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This is the first of a two day lesson. Before class starts, have your copy of the Interactive Student Notebook prepared to show as an example. Use the photos attached in the resource section to guide making your notebook. When students enter the room, have the Smartboard presentation open to the tool box picture. Begin class by asking the students if they know what the picture is and what it's for. Continue the conversation asking students if they can think of any toolboxes we use at school. Accept all student responses and then show the students your copy of the Interactive Student Notebook and tell them that this a tool we're going to use this year. Before this lesson, it is helpful to have students' names labeled. Hand out the students' notebooks and explain that this is their (insert subject) toolbox. Explain that this notebook will hold all their learning and all the answers to all the tests and quizzes for the year. It will be their place to show their learning and express their creativity. It will also be a way to share their learning with their parents. (Smartboard- slide 2) Instruct them to open to the first page. The first page is the title page. Review with the students what a title page is in general. (Smartboard- slide 3) Instruct the students to write the subject nice and big in the middle of the first page. Below the subject have the students write their own name and below that have students write the school year. Refer to the resource photo as a guide. The students will then open to the first two page spread. It is now time to make the unit page. The unit page is a right side activity so the left side will be intentionally blank. Refer to the photo in this section for the way to make the title page. Break the drawing down into pieces to make it easier for students- making the middle lines to form the box and then the large V on top and the "mountain" on the bottom. Allow students to flip through the section you're going to begin so students "preview" what they're going to learn about during the unit. Students should draw one picture in each triangle space (6 total pictures) about what they think the class will be learning about. Alllow time for coloring and designing. After students are done with the unit page, allow them to draw and color images that represent them on the title page. After the majority of the students have finished coloring and drawing (or until your time runs low because they LOVE this part and take FOREVER!!), bring up the last Smartboard slide. This contains the lesson wrap up. On this slide, students will be required to share answers to questions with their face/ shoulder partners (Kagan & Kagan, 2009).
Spectral Signatures of Planetary Doom This plot of data from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope tells astronomers that a dusty planetary smashup probably occurred around a pair of tight twin, or binary, stars. The stars are similar to the sun in mass and age, but they orbit very closely around each other. With time, they get closer and closer, until the gravitational harmony in the system is thrown out of whack. Planetary bodies -- planets, asteroids and comets -- are thought to migrate out of their stable orbits, and smash together. Spitzer's cameras, which take pictures at different infrared wavelengths, observed the signatures of dust around three close binary systems. Data for one of those systems are shown here in orange. Models for the stars and a surrounding dusty disk are shown in yellow and red, respectively. The disk reveals that some sort of chaotic event -- probably a planetary collision -- must have generated the dusty disk. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Harvard-Smithsonian CfA
The Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution states: \|“\|\|Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.\|\|”\| The Eighth Amendment is almost identical to a provision in the English Bill of Rights of 1689, in which Parliament declared, "as their ancestors in like cases have usually done...that excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted." Virginia adopted this provision of the English Bill of Rights in the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776. Since the ratification of the Eighth Amendment on December 15, 1791, it has been interpreted by a large number of court cases. The Supreme Court in Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962), applied the Eighth Amendment to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Robinson was the first case in which the Supreme Court applied the Eighth Amendment against the state governments through the Fourteenth Amendment. Before Robinson, the Eighth Amendment had only been applied against the federal government. - ↑ English Bill of Rights of 1689. constitution.org. Retrieved on January 9, 2015. - ↑ Federman, Cary. The Body and the State: Habeas corpus and American Jurisprudence, page 99 (SUNY Press 2006). Amendments to the Constitution of the United States of America Bill of Rights: 1 - Freedom of speech, press, etc. 2 - Right to bear arms 3 - Quartering of soldiers 4 - Warrants 5 - Due process 6 - Right to a speedy trial 7 - Right by trial of a jury 8 - No cruel or unusual punishments 9 - Unenumerated rights 10 - Power to the people and states 11 - Immunity of states to foreign suits 12 - Revision of presidential election procedures 13 - Abolition of slavery 14 - Citizenship 15 - Racial suffrage 16 - Federal income tax 17 - Direct election to the United States Senate 18 - Prohibition of alcohol 19 - Women's suffrage 20 - Terms of the presidency 21 - Repeal of Eighteenth Amendment 22 - Limits the president to two terms 23 - Electoral College 24 - Prohibition of poll taxes 25 - Presidential disabilities 26 - Voting age lowered to 18 27 - Variance of congressional compensation
Star Trek fans -- and physicists -- have known that space and time get distorted near certain galactic objects, but now they have more precise information about the way that distortion works near spinning black holes. Researchers led by an MIT scientist recently obtained the first observational evidence that massive, rotating black holes in our galaxy drag space and time around with them as they gather matter into their spiral, much as a twister picks up objects in its path. This phenomenon, known as frame-dragging, was first predicted in 1918 as a natural consequence of Einstein's general theory of relativity, which describes the effects of gravity on space and time. But it had been unproved by experiments or observation until recently, when Italian researchers suggested the effect might be present near spinning neutron stars. The MIT team then applied a similar idea to several black holes in our galaxy. "If our interpretation is correct, it could be said to prove the presence of frame-dragging near spinning black holes," said Dr. Wei Cui, a research scientist at MIT's Center for Space Research (CSR) who is lead author on a paper presented at a meeting of the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the American Astronomical Society (AAS) on November 6. His collaborators are research scientists Shuang N. Zhang of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, and Wan Chen of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. Black holes are exceptionally compact objects with a gravitational pull so strong that no light can escape them. Since black holes cannot be seen directly, their existence can only be deduced from observations of the behavior of sister-stars thought to cohabit with black holes. The gravitational pull of the black hole forces the sister star to revolve around it. The black hole then acquires material from the star by pulling the matter into the orbit of an accretion disk -- a ring-like disk of gas that moves around the black hole. As the matter in that disk moves closer and closer to the black hole, the matter heats up and begins to emit X-rays. These X-ray emissions are critical to the measurement of the frame-dragging effect. Dr. Cui's team took the results of their own recent study that measured how fast black holes spin by using the inferred temperature and location of the matter rotating around them. That study, which came out earlier this year, gave the first published measurement of a black hole's spin. Using that measurement and the mass of the black hole, his team then determined how frame-dragging would affect the material in the accretion disk as it orbits the black hole. They showed that the matter's orbit in the accretion disk would wobble, much as a child's top wobbles when it slows down. The frequency at which it would wobble, based on their calculations, turned out to be the same frequency as the actual oscillations in intensity of the X-ray emissions previously measured by other researchers. They theorized that this wobble is evidence of frame-dragging, because the matter's orbit can only wobble if the space and time in which it exists are being dragged. Dr. Cui pointed out that they cannot claim with absolute certainty that they have proven the presence of frame-dragging. However, he noted that while there are other interpretations that work for two of the five black holes studied, none of them can be satisfactorily applied to all five. Actually, the general theory of relativity predicts that frame-dragging should occur around any spinning body, even the Earth. And NASA's plans to launch a satellite called Gravity Probe B in 2000 could lead to a direct measurement of the Earth's frame-dragging. But the effect would be much more marked around a body with both tremendous mass and small size, like a black hole, and therefore somewhat easier to detect. Even so, its detection took nearly 80 years from the time it was first predicted. "Although theorists predicted the frame-dragging effect, they didn't have any observational evidence to prove it before the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer," said Dr. Cui, whose research was funded by NASA. The Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer, or RXTE, is a 6,700-pound observatory placed into orbit by NASA in December 1995 to gather information on black holes and neutron stars -- objects akin to black holes only less massive. It is named after Bruno B. Rossi, an MIT professor who was a pioneer in the field of X-ray astronomy. Two of the instruments on board RXTE were designed by Professor Hale Bradt and colleagues at the CSR. The first, the All Sky Monitor (ASM), sweeps over 80 percent of the sky every 90 minutes, and monitors the intensities and spectra of the brightest X-ray sources. The second is the Experiment Data System (EDS), a powerful computer that crunches numbers before transmitting data back to Earth. At the AAS meeting in Estes Park, CO, where Dr. Cui's findings were presented, the Italian researchers presented their proof of frame-dragging by spinning neutron stars. Most of the data used by both teams were obtained by RXTE. Since the research on frame-dragging by black holes was first reported last Thursday, it has generated intense media interest, with reports published or aired by CNN, ABC News, USA Today, NPR, the Washington Post, The Los Angeles Times, the Chronicle of Higher Education and the Boston Globe, among others. The very existence of black holes is itself the subject of considerable scientific debate. They are thought to be created when a very large star near the end of its life collapses under its own gravitational pull. Such stars are exceptionally dense because they become as small as 60 kilometers -- or 40 miles -- in diameter, while still retaining a mass many times that of our Sun. Once a star reaches this stage, its gravity is so powerful that absolutely nothing, not even light, can escape, leaving what appears to us as a black hole in space. "Of course there are still many unanswered questions about the X-ray emission processes in these black hole systems," said Dr. Cui. "But the observations in this case seem to suggest the presence of the frame-dragging effect -- that spinning black holes do drag space and time around with them" -- something Trekkies have known for years. A version of this article appeared in MIT Tech Talk on November 12, 1997.
NASA's Mars Phoenix Lander, which spent the summer in Mars' northern polar regions performing a variety of science experiments, caused quite a stir when rumors circulated that it had discovered signs of life on the Red Planet. NASA eventually held a press conference to dispel the rumors, promising that more details would eventually be revealed when scientists got around to publishing papers that would describe the experiments in detail. That day has finally arrived; today's issue of Science contains four papers that describe various findings from the mission. There's no sign of alien life, but the studies do reveal an active water cycle on Mars—including night-time snowfall. The papers rely on evidence from a variety of the instruments on the lander, and the description of the data provides an impressive catalog of the various ways that Phoenix could prod and query the Martian pole. In the months before Martian winter shut the lander down, it managed to dig a dozen trenches, taking soil samples from each. These samples went into wet and dry chemistry labs, had their conductivity tested, and were even examined using an atomic force microscope. Meanwhile, cameras and a LIDAR system (a laser-based range detector) scanned the surroundings. The overall conclusion is that the northern pole has an active water cycle. This had been suggested by a variety of evidence from orbital sensors, as well early images returned from Phoenix. It's also not a huge shock, given the seasonal growth and retreat of the polar ice cap. Still, Phoenix provided some significant details on the cycling of water in the area where it landed. For starters, it's clear that there's significant subsurface ice in the area where Phoenix operated. One trench, dubbed "Snow White" by mission controllers, had a clear layer of ice within it, and others had slightly more diffuse signs. The white chunks that were observed sublimating from a trench were confirmed to be ice by an onboard experiment that noticed an endothermic transition occurring at about 2�C, after which its instruments picked up indications of water vapor. Beyond confirming the presence of water, various instruments gave some indication of what that water was doing. Electrical conductivity in soil samples increased at night, suggesting that the water sublimated off in the sunlight and was returning to the Martian soil at night. The cameras detected clouds and low-lying fog, indicating that the water was taking part in normal atmospheric processes; these were forming at approximately -65�C, much too warm for them to be comprised of frozen carbon dioxide. But the really amazing data came from the LIDAR instrument, which was able to track the formation of the clouds at the atmosphere's boundary layer. Cloud formation became more pronounced as the summer gradually faded and the atmosphere cooled at night, and the scientists were eventually able to detect cirrus-like clouds as they dropped "tilted vertical sheets" of ice particles back to the surface of the planet. In short, they watched it snow. The authors of one paper sum up the cycle as follows: "This diurnal cycle deposited ice onto the surface at night, reducing the vapor pressure to low values, sublimated it in the morning, and redistributed it throughout the planetary boundary layer in the turbulent afternoon. Near midnight, ice clouds formed and precipitated a portion of the atmospheric H2O back to the surface in the early morning." That water cycle has clearly had an impact on the minerals detected by Phoenix, which saw signs of calcium carbonate. This mineral is likely to form through a combination of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, water from the snow, and calcium leeched from the existing minerals. Scientists also confirmed the preliminary reports of perchlorates, which would tend to absorb any liquid water under the current conditions. Nevertheless, this combination suggests that "this region could have previously met the criteria for habitability during favorable Milankovich cycles," when it would receive more sunlight. All in all, not bad for a mission put together from parts left over from one that failed years earlier. Listing image by Science/AAAS
© Reuters Photographer These two young boys greeted by their grandmother belong to the Dalit or "untouchable" class, the lowest caste in the Hindu system.The caste system probably arrived in India about 3,500 years ago. Throughout India and Southeast Asia, the caste system carries on as an age-old method of social separation between high, middle, and lower classes - and according to Live Science , a new genetic analysis suggests that it was enacted around 2,000 years ago. Researchers have found that people from different genetic populations have been intermingling in the Indian subcontinent about 4,200 years ago, but the mingling stopped about 1,900 years ago. The genetic information along with ancient texts show that distinction classes had been forming from about 3,000-3,500 years ago, and the caste system came into place around 2,000 years ago. According to Time , researcher Kumarasamy Thangaraj traveled to the Andaman Islands 840 miles off of the eastern coast of India to collect blood samples from an isolated tribe of hunter-gatherers, which helped them find "pivotal" information in India's genetic history after Thangaraj deposited the blood to a blood bank along with 32,000 other samples of Indian countrymen. The bloodlines pose a puzzle for Indian researchers, where traces can be seen in Eurasian and African descent. However, at one point in history the mingling stopped and different religious, linguistic, and tribal lines started to form, resulting in over 4,600 different genetic groups. The find was recently published in the American Journal of Human Genetics , stirring up attention when it revealed that genetic mixing stopped nearly 2,000 years ago. Only historians can determine whether or not the castes stopped the mixing of bloodlines, or vice-versa.
Reads input, sorts data, and writes the results to the screen, to a file, or to another device. /R : Reverse sort order (Z to A, 9 to 0) /+n : Sort the file ignoring the first 'n' characters in The default is to sort using all the chars in each row. Overrides the sort order of characters defined by the system default locale (that is, the language and Country/Region selected during installation). The amount of RAM to use for the sort. The best performance is usually achieved by not specifying a memory size. SORT will only create a temporary file when required by limitations in available memory. Specifies the maximum number of characters in a record, or a line of the input file (the default is 4,096, and the maximum is 65,535). The file to be sorted. If not specified, the standard input is sorted. Specifying an input file is faster than redirecting the same file as standard input. Specifies the path of the directory to hold the SORT command's working storage, in case the data does not fit in main memory. The default is to use the system temporary directory. The file where the sorted input is to be stored. If not specified, the data is written to standard Specifying an output file is faster than redirecting standard output to a file. In using the /+n command-line option, for example, /+3 indicates that each comparison should begin at the third character in each line. Lines with fewer than n characters collate before other lines. By default, comparisons start at the first character in each line. You can use the pipe (\|) symbol to direct data through the sort command from another command, or to direct the sort output to another command. The sort command does not distinguish between uppercase and The following command reads the file Records.txt, sorts it in reverse order, and displays it on your screen: SORT /r records.txt To search a large file named Contacts.txt for the text "John," and to sort the results of the search, use the pipe (\|) to direct the output of a find command to the sort command, as follows: FIND "John" cotacts.txt \| SORT
Washington Common Core Standards WA.CC.L.2. Language Standards Vocabulary Acquisition and Use L.2.4. Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and phrases based on grade 2 reading and content, choosing flexibly from an array of strategies. L.2.4(e) Use glossaries and beginning dictionaries, both print and digital, to determine or clarify the meaning of words and phrases. WA.CC.RI.2. Reading Standards for Informational Text Craft and Structure RI.2.5. Know and use various text features (e.g., captions, bold print, subheadings, glossaries, indexes, electronic menus, icons) to locate key facts or information in a text efficiently.
Definition - What does Wrap Plug mean? A wrap plug is a special connector that is designed to perform a diagnostic test called a loopback test. It is inserted into a port on a communication device and crosses over to the transmission line from the receiving line so that the outgoing signals can be looped back to the computer for testing. The wrap plug can determine whether a device is in working order or has properly functioning nodes in the network. It can also be manufactured for specific tests and systems, or used as an attenuator to stimulate the path loss in an actual communication circuit. A wrap plug causes the output signals to be returned as input signals so that a complete communication circuit is roused. In order to obtain accurate test results and avoid damage to the equipment during testing, the manufacturer's guidelines must be thoroughly followed. Techopedia explains Wrap Plug A wrap plug is a special connector that routes digital data streams or electronic signals from their origin back to the source without deliberate changes or processing. It is largely designed and intended for testing transmission infrastructure called a loopback test. The loopback test can consist of four different types: - Remote Analog Loopback: Tests the line to the remote modem - Remote Digital Loopback: Tests operating conditions of the line and remote modem - Local Analog Loopback: Tests the modem's digital and analog circuits - Local Digital Loopback: Tests operations of the data terminating equipment (DTE), including whether data has left the computer port A wrap plug interface has several uses. This may include network client software that communicates with server software on the same computer that tests services without network security threats. It can also be used to ping the loopback interface and test the IP stack. A disadvantage for loopback addresses is the susceptibility to Internet pranks where the prankster can direct an inexperienced user to connect or attack their own loopback interface. This is because a lot of users are not aware that 127.42.69.93 stands for their own computer as well as 127.0.0.1. In addition, packets that are sent on an actual IP network using a loopback interface and source address can create several issues if the network software is older or has any bugs. These packets are called martian packets.
A sperm cell delivers its DNA to and fertilizes eggs, according to the National Center for Biotechnology Information. The BBC points out that this genetic material is contained in 23 chromosomes, which combine with the 23 chromosomes found in the female sex cell to make 23 pairs of chromosomes that contain all the genes for the new embryo.Continue Reading The National Center for Biotechnology explains that sperm cells have two parts: the head and the tail. The head contains tightly packed DNA, and the tail is a flagellum that propels the sperm to the egg. How Stuff Works elaborates that these sperm cells are delivered through semen, which includes fluid from the male vesicles and the prostate gland in addition to the sperm. Along with providing an environment for the sperm to move in, semen also protects and nourishes them. According to the Open University, men produce millions of sperm cells. A single ejaculation contains up to 1,800 million of these cells. Sperm is produced in the testes in little vessels called seminiferous tubules, and they mature in the vas deferens in a process that takes up to 74 days and requires a slightly cooler environment than body temperature. If not ejaculated, the sperm are merely reabsorbed into the body.Learn more about Cells
This weekend I read this article about how scientists have measured an asteroid's rate of rotation (spin rate) increasing due to sunlight. This effect is called the YORP effect, after the scientists who first described it: Yarkovsky, O'Keefe, Radzievskii, and Paddack. The effect is very subtle. (When astronomers say "subtle," we often mean "complicated and hard to wrap your brain around.") When sunlight hits an asteroid (or any planet), much of that sunlight is absorbed and converted to heat. This is why the temperature warms up in the daytime! That heat is then radiated back into space as infrared photons. Photons carry momentum. They carry very small amounts of momentum, but when you have gazillions of photons, that momentum can start to add up, especially for small things. Particles of dust in space near the earth spiral into the sun in less than 3000 years due to momentum from this infrared radiation. In order to change the spin of an asteroid, it has to be odd-shaped. Think of this kind of like a windmill. If you put a ball on top of a tower, the wind won't cause it to spin. But it you put up odd-shaped blades, you can make a windmill that spins very rapidly. The effect is similar for asteroids. Round asteroids (and planets) don't get spun up by sunlight, but odd-shaped asteroids can. In fact, many small, funny-shaped asteroids spin very fast; this theory explains why. So, what is the news here? Until recently, this effect was a hypothesis. We had never measured any asteroid spinning faster and faster. But now Stephen Lowry, an astronomer from Queens University in Belfast, has led a team that measured the spin rates of two asteroids: 2000 PH5 (this asteroid doesn't have a "real" name yet) and Apollo. And the spins of these rocks are increasing at a rate consistent with theory. What does this mean for you? Another effect similar to the YORP effect, called the Yarkovsky effect, claims that the actual orbits of asteroids could be changed from the momentum of light. If this theory is true, if we find an asteroid that will one day in the future hit the Earth, we could change its orbit by "painting" part of the asteroid with white dust rather than needing to launch a nuclear weapon or a large explosive. However, we need to be sure we understand the effect first, or else such deflection may not work or may even work in reverse, causing a rock to hit us all the sooner.
\|\|The English used in this article may not be easy for everybody to understand. (September 2011)\| Olfaction is the sense of smell. The sense of smell is how a man or animal notices a smell (or odour or odor) by using the nose. Many animals have better noses than people. Some animals can detect small particles in the air or sometimes water that people cannot. People have special cells in the nose that can detect some chemicals. These cells are part of the olfactory epithelium. All vertebrates have these cells. The smell is first processed by the olfactory system. The information is given to the olfactory bulb in the front of the forebrain. Other websites[change \| change source] - Smells and Odours - How Smell Works - The importance of smell, and pheromones, to Humans and other Animals - Structure-odor relations: a modern perspective (PDF) - Olfactory network dynamics and the coding of multidimensional signals (PDF) \|Hearing • Sight • Touch • Taste • Smell • Proprioception\|
A team of scientists at the Cambridge-based Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) announces the discovery of a gene that is responsible for giving bacteria the ability to survive in extremely dangerous environments. The finding explains why the waters in the Gulf of Mexico, heavily polluted with methane following the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, suddenly became full of hydrocarbon-eating bacteria where none was to be found before. Surveys conducted before the spill occurred found only trace amounts of such microorganisms. Yet, studies conducted shortly after the event began showed massive amounts of the organisms consuming the large amounts of methane released from the ruptured wellhead. While studying these bacteria, researchers at MIT were able to identify the gene that enabled them to survive and thrive in such a hostile environment. Near the spot where Deepwater Horizon sank, the waters were almost completely devoid of oxygen. The gene the team found controls the production of a protein called HpnR, whose role is to trigger the production of 3-methylhopanoids. These are essential lipids for the bacteria, since they enable the microorganisms to endure for as long as it takes, until environmental conditions are appropriate again. Interestingly, this discovery opens the way to new geological studies. By analyzing HpnR concentrations in samples collected from the fossil record, it may become possible for scientists to determine when sudden drops or increases in local oxygen levels occurred in the past. Details of the study appear in the scientific journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. “The thing that interests us is that this could be a window into the geologic past. In the geologic record, many millions of years ago, we see a number of mass extinction events where there is also evidence of oxygen depletion in the ocean,” postdoctoral researcher Paula Welander says. “It’s at these key events, and immediately afterward, where we also see increases in all these biomarkers as well as indicators of climate disturbance. It seems to be part of a syndrome of warming, ocean deoxygenation and biotic extinction. The ultimate causes are unknown,” she adds. Welander, who is based at the MIT Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences (EAPS), was the leader of the new investigation, together with EAPS professor Roger Summons. Funds for the research were provided by the US National Science Foundation (NSF) and NASA.
Individual differences \| Methods \| Statistics \| Clinical \| Educational \| Industrial \| Professional items \| World psychology \| - Main article: Figurative languge A figure of speech, sometimes termed a rhetoric, or locution, is a word or phrase that departs from straightforward, literal language. Figures of speech are often used and crafted for emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use. Note that all theories of meaning necessarily have a concept of "literal language" (see literal and figurative language). Under theories that do not, figure of speech is not an entirely coherent concept. As an example of the figurative use of a word, consider the sentence, I am going to crown you. It may mean: - I am going to place a literal crown on your head. - I am going to symbolically exalt you to the place of kingship. - I am going to put a second checker piece on top of your checker piece to signify that it has become a king (as in the game of checkers). - I am going to punch you in the head with my clenched fist. Scholars of classical Western rhetoric have divided figures of speech into two main categories: schemes and tropes. Schemes (from the Greek schēma, form or shape) are figures of speech in which there is a deviation from the ordinary or expected pattern of words. For example, the phrase, "John, my best friend" uses the scheme known as apposition. Tropes (from the Greek tropein, to turn) involve changing or modifying the general meaning of a term. An example of a trope is the use of irony, which is the use of words in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning ("For Brutus is an honorable man; / So are they all, all honorable men"). During the Renaissance, a time when scholars in every discipline had a passion for classifying all things, writers expended a great deal of energy in devising all manner of classes and sub-classes of figures of speech. Henry Peacham, for example, in his The Garden of Eloquence (1577) enumerated 184 different figures of speech: "For the sake of simplicity, this article divides the figures between schemes and tropes, but does not attempt further sub-classification (e.g., "Figures of Disorder"). Within each category, words are listed alphabetically. Each figure links to a page that provides greater detail and relevant examples, but a short definition is placed here for convenience. Some of those listed may be considered rhetorical devices, which are similar in many ways." - Main article: Scheme (linguistics) - accumulation: Summarization of previous arguments in a forceful manner. - adnominatio: Repetition of a word with a change in letter or sound - alliteration: A series of words that begin with the same letter or sound alike - anacoluthon: A change in the syntax within a sentence - anadiplosis: Repetition of a word at the end of a clause at the beginning of another - anaphora: The repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses - anastrophe: Inversion of the usual word order - anticlimax: the arrangement of words in order of decreasing importance - antimetabole: Repetition of words in successive clauses, in reverse order - antistrophe: The repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses (see epistrophe) - antithesis: The juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas - aphorismus: statement that calls into question the definition of a word - aposiopesis: Breaking off or pausing speech for dramatic or emotional effect - apostrophe: Directing the attention away from the audience and to a personified abstraction - apposition: The placing of two elements side by side, in which the second defines the first - assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse - asteismus: Facetious or mocking answer that plays on a word - asyndeton: Omission of conjunctions between related clauses - cacophony: The juxtaposition of words producing a harsh sound - classification (literature & grammar): linking a proper noun and a common noun with an article - chiasmus: Reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses - climax: The arrangement of words in order of increasing importance - consonance: The repetition of consonant sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse - dystmesis: A synonym for tmesis - ellipsis: Omission of words - enallage: The substitution of forms that are grammatically different, but have the same meaning - enjambment: A breaking of a syntactic unit (a phrase, clause, or sentence) by the end of a line or between two verses. - enthymeme: Informal method of presenting a syllogism - epanalepsis: Repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end of the clause or sentence. - epistrophe: The repetition of the same word or group of words at the end of successive clauses. The counterpart of anaphora (also known as antistrophe) - euphony: The opposite of cacophony - i.e. pleasant sounding - hendiadys: Use of two nouns to express an idea when the normal structure would be a noun and a modifier - hendiatris: Use of three nouns to express one idea - homographs: Words that are identical in spelling but different in origin and meaning - homonyms: Words that are identical with each other in pronunciation and spelling, but differing in origin and meaning. - homophones:Words that are identical with each other in pronunciation but differing in origin and meaning. - hypallage: Changing the order of words so that they are associated with words normally associated with others - hyperbaton: Schemes featuring unusual or inverted word order. - hyperbole: An exaggeration of a statement. - hysteron proteron: The inversion of the usual temporal or causal order between two elements. - isocolon: Use of parallel structures of the same length in successive clauses - internal rhyme : Using two or more rhyming words in the same sentence - kenning: A metonymic compound where the terms together form a sort of synecdoche - merism: Referring to a whole by enumerating some of its parts - non sequitur: a statement that bears no relationship to the context preceding - onomatopoeia: A word imitating a real sound (e.g. tick-tock or boom) - paradiastole: Repetition of the disjunctive pair "neither" and "nor" - parallelism: The use of similar structures in two or more clauses - paraprosdokian: Unexpected ending or truncation of a clause - parenthesis: Insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence - paroemion: A resolute alliteration in which every word in a sentence or phrase begins with the same letter - parrhesia: Speaking openly or boldly, or apologizing for doing so (declaring to do so) - perissologia: The fault of wordiness - pleonasm: The use of superfluous or redundant words - polyptoton: Repetition of words derived from the same root - polysyndeton: Repetition of conjunctions - pun: When a word or phrase is used in two different senses - sibilance: Repetition of letter 's', it is a form of alliteration - superlative: Saying something the best of something i.e. the ugliest,the most precious - spoonerism: Interchanging of (usually initial) letters of words with amusing effect - symploce: Simultaneous use of anaphora and epistrophe: the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning and the end of successive clauses - synchysis: Interlocked word order - synesis: An agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form - synizesis: The pronunciation of two juxtaposed vowels or diphthongs as a single sound - synonymia: The use of two or more synonyms in the same clause or sentence - tautology: Redundancy due to superfluous qualification; saying the same thing twice - tmesis: Division of the elements of a compound word - Main article: Trope (linguistics) - allegory: An extended metaphor in which a story is told to illustrate an important attribute of the subject. - allusion: An indirect reference to another work of literature or art. - anacoenosis: Posing a question to an audience, often with the implication that it shares a common interest with the speaker. - antanaclasis: A form of pun in which a word is repeated in two different senses. - anthimeria: The substitution of one part of speech for another, often turning a noun into a verb. - anthropomorphism: Ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphism). - antiphrasis: A word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony - antonomasia: The substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa - aphorism: A tersely phrased statement of a truth or opinion, an adage - apophasis: Invoking an idea by denying its invocation - aporia: Deliberating with oneself, often with the use of rhetorical questions - apostrophe: Addressing a thing, an abstraction or a person not present - archaism: Use of an obsolete, archaic, word(a word used in olden language, e.g. Shakespeare's language) - auxesis: A form of hyperbole, in which a more important sounding word is used in place of a more descriptive term - catachresis: A mixed metaphor (sometimes used by design and sometimes a rhetorical fault) - circumlocution: "Talking around" a topic by substituting or adding words, as in euphemism or periphrasis - commiseration: Evoking pity in the audience. - correctio: Linguistic device used for correcting one's mistakes, a form of which is epanorthosis. - denominatio: Another word for metonymy - double negative: grammar construction that can be used as an expression and it is the repetition of negative words - dysphemism: Substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemism. - epanorthosis: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue. - enumeratio: A form of amplification in which a subject is divided, detailing parts, causes, effects, or consequences to make a point more forcibly. - erotema: Synonym for rhetorical question - euphemism: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another - hermeneia: Repetition for the purpose of interpreting what has already been said - hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis - hypophora: Answering one's own rhetorical question at length - hysteron proteron: Reversal of anticipated order of events - innuendo: Having a hidden meaning in a sentence that makes sense whether it is detected or not - invocation: An apostrophe to a god or muse - irony: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning - litotes: Emphasizing the magnitude of a statement by denying its opposite - malapropism: Using a word through confusion with a word that sounds similar - meiosis: Use of understatement, usually to diminish the importance of something - metalepsis: Referring to something through reference to another thing to which it is remotely related - metaphor: An implied comparison of two unlike things - metonymy: Substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant - neologism: The use of a word or term that has recently been created, or has been in use for a short time. Opposite of archaism. - onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning - oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other - parable: An extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson - paradox: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth - paradiastole: Extenuating a vice in order to flatter or soothe - parallel irony: An ironic juxtaposition of sentences or situations (informal) - paralipsis: Drawing attention to something while pretending to pass it over - paronomasia: A form of pun, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used - pathetic fallacy: Using a word that refers to a human action on something non-human - periphrasis: Using several words instead of few - personification/prosopopoeia/anthropomorphism: Attributing or applying human qualities to inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena - praeteritio: Another word for paralipsis - procatalepsis: Refuting anticipated objections as part of the main argument - prolepsis: Another word for procatalepsis - proslepsis: An extreme form of paralipsis in which the speaker provides great detail while feigning to pass over a topic - proverb:A succinct or pithy expression of what is commonly observed and believed to be true. - repetition: The repeated usage of word(s)/group of words in the same sentence to create a poetic/rhythmic effect. - rhetorical question: Asking a question as a way of asserting something. Or asking a question not for the sake of getting an answer but for asserting something (or as in a poem for creating a poetic effect). - simile: An explicit comparison between two things - superlative: Saying something the best of something i.e. the ugliest, the most precious etc - syllepsis: A form of pun, in which a single word is used to modify two other words, with which it normally would have differing meanings - syncatabasis ("condescension, accommodation"): adaptation of style to the level of the audience - synecdoche: A form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole - synesthesia: The description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another. - transferred epithet: The placing of an adjective with what appears to be the incorrect noun - truism: a self-evident statement - tricolon diminuens: A combination of three elements, each decreasing in size - tricolon crescens: A combination of three elements, each increasing in size - zeugma: a figure of speech related to syllepsis, but different in that the word used as a modifier is not compatible with one of the two words it modifies - zoomorphism: applying animal characteristics to humans or gods - Aristotle, The Art of Rhetoric, (Translated by J. H. Freese), Loeb Classical Library. - Baldwin, Charles Sears, Ancient Rhetoric and Poetic: Interpreted from Representative Works, Peter Smith, Gloucester, 1959 (reprint). - Rhetorica ad Herennium, (Translated by Henry Caplan) Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1954. - Corbett, Edward P.J., Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student Oxford University Press, New York, 1971. - Kennedy, George, Art of Persuasion in Greece. Princeton Univ Press, 1969 (4th printing). - Lanham, Richard A., A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1991. - Mackin, John H. Classical Rhetoric for Modern Discourse, Free Press, New York, 1969. - Quintilian. Institutio oratoria, (In five volumes, trans. Donald A. Russell) Loeb Classical Library, 2002. - A Glossary of Rhetorical Terms with Examples from the University of Kentucky - A Guide to Rhetorical Ideas from Silva Rhetoricae - Figures of Speech from Paul Niquette - Figures of Speech from Silva Rhetoricae - It Figures - Figures of Speech from Jay Heinrichs - Stylistic Devices on English Grammar Online from Lingo4you GbR - Introducing Philosophy 21: Rhetoric from Paul Newall (2005) \|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).\|
Rob DeConto, a geoscientist at University of Massachusetts Amherst, and paleoclimatologist David Pollard, of Pennsylvania State University, suggest the West Antarctic ice sheet is far more unstable than previously appreciated by scientists. Its collapse may add more than a meter to the level of the world’s oceans as quickly as 2100, and more than 15 meters long-term. With ice melt from other regions, sea level could rise nearly 2 meters before the end of the century. Such a rapid increase in the world’s oceans could permanently flood entire cities, necessitating mass migration and unleashing destruction on a scale not experienced outside of world war. Research compiled last year offered a conservative estimate of well over a hundred million people directly imperiled by sea level rise corresponding to 2 degrees Celsius warming, without accounting for West Antarctic collapse. If rising temperatures do trigger such a collapse, many of the world’s mega-cities, from New York to Shanghai to Rio, may be in jeopardy within the lifespans of children alive today. DeConto and Pollard’s research examined how climate change affects the West Antarctic ice sheet, a vast region where much of the land mass is below sea level. Floating ice sheets, which extend for hundreds of kilometers, are subject to the dual forces of warming ocean currents and rising air temperatures. Meltwater flowing through cracks in the floating ice can trigger a domino effect of disintegration as instability mounts with each collapsing ice cliff. This is precisely what scientists have observed at the rapidly retreating Helheim Glacier in Greenland, and what may be in store for West Antarctica. The researchers accounted for ice cliff collapse and other melting mechanisms in climate models for the first time, enabling them to more accurately reconstruct historic sea levels that have long puzzled scientists. While temperatures in polar regions over the past several million years have only slightly exceeded today’s, global sea level averages have been as much as 9 meters higher. The culprit, as DeConto and Pollard explain in their paper, is the sensitivity of melting Antarctic ice sheets to relatively small changes in temperature. Having more accurately replicated the past, they ran their model to explore future scenarios of climate change. The study found that for a given amount of warming, the expected rate of ice loss in Antarctica, which holds approximately 90 percent of the earth’s fresh water, far exceeds the previously accepted estimate. The relationship between warming global temperatures and sea level rise has long been one of the more controversial topics among climate scientists. While one of the primary mechanisms, thermal expansion due to rising water temperatures, is well understood, the potential impact of melting glaciers and ice sheets has been a source of substantial uncertainty. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2013 revised their assessment of projected sea level rise upward by about 60 percent from six years previous. The new study suggests a rise nearly double that of the 2013 estimate. DeConto and Pollard’s study adds to a body of research that over the past few years has raised alarms over the potential for runaway sea level rise. Using satellite data, studies by Bert Wouters and colleagues, and separately Christopher Harig and Frederick Simons, for example, observed rapid melting in areas of Antarctica previously thought to be stable. This emerging research is a grim warning about the severity of rising sea levels. Far from being written off as a problem hundreds of years distant, or one that may impact only a limited number of geographies such as low-lying islands and flood-prone settlements, a meters-large increase in global ocean levels within the next several decades would be catastrophic for wide stretches of humanity. “This could spell disaster for many low-lying cities,” DeConto remarked to his university’s press office. He added that his study showed that aggressive action to reduce global carbon emissions can reduce the risk greatly. However, this growing urgency to mitigate and adapt to climate change before disastrous and unstoppable consequences has been matched with little more than pretense by the ruling class. The Paris Agreement, signed last December, binds the world’s governments to little more than accounting paperwork. Their voluntary pledges, even if carried out, fall well short of limiting temperature increase to avoid catastrophe. 1004 visitors read this news.
A dusty plasma is is a system of particles suspended in a background plasma. Sometimes called a complex plasma, the particles are typically tens of micrometers or smaller and are charged. This results in a variety of fascinating phenomena that can be observed with a video camera or even the naked eye. Dusty plasmas are found in space (comets, planetary rings), are a concern in fusion plasmas, and are considered an important impurity that must be controlled in plasma processing. Recent work is focused on the development of a novel dust dropper to control the insertion of dust particles in the system. This new addition to the experiment will aid the study of dust cloud formation and of instabilities in the system. The Dusty Plasma Experiment (DPX) setup consists of an argon DC glow discharge, two independently controlled power supplies for plasma control, and silica dust particles. Dust clouds are typically formed beneath the anode in a region illuminated by a vertically oriented green laser line.
Every food source and habitat provided can help pollinators rebound from the challenges they face. You can provide food and habitat in your backyard—or even in your windowsill—to help pollinators thrive. Here are seven ways to make your garden a haven for native pollinators: Use pollinator-friendly plants in your landscape. Shrubs and trees such as dogwood, blueberry, cherry, plum, willow, and poplar provide pollen or nectar, or both, early in spring when food is scarce. Choose a mixture of plants for spring, summer, and fall. Different flower colors, shapes, and scents will attract a wide variety of pollinators. If you have limited space, you can plant flowers in containers on a patio, balcony, and even window boxes. Reduce or eliminate pesticide use in your landscape, or incorporate plants that attract beneficial insects for pest control. If you use pesticides, use them sparingly and responsibly. Accept some plant damage on plants meant to provide habitat for butterfly and moth larvae. Provide clean water for pollinators with a shallow dish, bowl, or birdbath with half-submerged stones for perches. Leave dead tree trunks, also called “snags,” in your landscape for wood-nesting bees and beetles. Support land conservation in your community by helping to create and maintain community gardens and green spaces to ensure that pollinators have appropriate habitat.
