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Wednesday (5th December) marked World Soil Day, a celebration of one of the Earth's most valuable assets. However, the day is also an opportunity to highlight soil's importance and the threat it is under from unsustainable use. As soil takes thousands of years to form, it is regarded as a non-renewable resource; however, soils are under threat around the world. Across the world, soil erosion, sealing and degradation are having massive impacts. In the UK alone, the last major study of soil, conducted in 2009, showed 2 million tonnes of topsoil in Britain is being eroded every year. One major problem in Europe is soil sealing – the covering of land with an impermeable material. EU figures show that over 1,000 km⊃2; of land per year, or an area the size of Cyprus every ten years, is lost to soil sealing in the bloc. The International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), a groundbreaking report into agriculture, conducted by over 400 scientists from across the world concluded that 1.9 billion hectares of soil is degraded worldwide. Via David Rowing
Hedgehogs Features and Characteristics They could not see properly which is why they rely on other senses like hearing, touch, and smell. However, hedgehogs are distinguishable by their blunt spines that serve as a protection against potential predators. Hedgehogs often roll up into a tight ball to protect themselves. As they feel threatened, they make their muscles active which indeed cause their spines to grow straight. It is the only mammal native to Britain that has spines. Hedgehogs have relatively short tails but some species have a fairly long tails. The Madagascar hedgehog is one of them for it has a tail which is 1.5 to 2.6 times longer than its body. It is one of the few mammals with longest tails, second only to the pangolin. Hedgehog Facts For Kids Hedgehogs are extremely shy mammals. Like other insectivores, hedgehogs like to live alone as they are highly solitary animals. They have fairly limited social life but they do gather around with the arrival of breeding season in order to raise their offspring. In the breeding season, hedgehogs establish their territories. While adult hedgehogs produce ‘hissing sound’ when they feel threatened the young usually make quacks or whistles. Those animals living in colder climates go into hibernation in the winter season whereas desert-dwellers likely to hibernate in the hot weather. They find some holes or abandoned tunnels in deep forests under branches, leaves, roots, of plants, and stems where they could spend their time. Hedgehogs are largely nocturnal species as they are least likely to come out during the day. During day, they spend a considerable amount of time sleeping in rocks, grounds, or in bush. Hedgehogs fancy eating animal-based diet including reptiles, snails, worms, and ground-nesting birds’ eggs. Sometimes they also feed on green vegetables, plants, fruits, seeds, and nuts. Where do Hedgehogs Live? Hedgehogs prefer moist habitats and because they are terrestrial animals they live either on the ground or under the ground. They make habitats in farmlands, gardens, or even in parks. They live in habitats where ground-dwelling insects and other invertebrates are in large quantity. They are introduced in New Zealand and Australia and not a single hedgehog specie is native to Australia. Although they occupy much of East Africa, hedgehogs predominantly exist in Suburban Nairobi, West Africa, Central Africa, Kenya, Zambia, and Tanzania. The average size of the litter is 3 to 4 babies after a gestation period of 35 – 58 days. The mortality rate is high as the adults sometimes kill their young in their infancy. The newborns are blind at birth. Interesting Hedgehog Facts for Kids How many Species of Hedgehogs are there? There are 17 species of hedgehogs How long do hedgehogs live? In captivity they can live up to 10 years. The lifespan in the wild is 4 to 7 years. They have a home range of 120 yards from the nest. Quills on hedgehogs There are around 6,000 quills on its body. The size of these mammals is almost equal to the tea cup. The head-and-body length measures around 13 – 30 cm (5 – 12 inches), with the weight measuring at 3 – 5 cm (1 – 2 inch). Hedgehogs weigh around 397 to 1,106 grams (14 to 39 oz). These mammals often fall prey to large birds of prey especially European Eagle Owl. They are Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List.
What is Compaction? Soil that remains at the place of formation is called residual soil. It is usually formed from chemical or physical weathering and eventually covers the parent rock. the characteristics of residual soil depends on the that of the parent rock. They are very fertile as they consist of minerals from a variety of transported rocks. Farming, cutting down trees, and the grazing of domesticated animals often either reduce the amount of plant life in an area or compact the soil, making it less permeable. Please forward all your queries at our homework help and assignment help section for proper and timely solution. Soil compaction is a concern for producers and researchers. For producers, soil compaction is an economic issue because it can reduce yield. Additionally, the methods and machines used to appropriately remove or control compaction are costly and, if incorrectly applied, can provide limited or no payback. For researchers, soil compaction is a difficult parameter to quantify, particularly in real time as compaction events occur. An ideal measurement would be one from an inexpensive, easy to position sensor that showed the effect of a compaction event in real time. Our tutors at Transtutors.com are highly qualified and undergo months of training before providing homework help and assignment help. The examination of data from pressure sensors inserted in the soil suggests that residual stress, or the net stress remaining after a vehicle has passed over a sensor, is closely related to the peak stress or peak compaction force, and may be used as an indicator of the compatibility and net compaction of the soil. This could be a simple way to measure and compare compaction between different vehicles and treatments. This paper will discuss two methods of measuring peak and residual stress, compare results from a simple method to results from a more rigorous method, and report the magnitude of the measured residual stresses and their relationship to the peak stresses and the vehicle actions that produce them. One can get adequate help regarding assignments and homework from Transtutors.com Factors Affecting Runoff and Stream Discharge Surface runoff can occur when the rate of precipitation exceeds the permeability rate (or infiltration rate) of Earth's solid surface the pore space of loose material or rock is saturated with water the slope of the surface is too great to allow infiltration to occur the water on the surface has not evaporated or sublimated to a gas Most runoff gets to streams, which often carry the water back to the oceanscompleting a major part of the water cycle. The greater the runoff, the greater the amount of stream discharge in local streams. There is a time lag between times of highest precipitation and greatest stream runoff due to the time it takes the water to get to the streams. Stream discharge is the volume of water flowing past a certain spot in a stream in a specific amount of time, and is expressed in units such as cubic meters/second or liters/minute. Even more such useful points are covered in simple way of learning through which you can have a good command on your stream in Residual Soil Homework and Assignment help at Transtutors.com.
wet equatorial climate, major climate type of the Köppen classification characterized by consistently high temperatures (around 30 °C [86 °F]), with plentiful precipitation (150–1,000 cm [59–394 inches]), heavy cloud cover, and high humidity, with very little annual temperature variation. Wet equatorial regions lie within about 12° latitude of the Equator. The climate type is denoted by the abbreviation Af in the Köppen-Geiger-Pohl system. Wet equatorial regions lie within the influence of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) in all months; the converging, ascending air spawns convectional thunderstorm activity with much of the rainfall occurring in late afternoon or early evening when the atmosphere is most susceptible to thunderstorms. While precipitation is profuse in all months, variations do occur in response to the precise location of the ITCZ—drier months result when the ITCZ moves away from the region in question. Other wet equatorial climate zones are found beyond the usual margins of ITCZ activity—in coastal Madagascar, southeast coastal Brazil, and much of Central America and western Colombia, where trade winds blow onshore all year. In these areas, trade winds encounter coastlines backed by mountain barriers that stimulate the formation of precipitation as warm, moist tropical air is forced to ascend and cool. Some of these regions also may receive precipitation from tropical disturbances, including tropical cyclones.
Compound Words: Pictures In this early childhood compound words worksheet, students examine 5 pairs of pictures and write the compound words represented on the provided lines. 3 Views 9 Downloads Compound Word Addition Sometimes you can add two words together to make one longer word! Practice doing just this with your class with the worksheets and activities included here. The main goal here is to look at an image, name it, and figure out the two words... 2nd - 3rd English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Picture It In Syllables Developing fluency in young readers is a long and difficult journey. This series of eight activities adds a little fun to the process as children play matching and board games, piece together puzzles, and make flip books. Covering a... K - 4th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Joseph Had a Little Overcoat: Flash Card Games Expand the vocabulary of young readers with this series of five activities based the children's book Joseph Had a Little Overcoat by Simms Taback. From playing bingo to group storytelling, a variety of different approaches are presented... 1st - 3rd English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Nature Walk: English Language Development Lessons (Theme 2) Walking in nature is the theme of a unit designed to support English language development lessons. Scholars look, write, speak, and move to explore topics such as camping, woodland animals, instruments, bodies of water, things found at a... 2nd English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
A – B = C. Over time, A has increased. Therefore, C has increased. If the argument seems simplistic, that’s because it is—it’s not very test-like or very challenging. It gives evidence about changes in A and concludes about a change in C; the assumption (the missing piece necessary for the conclusion to be logical) is that B has not also increased. After all, if A went up but B went up as well, who knows what C will turn out to be! But this simple example underlines a pattern that can turn into big points on Critical Reasoning questions. The GMAT testmakers expect students to understand certain common knowledge. And some of that common knowledge takes the form of simple three-part equations just like the one above. For instance: Revenue – Cost = Profit Price * Sales = Revenue Imports – Exports = Trade Deficit Spending – Revenue = Budget Deficit Wage * Time Worked = Total Salary A very common Critical Reasoning argument is to state that, based on evidence of a change of only one of the terms on the left, the term on the right must also change. The assumption, as we just saw, is that a change to the other left-hand term won’t counteract the effects of the first. Keep your eyes peeled for this opportunity to quickly increase your accuracy and timing on the Verbal section. Try to spot the problem in this question of the week! Increasingly, American businesses requiring customer service phone lines have been utilizing overseas companies that can provide these services at extremely reduced rates. Toll-free calls are routed to countries like India, where low-paid workers have been trained to deal with most of the typical problems consumers have with their credit cards, online services, and computer equipment. Since the companies using these overseas call centers are saving so much money, they will undoubtedly show higher profits than companies that do not. Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) There is strong competition among overseas call centers to provide the most comprehensive services at the lowest rates. (B) Consumers opposed to exporting American jobs are willing to pay more for goods and services from companies that don’t engage in this practice. (C) Certain banking services cannot be outsourced, since this would require the release of customer financial data. (D) Because offshore telephone customer service companies provide only these services, they can train their employees more thoroughly than the American companies could. (E) Some American companies send their own employees overseas to train the call center personnel in their particular businesses. Step 1: Identify the Question Type The direct wording in the question stem clearly indicates a weaken question. Step 2: Untangle the Stimulus The conclusion here is that companies employing overseas call centers will be more profitable than companies that do not. The evidence is that these companies save more with overseas call centers than do companies that don’t use them. Step 3: Predict the Answer The argument, however, assumes that all other elements of the businesses will remain the same. As we head to the choices, we should be looking for a fact that creates a problem for these businesses—in other words, something that would interfere with their moneymaking ability once they decide to outsource their customer service operations. Step 4: Evaluate the Choices If, as choice (B) suggests, companies that export jobs lose favor with consumers, who are willing to compensate the companies that don’t export jobs by paying higher prices for their goods and services, it is far less likely that the companies using the overseas call centers will see higher profits. (B) is our answer. (A) would actually strengthen the argument: if offshore call centers are competing with each other to offer the lowest-price services, American companies that use them will save even more money, potentially increasing their profitability. (C) specifies a certain type of business function that cannot be outsourced, which is irrelevant to the argument. (D) is also a strengthener; if the offshore call center employees are better trained, they can provide better customer service, which could contribute to the profitability of the companies that use them. Expect one or two answer choices in a strengthen/weaken question to do the opposite of what you’re looking for. And (E) discusses the personnel who train the call center employees, another topic that is irrelevant to the argument (particularly because the cost of training is not specified). The correct answer is B. Written by Kaplan GMAT Instructor Eli Meyer.
Lessons & Classroom Games for Teachers For most children, it is easy to learn to read faster. Their reading rate is often a matter of habit. But to begin, you may need to help them change some of their existing habits. Here're some tips which you can help your children: Get them to pay attention when they read. Many children read while they are doing other things or they are reading in an environment where there are many distracting activities going on. For example, some children read while the TV is turned on loudly or where there are other children playing around them. Active reading takes effort. Parents can help their children to cultivate good reading habit by having strict rules that they should never do serious reading while doing other activities such as watching TV or playing with their toys. As much as possible, provide them a conducive reading and learning environment where there are minimum distraction. For example, switch off the TV at home or get other kids to play outside the house when your children are doing serious reading. Do a preview of the book together with your child before he starts the actual reading. These often help him pay better attention and get more out of the textbook reading time. A preview usually takes between 1 to 2 minutes, depending on the volume of information. To do a preview you: - scan through the title of each chapter in the content page. - look at all the headings, subheadings and marked, italic or dark print. - look at any pictures or illustrations, charts or graphs. - quickly skim over the passage, reading the first and last paragraph and glancing at the first sentence of every other paragraph. - close the book and ask your child: what is the main idea and what is the author's purpose. By doing the preview, your child will get a good general ideas of the materials. If he has a general idea of what the passage is about before he really read it, he will be able to understand and remember the passage better. For older children, parents should teach them the technique of doing preview so that they can do it by themselves at any time without the help from their parents. Article by Alvin Poh
Lakeville: Session 3 Lakeville ~ The Game INTRODUCTION: Lakeville is the finale of the prior two sessions or it can be presented as a stand-alone if more time is available and at least some background is provided. This game show-style activity provides students an opportunity to learn about the challenges associated with making natural resource management decisions in a local community by giving them a chance to participate in the process, firsthand. Six students are asked to serve as decision makers on a Citizen Advisory Panel and their classmates are asked to represent or advocate for "critters" from a Florida freshwater habitat. While role-playing as nature characters or "critters," students are challenged to publicly advocate for their right to exist in the habitat and those serving on the Citizen Advisory Panel are asked to make resource management decisions by casting their vote at the end of each critter presentation. The fictitious local habitat is populated based on decisions made by the Citizen Advisory Panel. Students match their analytical skills with their new (or existing) knowledge about Florida’s freshwater ecosystems and process it in an activity that is engaging and fun. Props, such as the "Wheel of Focus" and citizen role hats, are icing on the cake. - Why do we need to "manage" plants and animals in our local habitats or ecosystems? - Who makes decisions about our own local ecosystem? - What can we do to be environmental stewards and responsible citizens? - How do political, economic or social concerns affect science or environmental community decisions? SUBJECTS: Science, Social Studies, Language Arts, Mathematics (See NGSSS) GRADE LEVEL: UE, MS, HS CONCEPTS (Science Big Ideas): ecosystem management, civic responsibility, debate (analyzing and communicating), effects of social and economic concerns on society, life cycle reproduction, animal life spans, plant uses and characteristics, nutrient uptake, identification of key-stone species, food web, disturbed areas, alternative energy sources, photosynthesis, oxygen concentrations, sustainability OVERALL TIME ESTIMATES: One 45-minute session LEARNING STYLES: Visual, auditory, kinesthetic VOCABULARY: [Also see keywords chart and definitions] advocate, angler, aquatic plant, brackish, bulbils, cesspool, civic, citizen, commerce, community, developer, ecological significance, ecosystem, economic importance, emersed, endangered species, floating-leaved, habitat, herbivore, homeowner association, invasive, keystone species, local government, mangrove, native, non-native, noxious weed, poached, priority, pros and cons, public hearing, regulation, rhizome, scavenge, school board, spores, stolon, submersed, suburban, turion, terrestrial, tuberous, weed SESSION SUMMARY: Students are provided with information cards to prepare them for their role-playing as a CITIZEN (serving on an Advisory Panel) or a CRITTER Advocate. Six students receive CITIZEN Role Cards, which contain brief statements about their personal priorities for role-playing (e.g., as an angler, farmer, nature lover, etc.). Their classmates are given CRITTER Role Cards, which provide background information about the plant or animal they will advocate for (i.e., native, non-native, or invasive and its ecological and economic value). After a quick analysis, student "critters" take turns advocating for their right to remain in the habitat and the Citizen Advisory Panel take turns deciding on their fate using a numeric voting / scoring system. Classification data about the plants and animals, and decisions made by the panel, are tracked by all students using scorecards at their desk and also with a large format habitat poster (in the front of the room) that is gradually populated with critters that have been allowed to populate the ecosystem. The activity ends with a discussion about (1) the pros and cons of the various native, non-native and invasive components found in a Florida ecosystem; (2) the necessity to make wise management decisions; and (3) the students’ future responsibility as environmental stewards. This game can be played multiple times. Each time, the population of the ecosystem will be different based on who is voting on the Citizen Advisory Panel and how effective each "critter" is at advocating for its right to stay in the habitat. STUDENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Students will be able to... - Explain the importance of different plants and animals inhabiting a freshwater ecosystem. - Identify ecosystem decision makers. - Explain how political, economical or social concerns may affect science or environmental community decisions that should be based on science. - Identify ways that we can be environmental stewards, responsible citizens. ESSENTIAL MATERIALS: See Essential Materials section below SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS: See Supplemental Materials section below PRE-SESSION RESEARCH (IMPORTANT) See Background Information for Session 1 and in this Teacher Guide. CLASS ROOM SET UP - Display large format freshwater habitat scene and scoreboard - Display Critter icons: print & tape to the board or borrow critter magnets (contact: [email protected]) - Arrange 6 chairs in front of the room for the CITIZEN ADVISORY PANEL or put 1-2 long tables side-by-side. Optional: tablecloths, cardholders, Citizen Panel costumes/props) - Podium for CRITTER advocate (plant/animal speaker) or stand at desk. Optional: portable microphone. - Set up hat or basket with critter names or photos for students to select critter for each round OR (optional) set up WHEEL OF FOCUS in front of the classroom with critter wedges. - Set up CD player with CD of the 5 management songs (optional) PROCEDURE AND DISCUSSION: OVERVIEW (for the teacher) - Six students are selected to serve on the Citizen Advisory panel. This can be done on a volunteer basis or assigned by the teacher. These students will then randomly select a citizen role by drawing the role name from a hat or basket. Once the Citizen Advisory Panel is selected and assembled at the front of the class, each panel member will read her/his identity aloud and then display the card in front of them. They can start with "Hello, my name is __________...." and then say what their priorities are as a local Citizen. - All other students will play "nature characters" and are given a Critter Card, which contains illustrations and information about a specific plant or animal commonly found in or near a Florida freshwater habitat. Students will use this information as background knowledge for their role-playing. If selected (i.e., by the Wheel of Focus), she/he will be asked to "advocate" for their critter in front of the Citizen Advisory Panel. Their job is to analyze the information from their Critter Card and/or their own knowledge, and use essential facts they think are important enough to influence decisions of the Advisory Panel. Recommended that students work in pairs or teams. - Data Score Sheets and Citizen and Critter Analysis Worksheets are distributed to the entire class so everyone can keep track of how the habitat will be populated based on decisions of the Advisory Panel. The Data Score Sheets can be used later for discussion or data analysis and the Citizen/Critter Analysis Worksheets can be used to review priorities from role playing. - Teacher may choose teams to advocate for a specific critter or… OPTIONAL: The Wheel of Focus (i.e. adapted from a prize wheel) is used to randomly select the specific critters that will speak at the meeting, one at a time. A student can be assigned to Wheel of Focus duty or the teacher might want to. - The Citizen Advisory Panel listens to the critter advocate for its right to stay in the habitat (for 3 minutes) and may respond with questions. Based on the information provided by the critter and/or their own knowledge, members of the Citizen Advisory Panel vote using the scorecards provided. The score they choose (ranging from 1-10) reflects whether the critter should be removed, managed to keep at a minimum population, protected, or promoted. For example: A score of 1 is the lowest and earns a "seek and destroy" rating; a score of 10 means they want to restore or promote this critter within the habitat. - Individual panel member scores are then added for a total score that is used to determine the chosen "Management Plan." A student "critter" representative places 1-5 critters in habitat, based on the total score. \|VALUE Range\|\|Management Plan (and song)\|\|Critter Population\| \|Seek and destroy/ PROHIBIT Keep It Under Control! Conservation: Let it Grow \|Place 1 critter icon in habitat Place 2 critter icons in habitat Place 3 critter icons in habitat Place 4 critter icons in habitat Place 5 critter icons in habitat OVERVIEW (for the class) INTRODUCE ACTIVITY TO THE CLASS ~ Why does this matter? [time est: 5-10 minutes] - Start by asking how many students have ever pulled a weed in their yard or a community garden? Have they ever planted anything? Inform students that these actions make them a land manager—they are making conscious decisions about the management of the land around them. Discuss the types of decisions their parents make about their yard and/or neighborhood. - Discuss the concept of ecosystems. Are they part of an ecosystem? Talk about the types of decisions made every day about their local ecosystem and/or natural areas such as county, state and federal parks. Discuss the reasons why land is managed. Revisit information learned from the Silent Invaders presentation (i.e., impacts of invasive plants). - Explain: The class is about to make decisions about plant and wildlife management in a Florida freshwater ecosystem by role-playing in a Public Hearing. We are here to decide how a particular natural area will be managed; it includes a lake, meadow and a forest that are used and enjoyed by the community. [Show habitat poster] Be sure to ask: why is this important? Why do they imagine that anything about plants, animals and a local lake might be worth our consideration? Write the answers on the board or large format notepad on easel, if possible. Discuss: These types of meetings take place all of the time. How many students have been to a City / County Commission meeting or a Home Owner Association Meeting? The following steps are suggestions of how to play this game. Of course, class time and teaching styles will result in it being done differently almost every time; do what works best for you and your students. - Set up the Citizen Advisory Panel and Critter teams: Begin by identifying six students who will role-play as citizens on the Citizen Advisory Panel. Then organize the rest of the class into teams of 2-3 students (each team will represent a different critter—plant or animal). Ideally, the Citizen Advisory Panel will be asked to sit at a table at the front of the classroom and critter teams will sit together in the classroom, so they can discuss strategy, etc. - Distribute print materials to the Citizen Advisory Panel and Critter teams as follows: - CITIZENs should receive a complete set of scorecards (8.5" x 11" sheets with numbers, ranging from 1-10) and also their respective Citizen Role Card, based on the role they have been assigned or selected for. Note: The role cards provide specific character traits for them to students or they can develop their own personality or character traits. - CRITTER teams (or individuals) should receive a Critter Role Card. Each card contains important information about the critter: is it aquatic or terrestrial? native, non-native or invasive, life history, economic and ecological value, etc. - ALL STUDENTS should receive: - Citizen and Critter Analysis Worksheets to use for analyzing their role as a citizen and/or critter and to make notes - Data Score Sheets to keep track of votes/decisions made by the Citizen Panel - Designate an official score keeper and someone to spin the pull critter names out of a hat or (optional) spin the Wheel of Focus for each round. (See "Overview – for the teacher") - Give students time to read their respective Citizen and/or Critter Role Cards and makes notes about the role they will play. Each student should be able to analyze the information they are provided and identify their own priorities (what is important to their survival and quality of life in that environment), based on the role they are playing as a citizen or a critter. - Begin with this discussion: "This community meeting is scheduled to last for ____ minutes (length of time remaining in class), so we may not have time to hear from every critter today. The Wheel of Focus will tell us which critters get their cases made today, and in what order. But don’t worry – there may be other meetings, and other chances to advocate. In reality, these meetings sometimes last for hours and the public hearing process can last weeks, months—even years! Our classroom version is condensed. - Review the scoring procedure: Revisit who the management decision makers (Citizen Panel) are and their priorities. Ask Panel to show their scorecards. After each critter advocate speaks, the panel will vote on how important they think that creature is for the habitat. If they think it’s VERY important, they might give it a score of 10 — the top score. If they’d really rather not have it around, they might give it a score of 1. In other words: A score of 10 to promote it; 1 to "mow it." - Ready to Go! It’s time for a student to draw a critter name from a hat or spin the WHEEL… OF…FOCUS!! Once a critter is selected, that student (or team) is asked to stand at their desk or come to the podium and make their case by presenting at least one attribute (but no more than three) that should be considered for keeping the critter in the habitat. - Critter Presentation: [IMPORTANT] Before a student shares her/his presentation, she/he MUST clarify the following (1) is the critter aquatic or terrestrial? (2) native, non-native or invasive? When the Critter advocate is finished presenting, each panel member is invited to ask one question. Be sure to limit it to a few questions and watch the time. [IMPORTANT] Questions should be relevant to their priorities as a Citizen (and not silly questions). - Time to Vote! Based on the presentation, Citizen Advisory Panel members vote with their scorecards. A total score is calculated and a management plan is determined based on the total score. The class records these scores and other relevant data on the data score sheets at their desk. The critter (student) then comes to the front of the room to place the appropriate number of critter icons (image or magnet) in the large format habitat poster. The number of critters placed in the habitat corresponds to the management level attained (Level 1 = 1 icon, level 2 = 2 icons, etc). They should be placed in the appropriate place within the habitat. For example, a gopher tortoise should not be placed in the water. Note: Playing the theme song for each management plan is optional. Also, if available, classmates can populate the habitat scene at their desks using the DIY magnetic game sets. - Repeat until every critter has had a chance to present or until the class session is about to end. When class time is nearly up, the teacher announces the final round and the final critter presents and places its icon(s) in the habitat after the Panel votes. Note: Teachers recommend working with 12 critters to assure that every student has a chance to participate in the time allotted. - Wrap it up! While looking at the Habitat poster in the front of the class... - Count how many critters are native; how many are non-native; how many invasive? - Notice how the different priorities of the Citizen Panel influenced the decisions about which critters are found in the habitat. Ask the students: "How did this activity help you understand the complexities of making management decisions about our natural resources?" [Ask for specific examples.] - Finally, discuss what students can do to become environmental stewards as adults? - Teaching Points about native, non-native and invasive plants, available in the Resource section of our website: http://www.plants.ufl.edu/education - The National Invasive Species Council published an official "White Paper" with clear and concise definitions of the terms "non-native" and "invasive" species, along with many examples of the damage being done by invasive species. See "ISAC Definitions White Paper" at http://www.invasivespecies.gov/ - Additional information about invasive plants in aquatic ecosystems: http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/manage - For Objective #1, #2, #3 — Discuss results of Citizen and Critter Analysis Worksheets and Data Score Sheets. - For Objectives # 3 and #4 — Ask students to answer the following questions either in discussion form or written form to be collected with the Data Score Sheets. - Identify people in your school or community that make decisions about the environment and explain the processes they use to make decisions. - Identify opportunities you have to make your opinion heard about local environmental issues. - Evaluate presentations/role-playing exhibited by students. Students read "Weed Alert" and create a five-line jingle or Public Service Announcement http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/invasive-plants/weed-alerts In your pond, if you grew Flowers of lavender blue, They double in size in two weeks. If you’re not careful, They will clog the creeks. - Images and information about plants in Florida: http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu - Understanding Invasive Aquatic Plants (Florida Edition) Activity Book (PDF): Available in the Resource section of our website: http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/education - Aquatic Plants: Underwater Forests of Lakes and Rivers (PDF) Available in the Resource section of our website: http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/education available from UF/IFAS CAIP via DVD or the web http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/education \|Do It Yourself Ideas - See DIY Resources on DVD.\| \|12 Citizen Role cards Single \| 4 Per Page Cards provide brief descriptions and priority statements for role-playing on the Citizen Advisory Panel. [Printed on both sides; image on front/text on back, 8.5" x 11"] Citizen Roles: angler, boater, developer, farmer, lake resource manager, politician, nature lover, manufacturer, ski club president, restaurant owner, retiree, wild card (student decides) \|Students role-play from their own experience and knowledge\| \|30 Critter Role CardsSingle \| 3 Per Page [Info & attributes for 30 different plants and animals; teachers and/or students choose a number of critters to work with depending on time available, 8.5" x 11"] \|Available on Lakeville DVD or website Create your own from blank template \|30 Critter icons to be used in a habitat scene Single \| 6 Per Page \|This can be as simple or as involved as you like. All of the files are on DVD or online or students can make their own. Single \| 10 Per Page To be used by Citizen Advisory Panel members Each set contains 10 cards (8.5"x11"), numbered 1-10. Total classroom set = 60 printed scorecards (6 x 10 cards per set) \|6 small dry erase boards or notebook paper to write score (from 1 to 10) and students hold-up for class to see\| \|Data Score Sheet\| \|Citizen Role and Critter Role Analysis Worksheets\| \|Large Format Freshwater Habitat Scene Display poster (44" x 26") or project via ELMO Color PDF \| B/W PDF \|Print out large format copy of the habitat and draw critters on the habitat or post a FL freshwater scene on the board. Include water (a pond or lake), trees, an open field next to the water, buildings, boats, etc. IMPORTANT: If printing, use thin paper. Lamination or thick paper causes magnets not to stick.\| for assistance with these items, contact [email protected] \|Do It Yourself Ideas - See DIY Resources on DVD.\| \|Large writing tablet on easel Or access to chalkboard or smart board \|Wheel of Focus (Prize Wheel) Available on loan or with school demonstration provided by UF/IFAS CAIP. Example Image \| Individual Wedges (PDF) \|Teacher chooses each student (critter) at random or by pulling names out of a hat or students create small hand-held “Wheel of Focus." For instructions: http://www.ehow.com/how_10040902_make-board-game-spinners-school.html Table-top prize wheels available: http://prizewheel.com/products/tabletop-prize-wheels/ \|5 Management songs to play or sing while students place critters in habitat Available on DVD and website (MP3 Files) Song 1 \| Song 2 \| Song 3 \| Song 4 \| Song 5 \|Students make up their own chant (i.e., One and Done, Four You Score...Five Survive, etc.)\| \|Table-Top Magnetic Game Sets (Not available through CAIP, DIY only) To be used one set per/2 students at desk or for learning stations \|Print small format habitat and print icons onto printable magnetic paper and cut out. Use a tin or steel cookie sheet that magnets will stick to (aluminum doesn’t work).\| \|6 document holders for displaying Citizen Role Cards (in front of each advisory panel member) \|Students hold the cards themselves\| \|Hat or bowl... For randomly selecting students to serve on Citizen Advisory Panel \|Ask 6 students to volunteer or choose them\| \|Costumes/Props for the Citizen Advisory Panel Suggestions: straw hat for farmer, sunglasses for angler, luau flowers for retirees, etc. \|Affordable sets of hats, sunglasses, bandanas, and other costume/prop ideas at www.orientaltrading.com OR have students bring in props\| 1) Magnifying glasses (provided by UF/IFAS CAIP) 2) Pencils (provided by UF/IFAS CAIP) \|Smarties candy --Thank you for being a smarty & learning something about natural resource management LifeSavers candy -Thank you for being a lifesaver for the environment! \|3" x 4" sticky notes To place on critter cards (to record pros and cons) \|Make your own\|
sun. The center of our solar system. It gives off heat, light, and . The sun is actually a ball of glowing gases. It is hotter than anything we can imagine. It is so hot that we can feel its heat even though we are 93 million miles away could look inside the sun, you would see four different layers: the core, the radiative zone, the convective zone, and the core is the center of the sun. Nuclear reactions take place here, producing energy. radiative zone is the second inside layer. Energy travels from the core outward to this layer in the form convective zone is the third layer. Huge waves of energy swirl around here, carrying the heat outward. photosphere is the outside layer of the sun. This is the visible layer, where light is emitted. sun produces heat, light, and radiation through the process of fusion. Fusion occurs when a substance is so hot that atoms gain and lose particles, actually changing from one type of to another. The sun converts to helium in a three-step process. hydrogen atoms combine. This forms deuterium, also called joins with another hydrogen atom. This forms a type of helium helium-3 atoms collide, producing ordinary helium and two is released at every step. The energy comes in the form of tremendous heat, radiation that can kill us, and light that we need to survive. Sun's Role in Life sun not only produces light, but it allows most other types of energy to exist. Certainly life on earth wouldn't exist without the sun. For example, the sun allows plants to make food in a process called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis allows for almost all other living organism to survive. Think about a food chain. A small plant takes the sun's light (energy) and produces food. The plant is eaten by a tiny little shrimp. The shrimp is eaten by a fish. The fish is eaten by you. If the sun died, the food chain would collapse. No plant. No shrimp. No fish. No you. sun also is the source for many other types of energy. For example, wind energy requires the sun. The sun heats up air in our atmosphere. The hot air rises. Cool air moves in, and the air moves around as wind. Or take biomass energy. The light from the sun grows the plants (trees, corn, sugarcane) that we use for energy. Or how about solar energy? The sun's light shines on panels that convert light to electricity. Fossil fuels? The sun created those too. Sunlight grew those plants and animals that became oil, coal, and natural gas. sun is about 5 billion years old. It is nearly half way through its life. Five billion years from now the sun will run out of hydrogen gas. When that happens the sun will grow about one hundred times bigger than it is right now. And then it will start to become a white dwarf. Our sun will become a glowing hot ember, about the size of Earth. It will eventually
Computer Network Toplogies A Network Topology is the way computer systems or network equipment connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network. Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts (computer or switches or routers or servers) connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the other end and vice-versa. If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they are connected directly. In contrast to point-to-point, in bus topology all device share single communication line or cable. All devices are connected to this shared line. Bus topology may have problem while more than one hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, the bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host has Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the others. But failure of the shared communication line make all other devices fail. Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line. All hosts in star topology are connected to a central device, known as Hub device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and Hub. The hub device can be Layer-1 device (Hub / repeater) or Layer-2 device (Switch / Bridge) or Layer-3 device (Router / Gateway). As in bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication happens between hosts, goes through Hub only. Star topology is not expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required and configuration is simple. In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing structure administrator may need only one more extra cable. Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus every connection in the ring is point of failure. There exists methods which employs one more backup ring. In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or two or more than two hosts. This topology may have hosts having point-to-point connection to every other hosts or may also have hosts which are having point to point connection to few hosts only. Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-point links. Mesh technology comes into two flavors: - Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 cables (connection) are required. It provides the most reliable network structure among all network topologies. - Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to provide reliability to some host whereas others are not as such necessary. Also known as Hierarchical Topology is the most common form of network topology in use present day. This topology imitates as extended Star Topology and inherits properties of Bus topology. This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowest most is access-layer where user’s computer are attached. The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer and lower layer. The highest most layer is known as Core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork. All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them. Like bus topology, if the root goes down, the entire network suffers. Though it is not the single point of failure. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network into unreachable segment and so on. This topology connects all its hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology, all hosts in this topology are connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts. That is if the end hosts in Daisy Chain are connected then it represents Ring topology. Each link in Daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every link failure splits the network into two segment. Every intermediate host works as relay for its immediate hosts. A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be Hybrid Topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies. The above picture represents an arbitrarily Hybrid topology. The combining topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of dual Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology
The religious history of Europe was was particularly complex before Christianity firmly established itself, a process which was ongoing until relatively recent times in some areas. Before the spread of Christianity, each country had its own indigenous religious traditions, sometimes maintained in isolation but in more accessible regions absorbing influences introduced by trading and successive waves of invasion. The 1st millennium BCE saw the expansion of the Celtic peoples throughout Europe, reaching as far north as Britain by 450 BCE to be followed by incursions by pre-Christian Germanic tribes such as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, during the first millennium CE. In 55 CE the Romans invaded Britain, pushing the Celts to the Western fringe of Europe (Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Cornwall, Brittany). The Roman Empire spread pre-Christian religions such as Mithraism and the Imperial cult throughout Europe, before also facilitating the spread of Christianity. \| Apart from the invasions of various European tribes into each others' territories, incursions came from the Middle East. Jewish communities in Egypt were Hellenized under Alexander the Great in the 4th Century BCE, Greek replacing Aramaic as their language, and some Jews formed communities in Greece. Judea became a vassal of the Roman Empire in 63 BCE, and with the growth of the Empire, the Jewish people spread throughout Europe. However, due to the nature of Judaism as a religion based on matriarchal lineage, it remained peculiar to the close knit Jewish communities and thus its religious influence upon other European peoples was limited. The Jewish mystical tradition of the Kabbalah was developed by Jews in Spain, and written down in the 13thcentury, and after the expulsion of Jews from Spain it became known to the rest of Europe, producing a school of Christian Kabbalists, and influencing many peoples up to the present day. But perhaps the main spread of Judaic ideas in Europe came through its two offshoots, Christianity and Islam. Since Christianity had its origins in Judea when it was under Roman occupation, its message was easily spread throughout the Empire, the Acts of the Apostles recording the first missionary journeys after the death of Christ, some of which were to Greece and Rome. Though there was initially some resistance to the new religion, once Christianity became established it rapidly spread throughout Europe as missionaries made it their goal to convert everyone to the religion of Christ. It was not until the 7th century, however, that Christianity had much success in Northern Europe when missions from Ireland Christianised much of Britain and Northern Europe; but the occupying Saxons resisted until they were converted at swordpoint in 804 CE. Even at this time, Christianity was not secure in North West Europe, for the Norwegian and Danish Vikings, who were not Christianised until the 11th century, were raiding and settling areas of Britain, France, Germany, and the Netherlands in the 8th-10th centuries CE. Islam began in Mecca in about 610 CE, and by 634 the Muslims had defeated the Byzantine army and conquered Syria and Palestine in 637. Egypt fell soon after, and the first Muslim incursions into Europe began with the invasions of Spain in 711 and the establishment of an independent Muslim state there in 750. The Muslim armies reached France, but were driven back to the Pyrenees, though they retained their hold on Spain until Christian military pressure finally forced the last Sultan of Granada to surrender in 1492. The long years of religious Crusades between Christians and Muslims led to a greater knowledge of Islam and the re-introduction of knowledge and literature lost to Europe in the Dark Ages but kept secretly in the Muslim areas. The Ottoman Empire of the 15th/16th centuries included much of South-Eastern Europe, and led to Muslim contact with European states of a military, diplomatic and commercial nature. However, it has been largely in modern times, since the end of the Second World War, that Islam has had a deeper influence on European religious life, with some westerners converting to Islam and a large number of Muslims emigrating and settling in Europe. The colonisation of India in the 18th century led to the first extensive encounters of Eastern religions by Europeans. The Parsis played an important role in the British development of Bombay as a commercial centre in the early 19th century, and many of them became westernised, receiving a British education; three Parsis living in London were elected to represent their constituencies in the House of Commons. Hinduism and Buddhism were especially appealing to Madame Blavatsky and her Theosophical Society, which introduced these religions into the European religious context in the late 19th/early 20th century. The Buddhist Society of England was formed at the beginning of the 20th century, and the west has become increasingly interested in Eastern religions throughout the present century. The mid 20th century saw the spread of Sikhism outside its Punjab homeland, especially after the second world war when many Sikh men made their way to Britain, being joined by their wives and families in the late 1960s, the Sikh Missionary Society being founded in Britain in 1969. The 1960s also saw a growth in interest in Eastern religions such as Taoism and Shinto. A contemporary organisation of the Theosophical Society , The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, a magical order founded in Great Britain in 1888, brought together influences from Freemasonry, the Jewish Kabbalah, ceremonial magic modernised from the Renaissance, and the latest archaeological research concerning religion in Egypt, Greece and Rome, as well as customs and folklore native to the British Isles. This was the first introduction of Classical Mediterranean religions as practical traditions into modern day Europe. Many of the religious traditions of the Celts, Scandinavians and Germanic tribes were also revived in the course of the late 19th/20th century, based on historical and archaeological findings plus intuitive insight and imagination to fill the gaps in factual knowledge. Though the classical religions of the Mediterranean - Egypt, Greece and Rome - had been well documented, with written records from ancient times and temples being self-evident, this was not the case in Northern Europe; written documentation is rare and places of worship seem to have been in natural surroundings rather than buildings. Nevertheless, enough material came to light through research and archaeology to enable the pre-Christian religions of Europe to be successfully revived in a modern context, such that, as revived religious traditions, they now attract increasing numbers of adherents. A tradition of witchcraft seems to have existed in Europe in the form of village healers, 'Wise Women' and 'Cunning Men' since the Middle Ages, and there is some evidence of Traditional and Hereditary forms of the Craft also existing before modern Wicca. However, it was not until the 1950s that modern Wicca was introduced by Gerald Gardner, a Freemason, Druid and folklorist. In 1971, the need for an official body to represent the views of the growing number of Pagans in Britain was recognised, and The Pagan Federation was founded. Though in its early days the Federation was composed mainly of Wiccans and published a quarterly journal called The Wiccan, today it is made up of Pagans of many traditions, including Druids, Odinists, Ecopagans, non-aligned Pagans, ceremonial magicians, neo-shamans, as well as Wiccans of many persuasions. The 1960s counter culture saw the emergence of the New Age religions and practices in the USA, which quickly spread to Britain and which are so prevalent in Europe today. This decade also saw an upsurge in feminism and a resulting quest for spirituality for women. 'Goddess Spirituality', again beginning in the USA but finding its way to Britain and Europe with great speed and becoming an important part of alternative religious traditions in Europe. The 1980s saw the emergence of the Germanic religions (Odinism, Asatru) in a more organised form, although Asatru has been an official religion of Iceland, along with Christianity, since 1973. Traditional Baltic pre-Christian religions have only recently found widespread popularity, after the downfall of Soviet control; but Scandinavia and the Balkans were Christianised very late compared to the rest of Europe (Scandinavia in the 11th century, Poland in 966, Hungary 1001, and Lithuania in 1387) and so their indigenous religions have lain close to the surface of the culture of these countries and were able to emerge and flower in the 1990s. Shamanism likewise has survived in many different forms in Europe throughout history in tribal religions, but it was only recently that anthropological and historical research enabled modern Western Europeans to glean enough information to allow neo-shamanism to emerge as a form of spiritual ecology in the 1980s. Barraclough, Geoffrey (ed.) The Times Atlas of World History London : Times Books Ltd. 1988 Bennett, Martyn The Illustrated History of Britain Hereford : Robert Ditchfield Ltd. 1991 Beth, Rae Hedge Witch: A Guide to Solitary Witchcraft London : Hale 1992 Carr-Gomm, Philip The Druid Way Dorset : Element Books Ltd. 1993 Crowley, Vivianne Wicca - The Old Religion in the New Millennium London : Thorsons 1996; Phoenix from the Flame: Pagan Spirituality in the Western World London : Aquarian Press 1994; Principles of Paganism London : Thorsons 1996 Drury, Neville The Elements of Shamanism Dorset : Element Books Ltd. 1989 Gardner, Gerald Witchcraft Today London : Rider 1954; The Meaning of Witchcraft London : Aquarian Press 1959 Gilbert, R.A. The Golden Dawn : Twilight of the Magicians London : Aquarian Press 1983 Godwin, Joscelyn The Theosophical Enlightenment New York : SUNY 1994 Green, Marion A Witch Alone: Thirteen Moons to Master Natural Magic London : Aquarian Press 1991 Guiley, Rosemary Ellen The Encyclopedia of Witches and Witchcraft 1989 Harner, Michael The Way of the Shaman 10th anniversary edition New York : Harper and Row 1990 Harvey, Graham & Hardman, Charlotte Paganism Today London : Thorsons 1995 Hope, Murray Practical Celtic Magic London : Aquarian Press 1987; Practical Greek Magic London : Aquarian Press 1985; Practical Egyptian Magic London : Aquarian Press 1984 Howe, Ellic The Magicians of the Golden Dawn London : Routledge and Kegan Paul 1972 Hutton, Ronald The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles - Their Nature and Legacy Oxford : Blackwell 1991 Jones, Prudence & Pennick, Nigel A History of Pagan Europe London : Routledge 1995 Kemp, Anthony Witchcraft and Paganism Today London : Michael O'Mara Books Ltd. 1993 King, Francis Modern Ritual Magic: The Rise of Western Occultism Dorset : Prism Press 1989 Murray, Margaret The Witch-Cult in Western Europe Oxford : Oxford University Press 1921 Nichols, Ross The Book of Druidry London : Aquarian Press 1975 Odinshof Information Pack Pagan Federation, The Witchcraft Information Pack London : The Pagan Federation 1992; Information Pack 2nd edition London : The Pagan Federation 1992 Robertson, Olivia The Call of Isis London : Neptune Press 1975 Shallcrass, Philip (ed.) A Druid Directory 1995: A Guide to Modern Druidry and Druid Orders East Sussex : The British Druid Order 1995 Starhawk Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Goddess 10th anniversary edition New York : Harper Collins 1989 Talking Stick Magical Directory: The Pagan, Occult and Esoteric Organisations in Great Britain London : Talking Stick 1994 Time-Life Books Witches and Witchcraft (Mysteries of the Unknown) Amsterdam : Time-Life Books 1990 Valiente, Doreen & Jones, Evan Witchcraft: A Tradition Renewed Washington : Phoenix Publishing Inc. 1990 Valiente, Doreen The Rebirth of Witchcraft Washington : Phoenix Publishing Inc. 1989 1 Philip Shallcrass, Chief, British Druid Order 2 Cecil Williamson, proprietor of the witchcraft museum in Boscastle, Cornwall, England, suggested this figure in the 1950s
CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA Classification of bacteria on basis of their basic cell shapes Cocci: Unicellular, spherical or elliptical shape. - Monococcus: A single discrete round shape. Eg: Micrococcus flavus - Diplococcus: Two spherical shaped bacteria attached with each other. Eg: Diplococcus pneumonia. - Streptococcus: A chain of spherical bacteria attached with each other. Eg: Streptococcus pyogenes. - Tetracoccus: Four round cells right angle to each other. Eg: Staphylococcus aureus. - Sarcina: Eight or sixteen cells attached with each other in a cubic shape. Eg: Sarcina lutea Bacilli: Rod shaped or cylindrical shaped bacteria may be present single or in pairs. Eg: Bacillus cereus. Vibrio: Curved comma shaped bacteria. Eg: Vibrio cholera. Spirilla: Bacteria present in spiral or spring like shape with multiple curvatures. Eg: Spirillum volutans. (The image is taken from Black JG. Microbiology: principles and explorations for education purpose only) On the basis of growth characteristics - On the basis of the requirement of oxygen for growth by microorganism [click here] - On the basis of optimum temperature required by bacteria for proper growth [click here] - On the basis of pH required for bacteria to grow properly [click here] - On the basis of hydrostatic pressure required by bacteria for growth [click here] - On the basis of osmotic pressure required by bacteria for its growth [click here] On the basis of mode of nutrition - Phototrophs: These bacteria gain energy from sunlight. They may get electrons from inorganic compounds (photolithotrophs), for eg.: Chromatium okenii, or may get electrons from organic compound (Photoorganotrophs). - Chemotroph: These bacteria cannot carry photosynthesis and gains energy from chemical compounds. They can be further classified as chemolithotrophs (Nitrosomonas) and chemoorganotrophs (Pseudomonas pseudoflava) - Autotrophs: These bacteria uses carbon dioxide as the source of carbon. They can be photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs. - Heterotrophs: Bacteria which cannot fix carbon dioxide and thus, uses other organic sources for food. Most of the human pathogens falls under this category. On the basis of cell wall - Gram-positive bacteria: Bacteria having thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell wall. - Gram-negative bacteria: Bacteria having thin layer of peptidoglycan in their cell wall. - Acid fast bacteria: They have high lipid contains in their cell wall. General characteristic of bacteria Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organisms. Most of the species of bacteria are highly pathogenic in nature and causes human and animal diseases. They have a rigid cell wall, a cell membrane, nuclear region and 70S type of ribosomes. (click here for detailed information) Structure of Bacterial Ribosome Bacterial Cell Nuceloid Structure & Function Bacterial Cell Capsule Structure & Function Bacterial Cell Flagella Structure & Function Bacterial Cell Pili Structure Q.1. Micrococcus flavus is an example of? a) Monococcus bacteria b) Diplococcus bacteria c) Streptococcus bacteria d) Tetracoccus bacteria Q.2. Rod shaped bacteria are known as? Q.3. Bacteria which gain energy from sunlight and get electrons from inorganic compounds are known as? Q.4. Gram negative bacteria have? a) Thick layer of peptidoglycan in cell wall b) Thin layer of peptidoglycan in cell wall c) High lipid contain in the cell wall d) None of the above Q.5. Bacteria have which type of ribosomes in their nuclear region? Q.6. Which of the following bacteria are the phototrophs? I. Chromatium okenii III. Pseudomonas pseudoflava a) I, III b) I, II d) II, III Q.7. Match the following bacteria with their correct classification: \|i. Staphylococcus aureus\|\|A. Monococcus\| \|ii. Spirillum volutans\|\|B. Tetracoccus\| \|iii. Micrococcus flavus\|\|C. Vibrio\| \|iv. Vibrio cholera\|\|D. Spirilla\| a) i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B b) i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B c) i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C d) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C Black JG. Microbiology: principles and explorations.
