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Mapping the Genome: Finding the location of genes in any organism’s genome is a very complex task. This section surveys approaches to mapping the bacterial genome, using E.coli as an example. All three modes of gene transfer and recombination have been used in mapping. Hfr conjugation is frequently used to map the relative location of bacterial genes. This technique rests on the observation that during conjugation the linear chromosome moves from donor to recipient at a constant rate. In an interrupted mating experiment the conjugation bridge is broken and Hfr F mating is stopped at various intervals after the start of conjugation by mixing the culture vigorously in a blender. The order and timing of gene transfer can be determined because they are a direct reflection of the order of genes on the bacterial chromosome. For example, extrapolation of the curves in figure back to the x-axis will give the time at which each gene just began …
During our Forces lesson, the children found out that gravity causes objects of the same size and shape but of different mass to fall at the same rate. We discussed Galileo’s experiment and how it proves this. Class 4 were surprised to find out that it is air resistance that often causes objects with less mass to fall more slowly. Then, we had lots of work to do. A Super Skydiving Company were redesigning the parachute they use to allow people to perform skydives from aeroplanes. They wanted to make sure the parachute they use is perfect, and allows their customers to fall from the aeroplane as slowly and safely as possible. Class 4 investigated a helpful effect of air resistance, by finding the best design for their new parachute. Class 4 tested different materials, shapes and sizes to find the best parachute design. The perfect parachute will be the one that makes a person fall the slowest. It will cause air resistance to push it up with the biggest force.
Bright idea: Make H when the Sun shines, and H when it doesn't German boffins design solar reactor that, er, works at night Researchers in Cologne, Germany, have successfully demonstrated a solar reactor known as CONTISOL, which promises to be able make hydrogen day and night while running on little more than air and sunlight. Hydrogen is often touted as a zero carbon fuel and promises a future free of potentially nasty emissions. However, the reality is that generating hydrogen normally requires prodigious amounts of energy to drive the thermal chemistry required. Thermal energy that usually requires the burning of fossil fuels. The fossil fuel element can be removed (or at least reduced) by switching to a reforming reaction produced by running methane and steam through a catalyst and heating to over 800°C using Concentrated Solar Power (CSP), producing carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The boffins at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) have published the results of research that describes a novel concept, CONTISOL, for dealing with the main issue associated with solar reactors. Namely, what to do when the sun doesn’t shine. CONTISOL takes the form of a cylinder cut with numerous rectangular channels, with each row of channels being either coated with a catalyst to perform the required chemistry, or clear to allow the heated air to pass through. Solar heated air is passed straight through the cylinder, heating it up for the required reaction before being stored for later use when sunlight is unavailable. The use of air as a method for transferring heat is an unusual one, and benefits from stability at high temperatures. Heat storage in chemical or latent mediums are also options. Finally, air is abundant, so can be vented when it cools, and any leaks are unlikely to be catastrophic. Generating hydrogen using CONTISOL would require a field of solar mirrors, a tower, a receiver for the heated air and a thermal storage system for when the sun is not shining on the mirrors. The team at DLR have demonstrated the technology working in the laboratory at 5kW using an artificial sun and simulated heat storage. At least 1MW will be required to work at an industrial level, which is well within the bounds of today's technology. The Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in the Mojave desert, for example, has a capacity of nearly 400MW, though not everyone has an arid landscape at their finger tips. Fans of James Bond movies may be remembering ‘The Man With The Golden Gun’ at this point, which also featured a solar energy plant, only with helium rather than hydrogen as a significant plot point. Focussing the energy of the sun at a solar reactor to make hydrogen seems a better use of thermal power than blowing up Bond’s unfortunate seaplane. And unlike Scaramanga’s energy beam, CONTISOL should keep working even when the sun goes in, at least if the boffins have got their equations right. ®
Mention the word trauma to Americans in the 21st century, and their thoughts are likely to turn to images of terrorism, war, natural disasters and a seemingly continual stream of school shootings. The horrific scenes at Newtown and Columbine still dominate public consciousness, particularly when our society discusses child trauma. While those events make headlines, however, counseling professionals say the most pervasive traumatic threat to children is found not in big events or stranger danger, but in chronic and systemic violence that happens in or close to the home. This kind of ongoing trauma, much of which takes place out of public view, leaves deep scars that can cause a lifetime of emotional, mental, physical and social dysfunction if left untreated. Research shows that chronic, complex trauma can even rewire a child’s brain, leading to cognitive and developmental issues. The good news is that counselors in all areas of practice — in schools, agencies, shelters, clinics, private practice and elsewhere — can and are working with children and, when possible, their parents to stop the cycle of violence, or at least to mitigate its effects. Behind closed doors The number of children exposed to violence in the United States is staggering. According to the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence (NatSCEV), funded by the U.S. Department of Justice and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and carried out by the University of New Hampshire’s Crimes against Children Research Center, more than 60 percent of children surveyed had been exposed to direct or indirect violence during the 12 months prior to the survey. Nearly half — 46.3 percent — had been assaulted at least once in the past year, meaning they had experienced one or more of the following: any physical assault, assault with a weapon, assault with injury, attempted assault, attempted or completed kidnapping, assault by a brother or sister, assault by another child or adolescent, nonsexual genital assault, dating violence, bias attacks or threats. One in 10 had experienced some form of maltreatment, which includes nonsexual physical abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, child neglect and custodial interference. Other CDC research indicates that 1 in 4 girls and 1 in 6 boys are victims of sexual abuse. However, many experts emphasize that due to the stigma involved, sexual abuse is underreported. Significant exposure to violence and trauma can also lead to illness later in life. From 1995-1997, the CDC, in collaboration with Kaiser Permanente, collected detailed medical information from 17,000 patients at Kaiser’s Health Appraisal Clinic in San Diego. These patients also answered detailed questions about childhood experiences of abuse, neglect and family dysfunction. The initial study, Adverse Childhood Experiences, as well as more than 50 studies since using the same population, found that adult survivors of childhood abuse are more likely to develop chronic conditions and diseases such as heart disease, obesity, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and liver disease. They are also more likely to engage in risky health behaviors such as smoking and drug and alcohol abuse. In addition, adult survivors of child abuse may have autobiographical memory problems; exhibit increased problems with depression, anxiety and other mental illnesses; and struggle with suicidal tendencies. NatSCEV data, collected between January and May 2008, indicate that one in 10 children surveyed experienced five or more incidents of direct violence. It is this kind of ongoing abuse that can cause polyvictimization, or what many researchers call complex trauma — repeated exposure to traumatic events over time and often at the hands of caregivers or other loved ones. “This cumulative trauma has much more serious effects than a single event,” says David Lawson, a licensed professional counselor (LPC) and licensed marriage and family therapist in Nacogdoches, Texas, who has worked with victims and perpetrators of sexual and domestic abuse since the 1980s. Because the abuse is ongoing, it disrupts a child’s sense of security, safety and self and alters the way he or she sees others, explains Lawson, an American Counseling Association member who is also a researcher and professor in the school psychology and counseling program at Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches. “In childhood, attachments are still forming, and abuse can shatter this developing ability,” says Jennifer Baggerly, an ACA member, LPC and play therapist who studies child trauma intervention. “It can also distort their forming personality and the way they interact with people as a whole.” This distortion can cause the child to believe that the world is an unsafe place and that people aren’t trustworthy, adds Baggerly, an associate professor and chair of the Department of Counseling and Human Services at the University of North Texas at Dallas. That pattern of uncertainty and instability can cause cognitive distortion, dissociation and problems with emotional self-regulation and relationship formation, and even alter a child’s brain structure, notes Lawson, the author of Family Violence: Explanations and Evidence-Based Clinical Practice, published by ACA in 2013. “Children get stuck in flight or fight,” adds Baggerly. “Everything is a threat, so instead of strengthening the prefrontal cortex, the brain operates more from the limbic system, which causes them to be more hypervigilant.” Because they are almost constantly on alert, these children and adolescents most of the time use what Lawson calls their “survival brain” instead of their “learning brain.” Childhood and adolescence are periods in which the brain is developing rapidly and crucial cognitive skills are being learned. If children and adolescents spend too much time in survival mode, they are not accessing areas in the brain that are responsible for learning developmentally appropriate cognitive skills and laying down the neural pathways that are critical to future learning. “As the child gets older, this chronic hypervigilance — and the overload of cortisol that comes with it — completely remaps the brain and just stifles development,” says Gail Roaten, president-elect of the Association for Child and Adolescent Counseling, a division of ACA. “You see them lose ground cognitively, especially in their ability to learn.” Support and stability Traumatized children’s problems with cognition, learning, self-regulation and development can last a lifetime, making it more likely that they will continue the cycle of abuse in their relationships, abuse drugs and alcohol, have trouble finding and keeping jobs or end up in the criminal justice system. Adults who were traumatized as children also are much more likely to face a host of physical and mental health problems. The situation is far from hopeless, however. Counseling interventions for trauma can make a dramatic difference, and the earlier a child starts receiving therapy, the better. A variety of techniques have proved to be effective, but interventions are most successful when a supportive environment is created, Lawson emphasizes. Whenever possible, a parent or parents should be participants in a child’s therapy (as long as they are not the perpetrators of the abuse), and if not the biological parents, then foster parents or grandparents. “I try to bring in whoever can help build a support system for the child,” Lawson says, “because an hour a week [of counseling] is woefully inadequate, and I need to have them able to take what they learn in therapy into the home.” In many cases, parents or caregivers need help learning how to support the abused child emotionally, he says. When parents come to sessions with their children, the counselor can help the parents learn not just the best way to support the child in therapy, but also how to strengthen their parenting skills. “We really emphasize connection,” Lawson says. “Once they [abused children] have attachment, they may be ready to tell parents about their abuse and may just blurt it out at home. I try to prepare parents to listen to the child. If the parents are not comfortable addressing this [topic], I have them at least write down what the child says and then use that as a therapeutic prompt.” In sessions, Lawson guides parents, teaching them how to interact and better bond with children who have been traumatized. Some parents and caregivers have never really learned how to play with their children, he says. At the same time, he notes that learning positive interaction skills is not just about the fun stuff. Parents and caregivers also need to know how to effectively discipline the child. “Many times when parents find out that their child has been abused, they are hesitant to discipline or correct behavior because they feel sorry for them,” he says. “Or they come down too hard.” Lawson encourages parents to use time-outs, to not respond when a child is acting out with attention-getting behavior and to not use corporal punishment. In the absence of parents or other supportive adults, the counselor may become the stabilizing adult in a traumatized child’s life. Although the counselor is not with the child as often as a parent or caregiver would be, just having someone who is concerned and will listen to whatever the child wants to say can be enough for an abused child to start to heal, Lawson says, even if he or she never chooses to talk about the abuse. He notes that even in the absence of other supportive figures, the therapeutic bond between counselor and child can help in decreasing hyperarousal. Counselors need to know that although it may seem best to address the child’s trauma right away, establishing and cementing the therapeutic relationship must come first, Lawson says. The child needs to feel safe and supported — even if it is only in the counselor’s office — before he or she can begin to process the trauma. “You’re trying to get them in a safe place if possible, or at least a predictable place,” Lawson says. “Then we can start teaching them how to cope [with the trauma] without lashing out or Abused children do not know how to cope with what they are experiencing, Lawson says. It is common for children who are traumatized to lash out in anger when stressed and to feel that the best way to establish some sort of stability in their lives is to try to control everything. They may be moody, irritable or withdrawn. Abused children may also bully and hit other children or turn their anger on themselves and engage in self-abusive behaviors such as cutting. Once a child feels supported, the counselor can also begin to teach the child how to self-soothe. Lawson guides traumatized children in using calming techniques such as diaphragmatic breathing or grounding themselves by focusing on something external such as the ticking of the clock or the texture of their clothes. “The point is to experience emotions in a safe place and cut out bad coping behaviors,” he says. Jennifer Foster, an assistant professor in the Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology at Western Michigan University, studies child sexual abuse. Much of her research has involved listening to the narratives of abuse victims and how they perceive what has happened to them. Although these children display myriad reactions and emotions, Foster says two themes are always prominent: fear and safety. “Child victims of sexual abuse often view the world as unsafe and are likely to enter counseling with unresolved fears,” Foster says. “They need help from their counselor to learn how to cope with their fears.” “Although adults often see disclosure as a positive thing that will put an end to the abuse, for many children it is embarrassing and frightening, especially for those who feel at fault for their abuse and believe they will be blamed or, worse, not believed,” says Foster, who studied the experiences of sexually abused children for her dissertation. Several counseling interventions are designed to help sexually abused children regain a sense of safety. One is called the “safe place technique,” in which a counselor guides the child in visualizing and vividly describing an imaginary safe place. “The counselor may say, ‘Close your eyes and picture a special place where you feel completely safe,’” Foster explains. “This can be followed by specific questions to capture additional details such as: What do you see? What do you hear? What do you feel? What are you doing in your safe place? The details are recorded by the counselor and used to create a script.” Once the safe place has been established, the child can return to it mentally anytime he or she feels stressed or scared, Foster says. Another intervention called the “comfort kit,” developed by Liana Lowenstein, helps children who engage in nonsuicidal self-injury to learn self-soothing strategies, says Foster. “Counselors help children brainstorm and create a list of items that bring them comfort and make them feel better,” she explains. “Although the process is guided by the counselor, children are the ones who choose what will go inside their box or bag.” Foster says children commonly include items such as a blanket, music, a favorite stuffed animal, written or recorded guided imagery, a stress ball, a list of relaxation activities, bubbles (for deep breathing exercises), a favorite book, a picture of a caring person or special place, a journal and pen, art supplies and a list of self-affirmations. Foster is also a proponent of bibliotherapy. “Children’s books about sexual abuse can introduce child victims to others who have had similar experiences, which may lead to decreased feelings of isolation and normalize their trauma-related symptoms,” she says. Books can also provide comfort, offer coping suggestions and teach kids important lessons such as that the abuse is not their fault, Foster adds. Because fear is a predominant issue for child victims of sexual abuse, Foster also recommends stories that specifically address feeling afraid. Her suggestions include Once Upon a Time: Therapeutic Stories That Teach and Heal by Nancy Davis and A Terrible Thing Happened: A Story for Children Who Have Witnessed Violence or Trauma by Margaret Holmes. To help older adolescents explore their memories and feelings connected to sexual abuse, Foster recommends The Secret: Art & Healing from Sexual Abuse by Francie Lyshak-Stelzer. Foster notes that the author’s artwork is particularly effective at capturing fear and the myriad other feelings generated by abuse. Finding relief through play Play therapy is one of the most commonly used interventions with children, particularly those who have suffered complex trauma, meaning they have experienced long-term (and often multiple types of) abuse, says Roaten, an LPC who works with traumatized children in clinics and schools, and an associate professor at Hardin-Simmons University in Abilene, Texas. Most therapeutic playrooms feature a fairly specific set of toys that might include an art center, play dough, a Bobo doll (an inflatable plastic doll modeled after the inflatable clown used in Alfred Bandura’s seminal study on children and aggression), a dollhouse with miniature people, animal figures, toy weapons, costumes and a sandbox. These toys and activities help children to act out their experiences in a safe and less negative manner, Roaten says. For instance, she recounts treating one child who “would just attack and slash the doll where the penis was. She was a victim of sexual abuse.” In some cases, Roaten says, children just “play through,” processing their trauma entirely through play without needing to talk to the play therapist. In many instances, Baggerly says, traumatized children act out things they aren’t able to verbalize. She once treated a 6-year-old who didn’t speak for about 10 sessions because the girl had a severe case of internalized anxiety and depression. But as the girl played, she would express her rage by taking a gun and shooting the Bobo doll in the head, stomach and groin area. Baggerly took this cue as a chance to ask the child about the anger and hurt she was feeling. Catherine Tucker, a licensed mental health counselor who works with traumatized children in her role as a counselor supervisor and consultant, uses a child and family therapy called Theraplay, which was developed by the Theraplay Institute in the 1960s. “Theraplay works on a four-dimensional model: structure, nurture, engagement and challenge,” says Tucker, an associate professor in the college of education at Indiana State University. Theraplay builds and enhances attachment, self-esteem, trust in others and engagement through participation in simple games. The idea is that the four dimensions — structure, nurture, engagement and challenge — are needed by children for healthy emotional and psychological development. The “play” in Theraplay is built around activities that teach participants what the elements of those dimensions are. Ideally, children engage in Theraplay with their parents or caregivers. Participating together teaches skills to parents or caregivers who don’t know how to provide the four dimensions, while enhancing the bond with the child. In the absence of parents or caregivers — whether because they are abusive or because they cannot or do not want to participate — the counselor plays directly with the child so the child can still learn how to interact in an emotionally healthy way. The games and activities are simple — suitable for children as young as 1, yet still engaging for older children — and include things such as blowing bubbles, playing with stuffed animals, cotton ball hockey, cotton ball wars and newspaper basketball. The activities teach parenting skills and also help traumatized children with affect regulation, impulse control, feeling safe and not feeling like they have to be in control of the world, Tucker says. She notes that, oftentimes, kids who have suffered trauma feel like they have to be in charge either because a parent is abusive or simply doesn’t know how to provide a sense of security or stability, or because the child’s sense of control is being undermined by the abuse he or she experienced at the hands of another adult or peer. Finding help at school Counselors who are treating traumatized children should tap all available resources to help these clients, Lawson says, working not only with caregivers or other relatives but also with the child’s school. School counselors may be a source of additional one-on-one counseling for the child, or they could get the child involved in group activities with other children who are trauma victims or with children who share common interests such as music, sports or art, Lawson says. These peer networks provide abused children additional sources of support and can also teach them how to interact with people — something that many abused and isolated children have never learned to do. Perpetrators of abuse seek to control and isolate their victims. An abusive parent has the power to cut off or severely limit a child’s healthy interactions with people outside of the circle of abuse. “[These] kids often didn’t learn social skills because they are kept away from other people,” Lawson says. Abuse is often part of a viciously long-lived cycle, handed down from generation to generation, Lawson adds. Parents who were abused as children often grow up to abuse their own children. Even if parents with an abusive background are not abusive themselves, they may still carry on other dysfunctional behaviors, he says. “You may have three or four generations of people [who] have a very skewed view of how to interact with people,” he says. “So they never learn how to interact with others. You have to help [these children] connect with other sources.” School counselors also can play important roles as advocates and educators. Many people — including teachers and administrators — do not understand that many children who act out are doing so because they have been or are