Negative Binomial Distribution The following sections provide an overview of the negative binomial distribution. Background of the Negative Binomial Distribution In its simplest form, the negative binomial distribution models the number of successes before a specified number of failures is reached in an independent series of repeated identical trials. It can also be thought of as modelling the total number of trials required before a specified number of successes, thus motivating its name as the "inverse" of the binomial distribution. Its parameters are the probability of success in a single trial, , and the number of failures, . A special case of the negative binomial distribution, when , is the geometric distribution (also known as the Pascal distribution), which models the number of successes before the first failure. More generally, the parameter can take on non-integer values. This form of the negative binomial has no interpretation in terms of repeated trials, but, like the Poisson distribution, it is useful in modelling count data. It is, however, more general than the Poisson, because the negative binomial has a variance that is greater than its mean, often making it suitable for count data that do not meet the assumptions of the Poisson distribution. In the limit, as the parameter increases to infinity, the negative binomial distribution approaches the Poisson distribution. Definition of the Negative Binomial Distribution When the parameter is an integer, the negative binomial pdf is where . When is non-integer, the binomial coefficient in the definition of the pdf is replaced by the equivalent expression Parameter Estimation for the Negative Binomial Distribution Suppose you are collecting data on the number of auto accidents on a busy highway, and would like to be able to model the number of accidents per day. Because these are count data, and because there are a very large number of cars and a small probability of an accident for any specific car, you might think to use the Poisson distribution. However, the probability of having an accident is likely to vary from day to day as the weather and amount of traffic change, and so the assumptions needed for the Poisson distribution are not met. In particular, the variance of this type of count data sometimes exceeds the mean by a large amount. The data below exhibit this effect: most days have few or no accidents, and a few days have a large number. The negative binomial distribution is more general than the Poisson, and is often suitable for count data when the Poisson is not. The function nbinfit returns the maximum likelihood estimates (MLEs) and confidence intervals for the parameters of the negative binomial distribution. Here are the results from fitting the accident data above: It's difficult to give a physical interpretation in this case to the individual parameters. However, the estimated parameters can be used in a model for the number of daily accidents. For example, a plot of the estimated cumulative probability function shows that while there is an estimated 10% chance of no accidents on a given day, there is also about a 10% chance that there will be 20 or more accidents. Example and Plot of the Negative Binomial Distribution The negative binomial distribution can take on a variety of shapes ranging from very skewed to nearly symmetric. This example plots the probability function for different values of r, the desired number of successes: .1, 1, 3, 6. \|Lognormal Distribution\|\|Normal Distribution\|
by Staff Writers London, UK (SPX) Nov 22, 2011 In Europe forests appear evergreen even in the cloudiest conditions, while the lush interiors of Asian jungles are typically overshadowed by a dense canopy. The ability of trees to adapt to light conditions, and even increase their intake of carbon for photosynthesis in poor light, has been explored by Czech researchers and published in the British Ecological Society's Functional Ecology. The research centers around the impact of cloud cover on photosynthesis, the process through which plants and trees take in carbon and utilise the solar energy to produce oxygen, a process which is dependent on sunlight. The sun's energy reaches the earth's surface directly, or it can be diffused through the atmosphere by factors including cloud cover. "Cloud cover has a direct impact on ecosystems by influencing temperature and light, so the conditions of the sky are just as important to photosynthesis as sunlight itself," said lead author Dr Otmar Urban, from the Global Change Research Centre in Brno, Czech Republic. "Surprisingly however studies show that an increase in cloud cover and the resulting diffusion of light can actually enhance the photosynthesis of forest canopies, but the mechanism behind this has remained unknown." The idea that greater cloud cover can increase an ecosystem's exchange of carbon through photosynthesis may appear counterintuitive, but Dr Urban's team believe the process is due to the even distribution of light among leaves throughout the many levels of a forest canopy. To test the theory the team analysed the net carbon intake of a spruce forest in the Beskydy Mountains of the Czech Republic under both cloudy and sunny skies. This was coupled with a study of the leaf chlorophyll within different sections of the canopy to gauge the resulting levels of photosynthesis. The results showed that the higher diffusion of sunlight during cloudy days did result in a higher uptake of carbon across the ecosystem when compared to the same levels of light on sunny days. Analysis of tree shoots also revealed that shoots from deep within the canopy contributed substantially to the overall carbon balance of the forest during cloudy days. However the contribution of middle or shaded parts of the canopy was marginal, or even negative, on sunny days. Shoots at the top of the canopy contributed 78% of the total carbon intake during a sunny day, but only 43% during a cloudy day when light was more evenly distributed. "This research shows that diffuse light, caused by cloud cover, has an important impact on the productivity of vegetation," concluded Urban. "The ability of forests to not only adapt to the levels of light they regularly receive, but make effective use of those conditions, helps us to understand how individual trees can maintain such a high intake of carbon despite being overshadowed by the tops of the canopy." Forestry News - Global and Local News, Science and Application Comment on this article via your Facebook, Yahoo, AOL, Hotmail login. Forests cooler or warmer than open areas depending on latitude Durham NH (SPX) Nov 18, 2011 A study that will be published in Nature on Thursday concludes that forests influence temperature, and their influence largely depends on latitude. David Hollinger, a plant physiologist with the U.S. Forest Service's Northern Research Station, co-authored the article with principal investigator Xuhui Lee, a professor of meteorology at the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, ... read more \|The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2011 - Space Media Network. AFP and UPI Wire Stories are copyright Agence France-Presse and United Press International. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement,agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement\|
Clay engineering bricks are defined in British Standard BS 6100 "Glossary of building and civil engineering terms" as "brick sized fired clay units having a dense and strong semi vitreous body, conforming to defined limits for water absorption and compressive strength." Stronger and less porous engineering bricks (UK Class A) are usually blue due to the higher firing temperature whilst class B bricks are usually red. Class A bricks have a strength of 125N/mm² and water absorption of less than 4.5%; Class B bricks have a strength greater than 75N/mm² and water absorption of less than 7%. Accrington brick is one type of engineering brick. \|This material-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|
A bugle call is a short tune, originating as a military signal announcing scheduled and certain non-scheduled events on a military installation, battlefield, or ship. Historically, bugles, drums, and other loud musical instruments were used for clear communication in the noise and confusion of a battlefield. Naval bugle calls were also used to command the crew of many warships (signaling between ships being by flaghoist, semaphore, signal lamp or other means). A defining feature of a bugle call is that it consists only of notes from a single overtone series. This is in fact a requirement if it is to be playable on a bugle or equivalently on a trumpet without moving the valves. (If a bandsman plays calls on a trumpet, for example, one particular key may be favored or even prescribed, such as: all calls to be played with the first valve down.) Bugle calls typically indicated the change in daily routines of camp. Every duty around camp had its own bugle call, and since cavalry had horses to look after, they heard twice as many signals as regular infantry. "Boots and Saddles" was the most imperative of these signals and could be sounded without warning at any time of day or night, signaling the men to equip themselves and their mounts immediately. Bugle calls also relayed commanders' orders on the battlefield, signaling the troops to Go Forward, To the Left, To the Right, About, Rally on the Chief, Trot, Gallop, Rise up, Lay down, Commence Firing, Cease Firing, Disperse, and other specific actions. - Adjutant's Call: Indicates that the adjutant is about to form the guard, battalion, or regiment. - Alarm (as played by Sam Jaffe near the end of Gunga Din) - Assembly: Signals troops to assemble at a designated place. - Attention: Sounded as a warning that troops are about to be called to attention. - Boots and Saddles: Sounded for mounted troops to mount and take their place in line. - Call to Quarters: Signals all personnel not authorized to be absent to return to their quarters for the night. - Charge: Signals troops to execute a charge, or gallop forward into harm's way with deadly intent. - Church Call: Signals that religious services are about to begin. The call may also be used to announce the formation of a funeral escort from a selected military unit. - Drill Call: Sounds as a warning to turn out for drill. - Fatigue Call: Signals all designated personnel to report for fatigue duty. - Fire Call: Signals that there is a fire on the post or in the vicinity. The call is also used for fire drill. - First Call: Sounds as a warning that personnel will prepare to assemble for a formation. - This call is also used in horse racing, where it is known as Call to the Post. In that context, it indicates that jockeys need to have their mounts in position to be loaded into the starting gate. - First Sergeant's Call: Signals that the First Sergeant is about to form the company. - Guard Mount: Sounds as a warning that the guard is about to be assembled for guard mount. - Last Post: Used at Commonwealth of Nations military funerals and ceremonies commemorating those who have been killed in a war. - Mail Call: Signals personnel to assemble for the distribution of mail. - Mess Call: Signals mealtime. - Officers Call: Signals all officers to assemble at a designated place. - Pay Call: Signals that troops will be paid. - Recall: Signals duties or drills to cease. - Retreat: Formerly used to signal troops to retreat. Now used to signal the end of the official day. This bugle call is very close to Sunset used in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth realms. (This call is also used to introduce Act 3 of La damnation de Faust by Hector Berlioz.) In the U.S. Army, it is signaled right before To The Colors. - Reveille: Signals the troops to awaken for morning roll call. In the U.S. Army, it accompanies the raising of the flag, thus representing the official beginning of the new day. - The Rouse: Used in Commonwealth nations to signal soldiers to get out of bed (as distinct from Reveille, which signals the troops to awaken). - School Call: Signals school is about to begin. - Sick Call: Signals all troops needing medical attention to report to the dispensary. - Stable Call: Signals troops to feed and water horses. Lyrics dating to 1852 Sumner's March to New Mexico: "Come off to the stables, all if you are able, and give your horses some oats and some corn; For if you don’t do it, the colonel will know it, And then you will rue it, as sure’s you’re born." - Swimming Call: Signals the start of the swimming period. - Taps: Signals that unauthorized lights are to be extinguished. This is the last call of the day. The call is also sounded at the completion of a U.S. military funeral ceremony. - Tattoo: Signals that all light in squad rooms be extinguished and that all loud talking and other disturbances be discontinued within 15 minutes. - To Arms: Signals all troops to fall under arms at designated places without delay. - To The Colors (or To the Color): Used to render honors to the nation. It is used when no band is available to render honors, or in ceremonies requiring honors to the nation more than once. To the Colors commands all the same courtesies as the National Anthem. The most common use of To The Colors is when it is sounded immediately following Retreat. During this use of the call, the flag is lowered. Many of the familiar calls have had words made up to fit the tune. For example, the U.S. Reveille goes: - I can't get 'em up, - I can't get 'em up, - I can't get 'em up this morning; - I can't get 'em up, - I can't get 'em up, - I can't get 'em up at all! - The corporal's worse than the privates, - The sergeant's worse than the corporals, - Lieutenant's worse than the sergeants, - And the captain's worst of all! - < repeat top six lines > and the U.S. Mess Call: - Soupy, soupy, soupy, without a single bean: - Coffee, coffee, coffee, without a speck of cream: - Porky, porky, porky, without a streak of lean. and the U.S. Assembly: - There's a soldier in the grass - With a bullet up his ass - Take it out, take it out - Like a good Girl Scout! and the U.S. Taps - The day is done - Gone the sun - From the lake, in the hills, to the sky - All is well, safely rest - God is nigh Irving Berlin wrote a tune called, "Oh, How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning". In a filmed version of his musical, This Is the Army, he plays a World War I doughboy whose sergeant exhorts him with this variant of words sung to "Reveille": "Ya gotta get up, ya gotta get up, ya gotta get up this morning!" after which Berlin sang the song. "Taps" has been used frequently in popular media, both sincerely (in connection with actual or depicted death) and humorously (as with a "killed" cartoon character). It is the title of a 1981 movie of the same name. First call is best known for its use in thoroughbred horse racing, where it is also known as the Call to the Post. It is used to herald (or summon) the arrival of horses onto the track for a race. Another popular use of the "Mess Call" is a crowd cheer at football or basketball games. The normal tune is played by the band, with a pause to allow the crowd to chant loudly, "Eat 'em up! Eat 'em up! Rah! Rah! Rah!" \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bugle calls.\|
Q. How numbers are represented in a Binary Number System? Binary number system is called a base 2 number system as it uses 2 digits 0 and 1 to represent all numbers. So If we want to represent any number in binary, it will only be represented using 0s and 1s. For instance 8 in Binary is equal to 1000, other examples being 4 in binary is equal to 100, 12 in binary is equal to 1100. Use of Binary Numbers in Real life Digital Data Storage uses binary strings to store data in the form of 0s and 1s. All your movies, pictures, games and other digital stuff are stored in the form of binary string of 0s and 1s. We have got some easy to use Binary Converter to convert numbers in Binary Number System i.e base 2 representation (ex. 101010 ) to numbers in other bases. Following is a list of Popular Binary Converters.
We’ve come to realize that as walking sacks of bacteria, the tiny microogranisms living in our gut actually have quite a lot of control over us. But the bacteria themselves are in turn influenced by what we feed them, and it seems that the hormones naturally present in the plants we eat may be influencing our gut microbes. Just like animals, plants produce a whole array of hormones that help them develop and survive. Hormones are involved in all aspects of how the plants grow, from whether or not they reach for the Sun or tunnel into the dirt to whether they ripen their fruit or give up the ghost. Now, however, it seems that these molecules may also be influencing the bacteria in our gut, and therefore our health. A new opinion article, published in Trends in Plant Science, details how plant hormones may be doing this. It turns out that not only are humans and bacteria able to perceive these plant-derived molecules, but in some cases, they are able to produce their own mimics of them. For example, plants produce a hormone known as abscisic acid (ABA) in response to drought, but this is also produced in mammals and is thought to have an anti-inflammatory role and to regulate glucose uptake. This, therefore, raises the possibility that a diet of plants high in ABA could be used to help treat diabetes. But there are a whole host of other plant hormone-bacteria-human relationships that we are yet to understand, and could provide a novel way to treat diseases from obesity to cancer. The question, however, of why the hormones in plants may influence the bacteria in our gut, or even the cells in our own body, is not quite understood. One possibility may be that the molecule structure of the hormones have a similar shape to other metabolites in animals, including us. But equally, it might be more intimate a relationship, and that humans and plants have in effect co-evolved together over millennia. “We have evolved in an environment including plants and microbes while consuming plant hormones,” says Emilie Chanclud. “We have IAA and ABA in our body, and even if we don’t know where they come from, we may have evolved ways to respond to them over time.” What’s certain is that there is much we still don’t know about our gut and how the microorganisms that call it home may be pulling the strings.
Let’s start with a little background. Our eyes see reflected light. Daylight cameras, night vision devices, and the human eye all work on the same basic principle: visible light energy hits something and bounces off it, a detector then receives it and turns it into an image. Whether an eyeball, or in a camera, these detectors must receive enough light or they can’t make an image. Obviously, there isn’t any sunlight to bounce off anything at night, so they’re limited to the light provided by starlight, moonlight and artificial lights. If there isn’t enough, they won’t do much to help you see. Thermal Imaging Cameras Thermal imagers are altogether different. In fact, we call them “cameras” but they are really sensors. To understand how they work, the first thing you have to do is forget everything you thought you knew about how cameras make pictures. FLIRs make pictures from heat, not visible light. Heat (also called infrared, or thermal, energy) and light are both parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, but a camera that can detect visible light won’t see thermal energy, and vice versa. Thermal cameras detect more than just heat though; they detect tiny differences in heat – as small as 0.01°C – and display them as shades of grey or with different colors. This can be a tricky idea to get across, and many people just don’t understand the concept, so we’ll spend a little time explaining it. Everything we encounter in our day-to-day lives gives off thermal energy, even ice. The hotter something is the more thermal energy it emits. This emitted thermal energy is called a “heat signature.” When two objects next to one another have even subtly different heat signatures, they show up quite clearly to a FLIR regardless of lighting conditions. Thermal energy comes from a combination of sources, depending on what you are viewing at the time. Some things – warm-blooded animals (including people!), engines, and machinery, for example – create their own heat, either biologically or mechanically. Other things – land, rocks, buoys, vegetation – absorb heat from the sun during the day and radiate it off during the night. Because different materials absorb and radiate thermal energy at different rates, an area that we think of as being one temperature is actually a mosaic of subtly different temperatures. This is why a log that’s been in the water for days on end will appear to be a different temperature than the water, and is therefore visible to a thermal imager. FLIRs detect these temperature differences and translate them into image detail. While all this can seem rather complex, the reality is that modern thermal cameras are extremely easy to use. Their imagery is clear and easy to understand, requiring no training or interpretation. If you can watch TV, you can use a FLIR thermal camera. Night Vision Devices Those greenish pictures we see in the movies and on TV come from night vision goggles (NVGs) or other devices that use the same core technologies. NVGs take in small amounts of visible light, magnify it greatly, and project that on a display. Cameras made from NVG technology have the same limitations as the naked eye: if there isn’t enough visible light available, they can’t see well. The imaging performance of anything that relies on reflected light is limited by the amount and strength of the light being reflected. NVG and other lowlight cameras are not very useful during twilight hours, when there is too much light for them to work effectively, but not enough light for you to see with the naked eye. Thermal cameras aren’t affected by visible light, so they can give you clear pictures even when you are looking into the setting sun. In fact, you can aim a spotlight at a FLIR and still get a perfect picture. Infrared Illuminated (I2) Cameras I2 cameras try to generate their own reflected light by projecting a beam of near-infrared energy that their imager can see when it bounces off an object. This works to a point, but I2 cameras still rely on reflected light to make an image, so they have the same limitations as any other night vision camera that depends on reflected light energy – short range, and poor contrast. All of these visible light cameras – daylight cameras, NVG cameras, and I2 cameras – work by detecting reflected light energy. But the amount of reflected light they receive is not the only factor that determines whether or not you’ll be able to see with these cameras: image contrast matters, too. If you’re looking at something with lots of contrast compared to its surroundings, you’ll have a better chance of seeing it with a visible light camera. If it doesn’t have good contrast, you won’t see it well, no matter how bright the sun is shining. A white object seen against a dark background has lots of contrast. A darker object, however, will be hard for these cameras to see against a dark background. This is called having poor contrast. At night, when the lack of visible light naturally decreases image contrast, visible light camera performance suffers even more. Thermal imagers don’t have any of these shortcomings. First, they have nothing to do with reflected light energy: they see heat. Everything you see in normal daily life has a heat signature. This is why you have a much better chance of seeing something at night with a thermal imager than you do with visible light camera, even a night vision camera. In fact, many of the objects you could be looking for, like people, generate their own contrast because they generate their own heat. Thermal imagers can see them well because they don’t just make pictures from heat; they make pictures from the minute differences in heat between objects. Night vision devices have the same drawbacks that daylight and lowlight TV cameras do: they need enough light, and enough contrast to create usable images. Thermal imagers, on the other hand, see clearly day and night, while creating their own contrast. Without a doubt, thermal cameras are the best 24-hour imaging option.
In the early spring, the surfaces of the tree leaves develop small spherical growths called galls. The small special growths are often a light yellow, green, red, or brownish colour and are normally on the top surface of the leaves. Depending on the variety of gall, they can be created as a egg nest or be the result of a toxin injected into the leaf. Leaf galls are identifiable by small round balls or bumps that grow on the leaves, twigs, and leaf stems of trees. They can also appear as a wide variety of abnormal growth in a variety of shapes on the leaves, twigs, or branches. Infected branches may be discoloured or distorted and drop prematurely. In some cases, the infected branches die. In many cases, Galls are created by tiny mites or other insects that bite into the underside of the leaf and then inject the leaf with a growth promoting substance that creates the spherical shaped growth. The circular ball or gall encloses the mite and the female mites lay their eggs in the gall. Recommended Steps to Control Galls Once the gall is formed, there is no way to eliminate the balls in the current growing season, however, to help control gall outbreaks, severely infected branches can be removed. Branches and leaves that fall to the ground should be collected and removed. During the growing season, the tree can be sprayed with Bug Buster Pyrethrin Insect Spray or Take Down Garden Spray to help reduce the mite population and to prevent the tree being attacked by other insects drawn to weakened trees.
Here on Earth, water = life. That’s why astronomers are excited about a finding of water vapor in the atmosphere of a planet only about four times bigger than Earth. The planet is called HAT P-11b. It’s some 124 light-years – nearly 729 trillion miles – away, in the direction of our constellation Cygnus the Swan. We now know more than 1,800 planets orbiting stars other than our sun, but astronomers say this is the smallest exoplanet in whose atmosphere they’ve been able to identify some chemical components. The journal Nature will publish their findings on September 25, 2014. University of Maryland astronomers said they used a “quirk” of light that happens when a planet transits, or passes in front of, its host star. They wrote in a press release: Material in the planet’s atmosphere absorbs some of the star’s light, and that makes the planet appear bigger. By plotting changes in the exoplanet’s size, and relating them to the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation that the telescope observes, astronomers get a graph that shows how much of the star’s radiation the planet’s atmosphere is absorbing. The shape of that graph, called a transmission spectrum, can reveal what chemicals are present in the atmosphere. In recent years, astronomers have found water vapor in the atmospheres of some larger exoplanets, for example, the Jupiter-sized worlds Tau Boötis b and HD 189733b – 51 and 63 light-years away, respectively. That’s because, these astronomers say: The bigger the planet, the more obvious are the changes in the planet’s size during its transit across its host star. But HAT P-11b (discovered by the Hungarian-made Automated Telescope – or HAT – network) is only about four times Earth’s radius and 26 times Earth’s mass. Of the planets in our solar system, it’s closest in size to Neptune. These astronomers were able to find water vapor for such a small planet via observations with two NASA telescopes – the Hubble Space Telescope, which measures visible and near-infrared light, and the Spitzer Space Telescope, which records only infrared light — between July 2011 and December 2012. The team compared those data to observations of HAT-P-11b’s portion of the sky by NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope. HAT P-11b is much closer than Earth or Neptune to its host star. That means it’s much hotter, about 878 kelvins, or 1,120 degrees Fahrenheit. These astronomers say this distant world probably has a rocky core, wrapped in a thick, gaseous envelope of about 90 percent hydrogen. They say its atmosphere is cloudless at high altitude. The cloudless upper atmosphere of HAT P-11b is what enabled astronomers to find the evidence of water vapor here. A similar detection on other small planets has been obscured by clouds. There are several reasons these astronomers are so excited about this discovery. On our world, water is a precondition for life, although the presence of water vapor – or even surface water – on an alien world would not necessarily mean that life exists there. Astronomers are curious people, and they also want to know how our own solar system – and distant solar systems – formed. Our ideas about the formation of solar systems came mostly from observing our own sun and planets. They say that finding water vapor on a distant world like HAT P-11b is: … a key piece of the puzzle … consistent with astronomers’ main ideas on the formation of planets. Bottom line: The exoplanet HAT P-11b – about the size of Neptune – has an atmosphere that is cloudless at high altitude, but appears to have water vapor.
Labor Day isn’t quite as simple to explain to children as Valentine’s Day or Thanksgiving. But don’t underestimate your classroom’s ability to understand more about the holiday using these Labor Day fun facts. Labor Day Fun Facts and History - Labor Day dates back to the 19th century. At the time, Americans worked 12-hour shifts seven days per week just to survive. - The most in-demand work at the time was in factories and mines. These jobs accepted workers of all ages, as young as six years old. Job site safety precautions were not as good as they are today to protect workers. - As the American Industrial Revolution increased the manufacturing industry, jobs became more plentiful in manufacturing instead of agriculture. Because of this, labor unions began to form. These labor unions formed strikes, rallies and protests to ensure fair work conditions, fair pay and adequate safety. - Oregon made Labor Day a holiday on February 21, 1881. Quickly Colorado, Massachusetts, New York, Nebraska and Connecticut followed. - The first Labor Day parade was on Sept. 5, 1882, but it wasn’t a traditional parade you know of today. It was a march of 10,000 workers in New York City’s Union Square. - By 1894, nearly half of the states recognized Labor Day as a holiday. And by 1909 the holiday was widely recognized. - The rest of the world celebrates Labor Day on May 1, but America likes to offset the large gap between Independence Day and Thanksgiving for time off. Celebrating Childcare Center Holidays Even as you explain to children the importance of fair labor laws, the concept might be challenging for them to understand. Help make the holiday fun with these celebration ideas. - Create a parade through your childcare center. Or invite older children to bring their bikes and mark off a section of the parking lot to do a more elaborate outdoor parade. - Consider inviting parents for a late afternoon celebration that also serves as a kickoff for the new school year. - Invite some guest speakers to tell your students more about different careers. - Give families the day off to spend the long weekend together and plan your activities the Friday before. - Print off some Labor Day facts and worksheets to teach older children about the important historical figures who fought for labor rights. Use this moment to do some history lessons on labor rights over the years. Parent Engagement on Holiday Activities Parent engagement with a childcare app can help ensure they know about holiday celebrations, days off and more. Plus, you can share photos and recaps of your classroom celebrations so they can ask their children more about it. Here are some ideas for connecting with parents leading up to Labor Day. - Share details about upcoming classroom celebrations to help parents prepare their children. - Recap celebrations and the historical facts about Labor Day. - Send a newsletter with some brief history about Labor Day so parents can understand its origins as well. - Text photos of children engaging with your Labor Day parade. - Snap photos of activities asking children what they hope to do when they grow up. - Provide details about guest speakers who came to the class to talk about their careers. Maximize your childcare app by engaging parents regularly and not just on holidays. The more engaged parents are, the more likely they are to stay with your childcare center. Schedule a free demo of iCare Software to learn more about how we can help you open additional communication channels with parents of students enrolled at your center.
Data taken by Cassini of Saturn’s A-ring, B-ring, the Cassini Division, and Huygens gap, on May 25, 2017. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI/Sophia Nasr Sometimes I find raw data from Cassini and think it really needs to be turned into a GIF. And when that data features Saturn’s rings, you know I’ll be on it! (As you will learn, I’m slightly obsessed with Saturn’s rings… but then, who isn’t?!) The interesting thing about this data set is that the rings are so heavily sunlit here that Saturn’s B-ring is almost entirely washed out. May 25, 2017. What’s striking, however, is the detail we get in the Cassini Division—the gray area that stands out in this GIF. Further out, we get some detail in the A-ring, and then it’s washed out again. Just for reference, looking from the lower right to the upper left, we’re looking at Saturn’s B-ring, followed by the Huygens gap, followed by the stunning Cassini division, and finally, the A-ring. For more clarity, you can take a look at a high-definition Ring Scan featured on APOD. And, you’ll remember in my previous blog post that the B-ring is the spot for spokes! Saturn’s rings are made up of mostly ice particles, ranging from the size of a grain of sand to several meters across, and trace amounts of rocky dust material as well. The ice particles are what make its rings so reflective, making Saturn the only planet with rings visible to the naked eye (and spectacular, at that). The width of Saturn’s main rings are about 300,000 km in extent, but some fainter rings extend far further—the E-ring a ring composed of ice particles only microns thin, extends out to the orbit of Titan! So wide they are indeed, but extremely thin—tens of meters thin!! Why are they thin? Well, the short answer to that is physics. The explanation is as follows: when a ring particle has an orbit that’s inclined to the plane, it has more orbital energy than do the ones in the ring. So when those with highly-inclined orbits collide with those in the rings, they lose orbital energy and are kind of forced back into the lower energy orbit, creating this flattened ring we see today. You can find good explanation and link to a detailed analysis of this mechanism given by my friend and astronomer Phil Plait. Now, let’s talk about the rings (and gap) of interest in this GIF. Let’s start with the brightest, most massive ring of the Saturnian system—the B-ring! This stunning ring is about 25,500 km wide, and doesn’t seem to have any gaps in it. It does, however, appear to have moonlets—mini moons a few hundred kilometers across—in it. Strange Things Afoot in the B Ring. Credit: NASA/JPL_Caltech/SSI When you play the video above, you’ll notice a clump moving in orbit near the edge of Saturn’s B-ring. This is one of a couple such features in the B-ring; the mass, or moonlet, appears to be orbiting Saturn independently of the ring. And because of the moonlet’s mass, it exerts its gravitational force on the particles in the ring, flinging ice particles up while it moves! That creates that feature you see in the above video. Saturn’s B-ring is even more complex than stated above. Oscillations in the ring material cause the waves and formations in the B-ring to move up and down, as you can see in this video. This behavior, along with embedded moonlets, causes these weird and beautiful vertical structures to form in the outer B-ring, as seen below: Vertical structures in Saturn’s B-ring seen by Cassini in 2009. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI With all this interesting stuff going on in the B-ring, scientists think it behaves the way a galaxy does. You can read more on this, and the oscillations described above, in an article written by science journalist Nancy Atkinson. So the B-ring is a dense place with a mass nearly the same as Saturn’s moon Mimas (yup, our solar system’s very own death star). Let’s talk about something far less massive, but no less interesting—the Huygens Gap! The Huygens Gap, found right in between the B-ring and the Cassini Division in the GIF above, is a gap formed by an orbital resonance with Saturn’s moon Mimas, where the resonance with Mimas is the location of the gap, and the Cassini Division (more on this next). The gap ranges to up to 400 km in width. An orbital resonance is caused by our favorite friend—gravity. Mimas exerts a force of gravity, and orbiting Saturn, it’s at just the right place to exert a gravitational pull in the Huygens Gap, pulling material out of it. So in that region, for every two orbits made, Mimas makes one, ie a 2:1 resonance. There’s also a ringlet in the gap (the thin white band just below the Cassini Division in the GIF). That ringlet has some irregularities in it, probably caused by the orbital resonance. Orbital resonances are all over the solar system! For example, three of Jupiter’s Galilean moons, Io, Europa, and Ganymede, have a 4:2:1 resonance. And Pluto is in orbital resonance with Neptune, a 2:3 resonance. So basically, the reason we get the Huygens Gap in Saturn’s rings is because gravity and orbital mechanics. And with all this talk of Mimas, our very own Death Star, I think it would be nice to show off an image of this beautiful moon: A mosaic of 6 images of Mimas, taken by Cassini Feb 13, 2010. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI Let’s move out to a really interesting spot, and the highlight (in my opinion) of the GIF: The Cassini Division. The Cassini Division, about 4700 km wide, lies between Saturn’s A-ring and B-ring. This is the “gap” you’ll see when you look at Saturn through a telescope, or images of Saturn taken through a telescope, but it’s no gap—there is ring material in there. Similar to the C-ring, the material here is made up of ice particles, but covered in a dark material that makes it harder to see. But there are gaps in this material, and it’s really sparse, because these particles are in orbital resonance with Mimas—2:1 (this resonance appears to mostly affect the inner portion of the Cassini Division, close to the Huygens Gap). The moon Mimas pulls on the material, forcing particles out of the Cassini Division. You can read more about this, and other resonances created by our very own Death Star, in an article by Matt Williams for Universe Today. This brings us to the A-ring, a place of wonder, and soon, you’ll see why. Saturn’s A-ring is some 14,600 km in width. The A-ring hosts two gaps—the Encke Gap and the tinner Keeler Gap—and a bunch of propellers. Oh, also, the A-ring hosts some brilliant features caused by spiral density waves. So this is going to be a long section, but well worth your read! Let’s start with the spiral density waves. I made a GIF of Cassini data taken on May 15, 2017, that features everything we’re going to discuss: spiral waves, the Encke Gap, the Keeler Gap, and a propeller! Here’s the GIF: Data of Saturn’s A-ring, featuring the Encke Gap, Keeler Gap, and a propeller, taken by Cassini on May 15, 2017. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI/Sophia Nasr This GIF features the Encke Gap, with one knotty ringlet clearly visible, the thinner Keeler Gap above, a propeller that swings by near the center, and spiral density waves! But the spiral density waves deserve a bit more attention. Here’s a nice close-up, which I got from planetary scientist Emily Lakdawalla’s blog: Spiral waves seen in Saturn’s A-ring, taken by Cassini on Apr 8, 2008. These strange and beautiful features are created by orbital resonances with Saturn’s outer moons. Emily Lakdawalla explains these really well in the link from which I got the cool image above. Next, we move onto the Encke Gap. This gap, some 325 km wide, is cleared by the gravity of a special moon named Pan. Here’s an image of this weird space ravioli/pierogi moon, taken on March 7, 2017: Saturn’s space pierogi moon Pan. Taken by Cassini on March 7, 2017. This moon, with a mean radius of about 14 km, clears a gap in Saturn’s rings by kicking particles out with its gravity. You’ll also notice in the GIF, that just above the gap, you’ll see disturbances—these are also caused by Pan. They’re called spiraling wakes, and they’re caused because the particles closer to Pan move faster than those further away (just a statement of Kepler’s Laws), so Pan’s gravity creates these disturbances in the ring material. Pan shares this gap with a few ringlets, one visible in the GIF. You’ll notice it’s kinda knotty—this is probably due to Pan’s gravity as well. Now let’s move onto the Keeler Gap—my favorite!! This gap is only about 42 km wide, and created by a lovely moon Daphnis, with a mean radius of about 4 km (but it’s shaped like a potato): Saturn’s moon Daphnis, taken by Cassini on Jan 19, 2017. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI/Matúš Motlo Now, let’s get to the cool stuff. I processed an image that was really difficult to put together, because I had to rotationally align them—that is, Cassini’s perspective didn’t just change in an up-and-down direction between the red, green, and blue filter images, but it also changed in that it slightly rotated. The result is something I’m pretty happy with, because it shows a lot of what I’m about to discuss, and in color: Daphnis making Waves in Saturn’s rings, taken by Cassini on Feb 6, 2017. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI/Sophia Nasr Okay so what are we seeing here?! Well, we’re seeing the gravitational effects of Daphnis on Saturn’s ring material in the Keeler Gap! But, why the waves, and material moving upwards?? Well, turns out Daphnis has an eccentric orbit, bringing it closer and farther from the material, depending on the point in its orbit. Because of this, Daphnis has a stronger gravitational pull on the material when it’s closer, which created waves. But its orbital inclination is what’s owed the credit for bringing material up or down from the ring plane. You can see in the image above that some material looks like it’s being pulled up below Daphnis, and down ahead of Daphnis. But wait, there’s more! Notice how below Daphnis, the waves only appear on the outer ring, and ahead of Daphnis, on the inner ring? That’s because of the orbital velocities of the particles in the rings—the particles in the inner ring move faster than Daphnis, and those in the outer ring move slower than Daphnis, which is why the leading waves are in those moving faster, and the trailing ones, in the ones moving slower. This is why the Keeler Gap and Daphnis are my favorite feature in Saturn’s rings! Now, finally, we talk about the propeller you see in the GIF. It’s worth zooming in on one, the largest (known) propeller in Saturn’s rings, Bleriot (which I think is the same one you see in the GIF): Bleriot Propeller in Saturn’s A-ring, taken by Cassini on Apr 12, 2017. So, what is this thing, and how many are there? Well, to answer the second question, Saturn’s rings are full of propellers—they’re all over the place!! How are they formed? Now this is where it gets interesting. First, these propellers are formed by moonlets—mini moons only a couple of hundred meters across. These moonlets are trying to do what Daphnis and Pan do—clear a gap in Saturn’s rings. But they’re small, so the gravity they exert is smaller as well. So they fail to clear a gap throughout Saturn’s ring, but they succeed in clearing one within their vicinity. They actually can kick up material 0.5 km above/below the ring plane! But it’s even more interesting because of the shape. Why a propeller? Well, orbital mechanics and gravity are yet again responsible! We basically have a gravitational tug-of-war going on between the moonlet and Saturn. Let’s start with the ring material that’s ahead of the moonlet. These particles have an associated with them some orbital angular momentum; now, the moonlet uses its gravity to pull these particles towards it, causing those particles lose some of their momentum, and they fall inward due to Saturn’s gravity, and then go merrily along in their path, slightly inward from the moonlet. This happens throughout the moonlet’s orbit, creating the forward propeller. Now, those particles behind the moonlet are pulled in, which gives them a boost in orbital energy, causing them to fling ourward. Occuring throughout the moonlet’s orbit, you get the rear end of the propeller. Phil Plait explains this much better, here. And voila! You have a propeller in the ring! In summary, a lot of the cool stuff we see in Saturn’s rings is owed to gravity and orbital mechanics. Physics, my friends, is why you see stuff that’s this cool.
This introduction to scripting is intended to give you a basic understanding of how to create scripts using common features of the core Windows operating system. It covers basic command operation and how to use common shell programming fundamentals to pipe and redirect output and data. More advanced concepts like intelligence, logic and programmatic loops are covered in the next section – Using intelligence. To be successful in writing scripts, you will need to be intimately familiar with shell commands and their behaviour. A number of recursive operations depend on the ability to manipulate commands and file input to provide a specific format and/or sequence. For example, the DIR command (when run from a command prompt) displays a list of files in the current directory as follows: C:\> dir Volume in drive C is System Volume Serial Number is 50B5-F3BA Directory of C:\ 07/09/2003 01:35 AM <DIR> Documents and Settings 14/07/2004 13:07 PM <DIR> Inetpub 07/07/2004 15:37 PM 1,536 instmsi.log 17/11/2004 19:36 PM <DIR> Program Files 04/02/2004 16:39 PM <DIR> Temp 01/12/2004 10:15 AM <DIR> WINDOWS 1 File(s) 1,536 bytes 5 Dir(s) 507,412,480 bytes free C:\>_ The output provided is useful to look at, but not ideal for getting a simple list of files or directories. To do this, we need to run the DIR command with one or more switches. Switches provide us with the ability to alter the behaviour of a command. They do not apply to all commands and executables but most will have some. In this case, we want to use the /B switch as follows: C:\>dir /b Documents and Settings Inetpub instmsi.log Program Files Temp WINDOWS C:\>_ In the output, only the names of the file and directory objects are shown. This is useful for listing files or directories or for doing recursive operations on either. If we only needed to list directories we could add another switch. /A (A for Attributes) allows us to specify a filter to apply to the list based on any of the file attributes. In this case we only want a list of directories, so we use /AD as follows: C:\>dir /b /ad Documents and Settings Inetpub Program Files RECYCLER System Volume Information Temp WINDOWS C:\>_ Note:Be careful with this, because other attributes are ignored. You will notice that two new entries have appeared (RECYCLER and System Volume Information). These folders are normally hidden. If you need to exclude the hidden directories too, add a -H to the end of the switch as follows: C:\>dir /b /ad-h Documents and Settings Inetpub Program Files Temp WINDOWS C:\>_ You can also use the ‘-‘ sign to NOT list the directories, so if you only wanted to list files, you would use /A-D as follows: C:\>dir /b /a-d boot.ini instmsi.log IO.SYS MSDOS.SYS NTDETECT.COM ntldr pagefile.sys C:\>_ or without the hidden files: C:\>dir /b /a-d-h instmsi.log C:\>_ As you can see, knowing how to use the commands effectively gives you the power to significantly change their behavior. The ability to do this is one of the basic requirements of successful scripting. It would be beneficial to learn the available system commands and their switches as many of them are needed in day to day tasks. Next, we will have a look at using the output of commands to do other tasks. Now that we know how to manipulate system commands and their output, we need to learn how to put it to good use. The two basic concepts we will cover here are PIPING and REDIRECTING. We use piping to take the output of one command as the input to another. Not many commands or programs will accept input in this way, but in many of the basic commands it’s very useful. One function that is commonly used is the FIND command. FIND will accept piped input for processing and produce results based on the switches and parameters you use to call it. Without piped input, the FIND command simply searches for string patterns in a file and displays the lines containing the pattern. Valid switches (taken from FIND /?) for the FIND command are: - /V – Displays all lines NOT containing the specified string. - /C – Displays only the count of lines containing the string. - /N – Displays line numbers with the displayed lines. - /I – Ignores the case of characters when searching for the string. - /OFF[LINE] – Do not skip files with offline attribute set. - “string” – Specifies the text string to find. - [drive:][path]filename – Specifies a file or files to search. If we wanted to find all lines containing the word Smith in a text file with names and numbers, we would use the command: C:\>find /i "smith" phonebook.txt ---------- PHONEBOOK.TXT John Smith 555-2973 Mary Smith 555-7116 C:\>_ When using pipes, the filename parameter is excluded and the piped data is used as input instead. To do the same thing, we can use the TYPE command to produce the contents of the file and use it for input to the FIND command: C:\>type phonebook.txt¦find /i "smith" John Smith 555-2973 Mary Smith 555-7116 C:\>_ Note the ‘ ¦ ‘ character before the find command. This is known as a PIPE. It’s also useful to note that when piping into FIND, the filename is omitted, so the output is a little more manageable. A more useful application of using a pipe would be to count the number of files in a directory or disk. We can use the DIR command piped to the FIND command with the /c switch: C:\>dir /b /a-d¦find /i /c ".doc" 19 C:\>_ to count the number of Word documents or C:\>dir /b /a-d .doc¦find /i /c "2004" 5 C:\>_ to count the number of Word documents with ‘2004’ in the name. Note that there is often more than one way to achieve the same result. This can be good or bad depending on the circumstance, but it can sometimes be useful to have an alternative. Now that we have some basics, the next step is to collect one or more commands and save them as a batch file. This allows us to run as many commands as we want by simply running or executing the file. The format of the batch file is simple text. To create and edit batch files we use a text editor such as Notepad. The file extension given to batch files in Windows NT an above is .CMD. Prior to Windows NT, .BAT was used. BAT files are still used in Windows NT, but it is only preferable to do so when DOS or Windows 95/98 workstations will also be running them. One of the useful things about batch files is the ability to pass them arguments. Up to 9 arguments can be specified, separated by spaces. Arguments are referenced within the batch file with the ‘%’ sign, with ‘%1’ being the first argument and ‘%9’ being the last. To demonstrate, we can use the examples above. The batch file FCOUNT.CMD will contain: dir /b /a-d .%1¦find /i /c "%2" To run the batch file, we would issue the command as follows: C:\>fcount.cmd doc 2004 5 C:\>_ Notice that the file is being called with two arguments, ‘doc’ for the file type and ‘2004’ as a search string. This would have exactly the same effect as the example above, but now we can alter the the two arguments to change the query with greater ease. There are many more things to know about batch file behavior, most of which will be covered later in this tutorial. For now, knowing these basics will allow us to start exploring their potential. Redirection is used to change the output path from the command window to a file or device. Devices could be a printer, serial port or some other special device. One such device that is commonly used is the NUL device. NUL simply means ‘nothing’. We use it to discard output that’s not required. Most of the time, we use redirection to write data to files. It is also useful to mention that redirection can occasionally be used for input to a command, but it is rare. To do redirection we use the ‘ > ‘ character for output and the ‘ < ‘ for input. When dealing with output to a file, the ‘ > ‘ will overwrite the file, so to append data to a file we use ‘ >> ‘. Generally we use redirection in two functions, command output and echoed data. Command output is simply the command you want to run followed by the redirection character/s and the name of the file you want to write the output to: dir /b .doc >filelist.txt Echoed data is simply some text or data that is written to the file by using the ECHO command: echo List of Word documents>filelist.txt Or, when used together: echo List of Word documents>filelist.txt dir /b .doc >>filelist.txt The first command above will create (or overwrite) a file named ‘filelist.txt’ with the string ‘List of Word documents’ on the first line. The second command will append the output of the DIR command to the file. Note: Redirection also has the ability to know the difference between normal output and error output. To make use of this feature, redirection can be called with the number 1 or 2 in front of the symbol, like 1> or 2>. The number 1 is used for normal output and 2 is used for error output. This is very useful for capturing problems with your script, for example: echo List of Word documents>filelist.txt dir /b *.doc 1>>filelist.txt 2>>error.log Would write the expected output to the filelist file or write the error output to the error.log file. Not all commands and programs are able to support this method, but most are. The only way you can tell is to test it. The last basic concept in command scripting is the use of variables. All systems will have systems specific and user specific variables. To see a list, type SET at the command prompt. These system and user variables can be very useful for things like determining the operating system type and user home directory locations. The system will also allow the use of user specified variables. This is where batch scripting starts to become really useful. Variables are set using the set command: From the command line, we can reference this variable by surrounding the variable name in ‘%’ signs: C:\>echo The variable is %myvar% The variable is December C:\>_ When using variables in command scripts, it is advisable to use variable manipulation locally, i.e. Variables can be set and referenced locally within the script, but not from outside the script. To do this, we use the SETLOCAL command at the beginning of the batch file: The ENABLEDELAYEDEXPANSION parameter allows the local variables to be manipulated repeatedly. This is useful for things like counting loops etc. and is always required in more advanced scripts. When using this feature, the variable is referenced with the ‘!’ instead of ‘%’: set myvar=December echo The variable is !myvar! System variables are always referenced with the ‘%’ sign, even when the ENABLEDELAYEDEXPANSION parameter is set. Some useful examples are: C:\>echo Todays date is: %date% Todays date is: Sun 08/02/2004 C:\>echo My username is: %username% My username is: bob C:\>_ Effective use and manipulation of variables is an important component of successful scripting. Without this ability, we would not be able to achieve much. Now that we have been introduced to some basic scripting concepts, we can move on to the next section ‘Using Intelligence’ where we will learn how to manipulate input, output and variables using built-in programming functions. It would be wise to review this section and become familiar with the basics before moving on.