While making all the projects, I’ve been using a lot of different Opamp circuits and actually the basic concept of the circuits used, is often the “same”. In this article I will point out the most important Opamp circuits used in combination with active sensors. These active sensors, like for example the acceleration sensor, produce a tiny DC-voltage change, which has to be amplified and tweaked. The word “Opamp” is an abbreviation of ‘Operational Amplifier’ and is an ideal building block in electronics. There are 3 fundamental properties: 1. It has a very high input impedance (resistance): so it doesn’t take any current into it’s input. 2. It has a very low output impedance; so it can deliver a relative strong output current. 3. The amplification (Au) is very, very high. In the circuits below, the power supply of the Opamps is not drawn. If you make use of an opamp, you will always need a power supply to ‘feed’ the opamp. Most of the times, especially in audio world, the opamp needs a balanced power supply, meaning +voltage, ground and -voltage. When I work with sensors, I do use Opamps that also work with a single power supply (+voltage and ground). For example: LM358, TLC274, LM324. For more information about the opamp itself, checkout the wikipedia or equivalent websites. Follower or Buffer circuit: This circuit is used to ‘buffer’ the output of a sensor. Often the sensor is placed far from the actual sensor interface, so long wires have to be connected to it. To avoid loss of the signal (the output of the sensor is not always capable of generating enough current), this circuit can be applied. The output of the sensor is connected to the positive input of the opamp. Because of the feedback from the output to the negative input, the Au (amplification) is 0dB, or 1x. The output signal is not amplified, but just ‘follows’ the input. The opamp is capable of driving more current and a somehow longer cable will not be a problem. The sensor just has to deliver it’s tiny current (almost zero!) to the input of the opamp. The graph on the right shows the input- and output signal of the follower-circuit. Both the amplitude and the phase of the signals are the same. Note the blue and red line. They represent the power supply lines which are connected to the opamp and thus representing the maximum Vtt (voltage top-top) the opamp can generate. The non inverting amplifier has an amplification which is always more than 1x (>0dB). The proportion between the both resistors Rf (R feedback) and R1 determines the amount of amplification. The output of the sensor is connected to the positive input of the opamp. In formula: (Uout/Uin) = Au = (1+ Rf/R1) The graph on the right shows the in- and output signal. The amplitude of the input signal is amplified. Note the distorted signal on the right! If the amplification (proportion of the both resistors) is higher than the maximum output swing of the opamp (Vtt), the signal will ‘clip’ and the shape of the signal will change (be distorted). The amplification (Au) with the inverting amplifier only depends of the proportion between Rf (R feedback) and R1. The output is 180 degrees out of phase with the input; it’s negative. This circuit is also known as the summation amplifier. In formula: (Uout/Uin) = Au = – (Rf/R1) The graph show the output signal inverted, it is 180degrees out of phase with its input. Also here, too much amplification can cause distortion. Non inverting amplifier with offset adjustment A lot of sensors do generate a little DC-voltage change, but do have some DC-offset on the output. With the ADXL202 chip for example, the filtered output is “DC-change” (=AC) in reference to 2.5V. When the sensor is tilted to one side, the output will be 2V and tilted to the other side 3V. This means a maximum change of 1V. It would be better to have the output swing a big as possible – a higher resolution. In the circuit above, the amplification will be around 2,5 -3 times (around 10dB). With the potentiometer connected between the plus and minus power, the output DC-offset can be adjusted to zero. In the picture on the right a graphical representation
Homo Ludens is a text frequently cited yet less often read with respect to games and culture. Establishing the concept of the ‘magic circle’, many subsequent studies of games use this work of historical analysis to convey authority and gravitas to the field, and Huizinga’s key message is still a compelling one: that to play is necessary to human life and culture. This post will shortly be available as a video on the Seriously Learned Youtube channel, meanwhile you can hear Laura talking about Huizinga on BBC Radio 3 here. Who was Johan Huizinga? Johan Huizinga was a linguist and historian based at Leiden University when he wrote Homo Ludens in the 1930s. He was particularly interested in the behaviours of courtly life in the medieval, renaissance and late baroque periods, and noted their tendency towards play. However, in scholarly circles in the Netherlands he was a controversial figure and branded a detached recluse for concentrating on telling tales of a beautiful and idealised past, rather than addressing the contemporary dangers of Fascism and Nazism. Nonetheless, anti-Nazi actions he had taken in the 1930s and later criticism of the occupation of the Netherlands had him detained in 1942 and he was subsequently refused permission to return to Leiden. He died in 1945. Colie (1964) was instrumental in foregrounding Huizinga’s contribution to English-speaking scholars in the post-war period. She highlights that Homo Ludens is not a theory of games, but rather a theory of the function of play in human culture. Colie implies that Huizinga’s work on play is important for recognising that as social beings we don’t only come up with rules to get along together, but also allow for spaces where we can break those rules in order to explore alternative ways of organising. What is play? In Homo Ludens, Huizinga points out that Ancient Greek culture distinguished between paidia – lighthearted or child’s play, and agon – sport or games, but to the Romans, all was included in the term ludus – play. By exploring the challenges and contests in Greek sport and identifying the linguistic approach to play in Germanic and Romance languages, as well as Sanskrit, Sinitic (Chinese) and Native American (Blackfoot), Huizinga sides with the Roman characterisation of both types of activity as the same. He identifies that play incorporates descriptions of nature and human action, pretence and limits, freedom of movement and of competition. Most frequently, Huizinga identifies play as comprising a pledge to undergo some kind of risk and tension, even to the degree of deadly seriousness as in violent sporting matches. The 5 characteristics. Huizinga outlines five characteristics of play; Play is a voluntary activity or occupation executed within certain fixed limits of time and place, according to rules freely accepted but absolutely binding, having its aim in itself and accompanied by a feeling of tension, joy and the consciousness that it is “different” from “ordinary life” 1. Play is voluntary The voluntary nature of play is in contrast to the involuntary nature of the things we must do for survival. This is obvious in tasks such as washing or tending crops but less obvious when we start to consider ‘playful’ activities such as craft or artistry which require toil or training. Huizinga debates this in the distinction between the musical (arts) and plastic (crafts) to argue that while performance is a type of free play which may rely upon expertise and training, the training or crafting of skill or a piece of art is work. In this distinction, the showing of a painting might be play, but the production of it is labour. 2. Play is Rule Ordered When we enter into play, we agree to play by explicit or implied rules, which are often different to those we normally follow. These rules are rules of behaviour as well as of material significance. For example, the idea of taking turns, and that everyone shall have a turn to act or speak is a frequent unwritten rule of most conversational games. The use of physical tokens to represent action is another frequent rule, along with details such as how many tokens a player has and how actions through them may be performed. 3. Play happens within fixed boundaries: the ‘magic circle’ The setting aside of play as a distinct practice is closely related to the understanding of the specific order and binding rules of play. When we agree to the restriction of rules, we also agree that these restrictions will only apply for a time and/or place. We allow ourselves the freedom to step outside of that space or time, whether loser or victor, and return to a different set of rules of behaviour. Those who breach the boundaries are contemptuous, spoil-sports or barbarians, and are swiftly excluded. 4. Play is different When we play, we are distinctly aware that what we are doing is not ‘ordinary life’, though we might mimic everyday activities. We inhabit a different ‘mental world’ where there might be consequences to what we are doing, but those consequences usually adhere to different rules. This is one of the main reasons why play can be so satisfying, as we sometimes need to enter a space where the rules are different to everyday life – fairer or more clearly specified, in order to explore why some practices have been successful or unsuccessful. 5. Play is not useful or in a material interest One of the important elements of play is “what is at stake”. Although gambling and risk-taking are identified by Huizinga as key to understanding the tension and excitement of play, play is nonetheless non-purposeful. Huizinga compares professional and amateur sports in this respect, highlighting that once the playing of a game is subservient to a material interest it no longer can be understood as pure play. However, in conjunction with the concept of the magic circle, it remains possible to identify play as having serious and material consequences without necessarily invalidating its status. Importantly, although satisfaction is key to play, Huizinga’s definition does not rely solely upon a psychological perspective of play as producing a ‘feeling’ of engagement (or flow) as a definitive factor. Play and Culture Huizinga explores a wide range of social activities in Homo Ludens that we might not identify as play. These include ‘sporting’ activities such as duels to the death or verbal ‘battles’ such as public debates. He also points out the importance of play to ceremony and performance. Both dance and music are play performances, though we would not often think of these as we do games. Gifts: Conspicuous consumption and destruction A significant type of play identified in Homo Ludens is drawn from Mauss’ work on gift-exchange, which shares similarities with Veblen’s work on conspicuous consumption. one proves one’s superiority not merely by the lavish prodigality of one’s gifts but, what is even more striking, by the wholesale destruction of one’s possessions just to show that one can do without them. This highlights how the practice of giving away high-value items conveys a message regarding the wealth and virtue of the gift-giver, and places an obligation on the receiver to reciprocate, or in the case of the destruction of property, to compete. This type of competition compares with boasting or slanging matches, and is labelled a ‘squandering match’ by Huizinga. The expression of excessive politeness is a comparable reversed game to that of the boasting match, in which each participant strives to be more courteous than the other. Knowledge: play to learn Just as there are forms of contest based on chance, dexterity or physical ability, Huizinga points out the common occurrence of knowledge contests in history and myth. Knowledge contests also remain so central to contemporary life we don’t even recognise them as such – though we call them ‘tests’ and ‘qualifying exams’! In Homo Ludens, Huizinga focuses on the role of wordplay and riddles in schooling particular types of thinking or expertise. The answer to an enigmatic question is not found by reflection or logical reasoning. It comes quite literally as a sudden solution – a loosening of the tie by which the questioner holds you bound. The corollary of this is that by giving the correct answer you strike him powerless. In principle there is only one answer to every question. It can be found if you know the rules of the game. While this resembles being quizzed in front of a class, the riddle-question can also push the limit of knowledge by motivating participation in the challenge. Huizinga presents the example of the ‘superlative question’ game, such as “what is sweeter than…” where each answer become the next question. To answer “I don’t know” is to lose the game, so it motivates scholarship. If we take a different version of this question, such as “what is smaller than…” our eventual result today would be to study advanced mathematics or particle physics! Law: the courtroom as a ‘magic circle’ the lawsuit can be regarded as a game of chance, a contest, or a verbal battle When we consider the seriousness of a court of law, Huizinga’s assertion that we can identify law as a type of play seems an extreme one. It relies upon the recognition of historical and cultural approaches to justice which rely upon the setting aside of a context in which a trial may be fairly conducted. The pursuit of justice must be set apart from other social activity in order to establish principles of fairness, and as such it utilises the characteristics of a play contest. This setting-apart of the courtroom also applies to the judge and other roles within it – as these individuals must set aside personal attitudes and concerns. This presents some explanation, Huizinga suggests, for the peculiar use of costume or regalia in the legal profession. Play and War: worlds apart? Its principle of reciprocal rights, its diplomatic forms, its mutual obligations in the matter of honouring treaties and, in the event of war, officially abrogating peace, all bear a formal resemblance to play-rules inasmuch as they are only binding while the game itself – i.e. the need for order in human affairs – is recognized. If we look to ancient civilization it is not difficult to find a link between violent sports and the training of skills for war. From ancient strategy games to contemporary computer games, the theme of warplay is a popular one. Unlike the moral panics which propose that warplay encourages violence, Huizinga proposes that the limiting rules of play are fundamentally necessary to distinguishing between human engagement in war, an aggressive combat between equals, and animal violence in the pursuit of survival. Implicit to Huizinga’s writing on this seems to be the proposal that war without limitations is a challenge to all human civilisation; war without limitations is not an activity that may be claimed by homo sapiens without placing that very categorisation in jeopardy. We might, in a purely formal sense, call all society a game if we bear in mind that this game is the living principle of all civilization. Is everything play? Since Huizinga, other influential scholars have presented definitions of play which make different distinctions. Caillois’ Man, Play and Games (1961) reintroduced the distinction between ‘play’ (imaginative fantasy) and ‘sport’ (skill-based games), while some psychologists have proposed a definition of ‘unstructured’ play as the individual experience of creativity or improvisation. Purposeful play, or the appropriation of play-like characteristics to activity which is not different to “ordinary life”, for Huizinga, is false play. In the final chapter of Homo Ludens, Huizinga expresses concerns about the use of play to conceal political or social agendas or to promote ‘barbaric’ tendencies such as the infantilisation, subjugation or oppression of others. Overall, Homo Ludens highlights how many cultural activities incorporate play-like characteristics, and also indicates that new cultural practices can emerge from playing with existing norms and formats. Yet Huizinga makes no assumption about the quality of play activity; suggesting that it can be debased to meaningless repetition, or can be elevated to ritual or sacred status. Where play offers scope for development and improvisation of culture, it may be seen as a productive force. Yet some characteristics of play may be employed to inhibit the development of collective culture, and the victories achieved through play are empty ones.
Understanding the Different Types of Influenza Flu is also known as ‘influenza’. It is a contagious respiratory disease that is caused by influenza viruses. Flu viruses get in the body through the mucus membranes of the nose, mouth, or eyes. Let’s learn more on different types of Influenza. You infect yourself with a virus whenever you touch your hand in one of these areas. Normally the flu season starts in October and ends in May every year. In the 2017-2018 flu season, around 53 kids have died in the United States. Older people, pregnant women, children, and those with long-term illnesses are at a higher risk of getting flu complications. How Flu and Influenza are different? Influenza or flu is different from the common cold. Both have a contagious viral infection of the respiratory tract and have similar symptoms. However, the flu is much worse and can make it difficult for you to get out of your bed. Influenza (flu) and the common cold are both contagious respiratory illnesses, but they are caused by different viruses. Flu is caused by influenza viruses only, whereas the common cold can be caused by a number of different viruses, including rhinoviruses, parainfluenza, and seasonal coronaviruses. Seasonal coronaviruses should not be confused with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. Because flu and the common cold have similar symptoms, it can be difficult to tell the difference between them based on symptoms alone. Flu Symptoms include – cough, runny nose, sore throat, body pain, chills, high fever, watery eyes, headache, weakness, and fatigue. These symptoms often come on abruptly. Many people take the flu vaccine to avoid this illness and its severe complications. However, sometimes even those who have taken their shots suffer from flu. Hence it is very important to take preventive measures during the flu season. Flu is highly contagious and can spread from person to person by coughing, sneezing, or touching surfaces. Let’s learn more on different types of Influenza. Types Of Influenza: There are three types of Influenza(flu) viruses which are; Type A, Type B, and Type C. Type A and B cause yearly influenza epidemics that result in around 20% of the population having high fever, coughing, aching, and sniffling. Although type C also causes flu, its symptoms are not very severe. Type A: These types of Influenza can infect animals; however, more commonly people suffer the ailments related to this type of flu. Generally, wild birds act as the hosts of this flu virus. Type-A flu viruses are usually responsible for large flu epidemics. Type B: These types of Influenza virus is found solely in human beings. This flu may sometimes be less severe than Type A flu, but it can still be extremely detrimental. Type B flu viruses generally do not cause epidemics. Type C: These types of Influenza viruses normally cause mild respiratory symptoms or no symptoms at all. This type does not cause epidemics and also does not have a serious impact on influenza types A and B. Although there is a flu vaccine for types A and B, there is no such immunization for type C flu virus. How is Flu Treated? Antibiotics do not help in flu treatment. Your doctor may prescribe antiviral medicines such as Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and Zanamivir (Relenza) to treat flu. Additionally, painkillers may help in alleviating headaches and body aches. To treat flu, Oseltamivir or Inhaled Zanamivir are usually prescribed for five days, while one dose of intravenous peramivir or one dose of oral Baloxavir are usually prescribed. Oseltamivir treatment is given to hospitalized patients, and some patients might be treated for more than five days. Besides this, a person affected by flu should rest at home, keep warm, possibly avoid contact with people, drink lots of liquids and avoid smoking and drinking. Consult a doctor at once in case the temperature remains high after 4-5 days or if the symptoms worsen or one feels shortness of breath. Hope, you have understood about different types of Influenza.
English Worksheet : Alphabet Flash Cards - Flashcard Letter W Alphabet Vocabulary Flashcards. Printable Alphabet Flash Cards - Letter W Flashcard. This set of flashcards contains uppercase and lowercase letters to help kids understand the letters alongwith vocabulary. Use the flashcards to practice Alphabet, cut out the flashcard for letter W and add it to the rest of the alphabet flashcards. Related worksheet for Toddlers
The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River is a world-renowned showplace of geology. Geologic studies in the park began with the work of John Strong Newberry in 1858, and continue today. Grand Canyon’s excellent display of layered rock is invaluable in unraveling the region’s geologic history. Extensive carving of the plateaus allows for the detailed study of the Earth's movements. Processes of stream erosion and vulcanism are also easily seen and studied. The Colorado River has carved the Grand Canyon into four plateaus of the Colorado Plateau Province. The Province is a large area in the Southwest characterized by nearly-horizontal sedimentary rocks lifted 5,000 to 13,000 feet above sea level. The Plateau’s arid climate produced many striking erosional forms, culminating in the Grand Canyon. The Canyon’s mile-high walls display a largely undisturbed cross section of the Earth’s crust extending back some two billion years. Three “Granite Gorges” expose crystalline rocks formed during the early-to-middle Proterozoic Era (late Precambrian). Originally deposited as sediments and lava flows, these rocks were intensely metamorphosed about 1,750 million years ago. Magma rose into the rocks, cooling and crystallizing into granite, and welding the region to the North American continent. Beginning about 1,200 million years ago (late Proterozoic), 13,000 feet of sediment and lava were deposited in coastal and shallow marine environments. Mountain building about 725 million years ago lifted and tilted these rocks. Subsequent erosion removed these tilted layers from most areas leaving only the wedge-shaped remnants seen in the eastern Canyon. Rock layers formed during the Paleozoic Era are the most conspicuous in the Grand Canyon’s walls. Coastal environments and several marine incursions from the west between 550 and 250 million years ago deposited sandstone, shale and limestone layers totaling 2,400 to 5,000 feet thick. Layers from the Cambrian, Devonian, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian and Permian periods are present. Erosion has removed most Mesozoic Era evidence from the Park, although small remnants can be found, particularly in the western Grand Canyon. Nearby rock outcrops suggest 4,000 to 8,000 feet of sedimentary layers from the “Age of Dinosaurs” once covered the Grand Canyon area. Cenozoic Era (the “Age of Mammals”) layers are limited to the western Grand Canyon and terraces near the river itself. A few sedimentary deposits formed in lake beds, but the most spectacular recent deposits are the lava flows and cinder cones on the Shivwits and Uinkaret plateaus. Volcanic activity began about six million years ago and has continued to within the last several thousand years. Spectacular lava cascades down the Canyon walls have helped date the Grand Canyon’s carving. The Grand Canyon itself is a late Cenozoic feature, characteristic of renewed erosion during this time. Vigorous cutting by the snow-fed Colorado River carved the Canyon’s depth. Canyon widening is held in check by the region’s dry climate. The asymmetry between rapid downcutting and slow widening results in the Grand Canyon rather than a more typical broad (and nondescript) river valley. Although violent storms may send flash floods gouging down narrow side canyons, the lack of steady moisture has created a stark landscape of mostly naked rock. Harder, erosion-resistant rocks such as the Coconino Sandstone and the Redwall Limestone have eroded into bold cliffs. Softer layers melt into slopes like the Tonto Platform (Bright Angel Shale) and the Esplanade (Hermit Shale). The oldest, crystalline rocks are chiseled into the craggy cliffs of the Granite Gorges. Nearly 40 identified rock layers form the Grand Canyon’s walls. They have attracted students of earth history since 1858. Because most layers are exposed through the Canyon’s 277-mile length, they afford the opportunity for detailed studies of environmental changes from place to place (within a layer) in the geologic past. Geologic evolution through time can be studied through the changes between different layers. It was the work of geologists that began changing the public’s opinion of the Grand Canyon region from that of “a worthless locale” to “the most sublime of earthly spectacles.” After nearly 150 years, geologists are still not finished studying the Grand Canyon. In the mid-1970s, a new rock layer was identified in the Canyon walls. Scientists continue investigating how environment affects rock formation. Perhaps the biggest question of all, how the Colorado River chose this course and began carving the Canyon, still awaits a clear answer. More about Grand Canyon Geology Enjoy a Grand Tour of National Park Geology Last updated: March 4, 2019
Social skills are the skills we use to communicate and interact with others. They include both verbal communication with words and greetings, and non-verbal communication such as gestures, body language, and eye contact. Social skill is a big part of a child's routine. It helps us connect with others and build meaningful relationships. Many children may master the language basics of greetings, taking turns in conversations, and responding appropriately, however they may still have difficulty making friends, engaging in play with peers, sharing toys, and more. At OM Therapy we believe that it is the understanding of how our behavior makes others feel that drives us to behave as expected in social situations. We teach socially accepted appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. This in turn can affect our ability to develop friendships and other relationships, which can affect confidence and self-esteem, and lead to further unexpected behaviors. An OT can incorporate various techniques to improve your child’s social skills; by teaching, coaching, social groups, community integration and more. Many children make real connections with peers for the first time, and successfully generalize these skills to the playground. These are common difficulties we see and through task analysis and the medium of play, we can help children identify and improve these skills.
The Ancient Somali History (A research and collection made by Wikipedia encyclopedia) – Somalia has been inhabited since the prehistoric (paleonlithic) period. Cave dating said to date back as far as 9,000 BC have been found in the northern part of the country. The most famous of these is the Laas Gaal complex, which contains some of the earliest known rock paintings and descriptions on the African continent. Descriptions have been found beneath each of the rock paintings, but the archaeologists have so been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing during the Stone Age. The Harghesian culture flourished here with their respective industries and factories. Laas Gaal (Laas Geel) is a complex of caves and rock shelters in Somaliland famous for their rock arts. The caves are located in a rural area on the outskirts of Harhgeysa, and contain some of the earliest known cave paintings in the Horn of African continent. In general, Laas Geel’s rock art is estimated to date back to somewhere between 9,000-8,000 and 3,000 BC. Laas Geel site contains caves sheltering about 10 rock alcoves decorated with Neolithic cave paintings. The coves are located outside Harhgeysa in an area encompassing a nomadic village, the Naasa Hablood hills. The site overlooks a wide district of countryside where nomads graze their livestock and wild antelope roam the vast landscape. The local nomads use the caves as a shelter when it rained and never paid much attention to the paintings. The site is now guarded by local villagers. During November and December 2002, an archaeological survey was carried out by a French team in Somalia. The reason for this was to search for rock shelters and caves containing stratified archaeological in-fills and caves containing capable of documenting the period when production economy appeared in this part Africa (circa 5,000-3,000) BC. During the course of the survey, the French archaeological team discovered the Laas Geel cave paintings, encompassing an area of 10 rock alcoves. The painting, in an excellent state of preservation, show ancient humans of the area raising their hands and worshiping humbless cows with large lyre-shaped horns. However, rock art had been known to the local Somali people for centuries before the French discovery. Yet the existence of the site has not been broadcasted to the international community. In November 2003, a mission returned to Laas Geel and a team of experts undertook a detailed study of the paintings and their prehistorical context. There are a number of other sites around Harhgeysa with similar cave paintings. The Somali Ancient History The Somalian architecture, maritime history and military Strength. Ancient pyramid structure, tombs and stone walls, such as the wagaade wall found in Somalia are evidence of ancient sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somali Peninsula. The findings of archaeological excavations and research in Somalia show that this ancient civilization had had a an ancient writing system that remains undeciphered and the people enjoyed a lucrative trading relationship with ancient Egypt and Mycenaean Greece since at least the 2nd millennium BC, which supports the view of Somalia being the ancient kingdom of Punt. Some historical citations refer to the land that encompasses the present Eritrea, Maakhir and Alula town. The Puntites traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, but also in goods from other neighboring regions. According to the temple reliefs at Deir Bahari-the Queen Hatshepsut burial site in Egypt, the land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati. Through wars and conquest, old city states are destroyed and new ones take place, and the ancient Somali timeline history is considerably long and fragmented. Herodotus (the Greek historian) spoke of Macrobians, an ancient people and kingdom postulated to have been located on the Somali Peninsula during the 1st millennium BC. They are mentioned as being a nation of people that had mastered with the average Macrobian longevity till the age of 120. They were said to be the tallest and handsomest of all men. Somalia at Medieval Period Adal State, Ajuuraan State and Warsangeli State The history of Islam in the Horn of Africa is as old as the religion itself. The early persecuted Muslims fled to Axumite port City of Zeila in present day of Somalia to seek protection from the Quraysh infidels at the court of Axumite emperor in modern Ethiopia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have settled several parts in the Horn of Africa to promote the religion. The victory of Muslims over Quraysh in the century had a significant impact on Somalian merchants and sailors as their Arab trading partners had now all accepted Islam and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea now became part trade network of Pax Islamica. Through commerce, Islam spread amongst the Somali population in the coastal cities of Somalia. Instability in Arabian Peninsula saw several migrations of Arab families to Somalian coastal cities, who then contributed another significant element to the growing popularity of Islam in the Somali peninsula. In the Northern Somalia, Adal, the present Audal state, was in its early stages as a small trading community established by the newly converted Horn of African Muslim merchants, who were predominantly Somali, according to Arab and Somali chronicles. The century between 1150 and 1250 marked a decisive turn in the role of Islam in Somali history. The Adalite then came under the influence of the expanding Horn of African kingdom of Ifat, and proposed under its patronage and the capital of Ifat was Zeila. The Adal sultanate was now a center of commercial empire stretching from Cape Guardafui to Hadiya For many years, Mogadishu stood as the pre-eminent city in the Balad-ul Berber (the land of Berbers), which was the Medieval Arab term for the Horn of Africa. The Sultanate of Mogadishu became the center of Islam on the East African coast, and the Somali merchants established a colony in Mozambique to extract gold from the Monomopatan mines in Sofala. Following his visit to the city, the 12 century Syrian historian Yaqut al-Hamawi wrote that Mogadishu was inhabited by dark-skinned Berbers, believed to be the ancestors of modern Somalia. Camel Domestication & Use Ancient Somalis domesticated the camel sometimes between the 3rd & 2nd millennium BC, from where it spread to the ancient Egypt and North Africa. In the classical period, the Somalian city states of Mosaylon, Opone, Malao, Sarapion, Mundus and Tabae all located along the Somali coast developed a lucrative trade network connecting with merchants from Phoenicia, Ptolemic Egypt, Greece, Parthian Persia, Sheba, Nabataca, and the Roman naval used the ancient Somali maritime vessels known as Beden to transport their cargo. After the Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire and the Roman naval presence at Aden to curb piracy, Arab merchants barred Indian merchaants from trading in the free port cities of Arabian Peninsula because of the nearly Roman presence. However, they continued in the port cities of the Somali Peninsula, which was free from any Roman threat or spies. The reason of barring Indian ships from entering the wealthy Arabian port cities was to protect and hide the exploitive trade practices of the Somali and the Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient Red Sea-Mediterranean sea commerce. These Indian merchants for centuries brought large quantities of cinnamon from Ceylon and the Far East to Somalian and Arabian commercial ports. This is said to have been one of the most remarkable secrets of the Red Sea port cities of Arabian and the Horn of Africa in their trade with the Roman and Greek world. The Romans and the Greeks believed that the source of the cinnamon has been a Somalian product, but in reality, the highly valued produce was brought to Somali Peninsula by way of Indian ships through Somali and Arab traders. Indian/Chinese cinnamon also fetched high prices at North Africa, the near East and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable for the Somali merchants through whose hands the large quantities shipped across to the ancient land routes. Wikipedia encyclopedia // Keydmedia-English
Shapes worksheets are brilliant teaching tools for your preschoolers to build from the basics. Tracing, coloring, and cutting shapes helps them identify geometric shapes, practice fine motor skills, and even develop concentration skills. Plus, having handy shape crafts for preschoolers will generate so much fun and learning! Learning shapes can be an important skill to cover in Preschool. Once students have a grasp on the basic shapes, you can introduce them to the idea of shapes-in-shapes! Explain, that sometimes we can find shapes hidden inside other shapes, depending on the way we cut them apart. For example, cutting a triangle horizontally creates a smaller triangle and a trapezoid. (See Shapes Activity Below) Our FREE Cut & Paste Shape Worksheets can be used to show shape qualities and to create new picture. Now, before we get to our adorable crafts, let’s talk about the many other benefits to teaching shapes for preschoolers. Did you know that it helps children build an understanding of two-dimensional structures? In addition, they’ll easily recognize the different features of common shapes and develop problem-solving skills! In other words, recognizing and manipulating shapes is a very important skill to have! Shape Crafts for Preschoolers: Instructions First, you’ll want to grab these on-hand supplies: - Cardstock Paper (variety of colors including white) - Glue (stick or bottle) Next, download your FREE shape craft worksheets listed below and print each type of shape worksheet. (HINT: Try a different colored paper for each shape). Take time to look at each shape and the shapes found inside the shape. Help children identify any shapes they have difficulty naming. Then, instruct children to cut out all of the shapes according to the instructions. Don’t forget to cut out the drawing in the top right-hand corner as a helper for each activity! This helper is intended to inspire children of things they can make with the individual shapes. They don’t have to make these specific pictures. Now let’s get to some creative ideas for your preschooler. Below are some fun designs your child get put together with just a little help using these templates! House Shape Craft Activity using Trapezoids Let’s begin with this creative triangle shape worksheet. Simply cut out the shape according to instructions at the top of your printable. Then, position it on white cardstock paper. Ask your preschooler (using the picture shown), to organize the shape based on the image. Once he/she has the shape in the appropriate place, it’s now time for the glue! Next, you can help your preschooler draw the rest of the house using rectangle shapes in different sizes! Don’t forget to use the picture as a comparision model! Dog Craft Activity using Shapes Sheet It’s amazing what you can create with shapes — especially Triangles! Would you ever suspect you could create a dog with three sided triangles and a square? It’s certainly possible using this template and image as a guide. Just add body, bow, and any other features your innovative child imagines. Ice Cream Cone Craft Activity using Shapes Printable Yum — ice cream cones are delicious and fun to make using this awesome shape worksheet! Just follow the instructions on the free shapes printable and you’ll have a beautiful stack of ice cream scoops in no time. And, don’t be surprised if their creations look so good that you’re heading to ice cream shop as a reward! Popcorn Craft Design using Shapes Worksheet Got plans to see a movie with the kids? My kids love watching movies together as a family. Why not try this simple craft with your little ones by using shapes to create a popcorn bucket! All that’s needed is a triangle, trapezoid, and a little imagination! Free Shapes in Shapes Printable Activities: It’s absolutely amazing how shapes for preschoolers work perfectly for versatility. And, they prepare them for the next level – writing and drawing in a more orderly fashion! Grab your free printable shapes worksheets today below that include a HUGE variety of shapes. All your child needs to do is add their special mind magic! Gift Square Shapes Printable Create a gift box using simple squares in this free cut and paste printable! Pizza Rhombus Shapes Sheet Practice fine motor skills and a unique shape with this easy pizza rhombus shapes sheet! Kite Triangles Shapes Printable Build your own kite with just 4 triangles -- add some string and bows for extra appeal. Bus Square Shape Cutting Sheet Create a fun bus by simply using this square shape worksheet -- add some wheels, color, and even more shapes! Trapezoid Shape Cutting Worksheet Teach your child the shape of a trapezoid and build fine motor skills with cutting and pasting this fun dog craft activity!! Hexagon and Triangle Ice Cream Cone Shapes Activity Ice Cream is so good, and so is this fun craft using hexagon and triangle shapes to form a triple scoop ice cream cone! Square and Triangle Volcano Shapes Sheet It may look like a square, but your preschoolers can make a volcano but cutting out the square into triangles! Pentagon Shapes House Activity Build a house with a pentagon shape by following these easy instructions and using a little imagination! House Triangle and Trapezoid Shapes Worksheet Turn a trapezoid into a triangle forming a roof of a house using this versatile worksheet. Stars Pentagons and Triangles Shape Tree Printable Find a pentagon embedded in a star surrounded by triangles in this fun tree activity! Trapezoid Shapes and Pizza Activity Make a pizza by cutting out triangles in this Trapezoid shapes activity. Pentagon Shapes Worksheet for Pyramids Build a pyramid or sky's the limit with this pentagon shape containing 3 sided triangles. Octagon Shapes Printable Imagine all of the creations you can make with this octagon shapes printable! It's a wonderful craft activity for your preschooler! Hexagon Shapes Sheet A hexagon has gems hidden inside using this hexagon shapes sheet! Cut along the dotted lines to make a butterfly soar in the air! Parallelogram Shapes Worksheet Teach your kids this unique shape by using this parallelogram shapes worksheet! Create a unicorn with a horn! Lamp Hexagon Shapes Worksheet Use this versatile hexagon shapes worksheet to make a lamp that turns on your own child's light bulb of creativity! Popcorn Pentagon Shapes Sheet Yum -- let's make a popcorn tub with this fun pentagon cut and paste craft activity! Pinwheel Octagon Shape Worksheet Grab this Octagon shape worksheet to teach your kids how to create their own pinwheel with a variety of colors! Square Shape Sheet for Sailing Sail away with your new sailboat using this downloadable square shape sheet! Octagon Shapes Printable Design your own pizza pie or slices using this fun octagon shape printable. Add some pepperoni, peppers or olives for a tasty treat! Leave a Reply
A Complete Diagnostic and Prescriptive Program to Optimize Individual Progress in Beginning and Remedial Reading It works! During the past 50 years, millions of students – from young children to adults, from gifted to normal, to special students – have learned to read, using Programmed Reading. - Presents a logical, systematic, linguistic progression of decoding and word-attack skills. - Programmed format requires numerous active responses from every student, many more than traditional learning-to-read programs. - Provides immediate feedback so students only practice correct responses. - Places early emphasis on comprehension. - Frequent repetition insures that 95% of the students respond correctly 95% of the time. Experience has shown that the majority of students do not learn to decode the written symbols of English automatically and fluently without some direct teaching. Sullivan’s Programmed Reading is the ideal program for teaching the English sound-symbol system to both beginning readers and to remedial readers. Programmed Reading has assured success regardless of entry level and, in most cases, regardless of ability. DECODING – THE LINGUISTIC WAY Programmed Reading presents decoding skills in reading context within a linguistic progression of sound-symbol relationships. There are no isolated skills drills as in traditional phonics programs. Rather, each new skill is immediately put to use in reading real content. - Teaches the letters symbolizing each sound in a systematic progression from the most frequently used sounds of English to the least. - Teaches the letters in a sequence leading to the maximum number of combinations to form words from the very beginning of instruction. - Allows each student to practice until responses become quickand easy, that is until each student develops automaticity and fluency in decoding. THE 4 R’S OF PROGRAMMED READING Response – In this series, the material is divided into clearly defined and carefully organized segments called frames. Each presents the student with a problem to solve. Unlike ordinary texts, every student must actively respond by choosing between words, filling in missing letters, or checking correct statements. In this way, the student’s attention is focused on the particular concept being taught. They learn to observe carefully, and through the use of functional pictures, to discriminate precisely. Reward – Immediately after students make a response, they learn if their answer is correct. Since the program is designed to insure a 95% success rate, students are constantly being rewarded. Every teacher knows the value of a psychological pat on the back to give students both confidence and enthusiasm for reading. Repetition – Students are given the opportunity to respond numerous times in each lesson. Each concept is repeated several times, in different contexts, to insure mastery and retention. Rate – Students learn to read at their own pace without the frustration of either constantly waiting for, or holding up, other students in the class. Since a great deal of time is spent working independently, students develop self-reliance and confidence. Strengths of the Programmed Format – The series is based on the learning principles of Stimulus, Response, Reward, and Repetition. Skills are introduced in small steps (frames). After students respond, they move the slider down the page and check their answers in the column on the left. The students complete all of Side 1 and then turn the book around and complete Side 2. In this way students are not exposed to the answers on the next page. The advantages of the programmed format: - Students are always involved in the learning process. - Their decoding/comprehension skills are constantly checked. - They can proceed at their own pace. - They are assured of success. - They only practice correct responses. Programmed Reading, Books 1-23 provide a logical, linguistic progression, constant reinforcement, colorful art, stimulating story content, and individualized pacing. In Series I, Books 1-7, students master 14 vowel and 24 consonant lessons and learn approximately 450 phonetically regular words, plus 10 sight words. Series II, Books 8-15, covers 30 more vowel patterns and 10 more consonant patterns, as well as 1,750 regular words and 26 sight words. In Series III, Books 16-23, students master an additional 28 vowel and 6 consonant lessons, 3,300 words, and 25 sight words. Teacher’s Guides are organized by book, skill, and unit for easy classroom use. They include an overview of decoding and comprehension skills, a listing of sound-symbol and vocabulary progression as well as content summary. Each guide also provides a Reading Aloud, Dictation, Creative Writing, and Test section for each book as well as specific item-by item instruction for both corrective and remediative recycling options. Response Booklets – One for each student book allows the programmed reader to be used as a Blackline Masters supplement each series, providing games and activities to reinforce and extend the concepts and skills taught in student texts. Achievement Tests – Criterion-reinforced tests are available for each series, supplementing the in-book achievement tests. They include an item-by-item analysis of the skills tested and specific remediation for each item missed, thus providing a complete and workable diagnostic-prescriptive reading program. Placement Tests indicate exactly where in the series to start transfer or remedial students. The tests help place students at the ability level where they are most comfortable. Students enjoy working at their own pace, with no hands to raise or embarrassment in front of their peers. They progress quickly so have that next book ready for your students! The research conducted with students using Programmed Reading resulted in the following: at the end of Series I (Book 7), the average student was reading at a 2.5 grade level; at the end of Series II (Book 15), the average student was reading at a 4.3 grade level; at the end of Series III (Book 23), the average student was reading at a 6.2 grade level. The reading levels indicated below represent and approximate gain in reading level, based on the research results.
