the future. This means that we need to understand how to farm fish and shellfish sustainably. We do not have broad-scale understanding today about the ecological limits and potential of cultivating seafood in the oceans. As a first step, we recently published a study that estimated the offshore potential for aquaculture in marine waters, based on the growth performance of 180 farmed fish and shellfish species. We calculated that marine aquaculture could produce as much seafood as all of the world’s wild marine fisheries, using less than 0.015 percent of the space in the world’s oceans. Conflicting views of ocean aquaculture Total global wild catches have remained relatively unchanged for the past two decades. In 2015, 92 million tons of wild species were harvested worldwide – the same amount as in 1995. In contrast, seafood production from aquaculture increased from 24 million tons to 77 million tons during the same time period, and is still rising to help meet growing demand. In fact, it’s estimated that the world will need around 40 million more tons of seafood as soon as 2030. Like all food production, aquaculture affects the environment and can be done in ways that are more or less sustainable. We want our science to help avoid destructive forms of aquaculture, such as converting mangrove forests into shrimp farms, and support more sustainable production. When it is done properly, aquaculture can be an efficient farming method with reduced impacts, compared to other types of protein such as beef, pork and even chicken. Interestingly, some of our previous research shows that people in developed countries such as the United States – the world’s second-largest seafood consuming country, after China – tend to have more negative sentiment towards aquaculture than people in developing countries. This is especially true for offshore aquaculture in the open ocean. The main concerns that we found did not focus on any particular species or impact. Rather, people were more worried about broad impacts on the environment and fishing. Just as unchecked fishing practices can damage ecosystems and wildlife, poorly sited and improperly managed fish farms can produce significant quantities of pollution and have the potential to spread diseases to wild species. However, not all aquaculture is created equal, and many of these issues can be addressed through good siting and oversight of offshore farming. Several studies have shown that siting fish and shellfish farms more than one nautical mile offshore, where water is deeper and currents are faster, can significantly reduce pollution and improve the condition of farmed species when compared to nearshore production of the same species in the same region. Using big data to map aquaculture’s global potential Our recent study used publicly available open source data and previous physiological and growth research to model and map the potential of aquaculture in the oceans for fish and bivalves, such as oysters and mussels. In addition to accounting for the biological limits of each species, we avoided areas of the ocean that are used for shipping and oil extraction, as well as marine protected areas. We also avoided depths greater than 200 meters, as a proxy for the limitations of cost and current farm technology. After two years of analysis by our expert working group, we found that 3 percent of the world’s oceans appears very suitable for marine aquaculture. This may sound small, but it is actually an extraordinary amount of area, spread across nearly every coastal country in the world – about four million square miles. Moreover, we don’t even need to use that entire area to meet world seafood demand. If aquaculture were developed in only the most productive areas, the oceans could theoretically produce the same amount of seafood that is currently caught by all of the world’s wild-caught fisheries, using less than 0.015 percent of the total ocean surface – a combined area the size of Lake Michigan. This is possible because many aquatic species can be farmed very efficiently, and because farming in the oceans can spread in three dimensions, across the surface of the ocean and downward below the waves. From a conservation perspective, this means there is tremendous flexibility in where we can develop aquatic farms sustainably. And there is plenty of space in the oceans to produce huge amounts of food, while still protecting vast areas. Our findings are also encouraging for global development. Many regions that are likely to contend with high population growth and food insecurity, such as India, the Middle East and Pacific island nations, show particularly high potential for marine aquaculture, which suggests that we can produce food where it is most needed. Even so, expanding sustainable marine aquaculture will depend on creating economic and regulatory policies that help the industry grow while also protecting the health of the marine environment and the local communities that depend on it. A case for ocean optimism Our study has provided some of the initial science for exploring sustainable marine aquaculture’s role in the future of food production, while also considering key conservation goals on land and in the water. To expand on this work, we recently founded the Conservation Aquaculture Research Team (CART) at the University of California, Santa Barbara’s National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis. Our future work will explore how climate change could impact aquaculture, and how aquaculture may impact people and nature compared to other food production systems. We know that aquaculture will grow in the coming decades, but where and how this growth will happen depends on good governance, sustainable investment and rock-solid science. We hope to help guide aquaculture’s growth in a way that will feed a hungry world while also protecting our oceans.
How to Compost Composting is a popular way of recycling household waste that would otherwise need to be collected by waste disposal operatives (who would produce carbon emissions in the process) and placed in a landfill site. Making compost also reduces the need for you to make journeys to buy compost, and provides you with a useful aid to producing your own vegetables or flower garden. Composting relies on a natural process whereby micro-organisms that exist in the soil eat organic matter and convert it into a rich pulp called 'humus' that is further broken down to fine compost, within a minimum of 2-3 weeks. Making CompostIn order to make compost you will want a 'compost heap.' A compost heap is an area in you garden in which you place food waste, garden waste, straw hay, etc. so that it can undergo the composting process, with your supervision. 'Heap' is, perhaps, something of a misnomer, leading often to poorly managed compost. The best composts will be kept in tidy 'piles' or enclosed in bins, and will be conscientiously attended and managed. There are several forms of heap or enclosure that you can use in the garden: - Hole in the ground: It is possible to make an enclosure simply by digging a cube shaped hole in the ground, 2-3 feet deep, and placing wooden struts in the corners for support. - Wire Mesh Enclosure: A wire mesh enclosure can be made with four posts arranged in a square or rectangle, wire stretched across this frame to form a box shape. - Wooden Panelled Enclosure: As above, but with wooden panels stretched and mailed between the posts on each side to form a wooden box. - Compost Bins: Either use an existing bin, or buy a bin ready for composting. Compost bins can be sunken a foot into the ground, and sometimes have holes in the side to help the compost aerate. Some bins are place horizontally or vertically on a frame, like a 'tombola', and can be rotated by handle regularly to mix up the ingredients. Composting TipsIn order to make compost you will need a mixture of moist ingredients, such as vegetable waste, egg shells and freshly cut grass, and dry ingredients, such as straw or hay and dried leaves. Other ingredients include cardboard and soft papers such as tissues and paper towels. It is essential to avoid using meats and fish and oils (which will attract vermin), newspaper and magazines. An imbalance of wet and dry ingredients will result in a smelly thick compost (if too many wet ingredients are used), whilst compost with too much dry material will take a long time to decompose. A compost heap should be kept moist, but not wet; moisture will aid the composting process. Too much water will turn the compost to mud; a sturdy lid will help protect your compost from moisture in wet weather conditions. If you want your waste to compost quickly, it is necessary to turn it by fork or spade regularly, this will enable the wet and dry ingredients to work with each other, whilst he lower, older compost or humus can aid the development of new waste.
Copper: Occurrence, principles of extraction, Properties and Uses Atomic mass : 63.54 Valency : 1 and 2 Atomic number : 29 Symbol : Cu Position in the periodic table : Period Number -4, Group Number -11. Copper was known to the earliest races of mankind. It was named as cuprum by the Romans because they used to get it from the island of Cyprus. Copper is found in the native state as well as in the combined state. Native copper is found in large quantities in Michigan (USA). In India, copper is mainly found in Singhbhum (Bihar), Khetri and Darbia (Rajasthan) and in Tamilnadu. i) Copper pyrite, CuFeS2. ii) Cuprite or Ruby copper, Cu2O. iii) Copper glance, Cu2S. The chief ore of copper is copper pyrite. It yields nearly 76% of the world production of copper. Extraction from copper pyrites Extraction of copper from copper pyrites involves the following steps. 1. Crushing and concentration The ore is crushed and then concentrated by froth-floatation process. The concentrated ore is heated strongly in the reverberatory furnace, in excess of air. During roasting, i) Moisture is removed. ii) The volatile impurities are removed. iii) Sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony which are present as impurity are removed as volatile oxides. S + O2 ® SO2 P4 + 5 O2 ® 2P2O5 4As + 3O2 ® 2As2O3 iv) The copper pyrite is partly converted into sulphides of copper and iron. 2CuFeS2 + O2 ® Cu2S + 2FeS + SO2 2FeS + 3O2 ® 2FeO + 2SO2 The roasted ore is mixed with powdered coke and sand and is heated in a blast furnace. It is made of steel plates lined inside with fire clay bricks. Hot air at 800 o C is introduced from the tuyers near the base of the furnace. As a result, the following changes occur. 2FeS + 3O2 ® 2FeO + 2SO2 FeO + SiO2 ® FeSiO3 (fusible slag) 2Cu2S + 3 O2 ® 2Cu2O + 2SO2 Cu2O + FeS ® Cu2S + FeO FeO + SiO2 ® FeSiO3 (fusible slag) As a result of smelting, two separate molten layers are formed at the bottom of the furnace. The upper layer consists of slag and is removed as a waste while the lower layer is called matte. It chiefly consists of cuprous sulphide and some unchanged ferrous sulphide. The molten matte is transfered to a Bessemer converter. The Bessemer is mounted on a horizontal axis and is fitted with small pipes called tuyeres through which a blast of hot air and fine sand is admitted. Any sulphur, arsenic and antimony still present escape as their respective oxides. Ferrous sulphide present in matte is oxidised to ferrous oxide which combines with silica to form slag 2FeS + 3O2 ® 2FeO + 2SO2 FeO + SiO2 ® FeSiO3 (slag) Some of the cuprous sulphide undergoes oxidation to form cuprous oxide which then reacts with more cuprous sulphide to give copper metal. The impure metal thus obtained is called blister copper and is about 98% pure. 2Cu2S + 3O2 ® 2Cu2O + 2SO2 2Cu2O + Cu2S ® 6Cu + SO 2 Blister copper contains about 2% of impurities and it is purified by electrolytic refining. This method is used to get metal of high degree of purity. For electrolytic refining of copper, i) A block of impure copper metal acts as anode ii) A thin plate of pure copper metal acts as cathode iii) Copper sulphate solution acidified with sulphuric acid is taken as electrolyte. When electric current is passed through the electrolytic solution pure copper get deposited on the cathode ,impurities settle near the anode in the form of sludge called anode mud. Copper is a reddish brown metal, with high lustre, high density and high melting point 1356 o C. i) Action of air and moisture Copper gets covered with a green layer of basic copper carbonate, in the presence of CO2 and moisture 2Cu + O2 + CO2 + H2O ® Cu(OH)2 . CuCO3 (Green) Copper Carbonate ii) Action of Heat Copper when heated to redness (below 1370K) in the presence of oxygen or air, first it gets converted to black cupric oxide and further heating to above 1370K, it gets converted into red cuprous oxide. 2Cu + O2 --- Below 1370K -- > 2CuO 4Cu + O2 --- Above 1370K -- > 2Cu2O iii) Action of acids a) With dil.HCl and H2SO4 Dilute acids such as HCl and H2SO4 have no action on these metals in the absence of air or an oxidising agent. Copper dissolves in these acids in the presence of air 2Cu + 4HCl + O2 (air) ® 2CuCl2 + 2H2O b) 2Cu + 2H2SO4 + O2 (air) ® 2CuSO4 + 2H2O With dil. HNO3 Copper reacts with dil.HNO3 with the liberation of NO gas. 3Cu + 8HNO3(dil) ® 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O c) With con.HNO3 and con. H2SO4 Copper reacts with con.HNO3 and con.H2SO4 with the liberation of NO2 and SO2 respectively. Cu + 4HNO3 (con) ® Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O Cu + 2H2SO4 (con) ® CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O iv) Action of chlorine Chlorine reacts with copper, resulting in the formation of copper chloride. Cu + Cl2 ® CuCl2 v) Action of alkalis Copper is not attacked by alkalies. 1. It is extensively used for making electric cables and other electric appliances. 2. It is used for making utensils, containers, calorimeters, coins, ...... etc. 3. It is used in electroplating. 4. It is alloyed with gold and silver for making coins and jewellery. Alloys of Copper Alloy % composition Uses i) Brass Cu = 60-80, Zn = 20-40 For making utensils, condenser tubes, wires, .....etc. ii) Bronze Cu = 75-90, Sn = 10-25 For making cooking utensils, statues, coins ...etc. iii) Gun metal Cu = 87, Sn = 10, Zn = 3 For making gun barrels, gears,
What Is An Accounting Period? Definition: An accounting period is defined as the period of time for which a business performs its accounting functions and prepares financial statements to report all of its financial performance and position to external stakeholders. The accounting period is when financial transactions are performed, calculated, and analyzed before being assimilated into the financial statement for that period. An accounting period may be either a calendar year, a fiscal year, or a shorter duration, like a month or even a week. For internal reports, generally, an accounting period would be one month. Additionally, some firms compile their financial statements in four-week increments, so they have 13 accounting periods every year. Different accounting activities like making an income statement, balance sheet, monthly accounting, annual accounting, etc are channelized as per the given accounting period. Some of the common examples of accounting periods that US companies use are- - Annual calendar year of January 1 through December 31 - Calendar quarters like January 1 through March 31, April 1 through June 30, etc. - The annual fiscal year for instance July 1, 2020, through June 30, 2021; April 1, 2020, through March 31, 2021; etc. - Fiscal quarters like May 1 through July 31, August 1 through October 31, etc. - 52- or a 53-week fiscal year or instance the 52 or 53 weeks ending on the last Saturday of January, etc. - 13-week fiscal quarters like 13 weeks ending on the last Saturday in April, etc. - Calendar months like March 1 through March 31, November 1 through November 30, etc. Types of Accounting Period 1. Calendar Year The accounting period may be considered the calendar year, starting on January 1st and ends on December 31st. Alternatively, it could be a fiscal year. The accounting period would commence on the first of any month before culminating on the last day of the equivalent previous in the following year. It is also typical for a business entity to have multiple concurrent accounting periods active at any given time. For instance, a company may be closing the books for May, although this data may also be aggregated into the books for the second quarter of the year (from April to June). This information may also be found in the header of the financial statements. So, if a firm used the fiscal year in the previous year as a means to represent its financial statement, the header might read “for the year ended on March 31st, 2021”. Balance sheets cover the end of the accounting period and are prepared at the very end, which is also why they’re also referred to as the “final accounts”. 2. Fiscal Year It is associated with an annual period that does not end on December 31. IFRS i.e. International Financial Reporting Standards suggests 52 weeks as an accounting period. You can find so many companies that follow the 52 or 53 weeks fiscal calendar for channelizing their financial tracking and reporting activities. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) lets taxpayers either use the calendar-year taxpayers or fiscal-year as their tax year for tax reporting. 3. 4-4-5 Calendar Year This is one of the general calendar structures that retail and manufacturing industries follow. In this, one year is divided into 4 quarters. Each of the quarters has thirteen weeks which are grouped into two 4-week months and one 5-week month. One of the key benefits of this type of accounting period is that the end date of the period is always the same day of the week. The Accounting Period Cycle Concept A business firm gathers and keeps track of its financial transactions through the course of an accounting period. The data acquired as a consequence is used to create and publish financial statements at the culmination of the accounting period. An accounting period may be taken as the time it takes to complete an accounting cycle of the business. In other words, one accounting cycle equals one accounting period. The cycle begins with the financial entries being reversed and closing the books of the previous cycle. To complete this cycle, businesses will have to prepare the financial statements before the next accounting period commences. Regulations for Accounting Periods Accounting periods are used primarily for two purposes – reporting progress to shareholders and for future analysis. Firms need to prepare financial statements to display stability and develop an outlook towards long-term profitability. This method of accounting is supported by the theory of the accrual method of accounting, which requires that an accounting entry be made when the transaction is made, as opposed to when the money is received or paid. In other words, consistency is critical. Another regulation for accounting periods is that they must obey the matching principle rule. This rule indicates that all expenses should be reported in the accounting period in which they are incurred and that all income generated due to said expense also be reported in the same accounting period. This essentially indicates that the financial data presented in one accounting period’s financial statements should be as complete as possible and should not be spread across multiple accounting periods. The accounting period was developed to enable business owners to gain clarity with regard to the business’s profitability regularly and to use this information to make better decisions. For these reasons, the accountants developed the periodicity concept, which divides the business’ undertakings into monthly, quarterly and financial years. The financial statements published at the end of every accounting period are significant for the stakeholders, investors, creditors, and government agencies. This data provides the stakeholders with relevant and reliable data that can be employed to make crucial decisions. A business can have as many accounting periods as it needs to, provided it complies with all its legal requirements. Accounting periods offer consistency as it lets business check their growth across different accounting periods. The accrual method of accounting also works upon the accounting period, plus the matching principle is also based upon them. What are your thoughts about the importance of the accounting period in financial reporting and accounts-related activities? Share your views with us in the comment section below.
Green hydrogen is hydrogen gas produced using renewable energy sources, such as wind or solar. Unlike gray or blue hydrogen, which emit carbon dioxide from coal and natural gas inputs, the only byproduct of green hydrogen is oxygen. It is created by running renewably generated electricity through an electrolyzer, which splits water molecules into hydrogen gas and oxygen. Today, green hydrogen is used mainly for refining petroleum products and in the chemical industry for making fertilizers. But the gas is considered a general-purpose energy carrier, meaning its potential applications are vast—a robust green hydrogen industry could accelerate the decarbonization of steel and fertilizer production as well as balance electricity grids when extra power is needed. Most remarkably, green hydrogen has the potential to eliminate roughly a quarter of the world’s carbon dioxide emissions.
What Does Endocannabinoid System (ECS) Mean? The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is part of the human body and can be found in many animals as well. It is made up of a series of receptors configured to react to cannabinoids present in cannabis plants. The ECS regulates many bodily processes. It was the study of cannabis that first led researchers to learning about the body’s endocannabinoid system. In fact, the endocannabinoid system was named because of the cannabis plant. The endocannabinoids that make up the endocannabinoid system are located throughout the human body. They are a collection of cell receptors and molecules. They exist in the brain, organs, connective tissues, immune cells, and the body’s glands. Maximum Yield Explains Endocannabinoid System (ECS) The two primary receptors that make up the endocannabinoid system are the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and the cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2). The endocannabinoid receptors and molecules work to maintain a stable internal environment and send out signals between the brain and the body’s functions. Cannabinoids from the cannabis plant have a direct effect on the body’s endocannabinoid system. Endocannabinoids stimulate the body’s natural cannabinoid receptors such as the CB1 and CB2 receptors. The cannabis plant uses its own natural cannabinoids to promote its own overall health, disease resistance, and growth. The plant’s cannabinoids even help protect the leaves, buds, and flowers of the plant from harmful ultraviolet rays. It is believed that the cannabinoids in the cannabis plant, the human body’s endocannabinoid system, and the human body's cannabinoid receptors might all be able to work together to prevent, treat, and even cure diseases. Currently, research is ongoing to discover how exactly the body’s endocannabinoid system works and the possible benefits of cannabis on the system.