The focal length is a measure of how a lens converges light. It can be used to know the magnification factor of the lens and given the size of the sensor, calculate the angle of view. A standard reference used for comparisons is the 35 mm format, which is a sensor of size 36×24 mm. A standard wide angle lens would have around 28 to 35 millimeters based on the 35 mm format. The smaller the number, the wider the lens is.Close The focal length is a measure of how a lens converges light. It can be used to know the magnification factor of the lens and given the size of the sensor, calculate the angle of view. The native focal length of the sensor cannot be used for comparisons between different cameras unless they have the same size. Therefore, the focal length in 35 mm terms is a better reference. For the same sensor, the smaller the number, the wider the lens is.Close Indicates the type of image stabilization this lens has: The horizontal field of view in degrees this lens is able to capture, when using the maximum resolution of the sensor (that is, matching the sensor aspect ratio, and not using sensor cropping).Close The vertical field of view in degrees this lens is able to capture, when using the maximum resolution of the sensor (that is, matching the sensor aspect ratio, and not using sensor cropping).Close Shows the magnification factor of this lens compared to the primary lens of the device (calculated by dividing the focal length of the current lens by the focal length of the primary lens). A magnification factor of 1 is shown for the primary camera, ultra-wide cameras have magnification factors less than 1, and telephoto cameras have magnification factors greater than 1.Close Physical size of the sensor behind the lens in millimeters. All other factors being equal (specially resolution), the larger the sensor the more light it can capture, as each physical pixel is bigger.Close The size (side) of an individual physical pixel of the sensor in micrometers. All other factors being equal, the larger the pixel size, the better the image quality is. In this case, each photoreceptor can capture more light and potencially can better differential the signal from the noise, yielding better image quality, specially in low-light.Close The maximum picture resolution this sensor outputs images in JPEG format. Sometimes, if the sensor can also provide images in RAW (DNG) format, they can be slightly larger because of an additional area used for calibration purposes (among others). Unfortunately, firmware restrictions for third-party apps also mean that the maximum picture resolution exposed to third-party apps might be considerably lower than the actual resolution of the sensor, therefore the resolution shown here is the maximum resolution third-party apps can access from this sensor.Close The available output picture formats this camera is able to deliver: The focusing capabilities of this camera: It displays whether this lens can be set to focus at infinity or not. Even if the camera supports autofocus and manual focus, it might happen that the focus range the lens is able to adjust to does not include the infinity position. This property is important for astrophotography, as in such low-light scenarios the automatic focus does not work reliably.Close The distance from which objects that are further away from the camera always appear in focus. Therefore, if the camera is set to focus at infinity, any object further away from this distance will appear in focus.Close The range of supported manual exposure in seconds (minimum or shortest to maximum or longest). This camera might support exposures outside this range, but only in automatic mode and not in manual exposure mode. Also, note that this range is the one third-party apps have access to, as often the first-party app preinstalled on the phone by the manufacturer might have privileged access to the hardware and offer longer or shorter exposures times.Close The range of supported manual sensitivity (ISO). This camera might support ISO sensitivities outside this range in automatic mode. Also, note that this range is the one third-party apps have access to, as often the first-party app preinstalled on the phone by the manufacturer might have privileged access to the hardware and offer an extended manual sensitivity range.Close The maximum ISO sensitivity possible in manual mode is usually reached by using digital amplification of the signal from the maximum supported analog sensitivity. This information, if available, will let you know what is the maximum analog sensitivity of the sensor.Close The data on this database is provided "as is", and FGAE assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions. The User assumes the entire risk associated with its use of these data. FGAE shall not be held liable for any use or misuse of the data described and/or contained herein. The User bears all responsibility in determining whether these data are fit for the User's intended use.
Flux across a line segment - Juan Carlos Ponce Campuzano Consider a fluid flowing with the velocity field . What is the flux of across a line segment? 1. Observe what happens to the flux when you change the position of the endpoints that define the line segment (the arrows indicate its direction). 2. Activate the Fluid or Particles for showing the flow of the fluid.
The rhizosphere is the narrow region where plant roots and soil interact vigorously and where intensive microbial metabolism occurs. The properties of rhizospheric soil are generally different from those of non-rhizospheric soil. This is called rhizosphere (RE) effects. The decomposition of rhizospheric soil organic carbon (SOC) plays an important role in the carbon cycle in forest ecosystems. However, how the decomposition of rhizospheric SOC responds to simulated global warming is rarely understood. A research team led by Professor Wang Qingkui of the Institute of Applied Ecology (IAE) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences recently conducted a laboratory incubation experiment to examine the effects on the rhizosphere of Cunninghamia lanceolata (c (i.e. Chinese fir) and its understory ferns on the temperature sensitivity (expressed as Q10) of COS decomposition. The researchers found that all plant species tested had positive effects on the rhizosphere on Q10 from COS decomposition. And the positive REs on Q10 could be attributed to the high availability of nitrogen in the rhizosphere and high microbial activity (i.e. positive REs on nitrogen components, microbial biomass and microbial residues) . This study shows that the decomposition of organic carbon in rhizospheric soil is more sensitive to global warming than the decomposition of COS in bulk soil, which highlights the need to discriminate between rhizospheric and non-rhizospheric soil when predicting feedback from COS pool in the future. climate changes. The study, titled “Cunninghamia lanceolataand understory ferns had positive effects on the rhizosphere on temperature sensitivity of soil microbial respiration in a subtropical forest”, was published in Geodermy. The priming effect caused by root litter varies according to the order of the roots Xuechao Zhao et al, Cunninghamia lanceolata and understory ferns had positive effects on the rhizosphere on the temperature sensitivity of soil microbial respiration in a subtropical forest, Geodermy (2021). DOI: 10.1016 / j.geoderma.2021.115593 Provided by Chinese Academy of Sciences Quote: Decomposition of organic carbon in rhizospheric soil is more sensitive to global warming than non-rhizospheric carbon (2021, December 1) retrieved on December 1, 2021 from https://phys.org/news/2021-12-decomposition-rhizospheric- soil-carbon -sensible.html This document is subject to copyright. Other than fair use for private study or research purposes, no part may be reproduced without written permission. The content is provided for information only.
The Home Instructor's Guide will help you to understand the important concepts of the Primary Mathematics (U.S. and 3rd Edition) curriculum and how these concepts fit in with the program as a whole. It will provide suggestions to help you introduce each new concept concretely and use the textbook effectively. It includes additional activities for reinforcement and practice and a suggested weekly schedule. The guide contains: - notes to the instructor with some mathematical background for each section in the textbook - objectives for each chapter - teaching activities using manipulatives where appropriate - reinforcement and enrichment activities - answers and solutions to corresponding textbook pages and learning tasks for the lesson, to be discussed with the student - answers to the corresponding workbook exercises and solutions to many of the problems. - Mental math pages This guide can be used with Primary Mathematics U.S. and 3rd Edition textbooks and workbooks. It cannot be used with Primary Mathematics Standards Edition books. Students who switch to Primary Mathematics from another curriculum may not have the necessary background to begin at the level corresponding with their grade level without review from earlier levels. We suggest that you use these placement tests to decide where to place students new to Primary Mathematics, or to get an idea of which concepts may have to be reviewed from an earlier level.
Between 1919 and 1939, Paris experienced a cultural and intellectual boom. This blog will feature artists, writers, composers, musicians, and designers. Paris was at its cultural peak. Xenophobia: n., fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners or of anything that is strange or foreign After the end of World War I (1918), immigration to France was encouraged. The country had lost thousands of men to the war, and able-bodied workers were needed. Paris became a safe haven for immigrants. The 1920s was a time of governmental tolerance too: in 1927 naturalization procedures were relaxed and many immigrants became French citizens – 270,000 between 1927 and 1930 alone. While the “Roaring Twenties” saw prosperity and the tremendous influx of artists to Paris (as depicted in these blog posts), the 1930s was a period that brought about the end of tolerance and freedom of immigration, especially for Jews. The Depression changed this tolerant atmosphere. Rising unemployment and the influx of Jewish and Eastern European refugees revived old prejudices. Antisemitism resumed a prominent place in political discourse. And, with the invasion of Paris by German forces, many of the Jewish artists who contributed so greatly to Parisian life fled to Switzerland, Israel, or America.
Lower School Curriculum - Thematic Units & Social Studies - Language Arts - Creative Movement - Physical Education Thematic studies in the Lower School grades unify our curriculum studies. They provide ideas for reading, writing, and math, and they enrich all areas of learning. The emphasis is on learning the basic concepts and the process of collecting information, dealing with facts, drawing conclusions, and communicating with others. Interwoven with these thematic studies, social studies includes geography, cultures, relationships of people to one another and to their environment, history, the development of arts and sciences in response to human needs, and civic ideas and practices. The subject is integrated into various areas, including reading, writing, math, and the arts, and it is used to help students develop critical thinking skills. Examples of thematic studies for 1st and 2nd graders are migration, insects, weaving around the world, shelters, Ghana, India, oceans, and roots. Third graders have an additional social-emotional layer in their thematic studies, beginning each year with a unit on friendship. This unit then segues into a concentration on selected environments of North America, in which students study Native American cultures, both past and present, and life in early America. In 4th grade, thematic units such as geography and celebrations around the world expand children's worlds and transform them into true global citizens. Building on the foundations laid in Pre-K and Kindergarten, the 1st grade language arts program continues to develop reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills through the use of various techniques, materials, and activities. Reading, writing, listening, and speaking are not taught separately; rather, they are intertwined throughout all of the language and theme-based activities in which students engage. The program focuses on helping children to break the reading code, develop reading strategies, learn how to comprehend an author's text, understand how to be responsive listeners, and become skilled at communicating their own messages and ideas orally and in writing. The 2nd grade language arts program is a rich and diverse one that concentrates on the natural development and interaction among reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Skills and strategies related to reading and writing are emphasized through each component of the program, which is designed to develop a love of reading and writing and to increase stamina and fluency in both areas to prepare for content work in 3rd and 4th grade. The program focuses on developing comprehension skills, understanding texts, supporting opinions about reading selections, being responsive listeners, and communicating one’s own messages and ideas orally and in writing. In 3rd and 4th grades, the language arts curriculum focuses on a literature-based reading program and a process approach to writing. In the reading program, students learn to appreciate different genres of literature by reading and discussing various fiction and nonfiction materials. Through reading guided by the teacher and in small groups, children practice their decoding and comprehension skills, engage in discussions, develop a wider vocabulary, and use conceptual thinking to synthesize, summarize, and support their opinions about the written word. Children learn to gather information from articles and books—both printed and electronic—and hone note-taking skills in preparation for writing short reports and making oral presentations in class. Teachers also use literature to develop students’ writing talents, guiding them to express their ideas clearly and creatively. Students learn to develop editing skills and to revise their work, and, in the process, they develop fluency and confidence in all aspects of writing. This is done through a variety of writing assignments, during which teachers guide children in selecting story topics, producing rough drafts, revising the drafts for content, and editing them to improve spelling, grammar, punctuation, and capitalization. Other areas that are addressed in the language arts curriculum are spelling and handwriting, as well as keyboarding. The Primary Unit (grades 1 & 2) mathematics program focuses on instruction and practice with manipulatives as a way to help students discover and understand important mathematical ideas. Written work and games then follow, permitting children to explore the mathematical principles further and to gain skill in applying them. The Primary Unit uses two math programs to support student understanding in math: enVision and Investigations. Both programs allow the teachers to assess student understanding before, during, and after each unit, enabling them to assess each child’s mathematical understanding throughout the year and determine how to best challenge each individual and the class as a whole. Concepts learned in 1st and 2nd grade include: numeration; operations (+, -) and computation; data and chance; geometry; measurement; and patterns, functions, and algebra. The 3rd and 4th grade mathematics program reinforces the important concepts and skills explored in the 1st and 2nd grades, and it builds understandings to include increasingly abstract concepts. EnVision Math continues to be the math program for grades 1–6. Instruction and practice with concrete objects help children to discover and understand important mathematical ideas. This is accompanied by written work, exploration activities, and games, permitting each child to explore and apply mathematical principles. The curriculum focal points include: data analysis; number and operations and algebra; fractions and decimals; measurement; and geometry. Through exploration, discovery, and structured hands-on activities, Lower School students learn about the natural world and delve into problem-solving tasks and challenges. Specific topics also support and extend classroom themes, creating a seamless curricular experience as students move from one classroom to another. In 1st grade, lessons include exploration of outdoor environments (forest, stream, field, sky), plants, animals, ecological principles, and problem-solving activities with manipulatives. Second graders are introduced to more quantitative elements of science that tie into their explorations; for example, they learn how to measure, analyze, and graph results from experiments. In 3rd grade, students have the opportunity to more narrowly focus on life science topics such as photosynthesis, food chains and webs, adaptations, and other ecological principles—topics of study that are naturally enriched by our outdoor spaces. As students move into 4th grade, their thinking becomes more global as they focus on the earth, including its structure and dynamic process, as well as the physical properties of rocks and minerals. Viewed on a spectrum, the breadth and depth of the science curriculum throughout Lower School gives children ample opportunities to experience a sense of wonder, gain an understanding of the physical world around them, and hone essential analytic and partnership skills. In Lower School, the goal of the art program is to create an environment in which children can each explore, experiment, and give voice to their creative selves, while also learning to understand others’ artistic production and how to discuss and respond to others’ creative output with respect and empathy. They explore the properties of art materials to uncover infinite visual languages with which they can tell stories and represent their unique experiences. Students use a variety of materials that advance self-esteem, self-expression, and critical thinking. Students also learn to observe and visually represent the world around them. The art teacher engages in meaningful dialogue with children to help uncover the thoughts and ideas experienced during their artistic process, making their learning visible to all. Through close collaboration with classroom teachers, art experiences offer children the opportunity to extend their investigations and explore concepts with a variety of materials, document their understanding, and enrich their overall learning experience. The 1st and 2nd grade music curriculum features concepts that revolve around basic elements of music: rhythm, melody, harmony, dynamics, tempo, timbre, and form. Skills include keeping a steady beat, playing and singing simple melodies and rhythms, and playing melodies and ostinatos on mallet and percussion instruments and belleplates. Students begin to use color charts and adapted musical notation, as well as standard notation. Throughout the year, strong emphasis is placed on caring for the instruments and working cooperatively as an ensemble. Third grade students learn to play recorder, xylophone, ukulele, percussion, and other instruments. Skills include instrumental technique, reading rhythmic patterns, identifying line and space notes, compassion, collaboration, creative composition, singing, and instrument care. Students work together to create and learn pieces of music, and they have the opportunity to perform in a large ensemble format at school assemblies and concerts. Students read and perform music and learn concert etiquette as they participate in performances throughout the year. In 4th grade, students build on their musical literacy, instrumental technique, ensemble skills, and performance etiquette. Ensemble pieces linked to their social studies curriculum will find them working as a group to play music from around the world. This process necessitates a great deal of coordinated ensemble playing, so students focus on teamwork as they fit their interwoven parts together. We continue developing instrumental skills on ukulele, and, if students are ready, we move up to guitar. In February, 4th graders perform a mini-musical, which they help to create. Meanwhile, skills developed in chorus include practicing healthy vocal technique and singing in unison, canon, and multiple parts. The study of Spanish in Lower School is focused primarily upon the development of the four linguistic competences—speaking, listening, reading, and writing—and is integrated from the beginning of class to the end. Using a communicative approach, classes are conducted mostly in Spanish and are based upon the idea that learning a language successfully occurs through immersion in the target language and having to communicate real meaning. Motivation is also key in the process of acquiring a foreign language, so the teacher acts as a guide and facilitator and helps learners in ways that motivate them to work with the target language. Some examples of typical activities in Spanish class include games, basic math exercises, writing and reading of short texts in Spanish, watching videos to practice pronunciation, hands-on activities, and role-play activities. First and second grade students each spend a semester in creative movement, a class that extends topics of study in the homecorner classroom to provide children with the space to explore and build knowledge through movement. During movement activities that encourage creative and spontaneous thinking, students develop motor control, spatial awareness, and the ability to work well with others and both share and listen to ideas. Examples of activities include using the body to interpret an idea, song, poem, or story; creating movement sequences tied to the Primary Unit thematic study; and moving in time with music using different locomotor actions. The semester culminates in an assembly in which students present final movement pieces that they have collaboratively created and practiced. The major goal of the Lower School physical education program is to create a lifelong desire to develop the whole person physically and socially. This program is integral to developing students’ education as it pertains to the total fitness, growth, and overall development of the individual. Teachers provide a wide variety of opportunities to enhance the social development of students by providing them with opportunities to practice being a supportive team member, to learn about fair play, and to develop a mindset in which "playing to win" is not the ultimate goal. The program instills a sense of importance in promoting wellness and a healthy attitude towards exercise and the benefits it provides. Most importantly, the physical education department promotes respect for the uniqueness and differences of the self and others through a wide variety of games and activities. Students in grades 1-4 continue to expand their literacy skills and their understanding of bias and stereotypes through read-alouds and scaffolded discussions of fiction and nonfiction, often in connection with classroom thematic units. Students learn about the online library catalog in 1st grade and develop gradually increasing skill and independence in searching for and locating books. First and 2nd graders enjoy early-reader series and chapter books. Second and 3rd graders become familiar with STEAM picture books, picture-book biographies, and graphic literature. Third and 4th graders discover memoirs and verse fiction. Fourth graders hone critical thinking skills with discussions of sophisticated picture books about complex realistic, global issues. Lower School students check books out regularly. Research lessons and mini-research activities, sometimes led by students, support classroom themes. Student volunteers in 3rd and 4th grades deepen their library skills as they help with book processing, signage, and other tasks. The Head Librarian partners with classroom teachers to lead 3rd and 4th grade social justice book clubs throughout the year.
The International space station has continuously been home to astronauts for quite nineteen years. Astronauts conduct scientific research using dozens of special facilities aboard the space station, which also provides them with a neighborhood to eat, sleep, relax and exercise. to make all of this possible requires sending quite 7,000 pounds of spare parts to the station annually. Another 29,000 pounds of spaceflight hardware spares are stored aboard the station and another 39,000 on rock bottom, ready to fly if needed. This logistics network works well for a spacecraft that’s orbiting 250 miles above Earth and readily accessible to cargo resupply missions. it isn’t practical for future missions to the Moon and Mars, however. Astronauts on these long voyages need to be able to make their own spare parts, tools and materials essentially on demand – both for routine needs and to adapt quickly to unforeseen ones. In-space manufacturing (ISM) using 3D printing technology could be an answer. The ISM project at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and its commercial partners are using the space station to see various technologies to provide this capability. The NASA Ames research center physics-based modeling group provides additional analysis and modeling support. Read More: www.nasa.gov
Benchmark Reading for Literacy Students are exposed to a variety of literacy experiences which enables them to become independent readers, writers and thinkers. Teachers use authentic literature to teach comprehension and reading strategies. Children are often asked to write about their interpretations of books and life. Math is My Math The purpose of mathematics instruction at Peters is to teach our students to become mathematical thinkers and problem solvers. Students are asked to investigate math problems based on real life situations. They often work in small groups, to come up with alternate methods for solving problems, and to describe their reasoning both verbally and in writing. Basic skills practice is addressed through games and activities. Students learn science through hands-on exploration and scientific investigation with our curriculums Discovery and Project Lead the Way. We focus largely on incorporating STEM, or Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. Students enhance their technology skills as they access Project Lead the Way resources through iPads. Students are actively engaged in their own learning by using a literature based approach. They discover themselves personally relating to the historical figures and events they read about. They gather information, examine cause and effect, analyze results of decisions, debate issues and use their imaginations to create innovative and alternative ways solve to problems. Art, music and physical education are important contributors in developing the “whole child”. Students attend these classes on a three day rotation schedule. A full-time media specialist is available throughout the day to help students choose books regarding interest and independent reading level. The librarian also collaborates with teachers to enrich classroom curriculum through storytelling and read alouds as well as to teach library and resource skills. Character Counts is a district wide program designed to encourage the development of moral character in students. The character traits are based on “Six Pillars of Character.” They are Respect, Responsibility, Caring, Trustworthiness, Fairness and Citizenship. On Friday, May 24, 2013, Peters became the first Union school to become an Oklahoma Green School - after students developed plans to grow more trees and cut energy costs. Oklahoma Green Schools is an organization that promotes green practices in schools. The projects are made possible through learning kits called Green School Investigations provided by Project Learning Tree. Technology is an integral part of each elementary classroom. Peters’ students have access to computer labs, mobile laptops and classroom computers. Students have internet privileges under the direct supervision of teachers. The media center is equipped with computers where children can communicate, research and complete projects. Teachers also utilize a variety of technology tools. Each classroom is equipped with a SMART Board enabling teachers to deliver interactive curriculum lessons. Teachers have iPads that are used to electronically record student assessment data. Special Services provides a Learning Lab environment for special education students and for students needing speech and language or physical and occupational therapy. A school psychologist is available to administer assessments to identify students in need of individual education plans. A full-time reading teacher is on staff to differentiate instruction for remedial readers and to serve as our school testing coordinator. We are fortunate to have a full-time nurse assigned to our building. She administers medications and screens students’ abilities in vision and hearing. Guidance Lessons are taught by a full-time counselor. Anti-bullying, stranger danger, steps to respect and character development are part of the basic curriculum. Peters offers support for English Language Learners. Students, under the direction of a qualified ELL instructor, participate in small group instruction that focuses on specific skills instruction and content curriculum. Gifted and Talented services are provided to identified students as well as integrated enrichment opportunities for all students. Native American students are eligible to receive academic support and to participate in cultural enrichment opportunities. Extended Day Program The Extended Day Program (EDP) provides safe, alternative educational child care, enhancing the child’s extended day. Recognizing the busy lifestyles of today’s family, the district attempts to work in partnership with home and parents by providing before and after school supervision at the school site. Before and After School Enrichment Programs Community Service Projects
We live in a world where technology is playing a crucial role. There is no field which has technology independence. Of all the fields which are highly influenced by technology, Education will surely be on the top. Advancements in technology benefit students of all ages in the learning process. It helps students with different learning styles. It also helps teachers concentrate on each individual student to assess his performance and design personalized instruction. Many educational institutions have recognized the importance of technology and are likely implement every new technological approach in their classroom. For all such enthusiastic institutions, we provide you the information about this technology, “Holograms in Education”. Let’s learn about it. What is a “Hologram”? A Hologram is a three-dimensional image formed by the interference of light beams from a laser or other coherent light source. It looks like a 3D image because it’s not just a reflection but an interference pattern of two beams reflecting an object. A beam of laser light is optically separated into two beams by a beam splitter: one- the reference plane is directed towards the pace of holographic fume travelling through a lens and is expanded so that the light covers the fume completely, the second- object beam is directed at the subject of the composition and similarly expanded through illumination. When the object beam reflects from the subject, it carries with it information about the location, size, shape and texture of the subject. This produces an interference pattern which is recorded in the light sensitive emulsion. Holographic Technology in Education: Interactive White boards or Projector screens are used to bring a real-world learning experience to learners. They bring remote students, teachers or professors into the classroom as virtual guests. With Holographic technology, we can take one more step forward. The new holographic Telepresence technology brings digital participants at remote locations into the class in 3D. Let’s learn about it briefly. Helps educators deliver lectures to multiple classrooms, anywhere, at the same time: Highly talented professors or educators can share their knowledge with thousands of students globally at the same time. It’s similar to the concept of MOOCs, but it’s even more effective because learners can see you in person in 3D. Your lecture can be watched by many students sitting in multiple lecture halls. It’s highly economical, time saving, effectively engaging idea and also saves your precious effort. Have Professionals Illustrate their works live: Instead of showing a video of a process or an experiment, you can make your students feel like they are watching it live. Holographic Telepresence can bring you a 3D live illustration of processes by experts. It not only helps visual learners but also makes kinesthetic learners learn by watching an illustration in 3D. Connect Globally Remote Classrooms: Connecting people globally to exchange their knowledge for advancement isn’t a new concept, but Holographic Telepresence has added a new dimension to this powerful learning technique. It’s truly effective if we engage two groups of learners from around the world in a real conversation in 3D. Results in a great learning experience: What more a learner needs if he is able to watch a great professor’s lecture or a demonstration of an engine feature by a great engineer and much more, live in front of him!! Holographic Telepresence engages learners more effectively than many of the technology tools. These are many uses of implementing Holographic technology in education. It’s one of the emerging technologies to engage learners in a real-world learning environment. We’d like to know your views and your ways of using Holographic technology in your education system. Please feel free to share with us in the comment box.
Sending data from the cRIO to an Arduino Sometimes it is useful to use a coprocessor to handle operations on some sensors, lights, etc. A popular processor is the Arduino. This article shows sample code to send some data between the cRIO and an Arduino. Although it only sends data in one direction (from the cRIO to the Arduino), it serves as an example of how to do it. This program sends one of two values (either 72 or 76) from the cRIO to either turn the LED (pin 13 on the Arduino) either on or off. The value is arbitrary and was just part of a larger sample program. The cRIO program The I2C protocol has a master and slave processors or devices. The master controls the bus and either sends data to a slave or requests data from a slave processor. Slaves cannot initiate transactions on their own. Each slave processor (or device) has a unique address that the master processor uses to select it. In this example, the Arduino slave processor recognizes address 84. The steps are: - Initialize the I2C connection on address 84. Because of differences between the implementation of the library for the cRIO and Arduino (the lower bit of the address selects either read or write) the cRIO uses address 168. 168 is the address 84 shifted by 1 bit (the read/write bit). - Use a byte array to fill with the data to send. In this case it's a single byte, either 76 or 72 that sets the light on or off on the Arduino. - Send the data to the Arduino without receiving any data. The parameters "toSend" and "1" specify a single byte from the "toSend" array. The second set of parameters (null and 0) would be a byte array and length if the master was expecting the slave to respond with some data. The Arduino program A few observations: - The timing using Timer.delay() on the cRIO wasn't very precise - likely due to randomness in the Java scheduler and getting the thread restarted. You can see that between transactions. - The program didn't work reliably with an Arduino Uno and seems to work correctly with a Mega. You can see the output of each transaction with the trace from the logic analyzer.
Reading. Some kids still struggle. Our classrooms, by age, are filled with students who read at different levels and for different interests. How do teachers meet those needs, and teach to the high standards of the Common Core State standards? A Resource for Lessons and Texts: ReadWorks.org One help for teachers is ReadWorks.org. This free site for K-8 provides thousands of nonfiction passages and literary connections paired with Common Core structured questions. Structured means they are aligned to the Common Core, and are presented to build student understand and gradually release responsibility to the student to be able to answer deeper questions. Kindergarten students provide text/image responses and allow for draw and text responses. The lessons are built on I-We-Me format: teach modeling, guided practice, and student independence. Lessons are organized according by standards and in units based on Skill and Strategies, Comprehension, Novel Study [5 and 6], and Reading Passages. In Reading Passages, the search allows for specific criteria: key words, grade level, lexile level, domain, text type, and skill/strategy. The articles are engaging to students, and I am able to find several lessons that allow for differentiation and skill progression as we read through and discuss the passages. My students read the passage first with partners, and circle any “interesting” words. They write the words on scraps of paper, and I collect them. We discuss each word, first looking at context to figure out what it might mean, and then I fill in information the student need to understand the text. This helps build vocabulary and understanding of the text. Questioning the Topic for Main Idea Adaptation Next partners write questions the text will answer in a shared Google Doc. We discuss the questions and choose or revise one to write the best question that the reading passage answers, which becomes our focus for finding the main idea and supporting evidence. We refer to the question throughout the rest of the lesson provided by ReadWorks. It provides a final reflection for students when they discover they are able to write and explain their own questions. I’m so glad to have discovered this resource: ReadWorks.org. It’s free. It’s all aligned to the Common Core State Standards [and many other state standards]. As I dig deeper into the Common Core, a resource like this is invaluable. Have you tried ReadWorks.org ? What are your resources? Geeky Gramma ~~ Retired Middle School Language Arts Teacher ~~ Writer and Thinker
The power transformer is the most essential part of electrical transmission and distribution systems. In our current era, most of the electrical systems operate with alternating current or AC. After the production of alternating power in the generating stations, we need to step it up to a higher voltage level. Then we transmit it to the load centers where we again have to step it down to the desired voltage levels for distribution purposes. Power Transformers perform stepping up and stepping down of electrical power during the journey from generating ends to distribution ends. During this journey, the electrical power can be stepped down more than once in different desired transmission voltage levels. Working of Power Transformers Like others, general purposed transformers, a power transformer also works based on the principle of mutual induction. Whenever there is a current in a coil, an associated magnetic field exists surround the coil. If the current is alternating the direction and the magnitude of the magnetic field will also be changing according to the alteration of the current in the coil. In other words, there will be a changing field flux exists surrounding the coil. Now if we bring another coil nearer to the first one, the changing field flux links the second coil. Obviously, the entire field flux produced by the first coil cannot link the second coil. A certain portion of the flux links the second coil. As a result, there will be an induced EMF in the second coil due to the flux linkage. Because according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, a changing magnetic flux linked with any conductor produces EMF in the conductor. Transforming of Power Now if we connect one simple resistance across the second coil, an alternating current starts flowing through the resistance due to the induced EMF in the second coil. Therefore the resistance dissipates a certain power. What is the ultimate source of this power? Obviously the alternating source connected with the first coil is the ultimate source of this power in the resistance. Therefore we can say the power from the main source has come to the load (resistance) of the second coil without any direct electrical connection. Then how it comes. It is due to the mutual induction between the first and second coils. This is the most basic principle of a transformer as well as the power transformer. But this model of transformer is not a practical one. In an actual transformer, we refer to the coil connected to the source as the primary winding. Similarly, we refer to the coil connected to the load as the secondary winding. But in our model of the transformer, a very small portion of the primary flux links the secondary winding. The primary flux means the flux created by the primary winding. Why does a power transformer require a magnetic core? Hence there should be some means by which the maximum primary flux links with the secondary winding. Therefore, the purpose of the transformer core comes into the picture. The transformer core creates a closed magnetic circuit. In other words, it provides a low reluctance path to the magnetic flux. The most well-known material of low reluctance property is either iron or steel. So the transformer core is generally made of either iron or steel. We place both the primary and secondary windings on the magnetic core. Almost the entire flux is concentrated inside the core body, therefore it links the windings efficiently. Since the iron core facilitates maximum flux linkage between the windings, the transformer becomes able to transform maximum power from primary to secondary. Leakage Reactance of Power Transformers The presence of core in the transformer facilitates the maximum flux linkage but the core cannot concentrate 100% flux inside it. So there will be a small portion of the flux passes outside the core. This portion of the flux does not participate in the flux linkage process. Therefore we call it the leakage flux. The transformer core also introduces some specific losses in the power transformer. The losses are hysteresis and eddy current loss.
In some cases, there are subtle differences in brain regions which deviate from the path of normal brain development and can be detected using structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In a similar fashion, the function of the brain using functional magnetic resonance imaging or fMRI – can be observed during various tasks and experimental paradigms. There are clear developmental differences in brain development between boys and girls with females tending to achieve peak volumes between 1 and 3.5 years ahead of males in a variety of brain structures . In child psychiatric disorders, sex differences are particularly relevant and coincide with disparities also in terms of prevalence, symptom/behaviour profile and age of onset. Longitudinal studies are especially useful in mapping brain development across the life-span. This design of study generally involves enrolling young children into a research study and measuring various developmental outcomes using the same tools and techniques (e.g., self-report questionnaires; blood draws; MRI scans etc) every year or every two years until they reach early adulthood. Longitudinal studies using neuroimaging such as MRI provide an excellent opportunity to map the neuroanatomic substrates and developmental pathways of the human brain. fMRI uses magnetic resonance imaging to measure brain activity and it does this by measuring alterations in the local oxygenation of blood which in turn reflects the sum of local brain activity . The scanning process involves the volunteer lying down on a moveable bed which is then inserted into the scanner. The individual is given protective ear plugs and headphones due to the loud noises of the scanner and instructed to lie very still with virtually no head movement. Communication can be made with the radiographer via an intercom system and in-between scanning intervals the radiographer will provide progress updates and check that the volunteer is feeling comfortable and willing to continue. During an fMRI scan, the volunteer is normally asked to take part in a cognitive task which may require a behavioural response to some type of stimulus, for example, a button press when a target appears on a screen. During the task, the brain regions engaged and responding to that stimulus will experience an increase in metabolism. This begins with the activation of neurons which create an increased need for oxygen generating a large increase in perfusion. This increased need for oxygen results in a change in the proportion of oxygenated blood flow to the local brain region; the available oxygen is consumed rapidly creating a drop in oxygen in the blood called deoxyhemoglobin. There is then an increase in the amount of oxygen supplied, in order to satisfy demand. The process results in interchanges between oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin states with both containing different paramagnetic properties. The signal measured in fMRI is reliant on these changes in oxygenation and are referred to as the blood oxygenation level dependent or BOLD signal . To summarise, the inter-changes in signal are therefore due to the interchanges in blood flow, blood volume and blood oxygenation in response to alterations in neuronal activity . The increase in blood flow is also known as the hemodynamic response. Different software packages process, analyse and display fMRI data by reconstructing the raw data into images which resemble brains. The data analysis process is highly complex and involves the generation of statistical maps onto high resolution images so the functional information can be interpreted according to the relevant anatomical landmarks.