Satellite in Deployed Position Satellite in Stored Position To accurately control the new satellite, small rocket thrusters will be used to rotate and move the satellite when in orbit. In order to know how long to fire the thrusters, the mass and moment of inertia must be known. Due to the intricate shape of the satellite, you can't accurately calculate the moment of inertia. Your boss tells you to use the spin table to determine the moment of inertia experimentally. What is known: - The change in angular displacement Δθ is 4.459 rad. - The change in angular velocity Δω is 1.784 rad/s - The spin table generates a constant 100 N m torque during the length of the test. - The time length of the test was not monitored.
Accessible names are the labels given to HTML elements that can be announced in assistive technologies such as screen readers. They may or may not be visible to sighted interface users, depending on context. Whether you provide controls using standard HTML elements or create custom controls, ensure that controls are given appropriate names. There are a number of ways to provide accessible names. ✓ Text node The most common way to provide an accessible name is through an element's text node. In the following example of a Close button, the button element contains the text "close". When a user focuses the button with a screen reader running, the screen reader would announce "close" (the accessible name), then "button" (the element's role). Perhaps you'd prefer your close button to be represented by a simple "×" symbol. One way to do this would be to use the the "×" character. Unfortunately, screen readers identify this as the multiplication "times" symbol and would announce "times button," which is unclear. To override this poor accessible name, you can apply an aria-label attribute with the value "close". If you are looking for more control over how the "×" symbol looks, you may wish to draw it and include it as an image. The accessible name for an image is typically provided by its alt attribute. When you place an <img/> within a <button>, the button takes its accessible name from the image. <button><img src="path/to/button.svg" alt="close" /></button> Video: Accessible names for Buttons with Chrome and VoiceOver
Scientists from Tomsk Polytechnic University together with colleagues proposed using special diffraction gratings with gold plates instead of microlenses used in the classic configuration to obtain images in nanoscopes. Microlenses transmit images by small pieces (pixels), whereas diffraction gratings allow you to see the whole object. Such innovation can help to accelerate the generation of images from nanoscopes without losing any magnification power. The results of the study are presented in the journal Annalen der Physik (IF 3.039; Q1). Optical microscopes are considered the simplest. However, for a long time it was believed that they are not powerful enough compared to, for example, electronic microscopes. Everything changed with the advent of nanoscopes in 2011. Images are obtained using small spheres or rectangular particles of quartz glass, and enlarged further with a conventional microscope lens. Through nanoscopes it is possible to see objects the size of which is 50 nm, which exceeds the capabilities of a conventional optical microscope by 20 times. They can also be used to study living viruses, as compared to electronic microscopes lacking this function because the flow of electrons just kills them, and the inside of cells. This feature makes nanoscopes extremely promising for biological research. Therefore, scientists around the world are working to improve their resolution and design. However, images in nanoscopes are formed by ‘pieces’, i.e. each microsphere detects its part of an object at a particular point. Therefore, it is necessary to make a whole matrix of a large number of microspheres or to move a microsphere, which takes some time. As a solution, TPU scientists proposed using a rectangular mesoscale phase diffraction grating (a grating with a period comparable to the wavelength of the radiation used). This is an optical device that is a surface with a large number of parallel microscopic strokes or protrusions. The project supervisor, Igor Minin, DSc in technical sciences, SRF at the TPU Division of Electronic Engineering says: ‘A conventional diffraction grating out of dielectric ensures poor resolution in nanoscopes. Therefore, we propose to add a small gold plate to each of the strokes. In fact, a paradox emerges: metal does not transmit light but the resolution nevertheless increases. Why? Here several effects work simultaneously. These are the effect of abnormal amplitude apodization, the Fabry-Perot resonance and the Fano resonance. Together they help to improve resolution compared to a conventional diffraction grating up to 0.3 λ. This is about the same solution as that of nanoscopes with spherical particles.’ Now, the researchers are tasked to verify the simulation data during experiments. The article was published in Annalen der Physik in collaboration with the scientists from Tomsk State University and V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics SB RAS.
It is not hard to see why these birds are sometimes referred to as the “parrot of the sea”, the shocking orange and black bill of this species is one of the clearest identifications within the animal kingdom. The Atlantic Puffin can dive up to 60 meters in order to capture prey. Puffins live in the north of the Atlantic, ranging from the eastern coasts of the USA to central Russia. Being excellent divers the puffin primarily feeds on fish such as herring, whiting and sand eels. Predators & Threats The primary threats that currently face these animals are; overfishing, chemical pollution and fatalities as a result of being caught in fishing nets. There are few predators of the puffin despite their small size due to the puffins nesting sites. Hawks, eagles and foxes the main predators. - Puffins flap their wings upto 400 times per minute in order to stay in the air. - Rising sea levels could submerge some breeding colonies. \|Common Name(s)\|\|Scientific Name\| \|Atlantic Puffin, Common Puffin, Puffin\|\|Fratercula arctica\| Best Time to Look Late spring on the coast during breeding season. They move into the ocean after a very short period after this.
Charles Babbage (December 26, 1791 – October 18, 1871) was an English mathematician, analytical philosopher and (proto-)computer scientist who was the first person to come up with the idea of a programmable computer. Parts of his uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the London Science Museum. In 1991, working from Babbage's original plans, a Difference Engine was completed, and functioned perfectly. They were built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, indicating that Babbage's machine would have worked. Born in London, he was an alumnus of Trinity College, Cambridge and of Peterhouse, Cambridge. He graduated from Cambridge in 1814. In that same year, he married Georgiana Whitmore. They had eight children, but only three lived to adulthood. Mrs Babbage died in 1827. Design of Computers In recognition of the high error rate in the calculation of mathematical tables, Babbage sought to find a method by which they could be calculated by machine, which would not suffer the errors, fatigue and boredom of human calculators. This idea had come to him as early as 1812. Three different factors seem to have influenced him: a dislike of untidiness, his awareness of logarithmic tables, and work on calculating machines carried out by Wilhelm Schickard, Blaise Pascal and Gottfried Leibniz. In 1822, in a letter to Sir Humphrey Davy on the application of machinery to the calculation and printing of mathematical tables, he discussed the principles of a calculating engine. He presented a model of what he called a Difference Engine to the Royal Astronomical Society on June 14, 1822 in a paper entitled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables." (http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html) Its purpose was to tabulate polynomials using a numerical method called the differences method. The Society approved the idea, and this in turn enabled him to get a grant of £1500 by the British Government in 1823. Construction started on this machine, but it was not completed. Two things went wrong. One was that the internal friction and gearing available at the time were not good enough for the models to be completed — vibrations were a constant problem. The other was that he kept changing his mind about the design of the machine. An additional possible issue was disputes with the mechanic(s) hired to do the machining work. By 1833, £17000 had been spent with no satisfactory result. Between 1833 and 1842, Babbage tried again; this time, he tried to build a machine that would be programmable to do any kind of calculation, not just ones relating to polynomial equations. This was the Analytical Engine. The design was based on Joseph Marie Jacquard's sewing loom, which used punched cards to determine how a sewing design would be carried out. Babbage adapted this design so that it would create mathematical actions instead. The Analytical Engine had input devices based on punched cards, as per Jacquard's design, an arithmetic processor that calculated numbers, a control unit that determined that the correct task was carried out, an output mechanism and a memory where numbers could be stored whilst waiting their turn to be processed. It was this device that was the world's first computer. A concrete design for this emerged by 1835; however, in part because of the difficulties similar to those encountered with the Difference Engine, and in part because of disputes with the mechanics who were building the parts (and who held them hostage in what seem to have been a running labor dispute), the Engine was never built. In 1842, following repeated failures to obtain funding from the First Lord of the Treasury, Babbage approached Sir Robert Peel for funding. Peel refused, and offered Babbage a knighthood instead. This was refused in turn by Babbage. Matters came to a halt at this point. Babbage did receive noteworthy backing from one source. Ada, Lady Lovelace, became aware of Babbage's efforts and became very interested in them. She actively promoted the analytical engine, and wrote several programs in what would today be called assembler language for the analytical engine, but which were never actually executed. However, this makes Ada Lovelace the world's first computer programmer, at least in the theoretical sense. Computing — Later Years In 1855, a Swedish father and son, Georg and Edvard Schuetz, successfully built a Difference Engine. It had been based on a 1834 design by Babbage. Babbage was amongst those who inspected it and gave a positive opinion. In 1859, the British Government purchased one of these for use in the Registrar General's Office. The purchase had no effect on the refusals to build an analytical engine. Partly through Babbage's efforts at gearmaking for these machines, the British had superior machinery for the next few decades, and this contributed to the superiority of the British navy in the first world war. Promotion of Analytical Calculus Babbage is remembered for other accomplishments as well. The promotion of analytical calculus is perhaps the foremost amongst them. In 1812, Babbage helped found the Analytical Society. The aim of this society, led by student George Woodhouse, was to promote Leibnizian, or analytical, calculus over the newtonian-style calculus then in use throughout the British Isles. Newton's calculus was clumsy, and was in use more for political reasons than practical. The Society included Sir John Herschel and George Peacock amongst its members. In the years 1815–1817 he contributed three papers on the "Calculus of Functions" to the Philosophical Transactions, and in 1816 was made a fellow of the Royal Society. From 1828 to 1839 Babbage was Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge. He contributed largely to several scientific periodicals, and was instrumental in founding the Astronomical Society in 1820 and the Statistical Society in 1834. During the later years of his life he resided in London, devoting himself to the construction of machines capable of performing arithmetical and even algebraic calculations. Charles Babbage also achieved notable results in cryptography. He broke Vigenère's autokey cipher as well as the much weaker cipher that is called Vigenère Cipher today. The autokey cipher was generally called "the undecipherable cipher", though due to popular confusion many thought that the weaker polyalphabetic cipher was the "undecipherable" one. Babbage's discovery was used to aid English military campaigns, and was not published until several years later; as a result credit for the development was instead given to Friedrich Kasiski, who made the same discovery some years after Babbage. He only once endeavoured to enter public life, when, in 1832, he stood unsuccessfully for the borough of Finsbury.
Meat ant (Iridomyrmex purpureus) feeding on honey Ants are one of the world's most successful and diverse animal families, with more than 12,000 species. They are eusocial and known for their highly organized colonies and nests, which sometimes consist of millions of individuals. Individuals are divided into sub-fertile, and more commonly sterile, females ("workers"), fertile males ("drones"), and fertile females ("queens"). Colonies can occupy and use a wide area of land to support themselves. Ant colonies sometimes are described as superorganisms because the colony appears to operate as a unified entity. Ants are found on almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ant species are Antarctica, Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia, the Hawaiian Islands, and some other remote islands. When all their individual contributions are added up, they may constitute up to 15 to 25 percent of the total terrestrial animal biomass (Jones 2007; Krushelnycky 2005; Schultz 2000). Although viewed as pests by many people, ants play a tremendously important role in the earth's natural ecosystems. They recycle dead plants and animals, enrich the soil, pollinate flowers, spread seeds, and are a major food source for many animals, among other contributions. Beyond these ecological values, humans benefit in many ways, including in the role of ants in keeping potentially harmful insects, such as termites and agricultural pests, under control. In some cultures, ants are used as food and ingredients in traditional medicines, and army ants (with their powerful mandibles) are even used as emergency sutures for wounds. Ants' numerous symbiotic relationships with plants and thousands of species of arthropods (insects, spiders, mites, etc.) reflects on the harmony of nature, and ants' unique and often fascinating behaviors adds to the human wonder of nature. Termites, sometimes called white ants, are not closely related to ants, although they have similar social structures. Velvet ants, although resembling large ants, are wingless female wasps. - 1 Morphology - 2 Development - 3 Behavior and ecology - 4 Ant cooperation and competition - 5 Ants' role in nature - 6 Evolution - 7 Humans and ants - 8 References - 9 Credits Ants are distinguished from other insects by the following traits: elbowed antennae; the presence of a metapleural gland; a strongly constricted second abdominal segment forming a distinct node-like petiole; and a narrow waist between their mesosoma (thorax plus the first abdominal segment, which is fused to it) and gaster (abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole). The petiole can be formed by one or two nodes (only the second, or the second and third abdominal segments can form it). Ant bodies, like those of other insects, have an exoskeleton, meaning their bodies are externally covered in a protective casing, as opposed to the internal skeletal framework of humans and other vertebrates. Ants do not have lungs. Oxygen passes through tiny valves, the spiracles, in their exoskeleton—the same holes through which carbon dioxide leaves their body. They have a primitive heart and their blood is colorless, rather than red. Their nervous system is much like a human spinal cord in that it is a continuous cord, the ventral nerve cord, from head to rear with branches into each extremity. The three main divisions of the ant body are the head, the thorax, and the metasoma or gaster. The head of an ant has many important parts. Ant eyes include the compound eyes, similar to fly eyes: numerous tiny lenses attached together, which enables them to see movement very well. They also have three small ocelli on the top of the head, which detect light and dark. Most ants have poor to mediocre eyesight; some are blind altogether. A few have exceptional vision though, such as the bulldog ants (Myrmecia species) of Australia. Also attached to the head of an ant are two antennae ("feelers"). The antennae are special organs that help ants detect chemicals, including those used in communication, as well as a sense of touch. Ants release pheromones to communicate with each other and the antennae pick up these chemical signals. The head also has two strong jaws, the mandibles, which are used to carry food, manipulate objects, construct nests, and for defense. In some species, there is also a small pocket inside the mouth to hold food for passing to others. The thorax of the ant is where the six legs are attached. At the end of each leg is a hooked claw that helps ants climb and hang onto things. Most queens and male ants have wings, which they drop after the nuptial flight. The wing scars are then visible, a distinguishing feature of queens. Wingless queens (ergatoids) and males can also occur. The metasoma (the "abdomen") of the ant houses many of the important internal organs. These include the crop, where food is stored for the ant's own use or to bring back to the colony; the stomach, where food is digested for the ant's own use; and the reproductive organs. Many species of ants have poison glands and stingers used for subduing prey and defending their nests. Ants are holometabolous and develop by complete metamorphosis, passing through larval and pupal stages (with the pupae being exarate) before they become adults. The larval stage is particularly helpless—for instance it lacks legs entirely—and cannot care for itself. The difference between queens and workers (which are both female), and between different castes of workers when they exist, is determined by the feeding in the larval stage. Food is given to the larvae by a process called trophallaxis in which an ant regurgitates food previously held in its crop for communal storage. This is also how adults distribute food among themselves. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so are often moved around the various brood chambers within the colony. A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. After that, it graduates to digging and other nest work, and then to foraging and defense of the nest. These changes are fairly abrupt and define what are called temporal castes. One theory of why this occurs is because foraging has a high death rate, so ants only participate in it when they are older and closer to death anyway. In a few ants there are also physical castes—workers come in a spectrum of sizes, called minor, median, and major workers, the latter beginning foraging sooner. Often the larger ants will have disproportionately larger heads, and correspondingly stronger mandibles. Such individuals are sometimes called "soldier" ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting other creatures, although they are still in fact worker ants and their "duties" typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers. In a few species, the median workers have disappeared, creating a sharp divide and clear physical difference between the minors and majors. Some ants, called honeypot ants, have special workers called repletes who simply store food for the rest of the colony, generally becoming immobile with greatly enlarged abdomens. In hot, dry places, even deserts, in Africa, North America, and Australia where they live, they are considered by some people to be a great delicacy. Most of the common ant species breed in the same way. Only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens. The male ants, called drones, along with the breeding females emerge from pupation with wings (although some species, like army ants, do not produce winged queens), and do nothing throughout their life except eat and mate. At this time, all breeding ants, excluding the queen, are carried outside where other colonies of the same species are doing the same. Then, all the winged breeding ants take flight. Mating occurs in flight and the males die shortly afterward. The females that survive land and seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their own wings and begin to lay eggs, which they care for. Sperm obtained during their nuptial flight is stored and used to fertilize all future eggs produced. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food, and care for the other eggs. This is how most new colonies start. A few species that have multiple queens can start a new colony as a queen from the old nest takes a number of workers to a new site and founds a colony there. Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens themselves can live for up to 30 years, while workers live from one to three years. Males, however, are more transitory, surviving only a few weeks (Gordon 1999). Ants living in seasonal climates survive the winter by going into a state of dormancy or inactivity. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae that go into diapause while in others the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity (Wilson 1971). Behavior and ecology All ants, along with termites and some bees and wasps, are eusocial animals. Eusociality is the phenomenon of reproductive specialization found in some animals. It generally involves the production of sterile members of the species, which carry out specialized tasks, effectively caring for the reproductive members. It most commonly manifests in the appearance of individuals within a group whose behavior (and sometimes anatomy) is modified for group defense, including self-sacrifice ("altruism"). The most commonly accepted defining features of eusociality are: - reproductive division of labor (with or without sterile castes) - overlap of generations - cooperative care of young (including protection) Ant communication is accomplished primarily through chemicals called pheromones. Because most ants spend their time in direct contact with the ground, these chemical messages are more developed than in other social insects. So, for instance, when a forager finds food, she will leave a pheromone trail along the ground on her way home. In a short time, other ants will follow this pheromone trail. Home is often located through the use of remembered landmarks and the position of the sun as detected with compound eyes and also by means of special sky polarization-detecting fibers within the eyes (Fukushi 2001). Returning home, they reinforce the same trail, which in turn attracts more ants until the food is exhausted, after which the trail scent slowly dissipates. This behavior helps ants adapt to changes in their environment. When an established path to a food source is blocked by a new obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If successful, the returning ant leaves a new trail marking the shortest route. Since each ant prefers to follow a path richer in pheromone rather than poorer, the resulting route is also the shortest available. Ants make use of pheromones for other purposes as well. A crushed ant, for example, will emit an alarm pheromone, which in high concentration sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy; and in lower concentration, merely attracts them. To confuse their enemies, several ant species even employ "propaganda pheromones," which cause their enemies to fight among themselves (Wilson 1971). Like other insects, ants smell with their antennae, which are long and thin. These are fairly mobile, having a distinct elbow joint after an elongated first segment; and since they come in pairs—rather like binocular vision or stereophonic sound equipment—they provide information about direction as well as intensity. Pheromones are also exchanged as compounds mixed with food and passed in trophallaxis, giving the ants information about one another's health and nutrition. Ants can also detect what task group (e.g. foraging or nest maintenance) to which other ants belong. Of special note, the queen produces a certain pheromone without which the workers would begin raising new queens. Some ants produce sounds by their the gaster segments or mandibles coming together. Ants can detect sound vibrations that travel through the ground or other surfaces, but it is not certain if they can hear sounds that travel through the air. Sound messages are used to communicate information on food sources and dangers. In one experiment, ants trapped underground sent out vibrations and were rescued by ants on the surface who dug down to them (Milius 200). Ants attack others and defend themselves by biting, and in many species by stinging, often injecting chemicals like formic acid. Bullet ants (the genus Paraponera), found in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting among insects. Although these are usually non-fatal; they are given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, which measures the relative intensity of different insect stings. Jack jumper ants, Myrmecia pilosula, found in Australia have stings that cause fatality to a small number of people in the population, and cause hospitalizations each year (Clarke 1986). A vaccine based on use of the venom extract to develop immunity has been developed (Brown 2005). Some ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws. This snap-jaw mechanism, or catapult mechanism, is possible because energy is stored in the large closing muscles. The blow is incredibly fast, about 0.5 ms in the genus Mystrium. Before the strike, the mandibles open wide and are locked in the open position by the labrum, which functions as a latch. The attack is triggered by stimulation of sensory hairs at the side of the mandibles. The mandibles are also able to function as a tool for more finely adjusted tasks. Two similar groups are Odontomachus and Dacetini—examples of convergent evolution. Apart from defense against larger threats, ants also need to defend their colonies against disease organisms. Some ant workers' role is to maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or necrophory, the transport of dead nest-mates (Julian 1999). Oleic acid is identified as one compound released by dead ants that triggers undertaking behavior in Atta mexicana (López-riquelme 2006). While some ants form complex nests and galleries, other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Various species may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. Nests can be found in the ground with craters or mounds around the entrance, under stones or logs, in logs, hollow stems, even acorns. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter. The nests are protected from physical threats such as flooding by elaborate structures at the entrance or special chambers for escaping from flooding. Ants are highly selective of the nest site; Temnothorax albipennis will avoid sites with dead ants as these may be indicators of pests or disease. They are also quick to abandon established nest sites at the first sign of these threats (Cooper 2005) Army ants and driver ants, from South America and Africa respectively, do not form permanent nests. Instead they alternate between nomadic stages and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) out of their own bodies. Weaver ants (Oecophylla) build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then sewing them together by pressing silk-producing larvae against them in alternation. Fungus cultivation and insect tending Leafcutter ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) feed exclusively on a special fungus that lives only within their colonies. They continually collect leaves, which they cut into tiny pieces for the fungus to grow on. There are different sized castes specially suited to finer and finer tasks of cutting and chewing the leaves and tending to the garden. Leaf cutter ants are sensitive enough to adapt to the fungi's reaction to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungus, the colony will no longer collect it. The ants grow the fungus because it produces special structures called gongylidia, which are eaten by the ants. Aphids secrete a sweet liquid called honeydew, which they exude in the process of feeding from plants. The sugars can provide a high-energy food source, which many ant species collect. In some cases, the aphids secrete the honeydew specifically in response to the ants tapping them with their antennas. The ants in turn keep predators away and will move the aphids around to better feeding locations. Upon migrating to a new area, many colonies will take new aphids with them, to ensure that they have a supply of honeydew in the new area. Ants also tend mealybugs to harvest their honeydew. Myrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the family Lycaenidae (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland that secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. Some caterpillars are known to produce vibrations and sounds that are sensed by the ants. Some caterpillars have evolved from being ant-loving to ant-eating and these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone which makes the ants think that the caterpillar's larva is one of their own. The larva will then be taken into the ants' nest where it can feed on the ant larvae. Worker ants generally do not grow wings and reproductive females remove theirs after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking. Some species of ants sometimes form chains to bridge gaps, whether that be over water, underground, or through spaces in arboreal paths. Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods. This may play a role in colonization of islands (Morrison 1998). Some ants are even capable of leaping. A particularly notable species is Jerdon's jumping ant, Harpegnathos saltator. This is achieved by synchronized action of the mid and hind pair of legs (Urbani 1994). Polyrhachis sokolova, a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and lives in nests that are submerged underwater. They make use of trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests (Clay 1996). There are several species of gliding ant, including Cephalotes atratus. This may be a common trait among most arboreal ants. Ants with this ability are able to direct the direction of their descent while falling (Yanoviak 2005). Ant cooperation and competition Not all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian bulldog ants, Myrmecia pilosula, are among the biggest and most primitive of ants. The individual hunts alone, using its large eyes instead of its chemical senses to find prey. Like all ants they are social, but their social behavior is poorly developed compared to more advanced species. An Australian bulldog ant has only a single pair of chromosomes and males have just one chromosome as they are haploid. Some species of ants are known for attacking and taking over the colonies of other ant species. Others are less expansionist but nonetheless just as aggressive; they attack colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers/slaves. Some ants, such as the Amazon ants (Polyergus species), are incapable of feeding themselves, and must rely on captured worker ants to care for them. The pavement ant, Tetramorium caespitum, is famous for its urge to increase its territory. In early spring, colonies attempt to conquer new areas and often attack the nearest enemy colony. These result in huge sidewalk battles, sometimes leaving thousands of ants dead. Because of their aggressive nature, they often invade and colonize seemingly impenetrable areas. They are common in North America. Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scents, a hydrocarbon-laced secretion that coats their exoskeletons. If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent. Any ant that enters a colony with a different scent than that of the colony will be attacked (Henderson 2005). Ants' role in nature Ants play a tremendously important role in the earth's natural ecosystems. They remove dead plants and animals and recycle their materials back into the soil. By digging their nests they loosen the soil and bring organic material underground, which enriches the soil and promotes the growth of plants. One study in the United States estimated that ants add one inch (1.5 cm) to the topsoil every 250 years (Wilson 1971). Some ants pollinate flowers as they feed on their nectar, and uneaten seeds left underground by ants are in an ideal situation to spout and grow. Some plants have an even closer symbiotic relationship with ants. The bullhorn acacia of Central America, Acacia cornigera, has hollow thorns that serve to house colonies of Aztec ants, Pseudomyrmex ferruginea, which defend the tree against other insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines. In return, the ants obtain food from protein-lipid Beltian bodies, which the tree produces (Hoyt 1996). Many animals use ants as food. These include other insects, spiders, frogs, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Some species of mammals, such as anteaters, pangolins and several marsupial species in Australia, have special adaptations for living on a primary diet of ants. These adaptations include long sticky tongues to pick the ants and strong claws to break into the ant nests. The brown bear, Ursus arctos, one of the largest land mammals, often gets a significant portion of its nutrition by eating ants. Other animals take advantage of ants in other ways. In South and Central America, there are 28 species of antbirds, belonging to the family Formicariidae, that specialize in following army ant swarms and eating insects that are flushed out by the ants. They do not eat the ants themselves (Hoyt 1996). Thousands of species of arthropods (insects, spiders, mites, etc.) are found in close symbiotic relationships with ants. In some cases they prey on the ants or steal their food, in some cases they live on waste produced by ant colonies and do not benefit or harm the ants, and in some cases the relationship is beneficial to both. One of the strangest is the mite Macrocheles rettenmeyeri which lives on the foot of the army ant Euiton dulcius. It lives off of the blood of the ant and in return it serves as a extension of the ant's foot, using its legs in place of the ant's claws. Some beetles, as well as other insects, are social parasites, which in effect infiltrate ant society by tricking the ants into protecting them and giving them food. There are also ant species that are social parasites of other ants (Wilson 1971). The Formicidae family belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees, and wasps. Ants are a lineage derived from within the vespoid wasps. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that ants evolved from vespoids in the mid-Cretaceous period about 120 to 170 million years ago. After the rise of angiosperms about 100 million years ago, they increased in diversity and assumed ecological dominance about 60 million years ago. Several fossils from the Cretaceous are intermediate in form between wasps and ants, establishing further evidence for wasp ancestry. Like other Hymenoptera, the genetic system found in ants is haplodiploidy (Grimbaldi 2000; Moreau 2007; Wilson 2005). In 1966 Edward O. Wilson, who is considered to be one of the world's leading experts and researchers on ants, obtained the first amber fossil remains of an ant (Sphecomyrma freyi) from the Cretaceous era. The specimen was trapped in amber from New Jersey that was more than 80 million years old. This species provides the clearest evidence of a link between modern ants and non-social wasps. Cretaceous ants shared both wasp-like and modern ant-like characteristics (Wilson 1967). During the Cretaceous era, representatives of only a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on what was the super-continent Laurasia (the northern hemisphere). They were scarce in comparison to other insects (about only one percent). The ants became dominant in an adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Tertiary Period. Of the species extant in the Cretaceous and Eocene eras, only one of about ten genera is now extinct. 56 percent of the genera represented on the Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 96 percent of the genera represented in the Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene) still survive today (Grimbaldi 2000). There is now great diversity among ants and their behaviors. They range in size from two to about 25 mm (about 0.08 to one inch). Their color may vary; most are red or black, but other colors can also be seen, including some tropical groups with a metallic luster. Numerous species of ant continue to be added in present times and taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants. Humans and ants Benefits to humans Humans benefit greatly from the ants' role in helping to maintain the balance of nature. In addition ants may help keep potentially harmful insects, such as termites and agricultural pests, under control. The Masai of Africa had an abiding respect for the siafu ants, voracious predators that consume a large amount of insects and are welcomed for the benefit they bring to farmers, as they will eliminate all pests from a crop and quickly move on. The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is one of the oldest known uses of biological control (Holldobler 1990). In some cultures, ants are used as food and ingredients in traditional medicine. In some parts of the world large ants, especially army ants, are used as sutures by pressing the wound together and applying ants along it. The ant in defensive attitude seizes the edges in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles can remain in place, closing the wound (Gottrup 2004). Harm to humans The vast majority of ant species do no direct or indirect harm to humans. However, besides the painful bites and stings of some species, ants can harm human interests as agricultural pests. Insect tending species, such as the Argentine ant (Linepithema humile), which has spread to North America and Europe with human help, and the fungus cultivating leafcutter ants can be especially damaging to crops. In rare cases, death may result from allegeric reaction to ant stings. Carpenter ants, Camponotus species, burrow into dead wood and sometimes damage wooden buildings. Humans have contributed to ant problems by spreading some species from their natural habitats to other continents and to islands. The Invasive Species Specialist Group lists 16 ant species as harmful invasive species. Among the problems mentioned are destruction of native species of ants and other insects, harm to plant species that depend on native ants for pollination and seed dispersal, damage to crops, bites and stings, and possible spread of disease organisms to hospitalized patients (ISSG 2007). Although most of the species of ants seen in homes do very little harm, modern society often considers the ant a pest. Due to the adaptive nature of ant colonies, eliminating them is nearly impossible. Pest control with regard to ants is more a matter of controlling local populations than eliminating an entire colony. Attempts to control ant populations of any kind are temporary solutions. Typical ants that are classified as pests include pavement ants (otherwise known as the sugar ant), Pharaoh ants, carpenter ants, Argentine ants, and the red imported fire ant. Control of species populations are usually done with bait insecticides, which are either in the form of small granules, or as a sticky liquid that is gathered by the ants as food and then brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other members of the brood—a system that can severely reduce the numbers in a colony if used properly. Boric acid and borax are often used as insecticides that are relatively safe for humans. With the recent insurgence of the red imported fire ant, a tactic called broadcast baiting has been employed, by which the substance (usually a granule bait designed specifically for fire ants) is spread across a large area, such as a lawn, in order to control populations. Nests may be destroyed by tracing the ants' trails back to the nest, then pouring boiling water into it to kill the queen. Ants in human culture Traditional cultures often had a great respect for ants. In parts of Africa, they are said to be the messengers of the gods. Some Native American religions, such as Hopi mythology, recognize ants as the very first animals. The Japanese word for ant, ari, is represented by an ideograph formed of the character for insect combined with the character signifying moral rectitude, propriety (giri). So the Chinese character could possibly be read as The Propriety-Insect. Its actual etymology is likely to be different, however (Hearn 1904). In the Book of Proverbs in the Bible ants are held up as a good example for humans for their hard work and cooperation. Aesop did the same in his fable "The Grasshopper and the Ants." Mark Twain wrote about ants in his A Tramp Abroad. Some modern authors have used the example of the ants to comment on the relationship between society and the individual. Examples are Robert Frost in his poem "Departmental" and T. H. White in his fantasy novel The Once and Future King (Harris 1999). Ants have been used as the inspiration for science fiction races, as in Robert Heinlein's Starship Troopers and Orson Scott Card's Ender's Game. These races are often referenced as having a hive mind, a common misconception about ant colonies, and benefit from uncommon unity of focus and a willingness for the individual to give its life for the good of the hive. Ants also appear in comic strips such as Johnny Hart's B. C. and animated movies such as Antz and A Bug's Life, where they serve to make fun of human society. - Brown, S. G., M. D. Wiese, K. E. Blackman, and R. J. Heddle. 2005. "Efficacy of ant venom immunotherapy and whole body extracts." Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 116(2). - Clark, P. 1986. The natural history of sensitivity to jack jumper ants (hymenoptera:formicidae:Myrmecia pilosula) in Tasmania. Medical Journal of Australia 145: 564-566. - Clay, R., and A. Andersen. 1996. "Ant fauna of a mangrove community in the Australian seasonal tropics, with particular reference to zonation." Australian Journal of Zoology 44: 521–533. - Franks, N. R. 2005. "Tomb evaders: House-hunting hygiene in ants." Biology Letters 1(2): 190–192 - Fukushi, T. 2001. "Homing in wood ants, Formica japonica: use of the skyline panorama". The Journal of Experimental Biology. Retrieved October 5, 2007. - Gordon, D. 1999. Ants at Work. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0684857332. - Gottrup, F., and D. Leaper. 2004. "Wound healing: historical aspects". EWMA Journal 4(2). Retrieved November 3, 2007. - Grimaldi, D., and D. Agosti. 2000. A formicine in New Jersey Cretaceous amber (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and early evolution of the ants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Retrieved September 30, 2007. - Harris, S. 1999. A few thoughts on the dead ant heap and our mechanical society. Alcor.org. Retrieved October 13, 2007. - Hearn, L. Kwaidan: Japanese stories and studies of strange things. World Wide School Library. Retrieved October 13, 2007. - Henderson, G., J. F. Anderson, J. K. Phillips, and R. L. Jeanne. 2005. "Internest aggression and identification of possible nestmate discrimination pheromones in polygynous ant Formica montana." Journal of Chemical Ecology 16(7): 2217-2228. - Hölldobler, B., and E. Wilson. 1990. The Ants. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674040759. - Hoyt, E. 1996. The Earth Dwellers: Adventures in the Land of Ants. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684810867. - Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). 2007. Ants. Invasive Species Specialist Group Website. Retrieved October 13, 2007. - Jones, A. 2007. Did you know?. Nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved September 30, 2007. - Julian G. E., and S. Cahan. 1999. "Undertaking specialization in the desert leaf-cutter ant Acromyrmex versicolor." Animal Behavior 58(2): 437-442. - Krushelnycky, P. 2005. Hawaii ants. Antweb.org. Retrieved September 30, 2007. - López-riquelme, G., E. A. Malo, L. Cruz-lópez, and M. L. Fanjul-Moles. 2006. "Antennal olfactory sensitivity in response to task-related odors of three castes of the ant." Atta mexicana (hymenoptera: formicidae). Physiological Entomology 31: 353–360. - Milius, S. 2000. When ants squeak. Science News Online. Retrieved October 5, 2007. - Moreau, C., et al. 2006. Phylogeny of the ants: Diversification in the age of angiosperms. Science. Retrieved September 30, 2007. - Morrison, L. 1998. "A review of Bahamian ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) biogeography." Journal of Biogeography 25(3): 561-571. - Schultz, T. 2000. In search of ant ancestors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Retrieved September 30, 2007. - Urbani, C. B., G. S. Boyan, A. Blarer, J. Billen, and T. M. Musthak Ali. 1994. "A novel mechanism for jumping in the Indian ant Harpegnathos saltator (Jerdon) (Formicidae, Ponerinae)." Experientia 50: 63-71. - Wilson, E., F. M. Carpenter, and W. L. Brown. 1967. The first Mesozoic ants. Science 157: 1038-1040. Retrieved September 30, 2007. - Wilson, E. 1971. The Insect Societies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674454901. - Wilson, E. and Holldobler, H. 2005. "The rise of the ants: A phylogenetic and ecological explanation". Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 10221): 7411–7414. Retrieved September 30, 2007. - Yanoviak, S. P., R. Dudley, and M. Kaspari. 2005. "Directed aerial descent in canopy ants." Nature 433: 624-626. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. 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How do new technologies influence our lives? This question does not have a straightforward answer. The process of innovation is deeply embedded into many cultural and social practices—we influence the direction and shape of new technologies almost as much as they influence us. While we’re living in a period of remarkable technological change, it is not the first time in history that people have grappled with the social and cultural issues that arise with the introduction of new technologies. What can we learn about our own era from studying how innovations such as electricity and the telephone changed people’s perspectives? Within this course we will examine arguments about the social construction of science and technologies by looking at innovation during different periods of American and European history. Are there some commonalities and connections that we can see among the adoption of technologies and practices as diverse as the telephone, electricity, the Internet, and file sharing? How do our cultural hopes, dreams and anxieties shape new technologies? In what way do users shape new technologies? At the end of the course, we will be able to see technology as Thomas Hughes says, as “full of contradictions, laden with human folly, saved by occasional benign deeds, and rich with unintended consequences.” We will also be able to see more clearly the ways in which culture and technology are interdependent, shaping and influencing each other. Students at the end of this course should be able to • Understand basic themes in the social studies of science and technology including social construction, mutual shaping, and design-in-use; • Understand the cultural impact of new computer technologies and be able to trace the history of differing cultural attitudes towards information technologies since World War II; • Analyze current debates and discourses about new technologies and compare these previous ones from other historical moments; • Analyze how a new innovation can simultaneously influence culture and how it might arise out of our contemporary cultural environment. • Develop new conceptual tools for examining technological change.