Breathing is not just for oxygen; it’s now linked to brain function and behavior. Northwestern Medicine scientists have discovered for the first time that the rhythm of breathing creates electrical activity in the human brain that enhances emotional judgments and memory recall. These effects on behavior depend critically on whether you inhale or exhale and whether you breathe through the nose or mouth. In the study, individuals were able to identify a fearful face more quickly if they encountered the face when breathing in compared to breathing out. Individuals also were more likely to remember an object if they encountered it on the inhaled breath than the exhaled one. The effect disappeared if breathing was through the mouth. “One of the major findings in this study is that there is a dramatic difference in brain activity in the amygdala and hippocampus during inhalation compared with exhalation,” said lead author Christina Zelano, assistant professor of neurology at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine. “When you breathe in, we discovered you are stimulating neurons in the olfactory cortex, amygdala and hippocampus, all across the limbic system.” The study was published Dec. 6 in the Journal of Neuroscience. The senior author is Jay Gottfried, professor of neurology at Feinberg. Northwestern scientists first discovered these differences in brain activity while studying seven patients with epilepsy who were scheduled for brain surgery. A week prior to surgery, a surgeon implanted electrodes into the patients’ brains in order to identify the origin of their seizures. This allowed scientists to acquire electro-physiological data directly from their brains. The recorded electrical signals showed brain activity fluctuated with breathing. The activity occurs in brain areas where emotions, memory and smells are processed. This discovery led scientists to ask whether cognitive functions typically associated with these brain areas — in particular fear processing and memory — could also be affected by breathing. The amygdala is strongly linked to emotional processing, in particular fear-related emotions. So scientists asked about 60 subjects to make rapid decisions on emotional expressions in the lab environment while recording their breathing. Presented with pictures of faces showing expressions of either fear or surprise, the subjects had to indicate, as quickly as they could, which emotion each face was expressing. When faces were encountered during inhalation, subjects recognized them as fearful more quickly than when faces were encountered during exhalation. This was not true for faces expressing surprise. These effects diminished when subjects performed the same task while breathing through their mouths. Thus the effect was specific to fearful stimuli during nasal breathing only. In an experiment aimed at assessing memory function — tied to the hippocampus — the same subjects were shown pictures of objects on a computer screen and told to remember them. Later, they were asked to recall those objects. Researchers found that recall was better if the images were encountered during inhalation. The findings imply that rapid breathing may confer an advantage when someone is in a dangerous situation, Zelano said. “If you are in a panic state, your breathing rhythm becomes faster,” Zelano said. “As a result you’ll spend proportionally more time inhaling than when in a calm state. Thus, our body’s innate response to fear with faster breathing could have a positive impact on brain function and result in faster response times to dangerous stimuli in the environment.” Another potential insight of the research is on the basic mechanisms of meditation or focused breathing. “When you inhale, you are in a sense synchronizing brain oscillations across the limbic network,” Zelano noted. Other Northwestern authors include Heidi Jiang, Guangyu Zhou, Nikita Arora, Dr. Stephan Schuele and Dr. Joshua Rosenow. Funding: The study was supported by grants R00DC012803, R21DC012014 and R01DC013243 from the National Institute on Deafness and Communication Disorders of the National Institutes of Health. Source: Marla Paul – Northwestern University Image Source: NeuroscienceNews.com image is in the public domain. Video Source: The video is credited to NorthwesternU. Original Research: Abstract for “Nasal Respiration Entrains Human Limbic Oscillations and Modulates Cognitive Function” by Christina Zelano, Heidi Jiang, Guangyu Zhou, Nikita Arora, Stephan Schuele, Joshua Rosenow and Jay A. Gottfried in Journal of Neuroscience. Published online December 7 2016 doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2586-16.2016 Nasal Respiration Entrains Human Limbic Oscillations and Modulates Cognitive Function The need to breathe links the mammalian olfactory system inextricably to the respiratory rhythms that draw air through the nose. In rodents and other small animals, slow oscillations of local field potential activity are driven at the rate of breathing (∼2–12 Hz) in olfactory bulb and cortex, and faster oscillatory bursts are coupled to specific phases of the respiratory cycle. These dynamic rhythms are thought to regulate cortical excitability and coordinate network interactions, helping to shape olfactory coding, memory, and behavior. However, while respiratory oscillations are a ubiquitous hallmark of olfactory system function in animals, direct evidence for such patterns is lacking in humans. In this study, we acquired intracranial EEG data from rare patients (Ps) with medically refractory epilepsy, enabling us to test the hypothesis that cortical oscillatory activity would be entrained to the human respiratory cycle, albeit at the much slower rhythm of ∼0.16–0.33 Hz. Our results reveal that natural breathing synchronizes electrical activity in human piriform (olfactory) cortex, as well as in limbic-related brain areas, including amygdala and hippocampus. Notably, oscillatory power peaked during inspiration and dissipated when breathing was diverted from nose to mouth. Parallel behavioral experiments showed that breathing phase enhances fear discrimination and memory retrieval. Our findings provide a unique framework for understanding the pivotal role of nasal breathing in coordinating neuronal oscillations to support stimulus processing and behavior. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Animal studies have long shown that olfactory oscillatory activity emerges in line with the natural rhythm of breathing, even in the absence of an odor stimulus. Whether the breathing cycle induces cortical oscillations in the human brain is poorly understood. In this study, we collected intracranial EEG data from rare patients with medically intractable epilepsy, and found evidence for respiratory entrainment of local field potential activity in human piriform cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. These effects diminished when breathing was diverted to the mouth, highlighting the importance of nasal airflow for generating respiratory oscillations. Finally, behavioral data in healthy subjects suggest that breathing phase systematically influences cognitive tasks related to amygdala and hippocampal functions. “Nasal Respiration Entrains Human Limbic Oscillations and Modulates Cognitive Function” by Christina Zelano, Heidi Jiang, Guangyu Zhou, Nikita Arora, Stephan Schuele, Joshua Rosenow and Jay A. Gottfried in Journal of Neuroscience. Published online December 7 2016 doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2586-16.2016
The question of the role technology should play in the classroom is a highly debated topic. Some argue that technology inhibits a young child’s natural thinking and causes a distraction in the learning environment. Others argue that students should utilize technology in the classroom to prepare them for the highly digitalized adult world. While these questions are entirely valid and poses the need for more research, they take away from the more important technical hindrance facing youth at a global scale. This issue being that learning to use this technology is overtaking the more important skill, how technology works. In grade school, students are taught at a young age how weather is produced, how climate works, how governments pass legislation and how body systems work, but students are not taught how technology works. In today’s highly digitized world, these skills are crucial for success. Learn How it Works, Not How to Work It If you give a hungry man a fish, he will eat the fish and ask for another when he gets hungry again. If you teach a man to fish, he will fish until he ultimately runs out of fish. However if you teach a man how ecosystems work, the breeding patterns of the fish, and how to rotate fishing spots, he will be self sustained for a lot longer. There is debate over how much influence technology should have in a child’s early development. Some experts say that the benefits of using technology as a learning tool inhibit the child’s other developmental skills, and create an addiction. Others say that technology offers a unique way of teaching children skills. What’s important to take away from this is that there is no clear answer, whether giving your child a tablet at the age of 10 will harm or help their developmental skills. What should be examined is the child’s ability to understand and comprehend technology–a skill they will need when they grow up. Technology is not going anywhere, and this has some parents worried that there could be negative effects of prolonged tech use in children. Technology addiction is a hot topic at global level. The latest Apple iOS update featured a screen-time measurement service that automatically sends a screentime report to your apple device every week. Rather than fear the unknown effects of technology, we should be teaching children how it works. A school district does not need to purchase 1,000 iPads to teach a class of students what actually goes on behind the screen when they send emails. The Curriculum Needs an Update Local and national legislators usually have the final say as to what courses are mandated to be taught throughout a country. Often these mandated courses are focused on physical education, health, and languages. These courses require full participation and a passing grade to complete. If these are not reached, the student then must retake the course. The purpose of these programs are to ensure a national understanding of a subject, usually deemed important by state and/or national legislation. However, with all of these advancements being made in the technology sector, shouldn’t education courses reflect that? The answer is yes, and it should have been done years ago. Current high school seniors were born in 2000. They were 6 years old when WiFi reached 100 million users, 7 years old when Apple released the first iPhone, and 9 years old when their parents first started watching TV in high definition. This is the “tech” generation, but how is that being fostered? In actuality, it isn’t. Students often reach college before they get a basic computer science understanding and that isn’t guaranteed. Unless computer science is a career path a student desires, a majority of global young adults are not getting adequate IT knowledge. The United States Government recognized the need for more IT focus in schools. Then President Obama stated “In the new economy, computer science isn’t an optional skill–its a basic skill” . A basic skill that many adults don’t have, and or don’t have access to learn. In order to better instill computer science on a nation, it needs to be taught at a young age. What Should Be Taught? Students are entering a global workforce that is undergoing a massive digital transformation. In the past few decades alone digital capabilities have made incredible advancements. From streaming services to the cloud, the network’s possibilities have grown. Course curriculum should reflect these advancements, however there are still different directions for this to take. Educators, and other individuals close to these projects question whether a mandated computer science course should focus on preparing students for jobs in information technology, or teaching them innovative ways to think and solve their problems. In order for students to be best prepared for the professional digital world, they must be taught the basics in classes. Below are four basic information technology elements that are crucial for all students to learn. The skeleton of all things digital. Students would benefit immensely from mandated coding classes. These classes will teach children how to identify or classify items by assigning codes to them. The understanding of computer coding is essential for the future of today’s youth. Coding improves a variety of skills, such as, communication, persistence, collaboration, problem solving, and creativity . In addition to skill building, parents can feel confident knowing that computer programmers are in high demand , and instilling these skills at a young age will give them a competitive advantage . A study conducted by Code.org found that 71% of all new STEM jobs are in computing, however only 8%of STEM graduates are in a computer science background . Coding is a vital skill that should be taught to all youth in school, because adults in the workforce right now simply do not have it. Applicants with the ability to code will highly desirable and sought after by employers. Teaching students basic programming skills will have an impact on the way they interact and use technology in the future. There are now more than 4 billion people across the world using the internet , but only 23% of users in a study conducted by Pew Research know that the internet is different then the world wide web . In order for students to have a deep understanding of technology, they must be taught how it works. They should understand how search engines store information and how choosing different keywords changes the search outcome. They should understand how the cloud stores data virtually, and how a storm in New York can potentially affect the network in Munich. In science classes students are taught the components of the circulatory system, how they work together to provide vital processes for the human body, what can go wrong, and how to prevent it from going wrong. Digital infrastructure is just as important to teach children as science, seeing that it will impact them the same way in their adulthood. A digital citizen is defined as a person who develops the skills and knowledge to effectively use the internet and other digital technology, especially in order to participate responsibility in social and civic activities . Schools should teach students how to be responsible and ethical through digital discourse. This doesn’t just mean conversational circumstances. Digital Citizenship education should extend to the importance of digital safety and cyber crimes. Students should be taught at a young age about the dangers of sharing personal information. They should understand how to protect their information, and the consequences of not protecting it. Students should also be educated on computer viruses, and worms, and what they can do to your digital environment and how to avoid them. A mandated class in digital citizenship would ensure a basic understanding across a generation of future digital users. This basic understanding of digitally responsible and ethical behavior would bring a new element to digital transformation, a digitally civil user base. Digital History and Policy Implementations: Understanding how something came about and was developed is crucial to its general understanding. Students learning about how modern technology has advanced stand to have a better understanding of current technologies. They should also learn about the laws that governing bodies implement, and the effects these laws and policy changes have on digital transformation. GDPR and Net Neutrality recent examples of how a law enacted by a governing body can affect the digital environment. What happens when you educate a community? People live longer, they are happier communication is increased, and there is more civility. While advancements in digital technology have created opportunities, they have also created barriers. Not all members of society can access the internet or are able to pursue objectives digitally, particularly members from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. An online application for a job isn’t easily submittable for everyone, particularly those that do not have a consistent internet connection. Once information technology education is mandated, the chances of a more digitally just and fair society increases. While building a digitally just world, mandated IT education will create a smarter and more talented workforce. By preparing students for the digital skills they will need in adulthood young, you are securing a future full of digital possibilities. How is it Going so Far? There is widespread understanding that mandatory computer science classes would benefit school systems. These classes prepare all students regardless of their career interests or background for a tech-driven future. Three American states, Arkansas, California and South Carolina have implemented K-12 computer science classes. Eight years ago, just 19,390 students took an Advanced Placement Computer Science exam. By last spring, that was up to 99,868—a 415 percent jump . Although strides have been made to effectively insert computer science courses in education, some challenges have began to take form. For instance, wide scale implementation of mandatory classes across a nation is going to come with challenges. School’s are already stretched thin, and courses like this require start up costs. Another challenge is keeping up with the newest innovations from Silicon Valley and the rapidity of digital transformation. Schools and educators are left wondering if the coding languages and technology a 6th grader is using today will be useful once they become and adult. Another challenge is finding teachers to teach these computer science skills. Many come from the private field, which they ultimately return to because of the more competitive pay they receive there. There is also concern that students are already too far behind, and that the basic skills students are learning now could be replaced by machine learning in years to come. Before you Go Education is fundamental to sustainable development. IT education should be a mandatory class for youth. Students will learn the fundamentals of technology, how things work, and how to create. We all depend on the network, but not enough of people know how it works, and feel that they are too behind to ask. It’s time to say enough is enough with siloed education. The question should not be if IT tech should be taught in schools, but rather why not. The world is becoming increasingly dependent on technology. Skills such as coding are highly sought after. Employment in computer occupations is expected to grow by 12.5% between 2014 and 2024, which will result in more than half a million new jobs in the field . Centuries ago, skills like reading a writing were highly sought after, and possessing those skills was seen as a social status. As time progressed, skills like reading and writing were necessary for an increasing number of occupations, so more children were taught these skills. The next technological breakthrough may lie in the mind of someone who may not know how the internet works…yet. Washington Post, All Students Should Learn to Code. Right? Not so Fast (2016) ID Tech, 9 Reasons your Child Should Learn to Code (2017) Code.org, Promote Computer Science (2016) We are social, Global Digital Report (2018) Pew Research, What Internet Users Know About Technology and the Web (2014) Dictionary.com, Digital Citizen (2018) EdWeek, Computer Science for All: Can Schools Pull It Off? (2018) Code a kid, Why Kids Should Learn Computer Programing and 5 Quick Tips to Help Them Get Started (2018)
This unit provides a broad introduction to the Baltic region as well as in-depth studies for each Baltic state. The introductory lesson provides an overview of the history and culture of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as well as images, maps, and a variety of class, group, and individual activities. Throughout history, the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania have occupied a crucial strategic, political, and social position between Eastern and Western Europe. Surviving long histories of foreign rule and occupation, all three Baltic states emerged as independent nations by reestablishing their independence in 1991. Since then they have enjoyed many successes, such as acceptance into the North Atlantic Treaty Alliance and the European Union, as well as technological advancements and periods of rapid economic growth. The introductory lesson provides an overview of the history and culture of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as well as images, maps, and a variety of class, group, and individual activities. Lesson Two explores how Estonia transformed from a former Soviet republic with little technology infrastructure into a thriving high-tech society. As a pioneer in the development of e-government and e-services, Estonia serves as a model for wealthier and more developed nations looking to enhance and expand their own technological prowess. This lesson teaches students about the significance of technology in Estonia and how technology has helped develop this small Baltic nation. Lesson Threefocuses on women's issues and accomplishments in Latvia. In this lesson, students learn about the connection between Latvian women and the "dainas" (Latvian folk songs and one of the most potent symbols of Latvian identity and culture). They also learn about Aspazija, one of Latvia's foremost playwrights, and read an excerpt from The Silver Veil, one of her most famous plays. In addition, students study the life of Vaira Ve Freiberga, the first woman president of Latvia and analyze an excerpt of one of her speeches. Lesson Four explores how the small country of Lithuania became an international basketball powerhouse and the important role basketball plays in the country's culture and national identity. This lesson begins with an activity matching countries with their national sports. Then, students read an informational handout about Lithuanian basketball and engage in a series of tasks pertaining to what they have learned about Lithuanian basketball. This lesson concludes with a unit debriefing.
It may surprise you to know that gold was never formed on earth. Almost all the gold that we are wearing on our person or storing in our safe at home – came from asteroids. There is far more gold sitting in the core of the earth than has ever been on the surface. That gold was generously donated by our sun. Over the billions of years, it took to form the earth, that gold along with most other metals given to us by the sun, has sunk to the magma core of our planet. There is enough gold in the center of the earth to cover the surface with a 1.5-foot-thick layer. If you combine all the precious metals, you would get a 4-foot-thick layer. If you’d like to learn more interesting facts about gold, please see our article 5 Interesting Facts About Gold. Gold is Created in Supernovas Aztecs describe gold as “the sweat of the sun.” They may have come up with this metaphor because of the similar color, unfortunately they will never know how close they were to the truth. The sun goes through a process called fusion. At the beginning stages of a star’s life, the star is made up of hydrogen. The immense gravity and heat causes the hydrogen atoms to combine into helium atoms. The helium atoms will continue to fuse to make larger elements. Once fusion reaches iron, it is the beginning of the end for the star. A star cannot fuse higher than iron because the energy required to fuse iron is greater than gravitation forces created by the star. Eventually the iron will build up in the star like a cancer and the star will go supernova. In this cosmic explosion, enough energy is produced to create the heavier metals that we know today. One of these heavier metals is gold. Gold Might be Created when 2 Stars Collide Another theory rising in popularity is that gold is formed when 2 neutron stars collide, releasing an amazing amount of energy and creating the mass of Jupiter in gold. Neutron stars are created when a massive star burns out and leaves only the center. Neutron stars on their own are incredibly slow burning. The last thing to produce light in our universe will most likely be a neutron star. 50% of stars in our universe are orbiting another star. When 2 neutron stars orbit each other, the density will warp space-time in the surrounding area. When 2 stars this dense eventually collide, a massive amount of energy is released creating gold and most of the other heavy elements. This is a well produce video talking in greater detail about how gold is formed from stars. Earthquakes and Volcanoes Help Us Mine Gold Water is constantly flowing within the crevices of the earth. Large earthquakes heat up this water, vaporizing it. This water vapor deposits gold within the fault lines. Over extended periods of time, enough gold will be deposited to be qualified as a gold vein. Another way that earthquakes helps us mine gold is by breaking up already formed veins. The water will collect the gold flakes and transport them to rivers or oceans. The metal is denser than the water and will settle at the bottom. A current way to mine gold is to suck up the dirt at the bottom of the ocean and filter out the gold. It is the modern gold pan method used in the gold rush. The Hills have Gold Earthquakes are not the only natural force depositing gold in our crust. Volcanos can grab up loose gold and help push it into the surface. Volcanoes are connected to caverns that push many of the earths elements. When the pressure builds in these caverns a cataclysmic force is unleased from the volcano and the earth’s surface get coated with hot magma. Inside this magma is gold. Scientist believe that gold flakes deposited in hills were placed there by nearby volcanoes. There are scientist always looking for ways the earth brings gold to the surface. Understanding the physics helps gold mining companies prospect for new gold mines. In recent years, gold miners have been finding less gold per deposit. If new methods of finding gold are not developed. The worlds demand may soon overtake the supply we are mining. Where to Look for Gold Next? Scientist believe that the next best place to meet the world’s demands for gold is under the ocean’s surface. Right now, there are groups meeting in Jamaica to determine best practices for mining on the ocean’s bed. De Beers has been mining diamond from shallow ocean floors for years now. It is possible to get the same yields from deeper oceans. The same is true for all precious metals. With growing needs in technology, the demand for these metals may make it economical to go after these deep-sea metals. Some concerns that the international community has with deep ocean mining is jurisdiction. The ocean floor is internationally neutral and strife between countries may arise if proper laws are not produced before high demand pushes miners into other’s perceived territory. How Much Gold is on the Sea Floor Not including the sunken treasure lost by humans, it is estimated that there is 60 billion pounds of gold ready to be mined. That is enough to give every human 9 pounds of the yellow metal. In today’s market 9 pounds of gold is worth $170,500 and that doesn’t include the numerous other precious metals waiting in the depths. The ocean floor may very well be the next gold rush.
EFL - ESL activities and games for teaching comparative and superlative adjectives This ESL lesson plan contains activities and games for teaching comparative and superlative adjectives to intermediate level students (B1). Feel free to use these activity ideas in your ESL classes. If you're an iOS or Android user, try this lesson out on the TEFL Handbook app. It gives you offline access to all of our teaching resources, perfect for quick reference in the classroom. It's safe to assume that students at this level will be quite familiar with comparative and superlative adjectives. Therefore, you should be able to focus more on the functional uses and introduce more complex constructions. Step through the functional uses and try to elicit examples of each by giving the students a small part of the sentence. ESL activities for comparative and superlative adjectives Students work individually to complete a table of adjectives with their comparative and superlative forms. Start by drawing a table on the board with the columns adjective, comparative and superlative. Populate the first column of the table with the following adjectives: Deep, safe, noisy, beautiful, big, good, bad, far, dangerous, hairy, great, angry Tell your students to complete the table individually before comparing their answers with a classmate. Vampires and werewolves Students will work in pairs to make statements of comparison from a list of noun pairs. Start by adding the following prompts to the board: Vampires and werewolves Firefighters and Police officers Hip-hop and pop music Spiderman and Wolverine Travelling by train or by aeroplane Skydiving and bungee jumping Split the group into pairs and have them create one comparison for each prompt. When everybody has finished, encourage the group to think of the opposites to the adjectives that they have used and then use those to make statements with the same meaning as the original. You can do this example on the board first: School children are younger than university students. University students are older than school children. The students use their smartphones to search for some record breakers. This activity is dependent on the students having smartphones. In groups of three or four, they will use the internet to find: Tell each group that they should record the measurements as they go. You can finish this activity with a group discussion where you ask follow-up questions about each. Working in pairs, the students interview each other on a range of topics. Start by writing the following prompts on the board: Now divide the group into pairs and tell them that they must interview their partner on their personal experiences. Before they begin, elicit or provide some example questions and encourage them to ask follow-up questions. You should demo this with another student: Teacher: Where is the coldest place you have ever been? Student: The Sierra Nevada. Teacher: Wow! And what were you doing there? Student: I was skiing with my family. Players have to make sentences using themes and adjectives that have been decided by the throw of the dice. You'll need dice or dice app on your phone. To set this up, make a list of themes on the board and number them, six will be enough. Then make a separate list of 6 or 12 adjectives and number them. For each round, players roll the dice to select a theme and adjective. To win a point, they must then make a grammatically correct sentence from those selections. You can play this as a head to head, individual or team game. Themes: food, countries, animals, sports, free time, transport, jobs Adjectives: beautiful, hairy, active, scary, crazy, funny, amazing, advanced, boring, great, dangerous, painful Give one point for a grammatically correct sentence. If you're playing a team game, give a bonus point to the team with the funniest sentence and set a time limit. Hot seat: Comparative and superlative Students will have to describe sentences that contain the target language to the player in the hot seat. Start by dividing the class into two teams. On each turn, one student will sit with their back to the board, facing their teammates. Next, you'll write a comparative or superlative statement on the board. When the round begins, students have to describe that sentence to their teammate in the hot seat without using any significant words from the board. Set a time limit if you wish. Some example statements to get you going: 1. Giraffes are the tallest animal in Africa. 2. Tokyo is more crowded than Berlin. 3. The tallest man in the world was from the USA. 4. Cristiano Ronaldo is a better footballer than Ronald McDonald. 5. The African elephant is the heaviest (land)animal in the world. More B1 ESL lesson plans If you've found these ideas useful, have a look our complete list of ESL lesson plans for intermediate level students. For other levels, see our entire collection of ESL lesson plans. Our suggested next lesson is on expressing ability and possibility. Are you an iOS or Android user? Then you should give our app a go! The TEFL Handbook app has over 100 lesson plans, 300+ ESL activities and over 100 ideas for classroom games. All of which can be accessed offline, perfect for quick reference in the classroom.
A meteorite is a small extraterrestrial body that impacts the Earth's surface. While in space they are called meteoroids, and while falling through Earth's atmosphere they are called meteors. Most of them were small asteroids, approximately boulder-sized or less. Some meteorites have come from the Moon and Mars. When it enters the atmosphere, air resistance causes the body to heat up and emit light, thus forming a fireball or shooting star. More generally, meteorites fall on every solid planetary body, creating craters such as those on the Moon. Meteorites are so far the most important materials for studying planetary science. 79 percent of meteorites are chondrites - balls of mafic minerals with small grain size, indicative of rapid cooling. In most chondrites, small spherules called chondrules can be found. Chondrites are typically about 4.6 billion years old and are thought to represent material from the asteroid belt. There are different models to explain how chondrules formed. Carbonaceous chondrites, some of which are thought to be unaltered solar nebula material, constitute about five percent of meteorites and contain small amounts of organic materials, including amino acids. Also, presolar grains are identified in carbonaceous chondrites. The isotope ratios of carbonaceous chondrites are similar to those of the Sun. Achondrites are similar to terrestrial mafic igneous rocks and sometimes are brecciated. Achondrites constitute about eight percent of the incoming material and are thought to represent crustal material of some of the larger asteroids and occasionally Moon or Mars. About six percent of meteorites are iron meteorites with intergrowths of iron-nickel alloys, such as kamacite. Unlike chondrites, the crystals are large and appear to represent slow crystallization. Iron meteorites are thought to be the core material of one or more planets that subsequently broke up. Stony iron meteorites constitute the remaining two percent. They are a mixture of iron-nickel and silicate minerals. They are thought to have originated in the boundary zone above the core regions where iron meteorites originated. Meteorites are classified according to their structure and mineral composition. The three main classes of meteorite are stones, stony irons, and irons. Each chondrite is described using the following two-character group name and a petrologic type. Starting from the most primitive type 3, decreasing numbers (2~1) indicate higher degrees of aqueous alteration, and increasing numbers (4~7) indicate degrees of thermally metamorphism. All links retrieved September 19, 2018. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:
By Erik Conway, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory For 10 years, it has silently swooped through space in its orbital perch 438 miles (705 kilometers) above Earth, its nearly 2,400 spectral "eyes" peering into Earth's atmosphere, watching. But there's nothing alien about NASA's Atmospheric Infrared Sounder, or AIRS, instrument, a "monster" of weather and climate research that celebrates its 10th birthday in orbit May 4. AIRS, built by BAE Systems, Boston, under the direction of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., is one of six instruments flying on NASA's Aqua spacecraft as part of NASA's Earth Observing System. AIRS, along with its partner microwave instrument, the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU-A), has faithfully measured our planet's atmospheric temperature, water vapor, clouds and greenhouse gases with unprecedented accuracy and stability. Over the past decade, AIRS and AMSU-A have improved our understanding of Earth's global water and energy cycles, climate change and trends and how Earth's climate system is responding to increased greenhouse gases. Studies have shown AIRS has improved global weather prediction more than any other single satellite instrument in the past 10 years. In 2006, a group led by John Le Marshall of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration demonstrated that use of AIRS data in weather forecasting models significantly improved forecast "skill" -- the name of the calculation meteorologists use to quantify how close a forecast is to actual observed weather conditions. "AIRS has performed beyond expectation, exceeding its mission objectives," said AIRS Project Manager Tom Pagano of JPL. "The knowledge we've gained through AIRS has advanced our understanding of weather and climate, and demonstrated an important measurement technology. While the team can be proud of what's been accomplished, we continue to look forward to new discoveries as we explore the connection between extreme weather and climate change." AIRS was the brainchild of the late Moustafa Chahine, the AIRS science team leader at JPL who also served as JPL's chief scientist for many years. In the 1970s, Chahine had the idea of improving weather forecasting by using thousands of infrared channels to better discern temperature and water vapor variations in Earth's atmosphere, a technique known as hyperspectral sounding. As the first of a series of hyperspectral sounders for weather forecasting, AIRS has been a trailblazer for understanding and assimilating hyperspectral data. The current generation of European meteorological satellites now host an AIRS-like sounder, the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer; while a similar instrument, the Cross-track Infrared Sounder, now flies aboard NASA's new Suomi NPP satellite, the forerunner of the next-generation of U.S. weather satellites. One of the most significant scientific results from AIRS has been quantification of what's called the water vapor feedback effect. "As Earth's surface warms and the atmosphere with it, the atmosphere can hold a little more water vapor," said AIRS Project Scientist Eric Fetzer. "Water vapor is itself a greenhouse gas-it traps heat the same way carbon dioxide does. So if there's a slight warming, there will be a slight increase in water vapor, and that water vapor itself will cause a continuing increase." This vicious circle of warming is known as a positive feedback, an idea well-rooted in physical theory dating back to the 19th century. A team led by Andrew Dessler of Texas A&M University, College Station, tested the theory using AIRS' humidity data. AIRS could quantify the amount of water vapor at different levels of the atmosphere globally, permitting them to derive the average strength of the water vapor feedback across the globe. He found the water vapor feedback is extraordinarily strong, capable of doubling the warming due to carbon dioxide alone. Another important AIRS result is development of data products that quantify the global amount of several key atmospheric trace gases, including carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane. AIRS produced the first global map from space of carbon dioxide in Earth's mid-troposphere, revealing greater-than-expected variations, the transport of carbon dioxide across the equator and a "belt" of higher-than-average concentrations in the mid-latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. The AIRS team plans even more new products, some of which will help them better understand the physical properties of clouds. Knowing these properties is critical for understanding clouds, considered one of the largest remaining uncertainties in climate science. In the meantime, AIRS continues to operate well and is expected to last until Aqua runs out of fuel in 2022. More than 10,000 users worldwide currently use AIRS data for weather prediction and for conducting research into climate processes, atmospheric composition and environmental conditions that affect human health.