being abused, Tucker asserts. “School counselors can really make a difference by making sure that kids get evaluated instead of just automatically disciplined,” Tucker says. “So many boys end up in the criminal justice system because they were physically acting out in response to trauma,” she adds. School counselors can also help abused and traumatized children learn how to help themselves, says Elsa Leggett, an ACA member, associate professor of counseling at the University of Houston-Victoria and president of the Association for Child and Adolescent Counseling. “Talk to kids about safety plans,” Leggett urges. “Ask them, ‘When abusive things are going on at home, where do you go? How do you know when things are getting dangerous?’” The most important thing that all practicing counselors can do to address childhood trauma is to ask questions, Lawson says. Children — and sometimes adults who were traumatized as children — don’t always recognize what they’ve experienced as abuse, so rather than asking “have you been abused?” Lawson instructs his students to pose questions such as “has anyone ever hit you?” and “has anyone ever touched you in a way that made you feel uncomfortable?” ACA member Cynthia Miller is an assistant professor of counseling at South University in Richmond, Virginia, and an LPC who has worked with incarcerated women. She has seen the kind of positive change that can occur when people get the help they need, but she has also witnessed the pattern of incarceration, addiction and institutionalization that can become entrenched in generation after generation. “If you want to decrease the amount of money we spend on treating people with substance abuse or incarceration,” Miller says, “address child abuse.” Caring for children during a disaster Although ongoing trauma causes the biggest and longest-lasting kind of damage, one-time events can also create problems that linger. It is particularly important for children to receive timely counseling intervention, experts say. “Typically, most children will have short-term responses to a disaster that include five basic realms,” Baggerly says. These realms are: - Physical: Symptoms include headache or stomachache - Thought process: Children exhibit confusion and inattention - Emotional: Children are scared and sad - Behavioral: Children might become very withdrawn or clingy, or may start sucking their thumb or wetting the bed again - Spiritual/worldview: Children may question their beliefs about God and the world (For more information about typical trauma responses and recommended interventions, see “Children’s trauma responses and intervention guidelines” below.) “Typically these [responses] don’t last long,” Baggerly says, “but that depends on the kind of support kids get in the immediate aftermath.” Ultimately, the purpose of any counseling intervention after a traumatic event is to reduce or eliminate a child’s anxiety and stress, Baggerly asserts. She attempts to do that by “resetting” the child and connecting him or her to coping strategies. “They need caring family and community support,” Baggerly says, “but if it is a huge disaster, then parents and teachers are equally traumatized, so they are not able to give support to kids. That’s when you need to bring people from outside.” Some children are at greater risk than others, Baggerly says. “Kids who don’t have supportive family [and] who already have anxiety or have some type of developmental disability often will have ongoing symptoms that go longer than 30 days,” she explains. “Counselors need to triage to find out who is at most risk.” During her roughly dozen years of experience working with chronic trauma and disasters, Baggerly has developed an integrated approach that she calls disaster response play therapy. The approach uses a trauma-informed philosophy in which counselors train parents and teachers in typical and atypical reactions to disasters so they can screen children and determine which ones need more help, she explains. “We also normalize typical symptoms, provide psychoeducation that informs kids about the impact of disasters, teach them coping strategies and provide them with child-centered play therapy.” Baggerly usually begins by gathering a group of children and talking with them about rebuilding the community. She also encourages children to use expressive arts or drama to communicate their feelings. “The other part of what we do is facilitate connection and conversation between kids and parents,” Baggerly says. “We may start out with Theraplay and do structured activities, such as holding hands or singing ‘Row, Row, Row Your Boat.’ The point is to have them [parents and children] looking at each other so that the mirror neurons can be engaged.” Baggerly also educates parents on activities they can do at home with their children. She refers them to an online workbook, “After the Storm,” which has scales of 1 to 10 or a thermometer that kids can fill in to indicate how much stress they are feeling. Roaten often does volunteer trauma work and provided on-site support in the wake of the April 2013 fertilizer plant explosion in West, Texas, that killed 15 people, injured more than 150 and caused extensive damage to buildings and property. “One girl, a seventh-grader, had been standing outside in a neighborhood with a view of the plant and observed the explosion itself,” Roaten says. “So she had that image in her head and it would not go away. I taught her some deep breathing and progressive relaxation and did some guided imagery about her favorite place to be. “When that picture came up in her mind, she could breathe, relax and go to her good place. By the fourth day I was there, she was no longer seeing the image.” Roaten uses expressive therapy for children who aren’t very verbal or who don’t have the vocabulary to talk about their feelings. She brings a sand tray with miniatures of fences, people and buildings. She then allows children (and even adults) to set up scenarios or vignettes that help them express and act out what they are feeling. “I might say something like, ‘Create your world before [Hurricane] Katrina; then create your world after Katrina,” Roaten explains. Roaten also uses trauma-focused cognitive behavior therapy to help children and adolescents learn coping skills. “You teach them about trauma and its impact on them,” she explains. “Then you teach them relaxation and breathing skills. Once you get them to be able to self-soothe, relax and be calm, you can help them deal with pictures or scenarios that come up. You help them change the story — what they are telling themselves and what that means — which helps them work through the trauma a little bit at a time.” Children’s trauma responses and intervention guidelines Preschool through 2nd grade Typical trauma responses: - Believes death is reversible - Magical thinking - Intense but brief grief responses - Worries others will die - Separation anxiety - Regressive symptoms - Fear of the dark - Reenactment through traumatic play - Give simple, concrete explanations as needed - Provide physical closeness - Allow expression through play - Read storybooks such as A Terrible Thing Happened, Brave Bart, Don’t Pop Your Cork on Monday 3rd through 6th grade Typical trauma responses: - Asks a lot of questions - Begins to understand that death is permanent - Worries about own death - Increased fighting and aggression - Hyperactivity and inattentiveness - Withdrawal from friends - Reenactment though traumatic play - Give clear, accurate explanations - Allow expression through art, play or journaling - Read storybooks Typical trauma responses: - Physical symptoms such as headaches and stomachaches - Wide range of emotions - More verbal but still needs physical outlet - Arguments and fighting - Be accepting of moodiness - Be supportive and discuss when they are ready - Groups with structured activities or games Typical trauma responses: - Understands death is irreversible but believe it won’t happen to them - Risk-taking behaviors - Lack of concentration - Decline in responsible behavior - Rebellion at home or school - Encourage expression of feelings - Groups with guiding questions and projects Source: “Systematic Trauma Interventions for Children: A 10-Step Protocol,” by Jennifer Baggerly in Terrorism, Trauma and Tragedies: A Counselor’s Guide to Preparing and Responding, third edition, American Counseling Association Foundation, 201 ACA Traumatology Interest Network Counselors and counselors-in-training who have an interest in providing counseling services to trauma- or disaster-affected individuals and communities should consider joining the ACA Traumatology Interest Network. Network participants share insights, experiences, new plans and advances in trauma counseling services. For more information on joining the interest network, go to counseling.org/aca-community/aca-groups/interest-networks. To contact individuals interviewed for this article, email: Laurie Meyers is the senior writer for Counseling Today. Contact her at [email protected]. Letters to the editor: [email protected]
A risk factor is anything that increases a person’s chance of developing cancer. Although risk factors often influence the development of cancer, most do not directly cause cancer. Some people with several risk factors never develop cancer, while others with no known risk factors do. However, knowing your risk factors and talking about them with your doctor may help you make more informed lifestyle and health care choices. In general, leukemia can be caused by a genetic mutation (change) that is inherited (passed from generation to generation within a family) or environmental factors, such as smoking, or chemical or radiation exposure. However, most often the cause of leukemia is not known. The following factors may raise a person’s risk of developing PLL or HCL: Age. HCL occurs most often in people between ages 40 and 70. Gender. Men are five times more likely to develop HCL than women. Race/Ethnicity. HCL is more common in white people and Ashkenazi Jewish men. PLL and HCL are rare in people of Japanese or Southeast Asian descent.
An analysis of the complete genomes of 2,064 people reveals that multiple genetic variations could contribute to autism. The work suggests that scanning whole genomes may one day be useful for clinical diagnostics.Autism has genetic roots, but most cases can't be explained by current genetic tests. Now, patterns found in autistic children's genomes - the complete set of genetic instructions inside cells - have revealed a new genetic signature for the disorder. The signature helps explain cases that don't have other genetic markers of autism. The results, reported September 28, 2017, in the journal Cell, Whole genome sequencing, a technique that is rapidly becoming more affordable and available, provides a patient's complete genetic information. "In five to 10 years, whole genome sequencing could be the most informative tool for autism diagnosis," Eichler says. Current genetic tests for autism scan broad portions of the genome for DNA insertions or deletions that have previously been linked to autism. Other tests look for changes in the DNA building blocks of certain genes. But these tests flag only about 10% to 30% of cases. Based on family histories, genetics plays a role in roughly 50% of autism cases. To look for other genetic variations that might be unique to autism, Eichler and his colleagues wanted to examine a patient's entire set of genetic information. Researchers at the New York Genome Center, including the center's former director, HHMI Investigator Eichler and colleagues analyzed each family's data, looking for genetic variations that occurred only in children with autism. "With so many families to study, the effort was a massive undertaking that required two million hours of computer processing time," says Eichler's team identified genetic changes that disrupted gene function and led to altered protein production, and genetic deletions too small to see with current tests. The researchers also found changes in areas of the genome that do not contain genes but are responsible for turning genes on. Eichler and colleagues marked all the changes in the Simons database so that others can use the findings as a resource, Turner says. Then the researchers compared the number of variations in autistic children's genomes with that of their unaffected siblings. Children with autism were significantly more likely to have three or more different kinds of genetic variations, the team found. That suggests that a combination of sporadic genetic variations could contribute to autism, Eichler says. But he stresses that researchers need to replicate these findings in more families before specific genes or gene combinations are used for diagnosis. Still, the idea that multiple genetic variations could lead to autism means researchers "need to dig deeper even on cases we think we've already solved," Eichler says. Whole genome sequencing could reveal additional genetic variations in children already diagnosed with the disorder.
Approximately 65 million years ago, a large percentage of vegetables and animals suddenly became extinct. It was in the late Cretaceous period and there are various theories about it. Some scientists attribute this event to a gradual process that finally led to selective extinction. Others assert that a catastrophe, such as an asteroid hitting the Earth, caused these species mass extinction. However, these past life forms did not completely disappear. They left traces that even today leave men astonished: fossils. These prints from the past have contributed to backing the theory of evolution and they are the main tool used to study the geological past and reconstruct the history of the Earth. That is what Paleontology is about. It aims at studying all the aspects of the biology of ancient life forms: their shape and structure, their patters of evolution, their taxonomic relationships with each other and with modern species, their geographic distribution and their interrelationships with the environment. This science has also provided accurate data to locate deposits of oil and natural gas. Argentina has been the cradle for very significant findings in the field of Paleontology. This is the land of the Giganotosaurus, the Noasaurus and the Titanosaurus. That is the name given to the event that is supposed to have put a sudden end to the Age of Reptils and marked the end of the Mesozoic Era. The most accepted theory was proposed by 1968 Nobel Prize in Physics Luis Alvarez in 1980. It implies the fall of an asteroid which, as it hit the Earth, it would have caused serious chemical changes in the atmosphere, large fires, tsunamis, severe acid rainstorms, earthquakes and even volcanic activity. The dust cloud in the atmosphere would have blocked sunlight for long periods, thus hampering the photosynthesis process and, accordingly, the production of oxygen. Therefore, the global temperature would have experimented a considerable drop and certain species dwelling the surface of the Earth would have disappeared.
Roosevelt baffles depression As the people rallied from the initial shock and sought to examine the sources of their difficulties, they began to recognize unhealthy trends that had been unobserved beneath the prosperous facade of the 1920's. The core of the trouble had been the immense disparity between the productive powers of American industry and the ability of the American people to consume. Great innovations in productive techniques had been made during and after the war, with the result that the output of American industry had soared far beyond the purchasing capacity of American workers and farmers. The savings of the wealthy and middle classes, increasing far beyond the possibilities of sound investment, had been drawn into frantic speculation on the stock market or in real estate. The stock market collapse, therefore, had been merely the first of several detonations in which a flimsy structure of speculation had been leveled to the ground. The presidential campaign of 1932 took the form of a debate over the causes and possible remedies of the Great Depression. Herbert Hoover, whose misfortune it had been to enter the White House only eight months before the stock market crash, had struggled tirelessly to set the wheels of industry in motion again, but he had done so within the limits of a traditional conception of the proper role of the federal government which prevented him from taking drastic action. His Democratic opponent, Franklin D. Roosevelt, already popular as governor of New York state during the developing crisis, argued that the depression had grown out of underlying flaws in the American economy which had been aggravated by Republican, policies during the Twenties. President Hoover replied that the American economy was fundamentally sound but that it had been disturbed by the repercussions of a worldwide depression, the causes of which could be traced back to the World War. Behind this argument lay a clear implication: Hoover would prefer largely to depend on the natural processes of recovery to take place, while Roosevelt was prepared to use the authority of the federal government for bold experimental remedies. The election resulted in a smashing victory for Roosevelt, who received 22,800,000 votes to Hoover's 15,700,000. To the problems of the hour the new President brought an air of cheerful confidence which quickly rallied the people to his banner. Before he had been long in office, that bewildering complex of reforms which is known as the New Deal was well on its way. Actually this was a sharp acceleration of certain types of reform that had been growing for fifty years. In a certain sense, it can be said that the New Deal merely introduced into the United States types of reform legislation that had already been familiar to Englishmen, Germans, and Scandinavians for more than a generation. Moreover, it represented a culmination of a long-range trend towards the abandonment of laissez-faire, which could be traced back to the regulation of the railroads in the 1880's and the flood of state and national reform legislation of the Wilson-Theodore Roosevelt era. What was most novel about it was the speed with which it accomplished what elsewhere had taken whole generations. Many of the New Deal reforms were hastily drawn and weakly administered; some of them actually contradicted each other. But some confusion was natural when a situation so difficult was being remedied in such haste. During the entire New Deal period, despite all its speed in decision and execution, the democratic process of public criticism and discussion was never interrupted or suspended; indeed, the New Deal brought a sharp revival of interest in his government on the part of the individual citizen. When Roosevelt took the presidential oath, the banking and credit system of the nation was in a state of paralysis. With astonishing rapidity the sound banks were reopened for business. A policy of moderate currency inflation was launched in order to start an upward movement in commodity prices and also to afford some relief to debtors. More generous credit facilities were made available, both to industry and agriculture, through new governmental agencies. Savings bank deposits up to $5,000 were insured. Severe regulations were imposed upon the manner in which securities could be sold in the stock exchange. In agriculture, far-reaching reforms were instituted. After the Agricultural Adjustment Act (passed by Congress in 1933) was nullified three years later by the Supreme Court as unconstitutional, Congress passed a more effective farmrelief act, providing that the government make money payments to farmers who would devote part of their land to soil-conserving crops or otherwise cooperate in the long-range agricultural goals of the program. By 1940, nearly six million farmers had joined in this program and were receiving federal subsidies. The new act likewise provided loans on surplus crops, insurance for wheat, and a system of planned storage to ensure an "ever normal granary" for the nation and the farmers. As a result of these measures, the prices of agricultural commodities rose, and economic stability for the farmer began to seem possible.
The activity at El Hierro has brought up a lot of questions about just exactly what happens when a volcanic eruption occurs underwater — and specifically, what happens if that eruption begins to occur in shallower water. This is the realm of “hydrovolcanism” or “phreatovolcanism” — when water and magma interact, either directly or indirectly, to produce volcanic activity. In general, magma’s interaction with water comes in two flavors — phreatic, where the eruption is steam-driven, but no magma is directly involved, just heat, and phreatomagmatic, where magma is involved directly in the eruption. Phreatic eruptions don’t require a lot of water — if groundwater or snow/ice melt seeps into a volcanic edifice and heats up (typically due to a new intrusion of magma coming into the upper part of the volcano), that water can flash to steam causing an explosion (see above). Many times, these phreatic explosions are precursors to renewed activity at a volcano. Phreatomagmatic eruptions require more water than phreatic. What happens in a phreatomagmatic eruption is usually the erupting magma is directly introduced into a body of water — possibly a crater lake, meltwater from snow or ice, seawater — and the very large contrast in heat (sometimes upwards of 1100°C between water and basalt) causes an explosion of both the water and magma. This is called fragmentation, and ash can be produced during these explosions, meaning what could have been a lava flow becomes an explosive eruption. The 2010 eruption at Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland was initially a phreatomagmatic eruption when the explosive phase started — the erupting magma came into contact with the melting icecap on the volcano and gave it extra explosive oomph — and helping Eyjafjallajökull go from being an eruption that only Icelanders and enthusiasts would note to one that brought Europe to a halt (we might term this a phreatoplinian eruption, capturing both water’s role and the height of the plume). We also saw this explosive interaction of water and magma at the 2009 eruption of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha`apai. However, the eruption that gave its name to these events — the Surtseyan style of eruption* — was the 1963 eruption of Surtsey off Iceland. In that eruption, much like at El Hierro, the events began as a submarine eruption that eventually reached the surface. The most characteristic aspect of these phreatomagmatic and phreatoplinian eruptions is that the ash produced tends to be much finer in size than normal explosive eruptions that are not driven by water. In the rock record, peperites are likely the result of phreatic/phreatomagmatic eruptions as well. Now, why did the eruption at Surtsey (and El Hierro) need to get closer to the surface to produce an explosive eruption? That just comes down to pressure. The higher the atmospheric (or hydrologic) pressure, the harder it is for magma to fragment and cause an explosive. At surface pressures (~1000 mb or 1 ATM), the lower limit for dissolved gases needed to create an explosive eruption is 0.07 weight %. However, at 100 meters depth in the ocean (~10,000 mb or 10 ATM), that value is closer to 3 weight % dissolved gases, so it takes a lot more dissolved gases in a magma to cause fragmentation when there is increased pressure*. So, until the eruption is close enough to the surface to allow for fragmentation to occur, the eruption won’t manifest itself as anything more than stains, bubbling and debris. Once it gets close enough to the surface or dissolved gases increase, then we can start getting explosions to occur — the famous “Rooster Tails” or “Cypressoid plumes” of Surtseyan activity. However, there is some suggestion that large explosive eruptions can happen in the submarine setting — the so-called “Neptunian” eruptions — but they are not well understood. Once an island is established (and these can be quite ephemeral as they are mostly made of loose volcanic debris), then the activity might become much less explosive. At Surtsey, impressive lava flows (see below) were issued from the vent once it was closed off from intrusion by seawater. This is, by no means, all the ways water and magma can interact, but you can at least get an idea of what we might expect from El Hierro if the eruption continues – so be sure to keep an eye on the webcams being set up at the island. If the interaction is with groundwater, some people call these Taalian eruptions, after Taal in the Philippines. ** This is why on a moon like Io you can generate volcanic plumes that are 100s of km tall — with some help from high eruptive rates and lower gravity.Go Back to Top. Skip To: Start of Article.