We hear all the time about the importance of bees because they pollinate plants, not just flowers but crops as well. For me this raised the question how do the bees actually pollinate plants? Bees are purpose built to pollinate flowers. The aroma of the nectar attracts the bees. As bees collect nectar, pollen from the anther (male part) sticks to their body. Moving flower to flower the bees are transferring pollen to the stigma (female part) of the flower. This pollinates the plant. The diagram below outline how the bees facilitate the process of pollination. How do flowers attract bees for pollination? To comprehend this better we need to recognise that not all plants are necessarily trying to attract honey bees. There is more than one way that pollination can occur. About 12% of plants with flowers don’t actually require pollination from anything else but the wind. These plants rely solely on the wind to blow pollen from the flower and deposit it on another flower in order for fertilization to occur. Interestingly, these plants often have dull flowers and very little scent. Some aquatic plants rely on water to transfer pollen in order to be pollinated. The incredible South East Asian flower the Rafflesia is different again and challenges what we stereotypically think of a flower. The Rafflesia flower is the largest in the world, growing up to a staggering 100cm (39.4 inches) in diameter and weighing up to 10kg (22lb). This flower is in no way trying to attract honey bees and you certainly won’t see it in a floral bouquet at your local florist. Check out this picture of one. They look cool but maybe not so nice on the nostrils. Shockingly it looks and smells like rotting flesh. The Rafflesia flower attracts flies which fly from flower to flower looking to lay eggs and in turn distributing pollen amongst the flowers resulting in pollination. The remaining 70% to 80% of flowers require pollination by insects, making the honey bee the true super heros. Not only are they unbelievably efficient at collecting and distributing pollen as the move from flower to flower, they are also like heat seeking missiles when it comes to locating and targeting flowers to pollinate. On top of this they are team players and can very accurately communicate the location of the flowers to other bees from their hive. It is not uncommon to see large flowering trees with literally thousands of bees collectively gathering pollen and nectar. Inherently there are three key characteristics that plants use to attract or even distracted certain pollinators. They are: The color of the flower can be a distinct enticement to certain types of pollinators. Typically birds are attracted to bright colors, commonly those with red and yellow flowers. More often than not, honey bees are attracted to shades of blue, white, and yellow flowers. Some plants even have a secret weapon for attracting honey bees. The flowers on these plants have unique markings that absorb and reflect ultraviolet light. Bees can spot the ultraviolet light like a beacon attracting them to the sweet nectar inside the flower. The image below is what a white Gerbera like under ultraviolet light. For most pollinators the common prize they are all seeking is the nectar inside the flower. Honey bees have a strikingly acute sense of smell with a staggering 170 odor receptors located in their antennae. The odor receptors have the ability to zero in on a target scent allowing the bees to not only distinguish the type of flower they want but the direction the flower is in. They can do all of this mid flight, making bees dynamically efficient in finding nectar and pollen. The scent of the nectar usually comes from deep within the flower. The flowers anthers and stigmas are positioned in such a way that as the bee climbs into the flower they brush past these vital parts. This process will not only collect pollen but drop pollen from the small hairs on their bodies, in turn pollinating the plant. It is usual that there is enough nectar for countless bees ensuring a high probability of effective pollination of the flower. Interestingly birds typically have a poor sense of smell meaning the sweet scent of nectar is not the primary attraction for them, it is in fact the colour. The shape of a flower can not only influence how pollination occurs but also the types of pollinators it attracts. For example, long tubular flowers where the nectar is located deep within the flower are ideal for nectar eating birds from the Meliphagidae family. These birds are able to submerge their beaks into the flower. Large open flowers such as sunflowers have a large, exposed circumference making way for a multitude of bees to collectively gather nectar and pollen at the same time. It’s common practice for farmers of sunflowers to contract beekeepers to bring in hives as a safeguard ensuring big plantations of sunflowers are suitably pollinated. Pea shaped flowers typically have a top petal called a banner, two bottom petals called a keel and side petals called wings. When the bees enter into the middle of the flower her weight on the keel petals causes the anthers and stigma brush against the bee’s body promoting the transfer of pollen both ways via the hair on the bee’s body. How do bees collect the pollen? The worker bees body is covered in fine hair. The pollen from the flowers the bees visit sticks to these hairs. The bee then grooms herself with her legs. The grooming process pushes the collected pollen into the bees “pollen baskets” located on her back legs. The pollen collection area on the bees legs look like little baskets. They are made up of a bundle of long stiff hairs. Why do bees pollinate flowers? It is not the bees specific intention to pollinate the flowers. The bees are lured to the flower by the sweet scent of the nectar on offer, they crawl deep inside of the flower draw in their prize with their proboscis or tongue. In the process of foraging for the nectar they come in contact with the male part of the flower called the anther. This is where the grains of pollen from the male plant cells are discharged and stick to the body of the bee. This has meaningful health benefits for the bee as the pollen is a vital protein source for their hive. At the same time the worker bee is also coming in contact with the stigma, the female part of the flower. This is where pollen grains from other flowers the bee has visited are attaching and fertilizing the flower. When the bees honey sack called the “crop” is full they will groom the excess pollen into their pollen baskets and return to the hive where the pollen and nectar provides rich resources for the hive. What happens if a plant is not pollinated? For a plant, pollination is the process that secures reproduction of future generations of their species. Plants do this by producing seeds, some plants can produce millions of seeds during a season while others relatively few. While no one species is the same, one thing they collectively have in common is they all have to produce the seeds. In order for this to occur they need their flowers to be pollinated. Some flowers can self pollinate to produce their seeds while and others need to be cross-pollinated by the wind, birds, bees or other insects or a seed will not form. It is fairly easy to tell if fruit and vegetables have had poor or incomplete pollination of their flowers. The evidence of this will be seen in the fruit. The flesh of the fruit is customarily there to protect the seed of the plant. If the flower is not pollinated or only partially pollinated the flesh around the seed will form an odd shape, be inconsistent in size or underdeveloped, and won’t ripen properly resulting in impoverished fruit. Check out these strawberry, they are a good example of poor pollination. You can see why bees are so important for farmers whose livelihood relies on the pollination process to produce desirable produce fit for consumption. For some plants proper pollination is critical. In some cases no seed at all is produced if pollination is not successful. Almonds are an example of this. For this reason in California, the largest almond growing area in the world with over 1 million acres of crops in 2018 contracted almost 2 million beehives from beekeepers to ensure their trees were properly pollenatied. Popular self pollinating plants that you might eat from include: - Green peppers - Chilli peppers - Lima beans Popular wind pollinated plants that we eat from include: Honey bees are particularly critical to the pollination of the crops listed below. Farmers have will hire beekeepers to provide bee hives to ensure consistent pollination and superior yielding crops. Gaining an understanding on how bees pollinate plants acutely highlights how crucial a role they play in nature. Whilst there are other insects, birds and even the wind administering pollination for some species of plants, the humble honey bee is undoubtedly the biggest contributor to pollination worldwide. It is not surprising that the honey bees were declared the “most important living being earth”. I hope you are encouraged to do all that we can to help these incredible creatures thrive.
This guide provides teaching and learning modules that incorporate collections from the Rubenstein Library's Human Rights Archive. The modules are easy to use tools for instructors who want to teach students how to understand and analyze primary sources. All the exercises and resources are available on-line and at no cost. Each subsection of the guide focuses on a collecting topic of the Human Rights Archive. They include digital and digitized primary sources, brief descriptions of the documents, learning outcomes for each exercise, and a document analysis worksheet with guiding questions and discussion points. As defined by the American Library Association, "Primary sources are the evidence of history, original records or objects created by participants or observers at the time historical events occurred or even well after events, as in memoirs and oral histories...These sources serve as the raw materials historians use to interpret and analyze the past." Primary sources may include letters, memos, postcards, posters, interviews, videos, cassette tapes, e-mail, spreadsheets, websites, and even social media accounts.
Engaging with game designers and educators at the Education in Games Summit, highlighted the importance of learning through play. Creating meaningful and relevant play provides opportunities to enhance meaning and guide participants from what is known to what is unknown. Participating in online group games can expand social networks and dissolve barriers between individuals and groups. Games such as Autcraft (Minecraft Server for children with Autism and their families) provide opportunities for players to investigate new concepts or to try and fail and try again which can lead to the development of interpersonal communication, social and cultural networks and skills. At the Summit, educators were exposed to various free online game design programs such as Gamefroot (a versatile version of Scratch for game design) which supports educators in promoting education through game play and design. A demonstration of the Biodash showed how tech and games, can be used to boost wellbeing. Students use the “Muse” a device which uses EEG tech to monitor brainwaves whilst playing the “Walk the Walk” game and relays current state of focus in real time. Whilst playing the game, students also use the “Pip” to help teach them how to manage stress better. “Pip” technology measures sweat conductivity to share state of relaxation in real-time. Wellbeing is a skill to learn and practice, with the help of “Muse” and “Pip” technology students can play games such Walk the Walk by Harmonious games to train future habits of wellbeing such as breathing, mental imagery and emotion regulation.
In general, fans are selected for their ability to deliver a required air volume flow rate against an estimated system resistance to flow, or pressure. This defines an Operating Point and is usually expressed in m³/h at Pascals, or cfm at inches Water Gauge. Volume flow rate is calculated from application data and may be based on a requirement to heat, cool, or ventilate air, ensure even air temperature distribution, or to contain air that has been contaminated. Where building ventilation is concerned there is a need to extract stale air, fumes and heat at a rate that depends on the purpose of the building. The calculation is based on air changes per hour and may be as few as 1 for a church or 60 for a furnace room. When extracting a known amount of heat from, for example, a power electronic enclosure, the minimum volume flow rate for a given permitted temperature rise may be calculated using a formula that takes account of the density and specific heat of air. For a laboratory fume cupboard, or hood, the flow rate is calculated from knowledge of the minimum air speed required to contain fumes at the open sash of a fume cupboard, or through the inlet area of a hood. Pressure loss is the resistance to air flow and is caused by molecular friction and surface friction as air passes through a system. It is expressed in Pascals (Newtons/m²) or inches Water Gauge and varies with the square of the air velocity. Thus doubling the flow rate through a given system has the effect of quadrupling the pressure, and halving it quarters the pressure. The pressure loss within equipment containing complex air paths is difficult to estimate, so requires experience of similar systems. For ductwork it is a well researched subject with pressure charts and loss factors for each element in the system. Static Pressure is the pressure exerted on duct walls and corresponds to potential energy. Velocity Pressure is the flow pressure and corresponds to kinetic energy. The sum of the two is Total Pressure and corresponds to the total energy increase provided by the fan. Static Pressure loss is estimated by calculating the Velocity Pressure through each component in the ductwork system and multiplying it by a constant, known as a ‘k’ factor for that component, to provide an estimate of the component Static Pressure. The System Static Pressure is then the sum of all component Static Pressures, and the Velocity Pressure is calculated from the discharge air velocity. By knowing the System Operating Point it is possible to plot a System Characteristic curve from which the performance of any fan on that system can be estimated.
Protecting native brook trout by isolating them from brown trout In many coldwater streams in North America, nonnative trout are replacing native trout populations through hybridization, competition, and predation. Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis; Figure 1) are a species native to eastern North America. Throughout their native range, brook trout populations have experienced severe declines due to overfishing, habitat degradation, acid rain, climate change, and the introduction of nonnative species. Brown trout (Salmo trutta; Figure 2) are native to Europe but have been stocked in North America and worldwide due to their popularity with anglers. They are prized by fly fishermen for their large size and elusiveness. Compared to brook trout, brown trout are highly territorial, grow much larger, and can tolerate warmer water temperatures. There are several conservation strategies for protecting native trout populations. One of the most popular strategies is isolation management. With this method, barriers are placed in areas where they limit dispersal to prevent nonnative trout from spreading upstream. This strategy has been used in the western United States to conserve populations of cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii) that have been relegated to headwater streams by competing nonnative trout. Similarly, brown trout have invaded the downstream reaches in many watersheds in the eastern United States relegating brook trout to small, headwater streams. Mark Kirk, Anna Rosswog, Kirsten Ressel and Dr. Scott Wissinger from Allegheny College evaluated the potential of isolation management for brook trout populations in the upper Allegheny River basin in northwestern Pennsylvania. Between 2006 and 2016, Dr. Wissinger’s lab surveyed the populations of brook and brown trout at 78 locations throughout the river basin as a part of a larger fish community study in the region (Figure 3). These data suggested that there were possible barriers separating brown trout from brook trout populations in headwater streams. Examples of barriers found include man-made dams, wetlands, and impoundments created by beaver activity. These barriers served as an experiment to understand what might happen if barriers were purposefully introduced. From May through October 2016, 34 of the sites were specifically sampled using a backpack electrofisher to compare the trout species present in the streams containing barriers that may prevent brown trout from spreading upstream and those present in the streams without barriers. The researchers chose the sites within areas where brown trout are stocked but brook trout are not. They classified sites where they caught naturally reproducing brook trout as “brook trout sites” and sites where one or more brown trout were caught were classified as “brown trout sites”. The researchers found that brown trout were the dominant trout species in larger streams and brook trout were more common in smaller headwater streams. The headwater streams had more forest canopy cover and colder water temperatures than the larger streams dominated by brown trout. Streams with barriers were found to be 12 times more likely to only have brook trout living in them, whereas 91% of streams with brown trout had no downstream barrier. In streams where both species were found, brook trout densities were lower and fewer age classes were found. Brown trout are territorial and may outcompete brook trout for habitat and food sources. Though there are benefits to isolating brook trout populations from invading brown trout, there are also risks. Small, isolated populations can be in danger of extirpation (extinction in a specific area though the species exists elsewhere) due to localized disasters such as floods, forest fires, droughts or deep freezes. Barriers also prevent the populations from interacting with each other and can lead to a loss of genetic diversity through inbreeding. When faced with these circumstances, fisheries managers should examine the trade-offs between purposefully isolating the native population and the invasion threat from the nonnative species. If isolation is the best strategy, the streams containing the native trout species should be protected from habitat degradation and landscape alterations that may raise water temperatures. To prevent further fragmentation, constructed barriers should be positioned to permit seasonal movements between the isolated populations to help avoid the loss of genetic diversity. Native trout populations that are too isolated from others may require genetic rescues (introducing genes from one population to another to increase genetic diversity). There are three specific scenarios where this strategy would be best implemented for conserving native brook trout: in low gradient streams, larger headwater streams, and streams along the edge of the brook trout’s distribution where they have already experienced population declines. The results of this study show that isolation management may be a viable strategy to protect brook trout populations in small, headwater streams when the threat of being displaced by nonnative brown trout is high. Kirk, M.A., A.N. Rosswog, K.N. Ressel, and S.A. Wissinger. 2018. Evaluating the trade-offs between invasion and isolation for native brook trout and nonnative brown trout in Pennsylvania streams. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 147(5): 806-817.
The best online tutors use a variety of techniques to boost e-learning performance. The use of mind mapping is one of them. Mind mapping is the process of creating a visual hierarchy between pieces of the whole. Therefore, organizing information via diagrams (mind maps) is crucial to the online tutoring practice. What is a mind map? Mind mapping is the process of creating a visual canvas about a subject or some type of information. Mind maps combine both the logical and creative aspects of an idea. Therefore, it is a strategy that is highly effective, as well as being a mighty memorable tool, especially in the virtual classroom where it is crucial to grab the audience’s attention and to be an interesting online tutor. All mind maps have a natural organizational structure. It all starts from the center and combines lines, symbols, and words. The information is presented in a condensed and visually attractive way. The brain-friendly diagrams represent key thoughts and easily guide the thought process. Moreover, mind maps create new shortcuts to basic concepts. They are also a great tool for brainstorming since their meaning is ever evolving. Online tutors in the virtual classroom can especially benefit from the exploding dynamics of mind mapping. It is useful for both online teachers and students and can take the e-learning process to the next level. Use mind maps in your online practice to: - Help online students explore an idea or concept - Create new solutions to an existing problem - Organize ideas - Structure information - Recap/summarize facts, data, etc. - Transform the relationships between things into an understandable sequence - Teach students how to organize or prioritize tasks - Boost brainstorming practices - Create storyboard presentations - Improve critical thinking - Outline written documents - Conduct research Why it works There are no hidden powers behind mind mapping. It always works and there is an easy explanation for this. On the one hand, our brain more easily takes in visual information. On the other hand, it combines both creativity and logic. Therefore, mind mapping triggers both hemispheres of the brain. Our brain is divided into two halves. Each half is responsible for certain functions. The left brain is more verbal, analytical, and orderly than the right brain. The right brain is more visual and intuitive. Mind mapping includes the whole range of intellectual tasks. The more activities that are integrated into the e-learning process, the more the ability to memorize and to process information are boosted. Using mind mapping in the virtual classroom engages both brain hemispheres. It combines words in images, creativity, and logic. Therefore, it is the ultimate thinking tool. Mind mapping in education Online tutors have been explaining concepts and challenging their students’ imagination for a long time. The virtual classroom has a wide range of mechanisms to engage students and to transfer a large amount of data and facts into time resistant knowledge. Mind mapping tools can be used either with software or with a pen and paper. Regardless of the method, visually explained content is easier to organize. Mind maps provide online tutors with the ability to review their students’ work and progress. It is an excellent way to evaluate the level of understanding of their students. Whatever the particular goal, there are certain characteristics that mind maps share: - The main idea is the central image - The main themes radiate from the central image in different directions - The branches comprise a key image or keyword - Topics of lesser importance are represented as “twigs” of the relevant branch - Adding images invokes thought or helps to make the message better understood - The branches form a connected nodal structure Mind mapping tips for beginners Mind maps can be used for literally any thinking or learning task, from studying a subject to building better habits. Here are some key points you can start from: - Take a blank page and position your idea at the center. Give your brain freedom and let the process flow. - Insert an image to support your central idea. Then you can add a mood or brainstorm another idea. - Connect the main branches to the central idea. Then multiply them. - Create different levels of associations. Your brain will love it. - Try to think of at least two main points for each subtheme that you created and create new branches. - Use short phrases or even single words for each idea. - Be bold with the use of colors. For some people making associations happens much easier when color is incorporated. - Don’t stay in the box. Use curved, colored, or any kind of lines that you want. When it comes to mind mapping, linear thinking is an enemy of the brain. - Focus on a single keyword per branch. It will give your brain both focus and freedom. - Use plenty of images. Your mind map will evolve over time. Therefore, give yourself time and space to make new associations. - Revise concepts often. - Don’t forget to have fun! You can create a mind map on paper, in a drawing app on your tablet, or on one of the many popular mind mapping software tools.
Explore Makerspace! With 25 Great Projects With 25 Science Projects for Kids What do you think of when you hear the word “robot?” Real robots might look different from what you imagine! In Robotics: With 25 Science Projects for Kidslearn about robots past and present and discover the programming and mechanics that make them work. Essential questions, fun facts, and hands-on STEM experiments make this book a$14.95 - $19.95 The Physics Behind Kicking a Field Goal and Launching a Rocket with Science Activities for Kids You might think that nailing a three-pointer is just luck, but there are many forces at work that determine if you’ve made a game-winning shot. In Projectile Science: The Physics Behind Kicking a Field Goal and Launching a Rocket with Science Activities for Kids, readers ages 10 to 15 learn why projectiles follow the paths$17.95 - $22.95 With 25 Science Projects for Kids Look up, up, up! How do skyscrapers get so tall? Skyscrapers are amazing feats of engineering that kids (and adults!) find fascinating. How do they get so high? How do they stay standing? Who is involved in designing and building these gravity-defying structures? In Skyscrapers! With 25 Science Projects for Kids, children ages 7 to 10 learn$14.95 - $19.95 Cool Women Who Fly Being a pilot means having technical expertise, persistence, and lots of courage! In Aviation: Cool Women Who Fly, readers ages 9-12 meet three women who are working in aviation and discover what it takes to fly high in this challenging field.$9.95 - $19.95 National Science Teachers Association Recommends "That terms like "makerspace" and "fab (for fabrication) lab" have, in a short time, become trendy clichés should not detract from the notion that having a dedicated location of this sort is a really good idea. Where schools have invested in 3D printers, these "makerspaces" are common, but author Alicia Klepeis and illustrator Matt Aucoin demonstrate how a design and engineering center can work with ordinary materials and not much technology . . ." Read the complete review online. Sue Considine, Executive Director, Fayetteville Free Library "Explore Makerspace! is a must-have for every classroom, library, and informal learning environment. The colorful, engaging layout, timeline, key words, and concepts all combine to introduce the reader to a makerspace world of tinkering, invention, and entrepreneurship. Explore Makerspace! will spark curiosity and interest in young and old alike and will inspire readers to think like problem solvers, idea generators, Makers!" For educators! Download a packet of essential questions, mentor texts, and Common Core State Standards to use in classrooms and libraries.Classroom Guide Looking for more? Take a look at related books in these collections! Download a free activity from this book!Download a free activity from this book! Detailed Book Description Bridges, furniture, musical instruments, games, vehicles-all of these things were invented and improved upon by people who love to put stuff together, take stuff apart, and figure out how things work! In Explore Makerspace! With 25 Great Projects, readers ages 7 to 10 explore what it means to be an engineer. - This nonfiction title for ages 7 through 10 introduces the topic of makerspaces while integrating STEAM, art, math, and music activities. - Encourages the development of important skills, including problem solving and model testing. - Multi-disciplinary activities create opportunities to invent new structures, games, musical instruments, and more. TABLE OF CONTENTS What Is a Makerspace?
There are three significant and interrelated threats to free-living chimpanzees: habitat destruction, logging, and the bushmeat trade. With the continual rise in human population comes increasing demand for land for living and agriculture; local agricultural activities are encroaching ever deeper into even protected areas of chimpanzee habitats. Logging clears the land for expanding agriculture but also for economic gain; the exotic woods of the equatorial forests garner high prices in lumber markets around the world. In addition to the direct loss of habitat to logging, lumber companies build large roads into once pristine forest, dividing up chimpanzee territory, separating communities, and, most significantly, allowing easy access to bushmeat traders. While subsistence hunting of chimpanzees as a source of meat has gone on for centuries, the level of illegal hunting has risen in recent years to unsustainable levels. A thriving world market for bushmeat – the meat of animals from African forests, including that of chimpanzees – has arisen and is now a major threat to their survival. Chimpanzees used to live throughout equatorial Africa from southern Senegal through Central Africa to western Tanzania. This is an area almost the size of the United States and includes 25 countries. Today, chimpanzees are extinct in 4 of those countries. Another 5 countries have small, scattered populations of a few hundred. Their disappearance is inevitable. Only 10 countries have chimpanzee populations that exceed 1,000. Only 50 years ago there were probably several million chimpanzees in Africa; now, there are estimated to be only about 200,000 chimpanzees remaining. Source: Tess Lemon, Chimpanzees, Whittet Books, London, 1994 \| Save the Chimps
The image is from Wikipedia Commons A warship or combatant ship is a naval ship that is built and primarily intended for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the armed forces of a state. As well as being armed, warships are designed to withstand damage and are usually faster and more maneuverable than merchant ships. Unlike a merchant ship, which carries cargo, a warship typically carries only weapons, ammunition and supplies for its crew. Warships usually belong to a navy, though they have also been operated by individuals, cooperatives and corporations. In wartime, the distinction between warships and merchant ships is often blurred. In war, merchant ships are often armed and used as auxiliary warships, such as the Q-ships of the First World War and the armed merchant cruisers of the Second World War. Until the 17th century it was common for merchant ships to be pressed into naval service and not unusual for more than half a fleet to be composed of merchant ships. Until the threat of piracy subsided in the 19th century, it was normal practice to arm larger merchant ships such as galleons. Warships have also often been used as troop carriers or supply ships, such as by the French Navy in the 18th century or the Japanese Navy during the Second World War. History and evolution of warships In the time of Mesopotamia, Ancient Persia, Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, warships were always galleys (such as biremes, triremes and quinqueremes): long, narrow vessels powered by banks of oarsmen and designed to ram and sink enemy vessels, or to engage them bow-first and follow up with boarding parties. The development of catapults in the 4th century BC and the subsequent refinement of this technology enabled the first fleets of artillery-equipped warships by the Hellenistic age. During late antiquity, ramming fell out of use and the galley tactics against other ships used during the Middle Ages until the late 16th century focused on boarding. The Age of Sail Naval artillery was redeveloped in the 14th century, but cannons did not become common at sea until the guns were capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a ship required to carry a large number of cannons made oar-based propulsion impossible, and warships came to rely primarily on sails. The sailing man-of-war emerged during the 16th century. By the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannon on their broadsides and tactics evolved to bring each ship's firepower to bear in a line of battle. The man-of-war now evolved into the ship of the line. In the 18th century, the frigate and sloop-of-war – too small to stand in the line of battle – evolved to convoy trade, scout for enemy ships and blockade enemy coasts. Steel, steam and shellfire During the 19th century a revolution took place in the means of marine propulsion, naval armament and construction of warships. Marine steam engines were introduced, at first as an auxiliary force, in the second quarter of the 19th century. The Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the development of guns. The introduction of explosive shells soon led to the introduction of iron, and later steel, naval armour for the sides and decks of larger warships. The first ironclad warships, the French Gloire and British Warrior, made wooden vessels obsolete. Metal soon entirely replaced wood as the main material for warship construction. From the 1850s, the sailing ships of the line were replaced by steam-powered battleships, while the sailing frigates were replaced by steam-powered cruisers. The armament of warships also changed with the invention of the rotating barbettes and turrets, which allowed the guns to be aimed independently of the direction of the ship and allowed a smaller number of larger guns to be carried. The final innovation during the 19th century was the development of the torpedo and development of the torpedo boat. Small, fast torpedo boats seemed to offer an alternative to building expensive fleets of battleships. Another revolution in warship design began shortly after the start of the 20th century, when Britain launched the Royal Navy's all-big-gun battleship Dreadnought in 1906. Powered by steam turbines, it was bigger, faster and more heavily gunned than any existing battleships, which it immediately rendered obsolete. It was rapidly followed by similar ships in other countries. The Royal Navy also developed the first battlecruisers. Mounting the same heavy guns as the dreadnoughts on an even larger hull, battlecruisers sacrificed amour protection for speed. Battlecruisers were faster and more powerful than all existing cruisers, which they made obsolete, but battlecruisers proved to be much more vulnerable than contemporary battleships. The torpedo-boat destroyer was developed at the same time as the dreadnoughts. Bigger, faster and more heavily gunned than the torpedo boat, the destroyer evolved to protect the capital ships from the menace of the torpedo boat. At this time, Britain also developed the use of fuel oil to produce steam to power warships, instead of coal. While reliance on coal required navies to adopt a "coal strategy" to remain viable, fuel oil produced twice the power and was significantly easier to handle. Tests were conducted by the Royal Navy in 1904 involving the torpedo-boat destroyer Spiteful, the first warship powered solely by fuel oil. These proved its superiority, and all warships procured for the Royal Navy from 1912 were designed to burn fuel oil. During the lead-up to the Second World War, Germany and Great Britain once again emerged as the two dominant Atlantic sea powers. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, had its navy limited to only a few minor surface ships. But the clever use of deceptive terminology, such as "Panzerschiffe" deceived the British and French commands. They were surprised when ships such as Admiral Graf Spee, Scharnhorst, and Gneisenau raided the Allied supply lines. The greatest threat though, was the introduction of the Kriegsmarine's largest vessels, Bismarck and Tirpitz. Bismarck was heavily damaged and sunk/scuttled after a series of sea battles in the north Atlantic in 1941, while Tirpitz was destroyed by the Royal Air Force in 1944. The British Royal Navy gained dominance of the European theatre by 1943. The Second World War brought massive changes in the design and role of several types of warships. For the first time, the aircraft carrier became the clear choice to serve as the main capital ship within a naval task force. World War II was the only war in history in which battles occurred between groups of carriers. World War II saw the first use of radar in combat. It brought the first naval battle in which the ships of both sides never engaged in direct combat, instead sending aircraft to make the attacks, in the Battle of Coral Sea. Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories, which are: aircraft carriers, cruisers,[a] destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines and amphibious assault ships. Battleships comprise an eighth category, but are not in current service with any navy in the world. Only the deactivated American Iowa-class battleships still exist as potential combatants, and battleships in general are unlikely to re-emerge as a ship class without redefinition. The destroyer is generally regarded as the dominant surface-combat vessel of most modern blue-water navies. However, the once distinct roles and appearances of cruisers, destroyers, frigates, and corvettes have blurred. Most vessels have come to be armed with a mix of anti-surface, anti-submarine and anti-aircraft weapons. Class designations no longer reliably indicate a displacement hierarchy, and the size of all vessel types has grown beyond the definitions used earlier in the 20th century. Another key differentiation between older and modern vessels is that all modern warships are "soft", without the thick armor and bulging anti-torpedo protection of World War II and older designs. By 1982 the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) treaty negotiations had produced a legal definition of what was then generally accepted as a late-twentieth century warship. The UNCLOS definition was : "A warship means a ship belonging to the armed forces of a State bearing the external marks distinguishing such ships of its nationality, under the command of an officer duly commissioned by the government of the State and whose name appears in the appropriate service list or its equivalent, and manned by a crew which is under regular armed forces discipline." The first practical submarines were developed in the late 19th century, but it was only after the development of the torpedo that submarines became truly dangerous (and hence useful). By the end of the First World War submarines had proved their potential. During the Second World War Nazi Germany's submarine fleet of U-boats almost starved Britain into submission and inflicted huge losses on US coastal shipping. The success of submarines led to the development of new anti-submarine convoy escorts during the First and Second World Wars, such as the destroyer escort. Confusingly, many of these new types adopted the names of the smaller warships from the age of sail, such as corvette, sloop and frigate. A major shift in naval warfare occurred with the introduction of the aircraft carrier. First at Taranto and then at Pearl Harbor, the aircraft carrier demonstrated its ability to strike decisively at enemy ships out of sight and range of surface vessels. By the end of the Second World War, the carrier had become the dominant warship. - Amphibious assault ship - Aviso, a kind of dispatch boat - Brig of War - Capital ship, the largest and most important ships in a nation's fleet. These were previously battleships, battlecruisers, and aircraft carriers, but the first two warship types are now no longer used. - Aircraft carrier, a warship primarily armed with carrier-based aircraft. - Battlecruiser, a ship with battleship-level armament and cruiser-level amour; typically faster than a battleship because the reduction in armour allowed mounting of more powerful propulsion machinery, or the use of a more slender hull shape with a lower drag coefficient. - Battleship, a large, heavily armored warship equipped with many powerful guns. A term which generally post-dates sailing warships. - Ironclad battleship, battleships built before the pre-dreadnought in the 1870s and 1880s - Pre-dreadnought battleship, sea-going battleships built to a common design before the launch of dreadnoughts, between the mid-1880s and 1905. Pre-dreadnoughts commonly featured a mixed main battery composed of several different caliber guns. - Dreadnought, an early 20th-century battleship, which set the pattern for all subsequent battleship construction. Dreadnoughts differ from pre-dreadnoughts in that they feature an all-big-gun main battery. The advantage lies in that if all the big guns have the same characteristics, only one firing solution will be needed to aim them all. - Bireme, an ancient vessel, propelled by two banks of oars. - Coastal defence ship, a warship built for the purpose of coastal defense. - Commerce raider, any armed vessel—privately or government-owned—sanctioned to raid a nation's merchant fleet. - Corvette, originally a small, lightly armed ship ordered by Winston Churchill, prime minister of Great Britain at the end of WW2. Corvette design was based on a commercial whale catcher, its primary attribute being ease of construction as an emergency wartime anti-submarine weapon. Its original engine was a reciprocating steam engine, original armament was one four inch gun, small arms and depth charges. Primary users of the World War II corvette were the British Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy, although corvettes saw use elsewhere. - Cruiser, a fast, independent warship. Traditionally, cruisers were the smallest warships capable of independent action. Along with battleships and battlecruisers, they have largely vanished from modern navies. - Destroyer, a fast and highly maneuverable warship, traditionally incapable of independent action. Originally developed to counter the threat of torpedo boats, they are now the largest independent warship generally seen on the ocean. - Fast attack craft - Fire ship, a vessel of any sort set on fire and sent into an anchorage or fleet with the intention of causing destruction and chaos. Exploding fire ships may be called hellburners. - Frigate, a ship used in modern navies (Although they date back to the 17th century) that are typically used to protect merchant vessels and other warships. - Galleass, a sailing and rowing warship, equally well suited to sailing and rowing. - Galleon, a 16th-century sailing warship. - Galley, a warship propelled by oars with a sail for use in favorable winds. - Helicopter carrier, an aircraft carrier especially suited to helicopters and amphibious assault. - Ironclad, a wooden warship with external iron plating. - Longship, a Viking raiding ship. - Man-of-war, a British Navy expression for a sailing warship. - Missile boat - Monitor, a small, heavily gunned warship with shallow draft designed for land bombardment. - Naval trawler - Naval drifter - Offshore patrol vessel - Quinquereme, an ancient warship propelled by three banks of oars. On the upper row, two rowers hold one oar; on the middle row, two rowers; and on the lower row, one man to an oar. - Ship of the line, a sailing warship capable of standing in the line of battle. A direct predecessor to the later battleship. - Submarine, a ship capable of remaining underwater for extended periods. Submarines in the world wars could stay under for less than a day, but development of nuclear reactors and air-independent propulsion allows submarines to stay submerged for weeks, even months at a time, with food supplies as the only limiting factor. - Torpedo boat, a small, fast surface vessel designed for launching torpedoes. - Trireme, an ancient warship propelled by three banks of oars. - Bahasa Indonesia - Lingua Franca Nova - Bahasa Melayu - Norsk bokmål - Norsk nynorsk - Simple English - Српски / srpski - Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски - Tiếng Việt - This page is based on the Wikipedia article Warship; it is used under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA). You may redistribute it, verbatim or modified, providing that you comply with the terms of the CC-BY-SA.
From pucho to carpa to caucho, Spanish in the Andes is peppered with words that come from Quechua. Part of that is because of the way Quechua was used in the 16th century. “Quechua was thriving when the Spanish arrived to South America during the 16th century, and it quickly became the subject of systematic study for evangelical purposes in the viceroyalty of Peru,” said Américo Mendoza-Mori, a professor who designed the Quechua Language Program at the University of Pennsylvania. “Grammar texts and dictionaries were written, and college students were required to have some knowledge of Quechua or Aymara. That really helped for the preservation and expansion of the language. The Pastoral use of Quechua probably during the colonial times was key to incorporate [Quechua] words in Spanish and vice versa.” But Quechua – one of the most widely spoken indigenous tongues in the Americas – didn’t just influence language in its immediate surroundings, it made a mark in different parts of the world. Both English and Spanish across Latin America have words that come directly from the language. Here are seven words that derived from Quechua. Update, April 2: One of the entries has been removed, because the origins are contested.
The latest IPCC report predicts global warming of 1.5°C by 2030 unless significant mitigation and adaptation measures are implemented. For Arona Diedhiou, solutions already in place must take greater account of the reality of African contexts. What impacts will global warming of 1.5°C have on the African continent? Over the past fifty years, we have already observed warming of approximately 0.5°C throughout the entire continent, accompanied by a change in the characteristics of extreme climatic events. Compared to the pre-industrial period, anthropogenic global warming has reached 1.1°C, or between 0.8°C and 1.2°C locally and is continuing at a rate of 0.2°C per decade. If nothing is done, this will reach 1.5°C between 2030 and 2052. However, this climate change is not uniform, even across the African continent. In Western Sahel, and especially in Senegal, periods of drought are expected to be increasingly long. In Central Sahel, most models predict an increase in heavy rainfall with increased flood risks in urban areas. On the southern coast of West Africa, heavy rains could cause landslides that would affect populations living in makeshift dwellings. In Southern Africa, droughts will become increasingly frequent with longer and more intense heatwaves. In Northern Africa, most models agree on a significant decrease in rainfall. However, these impacts will be reduced if the temperature increase is limited to 1.5°C rather than reaching 2°C. What are the priority projects for global warming mitigation and adaptation? Most of the proposed solutions, which are related to water, sustainable agriculture and renewable energy sources, do not incorporate biodiversity, ecosystems and their services. The widespread degradation of terrestrial ecosystems reduces their carbon capture potential and makes them a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. On this point, Africa holds a strong hand. Locally, certain initiatives are moving in the right direction with actions to protect natural forests, restore wetlands and promote sustainable agricultural practices, but the challenges remain enormous. On the continental scale, the challenge is to increase access to energy while limiting the use of fossil fuels and to improve agricultural yields to ensure food security for a growing population without negatively impacting the soils and biodiversity. What obstacles to the implementation of these global warming adaptation and mitigation solutions are encountered in Africa? There is a problem with the availability of financial resources and access to green funds. Projects are very complicated to set up: States need to be supported so that they can mobilize more funding. Secondly, project monitoring, evaluation, reporting and verification systems are difficult to develop and operate. In the long term, this hinders the mobilization of additional resources. To solve this problem, the regulatory legislative framework must be better adapted to the local context of each country. The value of carbon dioxide must also be increased, especially when it is captured by a vulnerable community or country, and funding for projects to reduce greenhouse gas emissions must therefore be increased accordingly. Finally, there is a significant need for expertise that is relevant to local contexts. The sustainability of many of the projects being funded for the introduction of renewable energy is not guaranteed. For example, the African Development Bank’s major “Desert to Power” initiative, which aims to reinforce electrification throughout the Sahelian belt, will mobilize a huge amount of funding without necessarily taking into account all the parameters of its implementation. There is a lot of desert dust in this region and a considerable amount of water will be needed for washing the solar panels, yet water is, or will be, in short supply. In some villages, people end up returning to diesel because it guarantees constant access to power. Importing technologies is therefore not sufficient, but reflecting on the sustainability of the proposed solutions in an African context is essential—for the State that is getting into debt, for the populations that will use these solutions and for the donors that finance them! Do you have any examples of virtuous initiatives in global warming mitigation and adaptation? Unlike adaptation actions, which have short- and medium-term effects, the impacts of mitigation actions are only visible in the long term. They attract little attention. One solution is to target actions that are both beneficial for mitigation and adaptation, and especially economically viable actions. For example, the second-hand cars and motorcycles that flood into the African market cause a significant amount of pollution. This has an impact on the regional climate but also on the health of the populations and has an enormous cost. Financing an air quality management policy will help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve people’s well-being while reducing the State’s public health spending. Similarly, to reduce charcoal use and deforestation, it is important to maintain butane gas subsidy policies and ensure that they benefit rural households. At the same time, income-generating activities other than logging need to be identified. The IPCC report shows that there are many synergies, but also points out sources of tension between achieving the SDGs and keeping global warming below 1.5°C. What is your opinion on this issue? The Agenda 2030 Declaration states that: “Climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time and its impact may prevent some countries from achieving sustainable development.” In Africa more than anywhere else, synergies between climate action and sustainable development must be created. Climate change could compromise the development of African countries with low adaptive capacities. SDG 13 on combating climate change expresses this intrinsic link but lacks constraints. It does not set a temperature threshold, years for peak emission levels or a quantified mitigation target. On the operational level, there is a risk of numerous declarations being made without any real ambition to stay below the 2°C threshold. Attaining SDG 6 on clean and accessible water for all may be jeopardized by increased investment in sectors that extract water for other uses, such as irrigation (by the growing number of agribusinesses), mining and hydropower. These are development choices that sometimes run counter to Agenda 2030, creating pronounced inequalities. Under what conditions can the African continent become a laboratory for change in response to global warming? We must invest in environmental education from an early age. This is not expensive and will allow the younger generation in Africa to feel involved in preserving the environment for future generations. For a long time, there has been a gulf between the sustainable development options suggested at the international level and the local African realities. The consensus is moving toward solutions that are not specific to Africa. African expertise and knowledge, derived from contextualized research, are not fully integrated into these international reports. This is a loss for universal scientific knowledge and it handicaps the promotion of inclusive African solutions at the international level. However, Africa possesses solid expertise. It is time for a paradigm shift in order to propose solutions for Africa, developed by Africans. First of all, this requires the development of closer links between the group of African negotiators and the African scientific community which contributes to international reports on climate, biodiversity, soil degradation and desertification. Everyone should work together in synergy to take better account of new research results, raise the profile of African concerns and evaluate contextualized solutions. The opinions expressed on this blog are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of their institutions or of AFD.