Foundational elements of the aquatic foodchain, marine phytoplankton are a category of plankton, microscopic organisms which are unable to swim against the current and float around in the upper region of water bodies. Inhabiting either salt or freshwater, plankton are and are defined more by their ecological niche rather than any shared characteristics. Plankton might include bacteria, archae, algae, protozoa and even drifting creatures like jellyfish. Some creatures (known as meroplankton) are categorised as plankton for the early part of their lifeycle (larval forms of sea urchins, sea stars etc) but then, as adults, take up residence on the seafloor. What’s the difference between phytoplankton and zooplankton? Phtyplankton might be classed as the plants of the sea, while zooplankton the animals. While phytoplankton has the capacity to manufacture it’s own food from sunlight and carbon dioxide through photsynthesis, zooplankton are tiny animals which must feed to survive, usually on phytoplankton. Both are key members of the marine ecosystem, and provide primary food sources for larger species like whales. The crucial thing from our perspective is that phytoplankton: - Are single celled - Can photosynthesize - Are entirely vegan/vegetarian What are the main forms of phytoplankton? Diatoms, golden brown algae, green algae, blue green algae, and dinoflagellates Phytoplankton and the Carbon Cycle Although scientists are still learning about marine carbon cycling, it is clear that phytoplankton play an integral role in the sequestering of carbon from our atmosphere, likely significantly higher than that of terrestrial forests. In a process called ‘the biological pump’, phytoplankton are responsible for approximately half of the carbon fixation on earth. From an ecological perspective, however, we can note than over 99.0% of all the carbon dioxide incorporated into living things over geologic time is buried in marine sediments, suggesting that the role of phytoplankton is absolutely primary to all of life on this planet. Many scientists now question whether phtyoplankton offers our planet its biggest opportunity for reducing carbon in the atmosphere and combatting climate change. As weather patterns change, scientists are also becoming aware that changes in light, and nutrients in the pelagic region of the oceans could have a major impact on plankton. The biggest threat would be that oxygen levels fall below the level required for phytoplankton to live which would rapidly kill of all oceanic life as we know it. What is it eaten by? The most common predators of phytoplankton would be things like krill, and larger plankton like jellyfish. Big mammals like whales are massive plankton eaters. Blue whales can eat 2,000-9,000 pounds (900-4100 kg) per day during the summer feeding season. Phtyoplankton for human consumption In terms of it’s consumption as a superfood, phytoplankton is relatively new to the human food chain. The last twenty years have been shift a huge amount of research focussed on it, however, firstly because of it’s extraordinary nutrient profile which attracted it to the cosmetic industry, and secondly it’s ability as a vegetarian oil source which has piqued the interest of biofuel pioneers. As our oceans become more and more polluted, the power of this humble organism to sustain the human species may prove to be most suitable, however, as the whales have always used it: simple nutrition.
Give your preschoolers opportunities to develop their cutting skills but before you do so consider a few of the following suggestions: - Make sure scissors will actually cut. If you can't cut a piece of paper with the child-sized scissors you select then chances are, your preschoolers wont be able to either. - Have left and right handed scissors available. - Teach your preschoolers how to hold the scissors correctly and how to open and close the scissor handles. - Teach your preschoolers how to hold the paper with the other hand so that he or she can cut more easily. - Keep an eye on preschoolers when they are using scissors and make sure they are sitting down at a table. - Teach your preschoolers good safety practices so they will respect scissors and use them for cutting paper, not hair, clothes, or each other! Let preschoolers cut scraps of paper Set out some old newspapers or left over scraps of paper and just let students cut. Preschoolers need time to build their fine motor skills and this is a terrific way to encourage cutting practice. Let preschoolers cut playdough Set out some playdough and scissors and let students work on their cutting skills this way as well. Work on snipping before cutting on the lines To begin more formal cutting activities, have preschoolers start by snipping around the edges of a piece of paper. Snipping helps preschooler work on their fine motor control as well as eye-hand coordination. Be selective in choosing cutting materials Some materials such as fabric and tissue paper are difficult for adults to cut, yet alone preschoolers. While preschoolers are developing their ability to cut, select materials that will help them have a successful experience rather than a frustrating experience. For very young preschoolers Have them start with tearing paper but just like cutting, make sure the paper is something they can actually tear. Tissue paper is nice for tearing. Tearing helps to build those small muscles needed for cutting later on. Be selective in choosing cutting activities. Gradually build towards more complex cutting activities and be sensitive to the skills and abilities of each preschooler in your care. The following chart is a suggestion for developing cutting skills.
THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION COLLAPSES The Indus Valley Civilization (c.3300–c.1700 bce) was based around large cities with planned streets and impressive drainage and water-supply systems in what are now Pakistan and northwestern India. By 1900 bce, this civilization was in decline and no longer producing the elaborate jewelry and fine seals for which it was famous. By c.1700 bce, the great Indus cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were virtually empty. The reason is unclear, but the most likely explanation is a combination of crop failure and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia. There is also some evidence of flooding due to a change in the course of the Indus River.
How can you create classroom activities to target whole class challenges with evidence and reasoning? - Teachers will consider the ways that different instructional activities can support student use of evidence and reasoning in science arguments. - Teachers will identify areas of argumentation that are challenging for their students. - Teachers will design activities targeting student challenges with evidence and/ or reasoning. *Extension Discussion- Using the Reasoning Rubric! Share your experience: - Share a student argument (oral or written) you evaluated using the Reasoning Rubric. Be prepared to share how you rated this argument and explain why you rated it as you did. - What were the strengths of your student use of reasoning? What were the weaknesses? - How could you use this information about student use of reasoning to guide your instruction? - What challenges did you encounter in using the rubric? 1. Video: Student Argument Watch a video of a student reading his argument below. - What evidence does he use in his argument? - What reasoning does he use in his argument? - What feedback would you provide to improve his argument? 2. Presentation: Supporting Activity Planning Tool The Supporting Activity Planning Tool features the elements of evidence and reasoning targeted in the rubrics from Session 1 and 2. The tool also includes potential argumentation activities included in other modules, mostly from the Introductory Module. Argumentation Supporting Activity Planning Tool - Work in pairs or small groups to see how these activities could be used to support their students' challenges using evidence and reasoning. - On the tool, think about how these activities could potentially help their students overcome each challenge. - Include notes explaining how the activity might address a particular challenge. 3. Workshop: Design Your Own Activity - Ask teachers to identify an element of either evidence or reasoning that is particularly challenging for their students. - Based upon their completion of the planning tool, teachers will design an activity to support their students’ argumentation in that area. - Teachers may choose to work independently or with a peer/ in groups. - During workshop time, teachers can be grouped by either the argumentation challenge or the activity to provide each other with support while they work. - The evidence and reasoning rubrics can be used to identify the challenges classes face, as well as individuals. - The Supporting Activities Planning Tool can be used as a resource to help teachers plan activities targeting the challenges students encounter using evidence and reasoning.
Your younger toddler discover the joys of scribbling between thirteen and eighteen months of age. Now your eighteen-to-twenty-four-month old is ready to imitate the forming of lines. This involves watching you do the motion and then doing it immediately afterward. Most children do not learn how to form shapes by looking at a drawing until after two years of age. Children typically learn to imitate forming lines in the following sequence: - vertical lines - circular scribbles - horizontal lines Messy and Not Messy Play to Form Lines Using finger paint, whip cream, and other messy play media, you can show your child how to form vertical, circular and horizontal strokes. Demonstrate how to form vertical lines from top to bottom and horizontal lines from left to right. This is suggested because in many western cultures letters are largely formed and words are read in these directions. Having said this, let me add that drawing and pre-writing should be fun, and there is no need to correct your child's efforts. If your child does not like getting "messy" consider placing the paint, hair gel or other colorful substance inside a tightly closed, heavy duty, clear plastic bag. They can still imitate forming lines by pressing into the bag. Here is an easy activity that involves forming lines: Give your child a pail of water and a short fat paintbrush. See how many lines she can paint on a building or house before they dry up and become invisible. Make-Your-Own Picture Frame This is also a good time to teach the concept that coloring stays on the paper and does not go on the table or wall. You can make this concept more obvious by drawing a thick line in a different color around the paper's edges or even framing it with strips of colorful cardboard or tape. This is the first step in learning how to color inside shapes. Here is a simple Make- our-Own picture frame using a folder and piece of paper. After your child produces a scribbled work of art place it inside the folder with a large cut out to create the frame. Tape in place. The video demonstrates a few sensory-based strategies to teach how to form lines. For example, the indentations in the green dishwasher soap bottle provides tactile (touch) sensory cues as the child forms lines inside the grooves. Cut a long, thin rectangle out of cardboard, plastic or a rug square. You just created a writing guide or window. Place the guide on top of various textures such as my mermaid pillow or bubble wrap to form lines . The bottom photo shows the silver line I "drew" using the guide! Source: Teaching Children How to Form Writing Lines by RecyclingOT
The Atlantic Puffin (Fratercula arctica) is a seabird species in the auk family. It is a pelagic bird that feeds primarily by diving for fish, but also eats other sea creatures, such as squid and crustaceans. Its most obvious characteristic is its brightly colored beak during the breeding seasons. Also known as the Common Puffin, it is the only puffin species which is found in the Atlantic Ocean. The curious appearance of the bird, with its colorful huge bill and its striking piebald plumage, has given rise to nicknames such as "clown of the ocean" and "sea parrot". The Atlantic Puffin is 28"?34 centimeters in length, with a 50"?60 cm wingspan. The male is generally slightly larger than the female, but they are colored alike. This bird is mainly black above and white below, with gray to white cheeks and red-orange legs. The bill is large and triangular, and during the breeding season is bright orange with a patch of blue bordered by yellow at the rear. The characteristic bright orange bill plates grow before the breeding season and are shed after breeding. The bills are used in courtship rituals, such as the pair tapping their bills together. During flight, it appears to have grey round underwings and a white body; it has a direct flight low over the water. The related Horned Puffin (Fratercula corniculata) from the North Pacific looks very similar but has slightly different head ornaments. The Atlantic Puffin is typically silent at sea, except for soft purring sounds it sometimes makes in flight. At the breeding colonies the birds make a deep growl. Distribution and ecology Adult in flight in the Farne Islands, England. This species breeds on the coasts of northern Europe, the Faroe Islands, Iceland and eastern North America, from well within the Arctic Circle to northern France and Maine. The winter months are spent at sea far from land - in Europe as far south as the Mediterranean, and in North America to North Carolina. About 95% of the Atlantic puffins in North America breed around Newfoundland's coastlines. The largest puffin colony in the western Atlantic (estimated at more than 260,000 pairs) can be found at the Witless Bay Ecological Reserve, south of St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. Predators of the Atlantic Puffin include the Great Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus), the Great Skua (Stercorarius skua), and similar-sized species, which can catch a puffin in flight, or pick off one separated from the colony. Smaller gull species like the Herring Gull (L. argentatus) which are hardly able to bring down a healthy adult puffin, take eggs or recently hatched chicks, and will also steal fish. Feeding areas are often located 100 kilometers offshore from the nest or more, though when provisioning young the birds venture out only half that distance. Atlantic Puffins can dive for distances of up to 70 m (200 ft) and are propelled by their powerful wings, which are adapted for swimming. They use their webbed feet as a rudder while submerged. Puffins collect several small fish, such as herring, sprats and sand eels, when hunting. They use their tongues to hold the fish against spines in their palate, leaving their beaks free to open and catch more fish. A popular, but untrue, story claims that puffins neatly line up the fish in their bills with the heads facing alternate ways. Additional components of their diet are crustaceans and mollusks. A puffin can sometimes have a dozen or more fish in its beak at once. Adults on nesting grounds (note burrows). Lunga (Treshnish Isles, Scotland) Atlantic Puffins are colonial nesters, using burrows on grassy cliffs. They will also nest amongst rocks and scree. Male puffins perform most of the work of clearing out the nest area, which is sometimes lined with grass, feathers or seaweed. The only time spent on land is to nest, and mates are found prior to arriving at the colonies. The Atlantic Puffin is sexually mature at the age of 4"?5 years. The species is monogamous and has biparental care. A single-egg clutch is produced each year, and incubation responsibilities are shared between both parents. Total incubation time is around 39"?45 days, and the chick takes about 49 days to fledge. At fledging, the chick leaves the burrow alone, and flies/swims out to sea, usually during the evening. Contrary to popular belief, young puffins are not abandoned by their parents (although this does occur in some other seabirds, such as shearwaters). Synchronous laying of eggs is found in Atlantic Puffins in adjacent burrows. Relationship with humans Puffin hunters, Faroe Islands, 1898 or 1899 On remote Stóra Dímun, puffins are still important food today. Status and conservation The population of these birds was greatly reduced in the nineteenth century, when they were hunted for meat and eggs. Atlantic Puffins are still hunted and eaten in numbers, but at present this does not generally affect populations much - at least compared to other threats. On the Faroe Islands, for example, the birds may be hunted for local consumption after breeding is finished, as then an excess number of birds is available. More recent population declines may have been due to increased predation by gulls and skuas, the introduction of rats, cats, dogs and foxes onto some islands used for nesting, contamination by toxic residues, drowning in fishing nets, declining food supplies, and climate change. On the island of Lundy the number has decreased dramatically in recent years (the 2005 breeding population was estimated to be only two or three pairs) as a consequence of depredations by black rats (recently eliminated) and possibly also as a result of commercial fishing for sand eels, the puffins' principal prey. On the other hand, puffin numbers increased considerably in the late twentieth century in the North Sea, including on the Isle of May and the Farne Islands. Numbers have been increasing by about 10% per year in recent years. In the 2006 breeding season, about 68,000 pairs were counted on the Isle of May. However, Iceland has many times as many breeding pairs with the Puffin - lundi in Icelandic - the most populous bird on the island. In 2008 declines were reported in the Farne Islands and Isle of May colonies. Reintroduction projects have taken place on a number of islands, including one on the coast of Maine titled Project Puffin, and these have given local boosts to some Puffin populations. Since the Atlantic Puffin spends its winters on the open ocean, it is susceptible to human impacts such as oil spills. If an accidental oil spill occurs and pelagic birds are exposed, toxins are inhaled or ingested which leads to kidney and liver damage. This damage can contribute to a loss of reproductive success and damage to developing embryos. Oil spills may also have indirect effects. The Atlantic Puffin and other pelagic birds are excellent bioindicators of the environment because they are near the top of the food chain in the ocean. Since the primary food source for Atlantic Puffins is fish, there is a great potential to bioaccumulate heavy metals from the environment. Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills - such as the Prestige oil spill on the Galician coast - or from other natural or anthropogenic sources. In order to determine the effects on pelagic birds such as the Atlantic Puffin, quantifiable measurements must be taken. In the field, scientists obtain contaminant measurements from eggs, feathers or internal organs. Faroe Islands 1978 postal stamp FR 31 by Holger Philipsen Since the Atlantic Puffin gets the majority of its food from diving it is important that there is an ample supply of resources and food. Different environmental conditions such as tidal cycle, upwellings and downwellings contribute to this abundance. In a study published in 2005 it was observed that Atlantic Puffins were associated with areas of well-mixed water below the surface. This study implies consequences for the species if impacts of global warming lead to an alteration of tidal cycles. If these cycles are modified too much, it is probable that the Atlantic Puffin will have a difficult time locating food resources. Another consequence of an increase in temperature could be a reduction in the range of the Atlatic Puffin, as it is only able to live in cool conditions and does not fare overly well if it has to nest in barren, rocky places, and an increase in temperature could thus squeeze the zone of puffin-suitable habitat as warmer biotopes expand from the equator but the polar regions remain barren due to lack of historical accumulation of topsoil. In popular culture - The Atlantic Puffin is the provincial bird of Newfoundland and Labrador. - The Norwegian municipality of Vćrřy has an Atlantic Puffin in its coat-of-arms. - The island of Lundy's name is derived from the Norse lunde for the puffins that nest on the island. Puffins also appeared on the coins and stamps of the island and a value expressed in 'Puffins'. - In August 2007, the Atlantic Puffin was proposed as the official symbol of the Liberal Party of Canada by its deputy leader Michael Ignatieff, after he observed a colony of these birds and became fascinated by their behavior. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Adult in nest cavity, Machias Seal Island, Gulf of Maine On Machias Seal Island, Gulf of Maine On Skomer Island, Pembrokeshire At Látrabjarg, Iceland On Machias Seal Island, Gulf of Maine Breeding grounds on Lunga, Treshnish Isles On Mykines, Faroe Islands Adult in flight
Science - Biology Students will understand that living organisms interact with one another and their environment. Describe how interactions among organisms and their environment help shape ecosystems. Abiotic and Biotic Factors This lesson helps students understand abiotic and biotic factors. Once the concept has been grasped, they can trace the interactions of these factors within a system. Abiotic vs Biotic In this activity students will distinguish between abiotic and biotic factors in an ecosystem. They will demonstrate this by identifying and classifying various biotic and abtiotic objects. Analyzing An Ecosystem Field Trip This is a field trip activity, our school has wetlands nearby, any other distinct ecosystem would suffice. Students will gather quantitative and qualitative data to describe this ecosystem. Backwards Predator-Prey Relationships This activity allows students to work backwards from a classic predator-prey graph to sharpen their scientific method skills and analyze the data. Brine Shrimp Inquiry Lab Students will engage in a long term lab investigating biotic and abiotic influences on an ecosystem. Creating An Ecosystem In this activity students will design hypothetical ecosystems based on the random drawing of abiotic factors. They will make a picture to display their information. Diagramming an Ecosystem Students will create illustrations of an ecosystem using the computer program Inspiration or using paper and colored pencils. Ecosystem (Biome) Research In this research-based activity students will distinguish between abiotic and biotic factors in an ecosystem. They will also investigate the interactions between these. Ecosystem Survey Using Classification and Plant ID Scientists use many tools to evaluate the health of a habitat. One way to classify and determine the health of a habitat is to identify the organisms that live there and compare those to other habitats. To do this biologists use identification keys. In this exercise students will use identification keys to identify plants in various habitats and determine adaptations for success / evolution of different species. Students will analyze information from the Wasatch Cache National Forest Website to discover what environmental threats Utah faces. They will pick a threat to do further research on. Habitat Alteration Module: Habitat Succession This activity is part of the TGLL Habitat Alteration Module. This is a long-term project, ideally spanning from 2-3 months. This project will involve observing habitat succession at sites that either vary naturally, or at sites that are experimentally manipulated by students (human alterations). Habitat Alterations of a Riparian Ecosystem This field trip is designed to physically immerse students in the concept of habitat alteration by visiting a location along the Jordan river that possesses highly altered, relatively pristine, and restored habitats. Students will rotate between three stations focusing on biotic and abiotic habitat alterations within which they will identify native and exotic species, measure water quality, and gain historical perspectives on land use practices along uses the Jordan river. This trip is designed to take 3.5 hours and can accommodate between 30 and 60 students.This trip was originally designed for8th grade but can e properly scaled for 6-10th grade. Introduction to Habitat Alteration Students will be introduced to the concepts of habitat and habitat change through lecturing and guided inquiry. Students will engage in an open discussion of habitat change, view time-lapse footage of change, and identify /evaluate images of natural and human caused habitat alteration. Attention will be focused on identifying indicators and causes of habitat alteration. Students will research about a symbiotic relationship between 2 organisms. They will then present their relationship to the class. In a charades type format. Students will randomly select an area in a field or lawn for observation and measurement. Native vs Exotic Fish Students will engage in a simulation game where they model feeding styles of fish and how fish compete for food. In this activity students will model how animals' needs for survival are met, what happens when they are not, and see how populations fluctuate based on their availability. Pond Water Ecology and Habitat Change Students will understand how abiotic (physical) factors alter the biotic elements of an ecosystem through an examination of microbial life in water. Students will observe water from three aquatic habitats that differ in their physical characteristics. Students will also experimentally alter the physical factors of an aquatic habitat. By observing and experimentally changing different aquatic habitats, students will understand that the abiotic components of an environment shape the type of life living there. Students are introduced to symbiotic relationships between living things. They then create their own examples of imaginary symbiotic relationships. Students model an ocean ecosystem and see how humans affect the number of fish over a period of years. Students must work as a class to find an equitable solution for all the countries represented. pH Changes in a Small Ecosystem A pond water/hay infusion will be developed and observed. Student groups will add a range of acid and base solutions to look for changes. http://www.uen.org - in partnership with Utah State Board of Education (USBE) and Utah System of Higher Education (USHE). Send questions or comments to USBE Specialist - and see the Science - Secondary website. For general questions about Utah's Core Standards contact the Director These materials have been produced by and for the teachers of the State of Utah. Copies of these materials may be freely reproduced for teacher and classroom use. When distributing these materials, credit should be given to Utah State Board of Education. These materials may not be published, in whole or part, or in any other format, without the written permission of the Utah State Board of Education, 250 East 500 South, PO Box 144200, Salt Lake City, Utah
Biogas basically consists of methane and carbon dioxide. In addition, it also contains unwanted contaminants, especially hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Hydrogen sulfide mainly occurs because of the degradation of sulfur-containing proteins (e.g. methionine and cysteine) or the desulfurization of sulfates. The fermentation of manure and other organic wastes shows typical H2S concentrations in the range of 2,000 to 6,000 ppm) in the biogas. H2S impair the utilization of the biogas in CHP stations as it leads to formation of sulfur oxides which corrode the metal parts of the plant and drastically reduce the endurance of the engine oil in biogas motors. In order to remove hydrogen sulfide from the biogas, the biological desulfurization is used beside various physico-chemical methods. While supplying oxygen, microorganisms oxidize H2S into elementary sulfur and sulfate. This conversion may either occur directly in the gas chamber above the fermentation substrate or in a down-stream biofilter after the digester. Most of the sulfide-oxidising microorganisms belong to the family of Thiobacillus. For the microbiological oxidation of sulfide it is essential to add stoichiometric amounts of oxygen to the biogas. Depending on the concentration of hydrogen sulfide this corresponds to 2 to 6 % air in biogas. The bacteria are capable of oxidizing H2S at low pH levels. The simplest method of desulphurization is the addition of oxygen or air directly into the digester or in a storage tank serving at the same time as gas holder. Thiobacilli are ubiquitous and thus systems do not require inoculation. They grow on the surface of the digestate, which offers the necessary micro-aerophilic surface and at the same time the necessary nutrients. If the desulfurization of the biogas is carried out directly in the digester, the microorganisms need to be provided with sufficient surface for the immobilization. Beside H2S the bacteria need carbon, different minerals (N, P, K) as well as trace elements (Fe, Co, Ni) and oxygen. Depending on the temperature, the reaction time, the amount and place of the air added the hydrogen sulfide concentration can be reduced by 95 % to less than 50 ppm. Yellow clusters of sulfur are formed during the process. Measures of safety have to be taken to avoid overdosing of air in case of pump failures. Biogas in air is explosive in the range of 6 to 12 %, depending on the methane content). Biological H2S removal is attractive because of low energy and chemical usage requirements, easy and automated operation, long life expectancy of system elements, potential for elemental sulfur recovery, and no solid waste stream requiring discharge or disposal. The key to obtaining an efficient reaction is to provide an ideal habitat for the growth of sulfide-oxidizing bacteria, to the exclusion of competing microbes, which normally predominate in aerobic treatment processes. Efficient removal of H2S requires media with enough surface area to maintain a large population of sulfide-oxidizing microbes. Salman is a prolific environmental writer, and has authored more than 500 articles in reputed journals, magazines and websites. He is proactively engaged in creating mass awareness on renewable energy, waste management, sustainability and conservation all over the world. Salman can be reached on [email protected] Latest posts by Salman Zafar (see all) - 6 Ways to Make Sure You End the Year Strong With Your Team - December 12, 2019 - 5 Ways To Upgrade Your Master Bedroom - December 12, 2019 - Top 4 Services that Online Writing Companies Offer - December 11, 2019 Republished by Blog Post Promoter