\|\|The English used in this article or section may not be easy for everybody to understand. (September 2011)\| \|\|This article does not have any sources. (July 2010)\| M-theory is a new idea in small-particle physics that is part of superstring theory that was initially proposed by Edward Witten. The idea, or theory, often causes arguments among scientists, because there is no way to test it to see if it is true. If ever proven true, M-theory and string theory would mean big progress for science. String theory[change \| change source] To understand M-theory one must first have some knowledge of string theory. For hundreds of years, scientists have thought that the simplest objects in the universe are points, like dots. String theory says that this is wrong and that the simplest objects in the universe are shaped like pieces of string. These strings are so small that even when looked at very closely they look like points. Each basic particle is created by the strings vibrating in different patterns. The reason scientists had not thought of this idea for so long is that strings are much harder to work with than points. They seem to break such rules as causality and special relativity, which says that information cannot travel faster than the speed of light. String theory has been developed because of a very important problem that has existed for almost 100 years. Albert Einstein's theory that describes the universe on very large scales (it is called general relativity), disagrees with two theories that describe things on very small scales (they are called quantum mechanics and the standard model). There are also problems with the Standard Model: it includes about 20 numbers that seem to have no explanation; it has too many basic particles - some scientists think it needs to have fewer; and it does not include gravity, which is needed to explain weight. Many of these problems can be solved by thinking of basic particles as strings. Now there is only one number with no explanation, which gives the size of the strings. String theory includes particles that cause gravity, called gravitons; finding this out delighted the scientists who work on string theory. So, string theory successfully brings General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics together. But there are some problems with string theory. Normally, we think of the universe as having 4 dimensions, or basic directions. 3 of these basic directions can be thought of as "up/down", "forward/backward" and "left/right". The other direction is time. String theory needs 10 basic directions. These six other directions can be explained if they are "curled up", so they are much too small to see. For example, by following the path of a spiral, it is possible to go a great distance along it without moving very far. The 6 other directions can be thought of as tiny spirals - strings can move along them a great distance but not seem to move. This can be looked at as a mathematical trick—a trick that has little to do with the real world that can be seen and touched. Such tricks are allowed if they give a theory that can better tell us how things work. Another problem with string theory is that there are 5 different versions of it. Each version allows different kinds of strings and says they work in different ways. String theory is supposed to be a theory of everything so there should be only one version, not 5. M-theory solves this problem. M-theory[change \| change source] In 1995 Edward Witten started what has been called the Second Superstring Revolution by introducing M-theory to the world. This theory combines the 5 different string theories (along with a previously abandoned attempt to unify General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics called 11D-Supergravity) into one theory. What Witten actually did was to predict that the fact that all these different theories were connected was a result of there being some underlying theory of which they were all approximations. This theory is somewhat vague in nature and has not yet been pinned down. Additionally, it was found that the equations that required string theory to exist in 10 dimensions were actually approximations as well. The proposed M-theory would need one extra dimension and instead be a theory that takes place in 11 dimensions. Witten has himself compared this idea in simple terms to a general who takes up a position on a hilltop, the extra space-coordinate, to get a better view of the battlefield's two other dimensions. The combination is accomplished by knitting together a web of relationships between each of the string theories called dualities (specifically, S-duality, T-duality, and U-duality). Each of these dualities provides a way of converting one of the string theories into another. T-duality is probably the most easily explained of the dualities. It has to do with the size, written as R, of the curled up dimensions of the string theories. It was discovered that by taking a Type IIA string theory that has a size R and changing the radius to 1/R the result will end up being what is equivalent to a Type IIB theory of size R. This duality, along with the others, creates connections between all 5 (or 6, if supergravity is counted) theories. The fact that these dualities existed had been known before Witten came up with the idea of M-theory. Additional amusement has come for many in guessing what the M might stand for (possibilities include Matrix, Magic, Muffin, Mystery, Mother and Membrane). Regardless of what the M might possibly mean, M-theory has become one of the most interesting and active areas of research in theoretical physics today. For a more technical explanation, see w:M-theory (simplified explanation).
By Briana Magistro SC Staff Writer A common sight in the eastern and central United States, the blue jay flies into this semester’s first “Animal of the Issue.” The blue jay is commonly found in coniferous, deciduous, and suburban areas of the eastern United States. A midsized songbird, the blue jay is not particularly timid. It has been known to scare away smaller birds, especially feeders, by swooping down and screeching. They are not good at sharing, and will typically not even eat with others of their own species. Blue jays can make many calls, including imitations of birds of prey, like hawks, in order to scare off other birds. However, once acclimated to a local mixed flock, some blue jays will tolerate other songbirds, and they may even act as guards, giving warning calls if a predator is nearby. Blue jays have an average wingspan of over a foot wide, but they are not actually fast fliers. These jays fly in such a way that does not allow for optimal speed. Therefore, they can be picked out of the open sky by quick and agile predators, like owls. This is why they typically live in areas with a lot of trees or hiding places. The blue jay is extremely distinguishable, as it has a bright blue plumage on its back and pointed head. It also has a white belly and various black markings. Contrary to common belief, the blue jay’s color does not come from pigment is its feathers. The feathers are specifically refractive to give off blue color in white light. This means that the molecular structure of the feathers enables only blue color to be refracted in sunlight. Other birds, such as peacocks, also have feathers that refract light in such a way. This is why some birds can have such brilliant and intricate color patterns. If the feathers are damaged, they will not show color since the specific structures that refract light are broken. The diet of the blue jay includes nuts, seeds, fruits, grains, and insects. Unlike other songbirds, blue jays don’t have a preference for where their food comes from, whether it is a berry hanging from a tree or a nut that fell to the ground. They have also been known to carry off nuts to their nests to eat later. Their beaks are hard and strong, and can easily break apart the shells of most nuts. Blue jay nests are cupshaped and are usually made in trees or big bushes. Like with eating, blue jays are not particular about where they choose to nest and will sometimes even make nests in mailboxes or the homes of other birds. Both mates take part in caring for the nest. Blue jays can lay between three and seven eggs. The baby birds are able to fly in under a month. Unlike other birds, blue jay babies will stay with their families until fall, when food starts to become scarce. In the wild, blue jays have been recorded to live longer than 15 years, and have been known to live longer than 20 years in captivity. Although the natural lifespan of the blue jay is long, the birds rarely live past 10 years. This is due to collisions with cars and other urban disturbances. Mosquitoes, a food source of blue jays and other birds, carry the West Nile Virus, a generally fatal disease that can be contracted by birds after digesting infected food. To attract blue jays to your home, it is recommended that you use wild birdseeds that contain large seeds, like sunflower seeds or peanuts. Suet, a hard block feed used for woodpeckers and large songbirds, also attracts blue jays. You will know when a blue jay is visiting your deck when you hear its long screech! Email Briana at:
Lesson Plans and Worksheets Browse by Subject Outdoor Education Teacher Resources Find teacher approved Outdoor Education educational resource ideas and activities Students discuss what they like about parks and make a list of different things they like to do there such as swing, run, play ball, ride a bike, or go on a hike. They discover the locations of some examples of National Parks and that they are places to enjoy the outdoor activities. Young scholars practice problem solving skills. In this early childhood education instructional activity, students foster the ability to use creative and critical thinking to turn obstacles into bridges to greater learning as they complete various activities and discuss them. Students investigate Earth science by collaborating in group projects. In this weather prediction lesson, students record data of their local weather over the course of a week and create graphs and charts to share their information. Students work with classmates to create weather prediction charts and include details such as what activities people can enjoy or what clothes to wear. Students explore lifetime activities to insure a healthy lifestyle. In this healthy lifestyle lesson, students work in groups and to complete activities. Students time the activities and visit a website to analyze the calories that burned. Students write a paragraph about the activity, make a list of outdoor activities, and sports they can play in the future, and make a bar chart from the calorie information. Students plan an event to promote outdoor activities at the school and in the community. In this outdoor recreation lesson, students view an episode of "Arizona Wildlife Views" and answer comprehension questions. They work in groups to plan a major event that will promote outdoor activities at their school and in their community. Students participate in various outdoor activities to teach them about the environment. In this outdoor education lesson plan, students participate in activities such as compass direction, conservation, forestry, wildlife, and navigation. Students work together to explore nature in these activities.
Archimedes principle says that the weight of the displaced water because of an object in the fluid is equal to the buoyant force acting on it. We can also say that an object can displace the equal weight of water by its own weight. Fb = ρgv Where, Fb = buoyant force ρ = density of the fluid g = gravitational acceleration v = volume of object We can also write, Fb = Wa – Wf Where, Wa = weight of object in air Wf = weight of object in fluid So that we have the equation, ρgv = Wa – Wf Example: An object weighs 50 g in air and has a volume of 24.0 cm^3. What will be its apparent weight when immersed in water? Solution: According to the archimedes principle, When the object is immersed in water, it displaces same amount of water. We have given, volume of object = 24 cm^3 Consider density of water as unity. So, mass = volume x density = 24 x 1 = 24 g Therefore, Apparent weight = 50 – 24 = 26 gm. Example: The volume of a 400 gm sealed packet is 250 cm^3. Will the packet float or sink in water if the density of water is 1 gm/cm^3. What will be the mass of water displaced by this packet? Solution: Given that, Mass of substance = 400 gm Volume of substance = 250 cm^3 So, density = mass/volume = 400/250 = 1.6 gm/cm^3 As the density of substance is more than the density of water. therefore it will sink in the water. Mass of water displaced by the packet = volume x density = 250 x 1 = 250 gm.
Regular arrangements of sodium atoms make sodium cobalt oxide a perfect material for laptop batteries, an efficient cooling material and a superconductor. The concentration of sodium atoms in the material can vary and the material's behaviour depends sensitively on this number. As reported in the latest issue of the magazine Nature, scientists from the Hahn Meitner Institute (Berlin), the CEA research centre in Saclay (Paris), and the University of Liverpool have shown that the sodium atoms always arrange in regular patterns, and these patterns determine the properties of the material. The image shows the pattern created when four fifths of the available places are occupied by sodium atoms. The concentration of sodium atoms can easily be varied using chemical methods, and it is possible to change the material from a metal to an insulator, and then to superconductor, just by putting it into an electrochemical cell and changing the applied voltage. On the microscopic level, sodium cobalt oxide has a characteristic layered structure: cobalt oxide layers alternate with layers of sodium atoms ordered on a nanoscale. The concentration of sodium atoms can vary over a large range, and the detailed arrangement of the sodium atoms determines the electrical properties of the material. When they are far apart from each other, each atom acts as a well confining the electrons constituting the current flow - the material becomes an insulator. If they are arranged in lines, they form wire-like structures allowing current to flow along one direction. Alan Tennant, head of the department Magnetism at the Hahn-Meitner-Institut explains that "the electrons responsible for the current flow behave like waves and they like to arrange their wavelength and their behaviour to fit the predefined structure. In this way the electrons can be controlled by the chemical composition of the material. If the sodium atoms were arranged at random, small changes in their number would hardly influence the current flow." Controlling the transport of electrons provides the basis for our modern information and communications technologies and improvements in solid state batteries has led to a revolution in portable electronic devices from iPods to mobile phones. "The laptop batteries used today contain lithium cobalt oxide - a material very similar to sodium cobalt oxide - and they are charged by changing the number of lithium atoms. We know that lithium atoms are also arranged in regular patterns, and may show some of the beautiful behaviour seen in the sodium compounds." Tennant adds. Sodium cobalt oxide is also a good candidate for an efficient cooling material, since it is among the few materials that are good electrical conductors, but that conduct heat badly. This can be understood from the arrangement shown in the image: the sodium atoms marked red are confined in cages formed by blue atoms. They can rattle in these cages, taking up most of the heat trying to travel through the material without impeding the flow of electric current. New thermoelectric materials could provide a route to more energy efficient refrigeration, as well as converting heat sources such as geothermal energy and hot water from conventional power stations into useful electricity. A kaleidoscope of patterns of sodium atoms depending on the sodium concentration was found. In order to understand how the sodium structures come about, one can imagine the various atoms as marbles. The oxygen atoms are arranged in a honeycomb pattern and the sodium atoms have to rest in the cavities formed between them. Due to their large size, two sodium atoms cannot occupy two adjacent cavities and, therefore, when the sodium layer is completely filled, only every second cavity is occupied. This creates two classes of sodium atoms corresponding to the blue and red spheres in the image. Finally, the sodium atoms repel each other and, therefore, try to keep as far apart as possible. The overall pattern reflects the best arrangement in accordance with these factors for a given concentration. The sodium ordering was studied using neutron and synchrotron methods at the Hahn-Meitner-Institut and at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK, The MAP2 supercomputer at the University of Liverpool, normally used for particle physics computations, was then used to explore this idea, which finally led to the determination of the sodium ordering patterns observed. Further partners in this European cooperation were the Universities of Oxford and Bristol, the Berlin Synchrotron Radiation Source BESSY, and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility ESRF in Grenoble. Citation: M. Roger, D.J.P. Morris, D.A. Tennant, M.J. Gutmann, J.P. Goff, J.-U. Hoffmann, R. Feyerherm, E. Dudzik, D. Prabhakaran, N. Shannon, B. Lake, P.P. Deen, Patterning of Sodium Ions and the Control of Electrons in Sodium Cobaltate Nature, 8. Februar 2007 Explore further: Competition for graphene: Researchers demonstrate ultrafast charge transfer in new family of 2-D semiconductors
\|Project Home\|\|Overview\|\|Mapping Methods\|\|Coastal Classifications\|\|Coastal Processes\|\|Coastal Vulnerability\|\|References\|\|Publications\| The Gulf of Mexico is a low-energy, microtidal (less than 0.5 m tidal amplitude) region that is constantly changing as a result of active coastal processes that are directly linked to meteorological events. Wind-driven waves and tidal currents are the most important geological agents controlling sediment transport and evolution of the Gulf and bay shores. Depending on location, the morphological features can be wave-dominated, tide dominated, or display mixed energy characteristics of both wave and tidal influences (Davis, 1994). Wind directions and intensities vary seasonally with southeasterly and southwesterly winds prevailing most of the year. Exceptions occur frequently during the winter months when wind-circulation patterns and low barometric pressure preceding the passage of cold fronts cause strong onshore winds and high waves that erode the beach. After the frontal systems pass the coast, winds shift to blow from the northwest or northeast, causing erosion along the lagoon sides of the barriers and the southwestward transport of sediment in the Gulf of Mexico. Astronomical tides in the Gulf of Mexico are mixed and typically have a range of less than 1 m. Water levels vary only about 0.5 m between high and low tide during a normal tidal cycle. Tide records around the Gulf since the turn of the century all show the same general variations in sea level that coincide with droughts and periods of abnormally high rainfall. Averaging of the tide records shows that some areas such as the west-central coast of Florida are relatively stable because of the hard limestone substrates. Other areas, such as the Mississippi delta and around Galveston, Texas are subsiding rapidly. Non-storm waves in the Gulf of Mexico are about 0.3 m high. The largest waves and highest sustained wind speeds in the Gulf accompany major hurricanes, which also are responsible for the most storm-related property damage and loss of lives. Hurricanes entering or originating in the Gulf normally follow a northward or westward path. Using historical patterns of hurricane landfall, the National Hurricane Center has shown that the areas at greatest risk are around Galveston, Texas, southeastern Louisiana, and the Mississippi/Alabama coast (Simpson and Lawrence, 1971). Because hurricanes seldom turn east and make landfall near the west Florida coast, this area has the lowest probability of a storm in any year. Before crossing the Gulf Coast, the counterclockwise circulation of hurricane winds drives nearshore currents and large volumes of beach sand alongshore. The high tides, large waves, and strong currents that accompany the storms can leave a permanent mark on the barrier islands and beaches. For example, the 1921 Hurricane breached Hog Island and formed Hurricane Pass that now separates Honeymoon Island from Caladesi Island. Even relatively weak storms have destroyed piers, seawalls, dune walkovers, swimming pools, roads, houses, motels, and other buildings because structures were located close to the water and the beach did not recover from storm erosion before the next storm arrived.
We all do it– It’s the very thing that sets us apart– From babies to adults, humans are constantly changing the frequency of words they use, and becoming more adaptable in regards to the ability to communicate. Every day new words are created through different social settings and moods. Language in itself has become a sort of intelligence, shaped and evolved throughout history by our actions. As early as 12 months, children are able to communicate using simple terms like “mama” or “dada”. According to the Mayo Clinic, this can develop at different rates, faster or lower depending on the individual’s rate of brain development. What is similar, however, is the rate at which the brain wishes to communicate. According to Provider-Parent Partnerships, a person is born with the amount of brain cells they’ll have for the rest of their lives, but like any other part of the body, the brain must build itself up like a muscle. Nerve cells in the brain, called neurons, must also be built up in order to grow and develop. Language plays a key part in brain development in children– no matter what stage of development the child is in. According to the Gregory Hickok, regarding the role of mirror neurons in speech and language processing, neurons have not always been thought to play a major role in the motor system or speech production. However, in light of new research though which we’ve discovered mirror neurons, that theory has been rethought. In Hickok’s article for the January 2010 Elsevier journal, he stated, “This interest has developed primarily around two logically independent, but sometimes conflated, ideas.” He goes on to say that, “One is that motor systems involved in speech production are critically involved in perceiving speech sounds, an idea that is clearly related to the motor theory of speech perception. The other is that the meaning of action-related words are coded, at least in part, in motor regions that control the execution of those actions.” Hickok explains that both hypotheses are independent of one another, where one concerns on the neural basis and the phonological form while the other is on a different processing and representation level. Overall, the neurons may play an important role in speech development and therefore accurately measure where a child is at in regards to development, and where hey will be over time. The child is constantly growing and engaging, and it’s with language that the child can truly find his or her own potential. In the end, this may even help indicate how quickly a child can learn more than one language later in life.