Throughout history, adult education has played a role in many significant social, cultural, and political movements. With regard to this role, one of the most prominent theorists within the field, Malcolm Knowles (as cited in Merriam and Brockett, 2007) suggests that that ideals and methodologies often associated with adult education have tended to become more prominent in "response to specific needs" (p. 9). Similarly, democratic ideals have often emerged when the needs of individuals have met in some manner. Both adult education and democracy have traditionally focused on supporting the growth, freedom, and development of the individual as well as the larger community and society. This author would argue that the individual, social, and organizational philosophical concepts associated with adult education are directly related to and have played a significant role in the growth and development of democratic principles over time. Before one may effectively examine the significance of the relationship between adult education and democracy, it is important to have a clear understanding of the components of each individual concept. Democracy is a concept that emphasizes the rights, freedoms, and ultimate power of the individual. Democratic ideals, principles, and practices sustain and protect these rights and freedoms. As Ellis (1993) attempts to argue the importance of education and the participation of informed citizens within the democratic process, he contends that the true purpose of the democracy is to improve the lives of citizens as opposed to it being simply a demonstration of power and authority of those in high positions. Chickering (2008) takes a somewhat critical approach to viewing current aspects of the democratic society, and argues that in order for the fundamental principles of democracy to be effective, systematic changes and a greater emphasis on personal and community development should occur. He suggests that these changes will encourage and allow all individuals to able to play a more role in the democratic process. It is important to note that although democratic ideals have existed for centuries and are considered the preferred form of government by many, a number of democratically related concepts are not universally valued. In some cultures, they actually serve a source of conflict for many individuals and groups for a variety of reasons. Get your grade or your money back using our Essay Writing Service! Democracy lends heavily on the idea that individuals are capable of creating and maintaining an effective government through informed decision-making and continued participation in the process. Ellis (1993) argues that "On the whole people are only able to participate effectively when they have acquired through education the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are essential for active and meaningful participation" (Education for Participation, para. 3). Many adult education theorists contend that adult education is one of the most effective means of developing informed and active participants within a democracy. John Dewey was one of the most prominent figures associated with the progressive movement in education and his ideas influenced a number of recognized figures within the field of adult education. Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) suggest that Dewey believed that democracy was essentially a collective form of existence that was dependent on education to sustain growth and development. Adult education is grounded in the idea that one should never stop learning and emphasizes practices and methods of educating individuals who are considered adults. Much of the field's focus revolves around improving outcomes for both individuals and the larger community. Although somewhat broad in nature, the primary purpose of adult education is the foster change. From a historical perspective, adult education has been prominent for centuries. From the methods used by Socrates to the current use of social networking to aid in the spread of democratic ideas, adult education has significantly influenced society and culture. Grattan (1955) noted that adult education focuses on individuals "in the business of life" (p. 7). This argument is central to associating adult education with democracy because adults often have the power, means, and ability to create and maintain significant change within their own lives and the lives of others. Adult education focuses its attention on those in this position of power and democracy depends on their consistent and meaningful participation. The connection between adult education and democracy exists within the shared goals of each concept. According to Proulx (1993) "Adult education is a process through which groups and individuals become able to play a significant role in protecting their rights and building a society which reflects their reality" (Introduction, para. 5). Adult education has been used to build upon and support the individual and collective freedoms at the core of a democracy. Through education, citizens may become more aware of fundamental governmental processes, unfair practices, and the importance of participation. Adult education may also encourage citizens to take advantage of opportunities that have the potential to improve their financial, emotional, and social outcomes. Throughout adult education literature, authors and theorists consistently contend that, in addition to addressing individual outcomes, adult education also affects larger communities and the culture as a whole. With regard to democracy, this author would argue that without the principles of adult education to engage and maintain an informed citizenry, democratic ideals would be more difficult to sustain and authoritarian controlled governments would have a greater prominence in our society. Always on Time Marked to Standard As previously stated, an important theme within the field of adult education is the consistent focus on the growth and development of the individual, community, and ultimately society. Many of the philosophies associated with adult education revolve around these components. Merriam and Brockett (2007) suggest that understanding the philosophies associated with adult education will help individuals to more effectively grasp the innate values and true nature of the field. Although many aspects of the various philosophies encompassed under the umbrella of adult education differ, there are a number of similarities. Each philosophy emphasizes the importance of learning and active participation the learning process. The prominent philosophies also recognize that education is a powerful tool for change. However, the proposed outcomes and the believed impact resulting from these changes sometimes differ between the philosophies. Some focus primarily on the individual while others focus on organizational and/or societal outcomes. This author would argue that democracy's relationship to adult education is significant and unavoidable regardless of philosophically touted outcome. Early adult educators, prominent philosophers, and the architects of democracy in both the United States and around the world ascribed to the adult education philosophy of liberal education. Much of the adult education's early history is rooted within philosophical perspective. According to Merriam and Brockett (2007), those approaching adult education from the liberal perspective contend that the goal of education should be to support the creation of "informed, cultured, and moral citizens" (p. 33). By becoming knowledgeable about a variety of subjects, the individual citizen is believed to become more well rounded, able to address issues, and solve problems more effectively. Democracy requires the individuals with a strong knowledge base and problem-solving ability to remain fluid and effectively adapt over time. As previously stated, the architects of democracy from both a theoretical and more a practical standpoint supported the principles of adult education and designed democracies to revolve around educated and informed citizens who could effectively address the issues of the day. Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin exhibited many of the previously noted characteristics as they supported the growth of democracy within the United States. Franklin's success and development may be attributed to liberal adult education and is a prime example of the potential positive impact that democratic rights and freedoms can have on society through the individual. He was an inventor, politician, world traveler, and adult education pioneer with the development of his Junto group. When discussing Franklin's support for education during a comprehensive review of his political theory Rossiter (1952) states, "Franklin's faith in education had a dozen outlets. The American Philosophical Society, The Library Company, the University of Pennsylvania, and the Franklin Funds of Boston and Philadelphia are present-day reminders of his high regard for formal and informal education of all classes, ages, and conditions of men" (p. 269). The support and participation in liberal adult education by Franklin and others during the formation in the United States played a major role in the success and development of democracy in this country. Another prominent philosophical perspective within the field of adult education emphasizes personal and social improvement. Within this perspective, the focus is on the individual and his or her social circles and/or community. Eduard Lindeman was an adult educator, social worker, and author who often discussed the expounded upon the relationship between adult education and democracy in terms of an informed citizenry and active participation in the democratic process. "Without responsible participation, democracy cannot exist nor endure. And responsible participation implies that the citizen is informed" (Lindeman, 1956, p. 154). Lindeman's ideas suggest a clear connection between adult education and democracy and suggest that democracy necessitates that individuals be knowledgeable in order to for the individual and society to be successful. Adult educators work to meet the needs outlined by democratic principles on a regular basis. Titus (2010) describes specific methods associated with adult education that are believed to be effective in terms of educating citizens about democracy and the political process. He suggests that observational and experiential learning may be particularly effective because they allow the individual to become directly involved a process that is sometimes complex. These methods also emphasize both the personal and social aspects of adult education. This Essay is a Student's Work This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers.Examples of our work Individual self-actualization is another philosophy associated with adult education. This perspective specifically focuses on the individual's development and growth into his or her best possible self. Knowles is a key figure within the individual self-actualization perspective. According to Darkenwald and Merriam (1982), Knowles emphasized the "liberation" of the individual and believed that society's primary purpose was to serve as "a vehicle for providing a full range of choices to a potential participant" (p. 47). Knowles is directly supporting the basic principles of democracy with this contention. Societies provide the framework from which the individual operates. In authoritarian cultures, the individual's choices and the opportunities are limited; however, democracies allow citizens the freedom to become whomever they choose to be. Upon further examination, this author contends that both individual self-actualization and democracy tend to assume that individuals are good and will make choices that will benefit themselves, their communities, and the larger society. Some within the field of adult education contend that social change should be the primary focus of adult education initiatives and have worked tirelessly to use education as a means of societal change. Although somewhat different in their ideologies, many of the major philosophies within the field of adult education emphasize some aspect of social action or social change. Social Transformation is a philosophical perspective that places a great deal of emphasis on empowering oppressed individuals with an overall goal of fostering transformative cultural and/or societal changes. One of the primary figures within this philosophical perspective of adult education was Paulo Friere. Although his may not be directly associated with all democratic principles, much of Friere's work revolved around educating oppressed individuals with the intention of providing them with the knowledge to recognize their rights as individuals and the need for change. Providing individuals with the knowledge to foster change and encourage freedom is analogous with the democratic principals previously noted. According to Darkenwald and Merriam (1982), Friere believed that "to be human is to seek to guides one's own destiny" (p. 60). He truly believed that significant societal changes were possible by supporting and educating the individual, and he worked much of his life to provide these supports to his people. The problems and oppression endured by African Americans within the United States is somewhat similar to those described by Friere in his writings. Although the United States was founded on the democratic principles previously described, this particular portion of the population was segregated, demeaned, and not allowed to have the same rights as others for centuries. These oppressive actions were contrary to the freedom-focused democratic principals established by the founding fathers. Those who benefited from the labor of African Americans recognized that education would have changed the status quo and, as a result, fought vehemently against improved educational opportunities for African Americans. For many of these oppressed individuals, adult education was the only means attaining an education. Throughout history, many prominent and influential African Americans, such as Booker T. Washington, relied on adult education to gain the tools necessary to obtain the rights and freedoms that were suppose to be at the core of a democracy. Another example of an African American adult educator attempting to support individual learning and ultimately societal freedom was Alain Lock. He was a professor who spent a great deal of time developing programs and organization adult education initiatives that were geared toward the African American population. According to Gyant (1988), Locke believed that "learning must be meaningful and must relate to one's own experience" (p. 104). Adapting the educational environment to focus on the individual's experiences is one of the key principles associated with adult education. As previously suggested, participation is one of the primary factors in a successful democracy. Adults, particularly from marginalized backgrounds, often do not feel connected with the larger society. Adult education improves the democratic process for these individuals by altering the conversation to fit their needs. This author believes that adapting educational practices with regard to democratic and political processes will increase engagement, and ultimately participation among targeted groups. Historically, adult education has proven to be an effective means increasing awareness for individual rights of immigrants, women, and others minority groups. This author would also argue that the organizational effectiveness philosophy, as it relates to adult education, may be associated with the growth and development of democratic principals and ideas. Those who approach adult education from the organizational effectiveness perspective contend that supporting and improving practices for both individuals and organizations will eventually lead to improved outcomes individual workers, the organization, eventually the larger society. Casey (2003) contends that the increased autonomy and freedom in the workplace that typically results from adhering to adult education principles "reflects and encourages the revitalization of models of civil, democratic society." Individuals spend a good portion of their lives within the work environment. Through knowledge and skills gained within the workplace, individuals often learn to become increasingly independent and knowledgeable, and many participate in adult education programs in hopes of improving their quality of life and becoming more successful. In terms of affiliation, a number of people tend to associate themselves with larger groups or communities in relation to their particular work environment. All of these factors suggest that the workplace permeates through several aspects of an individual's life and is often associated with the ability to achieve better outcomes. Democratic principles encourage and accommodate individual growth and development while adult education is often the means by which it occurs. Industrial growth and development had a signification impact on both democracy and the field of adult education. With increased opportunity, the freedoms and rights supported by democracy were more accessible to a larger portion of the population. This accessibility fostered demographic and cultural changes. Many African Americans moved to the industrial parts of the county in search of jobs and the promise of a better life for themselves and their families. Immigrants also moved to this country for similar reasons, and women increasingly began to pursue available opportunities within the workplace. During this transitional phase, adult education became increasingly prominent in both the workplace and within the larger community as a means of addressing the needs of the changing population. According to Merriam and Brockett (2007), the emphasis of adult education began to shift somewhat from the more liberal perspective to providing increased organizational and community support (p. 35). Individuals needed to be trained to complete assigned tasks within the workplace, many immigrants participated in courses that were touted as a means of helping them acclimate to the dominant culture, and increased attention was given to teaching individuals in need of basic academic skills. Ultimately, adult education, organizational effectiveness, and democracy can interconnect and play a role in shaping society as well as supporting the citizens within a democracy Adult education is a field that is consistently changing and adapting to address the needs of individuals and communities. Some of the significant changes involve the infusion of technologies, such as social networking, that are often used as a means of providing and spreading information. This technology has been instrumental in the spread and growth of democratic ideals in several Middle Eastern countries. Technology and the internet are making it more difficult to control the spread of information. As citizens of these countries become more informed, they are beginning to call for many of the rights and freedoms associated with democracy. As previously noted, this author believes that the basis of democracy is an informed citizenry and increased participation. Although the medium has changed, adult education is continuing to support the democratic process around the world. From a theoretical perspective, much of the field's focus has become increasingly geared towards theories such as postmodernism and critical theory. One goal underlying this trend within the field of adult education is to continuously evaluate and determine if commonly accepted concepts, such as democracy are actually effective and inclusive. Similar to other adult education perspectives, the goal is to bring about change and develop more effective programming that addresses the needs of all individuals. Adult educators have increasingly become focused on encouraging the learner to critically assess traditionally accepted processes, and consider the positive and negative effects that these processes have on various cultural, ethnic, or other potentially marginalized groups. Adult educators have begun to challenge the status quo, as well as policies and practices that are believed to be ineffective and unfair. This author believes that these challenges and the questioning of "authority" are excellent examples of the manner in which an effective democracy works. The power to question and create change should be given to the individual. In his discussion of critical adult education in terms of democracy, Martin (2003) suggests that adult educators should "expand our notions of what it means to be active citizens in a democratic society" (p. 566). Although the field of adult education is consistently changing, adult educators and theorists are continuing to prompt citizens to take action and participate in the process. Adult education is a field that encompasses a number of philosophies and ideals that are aimed at supporting improved individual, community, and societal outcomes. Democracy is a framework through which individuals are provided with the opportunities and freedoms to seek these improved outcomes. Through an examination of the major philosophies associated with adult education, this author has demonstrated the close relationship between adult education and democracy. Despite their differences, each philosophical perspective under the umbrella of adult education is directly related to the development of an informed citizenry. Adults have the power to foster change, and democracy is dependent on the participation of citizens who are knowledgeable about the issues facing both themselves and society. Throughout history, adult education has supported democratic principles by expanding ideas and providing information to citizens. This exploration into the nature of democracy and adult education has demonstrated that adult education is a crucial and necessary component of democratic process.
If climate change is the new normal, farmers in some regions of the world will have to get used to fighting mold and mildew. For wheat growers in particular, fungal blights are already a big problem—and only expected to worsen as weather patterns change. Fungal pathogens are advancing northwards at about 7 kilometers per year on average, worldwide. Scientists around the world have been trying to make wheat, the most common crop on the planet, able to survive fungal diseases by introducing disease-resistant genes, but in the past, it has been difficult to add more than two or three of these genes at a time. Enter the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS). On June 14, the ARS published a pilot study on an innovative technology called GAANTRY (Gene Assembly in Agrobacterium by Nucleic acid Transfer using Recombinase technologY) that can insert a “stack” of multiple genes simultaneously into plants. Roger Thilmony, a research molecular biologist at the ARS, says his team inserted 10 genes into Arabidopsis plants—and that’s not the upper limit; theoretically, it could be far more. The genes were transgenic, making the Arabidopsis seedlings glow fluorescent colors so the researchers would know at a glance if the genes had been successfully inserted. However, genes from the same or related species that have some benefit, such as disease resistance, can also be swapped in. This will be important if GAANTRY is used to improve crop plants, which Thilmony says is the ultimate goal of his work. Assembly within the Agrobacterium is something I hadn’t seen before.—Patrick Shih, University of California, Davis Why gene-stacking? Multiple genes for disease resistance give plant immune systems a wider array of self-defense tools. That means wheat, potatoes, and other crops can be genetically engineered to tolerate heat, drought, diseases, and pests, the agricultural “four horsemen” of climate change. GAANTRY is more efficient than previous stacking technologies because it cuts out the middle man, assembling genes directly into “disarmed” Agrobacteria (which then edit the plant’s genome), rather than relying on external gene couriers called binary vectors to shuttle genes to the bacteria. The stack is put together using alternating antibiotics to select for bacteria that take up the cargo genes. Agrobacterium is a soil bacterium that preys on plants, causing galls and “hairy root disease” by invading the plants’ DNA. It has been used in its harmless form for plant gene editing for the past 15 years. GAANTRY performs well in terms of stability and reliability. “What you put into it stays there, and you don’t lose any of the cargo that you add,” says Thilmony. This is for two reasons: First, the ARS team knocked out a gene that would otherwise enable Agrobacterium genes to recombine. The less often that genes scramble, the less variation is introduced. Second, the cargo genes are loaded into the bacterium’s virulence plasmid, in the space where disease-causing genes were previously housed. Because virulence is how Agrobacterium made its living for eons, it has built-in mechanisms to keep genes in that plasmid stable. Patrick Shih, a plant biologist at the University of California, Davis, previously developed another gene stacking method using yeast, which could self-assemble genes, but was dependent upon using specific recombination sites. He says GAANTRY addresses “something the other stacking technologies haven’t offered. . . . Assembly within the Agrobacterium is something I hadn’t seen before.” Shih mentions that the GAANTRY stack was assembled in the Agrobacterium one gene at a time before inserting the 10-gene stack into plants, an approach that could be inconvenient if it were inherent to the system. Thilmony says the GAANTRY system is not limited to stacking one gene at a time; developers can assemble stacks in the Agrobacterium using several genes at once. An iterative process just makes it easier to recover from problems during assembly, because genes can’t be deleted from the stack once they have been added. If there’s a problem with gene number nine, you don’t want to have to start over at step one to rebuild the stack. Instead, you could go back to the eight-gene version and start there. Unlike transgenic GMOs, which introduce genes from other species, new “mutagenic” technologies such as GAANTRY and CRISPR allow scientists to introduce disease-resistant genes from within the same species. Developers of these approaches say it’s a faster and more precise way to achieve results than with conventional breeding techniques. The USDA offered the GAANTRY technology to the world at no charge, but soon after the GAANTRY study was published, the technique and others like it were snubbed by an EU court that ruled for broader restrictions on genetically modified foods. Specifically, the EU no longer makes a distinction between mutagenic and transgenic gene editing. This means that crops modified by technologies such as CRISPR and GAANTRY are no longer allowed in the EU, unless they go through a rigorous and restrictive review process. Sarah Gurr, a plant pathologist at the University of Exeter, is skeptical about whether GAANTRY is ready for prime time. “Arabidopsis is a little weed and it’s not a crop plant,” she says. “While it’s all fantastic stuff, it isn’t necessarily transferrable from a Brassica, which is what Arabidopsis is, into wheat, which is hugely complex genome-wise.” Although GAANTRY is a great concept, she says, “it’s far removed from getting it into a crop in a field.” Thilmony and his colleague Jim Thomson, a plant geneticist at ARS, say that, while they haven’t conclusively demonstrated GAANTRY’s effectiveness on major crop plants yet, there are preliminary data showing that GAANTRY works in rice, citrus, and potatoes. They have also learned that different strains of Agrobacterium work better with different types of plants, and are exploring ways to optimize the pairing. Gurr’s concern with stacking genes for fungal resistance is that pathogens can quickly overcome them. She has seen barley with five stacked genes (painstakingly built using traditional breeding) overcome by a powdery mildew fungus within three months. Zymoseptoria tritici, which causes wheat blotch, has a “very plastic genome,” and “mutates towards more virulence in just a few days,” she says. “If you stack them, it sounds great, but it still might be ephemeral.” R. Collier et al., “A versatile and robust Agrobacterium-based gene stacking system generates high-quality transgenic Arabidopsis plants,” The Plant Journal, 95:573-83, 2018.
- Clinical science Scabies is a parasitic skin infestation caused by the Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis (S. scabiei) mite, which is primarily transmitted via direct human-to-human contact. The female scabies mite burrows into the superficial skin layer, causing severe pruritus, particularly at night. Primary lesions commonly include erythematous papules, vesicles, or burrows. Treatment involves topical medical therapy (e.g., permethrin) and decontamination of all clothing and textiles. - Pathogen: Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis - Highly contagious - Typically via direct physical contact - Risk factors: crowded living conditions (e.g., institutions such as nursing homes, child care facilities, and prisons) - The fertilized, female mite tunnels into the superficial skin layer (stratum corneum), forming burrows in which she lays her eggs and deposits feces (scybala). - After 2 months, the female parasite dies on site. - Following a period of 3 weeks, the larvae mature into adult mites, maintaining the infestation cycle. - The excretions of the mites and their decomposing bodies contain antigens which cause an immunological response (see , presenting as severe pruritus and excoriations. - Incubation period: approximately 3–6 weeks following infestation. - Intense pruritus at night - Burning sensation - Skin lesions - Wrists (flexor surface) - Medial aspect of fingers - Interdigital folds (hands and feet) - Male genitalia (e.g., scrotum, penis) - All other intertriginous areas of the skin (anterior axillary fold, buttocks) - Periumbilical area or waist - Additionally in children, elderly persons, and immunosuppressed patients: scalp, face, neck, under the nail, palms of hands, and soles of feet - Typical history and skin lesions on clinical examination (see “Symptoms/clinical findings” above) - Environmental diagnosis (direct contact with infected persons) - Detection of mites, larvae, ova, or mite feces Medical therapy: topical application of a scabicidal agent - Drug of choice: permethrin 5% lotion - Symptomatic treatment of pruritus - Wash all textiles (e.g., clothing and bedding) - Bacterial superinfection We list the most important complications. The selection is not exhaustive.
A castellan is the title used in Medieval Europe for an appointed official, a governor of a castle and its surrounding territory referred to as the castellany. The title of governor is retained in the English Prison system, as a remnant of the medieval idea of the castellan as head of the local prison. The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum "castle". Sometimes also known as a constable of the castle district, the Constable of the Tower of London is, in fact, a form of castellan, with representative powers in the local or national assembly. A castellan was almost always male, but could occasionally be female, as when, in 1194, Beatrice inherited her father's castellany of Bourbourg upon the death of her brother, Roger. Similarly of Agnes at Harlech Castle upon the death of her husband John de Bonvillars in 1287. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, foreign tribes migrated into western Europe, causing strife. The answer to recurrent invasion was to create fortified areas which evolved into castles. Some military leaders gained control of several areas, each with a castle. The problem lay in exerting control and authority in each area when a leader could only be in one place at a time. To overcome this, they appointed castellans as their trusted vassals to manage a castle in exchange for obligations to the landlord, often a noble. In the ninth century, as fortifications improved and kings had difficulty making their subordinates pay their taxes or send the military aid they demanded, castellans grew in power, holding their fiefdoms without much concern for their overlord's demands. This changed as kings grew in power and as the Holy Roman Emperors replaced recalcitrant vassals with rival ministerial appointments. Usually the duties of a castellan consisted of military responsibility for the castle's garrison, maintaining defences and protecting the castle's lands, combined with the legal administration of local lands and workers including the castle's domestic staff. The responsibility applied even where there was no resident castellan at the castle, or if he was frequently absent. A castellan could exercise the power of the "ban" - that is, to hear court cases and collect fines, taxes from residents, and muster local men for the defence of the area or the realm. There are similarities with a Lord of the Manor. Castellans had the power to administer all local justice, including sentencing and punishments up to and including the death penalty, as when, in 1111, the Salzburg castellan caught the minister fomenting armed rebellion and had the offender blinded, "as one would a serf". Later the castellan came to serve as the representative of the people of his castellany. So happened in the case of the castellan of Bruges, when the burghers stood up for more privileges and liberties from the counts of Flanders. A particular responsibility in western Europe concerned jurisdiction over the resident Jewish communities bordering the English Channel. The Constable of the Tower of London and those castellans subordinate to the dukes of Normandy were responsible for their administration. Vivian Lipman posits four reasons for this: the castles provided defence, they were centres of administration, their dungeons were used as prisons and castellans could turn to the Jewish community to borrow money as usury was forbidden to Catholics. A castellany, or castellania, is a term denoting a district administered by a castellan. Castellanies appeared during the Middle Ages and in most current states are now replaced by a more modern type of county subdivision. The word is derived from castle and literally means the extent of land and jurisdiction attached to a given castle. There are equivalent, often cognate, terms in other languages. Examples of French châtelainies include the castellanies of Ivry-la-Bataille, Nonancourt, Pacy-sur-Eure, Vernon and Gaillon, all in Normandy, which under in the treaty of Issoudun of 1195, after a war with king Richard I of England, were acquired for the French crown by Philip Augustus. Examples of castellanies in Poland include: czyca and Sieradz (both duchies at one time), Spycimierz, Rozprza, Wolbórz now in the Lodz Voivodeship, and Wojnicz now in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship or Otmuchów in Silesia. In France, castellans (known in French as châtelains) who governed castellanies without a resident count, acquired considerable powers such that the position became hereditary. By the tenth century, the fragmentation of power had become so widespread that in Mâcon, for instance, where the castellany was the basic unit of governance, there was no effective administrative level above it, so that the counts of Mâcon were largely ignored by their subordinate castellans from about 980 to 1030. In the 12th century châtelains had become "lords" in their own right and were able to expand their territories to include weaker castellanies. Thus the castellan of Beaujeu was able to take over lands in Lyons, or the castellan of Uxelles annexed first Briançon, then Sennecey-le-Grand and finally l'Épervière. In other areas, castellans did not manage to rise to noble status and remained the local officer of a noble. During the Ancien Régime, castellans were heads of local royal administration, and their power was further delegated to their lieutenants. All remaining lordships and local royal administrators were suppressed during the French Revolution. During the 19th and 20th centuries, châtelain was used to describe the owner of a castle or manor house, in many cases a figure of authority in his parish, akin to the English squire. In Germany the castellan was known as a Burgmann, or sometimes Hauptmann ("captain"), who reported to the lord of the castle, or Burgherr, also often known as the burgrave (Burggraf). The burgmann may have been either a free noble or a ministerialis, but either way, he administered the castle as a vassal. A ministerialis, was wholly subordinate to a lord and was under his control. Ministeriales replaced free nobles as castellans of Hohensalzburg under Conrad I of Abensberg's tenure as Archbishop of Salzburg from 1106 to 1147, beginning with Henry of Seekirchen in the 1130s. In the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary the castellan was called "várnagy", and in the Latin chronicles he appeared as "castellanus". The lord of the castle had very similar functions to those in German lands. In Hungary the King initially designated castellans from among his court for the administration of castles and estates. Later designation of castellans devolved to the most powerful noblemen. In the Kingdom of Poland and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, castellans (Polish: Kasztelan) were the lowest rung of the territorial administration of the country and deferred to voivodes (with the exception of the Burgrave of Kraków (Polish Burgrabia krakowski) who had precedence over the Voivode of Kraków). Castellans were in charge of a subdivision of a voivodeship called the castellany (Polish Kasztelania) until the 15th-century. From then on castellanies, depending on their size, either became provinces, or in the case of smaller domains were replaced by powiats and the castellan role became honorific and was replaced in situ by a Starosta. Castellans in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were of senatorial rank and were often appointed from the nobility, but not exclusively so. In Portugal, a castellan was known as an Alcaide. Later, the role of the alcaide became an honorary title awarded by the King of Portugal to certain nobles. As the honorary holder of the office of alcaide did not often live near the castle, a delegate started to be appointed to effectively govern it in his place. An honorary holder of the office became known as alcaide-mor (major alcaide) and the delegate became known as the alcaide pequeno (little alcaide) or the alcaide-menor (minor alcaide).
Drones could be the key to connecting large numbers of smart objects to create the internet of things (IoT). KAUST researchers have shown that using drones, also known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), to fly between clusters of IoT objects to collect their data could be highly efficient. “IoT networks will revolutionize the way we monitor, control and communicate with everything around us,” says Osama Bushnaq, a Ph.D. student in Tareq Al Naffouri’s lab. Crop fields could be filled with sensors that monitor water and nutrient levels. Networks of sensors that detect wildlife could also be deployed. “To enable IoT networks, a huge number of low-cost, self-powered sensors are needed,” Bushnaq says. Traditional wireless data transfer is unsuitable for this purpose due to the limited power supply of each sensor and the complexity of connecting so many devices. Sending UAVs to gather data via low-power, short-range transmission could be an alternative, transferring the burden of data aggregation from each individual sensor to a single machine that can autonomously return to base for recharging. The challenge comes in calculating the most efficient approach to data collection in order to minimize mission time and maximize productivity. Imagine a field randomly covered with IoT sensors, Bushnaq says. “Covering a small area of the field at each hovering location improves communication between the UAV and the devices, reducing data aggregation time,” he explains. However, the UAV needs to spend more time traveling between all the IoT devices in the field. Minimizing the total mission time involves optimizing UAV coverage area, the number and location of hovering locations, and the UAV’s path between each location. Read the full article
The issue: Questions about how to use limited financial resources vex school administrators and local governments across the country. Computer technology is critical to the 21st century economy. So school administrators increasingly see laptops as a way to ensure all children receive tools for success. As laptops fall in price — Google’s Chromebook, for example, starts at $150 — they are becoming more common in the classroom. But do such programs help students learn? An academic study worth reading: “Learning in One-to-One Laptop Environments: A Meta-Analysis and Research Synthesis,” published in Review of Educational Research, 2016. Study summary: This meta-analysis, led by Binbin Zheng of Michigan State University, reviews 96 studies on the effectiveness of school programs that distribute laptops to students in K-12 classrooms. Specifically it looks at so-called “one-to-one” programs, which ensure every child is issued a laptop for use across a range of subjects. For a data analysis, the authors chose 10 studies with statistics that could be compared. Overall, the study looks at research from January 2001 to May 2015 and does not include work focusing on tablets, desktops, or other devices. Key takeaways from the study: - The analysis finds statistically significant performance improvements in English language arts (ELA), writing and middle school science (though science scores improved more for boys than for girls). - Students from low-income backgrounds and homes where English is a second language saw improvement in scores across a variety of subjects. In some cases, these students improved test scores in writing more than their better-off peers. Improvements were measurable, but less obvious, for students from homes that are more likely to have computers. - There are mixed findings on how well the programs bridge the digital divide between students from high- and low-income homes. Students from poorer backgrounds gain more from laptop programs in general, especially in technical skills; that is likely because they start with less computer and digital experience outside the classroom. However, those with access to computers at home, one study notes, also performed better in ELA tests. Though an overall positive outcome is observed, the ability of laptop programs to bridge socioeconomic gaps is unclear. - One-to-one programs are not correlated with an improvement in reading scores, though the authors note strong indicators that using computer technology can predict stronger reading scores. - Sometimes improvements are only measurable in the second year of a one-to-one program. - Teacher buy-in is critical. Technology alone does not improve students’ test scores. In Birmingham, Alabama, where the one-to-one program was introduced by the local government with “almost no funding or support for curriculum development … or teacher professional development” and little input from teachers, the program failed: Computers in classrooms went largely untouched, became unusable without IT support and the program was abandoned after three years. “Technical, curricular, and pedagogical support for laptop use is an important component of program success.” - When teachers are offered strong IT support and training, and when they are involved in decisions about how to roll out a one-on-one program, they become more engaged in the program and confident using the technology. In turn, students are more likely to thrive. - Laptop programs sometimes helped improve teacher-student relationships, often because the students help the teachers understand the technology. The programs also suggest a positive impact on parent involvement in homework. - “Students were found to write more in classrooms where all students are provided with individual computers.” - Standardized tests have many flaws and are often criticized for not measuring the kinds of thinking and skills needed today. But teachers and students interviewed in the studies showed “wide consensus … that use of laptops promotes 21st-century learning skills.” Helpful resources for reporters writing about this issue: - The National Center for Education Statistics at the U.S. Department of Education publishes data on classrooms with computers and internet connections, as well as other figures useful to journalists writing about the role of technology in schools. - One Laptop Per Child is one non-profit organization that has received extensive media attention for creating and distributing low-cost laptops in classrooms, especially within the context of foreign aid. - The meta-analysis studies 96 papers in depth, most of which are listed in the paper’s references section, which is categorized by how each is used. - A 2013 study also led by Binbin Zheng describes how one-to-one laptop use in two California and Colorado school districts provide Hispanic and low-income students significant gains in writing test scores. The results also show that these at-risk students use the laptops more frequently than other students. - A 2013 study in Computers and Education says that laptops in college classrooms can be distracting for both the user and other students: “Participants who multitasked on a laptop during a lecture scored lower on a test compared to those who did not multitask, and participants who were in direct view of a multitasking peer scored lower on a test compared to those who were not.” A study the same year in the journal Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences describes similar results. - A 2014 study in Psychological Science, “The Pen Is Mightier Than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand Over Laptop Note Taking,” discusses the advantages of taking notes on paper rather than on a laptop. - A 2014 research roundup from Journalist’s Resource, “Multitasking, social media and distraction,” highlights 14 studies on how our constant wireless connectivity can negatively impact productivity. Keywords: education, technology, computers, networking, standardized testing, education financing, public spending, teacher training, digital divide
What is in this article?: - Corn rootworm: managment steps for Kentucky - Goose necking • There are actually three species of corn rootworms in Kentucky, the northern, western and southern corn rootworms. • While they each damage corn in a similar way, by chewing on the roots of the developing plant, they have some distinct differences in their biology and management. • Traditionally it has been the western corn rootworm that has caused most of the economic damage to corn in Kentucky. Throughout the U.S. corn belt, the No. 1 group of insect pests is the corn rootworm beetles. There are actually three species of corn rootworms in Kentucky, the northern, western and southern corn rootworms. While they each damage corn in a similar way, by chewing on the roots of the developing plant, they have some distinct differences in their biology and management. The adult of each of the three species is a small green beetle about ¼-inch in size. The western corn rootworm is the most common species attacking corn in Kentucky and can be recognized by the three distinct black stripes on its pale green body. The southern corn rootworm (also known as the spotted cucumber beetle) is more common than the western, but is only an occasional pest of corn. The southern corn rootworm is recognized by the 11 prominent black spots on the green wing covers. The least common of the species in Kentucky is the northern corn rootworm which is lacking in any black markings on the wing covers. What is common with each of the corn rootworms in Kentucky is that their eggs hatch in late spring and the larvae are destructive to corn roots. Generally the majority of damage occurs during the month of June. What can differ among the species is when the eggs are laid. With the western and northern species the eggs are laid in the soil at the base of corn plants during the previous summer. These species have a very narrow host range, feeding on corn and a few other grass species. The eggs over-winter to hatch the following May. The young larvae can only move a very short distance in the soil to find roots and begin their development. For this reason, in Kentucky the western and northern corn rootworms are only problematic in continuous corn. The southern corn rootworm over-winters as an adult and will lay its eggs in the spring. The southern corn rootworm has a very wide host range and will lay its eggs around the bases on many plant species. It generally does not concentrate on just corn. The damage done by the larvae to corn roots can be extensive. Corn plants develop roots on progressive rings, the corn rootworm larvae can destroy three or more complete rings of roots during June if populations are severe.
A constitutional dictatorship is a system (or subsystem) of constitutional government that bestows on a certain individual or institution the right to make binding rules, directives, and decisions and apply them to concrete circumstances unhindered by timely legal checks to their authority. Constitutional dictatorship, far from being a contradiction in terms, has been an important feature of republican governments since Roman times. This Article describes the basic idea of a constitutional dictatorship, and discusses those elements of constitutional dictatorship that already exist in the American constitutional system, particularly in the modern presidency. The Roman dictatorship limited the time of the dictatorship and separated the institution that declared the emergency from the person who exercised power. The American pattern has been quite different. Generally speaking, the President announces the existence of a crisis or emergency, and, at the President’s request, Congress bestows new statutory grants of power. These new powers are usually never repealed and are banked away for future use, sometimes in very different contexts. The American pattern of constitutional dictatorship does not involve the executive claiming the right to transcend the law; instead Congress grants ever more practically unreviewable discretion to the executive. A significant feature of American constitutionalism is the rise of “distributed dictatorships,” in which executive power is spread among a number of de facto dictators, each with its own special expertise. The modern administrative state increasingly spreads unreviewable power among a variety of different agencies, czars, and bureaucrats. The Federal Reserve’s response to the recent economic crisis and the Centers for Disease Control’s powers to impose quarantines are examples. The Article concludes with some suggestions for counteracting the more dangerous tendencies in the American pattern of constitutional dictatorship. Although emergencies often cannot always be foreseen in advance, the structural features of emergency power must be designed in advance to preserve republican government.
In the 16th century, Flemish geographer Gerhard Mercator made a navigation map of the world, depicting the earth's surface on a plane, so that corners are not distorted on the map. At present this method of Earths image is known as Mercator conformal cylindrical projection. This map was very convenient for the sailors as to come from point A to point B on the Mercator's map it's enough to draw a straight line between these points, measure its angle to the meridian and constantly adhere to this direction, for example by using a sextant and a polar star as landmark or using a magnetic compass(actually it's not that simple with the compass as it's not always pointing to the true north). Mercator projection is still widely used for navigational maps. Although, even the ancient sailors started to notice that the rhumb line is not always the shortest way between the two points and it's especially obvious for the long distances. If you draw a line on the globe, crossing all meridians at the same angle, it becomes clear why this is happening. The straight line on the Mercator map turns on the globe into the endlessly spinning spiral to the poles. That line is called loxodrome which means "slanting run" in Greek. The following calculator calculates the course angle and the distance of transatlantic crossing from Las Palmas (Spain) to Bridgetown (Barbados) on the loxodrome. The resulting distance is different by tens of kilometers of the shortest path (see Distance calculator) For the calculation of the course angle the following formulas are used: Loxodrome length is calculated by the following formula: , where - latitude and longitude of the first point - latitude and longitude of the second point -the eccentricity of the spheroid (a - the length of the major semiaxis, b - the length of the minor semiaxis) At angles of 90 ° or 270 °, for the calculation of the arc length the following formula was used V.S. Mikhailov, Navigation and Pilot book]] Miljenko Petrović DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF A LOXODROME ON THE SPHEROID
Generally active at night, the Galapagos bullhead shark forages along the seabed for shellfish, such as crabs, along with other marine invertebrates (6). The powerful rear teeth allow this species to crush shells with ease, digesting the soft innards and regurgitating the hard parts (4). In contrast to the common perception of most shark species as formidable, dynamic predators, the Galapagos bullhead shark is relatively docile, and a poor swimmer (4) (6). Despite its protective dorsal fin spines, this species has been known to be consumed by the much larger, notoriously voracious tiger shark (2). The Galapagos bullhead shark produces eggs rather than live young. The eggs are roughly cone shaped, with a spiral flange running around the outside (2) (4). Like other bullhead sharks, this probably enables the egg to be wedged into a rock, making it difficult for predators to remove (4). The newly hatched sharks measure around 17 centimetres in length, and do not reach sexual maturity until they measure between 48 and 61 centimetres long (2) (6).
Just an FYI – I am a Christian and I believe in Creationism. This dinosaur unit is based on that belief. - Read “What Really Happened to Dinosaurs” pages 6-11 - The book mentions that it can be very difficult for a scientist to put dinosaur bones together. - Set up a Dino Dig in a sandbox with wooden dinosaur bones. This 3D puzzle would be great to use for the dig. Since I have 3 kids, I will probably order 3 puzzles. I will then put a color code on each one with a small colored dot to indicate which pieces go together. - Once the bones have all been found, we will construct the dinosaurs. Using books from the library – we will learn about the different types of dinosaurs. - Create a dinosaur journal and record information: What is the name of your dinosaur? What does your dinosaur eat? How big is your dinosaur? List 3 new facts you learned about your dinosaur. etc. - Online Dinosaur Puzzle - Read: “The First Dinosaur Eggs and Roy Chapman Andrews” by Brooke Hartzog - Talk about how dinosaurs lay eggs then hatch Dinosaur eggs. - Look at a book of Dinosaurs and find out more information on the dinosaurs hatched. Journal information and draw a picture of the hatched dinosaur. - On-line Dinosaur Memory Game - Dinosaur Math Worksheets - Read: Discovering Dinosaurs with a Fossil Hunter by Judith Williams - Fossil Project – These little dinos work great for this project - Make fossil cookies for snack - Dinosaur Train online games. - Play with dino toys and puzzles. Day 4: Dinosaur Day! - A day of dino fun! Search Pinterest and you will find plenty of activities. Here are the ones we will do on this day: - Craft- Dino Shirts (to wear on our field trip of course). - Dino Activity Books or Printable Worksheets - Ceramic dinosaurs to paint HERE. - Pick out some fun projects and activities here. - Dinosaur Lunch – Dino chicken nuggets, dino mac & cheese, dino fruit snacks - Watch Dinosaur Train Day 5: Field Trip
While finding holes in the lawn is disturbing to adults, to children they are a place to poke sticks and stuff grass or leaves. Small holes in the lawn, those about the size of a quarter, are made by insects as they burrow in or emerge from underground. Some of the insects may bite or sting, so it is important to determine which insect is creating the holes. Ants create bare circles of earth in the grass and tunnel through the ground to loosen soil and allow for airflow. Ant holes are about 1/4 inch in diameter and have a mound of soil encircling the area, measuring 2 to 3 inches across. Ant tunnels loosen soil near the lawn roots, drying them out. Small ant tunnels cause insignificant damage, while larger anthills, like those built by fire ants, can kill the lawn in 1- to 2-inch patches, and the hills stick up high enough for lawn mowers to hit them. Ants do bite and sting people. Mole crickets damage the lawn by feeding on grass roots. They burrow into the soil and cause the soil where they dig to dry out rapidly. Female mole crickets dig into the soil to lay eggs, and these pests tunnel and live in 1/2-inch-diameter holes. Mole crickets are nocturnal and can move underneath the soil when it is moist and travel about 20 feet underground each; they may also come above ground and roam. Mole crickets are not harmful to humans or pets. Larvae from several different types of beetles hatch form eggs underground, including green June beetles. Many of them remain in a curled position underground for 10 months or more before emerging. In warm weather, the grubs live just 1 to 3 inches underground, but they'll burrow deeper in cooler temperatures. Grubs feed on lawn roots; moles, skunks and birds all dig into soil to eat grubs. So, grubs cause damage both by feeding on roots and by being sought after by predators. A cicada killer is a black, yellow-banded wasp about 1 1/2 inches long. These pests tunnel underground and create mounds of dirt at the entrance of these burrows. Their burrowing damages the lawn; however, they generally do not sting people unless they feel threatened. These wasps are called cicada killers because the female stings a cicada to paralyze it before placing it in its nest. The wasp then lays its eggs on the cicada. The eggs hatch and feed on the cicada. Periodical cicadas are also known as 17-year locusts. Female cicadas lay eggs in the bark of twigs, and after the eggs hatch, they drop onto the soil and burrow down, leaving small holes in the lawn. You might notice these holes under trees. While developing underground, these pets use their piercing mouth parts to suck plant juices from the roots of plants for 17 years before emerging. Adult cicadas only live three to four weeks above ground.