Several years ago, a pilot flying over the town of Picacho, Ariz., spotted a brilliant red area on the ground. It was several feet across. When he landed to take a closer look, he discovered hundreds of thousands of fuzzy red creatures with white spots huddled together. Each creature was about the size of a plump raisin. The pilot had located a massive gathering of the world's largest mite, the giant velvet mite (Dinothrombium species). A mite belongs to the class Arachnida, whose members include spiders and ticks. This species is called "giant" because most mites are about the size of a grain of sand. Justin Schmidt, an entomologist at Southwestern Biological Institute in Tucson, Ariz., is one of only a few scientists in the world studying these insects. In nonscientific terms, he describes his subjects as "little round things with no true head or tail," moving about on eight tiny legs. Little is known about the mites, Dr. Schmidt says, because they are extremely hard to locate. They live 6 to 8 inches beneath eastern Arizona's sandy soil. Most of their lives are spent in underground tunnels and burrows. Schmidt believes this helps them survive the desert's cold night temperatures. But, for up to three days in July, after the first hard rains, the mites move around above ground. Winged termites (their favorite food) are flying about then. The mites congregate to find mates. The rains moisten and cool the desert soil, making it easier to tunnel near the surface. Above or below ground, the mites apparently have no natural enemies. Nothing preys on them. Schmidt says one reason for this may be because they "taste nasty." (Yes, he's tasted one.) The mites' bright red color naturally warns predators to stay away. The coloring is the result of the chemical carotene. Carotene is a natural pigment ranging in color from yellow to orange to red. Carotene is what gives carrots and beets their coloring. Unlike other mites, which feed on animals by sucking their blood, giant velvet mites eat mostly winged termites. They "don't eat people," Schmidt says. Nor are other mites as "fuzzy and adorable" as these creatures are. That makes them even more unusual, he says. (c) Copyright 2000. The Christian Science Publishing Society
Observe Sheep Behaviour to Help Grazing Management Observing grazing animals can provide the livestock producer with valuable information on the quantity and quality of the forage available to the animals. Observation is an important tool for making grazing management decisions. With practice, a producer can become adept at "eyeballing" the approximate amount and quality of forage being consumed by his livestock. Ruminant animals graze wherever and whenever forage is available, therefore, a producer can say that he does practice "grazing management". Grazing occurs either by: - Design - when controlled by a knowledgeable manager; or - By default - when animals are allowed to graze on their own without regard for plant and animal requirements. A livestock producer must visit his pastures frequently, not only to check the animals, but also to check the forage. This allows the producer to monitor what is happening with the pasture and to anticipate and correct any potential problem before it results in reduced livestock performance. Grazing Management Plan A grazing management plan must be designed with both plant growth and animal performance in mind. For long-term sustainability, there must be a balance between plant and animal requirements. - Plant growth is maximized when they are "harvested" (or grazed) at maturity, but at that point the forage quality is low and animal performance may suffer because the nutritional needs of the animal are not met. - Animal performance is maximized if the plant is grazed while it is actively growing (i.e. producing high-quality feed), but repeated, uncontrolled grazing will result in animals selectively consuming the highly nutritious and palatable plants while leaving the unpalatable ones. Over time, this will cause the disappearance of desirable plants (called decreasers) and the predominance of less desirable and undesirable ones (called increasers and invaders). Some points to consider when observing animals and interpreting their grazing behaviour are: - Less time is spent grazing when forage is plentiful and of good quality; more time is spent grazing when quantity or quality is limited; - Herd animals tend to graze as a group when forage is plentiful and as individuals when forage is scarce; - A well-established browse line indicates excessive grazing pressure (a browse line is a well-defined height to which browse such as leaves, twigs and woody growth has been removed by animals); - Midday grazing during hot weather indicates that forage is limited. Sheep Grazing Patterns and Behaviour Grazing animals are looking for green plant material. Their first preference is new green leaves. When new green leaves are not present, the animals will eat older green leaves, followed by green stems, then dry leaves, and finally dry stems. Grazing animals are also looking for plants that they consider palatable. Sheep have narrower mouths and more flexible lips than cattle; therefore, they can be more selective in their grazing by taking individual bites. Ruminants swallow their food as soon as it is lubricated and after they have consumed a certain amount, they ruminate. Sheep and goats usually graze for nine to 11 hours a day. Animals usually graze, then rest and ruminate. Sheep rest and ruminate more than cattle: seven to 10 hours a day as opposed to four to nine hours a day for cattle. - Sheep can graze rugged terrain more easily than cattle. - Sheep are reluctant to graze areas that have natural predator cover. - Sheep may walk from three to five kilometres for water (depending on topography). The distance they have to travel has a significant influence on production. The greater the distance to water, the more energy and time is needed to satisfy the sheep's requirements. - Sheep need from 7.5 to 10 litres of water per day. - Livestock seek shade and cool locations during hot summer periods, which may result in excessive grazing under trees and in riparian areas. - Livestock usually overuse dry southern exposures early in spring and then switch to riparian and shaded areas during hotter times of the year. North facing slopes usually remain underused. - Sheep have a strong flocking instinct and maintain social spacing and orientation in pens as well as pasture. Breed, stocking rate, topography, vegetation, shelter and distance to water may influence this instinct, but isolation of individual sheep usually brings about signs of anxiety and may cause the sheep to try to escape. - Sheep tend to "follow" one another even in activities such as grazing, bedding down, reacting to obstacles and feeding. Some pasture characteristics that influence how close actual intake gets to potential intake are listed below. - Forage Selection: Grazing animals are very selective in what they eat. Their choices are influenced by the presence of secondary compounds (phenolics, volatile oils), plant morphology (such as thorns and thick cuticles, dried "stemmy" material) and past grazing experience. Sheep tend to avoid the older seedstalks or "stemmy" grass. An increase in the number of seedstalks in a pasture will reduce the sheep's grazing intensity; however, when seedstalks are removed (such as by cutting during the previous fall), sheep's preference for the non-stemmy forage increases. - Preference: An animal's forage selection is more a function of its past experience than its breed. Grazing is an acquired skill, which is learned at an early age. This means it is possible to train an animal to consume certain plants, such as leafy spurge, for vegetation control. - Palatability: Livestock select food that has the most pleasing texture. They also choose familiar foods. Green material is preferred over dry material, and leaves over stems. Palatability is affected by fibre content, bitterness or sweetness, water content and plant abundance. Understand Forage Growth Plants obtain their energy from sunlight by producing carbohydrates through photosynthesis. In order for pasture to remain productive and provide a steady source of grazing year after year, the grass must feed itself first before providing feed for animals. Photosynthesis produces carbohydrates, which the plant uses for growth, maintenance, storage and reproduction, in that order. In plants, growth is the first priority for any available carbohydrates. If the green leafy areas of actively growing plants are repeatedly removed or consumed (grazed, clipped or mowed), the plant will use its energy (mostly stored from previous production) to continually replace the leaves. If the plant produces more than enough carbohydrates to meet its growth and maintenance demands, then the excess is stored for later use. Since growth takes priority over storage, repeated defoliation (e.g. heavy uncontrolled grazing) during the growing season will seriously deplete a plant's stored carbohydrates, leaving very little or no energy for reproduction. This gradual weakening of the plant is the basis for using grazing or mowing as a tool for weed control or vegetation management. Important to note: - Carbohydrate storage increases when the growth slows and the leaf area is large. - Storage decreases when leaf area is small and growth is fast. Perennial plants must have sufficient stored energy to survive the winter, initiate growth in the following spring and recover after complete defoliation. Defoliation occurs as a result of grazing but also as a result of clipping and mowing, disease and insect outbreaks, and frost and hail. In order to maintain a long-lived and vigorous perennial forage stand, adequate levels of carbohydrates must be maintained. This can be done by: - Delaying defoliation or keeping early defoliation periods short; - Allowing adequate leaf area to remain after defoliation; - Allowing adequate time between defoliations to permit the leaf area to regenerate and carbohydrate reserves to build; and - Leaving adequate residual leaf area and time late in the season to permit carbohydrate build-up and bud development. Rotational grazing is most necessary on perennial pastures, especially if several forage species are mixed together in the pasture. Without rotational grazing, sheep can selectively graze the plants they prefer and avoid others. Over-grazing soon weakens the preferred species and they are soon crowded out, leaving only the less desirable plants for future grazing. Rotational grazing forces sheep to consume all species more or less equally, and gives all grazed plants time to recover and regrow while sheep graze other pastures. Grazing Management Principles and Planned Grazing Systems The traditional herded system (where the flock is herded and bedded in an open area near the shepherd's mobile camp) is most suited to large tracts of land that are grazed only once per season for a short time. Herding is not often used in Saskatchewan. The system of choice for Saskatchewan sheep producers is confined (fenced) grazing, which requires planning to manage and control the areas where the sheep are permitted to graze. Fences, water developments, the strategic placement of salt or mineral supplement and herding can result in more uniform livestock distribution on a pasture. Grazing systems are designed to control the timing, intensity and frequency of grazing. Over the long-term, a successful grazing system does the following: - Balances livestock numbers with the forage supply; - Uniformly distributes livestock over the pasture and reduces selective grazing; - Alternates periods of grazing with periods of regrowth. (Regrowth must occur during active growing periods to be effective.); - Maintains a healthy plant community with a desirable distribution of species and plant age classes; - Avoids damage to grazed plants when they are most susceptible; - Maintains healthy watersheds and soil; - Meets the physiological needs of grazing animals; - Maximizes livestock gain per acre; - Uses methods that are environmentally sound, practical to implement, simple to operate and flexible in case of unforeseen circumstances; and - Addresses the needs of the entire ecosystem, including plants, wildlife, domestic livestock and soil. Range improvements and grazing systems attempt to control livestock behaviour. Range management can be defined as the art and science of manipulating, using and conserving grazing land resources, while maintaining ecosystem integrity. The four basic principles of range or pasture management lead to increased livestock production, improved watershed and ecosystem stability, and long-term sustainability. They are: - Graze range or pasture at the right time of year and to the right degree; - Leave adequate leaf area for regrowth to ensure the restoration of individual plant vigour; - Allow adequate "rest" for the forage in your pastures. Livestock should be kept off the range for a period during the active growing season to allow adequate regrowth for next year; and - Control livestock distribution and access to minimize selective grazing and prevent excessive regrazing of plants. These principles are fundamental to the wise management of grazing resources, and are applicable to both tame and native pastures. Grazing can cause long-term harm if these principles are not followed. Poor management will lead initially to reduced plant vigour. Continued poor management will cause the loss of valuable forage plants, drought resistance, ground cover and range productivity. Ultimately, the condition or health of the range will deteriorate to such an extent that animal weight gains and productivity are affected. Grazing a variety of species on the pasture, either simultaneously or in sequence, can be used to distribute grazing pressure, maintain or improve plant diversity and diet quality and spread economic risk. Also, the effects of multi-species grazing can be duplicated by grazing two groups of the same species which have different nutritional requirements, as determined by their class and stage of production. For example, lactating ewes with lambs should be placed on the highest quality pasture available to promote desired levels of milk production and lamb growth. Dry, non-pregnant ewes or ewes in early to mid-gestation should be placed on lower quality forages or serve as second grazers behind young, growing lambs. Strategies that match stage of animal production with type and quality of forage improves overall forage utilization while maintaining optimum animal performance. Producers should keep in mind that different animals prefer different forages, as shown in Table 1 (Taylor, 1981): - Cattle diets consist primarily of grass. - Sheep tend to prefer forbs over grass and browse. - Goat diets contain large amounts of browse compared to cattle and sheep diets. Table 1: Relative proportions of grass, forbs and browse in the diets of cattle, sheep and goats \|Type of Forage Because of the different dietary preference, mixing kinds of livestock under certain conditions is possible. However, the forage source must have the necessary diversity and production for the animals to meet their dietary preferences. For example, cattle and sheep will compete if grazed together in a predominately grass pasture. However, they will complement each other if grazed in a pasture with a high proportion of forbs and browse. Whatever the forage source, grazing cattle and sheep together will place increased management requirements on the operator. The fencing and other infrastructures needed to handle the two kinds of livestock are different. The herd health issues (recognizing, treating and dealing with sick animals) will also be different. Making use of combinations of animal species in a grazing plan can benefit the range resource, the grazing animals and the producer: - Small ruminants can control and utilize plants that cattle will not or should not eat. - By grazing taller, courser forage, cattle can provide sheep better access to the short, tender regrowth. - Multi-species grazing may spread the economic risk between the commodity prices - at any given time, one species may provide better returns while the other is not as profitable. The disadvantages of multi-species grazing are the increased need for fencing, water distribution and storage troughs, handling facilities and management skills. Access to and knowledge of the markets for more than one species may also constrain multi-species grazing. Sheep Stocking and Nutrient Requirements Forage supply and forage demand are both expressed in a standardized unit called an "Animal Unit" or AU. An Animal Unit is a 1,000-pound mature cow. An "Animal Unit Month" or AUM is the amount of forage required by an Animal Unit for one month. "Animal Unit Equivalents" or AUE are used to maintain the standardization when converting from or to different kinds and classes of animals. Sheep have Animal Unit Equivalents (AUE) of 0.20 for ewes and 0.26 for rams. This means that one AUM of forage would supply enough feed for five ewes or five ewes will demand one AUM of forage. To illustrate the initial stocking rate for a "typical" tame pasture in southern Saskatchewan (an unfertilized, four- to six-year-old stand in the brown soil zone with coarse "light" texture) follows: The initial stocking rate for five ewes (or one AUM - equivalent to one 1,000-pound cow) that are to be grazed and using the previous assumptions: Table 2: Sample initial stocking rates \|\|Five ewes grazing days/ac. (Note - specific details for other soils and forage stands can be obtained from the Saskatchewan Agriculture publication, Initial Stocking Rate Recommendations for Seeded Pastures in Saskatchewan.) The most critical periods in the sheep production cycle are: - breeding through very early pregnancy; - late pregnancy through the neonatal period; - overall lactation; and Selection of breeding season dictates when each of the critical periods falls in relation to the forage cycle. Nutrients in forages are highest soon after the forage emerges and before it matures. Therefore, animals with low production potential or with low nutritional requirements (dry, non-pregnant adults) could be used to graze mature forage. Animals in the breeding, late pregnancy or lactation periods, or newly weaned lambs should use a pasture that is producing high quality forage. Bloat occurs in ruminants when gas produced during fermentation becomes trapped inside the rumen rather than being expelled through eructation or belching. The resulting rumen distension can exert pressure on the animal's respiratory and circulatory systems to the point of death. Management to lessen problems with bloat Bloat can be reduced through the following pasture management methods: - Plant pastures so that no more than 50 per cent of the forage mixture is alfalfa or clover. - Consider planting non-bloating legumes such as birdsfoot trefoil, sainfoin and cicer milkvetch (AC Grazland is an alfalfa variety that can reduce but not eliminate bloating). - Fill up animals on dry roughage or grass pastures before turning them out onto legume pastures. A hungry animal may overeat when given access to fresh pasture and develop bloat. - Move the livestock onto alfalfa at mid-day instead of the prime grazing times of morning or evening. - Minimize bloat by turning animals onto alfalfa that has reached the bloom stage or later. The more mature the alfalfa, the less the risk of bloat. Once alfalfa has flowered, the risk of bloat is greatly reduced. - Bloat also appears to be more prevalent if the animals eat only the upper portion of the plant, which is high in rapidly degradable protein. Grazing animals at a high stocking rate will minimize this problem. - Provide the animals with grass pasture, hay, crop residue or grain along with the legume on pasture to reduce their consumption of the legume. - Graze in a rotation using different grass and legume pastures or strip-graze (with electric fencing) to force animals to eat most of the plant material rather than just the succulent top growth. Prepare to Manage Through Drought Predicting Drought: If drought is an unanticipated period of below-normal precipitation that affects the amount of forage available for livestock, then predicting and compensating for the decrease in forage production would "drought-proof" a livestock enterprise. It is best to begin managing for drought far in advance of the next dry period. Monitor and evaluate the season's forage growth potential by knowing and understanding the region's historical rainfall patterns during the prime forage growing season. As the rain is becoming deficient for the growing season it is time to act. For example, Environment Canada's 30-year average April, May and June cumulative rain recorded at the Elbow, Kindersley and Saskatoon stations in west central Saskatchewan is slightly greater than four inches. If the cumulative rain is only 25 to 30 per cent of the normal (no greater than 1.25 inches) by the time the growing season reaches early to mid-June, there will not be much opportunity for significant growth because the chances of above-average rainfall during the rest of June (to compensate for the early season's shortage) is slight. It has been said that "it is not how much one makes in the good years but how much is not lost in the bad years that keeps you in the livestock business." Once the monitoring has determined that the extended dry period (or early stages of a drought) is imminent, there are a number of decisions and actions (strategic - what we do to plan for the foreseeable future? tactical - what we do this year? and, operational - what we need to do this week?) that could help producers better survive drought. Strategic: A longer-term livestock production strategy should provide flexibility for marketing livestock, provide longer recovery periods for pastures and include adequate water for the animals. - Plan and develop long-term water availability; water is often the first thing that becomes limited in a drought; therefore, new sources, efficient delivery (such as shallow pipeline) and increased storage and trough capacity should be developed in the non- or pre-drought years. - Choose an enterprise mix compatible with drought risk. It is important to have a significant (relative to your drought tolerance) proportion of the livestock in the operation that can be liquidated on relatively short notice. These classes of livestock should be relatively easy to market in early to mid-summer (or alternatively to choose not to purchase early). Sheep producers could consider beef steers or heifers. - Divide the grazing areas into smaller pastures to allow for longer recovery periods (for the forage). Relatively large numbers of pastures per flock (herd) are an advantage during drought because the number of days in the season that an area is grazed will be reduced and, at the same time, the days available for forage recovery are increased. Having more recovery days during the season increases the chance of getting rain and grass growth while the livestock are gone. Tactical: An action plan a producer can make to help determine what to do at the time of the drought during the year. - Monitor forage demand and effective rainfall, and adjust demand (stocking) to match it more closely with the expected reduction in forage supply in a timely manner. - Determine de-stocking policies well in advance of implementation. The longer adjustments are delayed the greater the difference between supply and demand will become. Operational: Day-to-day operational management decisions and actions to more effectively deal with the drought. - Know rainfall patterns for your region and when the prime time for forge growth can be expected. (Example: the April to July accumulated rainfall is just over four inches in west central Saskatchewan.) - Monitor the forage use and cumulative rainfall on pastures, and adjust stocking rate on a timely basis. - Lengthen forage recovery periods to provide adequate recovery for plants between grazing periods in order to compensate for slow growth rates (slow plant growth = long recovery; while rapid plant growth = fast recovery). Weed/vegetation control using sheep Sheep producers can use their animals for weed or vegetation control. Sheep grazing has been shown to be an effective method for controlling vegetation. Sheep can provide an alternative to chemical control; they can be used where herbicides cannot be applied, such as near environmentally sensitive areas and in terrain where it is difficult to conduct chemical spraying. Sheep and goats definitely eat weeds, but these animals may not be a practical method of weed control for landowners who have only minor weed infestations or small patches. Alternative vegetation control may be more suited for such circumstances. As well, in more extensive infestations or large areas that require vegetation control, significant infrastructure (such as water and fencing) may need to be put in place. A sheep producer must decide whether he is managing for maximum sheep production or vegetation management. Grazing will control top-growth of weeds and unwanted vegetation, but an exclusive diet of weeds may not result in optimum weight gain for the animals' production. Grazing will control but not eliminate weeds. For adequate long-term weed control, grazing can be implemented as part of a larger, integrated weed-control strategy. The sheep will eat the undesirable plants, thus reducing competition for the desirable plants which permits them to become more vigorous and increase. However, while visual fence line contrasts and stem density counts at the Mortlach Provincial Sheep Pasture showed a considerable reduction in leafy spurge, the weeds are still present in the pasture even after 30 years of sheep grazing. This means that once the sheep are removed, the weed problem will reappear. Proper management of the flock is critical to evenly remove unwanted vegetation yet maintain the desired plants over the entire area. Some recommended techniques are: - Keep the sheep together as a cohesive unit. - Use well-trained dogs. - Camp next to night corrals to ward off predators. - Never leave the sheep unattended. Some findings on sheep grazing preferences (in the forested areas) are: - sheep prefer new, succulent growth, whether it is the spring flush or regrowth after a first graze; - vegetation degraded by frost or drought is less palatable to sheep; - target vegetation should be less than one metre tall so that the sheep can graze the entire plant; and - target vegetation must not be woody, as sheep will leave stems and graze only the leaves in the late summer
1 in 6 baby boomers (born between 1946-1964), or 14.6% have a hearing problem 1 in 14 Generation Xers (born between 1965-1984), or 7.4% already have hearing loss At least 1.4 million children have hearing problems 3 in 1,000 infants are born with severe-profound hearing loss (Better Hearing Institute) Impacts of hearing loss Decreased hearing is part of the natural aging process. It can be due to many different factors over the course of our lives including: - Loud sounds in the noisy world we live in - Cell death due to aging - Head trauma These factors damage the hair cells in our inner ear. There are two types of hair cells. 1. Inner hair cells send the signal to the brain 2. Outer hair cells help boost soft sounds and give us improved clarity through the fine-tuning of each pitch. Most often, we start losing hearing in the high pitches (or frequencies) first. This is another factor affecting the clarity of speech. The soft consonants (part of the word that gives it it’s meaning), are located in the high frequencies. Without the consonants, our brains have to fill in the gaps. This takes the brain extra time and effort to do, especially when the speech is very fast. This is called listening effort. Having the speaker slow down, gives the brain extra time to put the pieces together. Individuals with hearing loss have greater difficulty in background noise for various reasons. First, back ground noise is generally low pitches and hearing losses are generally higher pitches. This leaves little leftover for the listener to work with. as we age, our brains have more difficulty in background noise due to: 1) Distractibility - Background noise can be very distracting from who you are trying to listen to. There is also visual noise. Visual noise can also distract your brain from the speech you are trying to attend to. 2) Processing Speed - In background noise, hearing loss makes you miss some of the pieces, so you have to use greater processing speed to fill in the gaps then catch up in the conversation. This makes understanding fast talkers difficult and exhausting to listen to. 3) Working Memory - Longer and complex sentences are more difficult to follow. The greater the background noise, the more working memory processing goes down. Listening and working on following conversations in background noise requires greater listening effort. This is why difficult listening situations can be exhausting for those with hearing loss. They have to work twice as hard!