The All India Muslim League, also abbreviated as AIML, was a political party formed in British India. It is popularly known as the Muslim League. It was created in 1906 with the primary goal to represent Indian Muslims and to protect their separate identity towards the British Government. The All India Muslim League was founded at Dhaka in British India which is now a part of Bangladesh. The few important members of Muslim League were Khwaja Nazimuddin, Aga Khan, Muhammad Ali Bogra, and A. K. Fazlul Huq etc. Background of All India Muslim League Indian National Congress was established in the year 1885. It was formed with a view to putting the thoughts and demands of every Indian, irrespective to their religion, in front of the British Government. Indian National Congress was doing well and was since it was co-operating with the British Government so it succeeded in achieving many major changes in the structure of the Government and its policies. Although Congress succeeded in many ways, it failed in gaining the trust of Indian Muslims. The Indian Muslims believed that Congress was a Hindu oriented group and cannot work for Muslim communities as well. It led the idea of forming a new political group separately for Indian Muslims. Reason of All India Muslim League It had become impossible for the British Government to successfully rule over Indians until they were separated in Hindu and Muslims. So the British Government applied the policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ on Hindu and Muslims with the partition of Bengal. It created a major difference between two important communities of British India and led the way to clear a Muslim Political Group. The few reasons behind creating All India Muslim League were- - The Muslim Leaders assumed that the Congress Party was a completely Hindu Party and there was no place for Muslims of India in it. There was the majority of Hindus in the party and also out of the 72 delegates who had attended the first session of Indian National Congress only 2 delegates were Muslims of India. It created a strong discontentment among the Indian Muslims. - Although the Education System in British India was gradually improving, it was not completely available to the Muslims. The Indian Muslims were kept away from higher education and they were suffering from Educational Backwardness. They needed a political party that could raise this problem and could do something in favour of it. - The India Muslims wanted that they should be given equal importance as is given to the Hindus. The ancestors of Hindus like Maharana Pratap, Ashok, and Chandragupta Maurya etc. were highly praised but the ancestors of Muslims like Akbar, Tipu Sultan, Humayun etc. were always ignored. - They believed that Hindu and Muslim are two different communities and Muslim is also as important as Hindu. They have different customs and traditions and also different needs. So the problems of both communities cannot be solved by one party. They needed a separate party for themselves. - The British Government had established its empire in India by dethroning the Mughal rulers so they believed that the Muslim Community of India can create someday a major problem for the British Government. This is why the British Government had always suppressed the Muslims of India. - The Indian National Congress had demanded and supported Hindi to be made an official language of India. They wanted Urdu to be replaced by Hindi and it created anger among Muslims of India. - The success of Shimla Deputation cleared that the Governor-General and Viceroy of British India, Lord Minto had an interest in Muslims and it inspired them to create a separate political party of Indian Muslims to represent themselves. Formation of All India Muslim League Although the Indian National Congress was a Non-Communal party, the Indian Muslim felt that it was highly biased towards the Hindus of India. Then the few prominent Muslim Leaders decided to form their own political party which would reflect their lifestyle and their problems to the British Government. On the 1st October 1906, 35 Muslims delegates of India met the Governor-General and Viceroy of India Lord Minto through Shimla Deputation. The deputation was led by Aga Khan III and Lord Minto supported and encouraged Indian Muslims to create their own separate political party. Later the Aga Khan III and Viqar-ul-Mulk invited the Muslims of India at Dhaka on 30th December 1906 to establish a new organisation for the welfare of the Indian Muslims which was named as ‘All India Muslim League’. Now the Muslim League was formed and the first president of it was Aga khan. Viqar-ul-Mulk with Mohsin-ul-Mulk was made joint secretary. The first session of All India Muslim League was held at Karachi on 29th December 1907 and Adamji Peer Bhai was the President of it at that time. Objectives of All India Muslim League All India Muslim League was formed with various objectives concerned on the welfare of Indian Muslims and to provide them with all the facilities equally that was being provided to the other Indian Communities. Few of its objectives were- - Muslims were suffering from discriminations and the first objective of the League was to prevent any kind of hostility rising in their minds against the other communities of India. - To put forward the problems and needs of Muslim Communities to the British Government and to fulfil them. - Through the All India Muslim League, the Muslim of India wanted to prove their loyalty and co-operation to the British Government. - All India Muslim League aimed at providing Muslims with their rights and also ensuring them the right to education like others and places in administration as well. All India Muslim League started working with given important objectives along with a few other objectives to provide good co-ordination to the British Government. All India Muslim League knew that it is very important to gain the trust of British Government because it could be led towards the path to fulfilling all its demands as soon as possible so it established its new branch at London in 1908 and held a meeting on 6th May inviting some famous and effective British who supported the visions of All India Muslim League and praised it. The Morley-Minto Reforms also known as the Indian Councils Act 1909 was a big step towards providing Indian Muslims a separate identity. It was passed in 1909 which assured the provision of separate Muslim Category in Central Council. Now a separate constituency for Muslims was introduced and only Muslims communities had the right to elect their representative. This idea created a major difference between Hindu and Muslim of India. Call for Pakistan: By the year 1930, All India Muslim League had emerged as an effective Political Party which had gained the support of Indian Muslims. Muhammad Iqbal was the President of Muslim League at that time. In one of his address, he talked about a separate Muslim state and demanded it. Although his demand was to create that separate Muslim State within the Territory of India. Muhammad Iqbal asked Mohammad Ali Jinnah to be the President of the Muslim League who was a Lawyer and practising in the UK. On his urge, Jinnah returned to India and held the post of President of Muslim League. During his address to the Muslims in 1940, Muhammad Ali Jinnah said that India was a country with the majority of Hindus and Muslims would find it difficult to survive here. So Muslims of India should be given a different country called Pakistan. In the year 1946, the British Government called an election to constitute the government in the Centre and its Province. In this election, the Muslim League had to face strong opposition by Indian National Congress. The manifesto of Muslim League for this election demanded a separate nation for Indian Muslims but it also stated that the separate nation would welcome the people of other religions as well and would also provide them with the same respect of citizen as to the Muslims. On the policy of creating Pakistan, the Muslim League won approximately 88-89% votes and thus after the partition of British India, the Muslim League gave birth to an independent nation called Pakistan. After the formation of Pakistan, Jinnah became its Governor and Liyaqat Ali Khan was its first Minister. All India Muslim League was later named as ‘Muslim League’ in Pakistan. Muslim League in Present India: The few members of Muslim League which did not leave India even after partition kept the Muslim League alive in India. Although after few years, some of its member left for Pakistan and some of the rest joined Indian National Congress. Now the Muslim League is only a part of Kerala Government. Muslim League in Pakistan: Mohammad Ali Jinnah took his last breath in the year 1948. With the death of its leader, the Muslim League was also divided and formed other new parties. These were; - All Pakistan Awami Muslim league - Jinnah Awami Muslim League - Sindh Muslim League - Azad Pakistan Party - Jinnah Muslim League Thus the whole journey of All India Muslim League encountered many changes and turning points that we discussed above. As it was not that easy to gain the support of the mass yet All India Muslim League did it and was quite successful.
Big bursts of yellow forsythia call out to us in late April, like billboards for spring, easy to see as we fly by in cars, trains, or on bicycles. It's a welcome sight, but the picture is missing something. Forsythia is not native to our area—and, therefore, not of life-nurturing importance to some of the most endangered regional insects, the early-emerging bees, butterflies, flies, wasps, and moths that are known to insect scientists as "feeding specialists." Some of these choosy creatures rely on early-blossoming native flowers for pollen and other support. These early flowers are called spring ephemerals. Pictured here: Wake-robin or red trillium, Trillium erectum. They are important sources of sustenance to native insects, and the insects provide benefits to the plants by pollinating flowers, which leads to seed production. Some ants, like the pollinators, also derive important nutrition from the seeds. Indirectly, those ants spread the seeds--enabling the plants to increase. If you want to see these worthy native flowers, slow down and focus on the woodlands, streamsides, and rocky ledges. A good book can help with identification, such as Wildflowers of New England by Ted Elliman and the New England Wild Flower Society (Timber Press). As you start to learn about ephemerals, you'll find that they emerge and blossom in spring because they need the dappled sunshine of open woodlands. They specialize in the weeks before trees get their leaves in mid to late May. Most are less than 12 inches tall. Most blossom for less than two weeks, some for just a few days. By all means, enjoy the bright blast of forsythia. But if you want to know what really puts the buzz in an April day, it's important to retrain your focus to a much smaller scale. Also see: Flowers for the Queen (Bee)
Almost every part of a rocket is destroyed during the launch and re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere. This makes spaceflight really expensive. Rocket delivery of even a single kilogram into orbit costs tens of thousands of dollars. But what if we could just place our payloads directly into orbit, and didn’t need a rocket at all? This is the idea of a space elevator, first envisioned by the Russian rocket scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1895. Tsiolkovsky suggested building a tower all the way up to geostationary orbit, this is the point where a satellite appears to hang motionless in the sky above the Earth. If you could carry spacecraft all the way up to the top, and release them from that tower they’d be in orbit, without the expense of a discarded rocket. A fraction more energy and they’d be traveling away from the Earth to explore the Solar System. The major flaw with this idea is that the entire weight of the tower would be compressing down on every part below. And there’s no material on Earth, or in the Universe, that can handle this kind of compressive force. But the idea still makes sense. Newer thinking about space elevators propose using a cable, stretched out beyond geostationary orbit. Here the outward centripetal force counters the force of gravity, keeping the tether perfectly balanced. But now we’re dealing with the tensile strength of a cable tens of thousands of kilometers long. Imagine the powerful forces trying to tear it apart. Until recently, there was no material strong enough to withstand those forces, but the development of carbon nanotubes has made the idea more possible. How would you build a space elevator? The most reasonable idea would be to move an asteroid into geostationary orbit – this is your counterbalance. A cable would then be manufactured on the asteroid, and lowered down towards the Earth. As the cable extends down, the asteroid is orbited further from the Earth, keeping everything in balance. Finally, the cable reaches the Earth’s surface and is attached to a ground station. Solar powered machines are attached to the space elevator and climb up from the surface of the Earth, all the way to geostationary orbit. Even traveling at a speed of 200 km/hour, it would take the climber almost 10 days to make the journey from the surface to an altitude of 36,000 kilometers. But the cost savings would be dramatic. Currently, rockets cost about $25,000 per kilogram to send a payload to geostationary orbit. A space elevator could deliver the same payload for $200 per kilo. Obviously there are risks associated with a megastructure like this. If the cable breaks, portions of it would fall to Earth, and humans traveling up in the elevator would be exposed to damaging radiation in the Earth’s Van Allen belts. Building a space elevator from Earth is at the very limits of our technology. But there are places in the Solar System which might make much more useful places to build elevators. The Moon, for example, has a fraction of the Earth’s gravity, so an elevator could operate there using commercially available materials. Mars might be another great place for a space elevator. Whatever happens, the idea is intriguing. And if anyone does build a space elevator, they will open up the exploration of the Solar System in ways that we can’t even imagine.
The Earth is the only planet, of which we know that life evolved on it. Is there life on other planets, and how can we find it? How does such a planet look like, and which processes are involved? To detect life on other planets (also beyond our solar system), we first concentrate on the planetary surface. To do that, we start from two directions: To select particular planets (out of billions in the milky way) for investigation, we categorize them by their size, distance to their star and its luminosity, on one hand. Which properties matter in terms of habitability? On the other hand, we search for direct and indirect hints (biosignatires) and proofs (biomarkers) for existing life on these planets, like oxygen or ozone in the atmosphere. How does the planet adapt to life? Does life alter the planet in a way that it stays habitable?
At the heart of the mathematics curriculum is a drive for every child to gain a sound understanding of basic number skills. Each day children spend at least twenty minutes focusing on this area. Detailed progress drives for all areas of number show how mathematical concepts progress from the simple to the more complex. Each child is assessed against these and gaps in learning form the basis of intensive intervention so that crucial understanding is not missed. Children are also taught the skills and knowledge associated with all other mathematical attainment targets. These, as well as all areas of number, are then applied across the curriculum in the context of the topic. A clear calculation policy ensures that children understand methods of computation and formal methods are taught as soon as children are ready. New concepts are first explored in the concrete, which lead to the visual and then to the abstract. By adhering to this methodology, children develop a secure understanding. Children are supported in their learning by a mathematically rich learning environment and wide range of resources. These are used on a daily basis and ensure that all children demonstrate their understanding and the teacher assesses learning accurately. The school follows the Mathematics Curriculum as described in the National Curriculum 2014. The National Curriculum for mathematics aims to ensure that all pupils: - become fluent in the fundamentals of mathematics, including through varied and frequent practice with increasingly complex problems over time, so that pupils have conceptual understanding and are able to recall and apply their knowledge rapidly and accurately to problems - reason mathematically by following a line of enquiry, conjecturing relationships and generalisations, and developing an argument, justification or proof using mathematical language - can solve problems by applying their mathematics to a variety of routine and non-routine problems with increasing sophistication, including breaking down problems into a series of simpler steps and persevering in seeking solutions. - An understanding of the important concepts and an ability to make connections within mathematics. - A broad range of skills in using and applying mathematics. - Fluent knowledge and recall of number facts and the number system. - The ability to show initiative in solving problems in a wide range of contexts, including the new and the unusual. - The ability to think independently and to persevere when faced with challenges, showing a confidence of success. - The ability to embrace the value of learning from mistakes and false starts. - The ability to reason, generalize and make sense of solutions. - Fluency in performing written and mental calculations and mathematical techniques. - A wide range of mathematical vocabulary. - A commitment to and passion for the subject. Essential Learning Objectives - To know and use numbers - To add and subtract - To multiply and divide - To use fractions - To understand the properties of shapes - To describe position, direction and movement - To use measures - To use statistics - To use algebra \|Key Stage 1\|\|Key Stage 2\|
The liver is the most regenerative of organs, capable of regrowing lost sections even in mammals. Here researchers identify a novel population of cells that contributes to that capacity for regrowth, and which might prove to be the basis for regenerative therapies: The mechanisms that allow the liver to repair and regenerate itself have long been a matter of debate. Of all major organs, the liver has the highest capacity to regenerate -- that's why many liver diseases, including cirrhosis and hepatitis, can often be cured by transplanting a piece of liver from a healthy donor. The liver's regenerative properties were previously credited to a population of adult stem cells known as oval cells. But recent studies concluded that oval cells don't give rise to hepatocytes; instead, they develop into bile duct cells. These findings prompted researchers to begin looking elsewhere for the source of new hepatocytes in liver regeneration. Researchers traced the cells responsible for replenishing hepatocytes following chronic liver injury induced by exposure to carbon tetrachloride, a common environmental toxin. That's when they found a unique population of hepatocytes located in one specific area of the liver, called the portal triad. These special hepatocytes, the researchers found, undergo extensive proliferation and replenish liver mass after chronic liver injuries. Since the cells are similar to normal hepatocytes, but express low levels of bile duct cell-specific genes, the researchers called them "hybrid hepatocytes." Meanwhile, many other research labs around the world are working on ways to use induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to repopulate diseased livers and prevent liver failure. While iPSCs hold a lot of promise for regenerative medicine, it can be difficult to ensure that they stop proliferating when their therapeutic job is done. As a result, iPSCs carry a high risk of giving rise to tumors. To test the safety of hybrid hepatocytes, the team examined three different mouse models of liver cancer. They found no signs of hybrid hepatocytes in any of the tumors, leading the researchers to conclude that these cells don't contribute to liver cancer caused by obesity-induced hepatitis or chemical carcinogens. "Although hybrid hepatocytes are not stem cells, thus far they seem to be the most effective in rescuing a diseased liver from complete failure. Hybrid hepatocytes represent not only the most effective way to repair a diseased liver, but also the safest way to prevent fatal liver failure by cell transplantation."
Political boundaries are fluid over time. Unlike a river or a mountain range, they are merely human constructs. This is an important truth that children should learn. This map will help students understand where (in general) the people of several major Native American nations were living some four hundred years ago when Europeans first began visiting this area with increasing frequency. Youngsters will see that quite a few different Native American cultures were coexisting in this part of the Northeastern Forestlands – before the epidemics and tragic wars that would follow soon after. Fortunately, many descendants of the Native Americans continue to live in this region (some keenly aware of their ancestry; others not). This map can be used in many ways. For example, it exercises students’ capacity to decipher texts describing spatial position, it builds their knowledge about the names of important First Nations in Pre-Colonial times, and it can serve as a prompt for discussions about the primacy of Native American claims / rights to the NE forestlands and waters. Further research is encouraged to help children develop a more informed understanding of the complexities of this region’s history. Here’s the PDF of the map: Native American Homelands EB
Stay on target Next time you’re feeling lonely, just remember that are almost 2,000 bacterial species living in your gut. Researchers at the Wellcome Sanger Institute and the European Molecular Biology Laboratory’s European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI) identified thousands of previously unknown microbes roaming around the human gut. The study of genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples, known as metagenomics, is a bit like reconstructing hundreds of puzzles after mixing all the pieces together, according to Rob Finn, group leader at EMBL-EBI. “[And] without knowing what the final image is meant to look like, and after completely removing a few pieces from the mix just to make it that bit harder,” he said in a statement. Luckily, we live in an age of computer simulations and algorithms. “Researchers are now at a stage where they can use a range of computational tools to complement and sometimes guide lab work, in order to uncover new insights into the human gut,” Finn said. The results, published in the journal Nature, highlight global differences in the composition of gut bacteria—and the importance of studied samples reflecting that diversity. Scientists are getting closer to creating a complete list of common microbes in the North American and European gut. But despite leveraging what postdoctoral fellow Alexandre Almeida called “the most comprehensive public databases of gastrointestinal bacteria,” there remains a significant lack of data from other regions. “The few South American and African datasets we had access to for this study revealed significant diversity not present in the former populations,” Finn said. “This suggests that collecting data from underrepresented populations is essential if we want to achieve a truly comprehensive picture of the composition of the human gut.” In the future, the team’s analysis methods can be applied to larger, more diverse datasets, enabling further discovery. “Research such as this is helping us create a so-called blueprint of the human gut,” according to Trevor Lawley, group leader at the Wellcome Sanger Institute. “Which in the future could help us understand human health and disease better and could even guide diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal diseases.” More on Geek.com:
We saw the sculpture above on Twitter posted by high school teacher Hayley Breden in Denver, Colorado. It was one of more than a dozen inspiring and moving examples of her 11th and 12th graders’ end of the year assignments for an elective course on the Holocaust and other genocides. She shared with us more examples of the student projects. They are all wonderful, from a mini-museum exhibit about the Ludlow Massacre to a CORE Freedom Riders tribute with a map and a bus. Breden shared the assignment: Students will be able to explain the causes and consequences of a past or current event through online research, writing a research essay, and creating an art piece to represent the event. The topic that each student chooses should be something that is (a) overlooked in most history classes, (b) denied or ignored by the perpetrator, or (c) an event or topic that people today avoid addressing. Breden continued by describing the process and the student body: We spent one class period researching possibilities for topics and brainstorming. In their research essays, students needed to explain the event or issue they researched including causes, effects, and broad historical context. They also explained past and current efforts to address the event or issue (or the lack thereof) and then described the artistic work they created and why they made the creative decisions they did. These students are 11th and 12th graders at a large, diverse public high school in Denver, Colorado. Our students come from across the street and across the world. We have more than 50 countries represented in our student population, along with kids whose families have lived in Denver for generations. See more projects in this Flickr album. Please send us your people’s history class projects to share and inspire others.
We can live weeks without food, but no more than a week without water. For health, we need a balance of fluids for all of our cells to function properly. Our bodies consists of from 50% to 80% water. These fluids are what carry nutrients, waste products, and minerals to our cells. The fluid in our bodies can be divided into two main groups: There is fluid inside our cells (intracellular fluid) and fluid outside our cells (extracellular fluid). In a healthy person, the intracellular water should be about 40% of your total weight, and your extracellular fluid around 20% of your total weight. Fat cells do not contain a lot of water, so if you are overweight, you will have less intracellular water than a thinner person. When you drink, water is absorbed slowly from the intestinal tract. The maximum absorption is around a quart per hour. This in turn stimulates a part of the brain to cause the sensation of thirst. Normally, the brain then monitors the amount of fluid being taken in to return the normal balance in the extracellular fluid. This, of course, is dependent on what you drink. If you choose to drink a diuretic such as an alcholic beverage, you will quickly become thirsty again, drinking more to attempt to bring your body back into equilibrium. Choosing alcohol products will slowly increase your need to drink in an attempt to get back into balance but, instead, will most likely lead to over-consumption of alcohol. If you choose a beverage with high sugar content, such as soda, you will take in excess calories trying to bring your body back into balance. As you might imagine, many people do not drink enough water. If you are on the low intake side, you are more prone to constipation, kidney stones, and decreased physical performance. There are many different formulas to determine how much water you should drink. One states that you should have from 1 to 1.5 ml of water for every calorie of food that you eat. Another states that you should simply drink from six to eight glasses per day. The problem with these and similar systems is that they do not take into account such variables as body size, outside temperature, physical activity, etc. A simpler method states that your kidneys should be outputting urine at a specific rate. That means that, if you are taking in enough water, you should have to urinate every two to three hours during the day. If you adjust your fluid intake to maintain this rate, you should have adequate water intake to keep your body fluid levels functioning as they should. you do not have enough water in your body and its cells, An excellent book for further reading is ³Your Bodyıs Many Cries For Water,² by F. Batmanghelidj, M.D. HOW IS WATER USED IN THE BODY? TO RETURN TO SITE DIRECTORY, CLICK ON ARROW additional information or to receive an information Annex: 405 D Street, Suite 2, Petaluma, CA DISCLAIMER: This newsletter is intended to provide health information to improve quality of life and assist users to better understand their health and arrange more easily for healthcare services. It is not an attempt to replace the need to seek healthcare services nor to provide specific healthcare advice. Information provided should not be used to diagnose or dispute a qualified healthcare professional's judgement. If you have any questions, please give our office a call or check with your local healthcare professional. © Copyright 2015 Friedman Chiropractic, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Vladimir llyich Lenin, Marxist revolutionary and leader of the Bolshevik Party in Russia, published this speech in September 1917 just weeks before the Bolsheviks seized power in the October Revolution. In it Lenin attacks the Provisional Government, a coalition of political groups that had overthrown the Tsarist regime in March that year. Lenin believed the March Revolution was just a first stage that must be followed by a second revolution. In this, power would be taken into the hands of the working people (the proletariat) and the peasants, rather than being held by the bourgeoisie (the middle classes) who only wanted moderate changes. Since its establishment the Provisional Government had faced competition from workers’ councils or ‘Soviets’. The Soviets controlled the transport system and national industrial resources. The Provisional Government lacked any real power and could not resolve Russia’s serious economic crisis and food shortages. Its commitment to the war against Germany was also unpopular. By the end of 1917, Petrograd was in turmoil. Workers were taking over factories and Lenin’s slogan, ‘Power to the Soviets’, was becoming reality. Together with Leon Trotsky, head of the Petrograd Soviet, Lenin and other top Bolsheviks hurriedly planned for an armed uprising. On the night of 6 November 1917 Lenin ordered his Red Guards to take over key institutions in Petrograd, including the Provisional Government’s headquarters in the Winter Palace. With very little bloodshed, the Bolsheviks seized power in the second 1917 Russian Revolution. Lenin was born in 1870 into a middle-class family. His real name was Vladimir lIyich Ulyanov. Both his parents were teachers deeply committed to improving the lot of ordinary Russians. Lenin’s older brother, Alexander, introduced Vladimir to revolutionary ideas and when Alexander was executed in 1887 for his role in plotting against the Tsar, Lenin was deeply affected. He immersed himself in radical writings, particularly those of Communist thinker Karl Marx. Lennin attended university in Kazan but expelled and exiled for his radical views. After gaining a law degree as an external student of St Petersburg University in 1891, Lenin briefly practised law. His main interest, however, was planning for revolutionary change in Russia through adapting Marx’s ideas. The Russian working class had failed to fulfil Marx’s predictions that they would spontaneously rise up and gain power. Lenin believed that radical awareness had to be created in them through agitation by a well-organised revolutionary party that would act as a vanguard in the revolution. After being imprisoned and sent to Siberia during 1897 and 1900, Lenin went abroad where he organised a secret newspaper Iskra (The Spark). During this time he became the leader of the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Socialist Democratic Labour Party. On arrival in Russia from Switzerland on 16 April 1917, Lenin received a triumphant welcome from his followers. After the October Revolution, as head of the first Soviet government, Lenin guided the Soviet state successfully through its early years, including a civil war between 1918 and 1921. In 1922 he had the first of a series of strokes that led to his death in 1924. His body was embalmed and displayed in a glass coffin that became a great Communist shrine for those who revere Lenin as the founder of Russian Communism and the formulator of Marxism-Leninism. It is still visited today. Although famed for his political thinking, Lenin’s main historical significance is as a revolutionary leader who managed to seize and retain power through his skills in political strategy and his organising abilities. The key question of every revolution is undoubtedly the question of state power. Which class holds power decides everything. When Dyelo Naroda, the paper of the chief governing party in Russia, recently complained that, owing to the controversies over power, both the question of the Constituent Assembly and that of bread are being forgotten, the Socialist-Revolutionaries should have been answered, ‘Blame yourselves. For it is the wavering and indecision of your party that are mostly to blame for “ministerial leapfrog”, the interminable postponements of the Constituent Assembly, and the undermining by the capitalists of the planned and agreed measures of a grain monopoly and of providing the country with bread.’ The question of power cannot be evaded or brushed aside, because it is the key question determining everything in a revolution’s development, and in its foreign and domestic policies. It is an undisputed fact that our revolution has ‘wasted’ six months in wavering over the system of power; it is a fact resulting from the wavering policy of the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. In the long run, these parties’ wavering policy was determined by the class position of the petty bourgeoisie, by their economic instability in the struggle between capital and labour. The whole issue at present is whether the petty-bourgeois democrats have learned anything during these great, exceptionally eventful six months. If not, then the revolution is lost, and only a victorious uprising of the proletariat can save it. If they have learned something, the establishment of a stable, unwavering power must be begun immediately. Only if power is based, obviously and unconditionally, on a majority of the population can it be stable during a popular revolution, i.e., a revolution which rouses the people, the majority of the workers and peasants, to action. Up to now state power in Russia has virtually remained in the hands of the bourgeoisie, who are compelled to make only particular concessions (only to begin withdrawing them the following day), to hand out promises (only to fail to carry them out), to search for all sorts of excuses to cover their domination (only to fool the people by a show of ‘honest coalition’), etc., etc. In words it claims to be a popular, democratic, revolutionary government, but in deeds it is an anti-popular, undemocratic, counter-revolutionary, bourgeois government. This is the contradiction which has existed so far and which has been a source of the complete instability and inconsistency of power, of that ‘ministerial leapfrog’ in which the SRs and Mensheviks have been engaged with such unfortunate (for the people) enthusiasm. In early June 1917 I told the All-Russia Congress of Soviets that either the Soviets would be dispersed and die an inglorious death, or all power must be transferred to them …. The slogan, ‘Power to the Soviets’, however, is very often, if not in most cases, taken quite incorrectly to mean a cabinet of the parties of the Soviet majority. We would like to go into more detail on this very false notion …. ‘Power to the Soviets’ means radically reshaping the entire old state apparatus, that bureaucratic apparatus which hampers everything democratic. It means removing this apparatus and substituting for it a new, popular one, i.e., a truly democratic apparatus of Soviets, i.e., the organised and armed majority of the people – the workers, soldiers and peasants. It means allowing the majority of the people initiative and independence not only in the election of deputies, but also in state administration, in effecting reforms and various other changes. To make this difference clearer and more comprehensible, it is worth recalling a valuable admission made some time ago by the paper of the governing party of the SRs, Dyelo Naroda. It wrote that even in those ministries which were in the hands of socialist Ministers (this was written during the notorious coalition with the Cadets, when some Mensheviks and SRs were ministers], the entire administrative apparatus had remained unchanged, and hampered work. Let those who say: ‘We have no apparatus to replace the old one, which inevitably gravitates towards the defence of the bourgeoisie’, be ashamed of themselves. For this apparatus exists. It is the Soviets. Don’t be afraid of the people’s initiative and independence. Put your faith in their revolutionary organisations, and you will see in all realms of state affairs the same strength, majesty and invincibility of the workers and peasants as were displayed in their unity and their fury against Kornilov. There is no middle course. This has been shown by experience. Either all power goes to the Soviets both centrally and locally, and all land is given to the peasants immediately, pending the Constituent Assembly’s decision, or the landowners and capitalists obstruct every step, restore the landowners’ power, drive the peasants into a rage and carry things to an exceedingly violent peasant revolt. Only the dictatorship of the proletariat and the poor peasants is capable of smashing the resistance of the capitalists, of displaying truly supreme courage and determination in the exercise of power, and of securing the enthusiastic, selfless and truly heroic support of the masses both in the army and among the peasants. Power to the Soviets – this is the only way to make further progress gradual, peaceful and smooth, keeping perfect pace with the political awareness and resolve of the majority of the people and with their own experience. Power to the Soviets means the complete transfer of the country’s administration and economic control into the hands of the workers and peasants, to whom nobody would dare offer resistance and who, through practice, through their own experience, would soon learn how to distribute the land, products and grain properly. Vladimir llyich Lenin, Marxist revolutionary and
At the beginning of this class we discussed a variety of characteristics that are typically used to define a state. Not all states have all of these characteristics, but they are generally present. However, one of these characteristics sticks out as the most important in defining and developing a state: specialization. Specialization is when people specialize in a certain area of production. It occurs when only part of the population is needed for food production, allowing others to take on other duties. Specialization is what allows for many of the other characteristics that define a state. Without specialization, a complex economy would not form. Specialization allows for an increase in both production and quality of goods. This in turn fosters the growth of trade because a society is able to make a great number of desirable goods to exchange with others. Upper Egypt was able to create sophisticated pottery that was superior to that of Lower Egypt, creating a lot of trade between the two. It is theorized that the cultural connection produced by this trade aided Hierakonpolis in its takeover of Buto. Specialization also aids in the development of a stratified society. It creates a class of skilled producers and creates prestige objects that are used by elites to demonstrate their status. Specialization is what leads to the creation of beautiful and sophisticated objects, such as the beads found in Harappa. Some of the beads would have taken up to twenty-four hours to make. These goods can only occur within a society that has people working this as their sole job. These objects are used as markers of class, often demonstrated bu grave goods. Cong and bi were elite grave goods found in ancient China that marked prestigious burials. These sophisticated objects had to be specially made and would have taken a great deal of time to produce. Specialization is what really sets a state apart. It allows for growth in many different areas of society and culture. The more specialized roles get, the more opportunity there is for complexity. All the characteristics that define a state are intertwined. They are not black and white categories but rather mix in with one another. Specialization is needed in a complex economy and for social stratification, metallurgy and the mass production of goods, but specialization also depends on this complex economy and an urbanized society to maintain itself. I count specialization as the most important individual factor, but it is really the interplay of these factors that creates a state. I was very intrigued by two particular types of Chinese artifacts discussed in class, cong and bi. They were obviously important, since the jade they were made out of is so hard to work with, they’re often so elaborate and they an abundant grave good. Yet we have no idea of their specific meaning. Archaeologists can tell that they were a ritual object, but what they may have represented remains a mystery. A search for some more information found a page from the Smithsonian website that had a short write-up on cong. It discussed some interesting stylistic differences. Many early ones are compact but feature incredibly detailed decoration. Hours and hours of work had to have gone into their making. They featured motifs found on other special objects, such as a face or mask design. However, another style of cong is found that is much larger but lacks the careful craftsmanship of the smaller examples. They were often made of nephrite. They would have been much easier to produce, and quality seems to have been sacrificed for quantity. If the purpose of the cong was known, this difference may reveal some social or cultural significance or change. However, it is simply another unknown facet of the cong. Bi also had some variation, being found in different sizes and styles. They averaged about eight inches in diameter. Earlier bi are relatively undecorated, with designs becoming more and more elaborate as time passed. Like the cong, they were elite goods. The jade they were made of was difficult to carve and would have taken hours upon hours of workmanship.Bi were usually found with cong, often in rather large numbers. While the exact relationship between the two is not known, later historic documents suggest that cong represent the earth while bi represent the sky. The prevalence of both these objects demonstrates the presence of specialized labor. It would have taken a great deal if time and skill to make these; it could not have been achieved by your everyday farmer. Cong and bi are found in the late Neolithic, when Chinese society is developing many of the defining characteristics of a state. These objects are a perfect example of this. Their sophistication and complexity mark them as elite goods that only some would have access to, demonstrating marked social stratification. This also demonstrates that some people are moving away from solely subsistence labor into much more specialized labor. Although much is unknown about these objects, they reveal a lot about the social layout of Neolithic China. Archaeology differs from other branches of Anthropology in the unique viewpoint it is afforded. Archaeology gets to view cultures across time, seeing change and development and delving into the human race’s past. However, this also means that Archaeology faces problems other branches may not. It only has the material remains of a people to study, not the people themselves so direct ethnography or participant-observation cannot be utilized. This makes it difficult to figure out the social and cultural context of evidence found. This can be easier to do when the cultures being studied make great use of writing, but for cultures where writing is scarce or non-existent the problem is compounded. One of the areas this difficulty is most apparent in is religion. It is difficult for archaeologists to figure out the meaning of objects that seem to be sacred, or even if they are sacred at all. Wenke dryly observes in Patterns in Prehistory that archaeologists have been accused of declaring any building “large enough to stand upright” a temple (249). Each building or artifact uncovered has to be carefully considered within the context it was found. An elaborate building surrounded mostly by simple mud dwellings pretty clearly has some significance. Determining what exactly this significance is however, is the difficult part. Frustratingly, the archaeologist may never know what is what that an individual or culture was thinking about a particular object. Early Egypt provides an example of a culture that does have some writing to aid archaeologists in determining the meaning of what they found. The Egyptians had especially complex ideas and rituals surrounding mortuary practices. From painting and writings found in tombs we can see what their view of the afterlife was. The Egyptians believed that when one died they had to go through a harrowing process in the afterlife, including having their heart weighed against a feather. Not only is this procedure depicted on the walls of tombs, it is written out in The Book of the Dead. These paintings and writings also explain why boats have been found buried near tombs. They were used to transport people in the afterlife. Archaeologists know so much about the religious practice of Egyptians because it was documented in their tombs and writings. It is much easier to match up artifacts to known practices. Egypt provides an example of why having cultural context is so useful to archaeologists but also so difficult or even impossible to obtain. The study of the emergence of civilizations examines the development of complex societies from previous simpler ones. But the question of how to define complexity is a tricky one that has affected archaeology from it’s beginning. How complexity is defined changes the framework of how societies are studied and viewed, often with problematic results. This is illustrated more dramatically with nineteenth century academics but still applies to archaeological study today. Looking back to the nineteenth century provides a good example of how the definition of complexity can change how research is conducted. Most nineteenth century archaeologists and academics had a very Western-centric definition of complexity, focusing on things such as technology and capitalism as signs of advancement. During this time period, a great deal of importance was placed on “progress,” the idea of moving forward linearly to better things. This concept was fed by new scientific theories regarding evolution and geology. Complex societies were seen as the natural progression from simpler societies, with Western societies representing the pinnacle of complexity. Using this framework, many cultural beliefs and systems were discounted as primitive or barbaric. The legacy of nineteenth century research is rife with racism, sexism and an over-focus on the elites of society. Defining societies in a biased manner led to biased conclusions. The cultural focus that is present in archaeology makes it especially susceptible to these sorts of problems. While the field of archaeology has come a long way from its less culturally sensitive roots, many of the same issues still apply today. Complexity is still defined in a very ethnocentric fashion, favoring Western culture. Harris’ model of complexity uses social organization as its primary classifier, with states as the most complex. This favors Western societal organization. If characteristics such as kinship or piety were used, Western societies would be viewed as simple. Harris’ model is used to organize societies for research purposes, but the problem comes when this cultural complexity is conflated with cultural worth. This is a longstanding issue that persists today. In Patterns in Prehistory, Wenke cites an example of an Iraq city-state citizen in 2500 BC who disparage his nomadic neighbors for their simple, “barbaric” culture (203). The danger of this sort of ethnocentrism is still imminent, even with the prevalence of cultural relativism in anthropology today. While biased definitions of complexity are still used for research’s sake, archaeologist must take care to refrain from making judgements on cultural worth based on these definitions.
USGS Ohio Water Science Center The OWML provides water-quality data on three major groups of microorganisms of public-health significance in the United States— protozoa, bacteria, viruses. Surface water, ground water, and sediments are collected and analyzed for these microorganisms. For sample-collection methods for water and sediment and for special processing steps for sediments, refer to the USGS National Field Manual. Because pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms may appear intermittently and in low concentrations and methods to detect pathogens are often costly and time consuming, bacterial and viral indicator organisms are often used to assess the microbiological quality of water. Indicator organisms are present in the feces of warmblooded animals and provide information on the possible presence of pathogens. Find out more about the analytical methods used by the OWML for indicators and pathogens.