Differentiating instruction allows the teacher to build in different scaffolds for different groups of students, using what they know about their students and what the teacher wants the students to know. Here are some guiding questions for the teacher according to (Rutherford 2002). How abstract are the ideas? Does the teacher need to make the ideas more concrete for the students? Does the teacher need to use realia, pictures, and graphs to help make the content comprehensible? What are the connections to the students’ background knowledge? What materials and resources can the teacher provide? Are there graphic organizers that help to build schema? Are there specific metacognitive learning strategies such as organizational planning or cognitive learning strategies such as summarizing chunks of text that will help the English language learners break the task into smaller parts? What is the level of independence? Does the teacher need to provide language structures to facilitate English language learners? What is the pacing? Do the students need more time to complete the assignment? According to Tomlinson and Strickland (2005), teachers usually differentiate instruction by adjusting one or more of the following; the content, what students learn; the process, how students learn; or the product, how students demonstrate their mastery of the knowledge or skills. However there is no one size fits all model for differentiated instruction. It looks different depending on the prior knowledge; interests and abilities students bring to the learning situation. Tomlinson describes teachers who differentiate as those who strive to do whatever it takes ensure that struggling and advanced learners, students with varied cultural heritages, language proficiencies, and children with different background experiences all grow as much as they possibly can each day, each week, and throughout the year.
The three-phase alternator, as the name implies, has three single-phase windings spaced such that the voltage induced in any one phase is displaced by 120° from the other two. A schematic diagram of a three-phase stator showing all the coils becomes complex, and it is difficult to see what is actually happening. The simplified schematic of figure 3-8, view A, shows all the windings of each phase lumped together as one winding. The rotor is omitted for simplicity. The voltage waveforms generated across each phase are drawn on a graph, phase-displaced 120° from each other. The three-phase alternator as shown in this schematic is made up of three single-phase alternators whose generated voltages are out of phase by 120°. The three phases are independent of each other. Figure 3-8. - Three-phase alternator connections. Rather than having six leads coming out of the three-phase alternator, the same leads from each phase may be connected together to form a wye (Y) connection, as shown in figure 3-8, view B. It is called a wye connection because, without the neutral, the windings appear as the letter Y, in this case sideways or upside down. The neutral connection is brought out to a terminal when a single-phase load must be supplied. Single-phase voltage is available from neutral to A, neutral to B, and neutral to C. In a three-phase, Y-connected alternator, the total voltage, or line voltage, across any two of the three line leads is the vector sum of the individual phase voltages. Each line voltage is 1.73 times one of the phase voltages. Because the windings form only one path for current flow between phases, the line and phase currents are the same (equal). A three-phase stator can also be connected so that the phases are connected end-to-end; it is now delta connected (fig. 3-8, view C). (Delta because it looks like the Greek letter delta, Δ.) In the delta connection, line voltages are equal to phase voltages, but each line current is equal to 1.73 times the phase current. Both the wye and the delta connections are used in alternators. The majority of all alternators in use in the Navy today are three-phase machines. They are much more efficient than either two-phase or single-phase alternators. Figure 3-9. - Three-phase alternator or transformer connections. A three-phase transformer may be made up of three, single-phase transformers connected in delta, wye, or a combination of both. If both the primary and secondary are connected in wye, the transformer is called a wye-wye. If both windings are connected in delta, the transformer is called a delta-delta. Figure 3-10 shows single-phase transformers connected delta-delta for operation in a three-phase system. You will note that the transformer windings are not angled to illustrate the typical delta (Δ) as has been done with alternator windings. Physically, each transformer in the diagram stands alone. There is no angular relationship between the windings of the individual transformers. However, if you follow the connections, you will see that they form an electrical delta. The primary windings, for example, are connected to each other to form a closed loop. Each of these junctions is fed with a phase voltage from a three-phase alternator. The alternator may be connected either delta or wye depending on load and voltage requirements, and the design of the system. Figure 3-10. - Three single-phase transformers connected delta-delta. Figure 3-11 shows three single-phase transformers connected wye-wye. Again, note that the transformer windings are not angled. Electrically, a Y is formed by the connections. The lower connections of each winding are shorted together. These form the common point of the wye. The opposite end of each winding is isolated. These ends form the arms of the wye. Figure 3-11. - Three single-phase transformers connected wye-wye. The ac power on most ships is distributed by a three-phase, three-wire, 450-volt system. The single-phase transformers step the voltage down to 117 volts. These transformers are connected delta-delta as in figure 3-10. With a delta-delta configuration, the load may be a three-phase device connected to all phases; or, it may be a single-phase device connected to only one phase. At this point, it is important to remember that such a distribution system includes everything between the alternator and the load. Because of the many choices that three-phase systems provide, care must be taken to ensure that any change of connections does not provide the load with the wrong voltage or the wrong phase. Q.14 In a three-phase alternator, what is the phase relationship between the individual
This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A full-rigged ship or fully rigged ship is term of art denoting a sailing vessel's sail plan with three or more masts, all of them square-rigged. A full-rigged ship is said to have a ship rig or be ship-rigged. Sometimes such a vessel will merely be called a ship in 18th- to early-19th-century and earlier usage, to distinguish it from other large three-masted blue-water working vessels such as barques, barquentines, fluyts etc. This full or ship-rig sail plan thus is a term of art[clarification needed] that differentiates such vessels as well from other working or cargo vessels with widely diverse alternative sail-plans such as galleons, cogs, sloops, caravels, schooners, brigs and carracks; some of which also have three masted variants (brigs, schooners, sloops, and galleons). The ship-rig sail plan also differs drastically from the large panoply of one and two masted vessels found as working and recreational sailboats. Alternatively, a full-rigged ship may be referred to by its function instead, as in collier or frigate, rather than being called a ship. In many languages the word frigate or frigate rig refers to a full-rigged ship. - Foremast, which is the second tallest mast - Mainmast, the tallest - Mizzenmast, the third tallest - Jiggermast, which may not be present but will be fourth tallest if so There is no standard name for a fifth mast on a ship-rigged vessel (though this may be called the spanker mast on a barque, schooner or barquentine). Only one five-masted full-rigged ship (the Flying P-Liner Preussen) had ever been built until recent years, when a few modern five-masted cruise sailing ships have been launched. Even a fourth mast is relatively rare for full-rigged ships. Ships with five and more masts are not normally fully rigged and their masts may be numbered rather than named in extreme cases. If the masts are of wood, each mast is in three or more pieces. They are (in order, from bottom up): - The lowest piece is called the mast or the lower. - Topgallant mast - Royal mast, if fitted On steel-masted vessels, the corresponding sections of the mast are named after the traditional wooden sections. The lowest and normally largest sail on a mast is the course sail of that mast, and is referred to simply by the mast name: Foresail, mainsail, mizzen sail, jigger sail or more commonly forecourse etc. Note that even a full-rigged ship did not usually have a lateral (square) course on the mizzen mast below the mizzen topmast. Instead, the lowest sail on the mizzen was usually a fore/aft sail—originally a lateen sail, but later a gaff sail called a spanker or driver. The key distinction between a "ship" and "barque" (in modern usage) is that a "ship" carries a square-rigged mizzen topsail (and therefore that its mizzen mast has a topsail yard and a cross-jack yard) whereas the mizzen mast of a barque has only fore-and-aft rigged sails. The cross-jack yard was the lowest yard on a ship's mizzen mast. Unlike the corresponding yards on the fore and main mast it did not usually have fittings to hang a sail from: its purpose was to control the lower edge of the topsail. In the rare case that the cross-jack yard did carry a square sail, this sail would be called the cross-jack rather than the mizzen course. Above the course sail, in order, are: - Topsail, or - Lower topsail, if fitted. - Upper topsail, if fitted. - Topgallant sail, or - Lower topgallant sail, if fitted. - Upper topgallant sail, if fitted. - Royal sail, if fitted. - Skysail, if fitted. - Moonraker, if fitted. The division of a sail into upper and lower sails was a matter of practicality, since undivided sails were larger and, consequently, more difficult to handle. Larger sails necessitated hiring, and paying, a larger crew. Additionally, the great size of some late-19th and 20th century vessels meant that their correspondingly large sails would have been impossible to handle had they not been divided. Staysails may be carried between any other mast and the one in front of it or from the foremast to the bowsprit. They are named after the mast from which they are hoisted, so for example a staysail hoisted to the top of the mizzen topgallant on a stay running to the top of the main topmast would be called the mizzen topgallant staysail. In light winds studding sails (pronounced "stunsls") may be carried on either side of any or all of the square rigged sails except royals and skysails. They are named after the adjacent sail and the side of the vessel on which they are set, for example main topgallant starboard stu'nsail. One or more spritsails may also be set on booms set athwart and below the bowsprit. One or two spankers are carried aft of the aftmost mast, if two they are called the upper spanker and lower spanker. A fore-and-aft topsail may be carried above the upper or only spanker, and is called the gaff sail. To stop a full-rigged ship except when running directly down wind, the sails of the foremast are oriented in the direction perpendicular to those of the mainmast. Thus, the masts cancel out of their push on the ship. This allows the crew to stop and quickly restart the ship without retracting and lowering the sails, and to dynamically compensate for the push of the wind on the masts themselves and the yards. Running downwind the sails still need to be lowered to bring the ship to a halt. - Quiller-Couch, Arthur Thomas (1895). The Story of the Sea. 1. Cassell and Company. p. 760. - Willaumez, p. 434 - Rousmaniere, John (June 1998). The Illustrated Dictionary of Boating Terms: 2000 Essential Terms for Sailors and Powerboaters (Paperback). W. W. Norton & Company. p. 174. ISBN 0393339181. ISBN 978-0393339185
The purpose of this section is to remind us of one of the more important applications of derivatives. That is the fact that represents the rate of change of . This is an application that we repeatedly saw in the previous chapter. Almost every section in the previous chapter contained at least one problem dealing with this application of derivatives. While this application will arise occasionally in this chapter we are going to focus more on other applications in this chapter. So, to make sure that we don’t forget about this application here is a brief set of examples concentrating on the rate of change application of derivatives. Note that the point of these examples is to remind you of material covered in the previous chapter and not to teach you how to do these kinds of problems. If you don’t recall how to do these kinds of examples you’ll need to go back and review the previous chapter. Example 1 Determine all the points where the following function is not changing. First we’ll need to take the derivative of the function. function will not be changing if the rate of change is zero and so to answer this question we need to determine where the derivative is zero. So, let’s set this equal to zero and solve. The solution to this is then, If you don’t recall how to solve trig equations check out the Solving Trig Equations sections in the Example 2 Determine where the following function is increasing and decreasing. As with the first problem we first need to take the derivative of the function. Next, we need to determine where the function isn’t changing. This is at, function is not changing at three values of t. Finally, to determine where the function is increasing or decreasing we need to determine where the derivative is positive or negative. Recall that if the derivative is positive then the function must be increasing and if the derivative is negative then the function must be decreasing. The following number line gives this information. So, from this number line we can see that we have the following increasing and decreasing If you don’t remember how to solve polynomial and rational inequalities then you should check out the appropriate sections in the Review Finally, we can’t forget about Related Example 3 Two cars start out 500 miles apart. Car A is to the west of Car B and starts driving to the east (i.e. towards Car B) at 35 mph and at the same time Car B starts driving south at 50 mph. After 3 hours of driving at what rate is the distance between the two cars changing? Is it increasing or decreasing? The first thing to do here is to get sketch a figure showing the situation. In this figure y represents the distance driven by Car B and x represents the distance separating Car A from Car B’s initial position and z represents the distance separating the two cars. After 3 hours driving time with have the following values of x and y. We can use the Pythagorean theorem to find z at this time as follows, Now, to answer this question we will need to determine given that and . Do you agree with the signs on the two given rates? Remember that a rate is negative if the quantity is decreasing and positive if the quantity is We can again use the Pythagorean theorem here. First, write it down and the remember that x, y, and z are all changing with time and so differentiate the equation using Implicit Finally, all we need to do is cancel a two from everything, plug in for the known quantities and solve for . So, after three hours the distance between them is decreasing at a rate of 14.9696 mph. So, in this section we covered three “standard” problems using the idea that the derivative of a function gives its rate of change. As mentioned earlier, this chapter will be focusing more on other applications than the idea of rate of change, however, we can’t forget this application as it is a very important one.
Historians think that St. Patrick arrived in Ireland around 432 AD. What did he find when he arrived? What kind of buildings did he and his fellow priests erect when King Daire ceded them land in Armagh, near the huge lake called the Lough Neagh? In asking this question, I am also asking myself as an author–what kind of village did my fictional Caylith and her immigrants set up when first they arrived in Derry, the land ceded to her by High King Leary? Historians and archaeologists alike conclude that for centuries, the Irish as well as other Celtic people constructed their homes from a combination of woven saplings and hardened daub. This type of construction is called “clay and wattle,” or “wattle and daub.” In fact, this same building technique lasted there and in the UK well into Shakespeare’s day (the 1500s), even though the overall construction by then had become more “modern” and sophisticated. And think of today’s use of rebar and concrete–exactly the same principle, using more modern materials. On the western coast of Ireland, there were many stone houses, where granite and other building supplies were plentiful. But in Derry, Armagh and Meath, the best supplies were the limber rowan trees and the boggy grasslands. Let’s take a look at the houses that would have existed when Patrick walked the boglands of Old World Ireland, and when Caylith and her people extended the village of Derry along the swift River Foyle. First, builders would select hundreds of limber tree saplings, usually of the rowan or ash trees, that were plentiful throughout the island. They would begin by forming a circle within a circle– or sometimes a double square–of older, sturdy trunks to form the framework. Or they might merely construct one solid wall in a circle or rectangle. These trunks would be sunk into the ground to form a wind-resistant structure. Then they would weave the saplings back and forth inside the space between the double circle, or simply through the larger standing trunks as shown in the photos. When the outer framework and inner latticework were finished, workers would make a daub or clay from wet soil mixed with peat, straw and even dung. The sticky clay would be worked all through the latticework of saplings and allowed to dry. Spaces would be left for windows, which could be shuttered to shut out the incessant rain. The overall construction of the round houses called for a cone-like roof, and it would have been thatched using long dried grasses. With a hole in the center for smoke to escape, the house would have looked like those of many other people throughout the ancient world–from the homes of Cherokees and Aztecs to Africans throughout the entire vast rural plains of the south. To ensure that the hardened clay would not deteriorate, the builders used a combination of chalk and lime–a whitewash–to spread over the outside of their structures. This technique resulted in what would no doubt seem startling to our modern eyes–whole villages, complete with large churches and monasteries, stark white and reflecting a dazzling appearance for many miles around. In The Dawn of Ireland novels, true to modern Irish Gaelic, a clay-and-wattle house is called a teach–pronounced somewhat like “chalk.” A larger, many-roomed structure is called a brugh. On a subsequent post, I will explore the inside of a clay-and-wattle house, and I will talk about the larger, more complex structures and earthworks that a nobleman or king would have constructed. For a fictionalized account of houses and of village life in the Ireland of St. Patrick, please see my Dawn of Ireland series:
\|Printer Friendly Format \| Lesson Plans A-Z \| Lesson Plans By Topic \| Lesson Plans By Location\| \|Topic\|\|Laboratory and Hands-on Activities - Dissections\| Participants will learn dissection techniques and the anatomies of frogs, crayfish, fetal pigs or sharks. They will also learn anatomical vocabulary and scientific terms. Dissection-style classes are also offered for cows’ eyes and owl pellets. \|Grade Level\|\|6 - 12\| \|Recommended Setting\|\|Laboratory or appropriately stocked classroom\| \|Location\|\|Governor Mike Huckabee Delta Rivers Nature Center, Pine Bluff\| Education Program Coordinator, 870-534-0011 \|Suggested Number of Participants\|\|Up to 30\| - Study the anatomy of selected species and learn dissection techniques. - Study the physiology of the species. - Understand the relationships of the organs. Selected species (frog, dogfish, pig) Virtual dissection CD and video equipment Dissection allows a first-hand view of a species’ organs and muscles and how they are connected and interact and their position in the body. - Prior to the class, specimens should be selected and shipped to the nature center. There will be one or two participants per specimen. - Provide each participant (or group) with a dissection tray and utensils. - Instruct them on the proper technique to dissect their specimen. - Show an introductory video about the proper location of incisions and the order organs will be dissected. - Each group will follow along so each step can be discussed. - Answer any questions. - What was different about each specimen? - What were some interesting stomach contents? What does that tell about the specimen? - What is the relationship of organs to one another? - What were some physical traits that help the animal survive in its habitat? Anterior – in anatomy, located near or toward the head in lower animals; located on or near the front of the body in higher animals; or located on or near the front of an organ or on the ventral surface of the body in humans Dorsal – in anatomy, situated on or toward the upper side of the body; equivalent to the back in humans or toward the posterior plane in humans or toward the upper plane in quadrupeds Posterior – in anatomy, (in quadrupeds) pertaining to the rear of the body; or (in humans and other primates) pertaining to the back plane of the body, equivalent to the dorsal surface of quadrupeds Ventral – in anatomy, situated on the lower, abdominal plane of the body, equivalent to the front, or anterior, in a human
The term of “tsunami” comes from the Japanese which means harbour (“tsu”) and wave (“nami”). A tsunami is a series of waves generated when water in a lake or a sea is rapidly displaced on a massive scale. A tsunami can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Such large vertical movements of the earth’s crust can occur at plate boundaries. Subduction of earthquakes are particularly effective in generating tsunami, and occur where denser oceanic plates slip under continental plates. As the displaced water mass moves under the influence of gravity to regain its equilibrium, it radiates across the ocean like ripples on a pond. Tsunami always bring great damage. Most of the damage is caused by the huge mass of water behind the initial wave front, as the height of the sea keeps rising fast and floods powerfully into the coastal area.
The dog's stomach is a sac-like structure designed to store large volumes of food and begin the digestive process. Once eaten, most food leaves the stomach within twelve hours after entering. The esophagus (muscular tube) carries food to the stomach, where it enters via a valve-like structure called the cardiac sphincter. On the interior surface of the stomach is a series of folds called gastric folds. These folds function to help grind and digest food. The inner stomach lining secretes acids and enzymes to break food down as the initial step in the digestive process. Once the initial stomach digestive process is complete, the partially digested food exits the stomach through the pyloric sphincter area and then enters the duodenum (small intestine). Gastritis describes an inflammation or infection of the stomach. As in humans, viruses and bacteria can irritate the stomach and cause gastritis. Additionally, the ingestion of spoiled food, garbage, etc., can irritate the stomach lining. What are the symptoms? A dog with gastritis will generally vomit, not eat, and be lethargic. The temperature is usually elevated above the normal 101.5 degrees. If a virus or bacteria is involved, the gastritis may eventually progress to the intestines and cause diarrhea. Infectious canine parvovirus is a classic example of a viral infection, which occasionally begins as gastritis. What are the risks? Most instances of gastritis are not serious. However, if the vomiting becomes severe, or if signs persist for more than twenty-four hours, then veterinary attention should be sought. What is the management? A dog with a mild upset stomach can benefit from a gastric coating of soothing preparations such as Pepto-Bismol. Generally, it is best to withhold food, but not water. Withholding food will allow the stomach to rest. Bland diets such as chicken and rice can be fed once the stomach has settled down. Rather than allowing the animal to drink a lot at one time, water should be given often and in small amounts. If vomiting persists, diarrhea develops, or if the body temperature is excessively high (greater than 103 degrees), veterinary attention should be sought. A veterinarian will observe the dog for dehydration resulting from lack of fluid intake, or through diarrhea and vomiting. Intravenous fluids can be used to replace lost fluids. Antibiotics are used to kill bacteria if necessary. Various medications are available to decrease vomiting.
Philosophy, Goals, and Objectives of the World Languages Department Language and communication are at the heart of the human experience, whether communication takes place face-to-face, in writing, or across the centuries through the reading of literature. Our students must have the linguistic and cultural skills to communicate successfully in a pluralistic society at home and abroad. All students should develop a level of proficiency in at least one other language. All students should study language and culture in an integrated fashion, beginning in elementary school and extending through their entire school experience. Whatever their heritage, there is an opportunity for students to gain an understanding of themselves and others through the study of another culture. The organizing principle in today’s modern language classroom is communication, which highlights how (grammar) and what (vocabulary and content) as well as why, to whom and when (social and cultural aspects of language). While grammar and vocabulary remain essential tools for communication, learning to use a second language in meaningful and appropriate ways is the ultimate goal of Modern Languages instruction. As we aligned our curriculum to the Learning Results, we struggled with the term “mastered.” In almost no case do we feel that students master most aspects of a language in a four year sequence of study. We decided that we were more comfortable with the term “proficient,” which more accurately reflects the skills of a high school student in SAD # 1 who has studied a language beyond level two.
Simply put, property rights, or the right to property, are the rights to obtain, to keep, and to dispose of material values. The right to property is not simply the right to a given object, rather it entails several complexities. According to Armen Alchian, private property entails three key elements: "exclusivity of rights to choose the use of a resource, exclusivity of rights to the services of a resource, and rights to exchange the resource at mutually agreeable terms." In America, the government has dipped its fingers into all three of the aforementioned elements of property rights. While price controls levied against landlords garner substantial national attention, governmental meddling among so called "public" lands and waters is more serious. Take for example activities such as hunting and fishing. Viewed by some as merely recreational activities, in reality these two enterprises are crucial to the livelihood of thousands of individuals around the country. But, hunting and fishing are both highly regulated by the government. The government controls hunting and fishing seasons, allowable locations, and the quantity of wildlife that can be harvested. These "public" lands are meant to be shared among all who desire to access them. That means everybody should share the property rights, and with that comes the option for each individual to decide what to do with the given resource. What happens though, when the government coercively ( through fines and arrests) manages our property rights and allocates our resources, is that inefficiencies occur. The government will never be able successfully allocate a scarce resource in a economically efficient manner. This leads to either shortages or surpluses of wildlife. If however, things were left in the hands of individuals and all public lands were privatized, resources would be allocated efficiently and smoothly. Contrary to what some might think, without governmental control, extinctions would not occur. Take this scenario as an example: all lands and waters (harder said than done) in the United States are privately owned. In order to hunt or fish, those with the desire must first seek out landowners. Certain agreements will be made, and both parties will have an incentive to use the land wisely. If the landowners allow their properties to be over harvested, they will be bereft of a very valuable profit source. So, one can be certain that they will regulate their own property. Likewise, in order maintain continued use of a certain property, the hunters and fishermen will be incentivized to use the land in a manor that coincides with their contractual agreements. In this way, the land will not only maintain its integrity, but fishermen and hunters will be given a fair price for the use of those lands. This theory has a lot of merits, but with it come certain challenges. Although public waters are already sold in blocks to oil companies for explorational purposes, the task becomes more difficult when dealing with fish. Because there is no guarantee that a school of fish will remain within one owner's property limits, some method of tracking these schools needs to be developed. To date, no such feasible option has been created, but progress is being made. Until that day does arrive though, I fear we have little choice but to let the government control our waters. For, if there is no ownership at all, unscrupulous individuals will overuse the "public" goods. In an ideal world though, the government's only role in the property rights issue would be to simply uphold contractual agreements between two citizens.
What our Compare and Contrast Stories – Same Genre lesson plan includes Compare and Contrast Stories – Same Genre enables students to compare and contrast two stories from the same genre. The lesson reviews the difference between comparing and contrasting, and then reminds students to look at specific elements of the texts to compare, such as plot, characters and setting. At the end of the lesson, students will be able to compare and contrast stories in the same genre. This lesson is for students in 5th grade. Every lesson plan provides you with a classroom procedure page that outlines a step-by-step guide to follow. You do not have to follow the guide exactly. The guide helps you organize the lesson and details when to hand out worksheets. It also lists information in the orange box that you might find useful. You will find the lesson objectives, state standards, and number of class sessions the lesson should take to complete in this area. In addition, it describes the supplies you will need as well as what and how you need to prepare beforehand. The supplies you will need for this lesson are the handouts, paper, writing utensils, art supplies, and copies of the short stories for the Practice page. Options for Lesson The suggestions for this lesson provide a guide for which parts of the lesson you can administer on which of the four days scheduled for the lesson. For example, for day one, it suggests having students activate background knowledge, discuss essential questions on the anchor chart, work to complete two texts with a partner, and start the homework assignment. The teacher notes page includes a paragraph with additional guidelines and things to think about as you begin to plan your lesson. It notes that comparing texts in the same genre allows students to practice analyzing and comparing themes, characters, motives, and more. It also notes that this skill is useful for standardized test preparation. COMPARE AND CONTRAST STORIES – SAME GENRE LESSON PLAN CONTENT PAGES The Compare and Contrast Stories – Same Genre lesson plan does not include any content pages. Rather, it provides a very detailed lesson plan, found on the three Classroom Procedure pages. COMPARE AND CONTRAST STORIES – SAME GENRE LESSON PLAN WORKSHEETS The Compare and Contrast Stories – Same Genre lesson plan includes four worksheets: an activity worksheet, a practice worksheet, a homework assignment, and a quiz. You can refer to the guide on the classroom procedure page to determine when to hand out each worksheet. COMPARING STORIES ACTIVITY WORKSHEET For the activity worksheet, students will compare and contrast the two short texts that are printed on the worksheet. Both of these stories are the same genre (realistic fiction/sports fiction). After they read the stories, they will answer the questions listed on the worksheet. READ AND COMPARE PRACTICE WORKSHEET The practice worksheet asks students to read and compare two pieces of literature in the same genre, Fresh Figs and The Huntsman’s Son. They will compare and analyze the texts and will also answer some specific reading comprehension questions about the stories. COMPARE AND CONTRAST STORIES – SAME GENRE HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT For the homework assignment, students will compare and contrast two texts of their choice that are the same genre. They will then create a three dimensional Venn Diagram with visual representations of each element they’re comparing and contrasting. They will present their Venn Diagram to the class. This lesson includes a quiz that you can use to test students’ understanding of the lesson material. For this quiz, students will first answer a few general questions about comparing texts. They will then read two pieces of text and answer reading comprehension and comparison questions about them. Worksheet Answer Keys This lesson plan includes answer keys for the activity worksheet, the practice worksheet, the homework assignment, and the quiz. If you choose to administer the lesson pages to your students via PDF, you will need to save a new file that omits these pages. Otherwise, you can simply print out the applicable pages and keep these as reference for yourself when grading assignments.
Cursive Calligraphy Alphabet – The alphabet of cursive writing and the order in which children should learn the cursive alphabet, including the patterns of print letters that are directly transferable to the letters of the cursive alphabet. Learning to write the alphabet in cursive, to write the name in cursive, and write words in italics is something that many children want to do around the second grade. Cursive seems like an “adult” style of communication that children see adults or older students using and try to do swooping writing on their own. Some children may be highly motivated to study to write the alphabet in cursive and use it in their written work. These are cursive letters that are formed equally to their printed counterparts. The muscular movements of the hands used to include some printed notes are directly related to them. For this reason, it’s a good impression to start with these letters when knowledge of the cursive alphabet. The patterns of the printed notes that make up some letters transfer directly to cursive, and when formed with a few sub-skills, the formation of cursive letters will follow easily (in most cases): - Strokes from left to right - Good starting points - Movement direction - Consistent stopping points - Control of drops - Smooth rhythm Taking into account the sub-skills noted above, italicized letter formation will allow for more readable letter formation. In addition, learning correct letter foundation and motor practice will often help legibility and ease turning cursive into a viable form of written communication. How To Learn To Write In Cursive And Rescue The Vintage Style Of A Text? Have you always wanted to know how to learn cursive but never found the proper method? Have you tried many templates to write in cursive but none of them work? There are many ways to write, but doing it in cursive gives a classic and extraordinary touch. In our guide, you will discover all the steps so that your way of writing impresses everyone. So, if you want to learn to write in cursive by hand or digitally, you’ve come to the right article. Now, how about we go straight to the action? In this note, you will learn about the benefits of writing in cursive, and you can learn to write in cursive with some exercises. Lastly, we will give you some tips to make this look good. After reading this article, your strokes will be the most eye-catching. How To Learn To Write In Cursive? So, now that you know what the benefits of cursive writing are, you are eager to learn how to write cursive by hand. However, you will have to calm your anxiety because to know how to write beautifully, and you have to incorporate a lot of new knowledge along the way. Writing cursive and elegant letters takes a lot of study and practice time. Did someone say, “I want to learn cursive writing”? Let’s get right to the emotion of this guide so you can improve your cursive handwriting right away, Materials For Writing In Cursive If you want to know how to learn to write in cursive, you will need to gather some essential materials to achieve writing beautiful cursive letters. Try to have the following on hand: - Practice sheets or templates to do calligraphy exercises. For this step, cursive writing templates, such as lettering templates, will help you have a better result until you can internalize the process of being an expert when writing in cursive. Do you already have your templates ready to practice? So, the next step in the exercises to learn to write in cursive is to study each of the fundamental forms If you take your first steps in writing this type, you may think all strokes are the same. But if you pay kindness. And you’ll notice that the pros at writing pretty cursive fonts include two basic shapes: slanted lines and curved lines. So next, we explain how to draw them. - Print out some practice sheets to get started. - Then, locate yourself in one of the lines delimited on the practice sheet, where you will continue working on learning to write in cursive. - Develop the basic strokes by placing the pencil a few millimetres above the line’s bottom line. - Then curve the line down and right until you reach the bottom line. - Finally, stretch the stroke until it touches the top line of the line. - Repeat this process until you consider that you have internalized it correctly. On another practice sheet, position yourself on one of the lines and place your pencil over the mark in the middle of the line. Start by drawing a curve down and to the left until you touch the bottom line of the row. Once you’ve reached the bottom line, start climbing back up and to the right until you’re a few millimetres short of the middle line of the line. The shape should be like the letter “c” in lowercase but closer to the right. Repeat this development as many times as you consider necessary. It is one of the most straightforward and complete exercises to write in cursive. Now, do you want more exercises to learn to write in cursive? Then don’t miss the opportunity to enjoy our online writing courses. What Are The Benefits Of Writing In Cursive? Once you figure out how to learn cursive, the next step is to delve into the benefits of cursive writing , right? You’ll see that writing this way is more than just a way to have pretty handwriting. Improve Memory And Learning By writing in cursive, you are helping your brain to process information and restructure it into your own words. In addition, you develop your ability to synthesize as you are more aware of the concepts and ideas in your mind. On the other hand, you will have an easier time detecting misspellings, which will help you avoid them in the future once you internalize them. That is why children, in their first years of primary education, are given exercises to write in cursive. Writing cursive letters in a collection of similar pen strokes helps practice pen control and letter formation. Here is more info on teaching groups of similar cursive letters together in a chunk or cursive letter families. Once children are introduced to cursive letter formation, they can practice creatively , such as in the window. These children may need more practice at home or may need to learn cursive writing from scratch. Also Read Half Keyboard – Introduction, Keyboard Shortcuts, Fractions On A Keyboard, More Brooks Launch Gts – Introduction, Technologies, Advantages, And More Definition Of GPU – Features, Specifications, Size & More Definition Of GPU GPU is the acronym for Graphics Processing Unit and represents precisely the heart of a graphics card, just like… Marketing Executive Salary –Senior & Reddit Salary & More What is Marketing? 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RNA, or ribonucleic acid, has been widely known as a cellular messenger that makes proteins and carries out DNA’s instructions to other parts of the cell. It is now understood to have other important functions besides protein coding, including regulation of a variety of cellular processes involved in development and disease. The researchers gave mild electric shocks to the tails of a species of marine snail called Aplysia. The snails received five tail shocks, one every 20 minutes, and then five more 24 hours later. The shocks enhance the snail’s defensive withdrawal reflex, a response it displays for protection from potential harm. When the researchers subsequently tapped the snails, they found those that had been given the shocks displayed a defensive contraction that lasted an average of 50 seconds, a simple type of learning known as “sensitization.” Those that had not been given the shocks contracted for only about one second. The life scientists extracted RNA from the nervous systems of marine snails that received the tail shocks the day after the second series of shocks, and also from marine snails that did not receive any shocks. Then the RNA from the first (sensitized) group was injected into seven marine snails that had not received any shocks, and the RNA from the second group was injected into a control group of seven other snails that also had not received any shocks. Remarkably, the scientists found that the seven that received the RNA from snails that were given the shocks behaved as if they themselves had received the tail shocks: They displayed a defensive contraction that lasted an average of about 40 seconds. “It’s as though we transferred the memory,” said Glanzman, who is also a member of UCLA’s Brain Research Institute. As expected, the control group of snails did not display the lengthy contraction. Next, the researchers added RNA to Petri dishes containing neurons extracted from different snails that did not receive shocks. Some dishes had RNA from marine snails that had been given electric tail shocks, and some dishes contained RNA from snails that had not been given shocks. Some of the dishes contained sensory neurons, and others contained motor neurons, which in the snail are responsible for the reflex. When a marine snail is given electric tail shocks, its sensory neurons become more excitable. Interestingly, the researchers discovered, adding RNA from the snails that had been given shocks also produced increased excitability in sensory neurons in a Petri dish; it did not do so in motor neurons. Adding RNA from a marine snail that was not given the tail shocks did not produce this increased excitability in sensory neurons. In the field of neuroscience, it has long been thought that memories are stored in synapses. (Each neuron has several thousand synapses.) Glanzman holds a different view, believing that memories are stored in the nucleus of neurons. “If memories were stored at synapses, there is no way our experiment would have worked,” who added that the marine snail is an excellent model for studying the brain and memory. Scientists know more about the cell biology of this simple form of learning in this animal than any other form of learning in any other organism, Glanzman said. The cellular and molecular processes seem to be very similar between the marine snail and humans, even though the snail has about 20,000 neurons in its central nervous system and humans are thought to have about 100 billion. In the future, Glanzman said, it is possible that RNA can be used to awaken and restore memories that have gone dormant in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease. He and his colleagues published research in the journal eLife in 2014 indicating that lost memories can be restored. There are many kinds of RNA, and in future research, Glanzman wants to identify the types of RNA that can be used to transfer memories.
Inductors, also known as chokes, reactors, and dynamic reactors. It is an element that can convert electric energy into magnetic energy and store energy in the magnetic field. The structure is similar to the transformer and has the characteristics of DC and AC resistance. In electronic circuits, inductance mainly plays the role of filtering, current limiting, tuning, oscillation, interference suppression and magnetic field generation. Inductance is an attribute of closed loop and a physical quantity. When the current passes through the coil, a magnetic field induction is formed in the coil, and the induced magnetic field will generate induced current to resist the current passing through the coil. It is a circuit parameter that describes the induced electromotive force effect in this coil or in another coil due to the change of coil current. Inductance is the general term of self inductance and mutual inductance. Devices that provide inductance are called inductors. Then, what is the maximum current that the inductor can pass? Strictly speaking, there is no special specification or unified answer standard for the problem of how much current an inductor can generally pass. Why do we say this? It is mainly because the inductance size of different types of inductors is different. Even for the same type of inductor products, there are differences in the current size of different core powder formulas, different winding methods, and different coil turns. Take the Patch inductor as an example, most of the chip inductors have a relatively small current, which is below 1a. It is possible that the current of 2a and 3a is already a large current for the Patch inductor, while the current of the chip integrated inductors can even be more than 20A. This is only the current difference of the same type of inductance, let alone the current difference of different types of inductance. Inductors mainly play the role of filtering, oscillation, delay, notch, etc. in the circuit, as well as screening signals, filtering noise, stabilizing current and suppressing electromagnetic wave interference. The most common function of inductance in circuit is to form LC filter circuit together with capacitance. The capacitance has the characteristics of DC resistance and AC connection, while the inductance has the functions of DC connection and AC resistance: DC connection: it means that the inductor is closed to DC. If the resistance of the inductance coil is ignored, the DC can pass through the inductor unimpeded. For DC, the resistance of the coil itself is very small, and the blocking effect on DC is very small, so it is often ignored in circuit analysis. AC resistance: when AC passes through the inductive coil, the inductor hinders AC. what hinders AC is the inductive reactance of the inductive coil. Inductance can be made of conductive material coiled around the magnetic core, typically copper wire, or the magnetic core can be removed or replaced with ferromagnetic material. The core material with higher permeability than air can restrict the magnetic field more closely around the inductive element, thus increasing the inductance. The small inductor can be directly etched on the PCB board with a method of laying spiral tracks. Small value inductors can also be used to make transistors. The same process is used in integrated circuits. In these applications, aluminum interconnects are often used as conductive materials. No matter what method is used, based on the actual constraints, the most widely used is a circuit called "spinner", which uses a capacitor and an active element to show the same characteristics as the inductive element. Inductive elements used to isolate high frequencies are often composed of a metal wire passing through a magnetic column or bead. The inductor is generally composed of skeleton, winding, shielding cover, packaging material, magnetic core or iron core, etc. Skeleton generally refers to the support for winding coils. For some fixed inductors or adjustable inductors with large volume (such as oscillation coil, choke ring, etc.), most of them wrap enameled wire (or yarn wrapped wire) around the skeleton, and then install the magnetic core, copper core, iron core, etc. into the inner cavity of the skeleton to improve its inductance. Winding refers to a group of coils with specified functions, which is the basic component of inductor. The winding can be divided into single layer and multi-layer. The magnetic core and magnetic rod are generally made of nickel zinc ferrite (NX Series) or manganese zinc ferrite (MX Series) and other materials, which have "I" shape, column shape, cap shape, "e" shape, tank shape and other shapes. Inductors, also known as chokes, reactors, and dynamic reactors. It is an element that can convert electric energy into magnetic energy and store energy in the magnetic field. The structure is similar to the transformer and has the characteristics of DC and AC resistance. In electronic circuits, inductance mainly plays the role of filtering, current limiting, tuning, oscillation, interference suppression and magnetic field generation. First, let's talk about the basic principle of inductors, that is, self induction. Self induction: electromagnetic induction phenomenon that occurs when the current flowing through the conductor itself changes. The coil is made of metal wires. When the current flowing through the coil changes, it will produce obvious electromagnetic induction phenomenon. The self induced reverse electromotive force of the coil hinders the change of the current and plays the role of stabilizing the current. Specifically, if the inductor is in the state of no current passing, it will try to prevent the current from flowing through it when the circuit is connected; If the inductor is in a state of current flow, it will try to maintain the current when the circuit is disconnected. From the perspective of energy, the inductor can dump electric energy into magnetic energy and release magnetic energy into electric energy. The same inductor has different blocking effects on current with different changing frequencies. Its general rule is: connect low frequency and block high frequency. The greater the number of coils and the denser the coils are wound, the greater the inductance. The inductance of the coil with magnetic core is larger than that of the coil without magnetic core; The greater the permeability of the core, the greater the inductance of the coil. The basic unit of inductance is Henry, which is represented by the letter H. Common units: milli Heng (MH), micro Heng（ μ H) , nahen (NH). The conversion relationship is: 1h=10^mh=10^6 μ H=10^9nH How to choose the right inductor? The appropriate inductor is mainly determined according to the package size of the inductor, as well as the minimum inductance and rated working current required by the circuit design. In addition, it is also necessary to comprehensively consider the working environment of the inductor, and refer to the working frequency, working voltage and other parameters.