In the dictionary, some of the words that are used to define rules are: - What is possible or allowable. - Control or dominion. - Normal or customary. In the dictionary, some of the words that are used to define elements are: - The primary or fundamental parts of something. To me, the words used to describe rules are restrictive, limited and will lead to pictures that are ordinary while the words used to describe elements are free, unlimited and will lead to pictures as unique as the person creating the photograph. Rules have limits and restrictions. Elements can be combined to create limitless and unrestricted variations. Would you rather use rules of composition to make your picture or combine elements of composition to create your photographs?
What is coarctation of the aorta? Coarctation of the aorta is a congenital (present at birth) heart defect involving a narrowing of the aorta. The aorta is the large artery that carries oxygen-rich (red) blood from the left ventricle to the body. It is shaped like a candy cane, with the first section moving up towards the head (ascending aorta), then curving in a C-shape as smaller arteries that are attached to it carry blood to the head and arms (aortic arch). After the curve, the aorta becomes straight again, and moves downward towards the abdomen, carrying blood to the lower part of the body (descending aorta). The narrowed segment called coarctation can occur anywhere in the aorta, but is most likely to happen in the segment just after the aortic arch. This narrowing restricts the amount of oxygen-rich (red) blood that can travel to the lower part of the body. Varying degrees of narrowing can occur. The more severe the narrowing, the more symptomatic a child will be, and the earlier the problem will be noticed. In some cases, coarctation is noted in infancy. In others, however, it may not be noted until school-age or adolescence. About one-third of children with coarctation of the aorta also have a bicuspid aortic valve—a valve that has two leaflets instead of the usual three. Coarctation of the aorta occurs in a small percentage of children with congenital heart disease. Boys have the defect twice as often as girls do. What causes coarctation of the aorta? Some congenital heart defects may have a genetic link, either occurring due to a defect in a gene, a chromosome abnormality or environmental exposure, causing heart problems to occur more often in certain families. Most of the time this heart defect occurs sporadically (by chance), with no clear reason for its development. Why is coarctation a concern? Coarctation of the aorta causes several problems, including the following: - The left ventricle has to work harder to try to move blood through the narrowing in the aorta. Eventually, the left ventricle is no longer able to handle the extra workload, and it fails to pump blood to the body efficiently. - Blood pressure is higher before the narrowing, and lower past the narrowing. Older children may have headaches from too much pressure in the vessels in the head, or cramps in the legs or abdomen from too little blood flow in that region. Also, the kidneys may not make enough urine since they require a certain amount of blood flow and a certain blood pressure to perform this task. - The walls of the ascending aorta, the aortic arch or any of the arteries in the head and arms may become weakened by high pressure. Spontaneous tears in any of these arteries can occur, which can cause a stroke or uncontrollable bleeding. What are the symptoms of coarctation of the aorta? The following are the most common symptoms of coarctation of the aorta. However, each child may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include: - Pale skin - Heavy and/or rapid breathing - Poor feeding - Poor weight gain - Cold feet and/or legs - Diminished or absent pulses in the feet - Blood pressure in the arms significantly greater than the blood pressure in the legs. Mild narrowing may not cause symptoms at all. Often, a school-aged child or adolescent is simply noted to have high blood pressure or a heart murmur on a physical examination. Some may complain of headaches or cramps in the lower sections of the body. The symptoms of coarctation of the aorta may resemble other medical conditions or heart problems. Always consult your child’s physician for a diagnosis. How is coarctation of the aorta diagnosed? Your child’s physician may have heard a heart murmur during a physical examination, and referred your child to a pediatric cardiologist for a diagnosis. A heart murmur is simply a noise caused by the turbulence of blood flowing through the obstruction in the coarctation segment of the aorta. Symptoms your child exhibits will also help with the diagnosis. A pediatric cardiologist specializes in the diagnosis and medical management of congenital heart defects, as well as heart problems that may develop later in childhood. The cardiologist will perform a physical examination, listen to your child’s heart and lungs, and make other observations that help in the diagnosis. The loudness and quality of the murmur (harsh, blowing, etc.) as well as the location within the chest that the murmur is heard best will give the cardiologist an initial idea of which heart problem your child may have. Diagnostic testing for congenital heart disease is determined by the child’s age and clinical condition. Some tests that may be recommended include the following: - Chest X-ray. Diagnostic test which uses invisible X-ray energy beams to produce images of internal tissues, bones, and organs onto film. Learn more about X-ray. - Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). A test that records the electrical activity of the heart, shows abnormal rhythms (arrhythmias) and detects heart muscle damage. Learn more about electrocardiogram. - Echocardiogram (echo). A procedure that evaluates the structure and function of the heart by using sound waves recorded on an electronic sensor that produce a moving picture of the heart and heart valves. The vast majority of aortic coarctations are diagnosed by echocardiography. Learn more about echocardiogram. - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A diagnostic procedure that uses a combination of large magnets, radiofrequencies and a computer to produce detailed images of organs and structures within the body. Learn more about MRI. How is coarctation of the aorta treated? Specific treatment for coarctation of the aorta will be determined by your child’s physician based on: - The child’s age, overall health and medical history - The extent of the disease - The child’s tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies - Expectations for the course of the defect - The family’s opinion or preference. Coarctation of the aorta is treated with repair of the narrowed vessel. Several options are currently available. - Interventional cardiac catheterization. The cardiac catheterization procedure may also be an option for treatment. During the procedure, the child is sedated and a small, thin, flexible tube (catheter) is inserted into a blood vessel in the groin and guided to the inside of the heart. Once the catheter is in the heart, the cardiologist will pass an inflated balloon through the narrowed section of the aorta to stretch the area open. A small device, called a stent, may also be placed in the narrowed area after the balloon dilation to keep the aorta open. Overnight observation in the hospital may be required. Learn more about cardiac catheterization. - Surgical repair. Your child’s coarctation of the aorta may be repaired surgically in an operating room. The surgical repair is performed under general anesthesia. The narrowed area is either surgically removed, or made larger with the help of surrounding structures or a patch. Learn more about heart surgery. Some infants will be very sick and require care in the cardiovascular intensive care unit (CVICU) prior to the procedure. Some babies may need urgent repair of the coarctation, while others who are exhibiting few symptoms will have the repair scheduled on a less urgent basis. After surgery or catheterization, infants will return to the CVICU to be closely monitored during recovery. While your child is in the CVICU, special equipment will be used to help him or her recover, and may include the following: - Ventilator. A machine that helps your child breathe while he or she is under anesthesia during the operation. A small, plastic tube is guided into the windpipe and attached to the ventilator, which breathes for your child while he or she is too sleepy to breathe effectively on his or her own. Many children remain on the ventilator for a while after surgery so they can rest. - Intravenous (IV) catheters. A small, plastic tube is inserted through the skin into blood vessels to provide IV fluids and important medicines that help your child recover from the operation. - Arterial line. A specialized IV placed in the wrist, or other area of the body where a pulse can be felt, that measures blood pressure continuously during surgery and while your child is in the CVICU. - Nasogastric (NG) tube. A small, flexible tube that keeps the stomach drained of acid and gas bubbles that may build up during surgery. - Urinary catheter. A small, flexible tube that allows urine to drain out of the bladder and accurately measures how much urine the body makes, which helps determine how well the heart is functioning. After surgery, the heart will be a little weaker than it was before, and the body may start to hold onto fluid, causing swelling and puffiness. Diuretics may be given to help the kidneys remove excess fluid from the body. - Chest tube. A drainage tube will be inserted to keep the chest free of blood that would otherwise accumulate after the incision is closed. Bleeding may occur for several hours, or even a few days after surgery. - Heart monitor. A machine that constantly displays a picture of your child’s heart rhythm, and monitors heart rate, arterial blood pressure and other values. The child may need other equipment not mentioned here to provide support while in the CVICU, or afterward. The hospital staff will explain all of the necessary equipment to you. After catheterization or heart surgery, patients are kept as comfortable as possible with several different medications; some of which relieve pain, and some of which relieve anxiety. The staff will also be asking for the family’s input as to how best to soothe and comfort the child. As your child recovers, you will be taught how to care for the child at home. The child may need to take medications for a while, and these will be explained to you. The staff will provide instructions regarding medications, activity limitations, and follow-up appointments before the child is discharged. What is the long-term outlook after coarctation of the aorta surgical repair? Most children who have had a coarctation of the aorta surgical repair will live healthy lives, and activity levels, appetite and growth should eventually return to normal. The child’s cardiologist may recommend that antibiotics be given to prevent bacterial endocarditis before major surgeries or procedures, such as dental cleaning. As the child grows, the aorta may once again become narrow on occasion, or the repaired area can become weak and dilated (aneurysm). If this happens, a balloon procedure or operation may be necessary to repair the coarctation. A computed tomography (CT scan) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may also be performed to further evaluate the anatomy before deciding on treatment options. Blood pressure management is very important. Often, the blood pressure in the child is elevated after aortic coarctation repair. In that case, medications may be prescribed to help lower the child’s blood pressure. The pediatric cardiologists at CHOC Children’s provide regular follow-up care throughout childhood and into early adulthood.
History shows that Jews have lived in this part of eastern Europe since the ninth century. Conditions fluctuated considerably, depending on the local and national ruler and the general economy. Jews settled in villages and towns but always remained a small percentage of the population. Still, they developed their own culture, religious and social institutions, and means of earning a (sometimes subsistence) living. The number of Jewish settlements increased substantially beginning in the 14th century, and Jews were among the founders of many new towns owned by the Polish nobility. The first town of Suchostaw was founded in the second half of the 16th century but destroyed in the 17th century war between Sweden and the Cossacks. Other villages in the area suffered a similar fate. Jewish population continued to increase in this region which became known as Galicia (named after the principality of Vladimir Halicz). Jews came to play important functions as leasers of breweries and flour mills from Polish nobles, as property managers, as tax collectors, and as innkeepers. They continued to maintain a separate religious and cultural identity from the Catholic Poles and the Greek-Catholic Ruthenian peasantry. They managed to survive the Cossack wars, pogroms, and deteriorating economic conditions. S.Y. Agnon, born in Buczacz (one of the larger towns of SRRG) writes about the Jewish recovery in Buczacz where Jews rebuilt their shops and homes and shuls. Galicia came under Austrian rule at the end of the 18th century, and it remained a province of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire until 1918. Lemberg served as its capital city. The village of Suchostaw was reestablished in 1765 and recorded 218 inhabitants, 57 of whom were Jewish. These 57 included Jewish inhabitants of surrounding villages. Husiatyn, a larger town in the area, became a major commercial center. Businessmen, particularly Jews, came to Husiatyn's markets and fairs from all around the district and as far away as Salonika and Turkey. The population of Husiatyn in 1882 was recorded as 5514, with 3780 of those listed as Jews. Kupitchintza (Kopychintsy), another neighboring town, also saw significant growth. The fate of the Jews of Galicia fluctuated from the difficult days under the rule of the anti-Semitic Austrian Empress Maria Theresa and the later Emperor Josef II to their improved condition in the aftermath of the 1848 revolution. Galician Jews also felt the winds of modernization coming from western Europe while they participated in the customs and mysticism of the Hasidic movement. While they were required to become part of a centralized state, they managed to continue to live Jewish lives in accordance with tradition and halacha. Jews were ordered to acquire family names, sometimes having to be purchased and sometimes given to them by Austrian officials. When the young Prince Franz Josef ascended to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, times improved for his Jewish subjects. He ushered in a semi-constitutional era with full political rights for Jews granted in 1867. Franz Josef was known to visit Jewish towns in Galicia and to be open to Jewish petitioners at his court. Most Jews in the small shtetlach in our region adhered to their traditional way of life, but some were drawn to the imperial culture offered in Vienna or more modern schools in Lemberg. The years after the 1848 revolution also saw new literary activity with Hebrew and Yiddish weekly and monthly publications created. Jewish nationalism grew alongside the spread of Polish anti-Semitism. Economic distress, epidemics, anti-Semitism, and a desire for a better, safer life led many Jews to emigrate from Galicia in the last years of the 19th and the early years of the 20th century. Over 250,000 Jews left Galicia and emigrated to the United States between 1890 and the outbreak of World War I. Only 40 Jewish families remained in Suchostaw, continuing their occupations as craftsmen, small businessmen, and peddlers. This region became one of hundreds of battlefields during WWI. Tens of thousands of Jews left their homes, while the ones who remained suffered at the hands of Russian troops. Austrian Husiatyn was occupied by the Russians who destroyed 670 of the 700 buildings and plundered Jewish businesses. Families who could escaped to Chortkov and Kopychintsy. After the War, the Jews remaining in the region found themselves in a much changed position. Instead of the considerable civil rights they had held in the mutinational Austro-Hungarian Empire, they now found themselves a minority in a devastated area of newly independent Poland. Here political and economic power resided with the Polish minority who were none too interested in sharing it with the resident Jewish population. Neither were the local and dominant population of Ukrainian peasants any less hostile to Jews. Soon Polish authorities banned Jews from government posts, boycotted Jewish businesses, imposed new taxes, and restricted Jewish entry into high schools and universities. A sense of despair was felt in shtetlach throughout the region. The Jewish response was varied: labor organizations were created, Zionist groups took hold, mutual aid and economic support associations were created. Although so changed from the days under Austrian rule, some customs continued. Husiatyn continued to hold weekly markets and the large, annual, summer market continued to attract thousands of people from all the surrounding villages. Jewish occupations tended to fall in the scope of small business, such as agricultural buying and selling, ownership of small groceries, blacksmiths, mills; the occcasional Jew was a professional or a craftsman. The larger shtetls had more than one rabbi, a few doctors, and many scholars. Well regarded and famous Hassidic dynasties maintained their presences in Husiatyn, Chortkov, and There were nearly 600,000 Jews in eastern Galicia at the onset of WW II. Almost this entire population was wiped out by the Germans who occupied the area in the summer of 1941. In the first days of the Nazi occupations, Jews were murdered by the local Ukrainians. Mass executions of Jews by the Germans followed shortly. Construction of a ghetto in Lvov (formerly Lemberg) was begun in November 1941, and Jews from our region were interred here or deported to the Belzec death camp northwest of Lvov for extermination. Those waiting in the Lvov ghetto died in droves from starvation, cold, and disease. When WWII ended and the Soviet army occupied the region, less than 2% of the Jews of eastern Galicia had survived. Homes, synagogues, cemeteries, businesses had all been destroyed. Few remnants of Jewish life survive to this day. The above history is based on information from several sources including
What lives in the tropical rainforest? The combination of heat and moisture makes the tropical rain forest the perfect environment for more then 15 million types of plants and animals. Some of the animals of the tropical rain forest are the jaguar, the anteater, lemur and many others, among the many plant species such as bamboo banana trees and rubber trees. The Tropical Rainforest biome is the richest source of plant life in the whole entire earth, with temperatures around 70-90 degrees and lots of water supply, this makes this biome a perfect place for large amounts of plant life. In the Tropical Rainforest there is so much different and unique plants, that scientists donít even know all of them. Here are just a few plants that are now commonly grown and sold to people across the world that originally came from the rainforest. Avocado, bananas, coffee, lemon, orange, peanut, peppers, and pineapples Plants from the rain forest are very useful in many different uses around the world. Such as hundreds of different medical supplies, many foods (fruit etc.), timber, The rain forest grows in three levels, the Canopy, which is the tallest level it has trees between 100 and 200 feet tall. The second level called the understory contains a mix of shrubs, ferns, palms, small trees and vines. The third and lowest level is the Forest floor where herbs, mosses and fungi grow. A producer is an organism that makes itís own food from light energy or chemical energy. Most green plants that are one-celled organisms like slime molds and bacteria are producers. Producers are the base of the food chain. Here is a List of Producers: ∑ Banana Trees ∑ Rubber Trees ∑ Many tropical fruit trees such as lemon, orange etc. ∑ Air plants A consumer is a living thing that eats other living things to stay alive. It cannot make itís own food like a producer but relies on producers for their source of food. There are more Primary Consumers then Secondary Consumers. Here is a list of primary consumers: ∑ Colobus Monkey ∑ Most bats ∑ Humming birds ∑ Red-shanked douc Langur Predators in the tropical rain forest use skill, force, poisons and traps to kill their prey. Since the tropical Rain Forest has over 15 million different species of both plants and animals, and also being more primary consumers, means the secondary consumers can find food very easily. These Predators have very unique adaptations, for example the Orb-Weaving Spider found along the coast has a web so thick and strong, the web can take down a normal sized bird. Also the Boa constrictor can strangle a human. These adaptations help these secondary consumers able to hunt and survive in the forest. Here is a list of Secondary Consumers: ∑ Even a select few monkeys ∑ Golden Lion ∑ Vampire Bats ∑ Toco Toucan ∑ Sumatran Rhinoceros ∑ Acacia Ant (can a humans body with one bite) They may look like they donít do a thing but decomposers are the most important kind of species. Without Decomposers the Tropical Rain Forest would be piled high with branches, rotting trees decaying fruits. All of the decomposers team up and work together to decompose plant matter. In six weeks all of the litter would be composed, the Tropical Rain Forest Biome has the fasting working decomposers out of all other biomes. For example to decompose a log you would have termites eating it so eventually their wouldnít be any fallen branches on the ground to rot, or any organic litter. So as you can see the decomposers are very important! Here is a list of Decomposers: ∑ Other single cell creatures ∑ Other Insects and parasites Biotic Factor-Any Factor that is living and in a biome ( animal or plants) Abiotic Factor- Anything not living that is present in a biome. (does not include dead animals or plants) (ex air, water, sunlight, soil) Producer-An organism that produces it's own food through photosynthesis. (plants) Consumer- There are two types, Primary and Secondary. Primary-eats plants secondary eats meat Decomposers- An organism that breaks down dead animals and plants and provides nutrients to the soil. (worm) Food Web-A diagram explaining how energy from food or prey is transferred through animals and plants. Biome- Large areas of land that is similar but not necessarily connected. eg the tropical rainforests are in South America but also in other continents. Author of this page:Ben Home Time for Kids Almanac 2005
Published on Jan 19, 2016 Jet engine is an engine that discharges a fast moving jet of fluid to generate thrust in accordance with Newton's third law of motion. This broad definition of jet engines includes turbojets, turbofans, rockets and ramjets and water jets, but in common usage, the term generally refers to a gas turbine Brayton cycle engine used to produce a jet of high speed exhaust gases for special propulsive purposes. In order to work in outer space, rocket engines must carry their own supply of oxygen as well as fuel. The mixture is injected into the combustion chamber where it burns continuously. The high-pressure gas escapes through the nozzle, causing thrust in the opposite direction.The turbojet employs the same principle as the rocket. It burns oxygen from the atmosphere instead of carrying a supply along.Fuel continuously burns inside a combustion chamber just like the rocket. The expanding gasses escape out the nozzle generating thrust in the opposite direction. On its way out the nozzle, some of the gas pressure is used to drive a turbine. A turbine is a series of rotors or fans connected to a single shaft. Between each pair of rotors is a stator, something like a stationary fan. The stators realign the gas flow to most effectively direct it toward the blades of the next rotor. At the front of the engine, the turbine shaft drives a compressor. The compressor works a lot like the turbine only in reverse. Its purpose is to draw air into the engine and pressurize it. The turboprop is similar to the turbojet, except that most of the nozzle gas pressure drives the turbine shaft -- by the time the gas gets past the turbine, there's very little pressure left to create thrust. Instead, the shaft is geared to a propeller which creates the majority of the thrust. 'Jet' helicopters work the same way, except that their engines are connected to the main rotor shaft instead of a propeller.The turbofan is something like a compromise between a pure turbojet and a turboprop. It works like the turbojet, except that the turbine shaft also drives an external fan, usually located at the front of the engine. The fan has more blades than a propeller and spins much faster. It also features a shroud around its perimeter, which helps to capture and focus the air flowing through it. These features enable the fan to generate some thrust at high altitudes, where a propeller would be ineffective. Much of the thrust still comes from the exhaust jet, but the addition of the fan makes the engine more fuel efficient than a pure turbojet. Most modern jetliners now feature turbofan engines. Turboprops are more fuel efficient than turbojets at low altitudes, where the thicker air gives a propeller a lot more 'traction.' This makes them popular on planes used for short flights, where the time spent at low altitudes represents a greater percentage of the overall flight time. More Seminar Topics: Just In time Manufacturing, Internal Combustion Engine, Types of Tires, Total Quality Management, Torque and BHP,
In the early 1920s james w sundown towns: a hidden dimension of american racism in these “colored” united states: african american essays from the. Southern states racism in the 1930s essays and and southern regions of the united states these differences were these years slaves african american. Lutz, thomas and susanna ashton (eds) these 'colored' united states african american essays of the 1920s (new brunswick, rutgers up, 1996. 1920s african american colored essay from state these united tidal energy research papers american african 1920s state from colored essay these united. These colored united states: african american essays from the 1920s by lutz, tom rutgers university press paperback poor noticeably used. The civil rights act of 1964: escalated across the united states, some leaders of the african of african american art, poetry, social essays. You may also sort these by color rating or essay length in the 1920´s the united states' economy was strong essays: african american influence on. Amazoncom: these colored united states: african american essays from the 1920s (9780813523064): tom lutz: books. The united states turns inward: the 1920s and 1930s after its participation in the conflagration then known as the great war, the american nation was ready to turn. This text provides an overview of social and cultural life during the race relations decade of the 1920s - from an african american perspective. These colored united states: african american essays from the 1920s: amazonca: tom lutz, susanna ashton: books. The struggle for economic equality (1900-1950s) a 1926 photograph shows african american this situation began to change as the united states entered. These colored united state african american essay from the 1920s sobre nós portfolio clientes contacto facebook linkedin posted on outubro 10th 2017 in. Transcript of how did life change for african americans in the 1920's advancement of colored people was an organization was an african american. African americans in the early 1900's essay by keywords united states, african american effect to embarrass african americans these laws are. Racial segregation in the united states an african-american man drinking at a colored drinking fountain in in all these states such laws were reinstated. 1920s african american colored essay from state these united five paragraph essay posters essay conclusion about friendship.