- Hantavirus disease is a viral infection acquired through inhalation of aerosols of contaminated rodent urine and (possibly) feces. - Risk is low for travelers. - Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) has symptoms that are often life threatening and include sudden-onset fever, headache, muscle aches, nausea, vomiting, cough, and shortness of breath. viral-hemorrhagic-fevers fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), caused by different hantaviruses, begins like HCPS but does not have lung involvement. - Consequences of infection include respiratory failure (HCPS) or kidney failure (HFRS) that is severe enough to cause death. - Prevention includes avoiding contact with rodents in the wild and avoiding accommodations that are contaminated with rodent droppings. - No vaccine or preventive drugs for travelers are available. Hantaviruses are viruses that are primarily carried by rodents. European and Asian hantaviruses can infect humans, causing HFRS, which is a febrile illness with kidney involvement that, for some types of hantaviruses, may include bleeding manifestations. The severity of HFRS can range from mild to life threatening. American hantaviruses cause HCPS, a severe infection affecting the lungs and the heart. Hantaviruses are found worldwide. China has the highest incidence of hantavirus disease. Within the European continent, European Russia accounts for most human infections. A mild form of HFRS, caused by the Puumala virus, is the most prevalent hantavirus disease in Western and Central Europe, predominantly in Finland, Sweden, Belgium, France, and Norway. HCPS is restricted to the Americas. Since HCPS was first recognized in the Four Corners region of the U.S. in 1993, confirmed cases have been reported in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Panama, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Brazil has the highest annual hantavirus incidence in the Americas. In the U.S., most cases are sporadic and occur in the western and southwestern states, including Arizona, California, Colorado, and New Mexico. In South America, many HCPS cases have been associated with the spring cleaning of holiday cabins that have been contaminated with mouse droppings over the winter months. However, the incidence of disease is often highest during the summer or during fall and early winter. Hantaviruses are predominantly transmitted to humans via inhalation of aerosols of contaminated rodent urine and (possibly) feces. A few instances of transmission through rodent bites have been reported, usually in enclosed spaces such as grain silos. Person-to-person transmission appears to be rare. The main risk factor is exposure to rodents and their excreta. Activities associated with heavier exposure include agricultural work, camping, trekking, sleeping on the ground, staying in rodent-infested cabins, and military exercises. Indoor exposure also occurs, particularly during times of high rodent populations with declining food availability, when rodents tend to invade human dwellings more often. Although adventure travelers can sometimes find themselves in any of the above situations, the risk for these persons seems to be low. Cases have occurred in visitors going to Yosemite National Park, California. Rare cases of imported HCPS and HFRS have been reported in travelers from Bolivia and Cuba. HCPS symptoms appear 4 to 30 days following exposure and include sudden onset of fever, headache, muscle aches, nausea, and vomiting. Cough, shortness of breath, and rapid breathing may develop. HFRS begins like HCPS, although sometimes a rash and flushing of the face and torso can occur. Consequences of Infection Most HCPS can progress to respiratory failure severe enough to result in death. The severe form of HFRS can progress to kidney failure and death. Need for Medical Assistance Individuals with severe forms of HCPS should seek immediate medical care. Even persons with mild symptoms who suspect that they have been exposed to hantavirus should seek prompt medical attention because the illness can escalate very rapidly. Avoid contact with rodents in the wild and, when appropriate, take measures to eradicate domestic rodent populations from human habitations. When visiting endemic countries, it may be useful to check for local hantavirus activity at the destination. If active infection is being reported, it may be wise to limit outdoor activities and avoid staying in substandard facilities. No vaccine or preventive drugs for travelers are available.
Studying Sociology GCSE and Sociology A Level: 10: Research Methods – Secondary Sources of Data Here is the 10th in our series of study blogs for those studying Sociology GCSE and Sociology A Level. Research Methods – Secondary Sources of Data Qualitative and quantitative data are primary sources of data, in that the sociologist collects the information him/herself in the form of surveys, structured interviews and so on. Sometimes, however, a sociologist may use other data to find out things. These may be secondary sources of data, where the information has been collected by someone else. Examples of these might be: – - Statistics from government agencies. - Reports from the mass media. - Opinion polls such as Gallup. - Official statistics such as: – - Figures on births, marriages, divorces and deaths. - Crime reports. - Income reports. Secondary sources of data can be used for several reasons: – - The data already exists. - It is cheaper to use existing data than having to carry out the research again. - But the sociologist may be relying on information that doesn’t exactly fit the area they are looking at. - Also, the data may be biased. For example, if the data was collected for one political party, it may place more emphasis on the results wanted by that party. Secondary data can also take the form of qualitative and quantitative data. - Qualitative secondary datacan be in verbal or visual form, such as: – - TV documentaries. - Magazine articles. - Autobiographies, and so on. - Quantitative secondary datacan be statistical information, such as: – - Birth, marriage, divorce and death records. - Exam results. - Statistical results from opinion polls, and so on. So which of the following would not be examples of secondary sources of data? - GCSE Statistics results. - Census results. - A detailed interview performed by a sociologist. - Results from the Government’s Child of the Millennium Study. ANSWER: C. It is not secondary data as the sociologist is performing the interview themselves. In the next blog, we are going to look at some of ethical issues in sociological research that we have already touched on briefly in the blogs so far.
- Project plans - Project activities - Legislation and standards - Industry context Last edited 23 Aug 2017 Constructivist architecture, or ‘constructivism’, is a form of modern architecture that developed in the Soviet Union in the 1920s. Inspired by the Bauhaus and the wider constructivist art movement that emerged from Russian Futurism, constructivist architecture is characterised by a combination of modern technology and engineering methods and the socio-political ethos of Communism. Despite there being few realised projects before the movement became outdated in the mid-1930s, it has had a definite influence on many subsequent architectural movements, such as Brutalism. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, the USSR became economically insecure and unable to embark on major construction projects. Nevertheless, avant-garde design schools began to encourage and inspire ambitious architects and urban planners, in particular the Association of New Architects (ASNOVA) which was established in 1921. The fundamental tension of Constructivist architecture was the need to reconcile the economic reality of the USSR with its ambition for using the built environment to engineer societal changes and instill the avant-garde in everyday life. Architects hoped that through constructivism, the spaces and monuments of the new socialist utopia, the ideal of which the Bolshevik revolution had waged, could be realised. As such, constructivist architecture was used to build utilitarian projects for the workers, as well as more creative projects such as Flying City, that was intended as a prototype for airborne housing. The main characteristic of constructivism was the application of 3D cubism to abstract and non-objective elements. The style incorporated straight lines, cylinders, cubes and rectangles; and merged elements of the modern age such as radio antennae, tension cables, concrete frames and steel girders. The possibilities of modern materials were also explored, such as steel frames that supported large areas of glazing, exposed rather than concealed building joints, balconies and sun decks. The style aimed to explore the opposition between different forms as well as the contrast between different surfaces, predominately between solid walls and windows, which often gave the structures their characteristic sense of scale and presence. The first and perhaps most famous project was one an unrealised proposal for Tatlin’s Tower, the headquarters of the Comintern in St. Petersburg. Many subsequent, ambitious projects were not actually built, but Russia’s fourth-largest city Yekaterinburg is regarded as a ‘Constructivist museum’ including 140 built examples of the form. Another famous surviving example is the social housing project Dom Narkomfin in Moscow. Find out more Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki - Abandoned movie theatres in Russia. - Architectural styles. - Art Deco. - Art Moderne. - Art Nouveau. - Concept architectural design. - High-tech architecture. - Imagine Moscow exhibition. - Mimetic architecture. - Ministry of Transportation Building, Georgia. - Nowa Huta - Communist tour review. - Owen Hatherley - Landscapes of Communism. External references - Archdaily - A short history of Yekaterinburg's constructivist architecture - World of Level Design - Constructivist architecture Featured articles and news The London Build Expo is hosting a Diversity in Construction panel and networking session on October 24. Analysis can help develop a specification, but must not lead to inappropriate specifications being accepted. Dos and don'ts for creating a smart home. New ICE publication recommends pay-as-you-go tax to fund roads and other financing options. BSRIA launches a White Paper on wearable technology and wellbeing in buildings. Have the pressures of the market shredded the core values of professionalism? Lead times are a measure of the amount of time that elapses between initiating and completing a construction process. Government releases first tranche of funding for removal of unsafe high-rise cladding. How to ensure UK transport infrastructure copes with severe winter weather.
The Nematomorpha are a phylum (or group) of parasitic animals that look similar to nematode worms and live in similar environments. That is why their names are similar. They are sometimes called Gordiacea, and are also known as Horsehair worms. They range in size from 50 to 100 centimetres (20 to 39 in) long and can reach in extreme cases up to 2 meters, and they are 1 to 3 millimetres (0.039 to 0.118 in) in diameter. Horsehair worms can be discovered in damp areas such as watering troughs, streams, puddles, and cisterns. About 326 species are known and an estimate suggests that there may be about 2000 species worldwide. Life Cycle[change \| change source] The adult worms are free living, and, in North America, are usually found only in the summer months in or near shallow water. The larvae are parasitic on beetles, cockroaches, and Orthoptera (like grasshoppers and crickets). These are their final hosts, but since they do not live in water, the nematomorph life cycle has an extra stage. A day or two after they come out of their hosts, the adult worms mate in the water, and then around mid-August or Mid-October, they lay their eggs in the water. It takes about a month for the larvae to develop inside the egg. Once the larvae hatch, they somehow get into gastropods (like snails and slugs), insects, or earthworms, which live in moist habitats. There they build a cyst, and grow. The animal they grow inside is called an interim (temporary) host, because a final host is still needed. Next, developing nematomorph worms can be found in their final hosts (beetles, etc.). It is not clear how they get there, but probably the final host eats the interim host with the larvae inside them. After they appear in the final host, the nematomorphs begin to eat it from the inside. The nematomorph may control the host, leading it towards water and even causing it to jump into the water. Then it breaks out of the beetle in or near the water and finds a knot of other worms mating. References[change \| change source] - The name "Gordian" stems from the legendary Gordian knot, because nematomorphs often tie themselves in knots.Piper, Ross 2007. Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals, Greenwood Press. - Poinar Jr., G (2008). "Global diversity of hairworms (Nematomorpha: Gordiaceae) in freshwater". Hydrobiologia 595 (1): 79–83. . - Poinar, George; Buckley Ron 2006. Nematode (Nematoda: Mermithidae) and hairworm (Nematomorpha: Chordodidae) parasites in Early Cretaceous amber. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 93(1):36–41 - Bolek M.G. and Coggins J.R. (2002). "Seasonal occurrence, morphology, and observations on the life history of Gordius difficilis (Nematomorpha: Gordioidea) from Southeastern Wisconsin, United States". The Journal of Parasitology, 88: 287-294. - Hanelt B; Thomas F and Schmidt-Rhaesa A. (2005). "Biology of the phylum Nematomorpha". Advances in Parasitology 59: 244–305. .
Modularity: Ability to breakdown a large module into manageable sub modules called as modularity, that is an important feature of structured programming languages. 1. Projects can be completed in time. 2. Debugging will be easier and faster. The ability to port i.e. to install the software in different platform is called portability. Highest degree of portability: ‘C’ language offers highest degree of portability i.e., percentage of changes to be made to the sources code are at minimum when the software is to be loaded in another platform. Percentage of changes to the source code is minimum. The software that is 100% portable is also called as platform independent software or architecture neutral software. Eg: Java. Extendability: Ability to extend the existing software by adding new features is called as extendability. ‘C’ is also called as middle level language because programs written in ‘c’ language run at the speeds matching to that of the same programs written in assembly language so ‘c’ language has both the merits of high level and middle level language and because if this feature it is mainly used in developing system software. Flexibility: Key words or reverse words ANSIC has 32 reverse words ‘C’ language has right number of reverse words which allows the programmers to have complete control on the language. ‘C’ is also called as programmer’s language since it allows programmers to induce creativeness into the programmers.
What is the Thyroid? The thyroid gland is a small butterfly-shaped organ located on the front side of the neck, just below the Adam’s apple. There are two lobes, the right and left, connected by the isthmus. The primary function of the thyroid is to regulate several important hormones in the body, some of which control the body’s metabolic rate. There are several disorders that can affect the thyroid, including Hyperthyroidism, Hypothyroidism, Thyroid Nodules, Thyroid Cancer, and Goiter. Thyroid function can be measured by the levels of several thyroid hormones in the blood, including TSH, T3 and T4. Too much or too little of these hormones could mean that the patient is suffering from a disorder of the thyroid. If your thyroid is producing too little hormone, you may be having symptoms of hypothyroidism such as tiredness, feeling cold, weight gain, or changes in your skin or hair. Hyperthyroidism, where the thyroid gland produces too much hormone, causes the metabolism to speed up and can lead to weight loss, heart palpitations, sweating or insomnia. Treatment can range from taking replacement thyroid hormones to surgical removal of all or part of the thyroid gland in some cases.
Respiration is a chemical reaction that happens in all living cells. It is the way that energy is released from glucose, for our cells to use to keep us functioning. Remember that respiration is not the same as breathing (which is properly called ventilation). The glucose and oxygen react together in the cells to produce carbon dioxide and water. The reaction is called aerobic respiration because oxygen from the air is needed for it to work. Here is the word equation for aerobic respiration: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy) (Energy is released in the reaction. We show it in brackets in the equation because energy is not a substance.) Now we will look at how glucose and oxygen get to the cells so that respiration can take place and how we get rid of the carbon dioxide. Glucose from food to cells Glucose is a type of carbohydrate, obtained through digestion of the food we eat. Digestion breaks food down into small molecules. These can be absorbed across the wall of the small intestine into the bloodstream. Glucose is carried round the body dissolved in blood plasma, the pale yellow liquid part of our blood. The dissolved glucose can diffuse into the cells of the body from the capillaries. Once in the cell glucose can be used in respiration. Oxygen from the air to cells When we breathe in oxygen enters the small air sacs, called alveoli, in the lungs. Oxygen diffuses from there into the bloodstream. Oxygen is not carried in the plasma, but is carried by the red blood…
Numbers: Their Tales, Types, and Treasures. Chapter 3: Numbers in History 3.8.THE SLOW RECEPTION OF THE HINDU-ARABIC SYSTEM IN EUROPE In medieval Europe, mathematics had no part in the general knowledge, not even of learned people. Thus, the performance of simple arithmetic tasks was a matter for specialists. It was done by professionals, who did calculations for a living with the help of an abacus in the Roman tradition. The results were communicated with the help of Roman numerals, which were predominantly used throughout the Middle Ages. A first chance to introduce Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe came toward the end of the first millennium. The French monk and mathematician Gerbert d'Aurillac (ca. 946–1003 CE) was an important scientist of his time, and during a long visit in Spain, where the medieval Moors had established a large Islamic cultural domain, he studied mathematics from the Arabic scholars. According to legend, he traveled to Seville and Cordoba, gaining access to Islamic universities in the disguise of an Islamic pilgrim. Gerbert later became the teacher of Emperor Otto III. In the year 999 he was elected to succeed Pope Gregory V. As pope, he took the name Silvester II. It was the only time in history that a leading mathematician became the pope. Gerbert made the symbols 1 through 9 known as symbols on an abacus, but despite his influence he did not succeed in popularizing the Hindu-Arabic algorithms or the use of zero and the place-value system. The reception of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system met with considerable resistance from the Catholic Church and the conservative accountants. In some places the resistance lasted until the fifteenth century. Thus, it was the conservatism of medieval Europe and the Church that effectively blocked the early introduction of Hindu-Arabic mathematics to Europe. The nine Hindu-Arabic digits became known as “Arabic digits” among professional calculators (albeit without the symbol for zero because the symbols were exclusively used on an abacus where the zero is not needed). But the next few centuries would change that. Through the returning crusaders and the development of commercial routes, more and more information about a vastly superior Islamic culture reached Europe, where interest in the achievements of Arabic science grew steadily. An important proponent of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Europe was the Italian mathematician Leonardo da Pisa (ca. 1170–1240 CE), the most important European mathematician of his time. Today, he is better known under the name Fibonacci, probably evolving from the Italian “filius Bonacci,” meaning “son of Bonacci.” Fibonacci traveled throughout the Mediterranean and Islamic North Africa, where he learned about Arabian mathematics, and, in particular, about the Hindu-Arabic numeral system being used there. In 1202 he wrote the book Liber Abaci (usually translated as “Book of Calculation”), introducing the “modus Indorum,” the method used by the Indians to write numbers. He thus made the advantages of the place-value system accessible to a larger audience in Europe. Fibonacci's word for 0 was cephirum, which turned into the Italian word zefiro, which later became the French zéro and the English zero. The Arabic word for zero was Sifr, which later developed into the English word cipher, as well as the German word Ziffer (meaning “digit”). This, then, takes us to our current number system, which is used extensively in today's technologically driven world.
A list of student-submitted discussion questions for Variance of a Data Set. To organize ideas, increase comprehension, synthesize learning, demonstrate understanding of key concepts, and reinforce vocabulary using a Quickwrite. To reinforce and increase concept comprehension, and to analyze similarities and differences between topics using a Two Column Table. Students will analyze professional athletes' salaries using variance and standard deviation. Learn why some colleges have stopped awarding money to National merit Finalists. Use statistics to analyze how car ownership is changing in the United States. This study guide looks at levels of measurement and the shape, measures of center (median, mean, mode), and measures of spread (standard deviation) of a data set. It also compares the measures for population vs the measures for sample. These flashcards help you study important terms and vocabulary from Spread of a Normal Distribution, Variance of Normally Distributed Data, and Empirical Rule.
Before Lippershey and Galileo, magnification instruments had not been used to investigate objects beyond Earth. Since their time, far more powerful visiblelight telescopes have been developed along with other types of telescopes capable of “seeing” invisible forms of radiation, such as infrared, ultraviolet, radio, X-ray, and gamma-ray. Today’s optical telescopes (made from glass, lenses, or mirrors) are 100 million times more sensitive than Galileo’s telescope. For example, Hawaii’s twin Keck Tele scopes are the world’s largest optical and infrared telescopes. Each stands eight stories tall and weighs 300 tons. The Hubble Space Telescope, named after astronomer Edwin Hubble and launched into space in 1990, orbits Earth at a speed of 5 miles (8 kilometers) per second, and beams images back to Earth. Because its position is above the atmosphere (which distorts and blocks the light that reaches Earth) it is able to view the universe more thoroughly and clearly than ground-based telescopes.
Pop, Pop, Pop Goes the Popcorn! Rationale: This lesson will help children identify /p/,the phoneme represented by P. Students will learn to recognize /p/ in spoken words by learning a meaningful representation (fingers burst out to emulate popping corn) and the letter symbol P, practice finding /p/ in words, and apply phoneme awareness with /p/ in phonetic cue reading by distinguishing rhyming words from beginning letters. pencils and pencil; chart with “Patrick punches puffy pillows”; dry erase boards (these boards have primary paper line markings on them) with markers, word cards with PUT, PLANE, PANT, PINK, BOAT, and PLOP; drawing paper and crayons, assessment worksheet identifying pictures Say: "Writing letters is like writing secret code. To break the code we need to learn what the letters stand for. Our mouth moves a certain way when we say words. Today we are going to work on finding the words with the mouth movement /p/ (model this movement). We spell /p/ with the letter P. P reminds me of popcorn and the sound it makes while popping." 2. "Let’s pretend we are popping corn, /p/, /p/, /p/. (Model hand gestures of popping). Notice how your lips are (pressed together). When we say /p/, we press our lips together then blow a puff of air out." 3. "Let me show you how to find /p/ in the word push. I’m going to stretch push out in slow motion and you listen for the popcorn sound. Pppp-uuu-sh-sh-sh. I felt the puff of air come out at the beginning of the word." 4. "Now let’s try a tongue tickler (on chart)." I read, "Patrick punches puffy pillows." "Everybody say it three times together. Now say it again, but this time, stretch the /p/ at the beginning of each of the words. “Ppppatrick ppppunches ppppuffy ppppillows.” Try it again and this time break it off the word: “/p/ atrick /p/ punches /p/ uffy /p/ illows." 5. (Distribute dry erase boards and markers) "We use the letter P to spell /p/. Let’s write a capital P. Start at the rooftop, go down, pick up and go around to the fence. Now let’s try a lowercase p. Start at the fence, go straight down into the ditch, come up and put his chin on the sidewalk. I want to see everybody’s p. When I put a star on your, please make nine more just like it." 6. Call on students to answer and tell how they knew: "Do you hear /p/ in put or get? Shirt or pant? Blue or pink? Plane or boat? drag or drop?" I will say, “Let’s see if you can feel the mouth move /p/ in some words. Make your fingers pop the popcorn if you hear /p/: The, pushy, person, left, the, purple, pillows, beside, the puffy, couch." 7. Say: “Let’s look at an alphabet book. A man named E. J. Sullivan wrote a book about Alabama. He used each letter of the alphabet to show something special about our state. Can you guess what he might have used for P?" Show the picture on page 17. "It’s Grandma’s pecan pie!" Show your popping corn hand motion when you hear the /p/. “P is for Grandma’s homemade ppppecan ppppies.” Ask them to think of another food that begins with /p/. Then have each student draw a picture of their food choice and, using invented spelling, write the name of it. Display their work. 8. Show PUT and model how to decide if it is put or but: "The P tells me to show my hands popping corn, /p/, so this word is ppp-ut, put. You try some: PLANE: plane or cane? PANT: pant or rant? PINK: pink or think? PLOP: plop or cot?" 9. For assessment, distribute the worksheet. Students are to complete the partial spellings and color the pictures that begin with P. Call students individually to read the phonetic cue words from "Hand Gestures for Phonemes", The Reading "Patrick punches puffy pillows". From www.mrsmcgowan.com. Lesson referenced: "P is for Popcorn" by Meagan Harrington. Encounters - Fall 2007. The Reading Genie website. Sullivan, E. J., Eldredge, Ernie. A is for Alabama. Sweetwater Press: China. 2006. Worksheet: from www.teachervision.fen.com/tv/printables/scottforesman/Read_K_U1_Phonics42.pdf to the Projects index.
But we found that of the 1,080 species analyzed, there was only a 1% overlap of species in all four forest types in Manaus (Erwin, 1983a). Data collected during three seasons for two forest plots in the same type of forest 50 meters apart in Tambopata indicate that only 8.7% species are shared. When we add the fourth season data (which will come in shortly), we predict that the percentage of shared species will drop. Figure 13–3 is a cumulation species curve, which shows the increase in the number of species as we increase the samples. After this figure was made, some more samples were analyzed and the curve became much steeper. These data are just from Plot 1 in Upland Forest Type 1 (Erwin, 1985). The 3,000 species already analyzed amount to more than all the samples from Brazil. A canopy beetle is shown in Figure 13–4. In fully describing the distribution of these insects in time and space in the tropics, we should think in terms of more than 30 million, or perhaps 50 million or more, species of insects on Earth. A large number of species are tied only to certain forest types that are found on very small patches of soil deposited differentially through time by the vast and meandering Amazon River system. The extermination of 50% or more of the fauna and flora would mean that our generation will participate in an extinction process involving perhaps 20 to 30 million species. We are not talking about a few endangered species listed in the Red Data books, or the few forbish louseworts and snail darters that garner so much media attention. No matter what the number we are talking about, whether 1 million or 20 million, it is massive destruction of the biological richness of Earth.
Nowadays, the Imaging technique is increasingly in used for both fundamental biological investigations and clinical diagnosis. Although, it is the process of creating visual representations of the interior of a body. Similarly, photoacoustic imaging technique shows images of biological materials by combining the sound and light waves. By using this scenario, scientists from the Northwestern University have developed the device called the Micro-ring resonator detector. This micro-ring resonator detector can regulate the speed of the blood flow and the oxygen metabolic rate at the back of the eye. Scientists took almost three years to built this micro-ring resonator detector. Professor Hao F. Zhang said, “We believe that with this technology, optical ultrasound detection methods will play an increasingly important role in photoacoustic imaging for the retina and many biomedical applications.” In 2006, Zhang was exploring new retinal imaging technologies. Now, Dr. Amani Fawzi from Northwestern’s Feinberg School of Medicine convinced him to create a new diagnostic device that measures biological activities behind the eye. Previous ultrasound detection devices were so bulky, opaque, and not sensitive enough. And due to its limited bandwidth, it could only capture part of it what was happening in the eye. To overcome this issue, scientists develop a radically different type of detector. The micro-ring resonator detector small enough to be used with human eyes, soft enough to be integrated into a contact lens. It could generate a super-high resolution of hundreds of megahertz. Zhang said, “We needed a device that had large enough bandwidth for spatial resolution. And it needed to be optically transparent to allow light to go through freely.” “The trouble was to fabricate it, have it fit in the size of a contact lens, and make it still work.” At the very earlier stage, scientists considered placing the needle-sized detector on the eyelid. But, that was not ideal. So, they next placed the device on a tiny ring implanted in a single-use contact lens worn during diagnosis. This idea brings the new challenge for scientists to make it transparent. After three years of consistent hard work, scientists make a tiny and transparent plastic ring resonator device. The device is 60 micrometers in diameter and 1 micron high. Now various scientists from different fields have approached the team about adapting it for their own work. Zhang said, “Typically, researchers use a pure piece of glass, but this allows for a lot more types of imaging.“
When having a discussion concerning anatomy the phrase form determines function comes to mind. What this entails is that the structure of the organ determines strongly what that organ does. The stomach is a muscular sac that provides a conducive enviroment for breaking down, chemically modifying, and sending to the next stage of digestion the food or material that a human or any other mammal for that matter eats. The stomach is an expanded section of the gastrointestinal tract between the esophagus and the duodenum of the small intestine. The stomach is on the left side of theabdominal cavity with the most superior part laying against the diaphragm . Inferior to the stomach is the pancreas and the greater omentum which hangs from the greater curvature. The major regions of the stomach are thecardia, fundus, body, antrum, and the pylorus. Additionally you have the greater and lesser curvatures, which are the right and left sides of the stomach, respectively. The esophageal sphincter is contained within the carida region. The esophageal sphincter controls the flow of material coming into the stomach. The fundus is the section of the stomach that is formed by the upper curvature and the body is the main area of the stomach. The final part of the stomach is the antrum where the pylorus, the exit of the stomach and entrance to the duodenum of the small intestine is located. Within the pylorus is the pyloric sphincter that controls what leaves the stomach into the duodenum. The inside of the stomach is composed of three layers, from the innermost layer to the outermost layer: muscosa, submuscosa, muscularis externa, and the serosa. The muscosa is where stomach acid is produced and secreted into the stomach. The submuscosa is layer composed of connective tissue that separates the muscosa from the muscularis externa. The muscularis externa is composed of three layers of smooth muscle: inner oblique, middle circular, and outer longitudinal. These are the muscles that are primarily responsible for mixing material that has come into stomach with digestive enzymes and moving the material through the stomach. The final layer is the serosa, which is a layer of connective tissue that attaches and is continuous with the peritoneum, the lining of the abdominal cavity. The primary functions of the stomach are killing bacteria and breaking down food releasing to the small intestine while maintaining a constant release rate of material from the stomach to the small intestine. The pH inside of the stomach is maintained at very acidic levels which help the digestive enzymes like pepsin break down the material further so it can be moved to the small intestine successfully. Finally, the stomach is also responsible for helping the small intestine absorb vitamins.
Reinforce introductory statistics with this interactive basketball activity. Students go in the gymnasium or outside and take 10 free-throw shots. The results of this activity are depicted in a frequency table. Then students are responsible for calculating the mean, median, mode and range of the set of frequency numbers. Additionally, students are challenged to use the information to create a dot plot and/or bar graph. Finally, there are 10 questions where students need to not only interpret results but also make inferences about the results. Great fun to be outdoors AND learning! Enjoy!
A new study that estimates the rate of DNA degradation in fossils casts serious doubt on our chances of ever having a real life Jurassic Park. The researchers looked at DNA extracted from the bones of an extinct bird between 600 and 8,000 years old and calculated the rate at which the fossilized DNA degraded. They concluded that, even under the best conditions, a DNA molecule wouldn’t survive past 7 million years, making us just shy of 60 million years too late in resurrecting T. Rex. Previous reports of dinosaur DNA lasting tens of million of years have been met with skepticism. Many of these samples were found to contain more recent DNA mixed in with the life blueprints of long extinct species. But without a true reference – like the entire sequence of T. Rex’s DNA – scientists have been left to denounce or defend authenticity without definitive resolution. What was needed was a kind of general rule that set the limits on just how long a fossilized DNA molecule could remain intact. Now, apparently, palaeogeneticists at the University of Copenhagen and Murdoch University in Perth, Australia, have what it takes to put the question of DNA degradation to rest. The team used 158 leg bones belonging to three different species of moa, giant birds native to New Zealand who were driven to extinction around 1,400 AD from over hunting. The bones, between 600 and 8,000 years old, had been collected from three sites within 5 km of each other. The proximity of the samples is important as it means that the fossils experienced very similar conditions during their incubation to enlightenment. By comparing the amount of degradation in material of different ages, the researchers calculated that the DNA had a half-life of 521 years. If their figure is correct it means that in just 521 years half of the DNA in a sample would have degraded, another half in another 521 years, and so on. Bottom line: even under the best conditions, which the researchers say is at –5 °C, virtually all of the DNA would be gone in 6.8 million years. There’s still hope for the woolly mammoth, still romping the Earth until about 1700 BC, but as dinosaurs expired about 65 million years ago, it seems as though the closest we’re going to get to T. Rex is in a museum. Different conditions, as I mentioned, can change the rate of degradation. When a cell dies its DNA is broken down by several processes including enzymes that snap its nucleotide backbone. Microbial attacks and oxygenation also destroy DNA. The most powerful degrading force over long periods of time, however, is thought to be water. The chemical bonds that hold DNA together will at some point react with water molecules and disintegrate. The mao samples examined in the current study were preserved at a balmy 13.1 °C. Scientists have yet to look at samples from frozen ares where these processes are kept more at bay, to see if the DNA degradation rate is similar or, we can only hope, much slower. And, try as they might, the mao sample conditions were only similar to conclude that aging accounted for just 38.6 percent of the DNA degradation – over 60 percent was due to other factors. Because of this, some researchers aren’t quite ready to throw in the cloning towel. “Other factors that impact on DNA preservation are clearly at work,” Michael Knapp, a palaeogeneticist at the University of Otago in Dunedin, New Zealand, told Nature. “Storage following excavation, soil chemistry and even the time of year when the animal died are all likely contributing factors that will need looking into.” But even if the researchers are off, they would have to be off by a factor of ten for there to be any hope that dinosaur DNA could survive 65 million years in any kind of water-containing environment. What about amber? To date, amber has yielded a few ancient species. There have in fact been several insects so encapsulated that actually lived during the age of dinosaurs. Sadly, it seems as though amber is not the preservation marvel that might serve as a molecular time machine. Thus far attempts at recovering DNA from insects trapped in amber have yielded a few, spare fragments of DNA. But as Knapp noted above, more studies still need to be performed. Until the permafrost studies are carried out, I suppose we can still hold out hope for our Jurassic Park. Maybe fact will turn out to be stranger than fiction.
I left you with the question regarding this structure, its relevance to the underlying geology and how it works. This structure takes the River Wheelock beneath the Crewe to Manchester railway line near to Sandbach, Cheshire, England. This gentle river would normally need a simple bridge or large culvert if it was not for the underlying geology. The bedrock here is, or was, Triassic salt. Since the 1930s salt was extracted here by brine pumping. This involves pumping water into the salt which dissolves it, pumping the resulting brine back to the surface and then evaporating it to produce table salt. The problem was that there was little control where the pumped water was going to, or indeed coming from. Dissolution of the underlying salt causes the land surface, and here the railway embankment, to subside. It also creates local lakes called flashes and Elton Flashes can be seen in this wider Google Earth image below with the River Wheelock flowing beneath the railway just left of centre in the picture. So, as the land surface subsides, the River Wheelock will flow through successively higher tubes underneath the railway. As the subsidence also causes the rail line to dip downwards, the track bed has to be built up with ballast to keep it level. However, this narrows the height between the rails and the overhead electrical wires so the gantries are designed so that they can be jacked up. These can be seen in the upper picture, and the one below shows the transition from normal gantries on stable ground to the jackable ones in the subsidence area. This salt related subsidence has caused engineering problems elsewhere. Nearby,the Trent and Mersey Canal passes beneath a bridge. Because of subsidence the banks of the canal have had to be built up otherwise the water would spill over the edges. However, this brings the canal level so close to the underside of the bridge that canal boats couldn’t pass underneath so the bridge had to be raised. From the brickwork under the bridge in the image below it can be seen that this has happened several times, and the current bridge is also jackable.
Sustainable logging practices can be used to reduce the damage done by logging to ecosystems. It is not possible to simply eradicate logging, as it is a crucial economic activity on which many people depend. However, it can be done in a more environmentally friendly way. Guidelines for sustainable logging are outlined below. 1. Determine the maximum number of trees that can be harvested sustainably. In forests where large-scale natural disturbances are essential for succession and renewal, such as the boreal forests, clear cutting is a viable method of harvesting trees. For this kind of forest, "wildlife respond positively to the increase availability of nutrients and plant species" that follow clear cutting (Harlow et. al., 2000). Measures can be taken to encourage the process of succession and future growth. These include cutting cleared areas so that they have irregular edges, leaving patches of trees standing, and manually planting seedlings, all of which help speed up the process of reseeding either naturally or unnaturally. Other types of forest and trees must be treated in accordance with their recovery speeds and processes of succession. For example, in dipterocarp forests, a harvest of eight trees per hectares or less is recommended (Sodhi, 2011). If an area does not have a history of large natural disturbances, like forest fires, then clear cutting does not emulate a natural event. Loggers should not clear cut in areas where such practices have lasting effects on the ecosystem. 2. Logging cycles should be at least 80 years. (Sodhi, 2011) This is an estimate for all forest types. Using this generalization, the percentage of logging-available trees that may be harvested each year can be calculated. Cutting between 1-1.25 percent is optimal to allow the local fauna and animals to recover between harvests. 3. Logging cycles should depend on the growth standards of mature trees Different species of trees grow at different rates, with regards to height, width, and density(Sodhi, 2011). Although the estimated time for a logging cycle is 80 years, research needs to be done on the important wood-producing trees in every region to determine the above parameters. (Sodhi, 2011) This will allow the harvester to cut sustainably so that the trees will be available for many cycles to come. 4. Minimize the size and connectivity of gaps In clear cut regions, it is important to not cut too large an area. As stated in Guideline 2, these areas are meant to simulate a natural disturbance and thus allow recover by means of natural succession. Limiting the size of clear cut areas allows the spaces to be re-seeded naturally and does not overexpose the animals that are using the space. (Sodhi, 2011) 5. When selective logging is practiced, refrain from understory clearance and reduce the impact by minimizing skid trails and damage to the residual vegetation. Particularly in tropical forests where large natural disturbances are uncommon, understory vegetation should be preserved to maintain the integrity of the land and soil while the woody trees are regenerating. (Sodhi, 2011) 6. "Set aside pristine areas of appropriate sizes (e.g. >1000 ha) with adequate connections to other such areas within logging concessions." (Sodhi, 2011) In places where forest has not yet been exploited for logging purposes, setting aside sanctuaries can better allow biodiversity to thrive (Sodhi, 2011). This is called the spillover effect. This topic is further explored in the sustainable fishing section. The same principles that apply to sustainable fishing also apply to forests (Brudvig, 2009). 7. "Identify the species of greatest conservation concern (e.g. endangered/threatened species) and ensure that their needs are cared for adequately during logging activities." (Sodhi, 2011) Keystone species that are threatened by loss and disturbance of habitat should be treated with care. Species important to the balance of the ecosystem are vital to the continued success of the forest itself. The harvester should be made aware of such a situation to ensure that further damage to the species is prevented. Loggers can work together with the Protectors of Biodiversity that are in charge of the area in which they are working to identify these species and develop ways to protect them, while still allowing logging. 8. Convert logged rather than pristine areas into plantations for commercially viable trees. Much land has already been utilized in some manner for logging. Instead of continuing to dip into the few remaining old-growth forests, it is much more environmentally and biodiversity-friendly to continue to use such land for logging in a sustainable manner (Sodhi, 2011). 9. "Prevent excessive human invasion into logged areas. Attempts should also be made to deny access to the poachers of such areas." Sustainability in logging areas depends on the process of succession and renewal. Poachers and other excess human disturbances could damage the forest's chance to recover to a matured state. 10. Maintain a buffer strip of at least 30 m between clear-cut land and waterways. (Davies and Nelson, 1994) Massively cleared areas often have problems with erosion. Although, ideally, root systems are left behind to hold the soil in place, there is bound to be erosion in any clear cut area. Erosion and loose surface soil leads to mud slides and pollution. To prevent this soil from being washed into lakes, streams, and rivers, there should be a minimum mandatory 30m buffer of untouched forest around all waterways. Illegal logging is the main cause of uncontrolled unsustainable deforestation. Corruption and lack of law enforcement go hand-in-hand, allowing crime syndicates to go unhindered (Kishor, 2006). While there are laws pertaining to the sustainability of logging in many countries, they often go unenforced. In order to successfully preserve biodiversity, logging laws need to be enforced. Ideally, this will be done by governments . The World Bank established the Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (FLEG) trust fund in 2004. In 2009, it joined forces with Program for Forests (PROFOR) (FLEG, 2010). These programs are designed to assist national and regional reform to implement the laws for sustainable logging. The logging industry accounts for 2 percent of the world's GDP and may account for up to 4 percent of the GDP of developed countries (Butler, 2011). Attempts made by governments to slow logging have resulted in loss of revenue because of the successful evasion of taxes. A Hong Kong logging company with operations in Nigeria paid 28 USD to the government for each tree and then sold the trees for 800 USD per cubic meter, or approximately 2900 USD per tree (Kishor, 2006). In Indonesia it is estimated that 42 percent of the area logged annually is done so illegally. The loss accrued by the government is as much as 3.5 billion U.S. dollars (Kishor, 2006). According to the World Bank, national economies worldwide are shorted 10 to 15 billion U.S. dollars not including the loss of tax revenues (Kishor, 2006). With the enforcement of sustainable practices and successful tax collecting, the total number of trees harvested will decrease. However, these practices are needed to both protect biodiversity and prevent the depletion of a key natural resource. Sustainable logging practices benefit biodiversity by enforcing regulations that allow affected species to thrive. If current practices continue, companies will eventually see a drop in profit caused by a lack of trees to log. But, in the long run, these practices will also benefit logging companies by preventing them from exhausting the very resource on which they are dependent.
Physics/Waves and its properties I have been attempting to complete this problm for many days now, but i keep getting stuck. I have no idea what to possibly do. Any help would be appreciated. A 200 g mass attached to a horizontal spring oscillates at a frequency of 2.0 Hz. At t = 0 s, the mass is at x = 5.0 cm and has vx = -30 cm/s. Determine a) The period, b) The angular frequency, c) The amplitude, d) The phase constant, e) The maximum acceleration, f) The position at t = 0.4 s, and g) Write down an equation that describes the position of the oscillating mass as a function of time ( ie. what is x(t)? ). Two things that your problem doesn't explain, but I have to assume: 1) the x measurement is such that x = 0 is the position in the center of its oscillation. The position at which it would remain at rest if you stopped it there. 2) the system oscillates without friction so that energy is conserved. a) The period T = 1/f = 1/2 Hz = 0.5 seconds b) The angular frequency, w = 2pif = 2pi2 Hz = 12.6 radians/s c) One of the results of the analysis of the simple harmonic motion equation in my book and I hope in your book is that w^2 = k/m (12.6 radians/s)^2 = k/0.2 kg k = 0.2 kg(12.6 radians/s)^2 = 31.6 kg/s^2 We want the spring constant to be in units of N/m, so multiplying and dividing by m, k = 31.6 kg.m/m.s^2 = 31.6 N/m Due to conservation of energy, the sum of the spring potential energy and kinetic energy at time t=0 is equal to the Total system energy, TSE, at any time. So we can get A because when the mass is at the extreme position, velocity is zero and all system energy is in the form of spring potential energy. TSE = SPE(t=0) + KE(t=0) = (1/2)kx^2 + (1/2)mv^2 TSE = (1/2)(31.6 N/m)(0.05 m)^2 + (1/2)0.2 kg(-0.3 m/s)^2 = 0.0395 J + 0.009 J TSE = 0.0485 J When at the extreme position, x = A, TSE = SPE(x=A) = (1/2)kx^2 TSE = 0.0485 J = (1/2)(31.6 N/m)x^2 (Note: 1 J = 1 N.m) x = sqrt(20.0485 N.m/(31.6 N/m) = sqrt(0.00153 m^2) = 0.0554 m So A = 0.0554 m d) The system is described by the standard simple harmonic motion equation x = Acos(wt + delta) We know that w = 12.6 radians/s, A = 0.0554 m, and when t = 0, x = 0.050 m. Plugging that into the standard simple harmonic motion equation x = 0.050 m = 0.0554 mcos(0 + delta) cos(delta) = 0.050/0.0554 = 0.902 delta = arccos0.902 = 25.5 degrees e) The maximum acceleration will occur when x = A and the mass has zero velocity but is reversing direction. Since x = Acos(wt + delta) and cos(0) = 1, wt + delta must be zero. The first derivative, dx/dt, of x will yield an expression for velocity as a function of time. x = Acos(wt + delta) dx/dt = -wAsin(wt + delta) The second derivative, d2x/dt2, will yield an expression for acceleration. Do that and plug in the data for x = A. f) x = Acos(wt + delta) Plug in t = 0.4 s and the other data. e) x = Acos(wt + delta) Like I said above, I hope your book gives you that equation, mine does. This is the solution of the differential equation md2x/dt2 + k*x = 0 Please verify my math. I hope this helps,
A schematic view of the outer rings of Saturn (top) and Uranus (bottom). The recently discovered outermost ring of gas giant Uranus is a bright blue, scientists said today. "The outer ring of Saturn is blue and has Enceladus right smack at its brightest spot, and Uranus is strikingly similar, with its blue ring right on top of Mab's orbit," said Imke de Pater, professor of astronomy at the University of California, Berkeley. All other rings, such as the those around Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, sport a reddish color because they are composed of larger particles that reflect red light. The particles themselves may also be reddish, possibly from iron. The color of Saturn's blue ring has been credited to the tiny particles spewed into space by Enceladus as it orbits around the planet. But the same probably isn't true for Uranus, scientists say. Uranus' newly discovered moon, Mab, is a small, dead, rocky ball only about 15 miles across-one-twentieth the diameter of Enceladus. The scientists however suspect that both of these rings are subject to forces acting on dust in the rings, which allow the tiny particles to survive while the larger ones are captured by their moons. These fragments are subject to forces that push them away or toward the planet out of the moon's orbit. The result is a ring of small particles, each only a fraction of a human hair in width, that reflect and scatter mostly blue light. "This model can be transferred directly to what we now see in Uranus," de Pater said. "Although we still need to understand the details of the process." The study is detailed in the April 7 issue of the journal Science.