Differences Between Congressmen and Senators The differences between congressmen and senators are often confusing. Oftentimes, the two roles are used interchangeably to represent someone who works and composes the legislature of the United States. However, the roles, influences and powers of congressmen and senators vary. Congress refers to both the Senate and the House of Representatives. A congressman is any member of either the Senate or the House of Representatives. There are a total of 535 voting congressmen, 435 of which are representatives and 100 which are senators. To become a senator of the U.S., the potential candidate must be elected by the people of the state. Like any election, the candidate with the most votes wins. Each senator has an office in Washington, D.C., as well as one in the home state. Senators are members of the legislative branch – their job is to represent the people living in their state. For example, to support a bill which aims to reduce poverty, individuals can contact their state senator. These bills are voted on and passed by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives, which are then signed by the president to become law. Each state within the U.S. has two senators representing it, regardless of the size or population of the state. In accordance with the Constitution, “all legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.” The Constitution grants the Senate its own unique power: ratifying treaties, approving presidential appointments and a two-thirds vote of Senate is required before a person is impeached from office. The differences between congressmen and senators also relates to their level of authority. Congress has an important role in national defense, including the power to declare war, raise and maintain armed forces and create rules for the military. The Senate and the House of Representatives must approve and ratify legislation before it is executed. – Jennifer Serrato
Lottery is the act of distributing something, usually money or property, by drawing lots. It is a form of gambling, and it can be used to distribute prizes for things such as housing units in a subsidized housing complex or kindergarten placements in a public school. It can also be used to assign jury members or pick a winning horse in a race. A lottery is usually run by a government and requires payment in order to participate. The term lottery is thought to be derived from the Dutch noun lot, which means fate. The word is also related to the Latin noun legere, which means to cast lots or to draw straws. Early lotteries were based on casting lots or drawing straws to determine ownership of land or property, and some modern lotteries are still based on this principle. The word lottery is often associated with the sale of tickets for a chance to win a prize, but there are other types of lotteries that do not involve gambling. For example, the National Basketball Association holds a draft lottery in which the names of all 14 teams are drawn to decide which team will get the first pick in the NBA draft. In the United States, state-run lotteries began in the immediate post-World War II period, when states needed revenue and the lottery was hailed as a painless form of taxation. It was hoped that the money would help to fund education and other social safety net programs. The problem was that the lottery quickly became a big source of black-market income for numbers workers, and legislators tried to crack down on them. By the 1980s, the number game had grown to a huge business that generated $800 million to $1.5 billion a year. This was the equivalent of about half of all New York City’s taxes. The black community was outraged, and they organized a lottery boycott. Many people buy tickets to the Lottery in hopes of getting rich, or at least making enough money to live comfortably. However, the odds of winning are extremely low and the expense of buying tickets can outweigh the monetary value of the prize. Moreover, there are many other ways to make money, and most of these are far less risky than the Lottery. Although the Lottery has become a major source of income for some people, it is still considered to be a form of gambling. This is because, unlike other forms of gambling, the prize money does not always provide a positive return on investment. Furthermore, the psychological effects of losing money can be serious and long-lasting. Therefore, lottery players should be aware of the risks and should not take the chance to play. The best way to avoid the risks of losing is by purchasing a ticket from an honest dealer. In addition, players should keep in mind the various rules and regulations that apply to the Lottery.
Data Storage refers to the physical or digital location where data is stored, such as a hard disk, server, or cloud storage system. It encompasses the infrastructure and mechanisms used to store, retrieve, and manage data over time. Data storage solutions can range from traditional on-premises storage devices to cloud-based storage systems. Examples of applications Examples of applications of Data Storage include: - Traditional Hard Drives: Hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs) are commonly used for data storage in personal computers, servers, and data centres. These storage devices offer high capacity and relatively fast access times. - Network-Attached Storage (NAS): NAS devices are dedicated storage systems connected to a network. They provide shared storage to multiple users or devices, allowing convenient access to files and data. - Storage Area Network (SAN): A SAN is a high-speed network that enables multiple servers to access shared storage devices. SANs are commonly used in enterprise environments to provide scalable and reliable storage solutions. - Cloud Storage: Cloud storage services, such as Amazon S3, Microsoft Azure Blob Storage, or Google Cloud Storage, offer scalable and flexible data storage solutions. Users can store data in the cloud, accessible from anywhere with an internet connection. - Object Storage: Object storage systems organise data into discrete units called objects and store them with unique identifiers. This method allows for efficient retrieval and management of large amounts of unstructured data, such as images, videos, and documents. Benefits of Data Storage include: - Data Accessibility: Proper data storage ensures that data is readily available and accessible when needed. It allows users to retrieve and retrieve data quickly, regardless of the volume or complexity of the data. - Data Durability: Reliable data storage solutions provide durability, ensuring that data is protected against hardware failures, natural disasters, or other disruptions. Redundancy and data replication mechanisms help safeguard data integrity and minimise the risk of data loss. - Scalability: Data storage systems should be scalable to accommodate the growing volume of data. Scalable storage solutions can expand storage capacity seamlessly, allowing businesses to adapt to changing data storage requirements. - Cost-Effectiveness: Data storage options, such as cloud storage, offer cost-effective solutions compared to traditional on-premises storage. Cloud storage eliminates the need for large upfront investments in hardware infrastructure and allows for flexible payment models based on storage usage. - Data Backup and Recovery: Effective data storage solutions include mechanisms for regular data backups and reliable data recovery. In the event of data loss or system failure, backups enable the restoration of data to a previous state, ensuring business continuity and data availability. - Data Security: Data storage systems incorporate security measures to protect sensitive information. These measures may include encryption, access controls, authentication mechanisms, and monitoring tools to detect and prevent unauthorised access or data breaches. Data Storage is a critical component of any data management strategy. Choosing the appropriate storage solution based on data volume, accessibility requirements, durability, scalability, and security considerations is essential for organisations to efficiently and securely manage their data assets.
Teaching Strategies: Experiential Education Experiential education is a teaching strategy with three key components: experience, reflection, and educational objectives. Students “learn by doing” and then reflect on this process towards specific educational goals. This is achieved through a variety of activities including work experience, laboratory experiments, project creation and demonstration, and outdoor excursions. According to John Dewey (as cited in McDermott, 1981, p. 520), learners must reflect and associate relationships between an experience and external factors in order to benefit from that experience. “The belief that all genuine education comes about through experiences does not mean that all experiences are genuinely or equally educative. Experience and education cannot be directly equated to each other. For some experiences are mis-educative” (Dewey, 1938 & 1981, p.517). By facilitating structured experiences and reflection, educators can encourage an educative process, creating applicable learning which can then be built upon — fostering further growth. The core principles of experiential education are: - Authentic learning includes a process of reflection, critical thinking, and self-authorship. - Structured experiences that encourage the learner to take charge of their learning. - Active learning engages learners in curiosity, issue resolution, investigation, creativity, and experimentation. - Engagement is interdisciplinary and holistic. Learning does not only occur in a classroom. - Learning is an individual process. New learning is dependent on prior learning. - Healthy relationships are developed between the learner and themself, others, and the world. - Experiential outcomes can be unpredictable. This allows the learner and educator to participate in and learn from a wider range of experience. - Personal development is nurtured. - Support and safety: The educator facilitates experiences to ensure support and safety while encouraging development. The educator works towards specific educational outcomes, but also recognizes natural and spontaneous opportunities for growth. The educator recognizes their biases and shortcomings, and actively works to mediate how these influence the learner. Experiential learning originates in the combination of an experience, reflection and thought process, and issue resolution. Authentic learning results from structured experiences with natural consequences, from success and failure. These cycles layer upon each other to build the learners’ knowledge and experience base. Experiential education occurs when the originating experiences happen with educational objectives in mind. Incorporating experiential education into the classroom can be a smooth and beneficial process. - Plan your lesson. - Consider the concepts that you will teach in the lesson. - Why are these important? - How are they applied? - Create an activity that focuses on the application of these concepts. This can be a concrete connection such as building weight-bearing structures with toothpicks in a basic engineering course. It can also be a more abstract connection such as building a raft to examine sociological factors. - When first getting started, try using this generalized six-step process for running class: - Connect — Allow the class to get to know each other better - Do it — Facilitate an activity that allows learners to do, explore, and/or act. Try to design this activity in a way that provides a new ‘discovery’ experience to learners. - What happened? — Reflect on the experience either individually or with a group. Share publicly the raw data of the experience. - Why is it important? — Find trends in behaviors. Generate and exchange feedback. - Generalize — How do these specific behaviors relate to the real world. What are the consequences and effects? What is the big picture? - Now what? — Apply this learning to a new or similar experience. Create a different outcome by making changes in action or behavior. - Lecturing is a great educational tool, but it can sometimes leave learners uninvolved. In planning your lesson, consider alternative methods for reaching your intended learning objectives. - Short initiatives: These activities can be a fast, fun, and interactive way for you to help learners focus on a task, build rapport with each other, and grasp important highlights from class. - Hands-on Activities: Individually or in small groups, have learners take part in a hands-on experience. This could take the form of physical or mental construction such as preparing a presentation on information that has not yet been presented to the class or building a model of an object discussed in class. - Reflection: Encourage learners to process their own learning. This can take the form of individual reflection such as blogs, journals, and essays, or it might take the form of group discussion and constructive feedback. Another example could be utilizing self-graded exams as a mode of reflection. - Self-authorship: When possible, encourage learners to generate their own solutions to problems. Encouraging creativity and critical thinking will create a more engaging classroom experience. - Allow the learners’ educational experience to help shape the learning process. - Learning is dynamic and dependent on the individual and the group. Learners may need to deviate from the lesson plan in order to maximize their learning. Although this is not always feasible, consider adapting your plans when possible. - Consider the concepts that you will teach in the lesson. - Experiential education in practice at the Sidi Bouskri School in Smimou, Morocco, Where Math Grows on Trees. - History comes alive at Auburn University at Montgomery, Learning by Doing. - Hands-on science at the University of Texas Austin, Freshman Research Initiative. For reflection activities, consider asking students to keep a blog or journal chronicling their experiential learning experience, observations, and constructive revisions. On the Web Akella, D. (2010). Learning together: Kolb’s experiential theory and its application. Journal of Management and Organization, 16(1), 100-112. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.mnsu.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/346929021?accountid=12259 Association for Experiential Education (n.d.). What is Experiential Education? Retrieved October 15, 2014, from http://www.aee.org/. Beard, C., & Wilson, J. P. (2006). Experiential learning: A handbook of best practice for educators and trainers. London, GBR: Kogan Page. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com Dewey, J. (1938/1981). In The Philosophy of John Dewey (Vol. 1). J. J. McDermott (Ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Luckner, J. L., & Nadler, R. S. (1997). Processing the experience: Strategies to enhance and generalize learning (2nd ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
Can the ocean run out of oxygen? - Kate Slabosky - 707,321 Views - 18,852 Questions Answered - TEDEd Animation Dead zone forms when dissolved oxygen becomes a limiting factor for the marine life in the area. Actually, the process that forms the dead zone is a long tale of one limiting factor after another. Before the spring run-off of nutrient rich waters, nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are the limiting factors for algae growth. After a large input of these limiting nutrients, the algae blooms. The next factor that limits algae growth is sunlight. So much algae grows that the algae aboves blocks the algae below from recieving sunlight, and a large die-off occurs. The dead algae is decomposed, a process which consumes a large amount of dissolved oxygen, and now dissolved oxygen becomes the limitng factor for marine life growth. The nitrogen cycle and the invention of nitrogen based fertilizer Many dead zones around the world, including the Gulf of Mexico dead zone, can be traced back to large amounts of fertilizer run-off. Fertilizer is anything you put on plants to increase the amount of nutrients available to them. Manure and compost have been used as fertilizer for thousands of years. Synthetic fertilizer has only been around for a little over 100 years and has significantly changed how we feed Earth’s growing human population. Modern synthetic fertilizer contains one or more of the following nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. These nutrients are very important for plant growth. Nitrogen naturally enters the soil in small amounts through the nitrogen fixation step of the nitrogen cycle. Unlike oxygen and carbon dioxide, plants cannot readily use the nitrogen available in the atmosphere, but “nitrogen fixers” like bacteria on the roots of legumes and lightning transform the nitrogen molecules in the air into nitrogen containing compounds in the soil that plants can aborb through their roots. The nitrogen that is naturally added to the soil through the nitrogen cycle is often not enough plants growing in some of the land intensive farms around the world, and using manrure and compost as fertilizer can be labor intensive. In the early 1900s a scientist name Franz Haber changed everything when he developed what is now known as the Haber process, a method for carrying out artificial nitrogen fixation. This process was used to create the first synthetic fertilizer. This invention has been both praised and criticized. On one hand, the invention of fertilizer enabled the world’s agricultral systems to grow much more food. Today the world has over 7 billion people and without synthetic fertilzer we would only be able to feed about 4 billion. On the other hand, the increase in food production drove up world population growth significantly and many scientists believe the world cannot support much more population growth. Furthermore, nutrient run-off from excess fertilizer harms ecosystems in way you learned about in this video. Gulf of Mexico The Gulf of Mexico dead zone affects “one of the most ecologically and economically productive ecosystems in North America.” The Gulf of Mexico is home to a 20 billion dollar fishing industry, half of the United State’s domestic supply of oil and natural gas, important shipping ports and countless recreational activities. Dead zones are not the only threat to the Gulf of Mexico. Eutrophication in the Gulf of Mexico can also lead to toxic algae blooms, also known as a “red tide.” Unsustainable fishing practices, the increased frequency of intense hurricanes associated with global climate change, and oil spills are also responsible for a great deal of problems in its ecosystems. Create and share a new lesson based on this one. More from Our Changing Climate Lesson duration 25:45
Dahlias are beautiful flowering plants well-liked by gardeners for their colorful and varied blossoms. However, dahlias are susceptible to various diseases and disorders like other plant species. Dahlia leaf curl is a prevalent issue that gardeners may encounter. This article will explore the causes, symptoms, and effective management strategies for Dahlia leaf curl. Understanding the Dahlia Leaf Curl Dahlia leaf curl is a physiological disorder affecting dahlia plant foliage. It manifests as aberrant curling, twisting, or distortion of the foliage, which results in an unattractive appearance. Although it does not pose a significant hazard to the plant’s overall health, severe cases of dahlia leaf curl can reduce the plant’s vitality. What causes Dahlia Leaf Curl? Several factors can contribute to dahlia leaf curl development. Understanding these causes is necessary for efficient management. Let’s examine the primary offenders: - Environmental Factors: Temperature fluctuations, especially cool nights and warm days, can trigger leaf curl in dahlias. Excessive heat, strong winds, and prolonged sun exposure may contribute to the disorder. Protecting dahlias from extreme weather conditions by shading them on sweltering days or erecting windbreaks can prevent leaf curls. - Watering Methods: Inconsistent or improper watering can contribute to leaf curl in dahlia plants. Underwatering can cause dehydration and nutrient deficiency while overwatering can suffocate the roots and cause them to decompose. It is essential to rinse dahlias frequently and thoroughly while ensuring the soil is well-drained. Mulching can aid in soil moisture retention and water uptake regulation. - Nutrient Imbalance: Nutritional deficiencies or imbalances, such as a lack of magnesium or nitrogen, can contribute to leaf curling in dahlias. Magnesium deficiency is frequently linked to interveinal chlorosis (yellowing between leaf veins), which can lead to leaf curling. Conduct a soil test to determine any nutrient deficiencies or imbalances, and then adjust the fertilization regimen accordingly. Healthy growth can be promoted by providing balanced sustenance through organic matter or foliar sprays. - Pest and Disease Infestation: Certain pests and diseases can weaken the dahlia plant, making it more susceptible to leaf curl. Aphids and spider mites are prevalent pests that can cause damage to and curl the foliage. Infections with viruses, such as the Dahlia mosaic virus, can also cause leaf curling. Regularly inspect your dahlias for signs of pests or diseases and apply pest control measures, such as insecticidal detergents or organic pesticides. - Genetic Factors: Some dahlia varieties may be more prone to leaf curl than others due to inherent genetic traits. It may be due to their genetic susceptibility if you consistently observe leaf curl in particular cultivars. Consider selecting dahlia varieties with a reputation for leaf curl resistance. - Overfertilization: Excessive fertilization, especially with high-nitrogen fertilizers, can upset the plant’s nutrient balance and cause leaf curl. It is crucial to adhere to proper fertilization guidelines and refrain from overfeeding your dahlias. Choose slow-release or organic fertilizers that offer a balanced blend of nutrients. - Chemical Harm: Dahlias can develop leaf curls if exposed to certain chemicals, such as herbicides or pesticides. To prevent accidental plant damage, use caution when administering chemicals near your plants and follow the directions precisely. Avoid spraying chemicals on days with excessive wind or high temperatures. Root Issues: Problems with the dahlia plant’s root system, such as poor drainage, root rot, or damage from pests, can indirectly contribute to leaf curl. Ensure that your dahlias are planted in well-drained soil to prevent root decay caused by waterlogging. Examine the roots frequently for indications of damage or pest infestation. Identification of the symptoms of dahlia leaf curl is essential for timely intervention. Here are the most common warning signs: - Curling and Twisting: The leaves may exhibit upward or downward curling, twisting, or distortion. Typically, this curling is most evident at the leaf margins. The degree of curling can vary, with some leaves exhibiting minor curling and others exhibiting significant twisting. - Discoloration: Affected leaves may exhibit bleaching or browning. Depending on the severity of the condition, the discoloration’s intensity may vary. In some instances, leaf discoloration may be restricted to specific areas. - Stunted Growth: In addition to leaf curl, dahlia plants with leaf curl may experience reduced growth and vigor. The plant may be smaller than healthy specimens, with shortened stems and smaller flowers. Consider the following measures to successfully manage dahlia leaf curl and restore the health of your plants: - Modifications to the environment: shield dahlias from harsh weather by providing shade on sweltering days and erecting windbreaks. Keeping temperatures stable and averting sudden fluctuations can help prevent leaf curls. Consider protecting your plants with row covers or shade cloth when necessary. - Proper Watering Methods: Water dahlias frequently and intensely, ensuring the soil drains well. Both overwatering and underwatering can cause plant stress. Mulching can also aid in soil moisture retention and temperature regulation. Monitor the soil’s moisture content and adjust the frequency of irrigation accordingly. - Management of Nutrients: Examine the soil for nutrient deficiencies or imbalances. Adjust the fertilizer regimen accordingly to provide plants with balanced nutrition. To enhance the nutrient content and structure of the soil, incorporate organic matter such as compost or well-rotted manure. Consider supplementing specific deficiencies with foliar applications containing micronutrients. - Pest and Disease Control: Regularly inspect your dahlias for signs of pests or diseases. Implement effective pest control measures, such as insecticidal detergents or organic pesticides, to prevent plant-weakening infestations. To prevent the spread of diseases, remove and eliminate all infected plant matter. Encourage insects, such as ladybugs and lacewings, that can aid in the natural control of nuisance populations. - Pruning and Sanitation: To prevent the spread of the disease, remove and dispose of any infected or severely curled leaves. Additionally, proper sanitation practices, such as cleaning gardening implements, can prevent the spread of disease. Pruning the plants selectively will improve air circulation and reduce congestion, which can foster disease development. - Variety Selection: Consider selecting dahlia varieties known for their resistance to leaf curl. Consult local nurseries or knowledgeable cultivators to identify cultivars that are less susceptible to this disease. Although unseemly, dahlia leaf curl can be effectively managed with the right strategies and care. By understanding the causes, recognizing the symptoms, and employing the appropriate management techniques, gardeners can ensure that their dahlias continue flourishing and producing beautiful blooms. Remember to provide adequate nutrition and maintain vigilance against vermin and diseases. With these practices, you can have robust, vibrant dahlias in your garden throughout the growing season. Read article about Peony Leaves Curling: Causes, Symptoms, And Remedies and Monstera Esqueleto: Unveiling The Rare Beauty Of This Unique Plant in Avi Hoffman Garden.
by Bhavya Karia In software engineering, dependency injection is a technique whereby one object (or static method) supplies the dependencies of another object. A dependency is an object that can be used (a service). That’s the Wikipedia definition but still, but it’s not particularly easy to understand. So let’s understand it better. Before understanding what it means in programming, let’s first see what it means in general as it will help us understand the concept better. Dependency or dependent means relying on something for support. Like if I say we are relying too much on mobile phones than it means we are dependent on them. So before getting to dependency injections, first let’s understand what a dependency in programming means. When class A uses some functionality of class B, then its said that class A has a dependency of class B. In Java, before we can use methods of other classes, we first need to create the object of that class (i.e. class A needs to create an instance of class B). So, transferring the task of creating the object to someone else and directly using the dependency is called dependency injection. Why should I use dependency injection? Let’s say we have a car class which contains various objects such as wheels, engine, etc. Here the car class is responsible for creating all the dependency objects. Now, what if we decide to ditch MRFWheels in the future and want to use Yokohama Wheels? We will need to recreate the car object with a new Yokohama dependency. But when using dependency injection (DI), we can change the Wheels at runtime (because dependencies can be injected at runtime rather than at compile time). You can think of DI as the middleman in our code who does all the work of creating the preferred wheels object and providing it to the Car class. It makes our Car class independent from creating the objects of Wheels, Battery, etc. There are basically three types of dependency injection: - constructor injection: the dependencies are provided through a class constructor. - setter injection: the client exposes a setter method that the injector uses to inject the dependency. - interface injection: the dependency provides an injector method that will inject the dependency into any client passed to it. Clients must implement an interface that exposes a setter method that accepts the dependency. So now its the dependency injection’s responsibility to: - Create the objects - Know which classes require those objects - And provide them all those objects If there is any change in objects, then DI looks into it and it should not concern the class using those objects. This way if the objects change in the future, then its DI’s responsibility to provide the appropriate objects to the class. Inversion of control —the concept behind DI This states that a class should not configure its dependencies statically but should be configured by some other class from outside. It is the fifth principle of S.O.L.I.D — the five basic principles of object-oriented programming and design by Uncle Bob — which states that a class should depend on abstraction and not upon concretions (in simple terms, hard-coded). According to the principles, a class should concentrate on fulfilling its responsibilities and not on creating objects that it requires to fulfill those responsibilities. And that’s where dependency injection comes into play: it provides the class with the required objects. Note: If you want to learn about SOLID principles by Uncle Bob then you can head to this link. Benefits of using DI - Helps in Unit testing. - Boiler plate code is reduced, as initializing of dependencies is done by the injector component. - Extending the application becomes easier. - Helps to enable loose coupling, which is important in application programming. Disadvantages of DI - It’s a bit complex to learn, and if overused can lead to management issues and other problems. - Many compile time errors are pushed to run-time. - Dependency injection frameworks are implemented with reflection or dynamic programming. This can hinder use of IDE automation, such as “find references”, “show call hierarchy” and safe refactoring. You can implement dependency injection on your own (Pure Vanilla) or use third-party libraries or frameworks. Libraries and Frameworks that implement DI - Spring (Java) - Google Guice (Java) - Dagger (Java and Android) - Castle Windsor (.NET) To learn more about dependency injection, you can check out the below resources: Java Dependency Injection — DI Design Pattern Example Tutorial — JournalDev Using dependency injection in Java — Introduction — Tutorial — Vogella Inversion of Control Containers and the Dependency Injection pattern — Martin Fowler Hope it helps! If you liked the article and want to read more amazing articles, then do follow me here (Bhavya Karia) and show your support as it motivates me to write more. If you have any questions or feedback for me than let’s connect on LinkedIn, Twitter , Facebook. Thanks to Sergey Ufocoder now this article has been converted into the Russian language. My Russian friends and who all can read the Russian language do give it a read. If you are a PHP developer then don’t worry, got you all covered as well. Gordon Forsythe recommended this amazing library which you all might want to try out. Thanks for all the kind words that I have been receiving. Do share the article so that more and more people can be benefited. If you learnt even a thing or two, please share this story!
Conservation Status: California Department of Fish and Wildlife - Fully Protected Mammal Threats to Survival: Habitat loss and fragmentation; vehicle strikes Just What are Ringtails? Also known as ringtail cats, ring-tailed cats, miner's cats, or marv cats, ringtails are actually members of the raccoon family, native to arid regions of North America. Despite the fact that ringtails are widely distributed throughout the southwestern United States and Mexico, they have been little studied, especially in southern California. We do know that they are solitary omnivores that forage primarily at night. They play an important role in the ecosystem as prey for larger predators such as great horned owls, coyotes, bears, and bobcats. Ringtails also serve as predators of a variety of arthropods and small mammals, and as seed dispersers. Our Recovery Ecology researchers, in collaboration with our partners, are studying ringtail diets across seasons to examine the relationship between food selection, space use, and road mortalities. Mesopredator and Roads Medium-sized predatory mammals known as mesopredators are the most common type of vertebrate to be killed by vehicle strikes and research has shown that these road kills most often occur in identifiable “hot spots” along roadways. Omnivores are more likely to be struck by vehicles on roads than other types of mammals, most likely because of their limited speed and how they search for food. Ringtails have large home ranges and are commonly found dead along rural highways in eastern San Diego County. To mitigate impacts on ringtail populations and reduce vehicle-associated mortality, we are working with our partners on a GPS telemetry study to better understand their behavioral ecology and movement patterns. Habitat fragmentation and degradation can lead to indirect effects on body condition, disease incidence, and overall health. Health assessments can provide important early indicators preceding population decline and give us additional insight into causes of decline. As we begin to outfit wild ringtails with GPS collars, we will also take the opportunity to collect data on a variety of health parameters. Ultimately, we hope to determine whether wildlife corridors are a viable management option for this species.
How contagious is COVID-19? According to Scientists, the Coronavirus is about twice as contagious as the flu. The bad news is that it has only taken three months for COVID-19 to move across the world. It has infected millions and killed nearly 212,580 people (as of April 28, 2020.) The good news is that the infection rate is not a static number. It is greatly affected by behavior. That’s where you come in. You can “Do the Five.” The good news is that the R0 factor is not a static number. It is greatly affected by behavior. That’s where you come in. You can “Do the Five.” 1. Wash your hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds. Especially after you have been in a public place, or after blowing your nose, coughing or sneezing. If soap and water are not readily available, use a hand sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol. Cover all surfaces of your hands and rub them together until they feel dry. 2. Cough into your elbow. If you feel you must sneeze, go outside. According to research by scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, coughing spreads droplets as far as 18 feet and sneezing as much as 24 feet. These droplets stay suspended in the air for up to 10 minutes. Throw used tissues in the trash and wash your hands. 3. Avoid touching your eyes, nose, and mouth. It’s not easy. You can infect yourself if you touch an infected surface and then rub your eyes. Studies vary greatly but indicate that many people touch their face about 20 times an hour. One purpose of a facemask is to reduce the number of times people touch their nose and mouth. 4. Social distancing. Who even heard of “Social Distancing” before March 2020? The CDC advises that the virus is thought to spread mainly from person-to-person. It transmits through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks. Therefore, maintain a distance of at least three feet and preferably six feet. Compared to the other controls, this is not too difficult. You or someone you meet may be infected with the virus and not show any symptoms (Fever, cough, shortness of breath). So behave as if everyone may be infected, including yourself. If you visit with the elderly, sit six feet from them. Make one big trip to the grocery store instead of many small trips. If you are in a high risk group, send a family member in a low risk group to the store. High risk groups include people with lung disease, heart conditions, immunocompromised, over 40 BMI, diabetics, kidney disease, liver disease, or over age 65. 5. Stay home if you feel sick. Every sick person creates a risk of infection to others. So stay home if you are sick and encourage your co-workers to do the same. The life you save may be your own, or your mothers.
What is ring frame yarn? Ring-spun yarn or ring frame yarn is made by twisting and thinning the fiber strands. Most of the staple fibers are manufactured using ring spinning methods as it is one of the oldest spinning processes. In this spinning process, staple fibers are twisted into yarns and then the yarn is winded onto bobbins for storage. Around a fixed surface yarn loop rotates to get winded onto bobbins. In this type of spinning process, the yarns which are produced are less hairy and glazing in nature. In the form of roving, the fiber material is supplied in the ring-spinning machine. Then with the help of the drafting unit, the mass of fiber is reduced. Then in concentric helical paths, the fibers lay around each other which enhances the adhesive forces between fibers. Then by rotating the spindle twist is inserted in the yarns and then the yarns are winded on a bobbin. These three processes of roving, twisting and winding all happen continuously and simultaneously. To provide the particular shape of the yarn package i.e. bobbin, there is a controlled up and down movement of the ring. Ring spinning methods can produce a variety of yarns in terms of yarn count.
\|File:Maler der Grabkammer des Sennudem 001.jpg\| \|Agribusiness • Agricultural science • Agroforestry • Agronomy • Animal husbandry • Extensive farming • Factory farming • Farm • Free range • Industrial agriculture • Mechanised agriculture • Ministries • Intensive farming • Organic farming • Permaculture • Stock-free agriculture • Sustainable agriculture • Universities • Urban agriculture\| \|History of agriculture • History of organic farming • Neolithic Revolution • Islamic Agricultural Revolution • British Agricultural Revolution • Green Revolution\| \|Aquaculture • Aquaponics • Dairy farming • Grazing • Hydroponics • Livestock • Orchard • Pig farming • Poultry farming • Sheep husbandry • Slash-and-burn\| \|Agricultural • Agriculture by country • Agriculture companies • Biotechnology • Livestock • Meat industry • Poultry farming\| Agriculture was developed at least 10,000 years ago, and it has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation. Evidence points to the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East as the site of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture is also believed to have occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea and several regions of the Americas. Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides were developed long ago but have made great strides in the past century. The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. In the past century, agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the replacement of human labor by synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, and mechanization. The recent history of agriculture has been closely tied with a range of political issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs, and farm subsidies. In recent years, there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of mechanized agriculture, and increasing support for the organic movement and sustainable agriculture. Scholars have proposed a number of theories to explain the historical development of farming. Most likely, there was a gradual transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies after a lengthy period during which some crops were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered in the wild. Although localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant, the fact that farming was 'invented' at least three times elsewhere, suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental. When major climate change took place after the last ice age (c.11,000 BC), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons. These conditions favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a dormant seed or tuber. These plants tended to put more energy into producing seeds than into woody growth. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time. The Oasis Theory was proposed by Raphael Pumpelly in 1908, and popularized by Vere Gordon Childe who summarized the theory in his book Man Makes Himself This theory maintains that as the climate got drier, communities contracted to oases where they were forced into close association with animals which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds. The theory has little support from contemporary scholars, as the climate data for the time does not support the theory. The Hilly Flanks hypothesis, proposed by Robert Braidwood in 1948, suggests that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the Taurus and Zagros mountains, and that it developed from intensive focused grain gathering in the region. The Feasting model by Bryan Hayden suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power, such as throwing feasts to exert dominance. This required assembling large quantities of food which drove agricultural technology. The Demographic theories were proposed by Carl Sauer and adapted by Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery. They describe an increasingly sedentary population, expanding up to the carrying capacity of the local environment, and requiring more food than can be gathered. Various social and economic factors help drive the need for food. The evolutionary/intentionality theory, advanced by scholars including David Rindos, is the idea that agriculture is a co-evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans. Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants, followed specialisation of location and then domestication. Identifying the exact origin of agriculture remains problematic because the transition from hunter-gatherer societies began thousands of years before the invention of writing. Nonetheless, archaeobotanists/paleoethnobotanists have traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant characteristics, such as a semi-tough rachis and larger seeds, to just after the Younger Dryas (about 9,500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. There is earlier evidence for use of wild cereals: anthropological and archaeological evidence from sites across Southwest Asia and North Africa indicate use of wild grain (e.g., from the ca. 20,000 BC site of Ohalo II in Israel, many Natufian sites in the Levant and from sites along the Nile in the 10th millennium BC). There is even evidence of planned cultivation and trait selection: grains of rye with domestic traits have been recovered from Epi-Palaeolithic (10,000+ BC) contexts at Abu Hureyra in Syria, but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication. It isn't until after 9,500 BC that the eight so-called founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on PPNB sites in the Levant, although the consensus is that wheat was the first to be sown and harvested on a significant scale. By 7000 BC, sowing and harvesting reached Mesopotamia and there, in the fertile soil just north of the Persian Gulf, Sumerians systematized it and scaled it up. By 6000 BC farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile River. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop. Maize was first domesticated, probably from teosinte, in the Americas around 3000-2700 BC, though there is some archaeological evidence of a much older development. The potato, the tomato, the pepper, squash, several varieties of bean, and several other plants were also developed in the New World, as was quite extensive terracing of steep hillsides in much of Andean South America. Agriculture was also independently developed on the island of New Guinea. In China, rice and millet were domesticated by 8000 BC, followed by the beans mung, soy and azuki. In the Sahel region of Africa local rice and sorghum were domestic by 5000 BC. Local crops were domesticated independently in West Africa and possibly in New Guinea and Ethiopia. Evidence of the presence of wheat and some legumes in the 6th millennium BC have been found in the Indus Valley. Oranges were cultivated in the same millennium. The crops grown in the valley around 4000 BC were typically wheat, peas, sesame seed, barley, dates and mangoes. By 3500 BC cotton growing and cotton textiles were quite advanced in the valley. By 3000 BC farming of rice had started. Other monsoon crops of importance of the time was cane sugar. By 2500 BC, rice was an important component of the staple diet in Mohenjodaro near the Arabian Sea. By this time the Indians had large cities with well-stocked granaries. Three regions of the Americas independently domesticated corn, squashes, potato and sunflowers. In Europe, there is evidence of emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, sheep, goats and pigs that suggest a food producing economy in Greece and the Aegean by 7000 BC. Archaeological evidence from various sites on the Iberian Peninsula suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6000 and 4500 BC. Céide Fields in Ireland, consisting of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls, date to 5500 BC and are the oldest known field systems in the world. The horse was domesticated in Ukraine around 4000 BC. Recent genetic evidence shows that early farmers of Europe were of mainly Near-Eastern origins, indicating that farming was introduced to Europe by a migration of Near-Eastern farmers into southern and central Europe and moving further north, mixing with the local population along the way. The majority of European males, including British and Irish males, have paternal ancestry that can be traced back to Middle-Eastern farmers, many of whom intermarried with local hunter-gatherer females. By the Bronze Age, wild food contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the usual diet. If the operative definition of agriculture includes large scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organized irrigation, and use of a specialized labour force, the title "inventors of agriculture" would fall to the Sumerians, starting ca. 5,500 BC. Intensive farming allows a much greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering, and allows for the accumulation of excess product for off-season use, or to sell/barter. The ability of farmers to feed large numbers of people whose activities have nothing to do with agriculture was the crucial factor in the rise of standing armies. Sumerian agriculture supported a substantial territorial expansion which along with internecine conflict between cities, made them the first empire builders. Not long after, the Egyptians, powered by farming in the fertile Nile valley, achieved a population density from which enough warriors could be drawn for a territorial expansion more than tripling the Sumerian empire in area. In Sumer, barley was the primary crop; wheat, flax, dates, apples, plums, and grapes were grown as well. Mesopotamia was blessed with flooding from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, but floods came in late spring or early summer from snow melting from the Anatolian mountains. This, along with salt deposits in the soil, made farming in Mesopotamia difficult. Sheep and goats were also domesticated, kept mainly for meat and milk, butter and cheese being made from the latter. Ur, a large town that covered about 50 acres (20 hectares), had 10,000 animals kept in sheepfolds and stables and 3,000 slaughtered every year. The city's population of 6,000 included a labour force of 2,500, cultivated 3,000 acres (12 km²) of land. The labour force contained storehouse recorders, work foremen, overseers, and harvest supervisors to supplement labourers. Agricultural produce was given to temple personnel, important people in the community, and small farmers. The land was plowed by teams of oxen pulling light unwheeled plows and grain was harvested with sickles in the spring. Wagons had solid wheels covered by leather tires kept in position by copper nails and were drawn by oxen and the Syrian onager (now extinct). Animals were harnessed by collars, yokes, and headstalls. They were controlled by reins, and a ring through the nose or upper lip and a strap under the jaw. As many as four animals could pull a wagon at one time. The horse was domesticated in Ukraine around 4000 BC, and was in use by the Sumerians around 2000 BC. Classical antiquity Edit In classical antiquity, Roman agriculture built off techniques pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export. Romans laid the groundwork for the manorial economic system, involving serfdom, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The farm sizes in Rome can be divided into three categories. Small farms were from 18-88 iugera (one iugera is equal to about 0.65 acre). Medium-sized farms were from 80-500 iugera (singular iugerum). Large estates (called latifundia) were over 500 iugera. The Romans had four systems of farm management: direct work by owner and his family; slaves doing work under supervision of slave managers; tenant farming or sharecropping in which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm’s produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant. There was a great deal of commerce between the provinces of the empire, all the regions of the empire became interdependent with one another, some provinces specialized in the production of grain, others in wine and others in olive oil, depending on the soil type. During the Middle Ages, Muslim farmers in North Africa and the Near East developed and disseminated agricultural technologies including irrigation systems based on hydraulic and hydrostatic principles, the use of machines such as norias, and the use of water raising machines, dams, and reservoirs. They also wrote location-specific farming manuals, and were instrumental in the wider adoption of crops including sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Muslims also brought lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas to Spain. The invention of a three field system of crop rotation during the Middle Ages, and the importation of the Chinese-invented moldboard plow, vastly improved agricultural efficiency. After 1492 the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespread exchange of plants and animals known as the Columbian Exchange. Crops and animals that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted to the New and vice versa. Perhaps most notably, the tomato became a favorite in European cuisine, and maize and potatoes were widely adopted. Other transplanted crops include pineapple, cocoa, and tobacco. In the other direction, several wheat strains quickly took to western hemisphere soils and became a dietary staple even for native North, Central and South Americans. Agriculture was a key element in the Atlantic slave trade, Triangular trade, and the expansion by European powers into the Americas. In the expanding Plantation economy, large plantations producing crops including sugar, cotton, and indigo, were heavily dependent upon slave labor. The unique tradition of Chinese agriculture has been traced to the pre-historic Xianrendong Relics and Diaotonghuan Relics (c. 12 0000 BC-7500 BC). Chinese historical and governmental records of the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC), Qin Dynasty (221 BC-207 BC), and Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) eras allude to the use of complex agricultural practices, such as a nationwide granary system and widespread use of sericulture. However, the oldest extant Chinese book on agriculture is the Chimin Yaoshu of 535 AD, written by Jia Sixia. Although much of the literature of the time was elaborate, flowery, and allusive, Jia's writing style was very straightforward and lucid, a literary approach to agriculture that later Chinese agronomists after Jia would follow, such as Wang Zhen and his groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313 AD. Jia's book was also incredibly long, with over one hundred thousand written Chinese characters, and quoted 160 other Chinese books that were written previously (but no longer survive). The contents of Jia's 6th century book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal husbandry. The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops. For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the hydraulic-powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC. Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done manually. The Chinese also innovated the square-pallet chain pump by the 1st century AD, powered by a waterwheel or an oxen pulling an on a system of mechanical wheels. Although the chain pump found use in public works of providing water for urban and palatial pipe systems, it was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling irrigation canals and channels for farmland. Ancient Papuans are thought to have begun practicing agriculture around 7000 BC. They began domesticating sugarcane and root crops. Pigs may also have been domesticated around this time. By 3000 BC, Papuan agriculture was characterised by water control for irrigation. Wheat, barley, and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BCE; Domestication of sheep and goat soon followed. Barley and wheat cultivation—along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goat—continued in Mehrgarh culture by 8000-6000 BCE. This period also saw the first domestication of the elephant. Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows—either of two or of six—and storing grain in granaries. By the 5th millennium BCE agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir. Cotton was cultivated by the 5th millennium BCE-4th millennium BCE. Archaeological evidence indicates that rice was a part of the Indian diet by 8000 BCE.Template:Verify credibility The Encyclopedia Britannica—on the subject of the first certain cultivated rice—holds that: A number of cultures have evidence of early rice cultivation, including China, India, and the civilizations of Southeast Asia. Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers. Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization. In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were some of the most innovative farmers of the ancient world and farming provided the entire basis of their economy. The land around Lake Texcoco was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, and fertilized their soil. However, their greatest agricultural technique was the chinampas, or artificial islands, also known as "floating gardens". These were used to make the swampy areas around the lake suitable for farming. To make chinampas, canals were dug through the marshy islands and shores, then mud was heaped on huge mats made of woven reeds. The mats were anchored by tying them to posts driven into the lake bed and then planting trees at their corners that took root and secured the artificial islands permanently. The Aztecs grew corn, squash, vegetables, and flowers on chinampas. The Andean civilizations were predominantly agricultural societies; the Incas took advantage of the ground, conquering the adversities like the Andean area and the inclemencies of the weather. The adaptation of agricultural technologies that already were used previously, allowed the Incas to organize the production a diversity of products of the coast, mountain and jungle, so them could be able to redistribute to villages that did not have access to other regions. The technological achievements reached to agricultural level, had not been possible without the workforce that was at the disposal of the Sapa Inca, as well as the road system that was allowing to store adequately the harvested resources and to distribute them for all the territory. Islamic Agricultural RevolutionEdit From the 8th century, the medieval Islamic world witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the "Muslim Agricultural Revolution" or "Arab Agricultural Revolution". Because of the trade routes established by Muslim traders across the Old World during the "Afro-Asiatic age of discovery" or "Pax Islamica", this enabled the diffusion of many crops, plants and farming techniques across the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. These techniques included crop rotation, irrigation and pest control. Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "Globalisation of Crops", which, along with increased mechanization of agriculture, led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, linked industries, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world. Serfdom became widespread in eastern Europe in the Middle Ages. Medieval Europe owed much of its development to advances made in Islamic areas (see Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe), which flourished culturally and materially while Europe and other Roman and Byzantine administered lands entered an extended period of social and economic stagnation. As early as the ninth century, an essentially modern agricultural system became central to economic life and organization in the Arab caliphates, replacing the largely export driven Roman model. The cities of the Near East, North Africa and Moorish Spain were supported by agricultural systems which included irrigation based on knowledge of hydraulic and hydrostatic principles, some of which were continued from Roman times. In later centuries, Persian Muslims transmitted cultural elements, including advanced agricultural techniques, into Turkic lands and western India. The Muslim agricultural revolution was based on the development of a sophisticated system of irrigation using machines such as norias, water mill, water raising machines, dams and reservoirs. With such technology they managed to greatly expand the exploitable land area. As well, they adopted a scientific approach to farming enabled them to improve farming techniques derived from the collection and collation of relevant information throughout the whole of the known world. Farming manuals were widely produced, detailing where, when, and how to plant and grow various crops. Reformed land ownership rules and labourers' rights, combining the recognition of private ownership and the rewarding of cultivators with a harvest share commensurate with their efforts also improved agricultural practices. Their counterparts in Europe struggled under a feudal system in which they were almost slaves (serfs) with little hope of improving their lot by hard work. The introduction of new crops transforming private farming into a new global industry exported everywhere, including Europe, where farming was mostly restricted to wheat strains obtained much earlier via central Asia. Spain received what she in turn transmitted to the rest of Europe; many agricultural and fruit-growing processes, together with many new plants, fruit and vegetables. These new crops included sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Others, previously known, were further developed. Muslims also brought to that country lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas and sugar cane. Several were later exported from Spanish coastal areas to the Spanish colonies in the New World. Also transmitted via Muslim influence, a silk industry flourished, flax was cultivated and linen exported, and esparto grass, which grew wild in the more arid parts, was collected and turned into various articles. British Agricultural RevolutionEdit Between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, Great Britain saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. New agricultural practices like enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop rotation and selective breeding enabled an unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the Industrial Revolution. By the early 1800s, agricultural practices, particularly careful selection of hardy strains and cultivars, had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages and before. The 18th and 19th century also saw the development of glasshouses, or greenhouses, initially for the protection and cultivation of exotic plants imported to Europe and North America from the tropics. Experiments on Plant Hybridization in the late 1800s yielded advances in the understanding of plant genetics, and subsequently, the development of hybrid crops. Increasing dependence upon monoculture crops lead to famines and food shortages, most notably the Irish Potato Famine (1845–1849). Storage silos and grain elevators appeared in the 19th century. With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th and 20th centuries, particularly in the form of the tractor, and later the Combine harvester, farming tasks could be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible. These advances, joined to science-driven innovations in methods and resources, have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit. The development of rail and highway networks and the increasing use of container shipping and refrigeration in developed nations have also been essential to the growth of mechanized agriculture, allowing for the economical long distance shipping of produce. While chemical fertilizer and pesticide have existed since the 19th century, their use grew significantly in the early twentieth century. Until the development of chemical fertilizers, Guano was widely used as a fertilizer, though expensive. The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. It was first patented by German scientist Haber, Shimon. In 1910 Carl Bosch, while working for German chemical company BASF, successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. Norman Borlaug and other scientists began developing crops for increased yields in the 1940s in Mexico. Their work lead to the Green Revolution, which applied western advances in fertilizer and pesticide use to farms worldwide, with varying success. Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include gene manipulation, Hydroponics, and the development of economically viable biofuels such as Ethanol. Though the intensive farming practices pioneered and extended in recent history generally led to increased outputs, they have also led to the destruction of farmland, most notably in the dust bowl area of the United States following World War I. As global population increases, agriculture continues to replace natural ecosystems with monoculture crops. Since the 1970s, western farmers and consumers have become increasingly aware of, and in some cases critical of, widely used intensive agriculture practices. This growing awareness has led to increased interest in such areas of agriculture as organic farming, permaculture, Heirloom plants and biodiversity, the growth of the Slow Food movement, and an ongoing discussion surrounding the potential for sustainable agriculture. Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the 1940s and the late 1960s, that increased agriculture production worldwide, particularly in the developing world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug, the "Father of the Green Revolution" credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers. In 1961, India was on the brink of mass famine. Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian minister of agriculture M. S. Swaminathan. Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian government collaborated import wheat seed from CIMMYT. Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops because of its reliable water supply and a history of agricultural success. India began its own Green Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and financing of agrochemicals. - Neolithic Revolution - Muslim Agricultural Revolution - British Agricultural Revolution - Green Revolution - ↑ http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=agricultures-sustainable-future - ↑ Childe, Gordon. (1936) Man Makes Himself (Oxford University Press). - ↑ Hayden, Brian (1992). "Models of Domestication". in Anne Birgitte Gebauer and T. Douglas Price. Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory. Madison: Prehistory Press. pp. 11–18. - ↑ Sauer, Carl, O (1952). Agricultural origins and dispersals. Cambridge, MA. - ↑ Binford, Lewis R. (1968). "Post-Pleistocene Adaptations". in Sally R. Binford and Lewis R. Binford. New Perspectives in Archaeology. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company. pp. 313–342. - ↑ Rindos, David (December 1987). The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0125892810). - ↑ Denham et al. (19 June 2003) "Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea". Science 301(5630):189-193. - ↑ 8.0 8.1 Southern Europe, 8000–2000 B.C. \| Timeline of Art History \| The Metropolitan Museum of Art - ↑ Ceide Fields Visitor Centre, Ballycastle, County Mayo, West of Ireland - ↑ Ceide Fields - UNESCO World Heritage Centre - ↑ Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. - ↑ historylink101 - ↑ 13.0 13.1 White, KD (1970), Roman Farming (Cornell University Press) - ↑ Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 55-56. - ↑ 15.0 15.1 Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 56. - ↑ 16.0 16.1 Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 57. - ↑ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 184. - ↑ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 89, 110. - ↑ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 33. - ↑ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 110. - ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica, "Melanesian cultures" - ↑ 22.0 22.1 Gupta, Anil K. in Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration, Current Science, Vol. 87, No. 1, 10 July 2004 59. Indian Academy of Sciences. - ↑ Baber, Zaheer (1996). The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India. State University of New York Press. 19. ISBN 0791429199. - ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Harris, David R. and Gosden, C. (1996). The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia: Crops, Fields, Flocks And Herds. Routledge. 385. ISBN 1857285387. - ↑ Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press. - ↑ Stein, Burton (1998). A History of India. Blackwell Publishing. 47. ISBN 0631205462. - ↑ Nene, Y. L., Rice Research in South Asia through Ages, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106) - ↑ "rice". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/502259/rice. - ↑ 29.0 29.1 Rodda & Ubertini (2004). The Basis of Civilization--water Science?. International Association of Hydrological Science. 279. ISBN 1901502570. - ↑ Lal, R. (August 2001), "Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000", Soil and Tillage Research 61 (1-2): 3–12 , doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2 - ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", The Journal of Economic History 34 (1), p. 8-35. - ↑ FTSC The Globalisation of Crops - ↑ Andrew M. Watson (1983), Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 052124711X. - ↑ Claude Lebedel (2006), Les Croisades, origines et conséquences, pp. 109-13, Editions Ouest-France, ISBN 2737341361 - ↑ Magdalino in Laiou (2002), Template:PDFlink - ↑ 36.0 36.1 Al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud (2007), Muslim heritage in Our World, FSTC publishing, 2nd Edition, p. 102-123. - ↑ Zohor Idrisi (2005), The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe, FSTC. - ↑ Hazell, Peter B.R. (2009). The Asian Green Revolution. Intl Food Policy Res Inst. GGKEY:HS2UT4LADZD. http://books.google.com/books?id=frNfVx-KZOcC&pg=PA1. - ↑ "India Girds for Famine Linked With Flowering of Bamboo". News.nationalgeographic.com. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/06/0621_bamboo.html. Retrieved on 13 August 2010. - ↑ "Newsroom: News Releases". CGIAR. http://www.cgiar.org/newsroom/releases/news.asp?idnews=532. Retrieved on 13 August 2010. - Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. - Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Part 2. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. - Marcel Mazoyer, Laurence Roudart, A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis, New York: Monthly Review Press, 2006, ISBN 1583671218 - Bernard Stiegler, Take Care. A philosopher's perspective. - Early Agricultural Remnants and Technical Heritage is a multidisciplinary project investigating the development of non-industrial agricultural techniques, with a focus on Europe. - Tracing the Evolution of Organic/Sustainable Agriculture A Selected and Annotated Bibliography. Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, National Agricultural Library.