Several different types of drug allergic reactions can occur: reactions can range from a rash to joint pain or kidney problems. The body's response can affect many organ systems, but the skin is the system most frequently involved. Drug allergies can vary greatly in severity. They may be dangerous, as the body's response can happen very quickly with a strong reaction (within 1 to 15 minutes), which can be life threatening, as in anaphylaxis (see below). In contrast to other types of adverse drug reactions, the number and severity of allergic reactions do not usually correlate with the amount of medication taken. For people who are allergic to a drug, even a small amount of the medication can trigger an allergic reaction. Examples of reactions are: - skin rashes and itching - constriction of the airways and wheezing - swelling of the upper throat, which impairs breathing - a decrease in blood pressure, sometimes to dangerously low levels Serum sickness is a delayed type of drug allergy that occurs a week or more after exposure to a medication or vaccine. The immune system misidentifies a medication or a protein in the vaccine as a potentially harmful substance, and it develops an immune response to fight it, causing inflammation and various other symptoms. Symptoms of serum sickness do not develop until 7 to 21 days after initial exposure to the medication or vaccine. However, people may develop symptoms in 1 to 3 days if they have previously been exposed to the medication or vaccine. Anaphylaxis is a sudden, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction that involves the whole body. Symptoms can develop within seconds or minutes. Symptoms of anaphylaxis may include the following: - difficulty breathing - rapid or weak pulse - irregular heartbeat or palpitations - blueness of the skin, including the lips or nail beds - swelling of the upper throat - fainting, light-headedness, dizziness - skin redness, hives, and itching - nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain or cramps - confusion or anxiety - slurred speech Anaphylaxis is an emergency condition requiring immediate medical attention. Call your local emergency number (such as 9-1-1) as soon as you experience any of these symptoms. Early treatment is crucial! People with known severe allergic reactions may carry an injection containing epinephrine (e.g., EpiPen, Twinject) or other allergy kit in addition to wearing a MedicAlert bracelet. All material copyright MediResource Inc. 1996 – 2020. Terms and conditions of use. The contents herein are for informational purposes only. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Source: www.medbroadcast.com/healthfeature/gethealthfeature/Drug-Allergies
Hearing loss is more common than you may realize. In the United States, 1 in 5 people over the age of 12 have hearing loss of some kind. When combined with the children who have hearing loss, that makes for 48 million Americans with hearing loss. For those who are aged 65 to 74 years old, approximately one third suffer from hearing loss. The numbers are even greater among those who are older, with nearly half of adults over the age of 75 experiencing hearing loss. Around the world, nearly 477 million people have hearing loss. With numbers like these, it is apparent that any research that could lead to better ways to treat and even prevent hearing loss is extremely important. Hearing loss is not just inconvenient; it can entirely change a person’s life. People with age-related hearing loss often experience social isolation, loneliness, trouble communicating, depression, anxiety, and dementia. These statistics and the conditions linked to hearing loss are only a small piece of the reality of hearing loss. However, a new hope may be on the horizon, thanks to groundbreaking research conducted by a team of scientists at University College London (UCL). The scientists recently published a study in Scientific Reports that shows their findings related to hearing loss—in fruit flies. Before you assume that fruit flies are too far removed from humans to provide any promising research in the field of hearing loss, think again. The fruit fly is a powerful tool in biology, and when it comes to hearing, a fruit fly’s ear shares many molecular similarities with that of a human. Up until now, however, no studies had examined a fruit fly’s hearing ability over its lifetime. In this new study, the researchers found that the antennal ears of fruit flies also display age-related hearing loss. They also discovered that certain genes are responsible for the fruit fly’s hearing ability over its lifespan. These two discoveries are groundbreaking on their own—because humans also suffer from age-related hearing loss, and many scientists have tried to identify the genes that control hearing ability in humans. This demonstrates that fruit flies are an ideal tool for learning more about how hearing loss could be treated in humans. The researchers at UCL did not stop at these two major discoveries. They also found a way to manipulate some of the genes responsible for maintaining hearing sensitivity. With these manipulations, the scientists could prevent the flies from experiencing age-related hearing loss. Because of the similarities between the hearing structures and genes of fruit flies and humans, this new research promises to lead to many more discoveries that could change how hearing loss is treated in humans. With further research and testing, scientists and doctors may one day be able to make genetic adjustments in humans that would eliminate age-related hearing loss. To learn more about this exciting new research and how the promise it holds for the future of hearing healthcare, we welcome you to contact our hearing practice today. We are eager to care for you!
"Who ordered that?" commented physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi when the muon was discovered in 1936. In the 80 years since, scientists have learnt a lot about the muon’s role in our Universe and have studied its properties with extreme precision. Muons have even been used via decays of intermediate weak bosons in the detection of new particles, such as the Higgs boson – now the centerpiece of its own extremely rich field of research. In the Standard Model, elementary particles acquire mass through interaction with the Higgs field: the stronger the interaction, the larger the mass of the particle. So far, physicists have collected conclusive evidence of the Higgs boson interacting with bosons and the heaviest elementary fermions belonging to the third fermion generation (tau-lepton as well as top and bottom quarks). Yet to date, there is no indication whether the Higgs boson interacts with the next lighter fermions, muon or charm quark, belonging to the second fermion generation. The ATLAS Collaboration has released a new paper on the search for the Higgs-boson decay to a pair of muons. The new study uses the entire dataset collected by the ATLAS experiment during Run 2 of the LHC (2015–2018) to give a first hint of this elusive process. The ATLAS Collaboration studied the entire dataset collected during Run 2 of the LHC (2015–2018) to give a first hint of the elusive Higgs-boson decay to muon pairs. The wheat from the chaff Despite a simple experimental signature, spotting this rare decay continues to be a challenge. This is due to the low probability of the Higgs boson decaying to muons (predicted to be just 0.02%) and the large number of events from similar Standard Model background processes that can dominate the search. Only 0.2% of selected muon-pair events with masses between 120 and 130 GeV from proton–proton collisions are expected to come from a Higgs-boson decay. Fortunately, a signal can be distinguished from background processes by looking at the shape of the mass distribution of the precisely measured muon pairs. Higgs-boson events will cluster around the Higgs-boson mass of 125 GeV, producing a narrow peak that can be distinguished from the smoothly-falling distribution of background events. By fitting the invariant-mass spectrum, ATLAS physicists are able to directly constrain the background and extract a possible signal. Divide et impera To further increase the sensitivity of their analysis, ATLAS physicists divided their events into 20 mutually-exclusive “categories”. These categories focussed on the features of an event – such as the number and properties of its additional jets or leptons – to target specific production modes of the Higgs boson, including the scattering of two gluons or two weak bosons, and the associated production with a weak W or Z boson or a top-quark pair. Inside these categories, events were further split using dedicated multivariate discriminants (Boosted Decision Trees). As a result of this complex division, ATLAS physicists could separate out the few Higgs-boson-like events from the more common, but less Higgs-boson-like, events. In addition, ATLAS physicists developed a robust (and ambitious) background-modelling strategy using a variety of simulation techniques to create more than 10 billion simulated events. Detailed ATLAS detector simulations (totalling about five times the Run-2 dataset) were complemented by dedicated fast simulation samples (more than 100 times the dataset). The fast simulation samples were crucial to ensure that the overwhelming backgrounds could not mimic a false signal, while maximising the analysis sensitivity to a real signal. Let the die be cast The new ATLAS result gives a first hint of the Higgs boson decaying to a muon pair; the significance of the observed signal amounts to 2.0 standard deviations and the ratio of the observed signal yield to the one expected in the Standard Model is 1.2 ± 0.6. The data, together with the signal-plus-background fit, are shown in Figure 2, where data events are weighted to reflect the signal-to-background ratio of their respective categories. More data to be collected in Run 3 (2022–2024) and during the operation of the High-Luminosity LHC will help close in on this first hint. - A search for the dimuon decay of the Standard Model Higgs boson with the ATLAS detector (arXiv: 2007.07830, see figures) - See also the full lists of ATLAS Conference Notes and ATLAS Physics Papers
The lost lands of the Ice age. When the last ice ended 10,000 years ago a vast area of land was flooded by rising sea levels. At the end of the last glacial period, commonly known as the Ice Age, between 20 and 10 thousand years ago an extremely large area of land around the margins of the continents was flooded by rising sea levels. These lands spanned an area of approximately 10 million square kilometres, and some were very important habitats for wildlife and migration routes for populations of early humans. In a number of cases current island land masses such as the British Isles, some of the Japanese islands, and a number of islands in present day Indonesia were connected to their neighbouring continents. There have been many alternating glacial (cold ‘Ice Age’) and inter-glacial (warm) periods throughout earth’s history. The last glacial period began around 115 thousand years ago although its onset was of gradual cooling from warmth of the previous inter-glacial period. As glaciers and ice sheets began to grow in high latitude regions the sea level began to fall. These bodies of ice are created by snowfall that does not melt during summer that gradually accumulates over thousands of years into huge masses of ice that that can be more than 3000 metres thick in places. Since the origin of this snowfall is moisture evaporated from the world’s oceans there is loss of water from the oceans with that water ‘locked up’ in glacial ice and a corresponding drop in sea level. The great ice Sheets. The last Ice Age reached its peak of severity around 24,000 years ago, although the maximum extent of ice varied by few thousand years either side of this depending on location. At this time there were vast ice sheets covering much of the northern hemisphere and while ice was less extensive in the southern hemisphere the Antarctic ice sheet was larger than it is today and a significant ice sheet existed in the southern portion of South America, the Patagonian Ice Sheet. In North America the vast Laurentide Ice Sheet covered parts of Alaska, virtually all of Canada and the northern parts of the USA. This ice reached as far south as where Chicago exists today and it’s eroding action formed the Great Lakes, and Long Island in New York was at the ice’s eastern boundary. In Europe ice covered much of the British Isles as well as Scandinavia, Denmark and parts of northern Germany and Poland. This was the Fennoscandian Ice sheet and it extended into western Russia across the Barents and Kara seas as far east as the Taymyr peninsula (Barents-Kara Ice Sheet). It used to be thought that the British Isles ice sheet was smaller and separated from the Fennoscandian ice sheet, however, more modern evidence indicate that this was not the case. Indeed, very recent evidence suggests the ice extended all the way south across the Irish Sea to Cornwall in the west, although south eastern Britain was ice free. Perhaps surprisingly much of Siberia was free of ice it is believed that ice in northern Europe blocked any moisture from the Atlantic making the climate extremely dry so that extensive glaciation could not take place. As previously mentioned, there was a large expanse of Ice in Patagonia and smaller ice caps existed in other locations including the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Himalayas, the mountains of eastern Siberia, Iran, The Caucuses, New Zealand and the Andes. The lost lands At this time sea levels were around 140 metres below modern levels and larges areas of what is today the sea bed of the continental shelf was exposed. Many of these exposed areas of land were very large and would have provided important habitats for animals and plants, including iconic species such as Woolly Mammoth, sabre toothed cat, Mastodon, and Bison. They also would have played an important role for early human both in providing hunting grounds and routes for migration. A land bridge existed across the Bering Sea between Alaska and eastern Siberia and this area is known as Beringia. It is believed that Beringia had a crucial role in allowing humans to migrate from Asia to the Americas although there is much controversy around this. The region was largely unglaciated due to very dry and cold conditions, however, the vast ice sheet in North America blocked further passage into the continent. This ice sheet actually consisted of two conjoined ice masses, the Cordilleran Ice Sheet that had formed over the Rocky Mountains and the larger Laurentide Ice sheet centred over Hudson Bay. During the time when these ice sheets were growing, and also after they began to retreat, they were separated allowing humans to possibly pass between to ice free areas further south. It is important to note that these two periods when there was a passable route was separated by many thousands of years. This is where the controversy lies, if its assumed humans used this route after glacial maximum then humans would have migrated into America between 14 and 12 thousand years ago. However, if they did this before glacial maximum humans may have arrived in the North America much earlier perhaps before 30 thousand years ago. Previously it had been assumed the former was the case, but recent research shows evidence of human settlement in the Americas much earlier than had been once been thought. Another important area is in south east Asia where a large area of land was exposed. Australia was joined to the island of New Guinea forming a larger continent that has been named Sahul. Meanwhile the most of the islands of what is today Indonesia were attached to the Asian mainland forming the subcontinent of Sundaland. Being in tropical locations both these areas provided rich habitats for wildlife. The world was much drier during glacial times than it is today due to weaker atmospheric circulation, consequently forest areas were much diminished compared what would exist today without human influence. Rainforest was thus much more limited in extent and tropical areas were generally savannah habitats. Sundaland and Sahul where never joined together and this strait marks an important boundary, the Wallis Line, between areas with Asian and Australasian species. Fig. 3. Sundaland and Sahul landmasses at their maximum extent (right) compared with the present (left). In Europe much of the North Sea was dry land, with the northern portion of this landmass being glaciated. The river Thames was a tributary of the Rhine which flowed westward along the dry Channel entering the Atlantic in the western approaches. As the climate gradually warmed this region known as Dogger Land after the Dogger Bank, which was a low range of hills at this time, gradually shrank in size. Dogger Land was probably a marshy area with many large rivers for much of its existence. Dogger land shrank to a narrow isthmus before finally disappearing under the waves around 8000 years ago making Britain an island. In Asia the Yellow Sea was dry and the Japanese islands were connected to the Asian mainland, although the Sea of Japan was not dry and Honshu and Hokkaido were not connected to each other. Shallow coastal seas in other areas were also dry, notably the Persian Gulf, and the Adriatic. In addition, various islands were connected to each other or to the mainland, including Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and the eastern Mediterranean. The great flooding. From around 20 thousand years ago the climate began to warm and ice sheets and glaciers began to melt and retreat. It is believed that warming and consequent melting occurred at different times in different locations, with Antarctica seeing ice loss before the northern hemisphere although this is controversial. The climatic warming from the maximum point of the ice age to warm conditions was more rapid than the cooling going into glacial conditions, being completed in around 10 thousand years. There were rapid temperature fluctuations through this period with conditions at times being very cold or warm. The Younger Dryas was a notably cold phase lasting from 12500 – 11800 years ago during which the climate returned to almost full glacial conditions. The sea level rise from full glacial maximum to the beginning of the Holocene, the current warm period, was thus not a gradual one but was rather sporadic with periods in which sea levels rose rapidly corresponding to specific warming and melting events. Sea levels comparable to modern day were reached by around 6 thousand years ago.
Welding Terms are basically short notes on the definitions of welding terminology. These brief notes normally found at the end of the welding handbook. Glossary presents a quick look at the very topic. Nowadays, almost all the exams consist of some questions based on these welding terms. They may be related to the contents and names of welding equipment. The following are basic A-Z welding terms on various topics. Basic Welding Terms and Terminology Thousands of surfers search basic welding terminology every day. Students, welders, and general users can find here all the information on welding glossary alphabetically. These short definitions are not only beneficial for welding tests but also for interviews. Some more, glossary helps to grasp the very topic fast. Before reading a welding book, better go through the terminology after checking the contents of the book. The following are some of the examples of welding glossary. Actual Throat is the shortest distance from the root of a fillet weld to its face. Air Carbon Arc Cutting is a cutting process variation that removes molten metal with a jet of air. AISI stands for the American Iron and Steel Institute Alloy is a mixture of metallic elements with specific properties such as greater resistance to corrosion or improved strength. Backing Ring is backing in the form of a ring and generally used in the welding of pipe. Bare Electrode is a filler metal electrode carrying inside a single metal or alloy that has been produced into a wire, strip, or bar form. Cast Steel is molten steel cooled and solidified in a mold. Chip Test is a test that is used to identify a metal. Thus, the above-mentioned were some of the examples from the A to Z basic welding terms. Aspiring people can find all the terminology on our website, WeldingInfo. For detailed information on welding definitions, follow the link.
Phases of the Moon: October and November If you look up at the sky on a clear night, you will see the moon in one of its phases, sitting approximately 240,000 miles from earth. The moon that we see is the fifth largest in the solar system, and has the important role of helping to stabilise earth’s “wobble” on its axis, which in turn helps to stablise our climate. We didn’t know that other moons existed until 1610, when Galileo discovered four moons around Jupiter. This is why our moon is simply known as “The Moon”. The causes tides, which shape and form our land and coastlines, and it is so in sync with the rotation of the earth that we only ever see one side of it. As the moon rotates around the earth, it appears to change shape as a portion of it is lit up by reflecting the sun. A “lunar month” is the time it takes for the moon to go through all of its eight phases, which takes 29.5 days. It is interesting to note that the Northern and Southern hemispheres will offer reflected views of the same moon ‘shape’ because of the position on earth relative to the moon. Here are the eight phases of the moon, as viewed from each hemisphere: If you are keen to follow the moon phases for October and November, we have put together a couple of handy print-outs to stick on your fridge, so that you can track which part of the lunar cycle we are in. If you would like to be more environmentally-friendly, please just download and save.
There is considerable evidence, both nationally and internationally, of the importance of effective parenting in generating outcomes for children and young people, as well as for their parents and society . What the research says: - The quality of the parent-child relationship is associated with self-regulation and behaviour, engagement and participation, mental health, academic achievement and the ability to develop and sustain relationships over a lifetime. For example, a negative parenting style is strongly associated with aggressive behaviour, delinquency, depression, anxiety and high-risk behaviours (e.g. smoking, drug/alcohol misuse). - Parenting is an important mediator in redressing the effects of poverty and disadvantage. - A supportive home learning environment is positively associated with children’s early achievements and wellbeing and influences social mobility. - Warm, attentive, stimulating parenting is strongly associated with children’s positive social, emotional, cognitive and physical development. Children who have benefited from good parenting have a greater chance of succeeding in school, of getting jobs and reducing the chance of criminal behaviour. - Parents are key mediators in developing and supporting desirable health-related behaviours among children and addressing undesirable behaviours e.g. healthy eating and physical activity. - It is evident from research that changes in the family only occur if we empower parents; making decisions on their behalf will not have long-term benefits. - Actively involving parents in the design, delivery and evaluation of parenting supports and services through parental participation initiatives may result in better outcomes for families. It is also more likely that parents themselves will use participatory practices at home. Adverse Childhood Experiences and Parenting Support Research on mothers and fathers who have experienced adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) indicate that there may be 18% increase in the suspected risk of their children developing a developmental delay, particularly in the areas of problem solving and communication. The wide-ranging health and social consequences of ACEs underscores the importance of prevention. Research also suggests that the benefits of effective prevention likely outweigh the costs of longer-term remedial interventions and deliver benefits for children, parents and wider society.
An applet (little application) is a small software program that supports a larger application program. In the past, the term applet was often associated with the Java programming language. Today, the term is often associated with If This Then That (IFTTT), a no-code/low-code software tool for creating small programs composed of triggers (If This) and actions (Then That). History of Java applets Sun Microsystems introduced Java applets in 1995. Unlike other applications, Java applets could not be run directly by the operating system. Instead, they had to run within the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) or within another program that included a Java plug-in. Because Java applets ran within the JRE and were not executed by the operating system, they could run on Windows, Mac and Linux systems. This cross-platform capability made applets useful to web developers who wanted to add functionalities on a webpage that hypertext markup language (HTML) could not provide. In the early days of the internet, applets were commonly used to create interactive buttons, check boxes, forms and other small animations on websites. To accommodate the use of applets, HTML4 included an <applet> tag. The tag invoked a Java virtual machine (JVM) plugged into the browser and was accompanied by <parameters> that specified where and how the applet should display on the webpage. Plug-ins offered a way to bring advanced capabilities to the browser environment without forcing users to install applications locally. If an end user's browser couldn't run Java, it would either skip over the <applet> tag or display alternate text, which typically explained to the end user what the applet required to run. The applet tag was replaced by <embed> and <object> tags in HTML5. When a browser launched a Java applet from a webpage, the applet executed within a JVM, an environment not controlled by browser developers. This proved to be frustrating for both developers and end users, as plug-ins increasingly became targets for security exploits, which in turn, required Java to be updated frequently. By 2015, most browser vendors had either removed or announced their intentions to remove Java plug-in support. In response, Oracle deprecated the Java browser plug-in in Java Development Kit 9 in favor of installable applications or alternative technologies such as Java Web Start. IFTTT is an online service for creating simple conditional statements. Formerly, these statements were known as recipes, but today they are referred to as applets. IFTTT uses common programming logic to allow certain events triggered by one software as a service to cause a reaction in another cloud service. This allows a nontechnical end user to automate everyday tasks by programming these triggers and actions. For example, an office manager could create an applet to have Amazon Echo's Alexa switch off lights when the front door is locked.