Skin is the first and foremost protective layer of the body. It protects us from sunburn, heat, injury and infections. It helps in storing fat and water and controlling body temperature too. Skin is made up of several layers such as epidermis (outermost layer), dermis (middle layer) and hypodermis (deeper subcutaneous tissue). Skin cancer is the most common type of all cancers and affects people with all races, color and ethnicity. Although people with light skin tone, who are more prone to sunburn, are at higher risk of getting skin cancer. It is an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of skin cells. It occurs commonly in areas exposed to sun for prolonged period such as face, hands, neck and can rarely spread to other body parts and areas having no or less exposure to sun. Skin cancer happens due to damage of DNA by U.V radiation which can lead to mutation and genetic defect causing skin cells to grow and multiply rapidly and form malignant tumor. Skin cancer begins with the epidermis (outer skin layer) which is made up of squamous cells, basal cells, and melanocytes. Tumors are considered malignant only if they grow in uncontrolled manner becoming cancerous invading the surrounding tissues rapidly and destroying them and also through blood stream reaching to other organs and cause damage to them (metastasis). Skin cancers are of two main types – Keratinocyte cancer (develops in skin cells called Keratinocytes) having two subtypes: Squamous cell carcinoma and Basal cell carcinoma. The other type is Melanoma cancer which occurs in skin melanocytes that generate brown pigment of the skin. Marker cell carcinoma, Skin lymphoma and Kaposi sarcoma are rare types of skin cancers. Melanoma is a more aggressive form of skin cancer than other forms and is generally malignant in nature. If not diagnosed at an early stage, it can invade the tissues and spread to other body parts. The cases of malignant melanoma are increasing each year in the U.S. Although, it causes 2% cases of all skin cancers but causes most numbers of deaths. Early diagnosis helps in increasing survival rate from melanoma. Squamous cell and Basal cell skin cancers are considered non-malignant and respond effectively to treatment and also rarely spread to other parts of the body. Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type of skin cancer normally develops on back, neck, face, scalp, hands, and arms. It affects nearly 2.8 million people in the U.S each year. Basal cell carcinoma occurs in parts of body exposed to sun and rarely occurs to the unexposed parts. The squamous cell carcinoma is also a commonly occurring skin cancer. It occurs on areas exposed to sun affecting around 700,000 people in U.S each year. In America, more than 2 million people have been diagnosed with skin cancers each year and nearly 3.5 million cases are of Basal and Squamous cell carcinomas depicting that having diagnosed with one type of skin cancer may put a person at risk of getting other skin cancers too. The diagnosis and detection of skin cancer type is done through two methods: first one is physical examination of the lesion or unusual skin cell growth, moles and patchy skins. Second method is skin biopsy i.e. biopsy of the skin tissues to detect cancer cells and types of cancers. Skin biopsy can be of several types for detecting both melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer such as- Tangential (shave) biopsy, Punch biopsy, Incisional and Excisional biopsy, Optical biopsy. If chances of malignant skin cancer are noticed or detected then other biopsies are done such as- Fine Needle Aspiration biopsy, Surgical lymph Node biopsy, and Sentinel Lymph Node biopsy. As skin cancer rates are increasing rapidly in the U.S over time, doctors suggest taking care of the skin and protecting it from harmful U.V radiations. Physicians also suggest taking proper notice of any unusual moles, scars and lesion growths on your skin and getting it diagnosed properly to check whether it is skin cancer or not. Early detection and diagnosis of the skin cancer can cure non-malignant skin cancer completely and even spreading of malignant skin cancer to different body parts. Death rates from it can be controlled to a higher extent in this way. If you are diagnosed with skin cancer, it is important to know the type as it affects your treatment options and cancer prognosis. Skin cancer refers to any cancer that begins in your skin. It may develop. . . . Skin is our outermost protective layer which protects us from heat, injury. . . . The treatment for melanoma depends on the size and stage of your. . . . What is Stage 0 Melanoma? In Stage 0 melanoma, the malignant tumor is. . . . Skin Cancer Signs and Symptoms All skin cancers including. . . . Often, people diagnosed with basal or squamous cell skin cancer. . . .
It may be one of the most familiar words in economics. Inflation has plunged countries into long periods of instability. Central bankers often aspire to be known as “inflation hawks.” Politicians have won elections with promises to combat inflation, only to lose power after failing to do so. Inflation was even declared Public Enemy No. 1 in the United States—by President Gerald Ford in 1974. What, then, is inflation, and why is it so important? Inflation is the rate of increase in prices over a given period of time. Inflation is typically a broad measure, such as the overall increase in prices or the increase in the cost of living in a country. But it can also be more narrowly calculated—for example, for certain goods, such as food, or for services, such as school tuition. Whatever the context, inflation represents how much more expensive the relevant set of goods and/or services has become over a certain period, most commonly a year. Consumers’ cost of living depends on the prices of the many goods and services they consume and the share of each good or service in the household budget. To measure the average consumer’s cost of living, government agencies conduct household surveys to identify a basket of commonly purchased items and then track the cost of purchasing this basket over time. (Housing expenses, including rent and mortgages, constitute the largest component of the consumer basket in the United States. In other countries, especially poorer ones, food can be biggest part of household budgets.) The cost of this basket at a given time expressed relative to a base year is the consumer price index (CPI), and the percentage change in the CPI over a certain period is consumer price inflation, the most widely used measure of inflation. (For example, if the base year CPI is 100 and the current CPI is 110, inflation is 10 percent over the period.) There are other important measures of price stability. Core consumer inflation—which excludes prices set by the government and the more volatile prices of products, such as food and energy, that are most affected by seasonal factors or temporary supply conditions—focuses on the underlying and persistent trends in inflation and is also watched closely by policymakers. The overall inflation rate for not just for consumption goods but all goods produced in an economy can be calculated by using the gross domestic product (GDP) deflator, an index with much broader coverage than the CPI. The CPI basket is mostly kept constant over time for consistency, but is tweaked occasionally to reflect changing consumption patterns—for example, to include new hi-tech goods and to replace items no longer widely purchased. Conversely, the contents of the GDP deflator vary each year by definition because it tracks the prices of everything produced in an economy. This makes the GDP deflator more “current” than the mostly fixed CPI basket, but at the same time, the deflator includes non-consumer items (such as military spending) and is therefore not a good measure of the cost of living. The good and the bad To the extent that households’ nominal income, which they receive in current money, does not increase as much as prices, they are worse off, because they can afford to purchase less. In other words, their purchasing power or real—inflation-adjusted—income falls. Real income is a proxy for the standard of living. When real incomes are rising, so is the standard of living, and vice versa. In reality, prices change at different paces. Some, such as the prices of traded commodities, change every day; others, such as wages established by contracts, take longer to adjust (or are “sticky,” in economic parlance). In an inflationary environment, unevenly rising prices inevitably reduce the purchasing power of some consumers, and this erosion of real income is the single biggest cost of inflation. Inflation can also distort purchasing power over time for recipients and payers of fixed interest rates. Take pensioners who receive a fixed 5 percent yearly increase to their pension. If inflation is higher than 5 percent, a pensioner’s purchasing power falls. On the other hand, a borrower who pays a fixed-rate mortgage of 5 percent would benefit from 5 percent inflation, because the real interest rate (the nominal rate minus the inflation rate) would be zero; servicing this debt would be even easier if inflation were higher, as long as the borrower’s income keeps up with inflation. The lender’s real income, of course, suffers. To the extent that inflation is not factored into nominal interest rates, some gain and some lose purchasing power. Indeed, many countries have grappled with high inflation—and in some caseshyperinflation, 1,000 percent or higher inflation a year. In 2008, Zimbabwe experienced one of the worst cases of hyperinflation ever, with estimated annual inflation at one point of 500 billion percent. Such high levels of inflation have been disastrous, and countries have had to take difficult and painful policy measures to bring inflation back to reasonable levels, sometimes by giving up their national currency, as Zimbabwe has. If rapidly rising prices are bad for the economy, is the opposite, or falling prices, good? It turns out that deflation is not desirable either. When prices are falling, consumers delay making purchases if they can, anticipating lower prices in the future. For the economy this means less economic activity, less income generated by producers, and lower economic growth. Japan is one country with a long period of nearly no economic growth largely because of deflation. Preventing deflation during the recent global financial crisis is one of the reasons the U.S. Federal Reserve and other central banks around the world kept interest rates low for a prolonged period and have instituted other policy measures to ensure financial systems have plenty of liquidity. Most economists now believe that low, stable, and—most important—predictable inflation is good for an economy. If inflation is low and predictable, it is easier to capture it in price-adjustment contracts and interest rates, reducing its distortionary impact. Moreover, knowing that prices will be slightly higher in the future gives consumers an incentive to make purchases sooner, which boosts economic activity. Many central bankers have made their primary policy objective maintaining low and stable inflation, a policy called inflation targeting. What creates inflation? Long-lasting episodes of high inflation are often the result of lax monetary policy. If the money supply grows too big relative to the size of an economy, the unit value of the currency diminishes; in other words, its purchasing power falls and prices rise. This relationship between the money supply and the size of the economy is called the quantity theory of money, and is one of the oldest hypotheses in economics. Pressures on the supply or demand side of the economy can also be inflationary.Supply shocks that disrupt production, such as natural disasters, or raise production costs, such as high oil prices, can reduce overall supply and lead to “cost-push” inflation, in which the impetus for price increases comes from a disruption to supply. The food and fuel inflation episodes of 2008 and 2011 were such cases for the global economy—sharply rising food and fuel prices were transmitted from country to country by trade. Poorer countries were generally hit harder than advanced economies. Conversely, demand shocks, such as a stock market rally, or expansionary policies, such as when a central bank lowers interest rates or a government raises spending, can temporarily boost overall demand and economic growth. If, however, this increase in demand exceeds an economy’s production capacity, the resulting strain on resources creates “demand-pull” inflation. Policymakers must find the right balance between boosting growth when needed without overstimulating the economy and causing inflation. Expectations also play a key role in determining inflation. If people or firms anticipate higher prices, they build these expectations into wage negotiations or contractual price adjustments (such as automatic rent increases). This behavior partly determines future inflation; once the contracts are exercised and wages or prices rise as agreed, expectations have become self-fulfilling. And to the extent that people base their expectations on the recent past, inflation will follow similar patterns over time, resulting in inflation inertia. How policymakers deal with inflation The right set of anti-inflation policies, those aimed at reducing inflation, depends on the causes of inflation. If the economy has overheated, central banks—if they are committed to ensuring price stability—can implement contractionary policies that rein in aggregate demand, usually by raising interest rates. Some central bankers have chosen, with varying degrees of success, to impose monetary discipline by fixing the exchange rate—tying its currency to another currency and, therefore, its monetary policy to that of the country to which it is linked. However, when inflation is driven by global rather than domestic developments, such policies may not help. In 2008 and then in 2011, when inflation rose across the globe on the back of high food and fuel prices, many countries allowed the high global prices to pass through to the domestic economy. In some cases the government may directly set prices (as some did in 2008 to prevent high food and fuel prices from passing through). Such administrative price-setting measures usually result in the government accruing large subsidy bills to compensate producers for lost income. Central bankers are increasingly relying on their ability to influence inflation expectations as an inflation-reduction tool. Policymakers announce their intention to keep economic activity low temporarily to bring down inflation, hoping to influence expectations and contracts’ built-in inflation component. The more credibility central banks have, the greater the influence of their pronouncements on inflation expectations.
Cotton pest management scouting report (PDF) Cotton Pests: Scouting and Management Michael L. Boyd, Bobby J. Phipps, J. Allen Wrather Diseases section in collaboration with University of Tennessee-Jackson Mississippi State University-Stoneville Upland cotton was domesticated from a subtropical, perennial plant in its native desert habitat. Now it is grown as an annual crop in Missouri and throughout the cotton-growing regions of the United States. An understanding of the cotton plant's growth patterns is important for timely management practices. Several factors are involved in optimal cotton production, including temperature, solar radiation, water and healthy root systems. Cotton requires a minimum temperature of 60 degrees Fahrenheit to grow; however, temperatures around 90 degrees Fahrenheit are considered ideal for growth and lint production. Sunlight is necessary to drive the plant's photosynthetic "factory" to produce sugars necessary for plant growth and fruit production (square to flower to boll). Strong, early root development is essential for the uptake of soil nutrients and water to support maximum fruit production later in the season (Figure 1). Cotton field ready for harvest. To monitor plant development during the growing season, select five representative plants each week at 10 scouting locations in each field, and rate the plants' development according to the guidelines listed in Table 1. Heat units are calculated by adding together the daily maximum and minimum temperatures, dividing by two, and subtracting the base developmental temperature (60 degrees Fahrenheit). If the number calculated is negative, then round it off to zero. Seedling leaves or cotyledons are the first to emerge after planting. Cotyledons are borne on opposite sides of the main stem. Thereafter, the nodes (first to nth) above the cotyledons (zero node) will have a spiral, or alternate, arrangement around the main stem (Figure 2). The distance between nodes varies with seasonal growing conditions and the plant's growth stage. Ideal cotton plant development. The following values are considered optimal height-to-node ratios: - Seedling cotton 0.5 to 0.75 inches per node - Early squaring 0.75 to 1.2 inches per node - Large square to first bloom 1.2 to 1.7 inches per node - Early bloom 1.7 to 2.0 inches per node Generally, the lower branches are vegetative and the number present depends on plant population densities. Depending on environmental conditions, the first fruiting branches will vary from the fifth to the eighth node. The developing fruit branch terminates in a square, but a second square and leaf develops at the base of the first one, and a new internode branch extends away from the first fruiting position. This creates a zigzag pattern of fruiting forms, leaves, and internodes. Cotton should begin squaring and flowering five and eight weeks, respectively, after planting. New fruiting branches should be initiated every three days during optimal growth periods. The weather and pests (diseases, insects and weeds) can disrupt normal plant development throughout the growing season. For example, seedling diseases can stunt plant growth and reduce plant population densities. Early-season fruit loss from plant bug infestations stimulates plants to produce more vegetative growth and less lint. Competition from weeds for nutrients, soil moisture and light reduces crop growth and yields. Stages of cotton plant development. - 3 days from planting - Soil temperatures greater than 65 degrees Fahrenheit are optimum. - 55 heat units (DD60s) - 7 days from planting First true leaf - >100 heat units (DD60s) - 15 days from planting - Photosynthetic activity peaks approximately 20 days after the leaves unfurl. Add nodes to main stem - 45 to 65 per node heat units (DD60s) - 3 per node days from planting - 500 heat units (DD60s) - 46 days from planting - High (greater than 80 percent) first position fruit set is desirable. - 850 heat units (DD60s) - D67 days from planting - 1,300 to 1,450 heat units (DD60s) - 102 days from planting - Aug. 10 is the latest date a flower has a 50 percent chance to reach maturity. First open boll - 1,700 heat units (DD60s) - 112 days from planting - 2,150 to 2,300 heat units (DD60s) - +153 days from planting IPM1025, new October 2004
All About The Inner Ear The ear is made up of three very different areas that all work together to gather and interpret the sound that we hear around us every day. The inner ear is where all of the magic takes place. Taking what the middle ear has converted into waves from the sound given to it by the outer ear, the inner ear now turns this into electrical pulses that the brain can interpret for us to understand. Plainly put the inner ear looks like one crazy rollercoaster ride. With three loop-de-loops and a seashell type ending, it would be one crazy ride for sure. But it is what is in the structure that matters the most. The inner ear is a very complicated system that works in creating the sound we hear and sending the proper information off to the brain as well the inner ear maintains our balance. The inner ear consists of two main areas the cochlea, which is the hearing part of the ear and the vestibular system, which is the balance area of the ear. Within these two areas are two further defined structures of the inner ear the bony labyrinth, which is the hard outer structure of the inner ear and the membranous labyrinth, which is the softer area inside of the bony labyrinth inside the inner ear. The cochlea is where sound is converted into the electrical impulses that will be sent and interpreted by the brain. The cochlea is shaped like a seashell and inside of it are all of the tiny little hairs floating around in liquid waiting for the correct sound to hit them to send of the electrical impulse to the brain. These tiny hairs are very fragile and can be easily damaged over time due to noise or disease. Once damaged these little hairs will never repair or regrow; once the damage is done it is irreversible. The electrical impulses are sent to the brain through the auditory nerve. The vestibular system looks like three loop-de-loops on a rollercoaster. These canals are strategically placed for balance purposes and are known as the semicircular ducts. There is the anterior, the lateral and the posterior duct each containing a liquid that adjusts and work together to keep a person balanced. The inner ear can be further broken down, but to be honest it can get kind of confusing. The inner ear is the end of how the ear works and how sound is transferred and interpreted by the ear to the brain of a person. It can be a little bit of an overwhelming process but very interesting to think about the process as a whole and how quickly it is executed.
What’s Inside the Human Eye? The human eye is amazingly complex. All inside something the size of a large marble, light waves are converted into continuous streams of detailed, accurate, moving images that we can understand and respond to. Our vision connects us to our surroundings more than any of our other senses and makes so many of our daily activities (from reading to driving to looking at the faces of the people we love) possible. How do our eyes manage all this? An Eye Anatomy Overview This won’t be a comprehensive glossary of eye anatomy, but we’ll go over the parts most closely involved in creating the images we see, starting with the front of the eye and working our way back. - The cornea is the clear layer covering the front of the eye that lets the light get through. - The iris is the colorful, circular muscle that expands and contracts to control the amount of light that gets in. - The lens is the clear disc that changes shape to focus on objects at different distances. (Kind of the opposite of a camera lens, which cannot change shape and has to physically move to change focus.) - The retina is the thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye where the photoreceptors (light-sensitive cells called rods and cones) are. - The optic nerve is what collects visual information from the retina and transmits it to the brain for processing — at an estimated rate of a million bits per second! Wow! Binocular Vision: How the Eyes Work Together Try this: focus on an object and close one eye, then the other. The distance between your eyes means that you see a slightly different image out of your right eye than your left, and we call this binocular vision. The slight difference between the images produced by each eye creates a live 3D image, giving us depth perception (the ability to judge how near or far different objects are from us). The Brain’s Visual Cortex The optic nerve sends its visual information all the way to the occipital lobe in the back of the brain, which is where the visual cortex is located. 20% of the human brain is dedicated to visual processing, with another 40% helping out in smaller ways, such as vision+meaning, vision+motor, vision+touch, and vision+attention. Many times per second, we have to absorb and process new visual data. It’s how we perceive motion, make sense of it, and react to it. The Built-In Defense and Maintenance of the Eye The parts of the eye that actually turn light waves into images we can process in our brains would have a hard time doing their jobs without the parts that are there to keep everything running smoothly. Eyebrows, eyelids, and eyelashes all help protect our eyes. Blinking refreshes the tear film and clears out contaminants and debris. The tear film itself is replenished and maintained by numerous ducts and glands. Keep Your Eyes in Great Shape The way all the different parts and systems of the eye work together to create our sense of vision will never stop being amazing to us. The downside to all this incredible complexity is that there are a lot of ways something can go wrong, which is where the eye doctor comes in! Keep up with your regular eye exam schedule and let us know if anything has changed about your vision.
What is the HPA axis? One hormone that is of particular interest in depression is the stress hormone cortisol (rodents use the hormone corticosterone rather than cortisol, so human studies measure cortisol while many animal ones measure corticosterone). Cortisol is released at the end of a cascade of hormones. To start with, the hypothalamus (an area on the underside of the brain) releases a hormone called “CRH”. This travels a short way in the blood to the pituitary – a bit of the brain that sort of dangles down below the hypothalamus. CRH causes the pituitary to release a hormone called “ACTH”. This travels around the body in the blood. It activates the adrenal glands. We have two of these, one sitting on the top of each of our kidneys. When ACTH activates the adrenal glands, they release cortisol. Cortisol itself then can travel around the body having lots of effects. For example, is helps prepare muscles in our arms and legs get ready to run away or flight a threat. Cortisol also has effects on the brain. Some cortisol can lead to our thinking being faster and more accurate and our memories being better. Too much cortisol can have the opposite effects. When we are stressed or feel threatened in some way, the hypothalamus produces more CRH, which leads the pituitary to produce more ACTH, which leads the adrenals to produce more cortisol. The names of the three areas producing the hormones give their initials to the name of the whole system: the “HPA axis”. Negative feedback is a means of keeping the body and brain in balance. This happens with the HPA axis as well. When cortisol is released, it causes a reduction in activity in the hypothalamus, reducing the release of CRH, and anterior pituitary, reducing the release of ACTH, reducing the amount of cortisol being released from the adrenal glands. In other words, cortisol is acting to reduce its own the release: the more cortisol there is in the body, the more the HPA axis is inhibited, helping to reduce cortisol levels. Steroids produced in the gonads interact with the HPA axis which leads to sex differences in the function of the HPA axis. The thyroid is a gland in the neck which produces the hormone thyroxine. Thyroid hormones are needed for the body to function effectively.View Glossary
14 SES 12, Children as Members of a Community: Citizenship, Participation and Educational Development - Part I: The Community Inside the School and the Participation of Children Interactive Groups (IG) are defined as a way of class organization. IG are small groups of students, heterogeneous in terms of learning attainment, cultural origin, gender, etc. IG works under a dialogical approach. An adult, who may be a parent, a member of the community or any other person involved as volunteer, animates each group. The key of success of this approach is the interaction among students and adults. In this paper we analyse the case of an elementary school with a high rate of diversity , placed in a city in the metropolitan area of Barcelona. The Critical Communicative Methodology (CCM) is used to analyse the data collected, using field notes (classroom observations) and videotaped sessions. We discuss how a classroom of 6th graders deals with problem-solving, division, and place value activities, using IG. Teacher, students and other members of the community involved in the teaching and learning of mathematics explain the emergence of community knowledge (funds of knowledge) that enriches mathematics learning. We conclude that egalitarian dialogue promoted in the IG incentives rich mathematics interactions, which improve students’ understanding and achievement in mathematics. Search the ECER Programme - Search for keywords and phrases in "Text Search" - Restrict in which part of the abstracts to search in "Where to search" - Search for authors and in the respective field. - For planning your conference attendance you may want to use the conference app, which will be issued some weeks before the conference - If you are a session chair, best look up your chairing duties in the conference system (Conftool) or the app.
THOUSAND DAYS OF NUTRITION, AND A BILLION DREAMS WHAT IS MALNUTRITION? Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy or nutrients. It can be categorised into three types: - Undernutrition- it includes conditions of wasting, stunting and underweight. - Micronutrient-related malnutrition- it includes deficiency or excess of micronutrient i.e vitamins and minerals. - Overweight- it is related to obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases such as heart disease, diabetes etc. SIGNIFICANCE OF FIGHT AGAINST MALNUTRITION - As nourishing of the physical well-being and mental potential of the people, particularly children is dependent on a healthy diet, fighting against malnutrition will play a critical role in realising its billion plus dreams over the next decade or two. - Also, Article 47 of the Constitution states that it is “duty of the state to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health” and Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Goal 2 aims to “End hunger”. PRESENT SCENARIO IN INDIA - The Global Nutrition Report 2020 has identified India as one with the highest rates of domestic inequalities in malnutrition. India is among 88 countries that are likely to miss global nutrition targets by 2025. - In India, 37.9% of children under 5 years are stunted and 20.8% are wasted, compared to the Asia average of 22.7% and 9.4% respectively, while the rate of overweight and obesity continues to rise at 21.6% of women and 17.8% of men. - One in two women of reproductive age is anaemic. EFFECTS OF MALNUTRITION - It has long-ranging effects on health and high social and public costs leading to reduced work capacity due to frequent illness and disability. - On children– malnutrition tends to impair cognitive ability, thus affecting their school performance and productivity in later life. - Malnourished mothers tend to have low-birth weight babies thus impacting the immune system of the young ones. In 2017, a staggering 68% of 1.04 million deaths of children under five years in India was attributable to malnutrition, reckoned a Lancet study in 2019 - The public health becomes vulnerable to diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis, and diet-related chronic diseases due weak immunity. - Thus, malnutrition places a burden heavy enough for India and it is necessary to make it a top national priority. - Food insecurity due to poverty and migration (as seen during ongoing pandemic) - Lack of maternal education and inadequate childcare practices - Monoculture agricultural practices and changing food patterns have made the Indian plate devoid of various nutrients and minerals - Lack of access to clean water and sanitation leading to various infectious diseases - Gender bias is the major cause of malnutrition among women and girl child - Lack of real time data have lead to ineffective policy making - Current ongoing pandemic have further deepen the problem The country has been making progress on nutrition for the last two decades, due to government efforts- - The National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013, aims to make access to food as a legal right. - Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme, aims at providing food, preschool education, primary healthcare, immunization, health check-up and referral services to children under 6 years of age and their mothers. - Mid-day Meal (MDM) scheme aims to improve nutritional levels among schools along with a positive impact on enrolment, retention and attendance in schools. - Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) aims to provide economic aid to the pregnant women for availing better delivery facilities. - POSHAN Abhiyaan, launched in 2018, is an overarching scheme for holistic nutrition. Under it, the government strengthened the delivery of essential nutrition interventions so that more children have the right start in life for optimum growth, health, development and a prosperous future. CONCLUSION To ensure effective implementation of these schemes, the country needs to retain its financial commitments and earmark additional funds to preserve nutritional security in vulnerable communities, particularly women and children in slum areas, migrants, the population in tribal areas and districts with malnutrition rates. View all comments
Computer Numerical Control machines process materials to meet the specifications of programmed instructions. CNC machines include lathes, grinders, machining centers, and many other tools. The machinery has become very popular in the manufacturing industry because it can be used with a wide variety of materials and provide much greater accuracy and consistency than other tools. Furthermore, CNC machines can operate without the need for an individual operator to control the equipment. But a CNC machine still needs to be programmed by a human being before it can begin producing parts. That is where G-Code and M-Code come in. An Overview of G-Code If you are interested in becoming a programmer, there are now a number of different industries that you can work in, including the manufacturing sector. As a CNC machine programmer, you would create a sequence of codes and data to form a program that tells the CNC machine precisely what to do. With the right tooling, the program can then ensure the machine produces accurate and repeatable parts. It is a great idea to use a used CNC machine when job training because it is more affordable; especially when learning cases. In order to create a CNC machine program, you need to learn G-Code. In basic terms, it is the software programming language that is used to control a CNC machine. Thankfully, G-Code is written in a logical and straightforward way, even with complex CNC machining. The “G” is followed by a number. That number is a command that changes the geometry. For example, “G00” is a command for the machine to make a rapid movement to a specific coordinate position. So, it basically enables the CNC tool and the part it is producing to move from near to far and vice versa. Other commands include “G01,” which controls the movement of the linear feed, and “G02” and “G03,” which perform the move in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. The code for such operations is also followed by a geometric location. So, the “G” and the proceeding numbers are followed by coordinates for the machine’s X and Y axes. For example, take the G-Code of “G00G58X-120.Y-5.” You already know that the first three digits refer to a rapid movement. “G58” is the code that specifies the work coordinates that change the geometry relative to the work offsets, such as part origin. The numbers that follow “G58” in the example of “G00G58X-120.Y-5” therefore indicate the X-axis needs to be “-120mm” and the Y-axis needs to be “-5mm.” The G-Code can repeat actions for as long as needed. With the right use of code and coordinates, CNC machines can consistently perform and be flexible enough to produce a variety of parts from a multitude of materials. An Overview of M-Code M-Code in CNC machining basically organizes miscellaneous functions. Think of them as non-geometry machine functions. They include things like pallet change, the on and off of coolant, and the start and stop of spindle rotation. The functions often vary depending on the precise CNC machine being used. Also, M-Code is more specific for different machinery and is more customizable than G-Code. Both M-Code and G-Code are vital for a CNC machine to perform correctly. Like the format of G-Code, M-Code consists of the letter “M” followed by a number. For example, M00 instructs the program to stop whatever it is currently doing, while M03 is used to rotate a spindle clockwise, M08 is used to turn coolant on, and M09 is used to turn coolant off. Are you good at programming and interested in machining? If so, spend some time learning more about CNC machines, M-Code, and G-Code so you can determine whether it is the right career path for you.
In our preschool program, teachers and children interact through conversations, small groups, learning centers, and class meetings that revolve around class study topics. Children are encouraged to explore and discover within their immediate world, and teachers act as recorders of their ideas and experiences. Teachers assist the children by asking questions and encouraging them to ask questions in return, research answers, and come to their own conclusions. Beanstalk’s preschool uses a Customized Balanced Literacy approach, which focuses on five essential elements for supporting young children’s development. Using both whole and small-group instruction, teachers are able to focus on: As teachers become aware of children’s individual stages, they provide appropriate materials and experiences to build upon each child’s development. Using the Everyday Math Pre-k curriculum, children learn math concepts through hands-on activities and cover skills such as counting, number concepts, operations, graphing, measurement, shapes, position, spatial relations, and patterns and sorting.
Each of the questions or incomplete statements below is followed by five suggested answers or completions. Select the one that is best in each case. The number of oxygen atoms in mole of is Select an Answer Each mole of contains four moles of oxygen atoms, so mol of contains two moles of oxygen atoms. One mole is , and .
Download This Lesson: Squash Brief Description: Students will be able to explain the history of squash and locate where it is grown on a Maine map. They will be able to explain what part of the plant squash is, the growing season and its nutritional benefits. Students will be able to explain how foods with vitamin A keep us healthy and write a persuasive letter that includes squash. Students will also be able to participate in composting activities. - Increase their familiarity with squash. - Eat squash when it is offered to them. - Increase their awareness of the environmental benefits of composting. - Increase their understanding of nutrition. Students will be able to… - Explain what part of a plant squash is - Explain the origin of the squash and find it on a world map - Identify the growing season - Identify where squash is grown in Maine - Identify the six important vitamins and minerals found in squash - Write a persuasive letter using the appropriate format - Explain how foods with vitamin A help to keep us healthy - Participate in composting activities. - Review points about safety, sanitation, and cooperation - Introduce squash - Background information on squash - Lessons from the Farm - Cook winter squash casserole (Form groups of 4 to 6 students) - Do compost activity while food is cooking (See compost lesson for mini-lesson) - Distribute copies of recipes and challenge sheets to students Other Squash Activities Nutrition science lesson: Vitamin A- Where is it and why do I need it? Global and regional mapping Squash fact sheet Common Core Alignment ELA Writing-Production and Distribution ELA Writing-Types and Purposes Cooking Maine Foods from the Ground Up
3 Ways to Build a Love of STEM in Your Kids STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields are the jobs of the future. We need to encourage young people who are interested to pursue study and careers in these rewarding fields. Here are three ways you, as a parent, can encourage a love of STEM in your kids: - Do STEM activities outside school. Your young person shouldn’t just be doing science, technology, engineering, and mathematics within the four walls of his or her school. Foster a love of learning and experimentation within your home through coding apps, cooking or baking, experiments, or even playing Lego. - Visit museums and science centers. These facilities can be a great way to do some hands-on STEM activities. They may even offer special workshops or events to help introduce your children to various fields of STEM. Of course, be on the lookout for evolutionary content and be prepared to talk about it with your kids. - Teach your kids critical thinking skills. From a young age help them learn and apply the scientific method—observe, ask questions, develop a hypothesis, and test that hypothesis. Get them curious and encourage them to ask questions, explore, and try and solve problems. Now get out there and enjoy studying and exploring God’s creation with your kids!
Lucky Coin Match-Up Students will be able to write and match upper and lowercase letters. - Call students together. - Show students one of the red envelopes. Ask students what they think is inside. - After every student has had the opportunity to guess, have a student volunteer open the envelope and show the money that’s inside. - Ask students to think about times when they have received money in the past. If they do not mention the holidays, guide students towards this. - Explain to students that giving “lucky money” in red envelopes is a Chinese New Year tradition. Explicit Instruction/Teacher modeling(5 minutes) - Explain to students that today they will have the opportunity to make their own lucky money, but it will look a little different. They will be able to use their money to play a game. - Show students how to trace a quarter on a piece of paper and cut the circle out. Repeat this process so that two circles are cut out. - Then, show students how to write an uppercase "A" on one paper coin and a lowercase “a” on the other paper coin. Explain to students that they will be doing this for every letter of the alphabet so that they have a complete set of lucky alphabet coins. These will be used in a matching game where students will try to correctly match upper and lowercase letters. Guided Practice(5 minutes) - Pass out pieces of colored paper and a quarter to every student. - Pick a student to demonstrate again for the group how to trace a quarter on a piece of paper and cut the circle out. Have another student volunteer also show this to the group, so that two circles are cut out. - Then, have student volunteers demonstrate how to write an uppercase “B” on one paper coin and a lowercase “b” on the other paper coin. - Remind students that they will be doing this for every letter of the alphabet, resulting in a complete set of lucky alphabet coins. (Tip: As a time saving tactic, giving students some precut circles can help to reduce the amount of cutting needed. This can also be used as a way to scaffold the activity for some students.) - Explain to students that they will be working as partners to make a complete alphabet set, so they can play a matching game together. Demonstrate the game using the A-a and B-b coins the class made: flip these over so that the letter is not visible, choose two, and see if they are a match. Ask if students have any questions about this. - Discuss as a group any expectations for quiet work times before sending students off to work. Independent working time(30 minutes) - Any adults in the room should be circulating, answering questions, and observing student knowledge as students are working. - For a festive feel, consider playing some soft, festive Chinese New Year music in the background. - Setting up a variety of different seating areas can encourage students to spread out and not disrupt other groups. Support: Tracing letters instead of writing letters from scratch can help to scaffold this activity. The presence of alphabet charts can assist students with both writing and matching letters. For students who need a little extra help, working with a partner who has more alphabet knowledge can also help to scaffold the activity. Enrichment: For students looking for a greater challenge, try including pictures instead of one set of letters. Have students match each picture to the letter that object begins or ends with. - Success at playing the matching game can be used to assess whether or not students are able to match upper and lowercase letters. - Observation of students' letter formation on the coins can be used to determine whether or not students are able to write upper and lowercase letters. Review and closing(5 minutes) - Call students back together. - Ask students if there were any letters they had trouble matching. Were any letters harder to remember than others? - Remind students that lucky money is a Chinese New Year tradition. - Encourage students to take their coins home to play some more. Leave a set of coins out in the classroom for students to practice matching when they have free time.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid, a double stranded macromolecule of helical structure (comparable to a spiral staircase). Both single strands are linear, unbranched nucleic acid molecules build up from alternating deoxyribose (sugar) and phosphate molecules. Each deoxyribose part is coupled to a nucleotide base, which is responsible for establishing the connection to the other strand of the DNA. The 4 nucleotide bases Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) and Guanine (G) are the alphabet of the genetic information. The sequences of these bases in the DNA molecule determines the building plan of any organism. In german its called DNS: Desoxyribonukleinsäure
In the 1800s, it was unseemly for women to search the night sky with male astronomers. Instead, they worked in the Harvard College Observatory as assistants. Between 1875 and 1927, more than 80 women were employed at the observatory as so-called “women computers,” that is, women who performed scientific and mathematical calculations by hand. For 25 to 30 cents an hour, their task was the meticulous study and care of black and white astronomical photographs of the night skies. In most images, the stars were tiny black dots on a white background. Day in and day out, the women explored the cosmos without looking through a telescope. It was painstaking work. Using a simple magnifying glass, they studied the stars, work that eventually led to discovering their composition. Staring at these stellar clusters, chemically captured on glass plates, helped them gauge immense distances in space and measure the brightness of stars. Like the African-American women of the US space program depicted in “Hidden Figures,” they remained behind the scenes, holding stars in their hands. “Not only did these glass plates change the study of science in general,” said Lindsay Smith Zrull, curator of astronomical photographs at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge, “they changed who could do science.” Inside the archive, center staffers have been digitizing the collection of more than 500,000 stellar glass plates. There are three floors of metal closets that contain stacks of these images, spanning more than a century of sky gazing. But in the past year, the curator also unearthed 118 boxes of notes from the women computers. Most of these boxes sat untouched in a depository for decades. Now, in partnership with the Smithsonian Transcription Center, volunteers around the world are transcribing scribbled logbooks and research notes from the women computers as quickly as they’re scanned and uploaded. The effort is called Project Phaedra, which stands for Preserving Harvard’s Early Data and Research in Astronomy. Phaedra is a character in Greek mythology. Her name was derived from the Greek word phaidros, which meant “bright,” said Daina Bouquin, head librarian at the John G. Wolbach Library in the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. “It’s really important to bring to light what these women did,” said Katie Frey, assistant head and digital technologies development librarian at the Wolbach Library. “They made groundbreaking discoveries in astronomy. They really changed the course of astronomy.” Newspaper articles from the time considered the women a novelty at best with headlines such as: “Brainy Boston Women Learn Sky’s Profoundest Secrets.” But Edward Pickering, the director of the Harvard College Observatory in the late 1800s, knew better. It was his mission to hire an entire corps of women computers to conduct scientific work. “Much of the funding [for the original glass plate work] came from women, most of the work was done by women,” Smith Zrull said. “Which made it a very unusual collection, unusual workplace back in the late 1800s, early 1900s.” One of the earliest women computers, Annie Jump Cannon, kept detailed letters and scrapbooks of the time with prolific annotations. She classified hundreds of thousands of stars. And of that first generation of women, she was the only one allowed to use Harvard’s Great Refractor telescope. Williamina Fleming emigrated to the United States with her husband from Scotland in December 1878. He abandoned her when she was pregnant. She began working as a housemaid under Pickering. In Scotland, she’d been a school teacher and had a talent for numbers. Fleming soon became the head of the “computers.” She discovered the Horsehead Nebula, a dark nebula in the constellation Orion, in 1888. “In 1899, [Fleming] was the first curator of astronomical photographs,” said Maria McEachern, a reference librarian at the Wolbach Library. “And the first woman at Harvard to attain a professional position.” Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovered how to measure stellar distances by focusing on variable stars (that is, stars whose brightness fluctuates) in the large and small Magellanic Clouds, two dwarf galaxies. She discovered about 2,400 of them, plotting how light from the same star changed over time. “How do you find a variable star?” Smith Zrull said. “What you have to do is look at every single plate in the same region of the sky and compare each and every single one of them from different dates.” Perhaps the best known woman in the field was Cecilia Payne, a scholar from England and a woman computer who discovered the composition of the stars, according to Dava Sobel, author of “The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars.” The University of Cambridge would not accept a female PhD student. She later came to the Harvard College Observatory and, in 1925, earned a PhD in astronomy for her work. In the 1960s, Otto Struve, at one point the director of Yerkes Observatory in Chicago, called her dissertation on stellar atmospheres “undoubtedly the most brilliant PhD thesis ever written in astronomy.” “Regardless of whether or not these women made discoveries, research is research,” said Bouquin. “You shouldn’t just forget about it because it got old. This was cutting-edge science at one point.” In photographs the women computers sit together in long dresses, posing for the cameras or holding hands outside the observatory where many of them spent much of their lives. Fleming was known to get weekly massages for the shoulder pain she developed from leaning over the glass plates for hours at a time. In 1900, she wrote about it in a diary she kept that ended up in a time capsule that was buried to mark the century. In her diary, she also complained about her pay and wrote of her responsibilities as a single mother. Somewhere along the line, the women computers’ notes on glass plates, logbooks, and achievements disappeared into obscurity. “I am not an astronomer,” Smith Zrull said. “I am just very much inspired by women — especially women who overcame all sorts of obstacles to make a place in their field or in the world. What makes me most passionate about this is that we’re giving them the credit they always deserved.” Cristela Guerra can be reached at [email protected]
Dynamics is the part of physics that describes the time evolution of a physical system in relation to the causes of changes in physical and/or movement state. Dynamics’ aim is to describe factors that may cause alterations of a physical system, quantify them and raise equations of motion or evolution equations for that operating system. Dynamic Laws: They were formulated by Isaac Newton and thanks to them we can predict the movement of a body if we know its current status and the forces which are acting on it. - Inertia Law: “If the result of the forces which are acting on a body is zero or does not exist any external force, it is that if the body is at rest, it is going to continue to do so and if he moved with rectilinear uniform movement, it will continue to move with that same movement.” - Fundamental Dynamics Law: “If on a body is acting a resultant force, it acquires a acceleration that is directly proportional to the force applied, being the body mass the proportionality constant. This acceleration has the same direction as the resultant force - Action and reaction principle: “If a body exerts a force on another body, this one at the same time, turn exerts a force on the first one with the same magnitude and direction, but opposite.” The negative sign means the opposite direction. The forces do not be cancelled because they act on different bodies. Hooke’s law: A body is elastic when it regains its shape after stopping the forces that had deformed it. In the case of a spring, the deformation (elongation) is directly proportional to the applied force. The elastic bodies have elasticity limits within which Hooke’s law is fulfilled, if these limits are exceeded, the body does not obey this law and its deformation can be permanent. The dynamometer is based on this law. Fundamental equation of the Dynamics Centripetal and centrifugal forces Object that rises Object that goes down Friction (µ = coefficient of friction ; N = Normal Force) Friction on a horizontal plane Friction on an inclined plane Radius of curvature with cant and friction Linear momentum or Quantity of movement Theorem of the mechanical impulse Angular or kinetic momentum Theorem of the angular momentum You can download the App BioProfe READER to practice this theory with self-corrected exercises.