Help students develop foundational reading skills with a high-interest guided reading program for students at various reading levels. Guided Reading: Analyze for third and fourth grades includes 36 nonfiction readers—six sets of two each for below-, on-, and above-level student readers. The readers in this reading comprehension resource book feature informational text about nocturnal animals, movies, Australia, space, and more. Ready to Go Guided Reading: Analyze provides everything you need to complete comprehensive guided reading lesson plans including: - discussion guides - prompts to encourage students to work with the text - leveled readers with intriguing topics - graphic organizers and an observation sheet Separated into three readability levels, these informational readers capture students’ attention with graphic charts, high-interest topics, colorful photos, and detailed maps. Students are encouraged to apply guided reading strategies to the text and respond to a writing prompt at the end of each reader. The Ready to Go: Guided Reading series for first to sixth grades includes everything you need for guided reading organization. Each 80-page book is essentially a guided reading set, containing 36 total readers, six discussion guides, and three reproducible pages. Each grade span includes 8 books, focusing on the following reading comprehension strategies: - Determine Importance Each nonfiction reader contains short nonfiction texts, vocabulary banks, photographs, charts, and maps.
When children living with cancer are treated, their bodies metabolise – or break down – the drugs ... About acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) in children Leukaemia is a cancer of the white blood cells. White blood cells help to fight infection. There are two different types of white blood cell – lymphoid cells (also known as lymphocytes) and myeloid cells. Normally these cells, which are produced in the bone marrow, repair and reproduce themselves in an orderly and controlled way. In leukaemia, however, the process gets out of control and the cells continue to divide but do not mature. Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia is an overproduction of immature lymphoid cells, called lymphoblasts or blast cells. Immature lymphoid cells fill up the bone marrow and stop it making healthy blood cells. As these cells are immature, they cannot work properly. This puts the child at increased risk of infection. Symptoms of leukaemia in children such as bruising and anaemia are caused by the bone marrow’s inability to make enough healthy red blood cells and platelets. There are several types of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. These are identified according to the type of lymphoid cell affected and the stage during its development at which it becomes leukaemic: - The affected lymphocytes may be either precursor (>98%) or mature - Precursor cell leukaemias may involve either of the two types of lymphocyte: B-cells (87%) or T-cells (13%) - Precursor B-cell ALL is further divided into three categories: null-cell, common ALL and pre-B ALL - Common ALL is the most common type of childhood ALL, accounting for up to 70% of cases. Knowing the type of ALL is important as it helps doctors work out the best treatment. Leukaemia is the most common childhood cancer, accounting for nearly a third of all cases (31% and 29% in boys and girls, respectively) in Great Britain. ALL accounts for around four-fifths (78%) of all leukaemias diagnosed in children in the UK. There is a peak in incidence of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children aged two to three years; more than half of all children diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia are under the age of five years. Boys have a greater risk than girls of developing ALL, by a factor of 4:3. The reason for this difference between the sexes is not known. Boys also require a longer duration of treatment (see below). Childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia survival rate The survival rate for children diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia is over 90%. ALL survival rate is highest in children diagnosed after one year of age. Until the 1960s childhood leukaemia was incurable. Today, thanks to improvements in care and sustained investment in research, the outlook for young patients diagnosed with ALL has dramatically improvedBack to top
Remember to turn up your volume to hear the above video! The United States Air Force flew Dr. Roger G. Miller to Columbus, New Mexico, to deliver this 58 minute presentation in commemoration of the Birth of American Air Power. Dr. Miller’s fascinating slide show included many before unseen 95-year-old archival photographs taken in Columbus during the launching of America’s first sustained military aviation operation. This Army aircraft engagement was part of the legendary “Punitive Expedition” into Mexico sent out of Columbus in retaliation for the nighttime March 9th, 1916 raid on the town by Mexico’s revolutionary General Francisco “Pancho” Villa and his troops. Before Villa’s three hour attack was over, he had lost almost a quarter of his some 400 men to the fierce American gunfire that ensued from the local Army garrison’s soldiers, but many buildings had been burned to the ground by the invaders and 18 U.S. soldiers and civilians had been slaughtered. Not only was the retaliatory Army campaign considered the launching of what is now the world’s greatest Air Power, but many give the military engagement credit for instigating what also became the leading civil aviation power in the world. While the early Columbus aircraft deployment is best known for its military contribution, the subsequent entry of the United States into Europe’s World War I had a great deal to do with the postwar explosion of civil aviation in the states as well. Why? Because the veritable Curtiss “Jenny” biplanes used out of the Columbus airfield were mass-produced by the United States and Canada for several years during WWI in order to train thousands of young American and Canadian men to be military pilots. The Great War was soon concluded in 1918, and because the thousands of Jennys were no longer needed, they were quickly sold by the government as surplus at the end of that deadly conflict. Many young Army and Navy pilots, who were fortunate enough to come home intact from the bloody fields and skies above Europe, had fallen in love with the exciting experience of flying and they enthusiastically purchased the surplus biplanes for as little as $200. It was these sturdy “Jenny” aircraft that quickly became the backbone of U. S. civil aviation, as they were soon profitably carrying “Airmail” for the Federal Government. They were also flown all across the states from the Atlantic to the Pacific by the ex-military pilots in what has become known as the American “Barnstorming” era. It was these same Barnstorming young pilots who gave thousands of Americans their first taste of flying aloft in their noisy open-cockpit machines, which in turn helped incite America’s love affair with powered flight. It was only a matter of a few more years before some of these young aviators were able to convince the government to subsidize their use of newer and larger aircraft to carry passengers between cities. Because there weren’t yet enough passengers willing to forgo their trips by the much safer railroads, the new “Airline” entrepreneurs cleverly also bid to carry the U.S. mail on their passenger planes. It was this federal subsidy to carry the airmail that enabled the fledgling airlines to turn a profit. Thus began what also soon became the world’s leading civil aviation “power.” Dr. Miller’s presentation is a colorful and exciting introduction into that great historical military experiment which is considered to be the Birth of American Air Power. Although the Wright Brother’s are universally given credit for the first successful powered flight in 1903, the United States quickly fell behind the Europeans in aircraft innovation and development. In fact, while the veritable “Jenny” airplane made a fine flight training aircraft (over 8,000 of them were mass-produced), it proved no match for any of the military airplanes used in the Great War, resulting in the Curtiss Jenny biplane being restricted to non-combat pilot training in the United States and Canada. When our pilots arrived to battle the Germans in that bloody conflagration, they were compelled to fly either the significantly superior French or British flying machines. Soon after the end of hostilities on the Continent, however, things quickly changed, with the lessons of the “war to end all wars” taken to heart, American aircraft manufacturers sprung up around the country in a fierce competition to produce better, safer – and faster – airplanes. The U. S. soon leapt ahead of the European nations in its capacity to produce genuinely safe modern airplanes – – – for both civilian and military purposes. And, with virtually no lapses, the United States has successfully maintained that position of world leadership in both aviation and its evolution into space flight.
Climate is often mistaken for weather, but it is more accurately described as the conditions that give rise to weather, including, for example, average temperatures and humidity (see also Climatology). Climatic conditions are created by geological features, like topography and large water bodies. They are also affected by the composition of the atmosphere, which has a significant effect on air temperatures. While weather in a given place can be quite variable, climatic conditions are not. This does not mean that the climate does not change, however. The climate has been in a continual state of change throughout geological history, which has given rise to repeated cycles of cooling and warming. The last cold period, known as the ice age, peaked approximately 18,000 years ago, after which a slow warming caused most of the ice sheets covering North America to melt over the ensuing 14,000 years (see also Glaciation). Key Terms: Climate Change Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. There are several different types of greenhouse gases, but two in particular are responsible for climate change: carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). This time period is often used as a point of comparison for current temperatures and rates of global warming. It refers to the years before industrialization was complete in Europe and North America, or in other words, the years before the late 1800s. A carbon sink is any natural or technological process that absorbs carbon from the atmosphere. Trees, soils and oceans are the most important natural carbon sinks, but all three are limited in the amount of carbon they are capable of absorbing. Feedback loops can be positive or negative, and refer to outcomes of a given process that can elevate or dampen the effect of the process itself. Climate change impacts that serve to contribute to further global warming are a type of positive feedback loop. A term used to describe changes to nature caused by humans. How Do Scientists Measure Climate Change? One of the main ways scientists observe change in climate is by measuring average temperatures at the global or regional scale and evaluating changes in those temperatures over time. Scientists calculate the global average annual temperature at the Earth’s surface by collecting temperature data from weather stations located all around the world, which have been around since the 1880s. In order to estimate temperatures before the existence of these weather stations, scientists analyze biological or physical phenomena such as tree rings, which can provide estimates for historic climatic conditions. They have also been able to observe changes in climate by observing other variables, like precipitation, humidity and cloud cover. How Fast is the Earth Warming? For most of geological history, the rate of change in climate has been quite slow. The rate of climate change since the Industrial Revolution, however, is historically unprecedented, such that global average temperatures today are nearly 1°C above pre-industrial levels. Although the change seems small, for the global climate one degree of warming can cause significant shifts in weather patterns, water cycles and ecosystems. During the early 21st Century, worldwide temperature records have been repeatedly broken, including July 2016, now recognized as the hottest month in recorded history. How Are Humans Responsible? The increase in the rate of climate change has been attributed in large part to human activities. Scientists have known that human activities were theoretically capable of changing the climate ever since British scientist Guy S. Callendar brought that theory to light in 1938. His theory has since been irrefutably confirmed. Any human activity that results in the emission of heat-trapping gases, called greenhouse gases, into the atmosphere contributes to an increase in global average temperatures. There are several different types of greenhouse gases, but the most significant is carbon dioxide (CO2), and secondarily, methane (CH4). The human activities that generate the most greenhouse gases are the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas. These resources have high carbon content, which is released when they’re burned in power plants, buildings or vehicles. Scientists estimate that about 70 per cent of man-made greenhouse gas emissions come from burning fossil fuels, particularly coal. Changes in land use, including deforestation and agriculture, also have an effect on climate change by influencing two of the most important carbon sinks: trees and soils. Scientists have linked the rise in global temperatures to human activity through research in Antarctica and Greenland. By analyzing air bubbles trapped in ice cores in these regions, scientists can determine what the atmosphere was like up to 800,000 years ago. With this research, they have been able to establish two key findings: First, there is a clear relationship observed throughout geological history between the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere and temperature. Second, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere remained relatively stable until the Industrial Revolution, after which the concentration began to climb considerably. Before the Industrial Revolution, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere was approximately 280 ppm (parts per million). As of 2015, CO2 reached 400 ppm —the highest it has been in some 650,000 years — and there is no natural source of CO2 that can explain this increase. Scientists have also been able to project future climate conditions, through the use of complex computer models called general circulation models. The sophistication and accuracy of these models have improved considerably over time with advances in computing technology. These models are used to estimate the likely future climate conditions under differing greenhouse gas emission scenarios. If the pace of increase in greenhouse gas emissions observed in the previous 50 years continues unabated throughout the 21st century, these models project that global average temperatures will continue to increase at a worrying rate, reaching 2°C above pre-industrial levels by 2050, and exceeding 4°C by 2100. As sophisticated as they are, global climate models cannot project more specific or local-scale conditions, such as whether or not 2020 will be a drought year in Alberta. Some scientists also speculate that these projections may be conservative, because they do not include several positive feedback loops that can further intensify the rate of warming. One notable feedback loop is the melting of permafrost. Much of the soils in the Arctic have been permanently frozen, but they are beginning to thaw as temperatures rise. These soils have a large amount of carbon dioxide and methane trapped in them, which is released when they thaw. Methane is 84 times more effective than CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere. A second feedback loop is the potential heat given off by oceans. The oceans have absorbed much of the heat that has been added to the atmosphere over the past century, but the oceans’ ability to continue to serve as a heat sink is not indefinite. Eventually, the energy stored in the oceans will be released back to the atmosphere, causing more warming. What is the Impact of Climate Change? The impacts of an increase in global average temperature are far-reaching and potentially disastrous to plant, human, animal and marine life. One of the most acute impacts is sea level rise, due both to the melting of land ice and the warming of oceans. Average sea levels rose approximately 20 cm over the 20th century, and the rate of increase is growing. Sea levels are likely to rise by at least 1 m in response to historic emissions, although it is uncertain how many decades it will take to reach these levels. Some research suggests that the rise may be much greater if emissions continue to increase. Even at 1 m, millions of people living along coastlines are at risk, including residents of Vancouver, and several other Canadian cities. Many low-lying island nations would become completely uninhabitable. Other impacts of concern have already been observed, and are projected to increase in future decades. These include extreme weather events, such as droughts, heat waves and extreme storms, which can be expected to increase in frequency and intensity in a warming climate. Increases in these events, in turn, create conditions for other negative impacts, like forest fires and crop failures. Projected declines in agricultural productivity (which have already been observed in some regions) are a particular concern, considering its direct relationship to food security. Water supplies are affected by changes in climate as well. Western Canada is already experiencing glacial melting, and a greater proportion of precipitation falling as rain rather than snow, which affects everything from winter sports to surface water availability in the summer. Climate change also has a direct impact on ecosystems. Plants and animals are highly sensitive to shifts in temperatures and water cycles. They can migrate, but only if they have someplace more habitable to migrate to, and if they are able to move faster than the climate changes. For most species, that means migrating toward the poles and higher elevations. Canada’s mountain species are especially at risk, since there is nowhere for them to go. Since 2010, a number of studies have been released with a similar message: observations of the pace of change resulting from increases in global average temperatures in everything from sea level rise to ocean warming to glacial melt have far surpassed earlier model projections. Most alarmingly, based on analysis of a period of earth’s history in which estimated global average temperatures were similar to today’s, one study authored by 17 prominent climate scientists in 2015 projected sea levels to rise as much as 3 meters in 50 years, even at just 2°C of warming. In effect, humans have never before experienced the climate conditions that have already begun to characterize the 21st century, raising the need for adaptation. Even if emissions were completely halted today, significant impacts would still occur in the future, because the greenhouse gases currently in the atmosphere will continue to have an effect on the climate for several decades. Those who are most vulnerable include people who live in areas highly exposed to extreme impacts, such as sea level rise, and those who have limited access to the resources needed to adapt, such as knowledge, social support networks and money. Governments at all levels are beginning to take adaptation seriously, by conducting vulnerability assessments to identify the groups, economic sectors and infrastructures most vulnerable, and developing adaptation plans accordingly. Some individuals and businesses have begun to adapt as well, by investing in building weatherization, for example, but there is still a long way to go to prepare social and economic systems for a rapidly changing climate. Addressing global environmental problems requires co-operation at the international level. Political and scientific leaders across the globe were sufficiently concerned about the impacts of climate change that the United Nations created the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992. The framework was a treaty that called for “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.” One of the core elements of the Framework was the establishment of an international scientific body to assess the state of knowledge about climate change, a responsibility subsequently delegated to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, established by the World Meteorological Association in 1988. This group has become the leading authority on climate science ever since. Signatories to the convention meet annually to assess progress in reaching their goal in meetings called the Conferences of the Parties (COP). Conference assessments have not been optimistic. In fact, global emissions of CO2 grew 45 per cent between 1990 and 2010. One thing signatories have agreed on is a specific target: warming should not exceed 2°C above pre-industrial temperatures. As of 2015, the world is already halfway there. In December 2015, the 21st annual meeting of the COP (COP21) was held in Paris. The meeting generated the Paris Agreement — a historic document outlining the ways in which the international community will cooperate to keep warming below 2°C. The agreement’s key points include the aim to keep warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial temperatures by reducing emissions, meetings every five years in order to set more ambitious targets, and financial support for developing countries. Nearly 200 countries have signed the agreement, including Canada. The goal to limit the warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions to 1.5°C comes as scientists suggest that even if global temperatures stabilize at 2°C of warming, there will still be significant negative impacts. If temperatures increase much beyond that there is a high probability of destroying many of the ecological and meteorological conditions that support society. Mitigation includes three basic strategies: First, the amount of greenhouse gases being emitted by human activities can be reduced. This is what is called conventional mitigation, and it generally implies making changes in the ways energy is consumed, either by using less, or switching to alternative fuels that emit little or no carbon. Second, emitted carbon can be captured before it is released into the atmosphere and stored underground. This is called carbon capture and storage (CCS), and has started to be implemented in a handful of power plants to date, one of which is in Saskatchewan. However, carbon capture is expensive, and governments are a long way from implementing CCS at a scale that would be necessary to influence change. Third, certain approaches are capable of removing the carbon that currently exists in the atmosphere. This can include simple strategies like reforestation, since trees absorb carbon, as well as more technologically advanced mechanisms. A fourth strategy, still only at the sidelines of discussion, involves “geo-engineering,”which entails efforts to control the climate by manipulating the Earth’s systems in various ways. An example of this is the process of cloud seeding,an attempt to increase precipitation from clouds by dispersing substances, primarily solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) and silver iodide, into them. Geo-engineering techniques are still considered highly speculative, and are associated with significant risks of unintended negative impacts. How Much Mitigation is Needed? With the global lack of progress on reducing greenhouse gas emissions since the establishment of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the need for rapid mitigation has become more urgent than ever. In 2018, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change released a report that confirmed that limiting global warming to 1.5°C could substantially reduce the impacts of climate change. However, the report also indicated that in order to accomplish this net greenhouse gas emissions would need to be reduced to zero by 2040. Pledges made by governments around the world to reduce emissions fall far short of what is needed to achieve this goal, including the pledges made in the lead-up to the 21st Conference of the Parties. Who is Responsible? In many countries of the developed world, emissions have largely stabilized, and in some countries, they have gone down. But in other parts of the world this is not the case. China now dwarfs other countries in emissions levels, and they are expected to continue increasing these levels for at least another 10 years. Moreover, it will take much longer for China’s emissions to decline. The question of who is responsible for implementing mitigation strategies is difficult to answer and is ultimately political. The complexity of this question is a primary reason that international efforts to mitigate climate change have been met with such limited success. Should those countries that have emitted the most historic emissions bear the most responsibility? Should rapidly developing countries like China and India have the right to increase their emissions in an effort to develop their national economies? Should countries like Canada, which are well-endowed with fossil fuels and are economically dependent on their development, be prevented from extracting them? There are simply no easy answers to these questions. Climate Change Deniers Those who don’t accept the science of climate change are often referred to as climate change deniers. This small group of organizations and individuals stand to lose a lot if fossil fuel consumption is reduced, and their influence is part of the reason political responses to climate change have been slow in Canada and other parts of the world. For example, ExxonMobil, an oil and gas company based in Texas, has promoted climate skepticism, particularly through providing financial support to conservative think tanks: advocacy organizations such as the American Enterprise Institute in the United States, or the Fraser Institute in Canada. These organizations support conservative ideologies, often under the guise of objectivity. A study published in 2013 found that a large proportion of climate change denial books are linked to such organizations — books that are generally not peer-reviewed or written by scientists. The central claims of skeptics have evolved over time from an initial assertion that the science supporting climate change is unsound. Two additional assertions have been added to this claim: that global warming is a natural phenomenon; and among some, that the impacts of climate change will be beneficial, and therefore do not warrant investments in mitigation. One of the most effective strategies invoked by skeptics to support their arguments is to assert that the science of climate change is too uncertain to warrant a response. In fact, the 100 per cent confidence demanded by skeptics is an unrealizable goal, as scientific methods are not capable of producing such levels of certainty. Upwards of 97 per cent of scientific papers published between 1991 and 2011 agreed that climate change is caused by humans; this represents a considerably high degree of consensus. Survey research shows that climate skepticism has been highly influential in three countries in particular: the US, where 54 per cent of citizens agree that climate change is caused by humans; and the UK and Australia, where 64 per cent agree. In the same survey — conducted by Ipsos MORI in 2013 — 71 per cent of Canadians agreed with the statement. According to research done in the United States, those most inclined to support the arguments of skeptics include politically conservative, white men. However, climate skepticism appears to be declining. An increasing number of prominent financial institutions, industry organizations and politicians formerly allied with climate skeptics have publicly stated their acceptance of and concern for climate change. In the wake of these assertions, skeptics are increasingly marginalized. In September 2015, for example, 10 congressmen from the US Republican Party went against their party’s official stance and called for climate change action. Just a few months earlier, Pope Francis, head of the Catholic Church, began preaching the importance of a global response to climate change. Moreover, the judiciary has weighed into climate decision-making, with a Dutch court in 2015 ordering the Dutch government to support deep emission cuts in order to protect basic human rights. Influential institutions like the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Health Organization and the International Energy Agency have all established climate change mitigation as a high priority. In addition, a variety of major fossil fuel companies including Royal Dutch Shell, Total and Canada’s Suncor have expressed the need for urgent political action to mitigate climate change. Indeed, survey research suggests that public opinion is also beginning to shift against the arguments of the denial movement. How is Canada Responding to Climate Change? Canada emits 2 per cent of global emissions, which sounds small, but when the size of the population is considered, Canada is actually among the highest per capita emitters in the world. These high emission levels are due in part to a few greenhouse-gas intense sectors in the national economy, particularly the energy industry, but the fact that Canada is a large and cold country also matters. Regardless of its contribution to global warming to date, Canada is in an important position because it holds one of the world’s largest shares of remaining fossil fuel reserves, in particular oil. Decisions Canada makes about the development of these reserves have tremendous significance for the global community’s ability to prevent global temperatures from increasing beyond 2°C above pre-industrial levels. (See alsoOil Sands; Fracking.) In 1997, Canada signed the Kyoto Protocol, a treaty that extended the goals of the UNFCCC to include specific national mitigation targets. The protocol was ratified by Parliament in 2002. However, the federal government did not put into place strategies that would enable the country to meet its targets. Canada's Kyoto target was an average 6 per cent reduction in emissions from 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. Instead, between 1990 and 2008 national emissions increased 24 per cent, and in 2011, the federal government withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol. Many provinces and cities across Canada, however, have taken significant actions to enable reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. The Province of Ontario, for example, determined to phase out coal-fired power plants in 2002, and in 2014 managed to do just that. The plants were replaced with renewable (e.g. wind) and lower-emission sources (e.g. natural gas). British Columbia, on the other hand, is among the first jurisdictions in the world to institute a carbon tax, initiated in 2008. Studies suggest the tax has contributed to a decline in fuel use in the province. In addition, in 2015, the mayors of 21 of Canada’s largest cities signed a resolution of commitment to binding emission reduction targets, and the development of municipal climate action plans.
Home : Grade Level : Grade 6 : Emergency Preparedness Curriculum Flash Drive The Emergency Preparedness Curriculum is a comprehensive and sequential set of lesson plans and activities designed to be taught in grades 1 through 12 as a supplement to the Michigan Model for HealthT curriculum. The purpose of these lessons and activities is to provide educators with the tools to teach students how to prevent, protect, respond and recover from natural and manmade disasters. This includes empowering students with the knowledge and skills to make smart decisions before, during and after an incident, and ensure all families have disaster plans. At the elementary level, there are four to six lessons at each grade level that can be taught within a short period of time or spread out over the school year. At the secondary level, there are thirty activities from which middle and high school educators can choose. Each activity is about twenty minutes in length and can be integrated into many different content areas. The Emergency Preparedness Curriculum was recently updated and the entire curriculum is now available on a flash drive. Newly developed instructional materials for the lessons/activities are also available. Contact your Regional School Health Coordinator to obtain your flash drive and instructional materials along with training https://mishca.org/where/.
HOW TO ANALYZE MAPS AND ATLASES Select your Materials Then they reinforce their interpretive skills by making maps that encode and communicate geographic information. A PowerPoint® presentation introduces the various types of maps, as well as map symbols and conventions, before teaching students to ask geographic questions; acquire, organize, and analyze geographic information; and to synthesize and communicate geographic knowledge. The unit also includes lecture notes and reproducible activity pages, and Geographic Literacy, a set of 22″h x 14″w posters, summarizes the main guidelines for critical analysis of geographic information. Social Studies School Service
Missing DNA may explain differences between chimps and humans Humans' missing gene segments may explain variances from other mammals Missing chunks of DNA responsible for turning genes on and off help explain some differences between chimpanzees and humans - including why humans have big brains and why the human penis is not covered with prickly spines, U.S. researchers said Wednesday. The study, published in the journal Nature, reinforces the notion that genes that control the activity of other genes play a big role in what makes humans so different from other mammals. To study this, a team led by David Kingsley of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Stanford University School of Medicine in California compared the genetic code of humans to chimpanzees - man's closest relative - and other mammals. They found 510 gene segments that are present in chimps and other mammals but are missing in humans. Nearly all of these were regulatory genes - genetic switches that turn up or down the volume of nearby genes. Then the team did a computer analysis to identify deleted DNA segments that were clustered around particular genes. "We saw more changes than you would expect near genes involved in steroid hormone signaling," Kingsley said in a statement. A number of deletions also appeared near genes involved in brain development. The team kept narrowing the pool until they found a few dozen genes that they thought were involved in the evolution of particular human traits. They found that one of the sections of DNA deleted in the human genome was responsible for producing sensory whiskers, such as those in mice, and prickly spines, like those found on the penises of many mammals. "People are always surprised to hear that the penis of many organisms are covered with these spines," Kingsley said in a telephone interview. He said penile spines, or barbs, are typically present in species that mate quickly, such as chimpanzees, whose males must compete to fertilize one or two receptive females. These spines - made from keratin, the protein found in fingernails - often lie over sensory receptors, and some experiments suggest removing them makes copulation last longer. For humans, losing these penile spines might have prolonged intercourse and helped make monogamous relationships a more attractive option, the team said. Even more interesting to Kingsley, however, is that another of the DNA deletions was located near a gene that kept the growth of brain cells in check. The deletion of this DNA may have contributed to the development of larger brains in humans, he said. Both of these traits may be related to meeting the reproductive needs of humans, which give birth to babies with large brains, requiring parents to mate in pairs - at least long enough to care for their big-headed offspring. "Pair bonding is good if you are trying to raise relatively helpless infants," Kingsley said. More than just explaining physical differences in human evolution, the team hopes eventually to discover important physiological differences, including why humans are susceptible to diseases such as arthritis, cancer, malaria, HIV, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
Beacon Lesson Plan Library Orange County Schools This lesson is designed to teach students to write an expository essay explaining a logical sequence of events. While eating a Popsicle, they think about how they would describe the steps they go through to eat it. The student uses a variety of strategies to prepare for writing (for example, brainstorming, making lists, mapping ideas, grouping related ideas, keeping a notebook of ideas, observing surroundings, answering questions posed by others). The student creates a logical organizational pattern appropriate to expository writing (including beginning, middle, end). -1 Popsicle per student -Chart paper & markers -Transparency of Teacher Sample Graphic Organizer (See Associated File) -Popsicle Prose handout (See Associated File) -Teacher Sample Essay on chart paper (See Associated File) 1. Create a transparency of the Teacher Sample Graphic Organizer. (See Associated File) 2. Copy the Teacher Sample Essay on chart paper. (See Associated File) That way you can refer to the essay as you go over the graphic organizer. 3. Gather chart paper and markers for brainstorming activity. 4. Buy Popsicles. 5. Copy the Popsicle Prose handout for each student. (See Associated File) This handout contains both the rubric and the student graphic organizer. Prerequisite: Students have already learned the format of 5-paragraph essay. 1. Ask students, “Do you have a special way to eat a Popsicle?” 2. Tell students that they will be learning how to write an expository essay on how to eat a Popsicle. 3. Allow students to choose what flavor Popsicle they would like to eat. 4. As students eat their Popsicle, have them think about the special way they consume it. 5. Brainstorm descriptive words for how they eat it, how it sounds, what it tastes like, etc. Write these words on chart paper. 6. Discuss with students the elements of an expository “how to” essay. Introduce transition words that are appropriate for explaining how to do something. 7. Share the Teacher Sample Graphic Organizer and Essay. (See Associated File) 8. Give students the Popsicle Prose handout. (See Associated File) Have students evaluate the teacher-made graphic organizer according to the criteria provided in the rubric. 9. Walk students through completing the graphic organizer that is on the Popsicle Prose handout. Refer students to the criteria on the rubric for a “commendable” and “acceptable” graphic organizer as they complete their own. 1. Review the basics of writing an expository “how to” essay with students. The essay should contain a logical organizational pattern for explaining a sequence of events (including beginning, middle, end). 2. Review the Teacher Sample Essay and how it correlates with the Teacher Sample Graphic Organizer. Review the logical organizational pattern of the essay (introduction; first, second, and third main ideas with supporting details; conclusion). 3. Using their graphic organizer, have students begin writing their own essay to describe how they eat Popsicles. 1. Use the Student Graphic Organizer Rubric on the Popsicle Prose handout to formatively assess the students' work. This rubric assesses whether the students did a commendable or acceptable job completing their graphic organizer, or whether they need to see the teacher for more assistance. 2. Read the students' essays to assess whether or not they created a logical organizational pattern appropriate to expository writing (including beginning, middle, end). Provide formative feedback about the essay's strengths and any organizational areas that might need improvement. An extension of this lesson could be to take the essay students wrote and introduce proofreading and editing skills.