Diction is the style of writing that a specific text uses – it's determined by the types of words a writer chooses. Writers use a particular kind, or form, of diction to reflect their vision to their readers. The consistent use of diction helps to enable readers to fully participate in the writer’s world. Here are 4 forms of diction: Formal diction refers to word usage that’s commonly found in formal scenarios, and it doesn’t necessarily reflect the way people speak. Such situations can include language in presentations, formal gatherings and scholarly journals. This form is mostly used in situations that address highly educated audiences. Formal diction, also called elevated language, often uses more abstract or figurative words, and it privileges words with Latinate roots, such as “edify” and “beguile.” Formal diction uses elegant, extravagant and sophisticated vocabulary, and the words generally are polysyllabic, meaning they have more than one syllable. Informal diction is word usage that is grammatically correct but appropriate for more informal settings. This kind of language is commonly used when addressing a familiar or a more comfortable specific audience, such as your friends, and you can use this diction in personal letters or documents with a conversational or entertaining tone. Informal diction includes slang and colloquial diction; slang uses newer words that can be impolite, and colloquial speech uses words commonly found in everyday speech. Such language might use the word “wise up” instead of “edify” and “jerk your chain” in place of “beguile.” Along with slang and colloquial diction, vulgarity is also a form of informal diction -- that is, language lacking in taste and refinement. Standard diction is closely related to informal diction, but with minor differences. Such diction is often used when addressing a well-educated audience; it's the level used for college papers and business communications. Instead of using the slang term "wise up," standard diction would use “learn.” Standard diction is also referred to as Standard American English. Connotations are a key element of diction, as they are used to suggest and display emotional meaning. A connotation can give the listener or reader an impression that's created by their associations with a word rather than by its dictionary definition. This type of diction can be broken into two types of connotations, positive and negative. A positive connotation can help leave the audience with a positive attitude while a negative connotation will do the opposite. Suzy Kerr graduated from Grady School of Journalism and Mass Communications at the University of Georgia. She completed her Master's degree in Nutrition Sciences, also at the University of Georgia. Suzy has been a successful health, fitness and nutrition writer for more than 10 years, and has been published in various print and online publications.
The technology sector loves its buzzwords. Sometimes a precise definition can be difficult to tease out because a buzzword can mean something totally different, depending on whom you ask. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a catchall term that describes how software can be used to simulate human thinking. Capturing data from Internet of Things (IoT) devices to make decisions based on preset parameters is a common example of AI (think Nest thermometers or automatic reordering of items in your refrigerator). Ultimately, AI would function nearly like a human. The most prominent example is Sophia, the humanoid developed by Hanson Robotics that has been granted citizenship in Saudi Arabia. Two subsets of AI that often get confused are machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL). The underlying technology that allows software to sort huge amounts of data and extract useful information is affordable for a wide variety of companies. However, you need to understand your needs on the front end, whether you need ML or DL. Machine learning does a great job at what it’s trained to do. Let’s say we build a machine that can archive pictures of dogs. Naturally, we need to “train” the machine to recognize the features of a dog (tail, snout, ears, legs, colorings, etc.). Once properly trained, the machine can successfully detect dog in pictures, distinguishing them from humans and archiving the results. But how will a machine trained to recognize dogs react to a picture of a cat? The machine likely will mischaracterize a cat unless it is taught the differences between the two. And once that additional training takes place, what would the machine do with a photo of a horse? Machine learning can be a step toward true AI, but it is not AI on its own. Unfortunately, many machine learning products or efforts are being called AI. While this is technically correct, since ML is part of AI, it sets the wrong expectations in the minds of customers. More accuracy with DL Now what if a machine, when provided a picture of horse, understood it was neither a dog nor a cat, researched different animals on the internet, determined it was a horse and added that information to its knowledge database? That’s an example of a true AI system. Deep learning is a more recently evolved subtype of machine learning. In machine learning, the programmer has to teach the system what to look for, and the features have to be specifically pointed out. It’s more like object recognition. With deep learning, however, the programmer skips the process of manually entering specific features. Instead, the programmer feeds the images directly into the deep learning system, where the machine categorizes each one according to its own parameters. With DL, the calculations involved are much more complex, requiring the ingestion of far more data in order to return accurate results. Moreover, you would not have total control over which features to select. The machine would do that automatically to form a learning process that the programmer would have to verify. Deep learning also has a higher training time. If your computational resources are low or if the training materials are limited, machine learning is your best bet. But if you want extremely accurate calculations, deep learning should be your choice. But before engaging any technology company for your AI project, be sure you understand your needs and a company’s capabilities to provide either ML or DL (or both).
Gangs are thought to have first emerged in America in the late 1700s and the early 1800s. These gangs did not commit any serious offenses and generally consisted of few members. The gangs found amusement in “breaking windows and demolishing taverns. They also fought among themselves dressed in colored ribbons to distinguish the different factions” (Pearson, 1983). Territorial wars were also common. In the 1900s, gangs began to thrive in large cities due to the arrival of African and Mexican immigrants en-masse. Their growth was also spurned by the arrival of Poles, Italians, and Jews in New York City between 1880 and 1920. Gangs became more violent and could even be hired to perform various services, including punching ($2), nose and jawbone-breaking ($10), breaking legs or arms ($19), shooting in the leg ($25), and “doing the big job” ($100 and up) (Sante, 1991; Valdez, 2007). The gangs also terrorized streets, particularly in New York. Gangs continued to grow in number strengthened by Latino immigrant groups moving into cities, especially in the South Bronx and Brooklyn. Black gangs also increased in number. Interracial conflicts became common with white male gangs violently resisting racial integration. Black gangs evolved into social protection groups to protect their interests. The construction of high-rise public buildings across the country that had begun from 1940 to the mid-1960s encouraged segregation among communities in various cities. The gangs engaged in systematic and widespread violence and extortion. Large gangs with thousands of members emerged during this time and this increased the scope of their criminal activities (Sullivan, 2006). Gang violence was further extended to prisons as several states reported an increase in gang-related inmate violence. During the 1970s, between 6 and 12 million Mexicans settled in the US. The steadily increasing Hispanic/Latino population replaced white gangs in streets across New York City. Rivalry among gang members became rife in state prisons. Numerous Hispanic/Latino and black street gangs emerged from 1970-1972 to fight racial intimidation, school and residential segregation, extreme marginalization, and racial exclusion from mainstream city populations. The 1980s saw increased mobility and access to more dangerous weapons. Consequently, gangs became more dangerous and while previous instances of violence had involved bare knuckles or crude weapons, they now used guns. In addition to ease of gun access, the growing availability of vehicles led to an increase in drive-by shootings, a tact that had previously been done on foot. Gangs during this period consisted of both hard-core older members and younger persons. Most of the older members had had prison terms or had connections to prison inmates. Gangs also sold drugs, alcohol, and women, besides finding amusement in disturbing the peace through their large stereo systems that we’re able to blast music through a 6-mile range. Authorities also reported the emergence of hybrid gangs distinguished by racial/ethnic mixing. Gangs had access to more dangerous weapons, appeared to have less concern for territorial attachments, and used alcohol and drugs more widely while also taking part in drug trafficking on a wider scale than before. As a result, gang violence increased. Some gangs also became entrepreneurial and engaged in the multi-million cocaine business. In the late 1990s, they began to decline in number as the US government identified and deported not only undocumented citizens but also persons involved in gang activity. The government had already instituted several measures to curb gang activity, including strict border screening and the Grant Research Evaluation and Tracking (GREAT), an electronic system that tracked the movements of more than 2000 notorious gang members (Cureton, 2009). The government also enacted the Gang Violence and Juvenile Crime Prevention act of 1998. These measures reduced gang violence continued. Currently, most street gangs do not have organized command structures. However, individual gangs occupying sections of streets or flats still engage in isolated violent activities. Reports have also shown that gang membership now exists even in the military. Cureton, S. R. (2009). Something Wicked This Way Comes: A Historical Account of Black Gangsterism Offers Wisdom and Warning for African American Leadership. Journal of Black Studies, 40, 347–361. Pearson, G. (1983). Hooligan: A History of Reportable Fears. London: Macmillan. Sante, L. (1991). Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York. New York: Vintage Books. Sullivan, J. P. (2006). Maras morphing: Revisiting third generation gangs. Global Crime, August – November, 488–490. Valdez, A. (2007). Gangs: A Guide to Understanding Street Gangs (5th ed.). San Clemente, CA: LawTech Publishing Co.
Thermometers measure temperature. "Thermo" means heat and "meter" means to measure. You can use a thermometer to measure the temperature of many things, including the temperature of the air, the temperature of our bodies, and the temperature of the food when we cook. Temperature is a measure of the hotness and coldness of an object. Thermometers usually have a bulb at the base and a long glass tube that extends to the top. The glass tube of a thermometer is filled with alcohol or mercury. Both mercury and alcohol grow bigger when heated and smaller when cooled. Inside the glass tube of a thermometer, the liquid has no place to go but up when the temperature is hot and down when the temperature is cold. Numbers are placed alongside the glass tube that mark the temperature when the line is at that point. Another common type of thermometer is a "spring" or dial thermometer. A coiled piece of metal that is sensitive to heat is used. One end of the spring is attached to the pointer. As the air heats, the metal expands and the pointer moves higher. As the air cools, the metal contracts and the pointer moves lower. Typically, these type of thermometers are less accurate than bulb or digital thermometers. Electronic thermometers are now commonly used. These thermometers measure temperature much more quickly than mercury and dial thermometers. An electronic thermometer works by putting a voltage across its metal probe and measuring how much current flows through it. If you put the probe in boiling water, the water's heat makes electricity flow through the probe less easily so the resistance goes up by a measurable amount. A microchip inside the thermometer measures the resistance and converts it into a measurement of temperature. The thermometer measures temperatures in Fahrenheit, Celsius and another scale called Kelvin. Fahrenheit is used mostly in the United States, and most of the rest of the world uses Celsius. Kelvin is used by some scientists.
Learning to read and tell the time is an important activity for preschoolers. This Analog and Digital clock will help your child achieve it in no time… There are 2 levels of play- Have an adult draw a time on the clock with the dry erase marker and have the child set the time with d number cards OR Adult sets a time and kid draws the time correctly on the clock. - Learns to read time AGE: 5 years and above CONTENT: Number wheel, 60 number paper,sketch pen,cloth,laminated am pm,hr:min paper
In conducting a research, Theoretical assumptions are invalid and remain that way until proven otherwise. They are proven valid only when tested by means of observation or experience through data collection rather than theory or pure logic. Data collection is a very important aspect of any research work. This is because when data for a research work is collected and analyzed, it shows the conclusions of that research as a reflection of what the data revealed. Simply put, the data collected by a researcher is important in meeting the objectives or answering the questions posed by a research project. Therefore, data must be collected properly, in such a way that it is able to answer the research questions. For the proper collection of data, technical methods are employed. This involves the use of measuring instruments. Measuring instruments refers to the different technical methods that are employed by a researcher in order to obtain reliable data from respondents or participants for a research work. Whenever measuring instruments are used, one needs to make sure that the type of instrument used is perfect for the type of research that is being conducted. This ensures proper data collection and valid conclusions. Types of Data Collection Instruments If you need to collect data from a large number of people, then you would need to consider using questionnaires. They contain multiple choice questions, attitude scales, closed questions and open-ended questions. This data collection instrument is flexible as there is no rush or pressure on respondents to provide immediate answers. Respondents can take their time to think about the questions and then provide answers to them at their most convenient time. This ensures that the answers provided are not influenced by time rush or experiences from a bad day the respondent may be having. Again, questionnaires can be administered in different forms by post, email attachments, administered in conferences or posted on Internet sites. Researchers may even decide to administer the questionnaire in person. This method has an advantage to those people that have difficulty reading and writing. In this case, the participant orally answers each question on the questionnaire as the researcher notes down the responses. Since questionnaires do not require names, Participants are more comfortable to state their views or feelings privately without worrying about what other people might think of them or the possible reaction of the researcher. One major drawback in using questionnaires which may result in the researchers drawing false conclusions from their study is that they usually have a fairly low response rate; while some may not answer the questions completely, others may give no response at all. Again, some people may give socially acceptable answers. Respondents are however encouraged to answer all questions as honestly as possible. This type of data collection instrument can be described as an oral questionnaire. Interviews are usually done in a face to face meeting. They can also be conducted via phone conversations, or through video chats, during which the interviewer takes notes with a pen and paper or a tape recorder. The interviews are conducted either formally, informally or even semi-formally. In an informal interview, the interviewer in this case allows the respondents to speak freely on a particular topic. While in a formal interview the interviewer seeks answers to particular questions that are thus presented to the interviewees. Here, a list of structured questions centered around the subject matter is prepared by the researcher prior to the interview. In a semi-formal approach, the interviewee is allowed to speak relatively freely but at the same time, the researcher ensures that certain issues are covered. One major advantage of this method is that it produces a high response rate as personal contact between the researcher and respondents enables the researcher to explain questions that may not be correctly understood by the respondents. However, there are still downsides to this method like inaccessibility to wealthy or celebrity respondents due to security consciousness on their part. This type of data collection instrument is used in pure and applied sciences research. Experiments are carried out in laboratories by researchers. The experiments are strictly centered on the research topic for the sole purpose of meeting the research objectives. If the experiments are carried out properly, its results are viable and error free. However, one limitation with this method is that; it is quite expensive to carry out science experiments and if the researcher is not careful in the laboratory and does not protect himself properly with laboratory gears, when chemicals spill, they may cause damage to the researcher. Observation as a method of collecting data is popular in behavioral and social sciences. This method involves observing and recording individual behaviors. Individual behaviors may be observed under these categories; what people do, why they do them, the roles they have, relationships that connect these ‘activities’ and features of the situation in which they find themselves. In participant observation studies, the researcher becomes part of the group to be observed. He has to fit in the group and gain the trust of its members. But at the same time, he needs to be careful enough to be detached in a way that he is able to carry out the observation. Non-participant observation is the direct opposite of what happens in participant observation. A good advantage of non-participant observation is that the result is more inclined to be viable and free from bias as the researcher is not part of the group being observed and thus has no attachments to the group. But it has the problem of inaccuracy and delayed result. The observation carried out could be continuous or over a set period of time (1 hour daily for 3weeks) or randomly for shorter periods of time (for 60 seconds every so often). These two types of observation methods are informative, flexible and cheap to be carried out. However, special skills are required to access behavioral observations in research. Focus Group Discussion This type of data collection instrument allows researchers to obtain data from a large group of people at the same time. Unlike in interview methods where the researcher focuses on one person, a group is the focus of the researcher. This method is used when a researcher’s investigation concerns a policy and its impact on a particular operation in a society. Members of the focus group discussion should not exceed 10 at a time. The researcher must design a focus group discussion guide prior to the meeting. At the end of the focus group discussion, there is a need for the researcher to transcribe the data into qualitative information. Focus group discussion method is employed when carrying out research in behavioral science, library and information science, archival science, records and information technology. In gathering data for a research project, it is important to note that the type of research greatly affects the method of data collection. Sometimes, researchers may need to use more than 2 or 3 approaches to collect data in order to achieve the objectives of the research. INSTRUCTIONS AFTER PAYMENT - 1.Your Full name - 2. Your Active Email Address - 3. Your Phone Number - 4. Amount Paid - 5. Project Topic - 6. Location you made payment from
Polar Axis and Tilt Polar axis and tilt The polar axis is an imaginary line that extends through the north and south geographic poles. Earth rotates on its axis as it revolves around the Sun . Earth's axis is tilted approximately 23.5 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane of planetary orbits about the Sun or the apparent path of the Sun across in imaginary celestial sphere). The tilt of the polar axis is principally responsible for variations in solar illumination (insolation ) that result in the cyclic progressions of the seasons . Earth rotates about the polar axis at approximately 15 angular degrees per hour and makes a complete rotation in 23.9 hours. The length of day has changed throughout Earth's history and as rotation slows, the time to complete one rotation about the polar axis will continue to increase. Rate of rotation is a function of planet's mass and orbital position. As Earth rotates on its polar axis, it makes a slightly elliptical orbital revolution about the Sun in 365.26 days. The rates of rotation and revolution are functions of a planet's mass and orbital position. Rotation about the polar axis results in a diurnal cycle of night and day, and causes the apparent motion of the Sun across the imaginary celestial sphere. The celestial sphere is an imaginary projection of the Sun, stars, planets, and all astronomical bodies upon an imaginary sphere surrounding Earth. The celestial sphere is a useful conceptual and tracking remnant of the geocentric theory of the ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy . During revolution about the Sun, Earth's polar axis exhibits parallelism to Polaris (also known as the North Star). Although observing parallelism, the orientation of Earth's polar axis exhibits precession—a circular wobbling exhibited by gyroscopes—that results in a 28,000-year-long precessional cycle. Currently, Earth's polar axis points roughly in the direction of Polaris (the North Star). As a result of precession, over the next 11,00 years, Earth's axis will precess or wobble so that it assumes an orientation toward the star Vega. Precession also affects the dates of solstice. At the summer solstice (currently occurring about June 21), the north polar axis points in a direction 23.5 degrees from vertical— relative to the plane of the ecliptic—toward the Sun. At the winter solstice (currently occurring about December 21) the north polar axis points away from the Sun. At equinox neither pole is tilted toward the Sun but rather in a 23.5 degree tilt from vertical oriented at right angles to line between an imaginary line drawn between the Sun and Earth. Annual changes in the orientation of the polar axis relative to the Sun result in the apparent movement of the path of the Sun (the ecliptic) across the celestial sphere. The maximum variation in the altitude of the ecliptic above the horizon is two times the polar axial tilt (i.e., 47 degrees). Milankovitch cycles attempt to integrate and relate changes in Earth's orbital eccentricity, polar axial tilt, and polar axis precession to changes in climate (e.g., glaciation cycles). The International Latitude Service was established in 1899 to collect data concerning polar axial motion. In 1962, the International Polar Motion Service assumed data collection. In 1988, the International Polar Motion Service, the Earth Rotation Division of the Bureau International de l'Heure, combined operations to form the International Earth Rotation Service. A number of geodetic measuring techniques—including VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry), lunar laser ranging, and the current Global Positioning System (GPS ) contribute to accurate measurements concerning polar wobbling and rotational rates. See also Astrolabe; Astronomy; Celestial sphere: The apparent movements of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars; Revolution and rotation; Solar illumination: Seasonal and diurnal patterns
Dogs may use Earth's magnetic field to navigate A team of researchers from Czech University of Life Sciences, Virginia Tech and Barry University has found evidence that suggests dogs may use Earth's magnetic field as a navigational aid. In their paper in the eLife Sciences initiative, the group describes their study of dog navigation and what they learned from it. Prior research has shown that dogs tend to orient themselves in a north-south position when urinating a finding that suggests they may have the ability to sense the Earth's magnetic field. In this new effort, the researchers conducted two experiments to further study magnetic field sensing in dogs and whether they use it for navigation. The two experiments were essentially the same, they both involved attaching GPS sensors to multiple dogs, taking them out into a natural environment and releasing to run about. In all cases, the dogs soon returned to the person who had released them. The only difference in the experiments was the number of dogs involved, in the first, it was just four, and in the second it was 27. In studying the routes the dogs took, both when heading out on an expedition and when returning, the researchers found they used one of two types of return. The first was called tracking, which meant a dog made its way back by following the same path it had taken out presumably using its nose. The team called the other type of return scouting, because the dogs followed an unfamiliar path to get back to where they had begun their adventure. The researchers also found something else, for a large percentage of the scouting returns, the dogs first engaged in an odd behavior. They ran north-south along a 20-meter length a few times before heading back to their starting point, doing so appeared to help the dogs get their bearings, as those that did it were more efficient in their return. The researchers suggest the north-south running is evidence of the dogs using the magnetic field to orient themselves in unfamiliar surroundings, which in turn helps them find their way home. Further testing involved the owner hiding as the dog made its trek, testing wind direction and speed and noting the gender of the dog. No other factors made a difference in improving navigational efficiency, further supporting the idea that the dogs were able to use the Earth's magnetic field to navigate. Bob Yirka , Phys.org