AFRICAN FASHION HISTORY - KIDS FASHION AUSTRALIA - FASHION DESIGNING COLLEGES IN MUMBAI. African Fashion History - The influence of English dress on America, the growth of the industry, and the impact fashion had on English and American cultures is documented throughout the century through various literary means. - of or relating to the nations of Africa or their peoples; "African languages" - (africa) the second largest continent; located to the south of Europe and bordered to the west by the South Atlantic and to the east by the Indian Ocean - a native or inhabitant of Africa - Of or relating to Africa or people of African descent Stylin': African American Expressive Culture, from Its Beginnings to the Zoot Suit For over two centuries, in the North as well as the South, both within their own community and in the public arena, African Americans have presented their bodies in culturally distinctive ways. Shane White and Graham White consider the deeper significance of the ways in which African Americans have dressed, walked, danced, arranged their hair, and communicated in silent gestures. They ask what elaborate hair style s, bright colors, bandanas, long watch chains, and zoot suits, for example, have really meant, and discuss style itself as an expression of deep-seated cultural imperatives. Their wide-ranging exploration of black style from its African origins to the 1940s reveals a culture that differed from that of the dominant racial group in ways that were often subtle and elusive. A wealth of black-and-white illustrations show the range of African American experience in America, emanating from all parts of the country, from cities and farms, from slave plantations, and Chicago beauty contests. White and White argue that the politics of black style is, in fact, the politics of metaphor, always ambiguous because it is always indirect. To tease out these ambiguities, they examine extensive sources, including advertisements for runaway slaves, interviews recorded with surviving ex-slaves in the 1930s, autobiographies, travelers' accounts, photographs, paintings, prints, newspapers, and images drawn from popular culture, such as the stereotypes of Jim Crow and Zip Coon. We know of the music, literature, and athletic exploits of black Americans, but most historians of Afro-American influence on American culture never emphasize the modes of expression, vernacular, color schemes, and hairstyles that everyone picks up on. That's where Australian professors Shane and Graham White come in, with a long-overdue look at how black fashion s were absorbed into U.S. and world culture from the arrival of the first slaves up to the 1940s. Using photos, illustrations, recordings, advertisements, and other sources, they catalog a number of influential black cultural phenomena, from the antebellum clothes of 18th-century South Carolina slaves to the famed "zoot suit" explosion of the 1940s. --Eugene Holley Jr. (present) - The Word magazine Art direction & Styling: Brittany Tran & Kim Vy Model: Thao Nhi Make-up: Huynh Loi Hair: King Hair Photography by Mads 1964 Worlds Fair Fashions 5 Seventeen magazine February 1964. Models Florence Julien in white trench and Joan Delaney in blue coat. Celebrating African costumes and textiles, this volume draws on historical and modern pieces from the Zaira and Marcel Mis Collection. The extraordinary works presented exemplify the craftsmanship of highly skilled African weavers and provide insight into the lives and culture of various ethnic groups. Whether the materials used are wool, cotton, silk, raffia, or bark, the patterns the weavers produce are predominantly geometric and abstract, but highly stylized figurative motifs are also found. The designs frequently illustrate excerpts from historical or mythical stories. The book presents a breathtaking variety of costumes, textiles, and accessories used for everyday wear and for special celebrations, and explores the different techniques, influences, and meanings behind these colorful works of art. The essays describe the history of the development of these techniques and the richness of the symbolism in this form of cultural heritage. The superb photography showcases the splendor of these intricate and exquisite textiles. See also: fashion models in bikini fashion stores top fashion schools in new york fashion jeans for women fashion designer job in delhi ideas for fashion show themes fashion photographer toronto new fashion boys - (月) 00:25:35\| - Category: None
by Henry McCarl From 1830 to 1860, the Northern states prospered with the growth of diversified manufacturing as part of the worldwide Industrial Revolution. Immigrants and employment boosted the North’s population and economic prosperity, while the South became the principal provider of raw materials. Southern farms shipped agricultural products, such as cotton, to Northern mills, which sent finished goods back to the South. Railroads displaced canals as a reliable method of shipping not only because of speed of transport, but also because they did not depend on natural water sources. Southern prosperity, based on cotton production, relied on slave labor. Slaves were considered capital resources, used in the production of raw materials; this became a source of significant friction between the North, which paid its workers wages (normally as little as possible, given an abundant supply of labor) and the South, which “owned” its workers. Growing concerns among groups in the North regarding the immorality of slavery led to political moves to outlaw slavery. Slaveholding Southerners felt threatened by what they perceived as the destruction of their (human) capital resources. In an attempt to end slavery peacefully, Congressmen drafted many compromises that proposed compensating slave owners for their “property,” but they encountered consistent opposition by abolitionists. By 1832 most of Europe and Mexico had abolished slavery. There was great international pressure for the United States to follow suit, but the South held fast to states’ rights, a principle that was grounded in the maintenance of their enslaved agricultural workforce. Because they relied on their slaves for their livelihoods, planters supported Congressional representatives who would support the right of self-determination for each state and oppose the annexation of anti-slavery territories. The political complexity of the issue of slavery can be illustrated with the example of Texas statehood. When Texas asserted its independence from Mexico in 1836, one of the unresolved issues was the practical matter of maintaining slaves on the new cotton plantations in that territory. The national political debate over whether the new territory would be “slave” or “free” delayed Texas’ admission to the United States until 1845. Most Texans did not own slaves; fearing that Texas might vote to abolish slavery, Southern politicians supported admission of Texas as a slave state before anti-slavery forces there could organize a referendum. Because Antebellum industrial development was concentrated solely in the North, white Southerners maintained their political and economic control in a primarily agricultural South, unaffected by the problems of wage labor. The unwillingness of these opposing sections to reach a compromise ultimately led to the Civil War. The same inflexibility and sectional distrust delayed post-war economic progress in the South and prolonged its economic stagnation and bitterness resulting from Reconstruction. Banking and Currency In 1832 President Andrew Jackson, who distrusted centralized monetary control, abolished the original Bank of the United States. As a result, the “Free Banking Era” began, and it was characterized by economic instability that did not end until the 1913 establishment of the Federal Reserve System. State-charted banks proliferated, operating without regulation by federal authorities, laws, or uniform policies. Each bank issued its own currency. Some financial institutions were relatively safe, depending on how much of their deposits were held as reserves, and their bank notes exchanged at face value. Many were less stable, and their notes exchanged at various discounts to face value, depending on the public’s perception of their reputation. As with modern currency, numbers were not the only images on paper money. Vignettes, or illustrated scenes, on bank notes depicted mythical gods and goddesses, regional industrial and agricultural scenes, and symbols of capital and economic strength. Just as railroad locomotives and factories provided the themes for many illustrations on Northern bank notes, slaves often provided inspiration for those in the South. Artists depicted slaves as happy, healthy workers, and portrayed overseers and owners as benevolent. Cotton, the commodity with which the South backed its money, also adorned the face of paper money. Among other societal changes, the 1861 outset of hostilities led to the necessity to change the monetary system. The federal government authorized Federal Demand Notes–the first issue of paper money by the United States since the “Continentals” of the Revolutionary War period. Federal Demand Notes can still be redeemed as currency, although many hold more value as collectibles. The Confederacy issued notes to be “redeemed after a treaty of peace was signed between the CSA and USA.” Confederate notes were, in effect, small denomination loans that paid interest, usually at a yearly rate of six percent, and they were issued on the gamble that the South would prevail. States often issued notes on the same basis as their respective governments, and local banks continued to issue their own notes, as did a variety of merchants. Working with a limited supply of paper (due to the blockade) and skilled engravers, issuers of paper money in the Confederacy chose vignettes already in the printer’s stock. Lithographs of older engravings were often produced to combat the cost of reproducing the master images. Counterfeit C.S.A., state, and local Southern bank notes circulated during the war. Many were printed in the North, and with the encouragement of the United States, to undermine the value and credibility of Southern currency. Northern counterfeits of Confederate money were superior in quality due to access to printers and appropriate facilities. The 1863 National Banking Act initiated a significant change in U.S. banking laws, establishing a uniform currency to be issued by nationally chartered banks. Banks were required to purchase U.S. government bonds as backing for National Bank Notes, a clever method to finance the war without raising taxes (This system continues today with some flexibility on whether the bank reserves are held as bonds, currency, or other financial instruments). Although many local banks still issued their own currency, the National Bank Notes were the standard of value from 1863 to 1932. The financial obligations of the Confederate government died with it. After the war Confederate notes and bonds were worthless as currency and were sometimes even used in homes as wall insulation. Only later would the notes become valuable to collectors.
I hope you all had a lovely Easter holiday and the children are feeling refreshed and looking forward to the exciting and eventful term ahead. ‘How does where we live influence how we live?’ Over the next two terms, we will be learning about the different continents of the world and their unique cultures and habitats. This will involve using different types of maps and atlases to identify different continents, countries, climate zones and biomes around the world. We will then investigate the physical and human characteristics of the UK and compare these to a European country to consider how these different characteristics impact the way we live. If you have any resources about our new topic, including books and artefacts that you wouldn’t mind lending to the class for this term, it would be greatly appreciated. However, please ensure that any resources are clearly named. Art and DT will be linked to our topic as we will be designing and creating our own ‘Money Containers’ influenced by different cultures. The children will develop their own ideas in their sketchbooks before creating their designs. In Literacy, we will be focusing on non-fiction writing this term. We will start off by reading and writing our own explanation texts about Global Warming and Climate Change. We will then use this knowledge to write a persuasive letter to our local MP and hold a class debate about this controversial topic. In Numeracy, we will begin the term by developing our understanding of decimals up to two decimal places, applying this to the context of money and then moving onto Geometry. This term, PE will take place on Wednesdays and Thursdays, so please ensure that the children have the appropriate PE kit in school for these sessions. Furthermore, homework will continue to be set on Tuesday to be handed in the following Monday. This will consist of a Spelling activity, a Punctuation and Grammar activity, Reading, Mathletics and a Topic based activity. If your child struggles to do this work at home, please free to discuss this with me. If you have any concerns or questions, please don’t hesitate to contact me.
- The formation of the preprophase band, a dense microtubule ring underneath the plasma membrane. - The initiation of microtubule nucleation at the nuclear envelope. Function of preprophase in the cell cycle Plant cells are fixed with regards to their neighbor cells within the tissues they are growing in. In contrast to animals where certain cells can migrate within the embryo to form new tissues, the seedlings of higher plants grow entirely based on the orientation of cell division and subsequent elongation and differentiation of cells within their cell walls. Therefore, the accurate control of cell division planes and placement of the future cell wall in plant cells is crucial for the correct architecture of plant tissues and organs. The preprophase stage of somatic plant cell mitosis serves to establish the precise location of the division plane and future cell wall before the cell enters prophase. This is achieved through the formation of a transient microtubule structure, the preprophase band, and a so far unknown mechanism by which the cell is able to "memorize" the position of the preprophase band to guide the new cell wall growing during cytokinesis to the correct location. In gametophyte tissues during the reproductive phase of the plant life cycle, cell division planes may be established without the use of a preprophase band. In highly vacuolated plant cells, preprophase may be preceded by the formation of a phragmosome. The function of the phragmosome is to suspend the cell nucleus in the center of the cell in preparation for mitosis. If a phragmosome is visible, the preprophase band will appear at its outer edge. Preprophase band formation At the beginning of preprophase, the cortical microtubules of a plant cell disappear and aggregate into a dense ring underneath the plasma membrane. This preprophase band runs around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle and marks the plane of cell division and future fusion site for the cell plate. It consists of microtubules and microfilaments (actin) and persists into prophase. Spindle formation occurs during prophase with the axis perpendicular to the plane surrounded by the preprophase band. In contrast to animal cells, plant cells do not possess centrosomes to organize their mitotic spindles. Instead, the nuclear envelope acts as a microtubule organizing center (MTOC) for spindle formation during preprophase. The first sign is a clear, actin-free zone appearing around the nuclear envelope. This zone fills with microtubules nucleating on the surface of the nucleus. The preprophase spindle forms by self-assembly of these microtubules in the cytoplasm surrounding the nuclear envelope. It is reinforced through chromosome (kinetochore)-mediated spindle assembly after the nuclear envelope breaks down at the end of prophase. Transition into prophase During progression from preprophase into prophase, the randomly oriented microtubules align parallel along the nuclear surface according to the spindle axis. This structure is called the prophase spindle. Triggered by nuclear membrane breakdown at the beginning of prometaphase, the preprophase band disappears and the prophase spindle matures into the metaphase spindle occupying the space of the former nucleus. Experiments with drugs destroying microfilaments indicate that actin may play a role in keeping the cellular "memory" of the position of the division plane after the preprophase band breaks down to direct cytokinesis in telophase. Notes and references - Dhonukshe, P, Mathur, J, Hülskamp, M, Gadella, TWJ (2005). "Microtubule plus-ends reveal essential links between intracellular polarization and localized modulation of endocytosis during division-plane establishment in plant cells". BMC Biology 3: 11. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-3-11. PMC 1087477. PMID 15831100. - Otegui M, Staehelin LA (2000). "Cytokinesis in flowering plants: more than one way to divide a cell". Current Opinion in Plant Biology 3 (6): 493–502. doi:10.1016/S1369-5266(00)00119-9. PMID 11074381. - Hoshino H, Yoneda A, Kumagai F, Hasezawa S (2003). "Roles of actin-depleted zone and preprophase band in determining the division site of higher-plant cells, a tobacco BY-2 cell line expressing GFP-tubulin". Protoplasma 222 (3-4): 157–165. doi:10.1007/s00709-003-0012-8. PMID 14714204. - Smirnova EA, Bajer AS (1998). "Early stages of spindle formation and independence of chromosome and microtubule cycles in Haemantus endosperm". Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 40 (1): 22–37. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0169(1998)40:1<22::AID-CM3>3.0.CO;2-H. PMID 9605969. - Dixit R, Cyr RJ (2002). "Spatio-temporal relationship between nuclear membrane breakdown and preprophase band disappearance in cultured tobacco cells". Protoplasma 219 (1-2): 116–121. doi:10.1007/s007090200012. PMID 11926062. - P.H. Raven, R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn (2005): Biology of Plants, 7th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers, New York, ISBN 0-7167-1007-2
Properties of Parallelograms and Special Parallelograms Lesson 6 of 9 Objective: Students will be able to apply angle relationships and properties of isosceles triangles and trapezoids in a proof. Warm-Up: Logical Road Map I like using the Logical Road Map for today’s lesson because we will spend time and detail on justification and proof writing. There are several ways to write the proof for the logical road map—many students will use corresponding and alternate interior angles to write the proof. Since this unit is on discovering and proving polygon properties, I make sure to look out for students who use properties of parallelograms and isosceles trapezoids to write their proofs, having them display their work under the document camera for the class to see. Viewing and discussing alternative proofs enables students to make connections among concepts (MP3). It is important for me to give adequate time to review last night's homework assignment: Prove that if a trapezoid has congruent base angles, it must be isosceles. These are often the most difficult proofs for my students. Students start with seemingly nothing (no diagram, for example), but they are required to prove a rather important idea. I like to have at least two student volunteers present their proofs (or ideas for how to write the proof) to the whole class. Ultimately, someone will see that one of the ways to write the proof is directly related to the Logical Road Map Warm-Up. Ideally, others will see that adding auxiliary lines (two perpendiculars to the bases) can allow them to use properties of rectangles to write the proof, or that extending the sides of the trapezoids that are not the bases can allow them to use properties of isosceles triangles to write the proof. The Common Core calls students to construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others, which is why it is important to allow students to discuss multiple ways to write the proof (MP3) and to give feedback to improve the quality of these proofs, which requires them to attend to precision (MP6). After beginning the class with a focus on proofs, we take brief reminder notes on the properties of parallelograms and special parallelograms. My students often need a quick review of these properties. Today, they will apply the properties to solve leveled problems in a Group Challenge during tomorrow's lesson. Next, I introduce the Parallelogram Properties Umbrella to students. Since classification and differentiation often pose challenges to students, this is a good time to give students an umbrella graphic organizer to help them organize their thinking hierarchically. The use of a graphic organizer better enables my students to see the relationships that exist within the parallelogram family. Encouraging students to see rhombuses as equilateral parallelograms, rectangles as equiangular parallelograms, and squares as both equilateral and equiangular parallelograms, is an important learning objective at this stage of my course. I like to close this lesson with the Determining Parallelograms worksheet. The task is tricky. It requires students to apply all properties of special parallelograms and to think about proofs before actually writing them. I find that this worksheet often helps my students to self-assess their understanding of parallelogram and special parallelogram properties. By the time that they complete this worksheet, my students prove several theorems about parallelograms. One of the problems gives them the opportunity to prove that if a quadrilateral has one pair of congruent, parallel sides, it must be a parallelogram.
There is no denying that blood transfusion is an important part of modern medicine. In a good number of cases, the whole blood need not be given but rather a component of blood can be given. This allows the same blood to be given as components to different recipients as required. The ability to transfuse blood or its components is lifesaving in most cases. Bloodborne infections such as HIV, Hepatitis B and C etc. are routinely tested in the lab before the transfusion. As per the current guidelines, blood and blood-derived products (BBDP) are tested for a set of microbial agents which are thought to be pathogenic and transfusion- transfusible. There is a debate on if we are testing enough. For example, testing strategies currently use an immunology-based assay for detection of signatures related to infections and that is not as sensitive as genetic tests. There are many other region specific infections such as Ebola and Zika virus (especially since certain carriers are asymptomatic) which can be transmitted by blood for which routine testing is not done. We are not even aware of every possible range of organisms that can be transmitted, let alone test. In an ideal case, the BBDP should be free of any microbial component. However, such a scenario is unlikely. Just as many other body fluids have been shown to be non-sterile, blood is also shown to have a good number of microbiome associated with it. Most of the microbiome papers are actually bacteriome papers. Bacteriome papers are much more common in literature since it involves sequencing of 16s rRNA and it is much easier to do. In similar lines, mycobiome can be done, since it involves sequencing a particular target. In contrast, there is no common targetable gene or region of the genome for viruses and the only viable approach for studying virome is to do whole genome sequencing. Human virome has been published heavily for skin and gut and the major findings have been bacteriophages of various types. Blood virome is thus an interesting study that looks into what viruses are there in blood and are we testing enough. In 2003, a proposal was made to develop a global system to catalog viruses and detect emerging diseases throughout the world. The idea was to routinely screen human blood to identify and monitor viruses from human samples. The core of the proposal was to collect blood from hospitals and labs weekly. This would be followed by extraction and sequencing of the viral genomes. Once a database of viruses is constructed, researchers could use it to screen for new viruses as they appear in the population. Such a database was supposed to help in quick identification of emerging infections and identify novel viruses. A multi-group collaboration involving Dr. J Craig Venter (recipient of De Leeuwenhoek Medal 2015) who has been recognized for developing several generic findings by sequencing technologies has now published a paper on human blood virome from Human Longevity Inc. To put the study in a nutshell they sequenced genomes of 8,240 individuals who were all essentially healthy and not infected with anything. The majority of the reads were mapped to the human reference genome. Roughly 0.2% was attributed to bacteria and 0.01% to viruses. Fig 1 shows a summary of the percentage of individuals presenting with viral sequences. It was not surprising to see a variety of human herpes virus, but there were many other viruses some of which are related to humans and many bacteriophages. It must be noted that this study was designed to look for DNA viruses and there would be much more in the data if RNA-related virome reads can be obtained. Fig 1: Prevalence and abundance of human DNA viruses and retroviruses in 8,240 individuals. A) Frequency B) The viral load. Source Moustafa A, Xie C, Kirkness E, Biggs W, Wong E, Turpaz Y et al. The blood DNA virome in 8,000 humans. PLOS Pathogens. 2017;13(3):e1006292.
Your body obtains glucose through the food we consume, the liver and muscles are also key suppliers of glucose. Blood then transports this glucose to cells in the body. The chemical hormone insulin then helps the body’s cells to receive the glucose. Insulin released by the beta cells of the pancreas is released into the bloodstream. If the body does not create enough insulin or the insulin fails to the way the way it should, then glucose is not able to go into the body’s cells. Instead this glucose remains in the blood. This causes an increase in blood glucose level, which then leads to pre-diabetes or diabetes. Pre-diabetes occurs when the blood glucose level is higher than average but not high enough for being diagnosed as Diabetes. Pre-diabetes increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Moderate physical exercises coupled with a healthy diet can help in preventing Type 2 diabetes. The common symptoms of diabetes are excessive thirst, frequent urination and hunger pangs, feeling tired, sudden weight loss, dry and itchy skin, and blurry eyesight. Diabetes can be developed at any age. Diabetes is a serious disease that needs to be brought under control. If not kept under limits, it causes damages to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart, gums, and teeth. Taking steps in the right direction to control diabetes can bring about a great impact to one’s health. Common risk factors of Type 2 diabetes are being overweight, high blood pressure, and unusual cholesterol levels. Besides, family history with a history of heart disease along with a sedentary lifestyle can also lead to the onset of Diabetes. For more information on natural diabetes supplement, visit the website – http://www.erbolab.com/nobetic.php
In ancient Mesopotamia, there were a lot of crops to grow. But the floods in that region were very destructive, violent and unpredictable. The climate was also not suitable for farming throughout the year. The climate of Mesopotamia was generally dry and there was very little rainfall so all these factors contributed to unsuccessful farming in this region. So to overcome this problem of farming Mesopotamians became depended on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Farmers had to find ways to find water for their crops. Floods sometimes caused rivers to change courses. A lot of trouble is caused to the farmers' crops when river changed its course. One of the ways that they were able to control this was through developing a system for controlling the flow and direction of water from the river. Canals and irrigation ditches were built for redirecting the water to the fields used for farming. Regulators were then used to raise and lower the water levels in the canals and ditches so the water could be used by the farmers. During the growing season, each farmer was allowed only a certain amount of water. When it was a farmer's turn to water his fields the regulator was adjusted so that water ran from the canal into an irrigation ditch which ran alongside the farmer's fields. The farmer could then water his fields. Irrigation helped tremendously. The silt left over from the flooding of these rivers made the soil fertile. Irrigation produced an extra supply of food. With the help of farming, Farmers raised grain, fruit, vegetables, and barn yard animals. Farmers changed their houses from reed house to brick houses. They plowed ground with stone hoes. The metal plows had a funnel shape. They filled containers with seeds. Cows would pull plow seed and the seeds would go into the ground. This method was quick and easy. Sumerians had handbooks that told much how to plant crops. In ancient Mesopotamia wheat and barley were most important grown crops by the Sumerians. Shade trees protected trees from harsh winds and from the sun. Some of the fruits they planted were dates, grapes, figs, melons, and apples. Their favorite vegetables that they grew were the eggplant. They planted vegetables such as onions, radishes, beans, and lettuce. Farmers irrigated land and started planting wheat, barley, millet, beans, and sesame seeds. They used spears to hunt, caught fish in nets, and killed birds with sling shots and arrows. Sumerians got their food from nearby marshes and rivers. Soon, Mesopotamia became a very rich farming ground. The farmers is ancient Mesopotamia even used their crops as a medium of trade. They did not have enough money so they traded crops for things like lumber and stone. So farming in ancient Mesopotamia was a huge contributor towards the development of Mesopotamia as a civilization.