These are mystery picture coloring worksheets for 3rd graders to help them understand fractions as a part of a whole (fraction 1/b as the quantity formed by one part when a whole is partitioned into b equal parts). This is a no-prep packet. Just print and you're all set. To use, let your kids work on the problems first. Then, they can work on the coloring page using their answers in order for them to uncover the mystery pictures. You will receive the printable worksheets. They are grouped into sets. Each set has a questionnaire, coloring page, and an answer key. The sets included in this packet are: Sets 1 and 2: Fraction of Whole: Identify the fraction of the shaded part Sets 3 and 4: Choose the Image that represents the fraction Sets 5 and 6: Match the column: Fraction vs Image/Figures If your kids answered the problems correctly, they will uncover these mystery pictures.
Christmas Island is home to a suite of native animals found nowhere else, but also to invasive species including Asian wolf snakes, giant centipedes, feral cats and black rats. These invasive animals have contributed to many extinctions and declines of Christmas Island’s native species. The Australian Government is undertaking a range of conservation initiatives to safeguard the island’s native wildlife, including an island-wide cat eradication program. A Threatened Species Recovery Hub collaboration with Parks Australia is investigating the potential outcomes of the cat control, including whether rats will need concurrent control. Researchers Michaela Plein and Rosalie Willacy from The University of Queensland report. Cats and rats are recognised as the most damaging invasive predators for island species, and mitigating their impact is a top priority. On other islands, controlling the top invasive predator has sometimes led to increased abundances of smaller invasive species. For example, numbers of rats increased in some parts of Little Barrier Island, New Zealand, after cat eradication, with reduced breeding success for native birds. While there is potential for negative effects from controlling invasive species in this way, outcomes are uncertain and vary between places, habitats and even over time. Parks Australia, who manage Christmas Island National Park, want to maximise the outcomes of cat control on Christmas Island by anticipating and managing any unintended consequences. Our research is assisting them to predict potential outcomes, particularly the potential for rat (Rattus rattus) numbers to increase following cat eradication, and whether this would impact nesting birds. Current and potential future rat impacts are uncertain for Christmas Island due to data deficiencies and because birds co-existed with (now extinct) native rodents as well as abundant land crabs – which may make them less vulnerable to rat impacts. We tackled the problem in two ways: first, PhD candidate Rosie Willacy weathered the tropical storms and magic of Christmas Island to collect evidence in the field; and second, postdoctoral researcher Michaela Plein developed a predictive computer model. A one- to two-week-old red-tailed tropicbird chick. Parents begin leaving chicks unattended around this age for extended foraging trips at sea. While unattended, chicks are extremely vulnerable to predation. Image: Rosalie Willacy Fieldwork warrior Rosie Rosie describes a typical day: “I get up early on Christmas Island – it will get hot after 11 am – so we will need to finish the field work by lunch at the latest, then we’ll be back out in the field in the late afternoon. Today we will check the battery life of motion-sensor cameras that are monitoring the breeding success and causes of nest failure for the ground-nesting seabird the red-tailed tropicbird (Phaethon rubricauda). We will scramble around the sharp cliffs, where the nests are tucked away under bushes and in holes of the limestone. The nests are so well hidden that sometimes nothing but the loud alarm call of the adult breeding bird will alert you to their presence.” Previous studies from 2008 to 2010 showed a mortality rate of up to 95% for red-tailed tropicbird chicks, mostly due to cat predation. Cats have been controlled near one of the colonies since 2010, and breeding success seems to have improved. However, there has been little monitoring to see whether cat predation is continuing, or if rat activity around nests has increased recently. To assess the effects of both cat and rat predation on red-tailed tropicbirds and other threatened Christmas Island species, Rosie is examining patterns of rat abundance and activity across the island, and relating this to forest bird abundance and nesting success, and to seabird nesting success. Whereas the red-tailed tropicbird has been the seabird “exemplar”, Rosie has used the Christmas Island thrush (Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus) as the “exemplar” for forest birds. Over the past three years, Rosie has completed almost 200 transect surveys to estimate the abundance of the Christmas Island thrush and other forest birds in parts of the islands with differing numbers of rats. She has also monitored about 200 thrush and tropicbird nests with motion sensor cameras to detect predation. Rosie’s work depends on gathering data on rat abundance across Christmas Island. To achieve this, she needed to outwit the superabundant, curious and hungry land crabs. During the wet season (and especially during crab migration season), red crabs and robber crabs frequently interfered with traps, making rat detection extremely challenging. For this reason, Rosie first needed to evaluate which method (ink-card tracking, camera traps, cage trapping or DNA hair traps) was best for monitoring rat abundance in this unique ecosystem. Rosie also measured several other ecological factors (like crab density, crazy ant presence, habitat type) that might explain any variation in rat density, and help us understand the relationships between cats, rats, other species on the islands, and whether cat removal is likely to lead to more rats. Recently hatched Christmas Island thrush chicks. This Endangered subspecies is likely impacted to varying degrees by native land crabs and birds of prey, as well as invasive predators including cats, rats, giant centipedes and crazy ants. On other islands, island thrush subspecies have become extinct due to the impacts of rodents. Image: Rosalie Willacy Desktop warrior Michaela Meanwhile, Michaela Plein reports from her desk: “While I sit in front of my desktop staring at my code, my mind wanders back to the meeting with Parks Australia staff the previous day. Did we include all the important species in the interaction network for Christmas Island? Do feral cats and black rats really eat all these animal species? Would predation by red and robber crabs on rats affect the rat population? And how heavy are feral cats and black rats on Christmas Island? Because that affects how much they need to eat. Finally, my computer spits out yet another result for the eradication scenarios and I wonder how to best show the uncertainty in these estimates.” Modelling the potential outcomes of invasive species eradications is difficult; often we know little about how the species interact, and the larger a species network the higher the potential for uncertainty. We have investigated two key questions: 1) Can we predict the effects of eradicating cats only, versus eradicating cats and rats, on other island species?; and 2) What cat and rat densities threaten bird species like the red-tailed tropicbird? The modelling allows us to estimate the rat numbers that will cause tropicbirds to decline, showing threshold rat density that should not be exceeded if the tropicbird population is to survive over time. Rosie services a motion sensor camera installed at a brown booby nest. A number of brown boobies were monitored alongside red-tailed tropicbirds to compare breeding behaviour-related differences in predation impacts. Image: Scott Macor Two tactics come together While Michaela’s modelling allows us to broadly explore the influence of cats and rats on key species, Rosie’s field work is providing baseline data on the rat populations of Christmas Island and the impacts of rats on forest and seabirds, as well as developing methods for ongoing monitoring of rats during and after cat eradication. The hope is that these combined efforts, in the field and on the screen, can help inform future rat management on Christmas Island to aid in the protection of the island’s unique animals. Because of the similar stories of invasive species and biodiversity loss on other islands, we also hope that the monitoring and modelling approaches developed and information gained can be used to inform other cat eradication projects on islands across the globe. This Threatened Species Recovery Hub project is being carried out in a collaboration between The University of Queensland, Parks Australia and Christmas Island National Park. Rosalie Willacy’s fieldwork was made possible by generous in-kind support from Parks Australia as well as funding from the Australia and Pacific Science Foundation, Birdlife Australia (Stuart Leslie Bird Research Award), Australian Government Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development, the Ecological Society of Australia (Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment) and the Royal Society of Zoology, NSW (Ethel Mary Read Research Grant). Christmas Island. Image: Chris Bray Photography For further information Eve McDonald-Madden - [email protected] Sarah Legge - [email protected] Rosalie Willacy - [email protected] Michaela Plein - [email protected] Top image: A juvenile rat braves the jungle floor during the day on Christmas Island – the domain of red and robber crabs, which are likely predators and competitors of rats. Image: Rosalie Willacy
The genetic and physical make up of humans has not changed significantly since those days, but our levels of physical activity have. In addition, with each subsequent generation, levels of physical activity have reduced - the highest participation in physical activity occurs among school-aged children and adolescents, but this tends to decrease with age. A study of 1032 participants, found that after age nine, physical activity decreased by 38 minutes per year, while weekend physical activity decreased by 41 minutes per year. Additionally, at around 13.1 years in girls and 14.7 years of age in boys, the level of physical activity went below the recommended 60 minutes of physical activity per day (1). In addition, with each subsequent generation, levels of physical activity have reduced In Australia, conservatively more than 8000 deaths occur annually due to lack of physical activity, costing not only lives and suffering, but also millions of dollars to the health care system. Increased physical activity has been associated with increased life expectancy, as well as reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease (2,3) and much more. The single biggest killer in Australia today is cardiovascular disease (CVD) and an individual who undertakes regular physical activity is half as likely as his sedentary counterpart to contract CVD (4,5,6). A large number of studies have reported that physical activity not only reduces the risk of, but also protects against coronary heart disease (7,8,9). Additionally, in a cohort study of 743,498 men, aerobic fitness in late adolescence was a good predictor of a heart attack later in life. However, obese men with high aerobic fitness had a higher risk of heart attack than lean men with low aerobic fitness. Therefore, it is important to be physically active and maintain a healthy weight to keep the risk of heart attack at its lowest (10). High Blood pressure, or hypertension, is characterised as any blood pressure over 140/90, with the optimal being 120/80. Exercise resulting in weight loss, has been shown to have significant benefits in reducing blood pressure. Numerous large population-based studies (11,12,13) have demonstrated an inverse relationship between physical activity and blood pressure. In addition, interventional studies where individuals were trained to do more physical activity, demonstrated that increased exercise works to lower blood pressure (14,15). Furthermore, a randomised, controlled trial, found exercise training is effective in lowering blood pressure in overweight, sedentary patients with high-normal or mildly elevated blood pressure, and that weight loss is of added benefit when combined with aerobic training (16). Physical activity has been shown to decrease mortality and increase life expectancy. In a study of 252,925 men and women, those doing moderate activity (at least 30 minutes on most days of the week) decreased mortality risk by 27%, whereas those who met recommendations for vigorous activity, at least 20 minutes, three times per week - not much if you really think about it - had a 32% reduction of mortality risk (17), a finding consistent with many other studies (18,19,20). And it is not too late to start now no matter how old you are. In a 4.9-year longitudinal study of 9,777 men, it was discovered that those who improved from unfit to fit, reduced their all-cause mortality risk by 44% and cardiovascular mortality by 52%, compared to those who remained unfit (21). Inflammation and triglycerides Inflammation is the underlying condition in many chronic illnesses, including CVD and cancer. Physical activity decreases inflammation and, additionally, those with higher cardio fitness levels have lower circulating levels of inflammation markers such as of IL-6, CRP and fibrinogen (22). Physical activity and fitness are also associated with improved plasma lipid (fat) profiles, including the ratio of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) to low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), and plasma triglycerides. Triglycerides decrease by 24%, while HDLs increase by about 8%, in response to regular physical activity (23,24). Studies have also shown similarly favourable findings in diabetes (25). Low levels of physical activity and cardio-respiratory fitness are associated with the development of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. In one study, older men and women, who were in the lowest third of cardio-respiratory fitness, had a 10-fold higher risk of developing metabolic syndrome than those who were in the highest third. There was a strong inverse association between fitness and metabolic syndrome, as well as a significant relationship to all the components of metabolic syndrome (26). Additionally, a low fitness level has been found to be an important risk factor for incidence of type 2 diabetes - men with the lowest 25% of fitness had a relative risk of diabetes that was four times higher compared to those in the highest 25% (27). It seems that both physical activity and fitness are separately and independently associated with metabolic risk profile (28) i.e., they are both contributing factors to reducing the risk of metabolic syndrome. Just as important as the amount of exercise for diabetes is the timing Incorporating more exercise to the day-to-day routine is crucial for sufferers of type 2 diabetes. In type 2 diabetes, insulin is in short supply, or is difficult for the body to utilise; exercise has been shown to improve the body's sensitivity to insulin. Not only does exercise help improve the diabetic condition, it can also help reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes altogether. A Harvard University study examining the exercise habits of more than 70,000 women, showed that a 40 minute walk every day reduced type 2 diabetes risk by 40%, and with a longer walk the risk could be decreased by an even larger percentage. Exercise also helps to increase blood flow, which is important to help reduce the risk of neuropathy, a common neurological disorder associated with type 2 diabetes. In addition, studies have shown that a short-term reduction in daily physical activity negatively affects insulin sensitivity. One small step for diabetes. Just as important as the amount of exercise for diabetes is the timing. Much of the damage done in diabetes is done by the circulating sugar and/or high insulin levels causing oxidation, inflammation and acidosis. Going for a walk 10 or so minutes after eating, particularly after a large dinner can have a direct and rapid impact on lowering blood sugar and subsequently the amount of insulin required to control the sugar. It is very important to bear in mind that this small change to a day's routine can make a big difference in managing diabetes. Effect on immune system The immune system may be enhanced or depleted, depending on the intensity of physical activity (29) - both too little and too much exercise is proven to be detrimental to the immune system. For example, there is a high incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) in professional athletes (50-70% getting an infection in the two weeks following a marathon), which suggest that too much exercise can act as an immunosuppressant. Similarly, longitudinal studies have shown that moderate exercisers can overcome URTIs in half the time that an elite athlete does. Studies have also demonstrated similar findings with a decrease in mucosal (salivary etc) immunity with excessive exercise (30). While excessive exercise may have a detrimental effect on the immune system, research has suggested that moderate levels of exercise can be beneficial to the immune system. Blood lymphocyte concentrations of a sedentary person are comparable to that of a high performance athlete, whereas the lymphocyte count is higher in a person who undertakes regular moderate exercise. Research suggests that regular, but not excessive exercise, improves the immune system (31,32). Osteoarthritis (OA) is the second most common cause of disability in the developed countries and Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), has also become a major health concern (33,34). Both are degenerative diseases of the joints, which can be improved with the implementation of moderate aerobic and weight bearing exercise. Research shows that short term gains of muscle strength, and a range of movement can increase the functionality of patients suffering from OA or RA. In addition, improved fitness levels have been shown to reduce the risk of gout, another form of arthritis, in physically active men (35). Research suggests that regular, but not excessive exercise, improves the immune system (31,32). Different forms of activity have been shown to have important impacts on our hormones and endocrine system. In the period prior to, during and after exercise, the endocrine system reacts in order for the body to function effectively and at optimum levels. Simultaneously, hormones governing the body's regulation, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, are produced in greater quantities to assist the body in operating efficiently. Additionally, physical activity has demonstrated positive effects on mental health, and has been shown to be more effective than drug therapy without any deadly side effects and works well alongside counselling therapy for depression and anxiety. It has been shown to improve individuals' mood, reduce anxiety and stress, and increase self esteem. Physical activity has been demonstrated to bring about positive structural brain changes and plasticity, as well as alter the production of neurotransmitters including Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA). If you want to be smarter make sure you get enough exercise. Drugs reduce exercise benefits On the other side of the equation a number of medications can have a negative impact on the level of physical activity. For example, the most prescribed drugs worldwide, statins, which are used to lower cholesterol, reduce the effectiveness of exercise. A recent study found the statin previously sold under the brand name "Zocor," hindered the positive effects of exercise for obese and overweight adults by 85%. The study also found that this statin decreased the effectiveness of the mitochondria (power house) in the muscles. ...statins, which are used to lower cholesterol, reduce the effectiveness of exercise. It seems that statins block the ability of exercise to improve the fitness levels of the individual who takes them. Participants in the exercise-only group increased their cardio-respiratory fitness by an average of 10% compared to a 1.5% increase among participants also prescribed statins. Additionally, skeletal muscle mitochondrial content, the site where muscle cells turn oxygen into energy, decreased by 4.5 percent in the group taking statins while the exercise-only group had a 13 percent increase, a normal response following exercise training. With the new year upon us it is time to get serious about our physical activity. There are just far too many benefits. It doesn't have to be much - just a little bit every day is enough to get you started on a better health journey. DISCLAIMER: Dr Peter Dingle is a researcher, educator and public health advocate. He has a PhD in the field of environmental toxicology and is not a medical doctor. Dr Peter Dingle (PhD) has spent the past 30 years as a researcher, educator, author and advocate for a common sense approach to health and wellbeing. He has a PhD in the field of environmental toxicology and is not a medical doctor. He is Australia’s leading motivational health speaker and has 14 books in publication.
It’s relevant to all of us, every day; and human rights are at the heart of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Human Rights Day is the 10th December every year and in 2019, the theme is Youth Standing Up for Human Rights. Thirty years ago, in 1989, the Convention on the Rights of the Child was created. This was a promise by the leaders of our world to protect and realise the rights of children around the world by adopting an international legal framework. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child was born. Human Rights Day itself is observed every year on December 10th. It began in 1948, after the tumultuous and horrendous terrors and human rights violations of the second world war, as well as the awful wars before that. The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR); this seminal Declaration declared the intent of our world’s leaders to uphold the unassailable human rights deserved and had by all – regardless of race, colour, religion, sex, language, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. The document itself is the most translated document in the world, and is currently available in more than 500 languages. Human Rights are at the essence of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which Redmond Group robustly supports and are part of our core values:
Digital signature (or public key digital signature) is a type of method for authenticating digital information analogous to ordinary physical signatures on paper, but implemented using techniques from the field of public key cryptography. A digital signature method generally defines two complementary algorithms, one for signing and the other for verification, and the output of the signing process is also called a digital signature. Digital signature has also been used as a broader term encompassing both public key digital signature techniques and Message authentication codes. Digital signatures differ in some respects from their physical counterparts. The term electronic signature, although sometimes used for the same thing, has a distinct meaning in common law: it refers to any of several, not necessarily cryptographic, mechanisms for identifying the originator of an electronic message. Electronic signatures have included cable and Telex addresses, as well as FAX transmission of handwritten signatures on a paper document. Public key cryptosystems allow anybody to send a message using the public key. A signature allows the recipient of a message to be confident that the sender is indeed who s/he claims to be. Of course the recipient cannot be 100% sure that the sender is indeed who s/he claims to be – only confident – since the cryptosystem may have been broken. The importance of authenticity is especially obvious in a financial context. For example, suppose a bank sends instructions from its branch offices to the central office in the form (a,b) where a is the account number and b is the amount to be credited to the account. A devious customer may deposit Â£100, observe the resulting transmission and repeatedly restransmit
Coronavirus are a large family of viruses that are common in people and many different species of animals, including camels, cattle, cats, and bats. […] Last edited on July 13, 2020 Be informed and follow safety precautions to keep the COVID-19 risk down and avoid the virus from spreading. “Coronavirus” is an umbrella term for many types of viruses. This group of viruses has been known for decades and can cause respiratory diseases in both people and animals. What has been identified in December 2019 is COVID-19 (previously 2019-nCoV), which is a new strain. According to the World Health Organization, this strain had not been previously identified in humans. Those infected with COVID-19 show varied symptoms. They can be mildly sick or severely ill. Worldwide, there are more 12,552,765 confirmed cases and 561,617 deaths. In the US, there are 3,236,130 total cases and 134,572 deaths. According to the CDC, COVID-19 symptoms may include fever, coughing, shortness of breath, fatigue, muscle or body aches, headache, new loss of taste or smell, sore throat, congestion or runny nose, nausea or vomiting, and diarrhea may appear after exposure in as little as 2 days or as many as 14 days. The virus is thought to spread mainly from person-to-person: Spread from contact with contaminated surfaces or objects A person may get COVID-19 by touching a surface or object that has the virus on it and then touching their own mouth, nose, or eyes. CDC is still learning more about this. They recommend frequent “hand hygiene,” which is either washing hands with soap or water or using an alcohol-based hand rub. CDC also recommends routine cleaning of frequently touched surfaces. In which US states can I contract the Coronavirus? According to the CDC, the COVID-19 is a pandemic, which is defined as a global outbreak of disease. Therefore, there’s a risk that most of the U.S. population may, at some point, become exposed to this virus. Different parts of the country are seeing different levels of COVID-19 activity. The duration and severity of each phase can vary depending on the characteristics of the virus and the public health response. Most people with the flu have mild illness and do not need medical care or antiviral drugs. If you get sick with flu symptoms, in most cases, you should avoid contact with other people except to get medical care. Stay home until your symptoms subside. If your symptoms are severe, seek medical attention immediately. Wear a cloth covering over your nose and mouth if you must be around other people, including pets. Keep in mind there’s no specific antiviral treatment recommended for COVID-19 infection, but those infected should contact their health care provider, nevertheless. And stay home if you’ve got the symptoms! CDC recommends wearing cloth face coverings over your nose and mouth in public settings, and when around other people who don’t live in your household. Currently, there’s no vaccine to prevent COVID-19 infection, so follow these everyday tips to avoid being exposed to the virus: Our team uses the PuroClean RapidDefense™ system to provide deep mitigation cleaning in areas compromised by a Coronavirus outbreak. Using this process, we will carefully contain the area and will minimize the risk of pathogens spreading using Environmental Protection Agency-registered (EPA) products. Cleaning and disinfecting frequently touched objects and surfaces are the recommended actions to help prevent the spread of respiratory diseases, like coronavirus. Since any surface can be re-contaminated after cleaning, and because the coronavirus is also spread person-to-person, PuroClean’s services are not guaranteed to prevent the spread of coronavirus. Visit the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/index.html) for more information regarding coronavirus, its spread, and prevention.
Do you ever feel like your science classes could use a shot of imagination? Boost the creativity quotient by assigning a travel blog about the digestive system, a packing list for the planets, or an interview with an atom. You’ll inspire students to be better writers while you enjoy new strategies to assess their scientific understanding. That’s the idea behind Creative Writing in Science. This classroom resource book featuresactivities that integrate writing with content in life science, Earth and space sciences, and engineering and physical sciences for grades 3–12. You can tell a teacher wrote the book because it’s so flexible and classroom friendly. Each of the 15 science activities comes with strategies for teaching a creative writing style, whether prose or poetry. The assignments work as in-class activities, homework, or final assessments for a unit. Also included are reproducible handouts, graphic organizers, writing models, scoring rubrics, and connections to the Next Generation Science Standards and Common Core State Standards. See for yourself how rewarding it can be to combine two vital subjects into one class. Get your students started on their phytoplankton comic right away! Download a sample chapter Type NSTA Press BookPub Date 4/30/2016Pages 140ISBN 978-1-941316-35-1
Defining Restorative Justice in Education (RJE) The following concepts articulated by Katharine Evans and Dorothy Vaandering in The Little Book of Restorative Justice in Education. The phrase restorative justice in education encompasses a variety of terms including restorative practices, restorative measures, restorative culture and restorative discipline. But if we look at the definitions of justice, restorative, and education, we can see how this phrase incorporates all of these terms and clarifies the concept. Justice includes the idea of fairness and genuine respect for people, honoring the inherent worth of all. Social justice is all about equity: respecting the dignity and the rights of all people. Judicial justice is understood mainly as a response to harm or crime, which ultimately is about the harm caused to people and their relationships to one another and to their community. Restorative in connection to both social and judicial justice, describes how an individual’s or group’s dignity, worth, and interconnectedness will be nurtured, protected, or reestablished in ways that will allow people to be fully contributing members of their communities. Education, from the Latin word educare meaning “to lead out, to draw out,” includes learning in all contexts—from the classroom to the streets, from our experiences in life to nature to the books and movies that shape our perspectives. It seeks to empower learners of all ages to live to their full capacity and potential. Creating Restorative Culture To create a restorative culture in schools and classrooms in accordance with the philosophy of RJE means to: “intentionally work at facilitating learning communities that nurture the capacity of people to engage with one another and their environment in a manner that supports and respects the inherent dignity and worth of everyone.” ¹ The culture of a school is created by people according to their beliefs and values. The core beliefs of restorative justice are that all human beings are worthy and interconnected. People need to belong and desire to be connected to others in a good way. Evans and Vaandering have identified that these core beliefs are supported by three key universal values: - Respect: (re: again; spect: to look): “To look again” from the point of view of the other; to put one’s self in the other’s shoes and then respond. - Dignity: Worth that cannot be substituted. People have dignity because the essence of who they are cannot be replaced. - Mutual concern: Much more than a common concern, mutual concern is reciprocal, interconnected caring.² Contained within these three are a variety of other values that people will identify depending on their needs and experience. Trust, honesty, open-mindedness, courage and kindness to name a few, but all contained within the deeper core values of treating others with respect, recognizing and honoring one another’s dignity, and being connected to one another through mutual concern. To create a restorative culture is about creating just and equitable learning environments where all students and staff are acknowledged and accepted for who they are. ² The Little Book of Restorative Justice in Education. Katherine Evans and Dorothy Vaandering. Published by Good Books, 2016. p. 32-33
When considering the origins of North American weather patterns, it might seem inconceivable to look toward the tropical Northwest Pacific Ocean (i.e., the region from the equator to 30 degrees north, and the dateline to coastal Southeast Asia) for insight. Allow me to explain to you one reason why this region is so often associated with significant variations in weather patterns over North America. Our atmosphere has a finite amount of mass that is neither created (e.g., generated from a large volcanic eruption) nor destroyed (e.g., ejected into space) in any significant quantity. Thus, when mass is removed from one location within the atmosphere, it must be deposited at another location within the atmosphere. The act of moving atmospheric mass around is the atmosphere’s way of working to reach a stable equilibrium wherein temperature is closer to being uniformly distributed so that the change in temperature over a large horizontal or vertical distance is minimized. The reason that cyclones (i.e., large-scale storm systems) and convection (i.e., thunderstorms) occur is to move the atmosphere toward a more stable state by heating the high latitudes (latitude increases toward the poles) and the upper troposphere and cooling the low latitudes (latitude decreases toward the equator) and the lower troposphere. For reference, the troposphere is where the vast majority of weather phenomena occur, and it usually exists within the first 5 to 10 miles of the atmosphere. Now, consider the origins and role of tropical cyclones (e.g., hurricanes; typhoons) in the atmosphere. While I won’t discuss the dynamics of tropical cyclones, keep in mind that high sea surface temperatures are important for their development and strength. Tropical cyclones originate as individual thunderstorms or clusters of thunderstorms that eventually organize and develop a circulation. The tropical Northwest Pacific is home to the largest number of tropical cyclones each year, in large part due to the presence of persistent clusters of thunderstorms and some of the planet’s highest sea surface temperatures in this region. Recently, a few significant tropical cyclones have churned through the tropical Northwest Pacific, with their effects being felt across the globe in the form of significant atmospheric wave patterns. Notable storms include (Super) Typhoon Sanba, (Super) Typhoon Jelawat, and Tropical Storm Maliksi. Each of these tropical cyclones “recurved”–reversed their east-west direction of movement as they moved northward–and simultaneously displaced atmospheric mass. This displacement of mass contributed to the formation of large-scale atmospheric waves that gave much of North America (including the United States) alternating periods of above and below average temperatures, along with significant bouts of precipitation. The following animations illustrate the evolution of a large-scale atmospheric wave pattern in response to the recurving of Tropical Storm Maliksi in the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Both animations depict the evolution of the wave pattern every 24 hours beginning at 8:00PM Eastern Time on 2 October 2012 and ending at 8:00PM Eastern Time on 5 October 2012. The first animation shows the region from 5 degrees south to 75 degrees north, and from 110 degrees east to 110 degrees west. The second animation shows the region from 5 degrees north to 75 degrees north, and from 150 degrees west to 40 degrees west. The North Pacific Ocean is in the center of the first animation, and the United States is in the center of the second animation. Perhaps some of you are still wondering how the displacement of atmospheric mass could contribute to the production of large-scale atmospheric waves? Remember, tropical cyclones, like any large-scale cyclone or small-scale cluster of thunderstorms, act to heat the upper troposphere and cool the lower troposphere. Thus, as part of the internal circulation of tropical cyclones, heat and mass near Earth’s surface are transported upward toward the top of the troposphere (while, to compensate for this upward transport, mass and cooler air from the upper-troposphere are transported toward the surface within and surrounding the tropical cyclone). Now, because this heat and mass cannot be pushed out into space (if you believe in the conservation of atmospheric mass, which you should), it eventually reaches a point where it can no longer be transported upward, and therefore has to be transported sideways (horizontally). Recalling that the atmosphere is always trying to achieve stability, much of this horizontal transport of heat and mass will occur in the direction of lower temperatures (typically associated with higher latitudes). At the same time, to compensate for this transport of heat and mass toward colder regions, mass (and accompanying cold air) that originates in these colder regions will move in the direction of higher temperatures. Thus, to first-order, you have what appears to be an amplifying sine wave, with one part of the wave moving northward, and the other part of the wave moving southward. The atmospheric response to this displacement of mass is manifest in the formation of large-scale cyclones and associated circulations along these waves. This is how the atmosphere works toward achieving a more stable state, whereby the high latitudes (upper troposphere) are heated, while the low latitudes (lower troposphere) are cooled. This is science at its best.
In almost all archaeology books and articles the authors use dates. Seeing ‘bp’, or ‘BP’, or ‘BC’ is common, and they are often used together. So, what’s the difference between them, and why use both? AD, ad, CE ‘AD’ means Anno Domini. This is the Christian era in the Gregorian calendar, starting from 1 AD as the year in which Christ was believed to have been born. (The date was calculated about 500 years after the event, so was a broad estimate.) ‘AD’ is generally written in upper case letters. If lower case letters are used, this often means that the date is based on an uncalibrated radiocarbon date (see below for date calibrations). ‘AD’ in upper case can mean the date stands for a historical date (e.g. the Battle of Hastings was in AD 1066), or sometimes it means calibrated radiocarbon age in calendar years. ‘CE’ means Common Era, or Current Era. ‘CE’ is equivalent to ‘AD’ as a date and places the ‘common’ or ‘current’ era as being from the suggested birth of Christ at 1 AD (e.g. Battle of Hastings was in 1066 CE). But, it removes the explicit claim of Anno Domini which means ‘year of our Lord’. First used almost 400 years ago, it has become especially popular from the late twentieth century to emphasise secularism or sensitivity to non-Christians. BC, bc, BCE ‘BC’ means ‘Before Christ’. This signifies the pre-Christian era in the Gregorian calendar. This runs backwards from 1 BC. As with ‘bc’, the lowercase ‘bc’ often means that the date used is an uncalibrated date. ‘BCE’ means Before Common / Current Era. As with ‘CE’, it removes the explicit reference to Christ, but is still equivalent to ‘BC’ in date. BP and bp The initials ‘BP’ stand for ‘years before present’. The use of BP by archaeologists, geologists, and other scientists, refers to radiocarbon ages and results from other radiometric dating techniques. Radiometric dating techniques are those that provide absolute dates based on the decay of radioactive isotopes. Radiocarbon dating was discovered in the 1940s. All living organisms contain the gas Carbon 14 (C14 or 14C). When an organism dies, the 14C slowly decays at a known rate called its “half-life.” The half-life of an isotope like 14C is the time it takes for half of it to decay away. In 14C every 5,730 years half of it is gone. Therefore, if you measure the amount of 14C in a dead organism, you can calculate out how long ago it died. The ‘present’ in BP is set at 1950, as this was close to when radiometric dating began to be used. Therefore a date like 3000 BP means 3000 before 1950 AD: in other words 1050 BC. As with AD and BC, the use of lower case ‘bp’ usually means the date is uncalibrated, and upper case means calibrated. However, not everyone follows this, and sometimes a ‘BP’ in upper case is in fact an uncalibrated date. Quite soon after radiocarbon dating was used, scientists realised that even though the dates retrieved from the method have a repeatable progression, they do not have a one-to-one match with calendar years. They discovered that radiocarbon dates are affected by the amount of carbon in the atmosphere that has fluctuated greatly in the past. In order to be able to calculate how much time has passed since the organism died, you have to be able to know the level of atmospheric carbon level – the radiocarbon ‘reservoir’. One method, is dendrochronology, the dating based on tree rings. A tree grows a new ring each year, and the thickness can be matched to different years. Scientists have compiled a sequence of tree rings spanning thousands of years, and compared the 14C in them. These are then compared to different 14C dates, which allows them to be calibrated. Along with tree rings, other materials are used to calibrate: ice cores, sedimentary layering, cave deposits, and volcanic eruptions. For calibrated dates, the abbreviation is usually in upper case, or includes the abbreviation ‘cal’. So, for a date of 5000 bp uncalibrated, which is calibrated to, say, 5640, it would be written as ‘5640 BP’, or ‘5640 cal BP’. This 5640 cal BP can also be written as ‘BC’: 3690 cal BC. This graph from the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU) shows how a radiocarbon measurement 3000+-30BP is calibrated. On the left-hand axis is the radiocarbon concentration expressed in BP years and the bottom axis shows calendar years. “The pair of blue curves show the radiocarbon measurements on the tree rings (plus and minus one standard deviation) and the red curve on the left indicates the radiocarbon concentration in the sample. The grey histogram shows possible ages for the sample (the higher the histogram the more likely that age is). The results of calibration are often given as an age range. In this case, we might say that we could be 95% sure that the sample comes from between 1375 cal BC and 1129 cal BC.” ORAU. Why use BP and BC together? As the above example from the ORAU shows, the BP date is what is returned during the dating analysis of a material, say a piece of bone. As this measurement is not precise to one exact year, it is given along with the standard deviation: the above example is 30, so the date is 3000+-30BP. From this a calibrated date is calculated, and given in a range of dates, written as cal BC. So, it is common to write both the radiocarbon date and the calibrated date together: the above example can be written as “3000+-30 BP (1375-1129 cal BC)”. What about the word order and the punctuation? For word order the ‘AD’ usually comes before the year number, as that is the correct order in Latin – so it is AD 1066. But, as ‘BC’ is English, it comes after the year number, so it is 3000 BC. Also, as ‘CE” is English, the abbreviation is written after the year numbers; so, AD 1066 is equivalent to 1066 CE. The abbreviation is also commonly used after the number of a century or millenium, as in ‘tenth century AD’ or ‘first millenium AD’. Above, the abbreviations are all used without punctuations, but it is common to see them with punctuations, e.g. AD 1066.
If you’re the gambling type who likes to beat the odds, here’s a tip: In the race against climate change, place your money on mangroves. According to a new report from The Nature Conservancy, Wetlands International and the Cambridge Coastal Research Unit, mangroves could be able to keep pace with sea level rise in some places. The authors reviewed a broad range of existing evidence and found that mangroves can build up soil at rates of 1 to 10 mm per year. In many places that rate is well within the range of the current 3 mm per year rise in sea levels, potentially allowing mangroves to remain in place even as rising seas threaten to engulf them. Mangrove forests are trees and shrubs that thrive in the tidal waters of tropical or sub-tropical coastal areas — in the United States, they are mainly found around Florida and up into the Gulf Coast. If you’ve never seen a mangrove, picture a motley chorus line of tangled tree legs rising up from brackish water. But they’ve seen better days: Scientists estimate that 35% or more of the world’s mangroves have been lost in recent decades, decimated by coastal development. Yet mangroves are also increasingly being recognized for their value as natural defenses against storm waves, as carbon storage and as nurseries for many marine creatures such as shrimp, crabs, fish and more. How Do Mangroves Build Up Soils? The report aims to present a picture of what science knows about soil build-up currently and what still needs to be known. It’s an area that has received little research attention to date. “Mangroves have complex roots that help to trap and bind the sediments on the soil surface, while the unseen growth of roots beneath the soil surface helps build up the soil from below,” explains Dr. Anna McIvor, lead author of the report and a scientist at the Cambridge Coastal Research Unit. (See diagram below.) The processes that influence soil build-up — such as sediment deposition, erosion, root growth, decomposition, the burrowing of crabs and other animals, and more — are complicated, and how they interact is not widely understood. Moreover, a multitude of variables can influence the rate at which these processes occur in any given location. What’s most needed, say the authors, is more data on soil elevation changes, over longer time periods and from more varied locations. Knowing more about how the soil build-up process works and where its not working well will be crucial in helping scientists address mangrove restoration. The authors found that some mangrove forests have historically built up soil at pace or faster than sea level rise. For instance, mangroves in Twin Cays, Belize, have created a layer of old roots and sediments that is 8 meters thick in some places. But in other areas, soils are likely not building up at high enough rates — and these are the areas where science will need to focus. “We are just beginning to develop this picture. It seems that mangroves won’t keep up in all locations, but there’s also tantalizing evidence that we might be able to manage mangroves to help this process,” says Mark Spalding, senior marine scientist with The Nature Conservancy and co-author of the report. “That might mean restoration where mangroves have been degraded or lost, but it could also mean taking a wider view, to restoring natural river flows and sediment movements along coasts.” The authors also caution that while the build-up of soils in some mangroves is keeping up with sea level rise now, there could be a threshold point at which they cannot continue growing at the same rate. But even when mangroves cannot fully keep up, their ability to hold soils together and to make fractional increases in elevation could help protect coastal areas. Maintaining a wide strip of mangroves as the front line between the sea and the land is a potential solution for coastal engineers and could be less costly than building and extending ever-higher sea walls. Projections of rising sea levels had scientists worried that mangroves would start to disappear even faster than in recent decades. But as scientists race to better understand how nature will adapt and respond to climate change, this report offers a note of hope and an important lesson: Root for the underdog, because all it takes is a few millimeters to win.

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