Wavelet Technology Allows Measurement of Long-Distance Infrasound Phenomena that generate a type of low-frequency sound known as infrasound could become easier to detect and measure thanks to a new technique under development at the Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI). Infrasound, which cannot be heard by humans, is produced by tornados, earthquakes, explosions, wind turbines, the motion of large vehicles, aircraft and many other natural and human-created sources. Infrasound waves can travel long distances – hundreds of miles – and are largely unaffected by obstacles in their way. Generally defined as frequencies below 20 Hertz, infrasound has until now been detected and measured using arrays up to an acre in size that use hollow pipes or elements similar to garden soaker hoses to separate the sounds of interest from noise created by the wind. GTRI researchers have developed a novel infrasound analysis technique based on wavelet technology, a mathematical approach that represents a signal at different scales, using unique features at each scale. This technique, when applied to infrasound recordings, separates the wind noise from other signals of interest. That allows infrasound sensors to become small enough to be easily portable, permitting new types of measurements – including tracking small and large aircraft and studying effects on humans. “We have been able to implement wavelet technology to get data more accurate than what has been possible using other methods of removing wind noise,” said Krishan Ahuja, Regents Professor and Researcher and head of GTRI’s Aerospace and Acoustics Technologies Division. “We have come up with a way to completely eliminate the hoses and reduce the size of the windscreen. This can all be done with signal processing.” Hydrodynamic noise produced by wind has frequencies comparable to those of infrasound, so wind noise must be suppressed to obtain useful measurements. The most common way to achieve this has been to use long pipe arrays or large arrays of soaker hoses to gather the sound. The arrays allow pressure variations to be averaged over the length of the structure, thereby reducing the impact of the turbulent wind field. Other approaches to reduce wind noise use large tents covering the infrasound sensors, which also limits where they can be used. The technique developed at GTRI uses smaller windscreens – or no windscreens at all – along with a wavelet denoising technique that breaks down the signal mathematically and then partitions out what is wind noise before reconstructing the remaining infrasound for analysis, explained Alessio Medda, a GTRI senior research engineer. The resulting reconstruction produces an infrasound signal in which the noise is greatly reduced. GTRI researchers compared infrasound signals gathered with a traditional 50-foot radius soaker hose array against the signals produced by the wavelet technology. Except at the very lowest frequencies, signals produced by the two techniques were in agreement, demonstrating that the wavelet denoising technique can be used on a signal measured – even without the use of a windscreen. The GTRI research team has used infrasound to plot the flight path of a small aircraft, detect a building demolition explosion 25 miles away from their instrumentation site, and even to monitor the approach of tornados during severe storms. Beyond the location of the source, analysis of infrasound signals can determine if the source under observation has rotating equipment such as fans, uses machinery that produces continuous waves or produces explosions that create impulses. “By using the right number of sensors in an array, you can pinpoint the source of the infrasound,” Ahuja said. In addition to development of the wavelet technique, GTRI researchers have also expanded their infrasound research through new techniques and testing programs. These included: - Detection of small aircraft took place at a commercial airport in North Georgia, where the research used a six-element array consisting of two concentric isosceles triangles, one 50 meters high and the other 25 meters high. One triangle used soaker hoses for wind noise suppression, while the other used tents. The array demonstrated an ability to track a single-engine Cessna 182 aircraft as it flew patterns within a five-mile radius of the airport. - Measurement of infrasound associated with severe storms was done as part of GTRI’s Severe Storms Research Center using the GTRI Atmospheric Infrasound Array (GAIA). A standardized set of ambient, environmental infrasound measurements have been made since 2018 to provide a long-term database of low-frequency sound. GAIA uses four sensors located under wind tents atop a GTRI building. In addition to severe storms, these sensors have detected earthquakes, trains, microbaroms (believed to be from the Atlantic Ocean) and rocket launches. - Detection and measurement of infrasound around military training ranges was conducted to evaluate potential effects on trainees and training instructors exposed to high acoustic and infrasound pressures. In collaboration with Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, GTRI researchers used their wavelet-based denoising and analysis techniques to measure infrasound emitted by infantry weapons such as hand grenades, machine guns, grenade launchers and anti-tank weapons. - Development of three sources for generating controlled infrasound for use in calibration and testing of infrasound sensors and arrays. These included (1) a very low frequency unit reactivated from an existing sonic boom simulator to produce sound in the 1 to 6 Hertz range, (2) Helmholtz resonators producing sound in the 6 to 10 Hertz range, and (3) an oscillating propane burner creating sound in the 0.1 to 0.4 Hertz range. - Evaluation of infrasound sensors and both in-house and externally-developed array processing algorithms and systems. This also included the development of a system for rapid infrasound array deployment with remote measurement capabilities with six infrasound sensors connected to a data logger, a weather station for monitoring meteorological conditions, and a solar panel to provide continuous power without the need to be connected to the power grid. Going forward, the researchers plan to collaborate with medical research teams to study the effects of infrasound on the human body. Cavities such as the heart, head, stomach and chest resonate at different frequencies, and can cause symptoms of illness when exposed to certain frequencies of infrasound. “Explosions that are not large enough to cause traumatic brain injury can still create symptoms, particularly during repeated exposures,” said Rob Funk, a GTRI principal research engineer. “Studying this may help improve the health of military personnel who may be exposed to infrasound.” Writer: John Toon Georgia Tech Research Institute Atlanta, Georgia USA The Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI) is the nonprofit, applied research division of the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech). Founded in 1934 as the Engineering Experiment Station, GTRI has grown to more than 2,800 employees supporting eight laboratories in over 20 locations around the country and performing more than $700 million of problem-solving research annually for government and industry. GTRI's renowned researchers combine science, engineering, economics, policy, and technical expertise to solve complex problems for the U.S. federal government, state, and industry.
What is Asperger's syndrome? Asperger's syndrome is a developmental disorder that is considered an ASD, i.e. an autism spectrum disorder. It impacts, among other things, on the individual's ability to communicate and socialize. What is Asperger's syndrome? When people meet, they make judgments about each other. People's body language, facial expressions and tone of voice give out information regarding whether they are happy, sad, angry or in a hurry. The way we respond depends on how we process these signals. For a person with Asperger's syndrome, reading these signals instinctively is more difficult. Consequently, they find it more difficult to communicate and interact with others. According to the National Autistic Society in the UK, this can lead to anxiety and confusion. Asperger's syndrome differs from other ASDs in that the symptoms are less severe and there is no language delay. A child with AS generally has good language and cognitive (thinking, intelligence) skills. They tend to have average or above-average vocabularies and reach speech milestones at the same time as children in the general population. The Autism Society in Maryland, USA, says that most people who are unfamiliar with AS may just think that the individual is behaving differently. A child with autism is usually perceived as aloof and not interested in mixing in with others. Children with AS, however, generally want to interact with others. The problem is that they find it hard. The individual with AS may find it hard to understand conventional social rules and may come over as lacking empathy. Their usage of gestures may appear either lacking or inappropriate, and eye contact may be very limited. Unlike other children (and adults) with an ASD, those with AS (Asperger's syndrome) have average IQs and are pretty much just as likely to have learning disabilities as those without AS. However, their learning requirements may be different than that of other children. Asperger's syndrome was named after Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger, who first described the disorder in 1944. However, the syndrome was not recognized as a distinct disorder until later on. A child with AS may show signs of the disorder during the first year of life. Parents or caregivers may sense that there is something unusual about their infant - their motor skills may appear uncoordinated, the way they crawl or walk might be awkward or clumsy, or just slightly different. As the baby grows into a toddler, there may be a certain amount of clumsiness. Asperger's syndrome is not a disease, it is a syndrome. A syndrome is a collection of symptoms that occur together with a condition. People with AS have the same life expectancy as in the general population, and are no more or less susceptible to diseases or infections as others. The likelihood of developing depression later on in life is higher for those with AS, but this is probably a consequence of years of living with the stresses and anxieties that come with coping with life in a "non-AS" world. Signs and symptoms of Asperger's syndrome What is the difference between a sign and a symptom? A symptom is something only the patient feels and describes, such as a headache or blurry vision, while a sign can be detected by other people, such as inflammation, dilated pupils, or a rash. Asperger's syndrome is a wide spectrum disorder: This means that not all people have the same symptoms; they vary enormously from person-to-person. Below are some of the most common signs and symptoms: Obsessive interests: Some children with Asperger's syndrome have become experts in a single object or topic. This often excludes any other subject. This compulsive interest can range from vacuum cleaners, car models, trains, computers or even objects as strange as kitchen equipment or lawn mowers. These activities usually involve collecting, numbering or listing. Speech is formal or distinct: there may be a lack of rhythm or intonation in how a person with AS speaks. Their utterances may come out as flat, monotonous, or unusually slow or fast. Children with AS commonly lack the ability to modulate the pitch of their voice to match their immediate surroundings. Sometimes there may be a problem in using the right amount of volume. They may often sound much older than they are. Teachers or family members may describe their speech as that of a "little professor". Routines: In an effort to lessen confusion, people with AS may have rules and rituals which they methodically maintain. They are easily anxious and upset if there is a disruption to their set of patterns. Parents and adults with AS say that the ability to adapt to change is there, even a change of routine, as long as the person knows well in advance. A surprise change in routine can sometimes cause upset or anxiety. Social isolation: Adults and children with Asperger's syndrome are often isolated because of their poor social skills and narrow interests, i.e. they end up often being alone. They can become withdrawn and seem uninterested in other people, appearing distant or aloof. Normal conversation may be challenging, because of inappropriate and/or odd behavior. There is a tendency to only talk about their singular interest. Making friends, as well as keeping them is often a problem. In many cases, the person wants to have friends and mix in, but finds it hard. After trying and trying without much success, there is a risk the child (and adult) may find it safer and less troublesome to be alone. However, being alone might not be ideal. Contact with others, "brushing" with others in our herd, helps people with AS overcome some of their difficulties. Delay in motor skills: Usually, children with Asperger's syndrome have developmental delays in motor skills, such as pedaling a bike, running, catching a ball, playing ball games, or climbing. They are often clumsy and poorly coordinated. Carrying out specific detailed tasks, such as tying shoelaces may require extra effort. The way they walk can appear either stiff or bouncy. Arms may not swing while walking, but just hang down (like they would if one were carrying shopping). Social skills and communication. Sometimes, people with Asperger's syndrome have difficulty to express themselves emotionally and socially. They find it difficult to understand and interpret gestures, facial expressions or tone of voice. They lack the basic social skills most other people take for granted. The natural ability of knowing when to start or end a conversation may be weak. They do not easily understand jokes, humor, figures of speech and irony. The Asperger's Association of New England explains that people with AS do not pick up much of the non-verbal social cues conveyed to them. They may simply not be aware of this information, while the cues that they do notice are commonly misinterpreted. This can result in "frustratingly awkward social interactions and ineffective behavioral responses." Imagination: People with this syndrome can have difficulty with social imagination. They may have trouble imagining alternative outcomes to situations. Make-believe games may seem pointless, impossible to do, or ridiculous. Topics based on logic, memory and systems are more interesting (mathematics, computer science and music). Many children with Asperger's syndrome are exceptionally talented or skilled in those particular areas. Sensory difficulties: In some individuals, the sensory sensitivity is distorted. One or all of the senses (sight, sound, smell, touch, or taste) can be altered. The senses are either intensified or underdeveloped. People with the syndrome might have different perceptions of loud noises, bright lights, intense smells, food textures and materials. Many people with AS say that if they know a noise or smell is going to come, they can cope with them well - often, it is an unexpected sensation that causes distress. Related conditions. In early childhood, children with Asperger's syndrome are often extremely active. Later, in young adulthood they may develop anxiety or depression. Other conditions related with the syndrome are Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), depression, tic disorders (such as Tourette syndrome), anxiety disorders, and Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). What are the treatment options for Asperger's syndrome? Currently, there is no way of reversing Asperger's syndrome. But there are several therapies and strategies that can improve functioning, reduce anxiety, and improve behaviors and the perception and delivery of data and events. With the increasing understanding of the syndrome, people with AS today have a better chance of reaching their full potential. A combination of therapies, teaching of strategies, and some other approaches can have a significant impact on the quality of life of a person with Asperger's syndrome. Problems and issues related with routines, obsessive thoughts and behaviours, communication skills, inhibition, dexterity, clumsiness, anxiety, etc. may include the following: Acquiring more suitable social skills - the individuals learns how to interact more effectively and successfully with other people. The approach focuses on the ability to understand other people's feelings and respond accordingly. This training teaches how to read and respond appropriately to social cues. It is possible to learn how to improve one's empathy. Communication skills training: This training helps develop the ability to start conversations. This can include specialized speech and language therapy to help handling normal conversations. Learning how to use intonation in the interrogative, affirmative, negative and imperative forms can help a person with AS considerably. Also, learning how to interpret language, verbal and non-verbal, in order to know how to respond or interact properly helps the person with AS become less isolated. Cognitive behavioral therapy: This therapy focuses on learning to control emotions and decrease obsessive interests and repetitive routines. Behavior modification: This includes strategies for supporting positive behavior and decreasing problem behavior. Occupational or physical therapy: This can be useful for individuals with sensory integration problems or poor motor coordination. Medication: There are no medications to treat Asperger's syndrome itself. Drugs may be used to treat particular symptoms and co-existing conditions (depression, anxiety, hyperactivity, obsessive-compulsive behavior). Alternative medicine: Some studies suggest that special diets, such as gluten-free diets and vitamin supplements can be beneficial. Anecdotal evidence suggests that a regular intake of fish oils may help with anxiety, and some cognitive issues. Training and providing support to parents, caregivers and other household members is important. Sometimes people in the household, usually the parents, may need emotional and psychological support themselves - especially if diagnosis did not occur early. Education and academic skills: some children with AS benefit from an educational approach that provides them not only with certain kinds of support, such as organizing notes, homework, timetables, but also certain learning needs. If the approach is well organized, long-term, and carried out by trained professionals, the child will most likely do well in a mainstream school environment. Although the core characteristics of Asperger's syndrome will be there for life, the majority of children with AS can lead happy and fruitful lives, well into adulthood and old age. Early intervention and support significantly increase this likelihood. With a keen eye and understanding, parents can learn what makes a child with Asperger's syndrome thrive, and what has the opposite effect. Unless otherwise told to do so by an expert, avoid situations which may distress or upset the child. Make sure the child is aware of any changes in routine, teach him/her what acceptable and unacceptable is, practice them and provide vital feedback. Author: Christian Nordqvist / Feb. 2015 Text abridged and adapted With kind permission to publish from MNT To read the complete article, please go to: Medical News Today
Coronavirus stress and sleep Coronavirus COVID-19 is a new infection that has spread around the world in recent months. This is a pandemic. This virus is very infectious, so it is easy for it to spread from person to person. To prevent COVID-19 from spreading too quickly and too widely, governments all around the world have placed restrictions on what people can and cannot do. There has also been a lot of media reports about COVID-19 and the associated economic impacts and health effects of this virus. All of these things can easily make people anxious and stressed. This is natural when there are many unknown factors. Fear and anxiety can cause strong emotions in adults and children, which may result in difficulty sleeping. When our sleep is of a poor quality, or if we cannot get enough sleep, we may not be able to function normally during the day when we are awake. Sleep is important Sleep is as important as a healthy diet and exercise. Inadequate sleep can induce and/or make our feelings of anxiety and stress seem worse (see Anxiety and Sleep). We may not be able to think clearly or make sensible decisions, making it difficult to concentrate at school or work (see Memory, Thinking and Sleep). We can become upset, angry and irritable more easily. This can all have negative effects on our relationships with family, friends and in our workplaces. Inadequate sleep can also affect our physical health. When we do not get enough sleep or if our sleep is disrupted this can negatively impact our diet, physical activity levels and even blood pressure levels. When we do not get enough sleep or if our sleep is disrupted this can negatively impact our diet, physical activity levels and even blood pressure levels. Importantly, sleep helps us fight off infection. When sleep is of poor quality it can impair our immune response. In addition, poor sleep might result in 'flare-ups' of other chronic illness/diseases. - Sleep is involved in the regulation of immune cells, that is cells that fight off infection. - People who are sleep deprived have increased risk of contracting a virus when exposed to it. Getting a good night's sleep As we try to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic, it is important we prioritise our sleep and health. If worrying about COVID-19 is stopping us from falling asleep, or keeps us awake during the night, there are things that we can do to reduce the worry and improve sleep: - Limit media exposure. Be sensible about what you learn about COVID-19. Check official web sites (such as www.health.gov.au). Do not pay too much attention to gossip and some media reports, which may be exaggerated, or may simply be guessing what might happen. - Make time to unwind. Spend some time relaxing and watching, listening or reading about things that have nothing to do with COVID-19. This is especially important in the hour or so before going to sleep, so that you can go to sleep with a relaxed mind. - Take care of your body. As much as possible keep a normal routine throughout the day. Get some exercise, eat sensibly, do not drink too much alcohol, and avoid caffeine close to bed. Make sure that you do something fun and have a laugh during the day. - Connect with others. If you have specific concerns, try to deal with them before going to bed. Simply talking to some-one you trust about your worries can often help. Get some advice from a trusted person who might be able to help you solve the problem. Social distancing does not need to equate to social isolation. - Take care of your mind. If the worry is still on your mind as you are getting ready to go to sleep, sit down quietly, think about what the issues are and how you might deal with them tomorrow. It may help to write these things down, including a list about what you plan to do about them during the next few days. You may also like to try using a smartphone app called 'Smiling Mind' which has helpful short mindfulness activities to help you relax. - Your bed is predominantly for sleep. You want to achieve a strong connection between your bed and successful sleep (i.e., falling asleep and staying asleep easily). If you go to bed and find that you cannot get to sleep, or if you wake up during the night and cannot get back to sleep because of worries, get up and do something relaxing in dim light that is quiet and away from the bedroom. Go back to bed when you feel ready to fall asleep. - Keep a regular sleep-wake routine. As much as possible we should keep a normal sleep routine. Going to bed at the same time each night, and getting up at the same time each morning is important for getting a good night of sleep - Managing fatigue. Also remember that even if you did not get much sleep, or it seemed to be poor sleep, it is not the end of the world. You will get through the next day all right and if you are quite tired, you will probably sleep better the next night. If you are extremely fatigued and sleepy you may need to have a coffee or take a nap to function normally and safely (see Caffeine and Sleep and Napping for more information). - Sleep is like a butterfly. You cannot reach out and grab it and catch it. If you stay quiet and still, the butterfly will come to you. It is the same with sleep. You cannot force yourself to go to sleep, so do not try. Simply allow yourself to be relaxed and quiet, and sleep will come to you. More information about sleep You may also like to check out some of the below Sleep Health Foundation fact sheets that may be helpful in optimising sleep during difficult times, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. If you are required to self-isolate and stay indoors for an extended period, then you can find additional helpful sleep tips at the following link: If you need help Whether you feel distressed through anticipating a possible emergency or actually recovering from a trauma or loss there are resources to help. In a mental health crisis, call: - Lifeline 1311 14 - MensLine Australia 1300 78 99 78 - Suicide Call Back Service 1300 659 467 - Kids Helpline 1800 55 1800 The Australian Psychological Society has an excellent online resource for coping with COVID-19.The Australian Psychological Society has an excellent online resource for coping with COVID-19. Beyond Blue has developed a great online resource to help with looking after your mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. If you need additional psychological support, you may also like to speak with a psychologist. You can access a psychologist by asking your GP or using the Australia-wide Find a Psychologist™ service: www.findapsychologist.com.au or call 1800 333 497.