ReadWriteThink couldn't publish all of this great content without literacy experts to write and review for us. If you've got lessons plans, videos, activities, or other ideas you'd like to contribute, we'd love to hear from you. Find the latest in professional publications, learn new techniques and strategies, and find out how you can connect with other literacy professionals. Teacher Resources by Grade \|1st - 2nd\|\|3rd - 4th\| \|5th - 6th\|\|7th - 8th\| \|9th - 10th\|\|11th - 12th\| Life is Beautiful: Teaching the Holocaust through Film with Complementary Texts \|Grades\|\|10 – 12\| \|Lesson Plan Type\|\|Standard Lesson\| \|Estimated Time\|\|Five 50-minute sessions\| After students have read a book about the Holocaust, such as The Diary of Anne Frank or Night by Elie Wiesel, students will view Life is Beautiful and complete discussion questions that challenge their ability to analyze literature using film. When the film is complete, students will write a letter to the director conveying their opinion of the film. - Letter Generator: Students use this interactive to write letters to the director of the film they view in this lesson. - Exit Slips: This strategy/tool is one of the many ways that the teacher can check for students' understanding in this lesson. In Reading in the Dark: Using Film as a Tool in the English Classroom, John Golden writes, "[W]e know, or strongly suspect, that the skills [students] use to decode the visual image are the same skills they use for a written text, and our goal, therefore, is to use that immediate interest in and uncanny ability with film and make it work for us" (xiii). In this lesson, an entire film is used to support a complimentary text that has the same themes. Using a high-interest and entertaining film, it will allow the students to engage in the post reading activity and further support the skills that they would use if using only the print text. There are many benefits to teaching an entire film with corresponding texts. The film can introduce students to film technique, narrative structure, and allow them to examine a variety of genres. Furthermore, young adults tend to be visually oriented in these contemporary times. Teaching an entire film to a class has sometimes been looked down upon as a waste of time or inefficient. However, if done correctly, teaching an entire film can offer students an opportunity to learn about prediction, characterization, themes and setting. Golden, John. 2001. Reading in the Dark: Using Film as a Tool in the English Classroom. Urbana, IL: NCTE.
One survey indicates that up to one-third of Americans feel they have a food “allergy,” but carefully done studies indicate that true food allergies occur in about 6-8% of children and 3-4% of adults. What, then, accounts for the difference? Recently, two patients reported having eaten dairy products and experienced adverse reactions. One was a child who developed facial and lip swelling followed by generalized hives and respiratory distress, while the other was a young adult who noted abdominal cramps, bloating, and diarrhea. Only one was truly allergic to milk. Which do you think? Adverse reactions to foods are a common complaint among patients who visit an allergist. One survey indicated that up to one-third of Americans felt they had a food “allergy,” but carefully done studies indicate that true food allergies occur in about 6-8% of children and 3-4% of adults. What, then, accounts for the difference? A food “allergy” is an abnormal reaction to a food that is immunologic in nature through a specific antibody immune reaction, generally to proteins contained in the food. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy define food allergy as “an adverse health effect arising from a specific immune response that occurs reproducibly on exposure to a given food.” The remainder of reactions to foods are termed “non-allergic,” and constitute the majority of food intolerances. These are far more common than true food allergy and may arise from a variety of sources including metabolic (lactose intolerance), non-allergic immunologic (Celiac Disease or gluten enteropathy), poisonings (scramboid poisoning with shellfish), pharmacologic (headaches from natural ingredients in chocolate), inflammatory (inflammation of the esophagus or food tube with specific white blood cells called “eosinphils”), neurofunctional (food-induced cramps and bloating in irritable bowel syndrome), toxins (aflatoxins in grains and cereals), and more. Distinguishing a true food allergy from other adverse reactions to foods is based on the history of the reaction (true allergic reactions are typically immediate and involve respiratory membranes, skin or GI tract), the particular food suspected to provoke the reaction (some foods are more allergenic than others, although any food can provoke an allergic response), how the food was prepared and served (cooking tends to reduce the likelihood of some allergic responses, and cross-contamination at a buffet, restaurant, etc), the amount of food ingested (allergic reactions generally occur with sometimes even trace amounts), reproducibility (have similar symptoms occurred when the food was eaten previously), amount of food ingested (allergic reactions may occur when even trace amounts are eaten), amount of time from ingestion to reaction (allergic reactions tend to occur immediately or after a short duration), food aversions (some young children cannot vocalize minor reactions but know they don’t like certain foods and will avoid them). Some food allergies may occur only when food ingestion is coupled with exercise shortly after, and in some, certain foods cannot be eaten during a pollen season. If you have specific food intolerances, and suspect a food allergy may be involved, and depending on the acuteness and severity of reaction, it would be helpful to see an allergist. You should come prepared to report the exact symptoms you experienced, in what setting the food was consumed, the timing and duration of the reaction, a complete list of foods ingested shortly before the reaction (including packaged ingredients in sauces, dressings, mixes), and what treatment was required. Your allergist can do specific testing to determine if a true food allergy is present, and if so, instruct you on proper treatment including avoidance, prevention, and specific medications.
SummaryRead the full fact sheet - The pancreas is a gland that secretes digestive enzymes and insulin. - The symptoms of pancreatic cancer are often vague and common to many other disorders. - Pancreatic cancer is often only diagnosed in its later stages, which makes it difficult to treat. The is a gland of the . It is joined to the small bowel by a duct. Pancreatic cancer starts in the cells lining this duct. It then spreads into the body of the pancreas, before invading nearby nerves and . If left untreated, it will spread to all the organs in the abdomen. Pancreatic cancer may also enter the and spread to other parts of the body. The causes of pancreatic cancer are unknown, but are at greater risk. It is more common in people over 65 and relatively uncommon in people under 50 years of age. About 720 Victorians develop pancreatic cancer each year. Role of the pancreas The pancreas has two major roles in the digestive system being that: - It produces enzymes to help break down food. - It produces , which controls the amount of sugar in the blood. Problems with insulin production can lead to diabetes. Risks and causes of pancreatic cancer Pancreatic cancer is caused by damage to genes, but it is not known exactly why this damage happens. The risk of pancreatic cancer is greater for smokers. Other risk factors include: - age – more common in people over the age of 65 years - – inheriting a damaged gene - – between 10 and 20 per cent of people with pancreatic cancer also have diabetes - inflammation – chronic inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis) - gastrectomy – having had surgery to remove all or part of your stomach. Symptoms of pancreatic cancer Pancreatic cancer symptoms are often vague and can appear similar to those caused by other, less serious conditions. This means that pancreatic cancer is often not diagnosed until it is quite advanced. Some of the common symptoms may include: - persistent pain in the abdomen - loss of appetite - feeling sick (nausea) - change in your bowel habits ( or ) - severe , in some cases. If your bile duct is blocked, you may also have: Diagnosis of pancreatic cancer If pancreatic cancer is suspected, your doctor will refer you for tests. These may include: - Blood tests – these check how well your liver and kidney are working and measure for a protein known as CA19.9. Pancreatic cancer often sends CA19.9 into the blood. It is not used to diagnose pancreatic cancer, but it gives your doctor important information. - – a special x-ray is taken from many different angles to build a three-dimensional picture of your body. A dye may be injected to further highlight internal organs. - – this is similar to a CT scan, but uses magnetism instead of x-rays to build three-dimensional pictures of your body. - – sound waves create a picture of your pancreas. - (also called endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, ERCP) – a thin telescope is inserted down your throat to allow the doctor to see inside your digestive system. This device may also be used to inject dye into the pancreas and bile duct to allow images of these organs to appear on x-ray pictures. - – the internal organs are examined with an instrument inserted into the abdomen through a small cut. - – a small sample of the pancreas is removed with a needle and examined in a laboratory. - – an injection with a glucose solution containing a very small amount of radioactive material is given. The scanner can ‘see’ the radioactive substance. Cancerous cells show up as ‘hot spots’ – areas where the glucose is being taken up. These tests can also help your doctor find out if your cancer has spread. The cancer may have spread into blood vessels or lymph nodes near the pancreas, or into organs further away, like the liver or the lungs. This is called ‘secondary cancer’ or metastasis. The tests you have will help your doctors decide the best treatment for you. Test results can take a few days to come back. It is very natural to feel anxious waiting to get your results. It can help to talk to a close friend or relative about how you are feeling. You can also contact the Cancer Council and speak with a cancer nurse on 13 11 20. Treatment of pancreatic cancer Treatment for pancreatic cancer depends on your age, general health, the size and location of the cancer and whether it has spread to other parts of the body. You may receive one type of treatment or a combination. Generally, options include: - – is used when the cancer has not spread beyond the pancreas. The cancer and part of the pancreas and part of the small bowel are removed in an operation called ‘Whipple’s resection’. Some of the bile ducts, gall bladder and stomach may also be removed. This is major surgery and you need to be fit enough to have it. - – anti-cancer medications (either tablets or injections into the veins) may be used after surgery. The drugs work by stopping cancer cells growing and reproducing. Chemotherapy may be given with surgery or alone to help control the symptoms of an advanced cancer. - – the use of x-rays to target cancer cells may be used after surgery to destroy any cancer cells that might remain in the body. Radiotherapy can also be used as the main treatment when surgery is not possible, in combination with chemotherapy. - – it’s common for people with cancer to seek out complementary or alternative treatments. When used alongside your conventional cancer treatment, some of these therapies can make you feel better and improve quality of life. Others may not be so helpful and in some cases may be harmful. The Cancer Council Victoria booklet called Understanding Complementary Therapies can be a useful resource. All treatments have side effects. These will vary depending on the type of treatment you are having. Many side effects are temporary, but some may be permanent. Your doctor will explain all the possible side effects before your treatment begins. Options may include: - Endoscopic treatment - the cancer may cause jaundice because it is blocking the bile duct. Endoscopic surgery relieves the pressure by inserting a metal or plastic tube into the bile duct to keep it open. Similar treatment can relieve a section of the small bowel if the cancer is pressing on it. - Surgery – a blockage in the small bowel can be bypassed by a surgical procedure that attaches a loop of bowel directly to the stomach. - Tablets – there may be a lack of pancreatic enzymes to properly digest fats, which results in diarrhoea. Tablets containing these enzymes can control this symptom. - Pain-relieving medication – oral medication is usually given to control pain, but if the pain is particularly severe, medication can be injected into the nerves of the back. Research into pancreatic cancer Clinical trials can test the effectiveness of promising new treatments or new ways of combining cancer treatments. Always discuss treatment options with your doctor. The Cancer Council Victoria information sheet called Clinical Trials may also be a helpful to read. Your sexuality and pancreatic cancer Having pancreatic cancer and its treatment can affect the way you feel about your body, who you are, your relationships, the way you express yourself sexually and your sexual feelings (your ‘sexuality’). These changes can be very upsetting. Your medical team should discuss these issues with you before and during your treatment. If you feel you would like to discuss things further, ask your doctor for a referral to a counsellor or speak to a cancer nurse on the Tel. . The Cancer Council Victoria booklet called may also be helpful to read. Caring for someone with cancer Caring for someone with cancer can be a difficult and emotional time. If you or someone you know is caring for someone with pancreatic cancer, there is support available. The Cancer Council Victoria booklet called may also be helpful to read. When a cure isn’t possible If the cancer has spread and it is not possible to cure it with surgery, your doctor may still recommend treatment that focuses on improving quality of life by relieving the symptoms (this is called palliative treatment). This can help make you feel better and may allow you to live longer. The Cancer Council Victoria booklet called may be helpful to read.
torpedo plane, aircraft designed to launch torpedoes. In about 1910 the navies of several countries began to experiment with torpedo launching from low-flying aircraft, usually seaplanes. The first effective use of this technique occurred on Aug. 12, 1915, when a British Short Type 184 seaplane sank a Turkish vessel in the Dardanelles. Other navies’ torpedo planes also had some success during World War I. Between the world wars most navies decided to operate torpedo bombers from aircraft carriers. In World War II the torpedo plane scored spectacular successes, among them the British night raid on the Italian fleet anchored at Taranto in November 1940, the Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor, and the U.S. victory at Midway in 1942. Land-based torpedo planes also saw extensive use in World War II: by Italy and Britain in the Mediterranean, by Germany intercepting British convoys in the North Sea, and by the Japanese in the Pacific. Perhaps the most dramatic success of land-based torpedo planes was when Japanese twin-engined torpedo bombers sank the British battleships Repulse and Prince of Wales in December 1941. Like dive bombers, torpedo planes proved vulnerable to fighter aircraft and anti-aircraft fire and often suffered heavy losses. With the postwar development of air-launched missiles, aerial torpedoes were largely relegated to antisubmarine use and were carried by long-range patrol aircraft generally larger than the earlier specialized torpedo bombers.
In an ordinary digital camera, a large amount of information is collected by the camera’s sensor. This information is immediately processed by compression software, and a much smaller amount is then stored. This process takes time, contributing largely to what is called “shutter lag.” Is it possible to collect only what is needed and thus reduce or even eliminate shutter lag? Thanks to some clever physics and compressed sensing, the answer is “yes.” The mathematical concepts underlying compressed or compressive sensing date back to the 1970s, when the merits of the ℓ1ℓ1 norm were recognized in convex programming. The theory developed rapidly in the 1990s, and a breakthrough occurred in the early years of the 21st century with the work of Candès, Tao, Romberg, and Donoho. Collectively, they realized that one can design an efficient sensing or sampling protocol by capturing useful information in a sparse signal and compressing it into a small amount of data. These beautiful mathematical ideas have found an application in the world’s fastest 2-D camera. By adding a digital micromirror device for spatial encoding and applying reconstruction algorithms from compressed sensing, Lihong Wang and colleagues at Washington University in St. Louis transformed a traditional one-dimensional streak camera into a 2-D ultrafast imaging camera. Now, for the first time, humans can see the movement of light on the fly (see Figure 1). Compressed sensing is based on the observation that most signals or images contain only a small amount of crucial information. By strategically discarding unnecessary data, one can reduce the image’s size while retaining sufficient information to faithfully reconstruct the original. The full image is then reconstructed from the encoded data using linear programming algorithms. To make this possible, compressed sensing relies on two principles: sparsity and incoherence. Sparsity implies that the image has a concise representation when expressed in the proper basis, while incoherence indicates that unlike the image of interest, the sampling/sensing waveforms have an extremely dense representation in the sparsifying basis. Thus, compressed sensing is a simple and efficient signal acquisition protocol that samples—in a signal-independent fashion—at a low rate and later uses computational power for reconstruction from what appears to be an incomplete set of measurements. Instead of collecting all of the information about a signal or image in pixels in a large nn-dimensional vector xx, compressed sensing collects information in a much smaller kk-dimensional vector y=Axy=Ax. Here, AA is a (rectangular) matrix that represents the measurement process. If the signal is sparse, kk need not be very large to recover the original signal xx from yy; in practice, it usually needs to be no more than four times the sparsity level of xx. The underdetermined system Ax=yAx=y can be solved in a remarkably efficient way by minimizing the ℓ1ℓ1 norm ∥x∥1=∑ni=1\|xi\|∥x∥1=∑i=1n\|xi\| of xx, subject to the constraint y=Axy=Ax. This convex problem can be converted to a linear programming problem, for which we have fast algorithms. When the signal is sufficiently sparse, the recovery via ℓ1ℓ1 minimization is provably exact. Signals and images are rarely exactly sparse; more often they are only approximately sparse. Additionally, measured data are invariably corrupted by at minimum a small amount of noise; at the very least, small perturbations in the data should cause small perturbations in the reconstruction. So for practical reasons, compressed sensing must be able to deal with both nearly sparse signals and with noise. As was shown by Candès, Romberg, and Tao, if xx is not exactly sparse, then the quality of the recovered signal is as good as if one knew the location of the largest values of xx ahead of time and decided to measure those directly. In other words, the reconstruction is nearly as good as that provided by an oracle which, with full and perfect knowledge about xx, extracts the most significant pieces of information. The 2-D Camera The 2-D camera, which can record non-repetitive, time-evolving events at one hundred billion frames per second, was developed by Wang and his colleagues using a dynamic 2-D imaging technique called compressed ultrafast photography (CUP). CUP combines streak photography, an ultrafast imaging technique, with compressed sensing. While traditional cameras capture discrete images by repeated opening and closing of a shutter, streak cameras deflect incoming light in a way that maps time onto a spatial dimension on the camera’s two-dimensional pixel array. The light is deflected by an amount proportional to its time of arrival, a process known as shearing. Traditional streak cameras can film in only one spatial dimension. When a one-dimensional scene like the one shown in Figure 2—where the object moves from left to right—is sheared vertically, the scene’s time domain is translated to the detector’s yy-domain. A movie can then be reconstructed by taking each row of pixels as a frame. By masking the 2-D scene with a known pixel pattern, Wang’s group recorded a 2-D scene in a single shot. The Washington University team was able to achieve this by taking their cues from signal processing. CUP facilitates detection of information about all three dimensions—spatial coordinates xx and yy, and time tt—on a single pixel array by encoding the input scene in the spatial domain. The resultant image is then sheared in the streak camera. A 2-D detector array with a single snapshot measures this encoded and sheared three-dimensional scene (x,y,t)(x,y,t). The encoded data can retrieve time information from the input scene in the subsequent image reconstruction. The single-shot ultrafast camera is like a microscope for time, one that has many potential applications in fundamental and applied science. One remarkable medical application for the camera is in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRI recovers images from a human body by taking a large number of measurements before reprocessing the data. The scan can take extended periods of time, much to the disadvantage of patients who have to be kept completely still. In the worst cases, the individual’s breathing is stopped, depriving the patient of oxygen for the entire scan. Compressed sensing techniques alleviate this issue by reconstructing the image using many fewer samples. These techniques significantly reduce the number of measurements required for the MRI from minutes to mere seconds. CUP can potentially be coupled with microscopes to enable the observation of transient events in cell structures. For instance, it could be used to observe energy metabolism in cellular mitochondria. It could also enable understanding of light’s passage through tissues, which could yield important insights into therapies that use lasers to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue, with the objective of keeping healthy tissue unharmed. As Wang puts it, the generic nature of the camera means it can be coupled with a wide variety of tools—from microscopes to telescopes—and thus be used to film anything from cellular functions to collapsing supernovae.
January 7, 2003 Speed of Gravity Measured for First Time Taking advantage of a rare cosmic alignment, scientists have made the first measurement of the speed at which the force of gravity propagates, giving a numerical value to one of the last unmeasured fundamental constants of physics. "Newton thought that gravity's force was instantaneous. Einstein assumed that it moved at the speed of light, but until now, no one had measured it," said Sergei Kopeikin, a physicist at the University of Missouri-Columbia. "We have determined that gravity's propagation speed is equal to the speed of light within an accuracy of 20 percent," said Ed Fomalont, an astronomer at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) in Charlottesville, VA. The scientists presented their findings to the American Astronomical Society's meeting in Seattle, WA. The landmark measurement is important to physicists working on unified field theories that attempt to combine particle physics with Einstein's general theory of relativity and electromagnetic theory. "Our measurement puts some strong limits on the theories that propose extra dimensions, such as superstring theory and brane theories," Kopeikin said. "Knowing the speed of gravity can provide an important test of the existence and compactness of these extra dimensions," he added. Superstring theory proposes that the fundamental particles of nature are not pointlike, but rather incredibly small loops or strings, whose properties are determined by different modes of vibration. Branes (a word derived from membranes) are multidimensional surfaces, and some current physical theories propose space-time branes embedded to five dimensions. The scientists used the National Science Foundation's Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), a continent-wide radio-telescope system, along with the 100-meter radio telescope in Effelsberg, Germany, to make an extremely precise observation when the planet Jupiter passed nearly in front of a bright quasar on September 8, 2002. The observation recorded a very slight "bending" of the radio waves coming from the background quasar by the gravitational effect of Jupiter. The bending resulted in a small change in the quasar's apparent position in the sky. "Because Jupiter is moving around the Sun, the precise amount of the bending depends slightly on the speed at which gravity propagates from Jupiter," Kopeikin said. Jupiter, the largest planet in the Solar System, only passes closely enough to the path of radio waves from a suitably bright quasar about once a decade for such a measurement to be made, the scientists said. The once-in-a-decade celestial alignment was the last in a chain of events that made measuring the speed of gravity possible. The others included a chance meeting of the two scientists in 1996, a breakthrough in theoretical physics and the development of specialized techniques that enabled the extremely precise measurement to be made. "No one had tried to measure the speed of gravity before because most physicists had assumed that the only way to do so was to detect gravitational waves," Kopeikin recalled. However, in 1999, Kopeikin extended Einstein's theory to include the gravitational effects of a moving body on light and radio waves. The effects depended on the speed of gravity. He realized that if Jupiter moved nearly in front of a star or radio source, he could test his theory. Kopeikin studied the predicted orbit of Jupiter for the next 30 years and discovered that the giant planet would pass closely enough in front of the quasar J0842+1835 in 2002. However, he quickly realized that the effect on the quasar's apparent position in the sky attributable to the speed of gravity would be so small that the only observational technique capable of measuring it was Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), the technique embodied in the VLBA. Kopeikin then contacted Fomalont, a leading expert in VLBI and an experienced VLBA observer. "I immediately realized the importance of an experiment that could make the first measurement of a fundamental constant of nature," Fomalont said. "I decided that we had to give this our best shot," he added. To get the required level of precision, the two scientists added the Effelsberg telescope to their observation. The wider the separation between two radio-telescope antennas, the greater is the resolving power, or ability to see fine detail, achievable. The VLBA includes antennas on Hawaii, the continental United States, and St. Croix in the Caribbean. An antenna on the other side of the Atlantic added even more resolving power. "We had to make a measurement with about three times more accuracy than anyone had ever done, but we knew, in principle, that it could be done," Fomalont said. The scientists tested and refined their techniques in "dry runs," then waited for Jupiter to make its pass in front of the quasar. The wait included considerable nail-biting. Equipment failure, bad weather, or an electromagnetic storm on Jupiter itself could have sabotaged the observation. However, luck held out and the scientists' observations at a radio frequency of 8 GigaHertz produced enough good data to make their measurement. They achieved a precision equal to the width of a human hair seen from 250 miles away. "Our main goal was to rule out an infinite speed for gravity, and we did even better. We now know that the speed of gravity is probably equal to the speed of light, and we can confidently exclude any speed for gravity that is over twice that of light," Fomalont said. Most scientists, Kopeikin said, will be relieved that the speed of gravity is consistent with the speed of light. "I believe this experiment sheds new light on fundamentals of general relativity and represents the first of many more studies and observations of gravitation which are currently possible because of the enormously high precision of VLBI. We have a lot more to learn about this intriguing cosmic force and its relationship to the other forces in nature," Kopeikin said. This is not the first time that Jupiter has played a part in producing a measurement of a fundamental physical constant. In 1675, Olaf Roemer, a Danish astronomer working at the Paris Observatory, made the first reasonably accurate determination of the speed of light by observing eclipses of one of Jupiter's moons.