Time Limit: 4 Seconds Memory Limit: 65536 KB Alice and Bob like eating cake very much. One day, Alice and Bob went to a bakery and bought many cakes. Now we know that they have bought n cakes in the bakery. Both of them like delicious cakes, but they evaluate the cakes as different values. So they decided to divide those cakes by following method. Alice and Bob do n / 2 steps, at each step, Alice choose 2 cakes, and Bob takes the cake that he evaluates it greater, and Alice take the rest cake. Now Alice want to know the maximum sum of the value that she can get. The first line is an integer T which is the number of test cases. For each test case, the first line is an integer n (1<=n<=800). Note that n is always an even integer. In following n lines, each line contains two integers a[i] and b[i], where a[i] is the value of ith cake that Alice evaluates, and b[i] is the value of ith cake that Bob evaluates. (1<=a[i], b[i]<=1000000) Note that a, a..., a[n] are n distinct integers and b, b..., b[n] are n distinct integers. For each test case, you need to output the maximum sum of the value that Alice can get in a line.
All we need is your name & email address so we can deliver the files. This is a 1-hour, fully scripted Third Grade Math lesson plan addressing interpreting products: using groupings, repeated addition and skip counting (3.OA.A1). This lesson is intended to be an introductory lesson on interpreting products through drawings and groupings. Students will recognize the relationship between multiplication and repeated addition. In addition to this they will show products in multiplication as a multiplication equation matching “a” number of groups with “b” number of objects in each group. The lesson begins with review and note taking for reference, then moves into partner or independent practice, and concludes with a short exit slip to check for understanding. Skills addressed: Multiplication, Grouping, Interpreting Products, & Skip Counting The content of this lesson is derived from a portion of the Half Day Lesson Plan: “Interpreting Products: Groupings and Arrays.” This is a 1-hour, fully scripted Third Grade ELA lesson plan using a printable Informational Life Science text, “Winter Survival,” by Jennifer Kaul. This lesson includes: close reading comprehension techniques, practicing identifying key details, determining the meaning of unknown vocabulary, and classifying information (RI.3.1-3.4). Students will take literal interpretation of informational text to evaluation and synthesizing. They will also complete a graphic organizer to classify three animal species and how they survive winter. This 1-ELA lesson addresses Third Grade Life Science NGSS (Next Generation Science Standards). LS2.C: Ecosystem Dynamics, Functioning, and Resilience When the environment changes in ways that affect a place’s physical characteristics, temperature, or availability of resources, some organisms survive and reproduce, others move to new locations, yet others move into the transformed environment, and some die. (secondary to 3-LS4-4) The content of this lesson is derived from a portion of the Half Day Lesson Plan: Informational Life Science: “Winter Survival.”
a) There are two main aspects of the rule of law: firstly, that it is known and applicable to all citizens. This means that the law has to be accessible for people to see, so that they understand the law. The second aspect being that it is applied equally. An example of this would be that a person of middle-eastern descent would be viewed in the same light as a Caucasian person in the eyes of the law. b) Natural justice includes the notion of procedural fairness and may include the following: 1 A person accuse of a crime, or at risk of some form of loss, should be given adequate notice about proceedings (including any charges) 2 A person making a decision should declare any personal interest they may have in the proceedings 3 A person who makes a decision should be unbiased and act in good faith 4 Proceedings should be conducted so that they are fair to all parties 5 Each party to a proceeding is entitled to hear all that the other side has tot say to the decision maker 6 Each party to a proceeding is entitled to ask questions and contradict the evidence of the opposing party 7 A decision maker should not take into account irrelevant considerations 8 A decision maker should take into account relevant considerations 9 Not only should justice be done, but it should be seen to be done. c) State sovereignty is the ability of a nation to govern itself, and make laws for itself. Under international law, a state must also have a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and a capacity to enter relations with other states. An example of this is Australia, who before 1901 (Federation) were still under the control of Britain, therefore making them a colony, rather than a state. Since that time, the Commonwealth of Australia Act 1900 (UK) and the Statute of Westminster 1931 (UK) have been passed, which allow Australia to govern and make laws for itself. 2. a) The two main differences between civil and criminal law are whom they aim to protect, and what punishments can result from them. The aim of civil law is to protect the rights of the individual, whereas criminal law aims to protect society. The punishments, or outcomes, are also very different. The outcome of civil law is usually a financial loss, (damages) an injunction or fulfilment of a contract against the defendant. The outcome of criminal law can be as simple as a fine, or can be as severe as the loss of liberty, eg. Gaol. Other differences are the burden of proof, the standard of proof, the procedure in court, and the crimes covered by the law. b) Public law is constitutional law, administrative law and criminal law. Constitutional law and administrative law governs the government's law making ability and jurisdiction, and criminal law effects private citizens, and sets boundaries concerning their behaviour. Private law only effects private citizens, and is comprised of contract law and tort law. Private law evolves from the interactions of private citizens. Private law is closely related to civil law. c) The customary law system is different to both the civil and criminal system in that the laws are not usually documented, rather passed down through generations. Customary law is most commonly used by indigenous peoples in their communities such as aboriginals. The civil law system is different to common law mainly in the course of the trial. In the civil law system the judge is more active, asking witnesses question and gives the verdict, rather than the jury as in the common law system. Common law can be divided into three separate meanings. It may describe the system of law that was derived from England and is now used in countries such as Australia. It can also be the law which comes from the decisions of the courts. It may also be a reference to the law that was traditionally developed by the courts of common law, and may be contrasted with other areas of law that come from specialist courts. The common law system is different to the civil law in the trial process especially, with the judge having a much less active role, with the jury making the final decision. d) Domestic law applies only to the people of a nation-state, whereas international law is the guidance of nation-states. Domestic law is designed to regulate the behaviour of people of the state eg. Australia. Its sources are Commonwealth and Federal laws and those created by the states eg. NSW. International law has the United Nations as one of its sources. 3. It treats all people equally – The law aims to treat all people equally, despite race, religion etc. However this is obviously untrue, as people with prior convictions, or even people with prior charges but no convictions are viewed differently to someone with a perfect record in the eyes of the law. It is based on generally held religious ethical precepts – The common law legal system is based mainly around the Christian bible, specifically the Ten Commandments (thou shalt not steal etc. ) However there has been a trend in recent times for laws to be based more on ethics and morals rather than religion. Utilitarianism is the theory which suggest that laws and decisions should be based on the idea of ensuring the greatest possible happiness for the greatest possible number of people. However by definition this means that although the majority of people are 'happy', there is another group of people who are unhappy due to the law or judicial decision, which inturn does not result in equality. It stresses consensus and social cohesion above all – Many western societies have adopted the democratic process of determining a leader of their country, and inturn the creator of their laws. This is opposed by the communist system used by China, Russia etc. In theory, this gives the people of the state the ability to change laws, and decide on laws which they approve of. However, in practice, this simply doesn't work, as the people are voting in someone purely on what they have said they will do, and are then hoping that their elected member will fulfil their pre-stated policies and law reforms. History has told us that this often is not the case, with many politicians acting within their own best interests, rather than the interests of the people which have voted them into power. This means that the people really have little say when it comes to changing laws, except in the case of constitutional change, where a referendum needs to be passed or denied to achieve law reform. The only other way for people to have a say in law reform is to protest, such as with the South Sydney Rabbitohs case, where there was enough pressure from the public to readmit the team, that the case was heard in the high court and the team was then ruled to be able to rejoin the competition. Although the public didn't directly make the decision, their outcries lead to the change in decision. It allows for general principles to be mitigated in individual cases – Common law aims to treat people equally. However in some situations, this can actually result in inequality. For example, a homeless person and a millionaire are fined an equal amount for theft. Although the penalty is equal in dollar value, the penalty would be felt a lot harder by the homeless person. This is where the law has the ability to be changed, or precedent excused, due to mitigating circumstances. It aims to redress inequalities – Some laws aim to redress inequalities that some minority groups face. Although this sounds as though it would address inequality, in fact it creates more inequality. If an aboriginal man receives a lesser penalty than a Caucasian man for the same crime, due to previous discrimination he has faced, then this creates inequality for the Caucasian man, which violates one of the characteristics of law (treats all people equally)
Subjectivity refers to a person’s own beliefs, feelings, desires and perspectives. Subjectivity is an individual’s own interpretations of experiences consisting of spiritual, intellectual and emotional perceptions and misperceptions. Subjectivity contrasts with objectivity, which entails seeing the universe and all in it exactly for what it is from a view, which is not under the influence of human perceptions, past experiences, human cultural interventions and expectation of the result. Subjectivity is particularly useful in every day’s life since people base most of their decisions on subjective information with a few exceptions when people make decisions based on objective information. Every day people make decisions that shape their lives in some way. Sometimes, such people seek advice from their friends, families or colleagues, but the ultimate decision depends on what the person thinks. This is a revelation of the importance of subjectivity in people’s daily lives. In addition, it shows the relevance of accurate subjective information since it is possible to change the accuracy levels of people’s subjective feelings and decisions. It is impossible to convert every subjective decision or feelings into objective facts. This means that subjectivity is a large part of everyone’s life. Subjectivity is also crucial in self-presentation and arguments. Every person has different opinions and views about various aspects of life. To be able to express these opinions, subjectivity comes in handy. It helps people to understand someone’s point of view and the fact that someone is not just agreeing to what other people say. Subjectivity helps in articulating ones ideas in a presentation, a discussion or an argument. How we Experience Subjectivity in Media Art The principles of arts design describe the fundamental ideas on what makes a piece of art classy or poor. A definitive list, however, does not exist because art is largely subjective, and what appeals to a particular artist or person may not necessarily appeal to the others. There are some common grounds on the fundamental principles consisting of harmony, balance, unity, emphasis and opposition. These principles assist in developing art that is standard and appealing to the majority of the audience. The centre of emphasis or interest on a piece of art is what captures the eye of the viewer and keeps the piece of art from becoming monotonous. This centre of interest creates a noticeable visual effect without totally dominating the piece. In creating emphasis, the artist uses different colors and forms, which are different from the ones on the rest of the piece. Mostly, these colors are chosen by the artist and reflect his choice of colors and forms, which are highly subjective. This way, we experience subjectivity in the piece of art. Sometimes, artists make use of opposition in their artwork instead of making use of visual contrast of some type. This entails making use of opposing colors or making use of both vertical and horizontal elements to oppose each other. The artist can also use light and dark colors in varying degrees to create the contrast. Again, the type of contrast an artist decides to use depends on his or her taste and is, therefore, subjective. The art piece has to be appealing to the artist first before he can release it for view by the audience. An artist takes time to make a piece, and usually, he or she is the first to admire it. In cases where the artists do not like their piece of art, then most artists chose to make modifications or chose not to lose the piece to the audience. Thus, what the audience sees in a piece of art is a reflection of the artists’ subjectivity.
What is Newton’s Third Law of Physics Newton’s Third Law of Physics Newton’s Third Law For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. According to Newton’s Law of Motion, we have: F (Action) = – F (Reaction The negative (-) sign indicates that the two forces are parallel but in the opposite direction. If we consider one of the interacting objects as A and the other as B, Then a. According to the Third Law of Motion: F(AB) = -F(BA) E F (A B) represents the force exerted on A and F (BA) is the force exerted on B. - When we walk on the ground, we push the ground backward and as a reaction the ground pushes us forward. Due to this reason we are able to move on the ground. - If a book is placed on the table, it exerts some force on the table, which is equal to the weight of the book. The table as a reaction pushes the book upward. This is the reason that the book is stationary on the table and it does not fall down. Note: Over the past decades, Great Britain is considered the No. 1 country in the world for higher education. With the diploma of the British university you will not have problems with employment. Annually about 15 thousand Russians come to the UK for study, including English language courses and vacation programs. Education in the UK is considered the most prestigious and is the standard in the whole world. Educational institutions combine ancient traditions and modern technologies. The UK education system has passed the test of time. It combines classical forms of education and innovative methods. It is necessary to understand that the correspondence form assumes basically independent learning. What is needed first of all is self-discipline and, of course, serious motivation. Practical practice students-extramural students prefer to pass in the place of their main work. The term of study at the correspondence department is 3.5 – 5 years, depending on the chosen direction.
African American Religion African American Religion African American religion during the period from 1754 to 1828 constituted a vibrant spiritual and institutional force that allowed African Americans to cope with and adapt to the circumstances confronting them in America. It enabled African Americans to resist white supremacy and even to engage in dialog with white Americans. It also provided an avenue for blacks to express their understandings of spirituality and to develop institutions that helped organize communal life. At the same time, some white Americans attempted to use this religion to oppress their black counterparts, while blacks deployed it in an effort to offset white supremacy. By the mid-eighteenth century, Africans had already been taken to the Americas as slaves for approximately two centuries. Slaves coming from Africa brought virtually nothing with them in the way of possessions, but they did bring religious beliefs. Although scholars debate the degree to which African religious culture survived in the Americas, its influence impacted the development of African American religion. Africa itself was not monolithic regarding religion. Although the vast majority of Africans adhered to a variety of traditional religions, a few had embraced Christianity and Islam while still in Africa. But although Christianity was not unknown to all Africans as they began to encounter it in the Americas, they now engaged it from the standpoint of minorities brought forcefully to a new land and possessing little social and political power. To those Africans who had no knowledge of Christianity, it represented a new and strange religion. Yet, these individuals would also encounter established slave communities where some people had significant experience in dealing with their masters' religion. While relatively few African Americans had converted to Christianity, these numbers were beginning to increase by the mid-eighteenth century and would accelerate through the early part of the next. Adherents to West African religions believed in a High God who was the Supreme Creator of all things. This understanding may have had some compatibility with Christian beliefs, but the context of the two religions weakened the connection. Whereas Christianity adhered to monotheism, West African religions placed the High God within a web of lesser gods and spirits. These lesser gods and spirits were far more active in human affairs than the High God. Efforts to manage the power of and human relationship with these gods and spirits, especially by magic, constituted an important part of the African religious tradition. Dancing and singing were common ritual expressions. This context, combined with their position as slaves in a new world, composed the vantage point from which Africans understood and related to Christianity. Slaves born in the Americas, though, generally did not possess direct and unimpeded or unchallenged exposure to the African religious heritage, Africans and African Americans nonetheless had to grapple with the challenges presented by Christianity from similar, but not identical frames of reference. african american christianity The colonial period, particularly during its latter years, produced the initial developments toward an African American Christianity. Some blacks held tenaciously to their traditional religions. Others, particularly those born in America, began to embrace Christianity in varying degrees. Seldom, however, did this embrace constitute a wholesale rejection of traditional religious beliefs and practices. More often, an amalgamation occurred. At first, traditional religions provided the framework from which the incorporation of Christianity occurred. Later, Christianity provided the framework for absorbing the vestiges of traditional religions. An African American Christianity distinct from, but intimately related to, that of white Christianity eventually emerged. Conversion rates. Initially, conversion rates to Christianity were low, but as evangelicalism began to proliferate after 1740, so too did African American converts. Beginning in the 1760s, the Baptist and Methodist movements reached out to African Americans in tangible ways, as did the Moravian Brethren at about the same time. It was not, however, until the post-Revolutionary period that Christianity began to become a significant factor in the African American community. By 1815 it was a dominant religious force, and by 1830 African American churches had established firm institutional foundations in the community. While it is difficult to know precisely all the reasons involved in an individual's decision to convert, it is apparent that many did so as a means of coping with their poor conditions or in an effort to provide justification for their being freed. The latter reason rarely worked. Others, however, used Christianity as a way to challenge their masters. Whether African Americans converted in order to present a challenge or whether they discovered Christianity's usefulness for challenge some time after conversion is not always clear. The extent to which personal spiritual reasons prompted conversion is also not for the most part known, particularly regarding early converts. That the proliferation of evangelical expressions of Christianity contributed to increased conversion rates among African Americans probably reflects the appeal of these religions in contrast to Anglicanism or Roman Catholicism (although a relatively large number of blacks in Maryland and Louisiana were Roman Catholic). Evangelical Christianity extended hope to slaves by emphasizing a coming millennial kingdom that offered the promise of a better world. The stress placed on personal and immediate conversion (as opposed to one centered on a process that involved learning proper beliefs), combined with the growing use of emotion in the religious experience, also proved attractive. Within this context, African Americans began to exert their own expressions of Christian religious commitment and experience, often incorporating elements related to traditional African religions. The prominence and importance of singing, dancing, and emotional expression within African religions manifested itself in African American Christianity. The Exodus theme. The evangelical emphasis on the individual allowed African Americans eventually to interpret and use the Bible in ways that challenged white interpretations and uses. The Bible provided African Americans powerful symbols with which to cope with and critique their environment, as well as to express their own understandings. Chief among these images was the biblical Exodus wherein the Israelites, under the leadership of Moses, overthrew Egyptian bondage and became the divinely chosen nation. White Americans had freely invoked the Exodus theme in their struggle against Britain, labeling the English monarch a pharaoh and envisioning America as a new Israel coming out of British bondage. White Christians also commonly used it to describe the experience of spiritual salvation. African Americans appropriated the theme in ways that appeared similar to their white counterparts but had quite different implications. While both white and black Christians could jointly explore their spiritual experiences and aspirations through the language of the Exodus, this same motif divided them in the social and political realms. When a slave named David told a racially mixed audience in 1775 in Savannah, Georgia, that God would deliver "Negroes" from their masters in the same way that he had delivered the Israelites from their Egyptian masters, the slave owners wanted him hanged. Denmark Vesey, a former slave who had purchased his freedom with money won in a lottery, envisioned himself as an African Moses leading the Israelites out of bondage as he attempted a slave rebellion in 1822. The plot, however, was foiled, and Vesey and others were executed. These incidents illustrate the danger African Americans incurred when they employed the Exodus in realms outside the spiritual. Nonetheless, the Exodus became the most significant theme in the nineteenth-century African American experience. Its influence contributed to effective, albeit less brazen, uses of the Exodus theme. The spiritual, Oh Mary, Don't You Weep, Don't You Moan, did not confront the slave system directly, but instead used the Exodus theme to articulate a general hope for both spiritual and physical freedom; implied in this yearning was an abolition of slavery. The biblical story of the Exodus also provided African Americans with a way to express their suffering that cast them as God's people to whom a deliverer would be sent. One important African American minister, Absalom Jones (1746–1818), took Exodus 3:7–8 as the text of a sermon in which he celebrated the abolition of American participation in the transatlantic slave trade in 1808 as one indicator that God had heard the slaves' cries and would liberate them. David Walker, in his Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World (1829), assured his audience that God had heard the cries of African Americans just as he had heard those of the Israelites. The Exodus theme, therefore, took on great significance in articulating the spiritual and physical experiences and hopes of African Americans. The period from 1754 to 1828 laid the foundation for an even greater use of that theme in the subsequent decades, during which white abolitionists would join African Americans in invoking it. White Southerners employed it at the same time to buttress slavery by portraying their attempt at secession in terms of the Exodus, while also calling attention to the differences between the Israelite exodus and contemporary colonization and abolitionist schemes. These differences were used to demonstrate that the African American exodus was not endowed with divine approval and support. The figure of Jesus also operated alongside the Exodus in African American Christianity. Both motifs allowed whites and blacks to share a spiritual space that manifested itself in drastically different ways in the physical realm. Black churches, white control. The formation of African American churches and denominations illustrates another avenue of self-expression, protest, and assertion of African American authority. As the consequence of a 1787 incident in which black members of St. George's Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia were physically forced to sit in seats designated for blacks, two black churches were eventually formed: St. Thomas African Episcopal Church and Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church. Similar occurrences happened in other cities as blacks and whites struggled over authority and power. One of the participants in the Philadelphia episode, Richard Allen (Absalom Jones also participated in the 1787 event), along with other leaders such as Daniel Coker, founded in 1816 the first national black denomination in the United States, the African Methodist Episcopal Church. The denomination and its churches grew rapidly as African Americans increasingly took control of their spiritual lives on an institutional basis. Using the Bible as their authority, Allen and others proclaimed the biblical doctrines of equality and inclusiveness in the eyes of God in their protest against white supremacy. African American churches in other denominations also proliferated, but not without resistance from whites. Black Baptist churches and preachers were especially prominent, with the first churches being founded in Virginia and Georgia. Typically in Baptist churches (as well as others), blacks and whites participated in joint, but segregated, worship. Often African American members exceeded whites numerically, and sometimes African American services were held separately from whites when the number of blacks grew too large. Some separate African American churches, such as the Baptist church in Silver Bluff, South Carolina, formed in the 1770s, arose before 1800. Yet by the 1820s whites maintained control over most black churches, either through white pastors or white representatives at associational meetings. Two African American pastors, Gowan Pamphlet and Moses, founded the African Baptist Church in Williamsburg, Virginia, during the 1780s. It became one of the largest churches in the Dover Association by 1830, but was closed by whites in 1832 after the Nat Turner slave rebellion the preceding year. White pastors often oversaw black churches in an effort to regulate more closely their activities and teachings. The Gillfield Baptist Church in Petersburg, Virginia, for example, had become the largest church in the Portsmouth Association by 1821. Yet it continued to be pastored by white ministers, and the Association even attempted unsuccessfully to merge it with a white church. Although whites continued to exercise dominance in black churches, African Americans made great strides during the post-revolutionary period in establishing their own authority. Black churches helped shape and foster an African American Christianity that shared certain beliefs and practices with white Christians while at the same time developing into a distinctive religion. African Americans contested biblical interpretations and congregational practices and increasingly took charge of their own spiritual instruction. While blacks were unable to exercise complete freedom in these matters, African American religion in 1828 differed substantially from that of 1754. It had developed from a conglomeration of African religious understandings held by slaves who were being taught Christianity as practiced by whites to an organized expression of black Christian spirituality that challenged the existing social order and white Christian practices and theology. White Christianity itself changed as a result of contact with African American Christianity. Black Christians, therefore, could confront the challenges of the upcoming decades with established religious institutions, practices, and theology. See alsoReligion: Overview . Frey, Sylvia R., and Betty Wood. Come Shouting to Zion: African American Protestantism in the American South and British Caribbean to 1830. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Genovese, Eugene D. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made. New York: Pantheon, 1974. Glaude, Eddie S., Jr. Exodus! Religion, Race, and Nation in Early Nineteenth-Century Black America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. ——. Canaan Land: A Religious History of African Americans. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001. Sensbach, Jon F. A Separate Canaan: The Making of an Afro-Moravian World in North Carolina, 1763–1840. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Sernett, Milton C. African American Religious History: A Documentary Witness. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999. Weisenfeld, Judith. "On Jordan's Stormy Banks: Margins, Center, and Bridges in African American Religious History." In New Directions in American Religious History. Edited by Harry S. Stout and D. G. Hart. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Scott M. Langston
HCF and LCM are one of the common terms in mathematics. Maths is never an easy subject to understand, it takes patience and a keen sense of curiosity and appreciation to comprehend it. But at your age, it is easy enough to grasp these concepts. Hence it’s of great importance that one spends enough time on revising and clearing their doubts. Factors and multiples must have surely been covered in the previous classes. There is no need to be apprehensive. One only needs to understand the concepts clearly, in time, one will be able to tackle problems related to it quite easily. HCF and LCM Formula HCF (Highest Common Factor): We know that the factors of a number are exact divisors of that particular number. Let’s proceed to the highest common factor (HCF) and the least common multiple (LCM). As the rules of mathematics dictate, the greatest common divisor or the gcd of two or more integers, when at least one of them is not zero, happens to be the largest positive that divides the numbers without a remainder. For instance, take 8 and 12, the gcd of these two numbers or the HCF of two numbers will be 4. Since this greatest common divisor or GCD is also known as the highest common factor or HCF. LCM- Least Common Multiple: In arithmetic, the least common multiple or LCM of two numbers say a and b, is denoted as LCM (a,b). And the LCM is the smallest or least positive integer that is divisible by both a and b. For example, let us take two positive integers 4 and 6. Multiples of 4 are: 4,8,12,16,20,24 and so on while that of 6 are 6,12,18,24…. The common multiples for 4 and 6 are 12,24,36,48…and so on. The least common multiple in that lot would be 12. Let us now try to find out the LCM of 24 and 15. LCM of 24 and 15 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 120 How to find HCF and LCM? Division method to find the HCF (Shortcut method) Steps to find the HCF of any given numbers; \|1) Larger number/ Smaller Number\| \|2) The divisor of the above step / Remainder\| \|3) The divisor of step 2 / Remainder. Keep doing this step till R = 0(Zero).\| \|4) The last step’s divisor will be HCF.\| The above steps can also be used to find the HCF of more than 3 numbers. Suppose there are two numbers, 8 and 12, whose LCM we need to find. Let us write the multiples of these two numbers. 8 = 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, … 12 = 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84,… You can see, the least common multiple or the smallest common multiple of two numbers, 8 and 12 is 24. LCM of Two Numbers To calculate the LCM of two numbers 60 and 45. Out of other ways, One way to find the LCM of given numbers is as below: - List the prime factors of each number first. 60 = 2 × 2 x 3 × 5 45 = 3 × 3 × 5 - Then multiply each factor the most number of times it occurs in any number. If the same multiple occurs more than once in both the given numbers, then multiply the factor the most number of times it occurs. The occurrence of Numbers in the above example: 2: two times 3: two times 5: one times LCM = 2 × 2 x 3 × 3 × 5 = 180 In BYJU’S you can also learn, Prime Factorization Of Hcf And Lcm. HCF and LCM Questions Example: Find the Highest Common Factor of 25, 35 and 45. Solution: Given, three numbers as 25, 35 and 45. 25 = 5 × 5 35 = 5 × 7 45 = 5 × 9 From the above expression, we can say 5 is the only common factor for all the three numbers. Therefore, 5 is the HCF of 25, 35 and 45. Example: Find the Least Common Multiple of 36 and 44. Solution: Given, two numbers 36 and 44. Let us find out the LCM, by division method. Therefore, LCM(36, 44) = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 11 = 396 Download BYJU’S App and learn Maths with personalised videos and pictures.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. While the primary function of CSF is to cushion the brain within the skull and serve as a shock absorber for the central nervous system, CSF also circulates nutrients and chemicals filtered from the blood and removes waste products from the brain. In MS, damage to myelin causes certain types of proteins to be released into the spinal fluid. When these proteins are identified in the spinal fluid, but not in the blood, MS is thought to be one of the possible diagnoses. Spinal fluid is obtained through a lumbar puncture (also known as a spinal tap). In this procedure, while lying on your side or bending forward while seated, an area of your lower back is cleansed and a numbing medicine is injected. Following this a hollow needle is inserted and small amount of spinal fluid is removed with a syringe and sent for testing. The CSF of people with MS usually contains: - A specific group of proteins called oligoclonal bands - Elevation of the level of protein These findings indicate an abnormal immune response within the central nervous system, and may be suggestive of MS. It is important to know that an abnormal immune response in the CSF is found in a number of other diseases, so the test is not specific for MS. In people with a confirmed diagnosis of MS, 5-10% do not show abnormalities in the CSF. Therefore, CSF analysis by itself cannot confirm or exclude a diagnosis of MS . The results are used in combination with the history, neurological examination, MRI and other tests to help make an accurate diagnosis.
This printable Spanish organizer is an activity to help children think about a character they will pretend to be. Kids love finger puppets and other kinds of imaginative play and creating a character is a perfect way to practice personal questions. You can find links the organizer and to printable finger puppets at the end of this post. Speaking for a puppet or character is an great language activity, but it is hard to create a character in a second language on the spot. When kids can think through the basic information before they start, imaginative play becomes more fun and fluid. I use simple graphic organizers with elementary school age students and it works really well. They enjoy creating the character and they have the chance to add details they probably would not include otherwise. Below you will find a link to a printable organizer for basic personal information to use with beginners. In that situation, meeting each other, it makes sense for both (or all) of the characters to ask and answer the same questions. The organizer helps children create the character and reminds them of the questions they will ask and hear. In the center, where it says Soy, children put an identifying noun like Soy una princesa or Soy un lobo (lots of my puppets are animals). You can use organizers as preparation for speaking activities for different situations and vocabulary. For example, one person can have certain things like clothes, food, or furniture. The other person needs things because she is cold, or hungry or has a new house. This is an excellent way to practice Necesito, ¿Tienes?, Tengo, ¿Puedo usar/comprar? On the organizer they list the things they have or the things they are going to ask for before they have the conversation. The result is a basic information gap activity, but the children have a hand in creating the interaction. The preparation of thinking about what their “person” has or needs makes the conversation easier and more fun. Links to finger puppets for speaking activities People finger puppets – This set of finger puppets has a family and common animals. It also has teaching suggestions for ESL that can easily be applied to teaching Spanish. Family finger puppets Finger puppet characters from stories – These finger puppets are from Inkless Tales. There are characters from Little Red Riding Hood and The Three Bears. You may also be interested in this post: Free Activity Book for Teaching Children Spanish
Archaeologists have mapped out an ancient Roman city without digging up anything and only using ground-penetrating radar. The ancient underground city is called Falerii Novi and is located approximately 30 miles north of Rome. Back in the year 241 BC, there was a conflict between the Romans and the Faliscan people who were living in the Lazio area of Italy. The Romans won the battle and took possession of the natives’ slaves, weapons, and the majority of the area in which they inhabited. The original town was destroyed and a new city measuring over 30 hectares was constructed a few miles away by the Romans and they named it Falerii Novi. Around 700 AD, it became abandoned; however, the original city was eventually re-developed, surviving to this very day and is called Civita Castellana. As for the mapping of Falerii Novi, archaeologists connected a quad bike to several machines that conducted radio-waves in order to find out what’s hidden beneath the ground in great detail. The researchers who are from the universities of Cambridge and Ghent, found some pretty interesting buildings, such as a vast theater, housing complexes with two insulae, market, temples, and a bath complex, as well as water pipes from the 3rd century. Several pictures of the site can be seen here. They even discovered an extraordinarily rare public monument that’s never been seen before from the ancient times in Rome. The researchers described this monument in detail, “Immediately to the east of the north gate is an enclosure defined on three sides by a substantial porticus duplex (covered passageway with central row of columns) approximately 90 × 40m [300 x 130ft] in size, opening onto the street,” adding, “A pair of structures, each with a central niche, face each other within the interior of the complex. While we know of no direct parallel to this structure, this was evidently a public monument.” Professor Martin Millett, who is from the University of Cambridge and one of the researchers, explained the significance of mapping the city using radar, “The level of detail provided by this work has shown how this type of survey has the potential to revolutionize archaeological studies of urban sites.” It will take more time in order for the researchers to analyze all of the data obtained from the ground-penetrating radar as it takes them approximately 20 hours to go through all the information gathered on just one hectare. Their study was published in the journal Antiquity and can be read in full here.
The diverse wetland habitats of Pennsylvania are home to 14 different species of frogs and toads. Six different genera separate the native species and they are diverse in size and appearance. Some of the species are common and widespread, while others are more rare and live in only certain areas of the state. The state is home to six species of true frogs categorized as having slim waists, long rear legs and smooth skin. The bull frog is a common species in the state and grows to 8 inches in length. It is sometimes mistaken for the green frog, which is also abundant but grows to only half the size. The pickerel frog grows to just 3 inches in length and is a common resident of the state. The northern and southern leopard frogs both reach 5 inches and the latter is endangered. The wood frog is found throughout the state and grows to just 3 inches. Pennsylvania is home to three species of chorus frogs, so named because they are very vocal, especially at night. The mountain chorus frog grows to just 2 inches and is only found in the southwest part of the state. The striped chorus frog has three subspecies in the state, so between them it ranges throughout Pennsylvania. These subspecies are the western, upland and New Jersey chorus frogs. The northern spring peeper is the other chorus frog in the state and grows just over 1 inch. It is found in the state in high numbers. Only one species of tree frog lives in Pennsylvania and that is the gray tree frog. It is a small species that grows to just 2 inches. It is able to climb trees and rough surfaces using its suction cup-like toe pads. It is a common species in the state. Pennsylvania is home to three different species of toad. The American toad is common throughout the state and measures between 2 to 3.5 inches in length. It can range from bright yellow to almost black in color, with darker mottled spots. Fowler's toad is less common and found mainly in the eastern half of the state. It grows to almost 4 inches in length and is light brown to gray in color with warty skin. The eastern spade foot is endangered and found mainly in the southeast. It grows to just over 2 inches and has spade-like rear feet for digging. - Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images
The nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom. The atomic nucleus was discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by Dmitri Ivanenko and Werner Heisenberg. Almost all of the mass of an atom is located in the nucleus, with a very small contribution from the electron cloud. Protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force.The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of 6985175000000000000♠1.75 fm (6985175000000000000♠1.75×10−15 m) for hydrogen (the diameter of a single proton) to about 6986150000000000000♠15 fm for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electron cloud), by a factor of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen).The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the forces which bind it together, is called nuclear physics.
The space program and space exploration has added a tremendous amount of information to our vault of knowledge. We know and understand a lot more about our local star the sun. Take for instance we know of coronal mass ejections from the sun, that wasn’t discovered until 1971 from observations through the 7th Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO 7). One of the most widely known publicly is the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). The HST launched into orbit in 1990, is considered groundbreaking on the account that it has given scientists the capability to look into the far reaches of the vast universe. This has lead some long-standing problems in astrophysics to be resolved by scientists. One concerns the location of black holes. For some time, black holes were speculation in academia and not widely accepted. But now, due to the observation of matter in neighboring galaxies, we know that some black holes lie in the center of galaxies, which are supermassive. Another thing that has come to be resolved is the age of the universe. For some time in academia, it was thought that the age of the universe was between 10 – 20 billion years. Now thanks to data from HST, we have a more accurate age of the Universe that lies in the range 13 – 14 billion years. One satellite that has helped to change our understanding of the universe is the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE). COBE, launched into orbit in 1989, provided evidence that the big bang theory of how the universe formed, fit an early universe. COBE did this by mapping the cosmic microwave background radiation that was left across the universe after the big bang event. From type Ia supernovae and CMB radiation observations, we know that the universe is almost flat and the expansion of it is happening and that this expansion is accelerating. But the question arose as what is the mechanism that is the cause of this acceleration. Scientists in attempt to answer this came to the concept of dark energy. The dominance of a dark energy component with negative pressure in the present era is responsible for the universe’s accelerated expansion. The decadal survey is a broad-based survey conducted by the Space Studies Board of the National Academies, that deals with a specific region of science as it relates to space in priority order in different categories. It is produced periodically in approximately ten year intervals. It is basically a document that sets recommendations and goals guidance for NASA, the NSF and other government agencies to highly consider funding and/ or set top priorities for. The decadal survey seeks to clearly define what questions has been answered in the last ten years, to identify and define what high priority questions that have yet to be answered and to define what critical experiments and science missions that can rightfully address those issues. The decadal survey process goes as the following: The National Academy of Academies assigns a head panel committee to the Space Studies Board. At the request of the NSF and/or NASA, studies related to space are initiated by the Space Studies Board. This head steering committee panel then assigns different topic region subset for committee representation. Those subset committees are the following: - Current standing; - Astronomy & Astrophysics - Planetary and Lunar Exploration - Solar & Space Physics - Origins & Evolution of Life planned; - Earth Observation from Space - Life & Microgravity Sciences They decide upon framed recommendations in terms of five “challenges”. The committee sub-panels are created of approximately ten to twelve members. The committees are headed by scientists, engineers, researchers, private industry leaders in the relevant respective field. The subset committees, then each make the call for white-papers in their respective topic region. Scientists, engineers, researchers, send in their white-papers for critical review in their respective topic region to the respective subset committees. Also along with the community white-papers, there are other community input such as individuals, public forums, with science and agency presentations which are geared to the panels and steering committees. Once the report is finalized, published, sent to NASA, released to the public. Mission recommendations prioritize missions by categorize them by program size of large to moderate to small to then assigned rank of 1-4, where a rank of 1 is high priority and then define the program thru description. In the report, the top budget funding requests for NASA missions are showcased for two fiscal years past, current fiscal year and may show up-to-the next five fiscal years. The NASA Science Mission Directorate and the overall NASA current fiscal year request. Strengths of the decadal survey that are highly praised. A “science first” model is universally accepted as the best approach for surveys to take. By going this way, fundamental questions get to be addressed Well-regarded by funding agencies, Congress, and the executive branch. A great help in determining where areas funds needs to be funneled to. At times justification for funding of a mission is clearly explained in a way that government officials can understand. Provides a road-map and priorities for the relatively near-term future. Focuses on consensus-building among all of the relevant constituencies (government, science, industry, academia). The committees incorporates people & personnel from the relevant respective fields of scientists, engineers, researchers, and private industry leaders Provides a useful overview of the state of research within a given field. Past surveys have under-estimated the costs of some missions (by factors from ~1.5 to 4). According to the Government Accountability Office’s review of 18 of NASA’s large-scale projects, NASA had difficulty meeting cost, schedule, and performance objectives for a majority of those projects. Due in part to mission project schedules not being adhered to, unforeseen technical difficulties, the private industry overcharging. The surveys may give clear justifications for missions, but donot give a clear explanation on how to design for such missions and bring costs down. As such, many in the respective engineering field refer to the SMAD textbook. Even though, this is hard to swallow as the National Academies brings together experts in all areas of scientific and technology arena Surveys have not reconsidered their recommendations in light of changing political and budgetary conditions. The changing political and budgetary conditions forced previous NASA administrator Dr. Michael Griffin to change priorities and reduce funding to many programs. A direct result of the 2003 Columbia Shuttle disaster. In testimony on 9/15/09 to the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science and Technology, Dr. Griffin gave the following statements: “The recognition of the impact of substantial, consistent, long-term real-dollar budget cuts at NASA (more than 20% in the last 15 years)” “the need for and benefit of a focused effort in technology development and maturation as part of the overall space exploration enterprise” The Apollo program was very successful on the account of that the U.S. government had a political agenda to achieve. At the time, the U.S. government had propaganda to sell to the American public such as instilling negative perceptions of the Soviet Union. The Apollo program was a tool that as a result, NASA was allocated a significant amount of funding during the middle of the 1960’s as compared to the amount of funding that NASA now receives. It was mainly a funding issue that allowed NASA to excel in the completion of the Apollo program. The Space Transportation System (STS), ‘the Shuttle’ program has been viewed by many as not being very successful, even though the Space Transportation System has had 128 successful launches and 127 mission completions out of a total of 129. The Space Transportation System has been a technological achievement that few things presently can rival and surpass it, even though it was originally designed from technology of the 1970’s with an operational lifespan of approximately ten years. The issue is that it didn’t do what the proponents originally proposed. It was originally proposed that the utilization of the STS would significantly lower the cost to launch payloads into low Earth orbit, by making space transportation an everyday occurrence. Although, after 1986 the Reagan administration had limited the STS to the launching of only government payloads, the launches of the STS became limited. Also the final designs of the STS had become different than what was originally the design concept lead to higher than expected operational costs of the STS. Furthermore due to the very unfortunate disasters of the shuttle Challenger exploding at launch and the shuttle Columbia burning up in reentry which eventually lead to the planned retirement of the shuttle fleet in 2010, the public views the STS as not so successful. The STS did not lower the cost of assess to space. The Space Exploration Initiative program ,SEI, was not successful at all. In the summer of 1989, the George H.R. Bush administration directed NASA to draw up plans for a continued manned space exploration program into the solar system. NASA did not take the program seriously. The program produced conflicting ideas from competing arenas of academia, industry, government labs and NASA centers. Many in the public and government did not understand the engineering complexities and attained a harsh negative perception of the program on the account of the high cost estimate that was presented. The program presented an enlargement of the already planned Space Station Freedom that allowed for a fuel depot and spacecraft shipyard that haven’t even begun construction yet at the time. The 90-day study gave a cost estimate of $100 billion for a permanent Moon base and a cost estimate of $258 billion for a Mars landing. The Vision for Space Exploration program, VSE, can be viewed as successful. Again a Bush administration directed NASA to draw up plans for a continued manned space exploration program into the solar system. With this second chance, VSE got the ball rolling and gave NASA a focused direction with an end goal to achieve. A focused direction was something that NASA has been missing for years. That end goal is to have a continued human presence on the Moon, Mars and throughout deep space of the local solar system. The Vision for Space Exploration presented NASA with a point roadmap to achieve on a low budget that allows for the retiring of the shuttle fleet in 2010.

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