Page No. 48 Q.1. What were the social, economic, and political conditions in Russia before 1905? The following were the social, economic, and political conditions in Russia before 1905: (a) Social Conditions - The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity— which had grown out of the Greek Orthodox Church. But the empire also included Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Buddhists. Cross of the Russian Orthodox Church - The non-Russian nationalities were not treated equally to Russian nationalities. They were not given the freedom to follow their culture and language. - Workers were a divided group on the basis of skill and training. Peasants formed their group called commune or mir. (b) Economic Conditions - The majority of Russians were agriculturists. Grain was the main item of export from Russia. - Industries were few. Prominent industrial areas were St Petersburg and Moscow. Much of the production was done by the craftsmen. - There were large factories alongside the craft workshops. With the expansion of the Russian rail network, foreign investment in factories grew. - There was huge coal, iron, and steel production. There were equal numbers of factory workers and craftsmen. The workers were exploited by capitalists who made their life miserable. (c) Political Conditions - Russia was a monarchy. (Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire that extended to current- day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. It stretched to the Pacific and comprised today’s Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan). - The Tsars believed in the divine rights of kings. - They were not responsible to the Parliament. - All political parties were illegal in Russia. Q.2. In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other countries in Europe before 1917? - Compared to the condition of the people of Europe, Russian people, especially the working class like the farmers and the factory workers, was very deplorable. - The main reason for it was the autocratic government of Tsar Nicholas II, who exploited these people day by day by his corrupt and oppressive policies. - Much of the produce of the peasant workers went into the hands of the landowners and the privileged classes. Large properties were owned by the nobility, the crown, and the Orthodox Church. - In European countries, the peasants respected nobles and fought for them, whereas, in Russia, the peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them. - They often refused to pay rent and even murdered the landlords. This was because of the various oppressive policies and their built-up frustration. - The factory workers faced an equally miserable situation. They could not form any trade unions and political parties to express their grievances. - The private industrialists exploited the workers and many times did not give them minimum fixed wages also. There was also no limit set for the working hours. Q.3. Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917? The following points present the background of the miserable conditions of the working population of Russia, which were also the reasons for the collapse of the Tsarist autocracy in 1917: - There was widespread discontent against the autocratic rule of Tsar. The Russian people wanted the end of the war and the conclusion of peace. But Tsar, who had already mismanaged the war, still insisted to continue the war. The peasants were the worst sufferers. They wanted that cultivable land should be given to the tillers, but the autocratic and corrupt government did not pay any need to their demands. - The condition of the workers was also very deplorable. They could not form any trade unions and political parties to express their grievance. Most industries were run by private industrialists. Many times these workers did not get even the minimum fixed wages. There was no limit of working hours as a result of which they had to work from 12-15 hours a day. - The autocratic rule of the Tsar had become quite inefficient. He was a self-willed, corrupt, and oppressive ruler who never cared for the welfare of the people of the country. - The teachings of Karl Marx also encouraged the people to raise a standard revolt. - The Tsar’s participation and defeat in the First World War proved the last straw to break the camel’s back. Q.4. Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February Revolution and the other with the main events and effects of the October Revolution. Write a paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the leaders, and what was the impact of each on Soviet history. (a) The February Revolution - In February 1917, acute food shortages were felt in the workers’ quarters. - Parliamentarians were opposed to the Tsar’s wish to dissolve the Duma. - On 22nd February, a factory lockout occurred and many women led the way to the strikes. The strikes continued, with the workers surrounding fashionable quarters and official buildings at the centre of Petrograd — the Nevskii Prospekt. - On 25th February, the Duma was dissolved. This resulted in a ransacking of the Police Headquarters on the 27th. - The cavalry refused to fire at the protesting crowd, and by evening, the revolting soldiers and the striking workers were united as a “soviet” or “council” called the Petrograd Soviet. - The Tsar abdicated his power on 2nd March, and the Soviet and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government for Russia. - The February Revolution had no political party at its forefront. It was led by the people themselves. Petrograd had brought down the monarchy and thus, gained a significant place in Soviet history. (b) The October Revolution - This arose out of the conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks. - In September, Vladimir Lenin began to bring together Bolshevik supporters for an uprising. - On 16 October 1917, he convinced the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party for a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed under Leon Trotsky to organize this capture of power. - When the uprising began on 24 October, Prime Minister Kerenskii left the city to bring in the troops to prevent the situation from going out of control. - In a swift response, the Military Revolutionary Committee attacked government offices; the ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace, and by nightfall on the 24th, the city was under Bolshevik control. - After some serious fighting, the Bolsheviks gained full control of the Moscow-Petrograd area. The actions of the Bolsheviks were unanimously accepted at a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd. - The October Revolution was primarily led by Lenin and his sub-ordinate Trotskii and involved the masses who supported these leaders. It marked the beginning of Lenin’s rule over the Soviets, with the Bolsheviks under his guidance. Q.5. What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution? - Industries and banks were nationalized. This meant that the government now had its ownership and management. - The land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. In cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements. - Use of the old titles of the aristocracy was banned. New uniforms for the army and officials were designed. - The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik). - Despite opposition by their political allies, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany and withdrew from the First World War. - In the later years, the Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in the elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets. It became the Parliament of Russia. Q.6. Write a few lines to show what you know about (b) The Duma (c) Women workers Between 1900 and 1930 (d) The Liberals (e) Stalin’s Collectivisation Programme - They were the well-to-do peasants who were supposed to be holding stocks in the hope of higher prices. - They were raided so that they may be eliminated in order to develop modern farms and establish state-controlled large farms. (b) The Duma The Duma was a consultative parliament that was created on the permission of the Tsar during the 1905 Revolution. (c) Women Workers Between 1900 and 1930 - Women made up 31% of the factory labour force but were paid between 1/2 and 3/4 of a man’s wages. - They actively led the strikes in many factories. They even worked in the collective farms. (d) The Liberals - They were a group which looked to change society. They wanted a nation which tolerated all religions and opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. - They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary independent of rulers and officials. (e) Stalin’s Collectivisation Programme - Stalin hoped to solve the problem of food shortage by combining small farms with large and modern farms. - This was collectivisation programme that began in 1929. Peasants were forced to work in these state-controlled collective farms called Kolkhoz.
The virus influenza has hundreds of different forms. It mutates regularly, but virologists have identified three main groups: A, B, and C. Type A influenza is accountable for the bulk of seasonal flu cases and can affect both humans and animals. Type B is another kind of flu that causes seasonal sickness, but only affects humans. It is usually less severe than influenza A, but it can be very threatening to people with chronic illness. Type C only affects humans but is much less severe than A or B. This third type primarily impacts children and older populations. All types of influenza are dangerous to humans. The Spanish flu killed millions of people all over the world, including over half a million Americans. In this country alone, over 200,000 people visit the hospital every year because of the flu. Experts disagree on how many people die from influenza (all types), but estimates range between 3000 and 49,000 deaths annually. Understanding the symptoms of the Type B flu virus requires knowledge of viral impacts on the human body. A virus is a tiny organism that causes slight to critical diseases in humans. Viruses are 10,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. Diseases produced by these pesky micro-organisms include flu, rabies, herpes, and the Ebola virus. Type B flu viruses aren't as capable of mutation as type A. Virologists don't divide type B flu into subtypes but categorize them into lineages and strains. Currently, all type B flu viruses belong to one of two lineages: B/Yamagata or B/Victoria. Type B flu caused 38 percent of pediatric deaths in the 2010–11 influenza season in the U.S. In Italy's past, the word 'influentia' described the adverse alinements of astral bodies that influenced everyday life and, in severe cases, made them ill. That's why we call this virus influenza. The discovery of microbes and the understanding of viral behavior has led us to understand and prevent the flu, but influenza still impacts our everyday life anyway. The flu usually comes on abruptly. Often, those who have the flu experience some or all of these symptoms: a sudden fever with a temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit or above, aches and pain, runny nose, congestion, nausea, and vomiting. Moderate complications of type B flu include sinus and ear infections, while the development of pneumonia or the inflammation of the heart, brain, and muscle tissues cause significant threats. Since the flu virus is an infection in the respiratory tract, it can cause inflammatory reactions in vulnerable populations and can lead to sepsis. Also, type B flu makes chronic medical problems worse. It can prompt attacks in people with asthma, and those with chronic heart disease may experience a multitude of symptoms including heart palpitations. The best treatments for flu require keeping warm, getting plenty of rest, and staying hydrated. Taking over-the-counter anti-inflammatories will help reduce fever and deal with any aches and pains. Drinking plenty of water prevents dehydration, but herbal tea will ease sore throats and soothe chills. Be careful when taking flu remedies because many of them contain anti-inflammatory medications already, and it is easy to consume more than the recommended dose. Even healthy people can catch the flu, and flu-related complications can affect any age group. In addition to those noted earlier, individuals over the age of 65 years old, expectant women, and young children are at higher risk of severe complications. Dehydration causes symptoms to worsen. If you can't keep fluid in your system for more than a couple of hours, it is time to consult a medical professional. Most people recover from the flu without medical intervention, but if your symptoms are severe and do not improve within a week, or if you have a fever for three or more days, then it is time to see a doctor. If your flu-like symptoms get better, but then return with a fever or worsening cough, then consult a medical professional. The flu is very contagious and can quickly spread to others; this is more likely to occur during the first five days of symptomatic illness. Flu is passed on by microbes from coughs and sneezes. The virus spreads when the expectorated droplets attach onto nearby surfaces or people. Coughing or sneezing directly into your hands means that your hands carry viral droplets which can spread the illness, as well. Microbes can survive on untreated hands for 24 hours. Washing one's hands regularly is the most effective method of preventing the flu from spreading. Another critical step in preventing the spread of any flu is getting an annual influenza vaccine. The flu shot won't give you the illness because there are no living microbes in the flu shot. After receiving the vaccine, you may experience muscle aches or feel slightly unwell for a couple of hours, but these symptoms will pass and the shot can help prevent the spread of type B influenza. This site offers information designed for educational purposes only. You should not rely on any information on this site as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, treatment, or as a substitute for, professional counseling care, advice, diagnosis, or treatment. If you have any concerns or questions about your health, you should always consult with a physician or other healthcare professional.
Natural gas is an odorless, nontoxic gaseous hydrocarbon mixture, consisting mostly of methane, but also other gases such as propane and butane. The majority of natural gas is produced by the extraction of oil and gas, but it can also be created through more natural processes like the decomposition of organic materials to create bio-gas. Natural gas is a very clean-burning fuel, the cleanest of all hydrocarbons with an octane rating of over 120, which makes it a great fuel for transportation. Around 90% of the natural gas used in the United States is produced domestically, so the use of natural gas in the transportation sector supports local economies and promotes US energy independence. The most common form of natural gas is compressed natural gas (CNG), which is compressed at around 3600 psi to maintain an energy density similar to gasoline. Natural gas can also be liquefied to increase its density and therefore extend the range of a vehicle by cooling the gas to -265 degrees Fahrenheit, and liquefied natural gas (LNG) is used in heavy-duty applications where a lot of fuel is consumed in a short time frame. In addition to being domestically produced and cleaner burning than gasoline or diesel, natural gas is also abundant and cheap. A gasoline gallon equivalent of natural gas is cheaper on average than gasoline and is expected to remain consistently lower in the near future as estimated by the Energy Information Administration. Natural gas is cheaper, cleaner, and more domestic than gasoline or diesel.
The Template Method pattern helps to create the skeleton of an algorithm. This skeleton provides one or many methods which can be altered by subclasses but which don’t change the algorithm’s structure. The UML diagram for the Template Method is pretty simple. It has one abstract class with the TemplateMethod and one or many sub methods which can be overridden by subclasses. These sub methods can be either abstract or virtual. If they are abstract, they have to be implemented. If they are virtual, they can be overridden to alter the behavior of this step. Implementation of the Template Method pattern To be honest, the Template Method was pretty confusing to me in the beginning but after I tried to implement it, it became clear how it works. My implementation is pretty simple but it helped me to understand the pattern and I hope it helps you too. I want to do some calculation and then save the result somewhere. The algorithm has three steps whereas step two and three can be overridden by a subclass. The class Calculator offers the TemplateMethod. This method contains the three steps. The first step, BeforeCalculation can’t be overridden by the subclasses and therefore will always be executed. The second step of the algorithm, CalculateSomething can be overridden. The classes CalculatorOracle and CalculatorSqlAzure override this method and do their own calculations. The CalculatorSqlAzure also overrides the property Result. The CalculatorOracle class only overrides the CalculateSomething method. The third and last step, SaveResult is only overridden by the CalculatorSqlAzure class. This means that the CalculatorOracle class uses the method provided by the Calculator. I know that this example is not really what you will see in a real-world project but I hope that it helped you to understand the Template Method pattern. You can find the source code on GitHub. The Template Method pattern to achieve a clean design. The algorithm provided by the base class is closed for modification but is open for extension by subclasses. As a result, your design satisfies the open-closed principle. The pattern also helps to implement the Hollywood principle (“Don’t call us, we call you”). One downside is that the steps of the algorithm must be already known when the pattern is applied. Therefore the Template Method pattern is great for reuse but it is not as flexible as for example the Strategy pattern. Strategy: Inject a complete algorithm implementation into another module Decorator: Compose an algorithm or behavior from several sub-parts Factory: Define a common interface for creating new instances of types with many implementations I showed how the Template Method pattern can be used to provide a skeleton for an algorithm. One or many parts of this algorithm can be overridden by subclasses. This behavior helps achieving the open-closed principle and therefore a clean overall design. I also implemented a simple example to show how the pattern works.
A new international study has found that the world could face a "hothouse" climate where efforts to reduce emissions will have no impact if the Earth's global average temperature increases by a further 1 degree Celsius. Researchers from around the world contributed to a study titled "Trajectories of the Earth System in the Anthropocene", which has been published in the international journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS). The research found that Earth is heading for a crisis point known as a "hothouse" climate. If this tipping point is reached, average temperatures may climb 5C higher than pre-industrial temperatures which in turn could cause rises in sea level of up to 60 meters. If this happens much of the world would be uninhabitable for humans. Domino effect is possible says lead author Lead researcher Professor Will Steffen from the Australian National University (ANU) explained that Earth system processes known as feedbacks could be triggered if human emissions raise global temperatures to 2C above pre-industrial temperatures. "The real concern is these tipping elements can act like a row of dominoes." "The real concern is these tipping elements can act like a row of dominoes," Professor Steffen said. "Once one is pushed over, it pushes Earth towards another. Global average temperatures are currently just over 1C above pre-industrial temperatures and rising at 0.17C each decade," added Professor Steffan. "Even if the Paris Accord [Agreement] target of a 1.5C to 2C rise in temperature is met, we cannot exclude the risk that a cascade of feedbacks could push the Earth system irreversibly onto a 'hothouse Earth' pathway," the study says. "As yet [these initiatives] are not enough to meet the Paris target." Paris agreement may have no effect Professor Steffen goes on to say that although it's not just humans responsible for the rise, they are playing the largest part and need to work collaboratively to 'greatly accelerate the transition towards an emission-free world economy'. "The impacts of a hothouse earth pathway on human societies would likely be massive, sometimes abrupt, and undoubtedly disruptive." He insists that a radical collaborative action is needed to stabilize the Earth in an interglacial-like state. The study looked at 10 feedback processes, some of which can cause "the uncontrollable release" of carbon back into the atmosphere, after it had been stored in the earth. These processes can include permafrost thaw, Amazon rainforest dieback, a reduction of northern hemisphere snow cover, a loss of Arctic summer sea ice, and a reduction of Antarctic sea ice and polar ice sheets. The exact timeframe for these events to happen isn’t detailed in the report, but the authors hypothesized that it could happen in less than two centuries. "The impacts of a hothouse earth pathway on human societies would likely be massive, sometimes abrupt, and undoubtedly disruptive," the study states. The study was published in PNAS.
A chart is a visual representation of numeric values. Charts (also known as graphs) have been an integral part of spreadsheets. Charts generated by early spreadsheet products were quite crude, but thy have improved significantly over the years. Excel provides you with the tools to create a wide variety of highly customizable charts. Displaying data in a well-conceived chart can make your numbers more understandable. Because a chart presents a picture, charts are particularly useful for summarizing a series of numbers and their interrelationships. There are various chart types available in MS Excel as shown in the below screen-shot. Column − Column chart shows data changes over a period of time or illustrates comparisons among items. Bar − A bar chart illustrates comparisons among individual items. Pie − A pie chart shows the size of items that make up a data series, proportional to the sum of the items. It always shows only one data series and is useful when you want to emphasize a significant element in the data. Line − A line chart shows trends in data at equal intervals. Area − An area chart emphasizes the magnitude of change over time. X Y Scatter − An xy (scatter) chart shows the relationships among the numeric values in several data series, or plots two groups of numbers as one series of xy coordinates. Stock − This chart type is most often used for stock price data, but can also be used for scientific data (for example, to indicate temperature changes). Surface − A surface chart is useful when you want to find the optimum combinations between two sets of data. As in a topographic map, colors and patterns indicate areas that are in the same range of values. Doughnut − Like a pie chart, a doughnut chart shows the relationship of parts to a whole; however, it can contain more than one data series. Bubble − Data that is arranged in columns on a worksheet, so that x values are listed in the first column and corresponding y values and bubble size values are listed in adjacent columns, can be plotted in a bubble chart. Radar − A radar chart compares the aggregate values of a number of data series. To create charts for the data by below mentioned steps. Select the data for which you want to create the chart. Choose Insert Tab » Select the chart or click on the Chart group to see various chart types. Select the chart of your choice and click OK to generate the chart. You can edit the chart at any time after you have created it. You can select the different data for chart input with Right click on chart » Select data. Selecting new data will generate the chart as per the new data, as shown in the below screen-shot. You can change the X axis of the chart by giving different inputs to X-axis of chart. You can change the Y axis of chart by giving different inputs to Y-axis of chart.