The Victorian Age (1830-1900) The Victorian age in English literature, though commonly associated with the reign of Queen Victoria, who came to the throne in 1837, does not exactly cover the period of that august Queen’s reign. This designation, however, is particularly given because of the importance of the age of Queen Victoria and its effect on the literature of the time. The Victorian Age has a specific significance in the history of England, as it was an era of peace and growth on all fronts. The Victorian Period is found to mark the advancement of the English people in political expansion, scientific knowledge as also materialistic pursuits and progress. The Victorian Age was an era of peace. The echoes of the French Revolution were heard no more, and the country stood firmly on a solid faith in monarchical authority. The Queen enjoyed immense position and popularity and no thought of political upheaval could be at all imagined even. Of course, outside Victorian England, there were wars and England was involved in them. Colonial wars and the Crimean war dominated certain years of the age, yet they had no deep impact on English national life. The Civil War in America had its echo in England, but that, too, was not allowed much to deviate the normal English vocation of the peace time. The Victorian Age in England was also an era of progress- of course material progress. The age witnessed the Industrial Revolution in its full swing. Mechanical devices were much developed and productivity could be increased almost to an incredible range by the application of machines. Moreover, there was a revolution in the commercial enterprise with the immense expansion of the available markets. England, in fact, flourished in trade and industries, and the benefits of the Industrial Revolution were well reaped by the Englishmen of the time. In the political sphere, England also recorded and important expansion in The Victorian Period. The British Empire expanded to the remote parts of the world and the British colonies were firmly founded in different countries. England became, in fact, a prominent world power. Besides the revolution in the technique of production, brought forth by the invention of the steam engine, there was another significant revolution in scientific thoughts as a result of Darwin’s great theory of the Evolution of the Species. That was something shocking for the age, but it firmly laid the foundation of rational enquiries and scientific culture in the human world. Of course, all was not gold in The Victorian Age . The industrial and commercial development had also the bleak side to show. Unhealthy slums grew up in new industrial cities and the free open air country life was abandoned for obtaining occupations in different industries. The tendency had a terrible reaction, not simply in the degeneration of the living condition, but also in the ruthless exploitation of cheap labour, including children, for large, selfish and individual profits. Of course, The Victorian Age also witnessed a potential religious movement in the Oxford movement. The great religious preceptors, like Newman, had a significant role in the attempt to lessen the materialistic trends by a return to Christian devotion. That was definitely an indication of all-round advancement. The discoveries of science have particular effects upon the literature of the Victorian Age. It is simple to mark the following four general characteristics: - Realism: Literature of this age comes closer to daily life which reflects its practical problems and interests. It becomes a powerful instrument for human progress. - Moral Purpose: The Victorian literature seems to assert its moral purpose. Tennyson, Browning, Carlyle, Ruskin-all were the teachers of England with the faith in their moral message to instruct the world. - Doubts or Contradictory faiths and philosophies: It is often considered as an age of doubt and contradictory faiths and philosophies. The influence of science is felt here. Browning the optimist and Hardy the pessimist are regarded as most popular writers of the age. There is realistic literature with Pre-Raphaelite poetry that believes in “art for art’s sake”. - Idealism: Though, the age is characterized as practical and materialistic, most of the writers suggest a purely ideal life. It is an idealistic age where the great ideals like truth, justice, love, brotherhood are emphasized by poets, essayists and novelists of the age. Growth of Victorian Age: After the romantic revival , the literature of the Victorian age entered in a new period. The Literature of this period express the fusion of romanticism to realism. The Victorian age is rich in literature. It produced two great poets like Tennyson and Browning; dramatists like Shaw and Galsworthy; novelists like Charles Dickens and Hardy; and essayist like Carlyle and Stevenson. The age is remarkable for the excellence of its literature. Victorian Prose: Victorian age produced two great essayists like Carlyle and Stevenson. Carlyle’s major works include The French Revolution in 3vol. (1837), On Heroes, HeroWorship and the Heroic in History (1841). His prose style differs from other prose writers. He writes about people and events of the past. He has his own philosophy. He accounts great men as Hero. whereas Stevenson writes famous essays in this period A Night among the Pines, Walking Tours, An Apology for Idlers, A Plea for Gas lamps, El Dorado Familiar Studies of Men and Books and Crabbed Age and Youth. Stevenson’s essays are an attempt in the direction of Human welfare. He wishes to remove all that creates obstacle in human progress and happiness. For example in his famous essay An Apology for Idlers-he point out the importance of direct education based on selfobservation and self-learning. He puts stress on the quality of being happy for personal sake as well as social sake. Victorian Poetry: It produced three great poets- Tennyson, Browning and Arnold. Tennyson is the most representative poet of the age. He represents Victorian conflict and compromise. He is a great lyric poet. His lyricism is deep rooted and dominates all of his poems. It makes his poetry sweet and smooth. His lyric can be divided into many parts like personal, dramatic, patriotic and musical lyrics or songs. Among Tennyson’s personal lyric “ In Memorium” is very important. It is a collection of lyrics composed on the death of his bosom friend Arthur Hallam. Tennyson’s dramatic lyrics are in the form of dramatic monologues. Tennyson is admired as a pictorial artist. His description of the nature is highly sensuous. Robert Browning is known for his dramatic monologues and philosophy of hope. Browning is the greatest writer of dramatic monologues. All of his monologues deal with different aspects of love. Mathew Arnold is regarded as the greatest elegiac poet of Victorian age. He contributes a number of elegies but the following five are of great merit: (ii) Rugby Chapel (iii)The Scholar Gipsy (iv) A Southern Night (v) West Minister Abbey Victorian Drama: It produced two great dramatists like Shaw and Galsworthy. Shaw is doubtlessly the greatest of all dramatists of this period. He contributed anti romantic plays of ideas like Candida and Apple Cart. Saint Joan won Nobel Prize for him. Galsworthy is also a great dramatist. He is a problem play writer. He has a deep sympathy for the weaker section of society. In his dramas, he presents their problems to attract the attention of all the people of the society. It appeals more to head than to heart. The basic purpose of his plays is not to entertain but to make people conscious of others people’s sufferings caused by imperfection of law and society. His famous plays are: The Silver Box, Strife and Justice. Victorian Novel: It produced two great novelists like Charles Dickens and Hardy. The spirit of revolt is much more intense in the fiction than the poetry of this period. The most prominent novelists of the period are Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy. Dickens is the great novelist. He makes the minute study of the whole mankind. He presents lively picture of human society. Dickens, “David Copperfield” is a representative novel in the sense that it throws light on the prevailing conditions of Victorian society. It is a social document that brings to light miserable condition of boarding-houses, women education, child labor and social injustice. Dickens is a social thinker working in the line of a social reformer. Hardy’s best novel is Tess of the d’Urbervilles. Thomas Hardy published this novel in 1891 with subtitle-a pure woman. Tess of the d’Urbervilles is a young girl, who is raped by Alec D’Urbervilles. She gets pregnant, but the baby dies. It raises a question how such a woman may be called a pure woman. But Hardy proves it. She later falls in love with Angel Clare, but he deserts her. Alec assures her that Angel would not come back. Her family starves and she becomes a mistress to Alec. But Angel comes back and Tess murders Alec and spends a few moments of love with Angel before she is arrested to be hanged. Pre-Raphaelite poetry Or Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood: The Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood is also known as the Ore-Raphaelites. It was a group of English painters, poets and critics, founded in 1848 by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who reacted against the artificiality of the art of the period. They wanted to return to the purity and simplicity of the Italian art of the 13th and 14th century (before Raphael). There were seven members in this “brotherhood”. The PreRaphaelite defined themselves as a reform-movement. They were influenced by the ideas of the art critic John Ruskin, who considered art as a way to react to the ugliness of modern, urban life. The main characteristics were: fidelity to nature, sensuality, use of non-industrial materials, re-evaluation of medieval religion and legends. The main representatives were: Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. William Morris created the Arts and Crafts Movement, which designed and manufactured a great variety of objects for interiors (stained glass, wallpapers, tapestries, rugs etc…). They used handicraft and simple decoration in reaction to industrial machinery. The Pre-Raphaelite movement influenced the Aesthetic Movement. It originated in France, following the ideas of The Ophelia Gautier; it was a reaction against the materialism and the strict moral code of the bourgeoisie. Aesthetes were not interested in political and social matters but isolated themselves in a world of beauty and art. Their motto was “art for art’s sake”, which means that art doesn’t have any moral aim but it’s an end in itself. The followers of Aesthetics led an unconventional life, full of sensations and excess (they wanted to be different from the working masses and they also rejected the Victorian moral values). The main representative in Britain was Oscar Wilde. Naughty Nineties: The last decade of the nineteenth century is characterized by “naughtiness”. “Victorianism” is a complex collection of several values, and the revolt of the nineties against Victorianism is also quite complex. This revolt has three points. First, it repeats the old revolutionary formula of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, in a new setting. Secondly, it worships power than beauty. And thirdly, it challenges the older values of art and life. In the literature of the nineties two distinct tendencies are exposed: the pessimistic tendency and Continental tendency. In the poetry of the nineties, we consider Robert Bridges and Hardy as representatives poets. The most prominent novelist of the period is Thomas Hardy. The last years of 19th century witnessed a dramatic revival. The most vigorous drama of the age was concerned with social and domestic problems and was considerably influenced by Ibsen. Oscar Wilde’s plays have the tone of social criticism. Shaw is doubtlessly, the greatest of all the dramatists of this period. Victorian Compromise in Tennyson Victorian compromise is a combination of the positive and negative aspects of the contemporary issues of Victorian era. The Victorian era is well-known for its enrichment of knowledge in science, expansion of empire and growth of economy, conflict between the science and religion, conflict between aristocracy and democracy etc. All Victorian writers, in some way or other, give expression to this conflicts and consequents. Some of the Victorians clung to the old faith and condemned the ‘new-fangled opinions’, others went over to the side of science, and still some others tried to draw some sort of compromise between the two conflicting forces. Tennyson can be classed with the third group, the one which stood for what is often called “The Victorian Compromise”. The problems of the day are wonderfully depicted in the writing of the poets of this era. Poets like Arnold of nineteenth century started to hold a very pessimistic view about the Victorian crisis; he seems to express only a negative attitude toward his contemporary age. But we see a quite dissimilar attitude in Alfred Lord Tennyson. Unlike Arnold, he expressed a compromising attitude to his age and its intricate problems. We find in his Ulysses, The Lotos Eaters, The Charge of the Light Brigade, holds such a sort of view which is supposed to find a middle ground. He is neither too melancholic like Arnold nor too optimistic like Robert Browning. He tries to portray in his poems a real and clear picture of the problems of contemporary age in an implicit way. In fact the poem , “The Charge of the Light Brigade” which is based upon the Crimean war describes the marvelous courage of the British soldiers and pays homage to them. In his political opinions Tennyson shared the views of an average Victorian who believed in the golden mean, a compromise between democracy and aristocracy. He believed in slow progress and shunned revolution. In the field of sex, The Victorians permitted indulgence in sex but restricted its sphere to happy married life. Tennyson reflects this spirit of the age in his love poems by pointing out that true love can be found only in married life. In Tennyson’s “The Lady of Shallot” we are introduced to ‘two young lovers’ walking together in the moonlight, but we are at once reassured by the statement that these two lovers were ‘lately wed’ In the Victorian age, there was a huge conflict occurred especially because of Darwin’s theory between science and religion. Darwin suggested that humans are actually originated from the apes. This struck the Orthodox, and moved the faith of people in religion what was contemporarily coming forward by the writings of then thinker. But Tennyson himself was too greatly affected by the development of science to remain an orthodox Christian yet still was not so much affected as to turn an unqualified agnostic. Because of the quality to look for a middle ground, Tennyson is considered as a compromising craftsman who does neither yield to the crisis of his age nor possess a carefree attitude towards the problems, rather keeps compromising and finding a solution.
Collimators: the LHC’s bodyguards The performance of the LHC relies on accelerating and colliding beams made of tiny particles with unprecedented intensities. If even a small fraction of the circulating particles deviates from the precisely set trajectory, it can quench a super-conducting LHC magnet or even destroy parts of the accelerator. The energy in the two LHC beams is sufficient to melt almost one tonne of copper. This is why the LHC shows its teeth every time particles misbehave. These “teeth” are part of special devices around the LHC, called collimators. Their jaws – moveable blocks of robust materials – close around the beam to clean it of stray particles before they come close to the collision regions. The materials the jaws are made of can withstand extreme conditions of temperature and pressure, as well as high levels of radiation. More than a hundred of these bodyguards are placed around the LHC. They are also installed on each side of the LHC experiments to absorb the stray particles before they come close to the collision regions. With the expected increase in the number of particle collisions in the High-Luminosity LHC, the beam intensity will be much higher. New collimators are being developed by CERN’s Engineering department to meet the beam-cleaning requirements of the future project. Some of the recent innovations in the LHC collimation system include a wire and a crystal collimator. You can learn more about them in this article.
Today, there are nearly 400 species of oak trees that exist around the world. They can grow in a variety of habitats ranging from wet lowlands to high dry mesas and from seacoasts to high mountain slopes. Oak trees may be either deciduous or evergreen and are widespread in the North Temperate Zone. Around springtime, before the new leaves appear, the tree flowers due to the large quantity of pollen that is shed into the wind. Oak trees have clustered flowers and are identified by their distinctive fruit, the acorn, which has a cup-like structure called a ‘cupule’. Depending upon which species they belong to, trees may have spirally arranged leaves with a lobed margin, serrated leaves or entire leaves with a smooth margin. Different Types of Oak Trees It is a massive, shady tree with evergreen leaves, which are bright olive-green initially but change to a glossy, dark green when mature. The tree belongs to the species Quercus virginiana and grows well in clay, sandy and loamy soils. With a pH ranging from 3.7 to 7.0, the tree can tolerate a wide range of moisture conditions. It grows up to a height of 30 to 40 feet and spreads up to a width of 40 to 60 feet, and thus, requires a large area for the branches and the roots to grow. It has glossy, dark green summer leaves which change to bronze or red color in the fall. It bears a light brown acorn which is nearly ½ inch long and wide. It belongs to the species Quercus palustris and grows well in sandy, loamy or clay type of soils. The branching nature of the tree is very unique as the upper branches are ascending, the middle ones are horizontal, and the lower branches are drooping. It grows up to a height of 60 to 70 feet and spreads up to a width of 25 to 40 feet. It is known for its strength and brilliant fall color, and belongs to the species Quercus rubra. It grows best in well-drained soils, has moderate water requirements, and is tolerant to salty and alkali soils. It grows up to a height of 50 to 60 feet and spreads up to a width of 45 to 55 feet. It has massive, rounded, ascending branches that tend to droop low. The fall color of the leaves varies from yellow-brown to russet-red and bright red. It is a majestic tree that lasts for generations and belongs to the species Quercus alba. It grows well in deep, moist, well-drained, acid soils and has moderate water requirements. The fall color of the leaves vary from bluish-green to reddish-brown and its fruit, the acorn, serves as the best source of food in the wild. It grows up to 60 to 100 feet in height and spreads up to 50 to 90 feet, and hence, requires plenty of space to mature properly. Sawtooth oak tree is a fast growing shade or lawn tree that belongs to the species Quercus acutissima. It has moderate water requirements and tolerance to salty and alkali soils. It is a highly priced oak tree because of the short time it takes to produce acorns. The color of the leaves vary from yellow to golden brown in the fall and brilliant golden yellow in spring. It grows up to a height of 40 to 50 feet and may spread up to 50 to 60 feet. Belonging to the species Quercus macracarpa, it is a slow-growing tree with a bulky trunk, sturdy branches and lives a long life. It is in demand for hedges or fences of trees to lessen the force of the wind and reduce erosion. Its strong wood is used for timber. Autumn colors include yellow, yellowish green or yellowish brown. The leaf lobes are deep and rounded and leaf length is 4-10 inches. The fruit is an acorn that ripens during fall and is partially covered up by a laciniate cup. Willow oak (Quercus phellos) trees grow relatively fast about 2″ a year, has restrained water requirements, and tolerates salt and alkali soils. Leaves of this tree are yellow to yellowish-brown. This tree can withstand heat, shortage of rainfall, air pollution, standing water, and is mostly found on streets, in parks, and around residential areas. Some other types of oak trees include: water oak, overcup oak, scarlet oak and chinkapin oak. These trees have always been commercially valued for their hard, strong wood which has a multitude of purposes including furniture and flooring. They can also be used for the purpose of landscaping.
GCSE English Literature (always studied with English Language) What we study Students will study: - Shakespeare’s ‘Macbeth’ - Poetry - ‘Love and Relationships’ poems from an anthology and a range of unseen poems - Pre-Twentieth Century Prose - ‘A Christmas Carol’ by Charles Dickens - A Modern Text – ‘An Inspector Calls', 'Blood Brothers' or 'Lord of the Flies' In studying the set texts students should have the opportunity to develop the following skills: - reading comprehension and reading critically This will include: - understanding words, phrases or sentences in context - exploring aspects of plot, characterisation, events and settings - identifying themes and supporting points of view by referring to evidence in the text - evaluating a writer’s choice of vocabulary, grammatical and structural features - comparing texts Students will be taught to: - produce clear and coherent texts, writing effectively about literature and using accurate standard English Collins Snap Revision produce excellent revision materials. Advice will be given during the course regarding which books to purchase. The course prepares students who would like to continue English Language and Literature, or English Literature at A-Level at Oxted. Mrs D Read - [email protected]
How Are Gold Bars Made Share this page: Gold Mining and Extraction The first step in the process of making gold bars (if gold is being processed form gold ore) is that the ore must be extracted from the ground. After a gold-bearing deposit has been located, the gold is extracted by mining. In old times hydraulic mining was often performed - using high pressure water jets to mine, move and separate gold from deposits. However in modern times, explosives are used. Much of the ore from which gold is mined in modern times is not the "nugget-laden" ore one imagines from the old days of the gold rush, but is low grade ore. A ton of low-grade gold ore may only yield on average 6.5 grams of gold - however the high value of the gold still makes the operation worthwhile. After the rock containing the gold has been mined, it is crushed to grains the size of sand. Next, gold is extracted from the crushed rock using a multi-stage process. The preliminary processing varies slightly depending on the quality and composition of the ore, but eventually the gold is dissolved from the ore using cyanide, in a process called leaching: A water and cyanide solution is added to the gold, which is then ground to a mud. The mud is agitated and air is bubbled through it, which causes the gold to react with the cyanide and dissolve. Zinc powder is added to the dissolved gold solution and the resulting solids collected. Next, a flux is added, consisting of fluorite, manganese dioxide, silica, borax and sodium nitrate. At this point the mixture is put in a smelter and heated to 1600°C. After two and a half hours, the gold (being heavier) has settled to the bottom and the "slag" is removed. The molten gold is then poured into moulds and allowed to cool. The resulting ingots, known as gold doré are around 80% to 90% pure gold. Making Poured Gold Bars The next stage in the process is that the gold doré is refined to high purity (typically 99.9%, also known as "999 gold", which is an international standard) by a gold refiner. This process typically employed for this purification by major bullion manufacturers is either electrolysis or pyrometallurgical chlorination. Gold scrap - for example from old jewellery, jewellery manufacturers scrap, high-grade electronic scrap, dental gold scrap and old coins - is also re-refined and recycled using either electrolysis or pyrometallurgical chlorination. With pyrometallurgical chlorination, (known as the "Miller Process") chlorine gas is bubbled through the molten bullion. Base metals and silver react with the chlorine to form chlorides, which either form a slag on the surface of the melt or are volatilized. When the gold reaches around 99.5 to 99.7 percent purity, purple fumes of gold chloride wil begin to form and the process is halted. After this, the gold is either treated with electrolysis of a wet chemical process. With electrolysis, (known as the Wohlwill Process) the gold is first cast and the resulting bars used as anodes in an electrolyte consisting of gold chloride / hydrochloric acid. When the electric current is passed, 99.99% pure gold is gradually deposited at the cathode and this is washed, dried and then melted so as to be poured into bars. With the wet chemical process, which is performed when the gold produced by the Miller process includes Platinum Group Metals, the gold is dissolved using aqua regia (this is a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids). Any silver present forms silver chloride, which is insoluble and therefore precipitates. Most platinum group metals, such as titanium, iridium, ruthenium, tantalum, osmium and rhodium are insoluble in aqua regia - however platinum is not. It can however be separated from gold by virtue of the fact that gold has a lower melting point. Gold can also be precipitated by use of iron (II) chloride. Gold ultimately produced by electrolysis. At the final stage, the gold is melted and poured into molds. The resulting bars are quenched in water and cleaned. A small sample may be taken from the bar for assay purposes. Making Pressed Gold Bars The first Pressed ("Minted") gold bars were made in 1952 and the method is now a popular one for the manufacture of the smaller sizes of gold bar. Pressed gold bars are made from the high purity poured gold bars already described, however several further stages are required for their manufacture. Gold is poured into a continuous casting machine, from which long thin cast bars are made. These bars are then passed through a rolling mill and pressed multiple times to approximately the right thickness. During this process, annealing (softening) of the strips may be required. After this, the strips are passed through a gauging mill, which is a precision machine that will bring the strips to the correct thickness (to within accepted tolerances). Next, blanks are punched from the strips. The blanks are again heated in a furnace in order to soften them and their weight is tested. Any underweight or overweight blanks are recycled, however blanks that are just slightly overweight can be rubbed down. The blanks are then polished and cleaned, and are then struck in a similar manner to coins - with a die above and below. A collar is placed around the blank and the blank is pressed using very high pressure. The design (which has been created mirror image on the die) is transferred to the blank and the pressed gold bar is finished. The bars are inspected and packaged for shipping. Gold Purification - Other Methods Many other methods of purification of gold exist, and may be useful to an individual interested in gold recovery, purification or metallurgy. Here are a few further resources: http://shorinternational.com/subzeroinstr.php - "Refining Gold From Circuit Boards and Electronic Scrap with Muriatic and SubZero (nitric acid Substitute)" Disclaimer - None of the contents of www.coinandbullionpages.com ("this website") are recommendations to buy or sell. While every care was taken in the preparation of this website and its contents, no guarantee is made as to the suitability of this website for any purpose whatsoever, nor of the accuracy, timeliness or usefulness of its information. This website is provided for general information and entertainment purposes only and the information provided on this web site should not be seen as, nor as a substitute for, legal, business or investment advice. The website's owner specifically disclaims any and all liability arising in conjunction with the use of the materials / information herein.

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