Viruses are tiny parasites that depend on cells from plants and animals to stay alive and reproduce. This means that when a virus enters your body, it invades and takes over your cells, and directs them to produce more viruses. The result is a stuffy and snotty nose, sore throat, cough and sneezing. Your immune system is designed to detect and destroy harmful cells that invade your body and it reacts by flooding the area with white blood cells and chemical messengers. These defender cells can kill harmful cells with three impressive battle tactics: ◊ Some swallow up the harmful cells and kill them ◊ Some make antibodies that stick to the cells to identify the pones to attack ◊ Some destroy the harmful cells directly. Yet while your immune system is helping you out, the downside is that the white blood cells trigger the symptoms that cause you to feel poorly. For example your nose feels blocked because white blood cells have rushed to the blood vessels in your nose and caused them to swell, making it harder to breathe. Snot is also the result of the white blood cells doing battle in your nose to get rid of the virus. The white blood cells, your immune system is works hard to kill off the virus but it makes you feel rotten and gross in the process. The symptoms can last for a number of days. Once your immune system has found a virus, it can react in time to stop you catching the same illness again. This is called developing immunity unfortunately colds are caused by lots of different types of virus which also mutate very fast withnew strains appearing all the time. So is there a way to outsmart them? It’s impossible to guarantee you won’t catch a cold. Most adults will probably get about two colds a year. But there are definitely things you can do to minimise the chances. Here are three main tips for staying well and warm this winter.
Time and key signatures are vital parts of musical notation so, unsurprisingly, KS3 music students must familiarise themselves with both. This quiz on basic time and key signatures will help! You will find quavers and beats in relation to time and key signatures in music. The time signature tells us how many beats are in each bar and which type of note makes up each beat. The key signature tells us which key the music should be played in. It's made up of sharps and flats on the staff and is written immediately after the clef at the beginning of a line of music. 'Life is like music, it must be composed by ear, feeling and instinct, not by rule. Nevertheless one had better know the rules, for they sometimes guide in doubtful cases,' so said Samuel Butler. Let's see if you know the rules in this quiz on basic time and key signatures.
The story of these tales themselves is perhaps one of the most fascinating of all. Though history never really has a beginning, you could say that a diving-in point here is the end of an era: The final expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1491 and from Portugal in 1497. This uprooting began migrations in which the Jews eventually settled in communities spanning the vast Ottoman Empire, from Northern African and the Mediterranean to the Balkans, and beyond. In each adopted home, languages, food, customs, stories, songs and musicality mingled and cultural and linguistic offshoots eventually evolved. The language itself is a beautiful illustration of these broader patterns. Variously called Ladino, Spaniolit, Yehuditze, Hekatia, Saphardi or simply Spanish, the language is more like a number of closely related sub-streams, today grouped under the umbrella term Judeo-Spanish. To some extent, each community integrated words and expressions from the local language, including Greek, Slavic languages, Arabic, Turkish, and Hebrew. Wherever it is found, Judeo-Spanish is also a type of linguistic time capsule: The Spanish Jews preserved the lexis, syntax, morphology and phonology of Medieval Spanish as well as idioms, pronunciation and accent of words which have long since vanished from Spain itself. Judeo-Spanish is still spoken by pockets of Jews, today primarily in Israel, though it is considered an endangered language. The Forgotten Kingdom springboards off of songs mainly from the communities of Sarajevo and Salonica. The traditional source music is primarily from the early twentieth century, though the lyrics of a few of these songs are much older, even pre-dating 1492. While these older songs may well have been sung for hundreds of years, there is little evidence left to indicate the melodies and ornamentations used back then. The melodies that we know today are much more recent. There are three main types of Ladino song: Romanzas: These are many of the epic/historical stories, tales of kings and queens, intrigue, daring escapes and, often, treachery. Romanzas have a fixed structure similar to the French Ballade: Each line has 16 syllables, divided to two 8-syllable parts with an assonant rhyme scheme. Some romanzas have 12 syllables per line, divided into two groups of six. The romanza is a narrative in which the order of verses is important. Cantigas: These songs often deal with love, longing and disappointment. Unlike the romanzas there is often not a single, progressive, plot to the song and the form and verse order can vary from one version to another. Cantigas can be songs of courting, mourning, even drinking. They can be tied in with life events like weddings and other communal occasions. Coplas: These songs are associated with values and beliefs. Coplas can revolve around important community figures, economic hardship, specific holidays or moral themes. The lyrics to coplas tend to be more modern (17th-19th century). This show focuses on romanzas and cantigas.
What is self-regulation? Self-regulation is the ability that allows us to direct our behavior in the direction we want and thus be able to relate to the people around us. It is part of the acquisition of social skills that begin to develop from an early age. In Guiainfantil.com We tell you what activities you can do in the classroom so that children learn to control their emotions and have a good behavior in class. - By 2 years Children begin to understand that others have emotions and that they may be different from yours. - From 2 to 3 years At these ages the period of independence begins. Egocentric stage that is based on the words: ME and MINE with which they demand NO HELP FROM THE ADULT. It is in this period where they begin to respond in a good or bad way and where the self-regulation of their emotions causes the child to begin to judge himself. - At 5 years old At this age, this self-regulating capacity is more developed and a complexity appears between emotions, beliefs and expectations. That is, children begin to relate their cognitive ability to emotions. As children go through the different stages they learn more about feelings and begin to connect the situations they experience with emotions. Throughout this development, self-regulation and language skills evolve and, therefore, acquires a greater capacity to handle complicated emotional situations. By learning to manage emotions, they assimilate and understand that they are the ones who are in control of whatever situation they find themselves in. Throughout the first years of age, the foundations are laid for an adequate emotional intelligence in the child. This largely depends on different emotional and social factors. So, it is necessary that parents, school and the rest of the environment generate trust necessary in the child to help him function optimally in all areas of life. Childhood is the key moment for the child to model his emotional tendencies and where the relationship between the family and the school is very significant. The education and modeling by parents at home and also the attitude and behavior of the teacher in the classroom is essential to offer them security, respect and trust. Inside the classroom, the educator can teach children self-regulation in an educational and fun way. Thanks to the proposed activities, children can develop progress in their behavior, they will learn to listen to others and to carry out their obligations and tasks. The techniques we show can be used both in the classroom and at home: 1 - The traffic light The traffic light technique is an exercise that serves to give an answer about their behavior to the child and consciously identify them. To do this, a drawing of the traffic light is made and simple instructions are given to the child to make him see how it works o Red: calm down and think before acting o Yellow: think solutions or alternatives and their consequences. o Green: okay, put the best solution into practice. [Read +: The yellow pages method for children to interact in class] 2 - The wheel of emotions It consists of creating a wheel with the students with options of things that they can do to calm down when they feel frustrated. This wheel in the shape of a cake is drawn on a cardboard and on what each portion would be, an image of the options that the child has mentioned is drawn or pasted. Choices must be valid actions and that respect the integrity of the child and peers. 3 - The volcano It is about using images to make children aware of their behavior. In this way, the child will be able to detect when he is about to behave in an inappropriate way and will be able to stop in time. To put this technique into practice, the child is asked to imagine that he is a volcano and that his emotions are lava. Like many other volcanoes, its inner volcano also spirals out of control and erupts, causing everything in it to explode. The idea is that the child learns to recognize the signs of anger and anger, associating them with the hot lava and the eruption. This way you can stop before reaching the point of no return. 4 - Positive time out It is a tool of Positive Discipline. It consists of creating a special place within the classroom, where the child can turn to calm down and calm down again when they feel upset or out of control. This place must be chosen and decorated together with the children and must contain elements that invite them to relax and feel peace, such as: books, music, toys, sheets and colors to draw, a blackboard, stuffed animals, plasticine, etc. You can read more articles similar to Self-regulation activities in the classroom for children, in the category of School / College on site.
Our students can acquire language skills on the following levels: At this level a student experiences his first encounter with the language. After only a month’s study at Beginner level, a student will be able to say his name and nationality, ask basic questions and give simple answers. A student will know the alphabet and numbers to 100. They will be able to shop or travel with basic English. A student will know the fundamentals of English pronunciation. Students will be able to understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases related to areas of most immediate relevance. They will have the tools to greet each other, introduce themselves and others, ask and give personal information and directions. They will be able to interact in a simple way when the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help. A student of the Pre-intermediate level has a good basic ability to communicate and understand, but can make great improvement in all areas. A student can talk about many subjects and give their opinion on them. They can talk with confidence in the present, past and future simple tenses. A student can perform tasks such as shopping, booking a hotel room, travel, and making conversation in English. Student’s grammar includes an understanding of adjectives, adverbs, comparatives, articles, possessives, and basic prepositions. A student at Intermediate level can understand and speak English with some confidence. A student has the grammar and the vocabulary to talk and read about a wide number of subjects. He or she has some understanding of tone and style. A student can assess and consciously improve their own pronunciation. A student has studied all the main tenses and can confidently make sentences, question forms and clauses in all of them. They know and can use most of the basic grammatical structures, have sufficient vocabulary to communicate successfully in a variety of situations, even if they make mistakes. A student at Upper-Intermediate level has an effective, but not perfect, use of English. A student can talk almost fluently and almost completely accurately. Everyday situations in an English-language environment do not worry him/her. A student can take part in extended conversations or discussions and their vocabulary covers almost every circumstance. If a student does not know a word they can almost always find a way of describing it. He or she has knowledge of some idiomatic English, phrasal verbs, and colloquial expressions. A student has studied all the main areas of English grammar. They can communicate confidently in a variety of situations. Some occasional mistakes occur in grammar and vocabulary but this does not prevent the listener from understanding. Advanced is the highest level most students attain without the total immersion of living in another country. The student’s spoken English is both fluent and accurate. Their vocabulary is wide and they have a good knowledge of collocations, phrasal verbs, colloquial expressions and idioms. All common areas of grammar are familiar to an advanced student. A student has strategies for understanding new and unusual accents, jargons and colloquialisms. Proficiency is the highest level we recognize. A student of this level is fluent and rarely encounters English which he/she does not understand. However, it is always possible to improve by increasing his or her understanding of the nuances of the English language and by developing vocabulary further.
Scientists at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) recently had a eureka moment, when they accidentally invented an unusual material that can harvest water from the atmosphere. According to the researchers, these carbon nanorods absorb and release water in a completely different, somewhat baffling way. As the team points out, the nanoscale stalks have been found to absorb water at very low humidity, and then release it when the ambient humidity rises to around 50-80 percent. By contrast, most others materials continue drawing in extra water with increasing humidity. Speaking about the research, recently published in the Nature Nanotechnology journal, David Lao of PNNL said: Our unusual material behaves a bit like a sponge; it wrings itself out halfway before it’s fully saturated with water. The breakthrough, the scientists believe, could pave the way for efficient, low-energy water-harvesting systems as well as smart fabrics that automatically expel excess sweat from the wearer’s body. As Lao goes on the explain, the team stumbled upon the new material by accident while trying to build magnetic nanowires. It was during their research on magnetic nanowires that the scientists ended up creating a special type of carbon nanotube. When examined with the help of a specialized vapor analysis instrument, the nanorods seemed to lose some of their weight with increase in the ambient humidity. Believing that the observations were the result of a faulty instrument, the team analyzed the new material once again using an incredibly accurate, high-powered microscope. The bizarre phenomenon, according to the researchers, was originally suggested back in the 1990s. As part of their current research, the team came across two papers, dated 2012 and 2013 respectively, which revealed that water or any other liquid can spontaneously evaporate when confined to a space less than 1.5 nanometers in width. The same thing, the papers state, happens if the liquid is lined with hydrophobic (i.e. water-repelling) substances. As the scientists explicate, the unexpected phenomenon takes place when water condenses and forms a bridge between the carbon nanorods via a process known as capillary condensation. The liquid present between the rods in turn causes surface tension, bringing the adjacent tubes closer to each other. When the gap between them decrease to about 1.5 nanometers, the water spontaneously vaporizes. The material, the team points out, could one day help harvest water from seemingly dry desert air. At present, the substance can expel only around 10 to 20-percent of the absorbed liquid, something that the scientists are hoping to change in the near future. David Heldebrant, an engineer at PNNL, said: Now that we’ve gotten over the initial shock of this unforeseen behavior, we’re imagining the many ways it could be harnessed to improve the quality of our lives. But before we can put these nanorods to good use, we need to be able to control and perfect their size and shape.
The trusted source for healthcare information and Cholesterol and Coronary Heart Disease Heart disease is caused by narrowing of the coronary arteries that feed the heart. Like any muscle, the heart needs a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, which are carried to it by the blood in the coronary arteries. When the coronary arteries become narrowed or clogged by cholesterol and fat deposits—a process called atherosclerosis—and cannot supply enough blood to the heart, the result is coronary heart disease (CHD). If not enough oxygen-carrying blood reaches the heart, you may experience chest pain called angina. If the blood supply to a portion of the heart is completely cut off by total blockage of a coronary artery, the result is a heart attack. This usually is due to a sudden closure from a blood clot forming on top of a previous narrowing. Cholesterol’s Role in CHD Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that occurs naturally in all parts of the body and that your body needs to function normally. It is present in cell walls or membranes everywhere in the body, including the brain, nerves, muscle, skin, liver, intestines, and heart. Your body uses cholesterol to produce many hormones, vitamin D, and the bile acids that help to digest fat. It takes only a small amount of cholesterol in the blood to meet these needs. If you have too much cholesterol in your bloodstream, the excess is deposited in arteries, including the coronary arteries, where it contributes to the narrowing and blockages that cause the signs and symptoms of heart disease. Your blood cholesterol level is affected not only by what you eat but also by how quickly your body makes LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C), often called the "bad" cholesterol, and disposes of it. In fact, your body makes all the cholesterol it needs, and it is not necessary to take in any additional cholesterol from the foods you eat. Many factors help determine whether your LDL-C level is high or low. The following factors are the most important: Heredity. Your genes influence how high your LDL-C is by affecting how fast LDL is made and removed from the blood. One specific form of inherited high cholesterol that affects 1 in 500 people is familial hypercholesterolemia, which often leads to early heart disease. But even if you do not have a specific genetic form of high cholesterol, genes play a role in influencing your LDL-C level. What you eat. Two main nutrients in the foods you eat make your LDL-C level go up: saturated fat, a type of fat found mostly in foods that come from animals; and cholesterol, which comes only from animal products. Saturated fat raises your LDL-C level more than anything else in the diet. Eating too much saturated fat and cholesterol is the main reason for high levels of cholesterol and a high rate of heart attacks in the United States. Reducing the amount of saturated fat and cholesterol you eat is a very important step in reducing your blood cholesterol levels. Weight. Excess weight tends to increase your LDL-C level. If you are overweight and have a high LDL-C level, losing weight may help you lower it. Weight loss also helps to lower triglycerides and raise HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) levels. Physical activity/exercise. Regular physical activity may lower LDL-C and raise HDL-C levels. Age and sex. Before the age of menopause, women usually have total cholesterol levels that are lower than those of men the same age. As women and men get older, their blood cholesterol levels rise until about 60-65 years of age. After the age of about 50, women often have higher total cholesterol levels than men of the same age. Alcohol. Alcohol intake increases HDL-C but does not lower LDL-C. Doctors don’t know for certain whether alcohol also reduces the risk of heart disease. Drinking too much alcohol can damage the liver and heart muscle, lead to high blood pressure, and raise triglycerides. Because of the risks, alcoholic beverages should not be used as a way to prevent heart disease. Stress. Stress over the long term has been shown in several studies to raise blood cholesterol levels. One way that stress may do this is by affecting your habits. For example, when some people are under stress, they console themselves by eating fatty foods. The saturated fat and cholesterol in these foods contribute to higher levels of blood cholesterol. National Cholesterol Education Program Guidelines Total cholesterol less than 200 mg/dL and HDL-C 40 mg/dL or higher Unless you have other risk factors for heart disease, your chance of a heart attack is relatively low. Total cholesterol less than 200 mg/dL and HDL-C less than 40 mg/dL Total cholesterol 200-239 mg/dL, HDL-C 40 mg/dL or higher, and fewer than 2 risk factors Total cholesterol 200-239 mg/dL, HDL-C less than 40 mg/dL or 2 or more risk factors Total cholesterol 240 mg/dL and above
The territory of Bengal holds significance since ancient times. Bengal in earlier times had both the present Bengal and East Bengal (Bangladesh) in its territory. The presence of vast resources and its strategic significance this region has been under the purview of many invaders from ancient times. Different sects of people came and established their estates, including Aryans in the post-Vedic period. Therefore, the history of West Bengal dates back to over four millennia to the Chalcolithic Age. Ancient History of West Bengal Brief Etymology of Bengal The first mention of the word Banga is found in Mahabharata. Harivamsha Vanga was one of the adopted sons of King Vali who founded the Vanga Kingdom. The Vanga Kingdom was located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising part of West Bengal, India and present-day modern Bangladesh. Vanga and Pundra were two tribes in Bangladesh in ancient times. The region of Bengal was also known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai. Some scholars believed that the origin of the name ‘Banga’ is derived from ‘Bong Tribe’. 'Bengal' finds its mention in the old epic of Mahabharta, as 'Vanga'. At that time, the territory was divided into smaller kingdoms and ruled by chieftains. The ancient records in Vedic literature reveal that the region was inhabited by several groups of people, belonging to various races. The Bengal region cradled by the Himalayas and open to the sea at one side has its prominent role in shaping the history of India. The state regarded as ‘West Bengal’ immediately after the partition of the Indian Subcontinent in 1947 (and considered as the province of Bengal in British India). The Stone Age remnants have been found in Bengal that dates back 20,000 years. The pre-history of West Bengal includes the Paleolithic period, Mesolithic period, Neolithic period and Chalcolithic period. a) Palaeolithic period: There are 162 palaeolithic sites in this state. The majority of the lower Paleolithic sites have been reported from Radh plains and are located on the foothills, valley slopes and river banks. The tools in this region were carved from the pebbles of quartz and quartzite. Notable sites include- Egara Mail (Burdwan), Parihati, Mohanpur, Satbati, Tarapheni reservoir bridge (all in Midnapore), Nakbindhi, Patina, Jibdharipur (Birbhum), Jagannathpuri etc.). Artefacts include- backed blades, spearheads etc. and were made by green quartzite, chert, quartz, sandstone etc. b) Mesolithic period: Only three sitesBirbhanpur in Burdwan district, Paruldanga in Birbhum district and Chamargora in Midnapore district have been excavated. Artefacts include spears, scrapers, agricultural tools etc. and were made of quartz, quartzite, fossil wood etc. c) Neolithic period: Eighty-four sites have been identified in West Bengal. The nature and distribution of Neolithic records in West Bengal suggest two focal areas of Neolithic culture. The sites include Himalayan foothills comprising Kalimpong and adjacent Sikkim state and the plateau fringe area comprising the districts of Midnapore, Bankura, Purulia, Burdwan and Birbhum. Note: The Neolithic culture of plateau differs from that of the Himalayan foothill area as the earlier tools possess distinct grey and pale ceramics. d) Chalcolithic period: The first Copper Age or Chalcolithic age site was discovered on the bank of Ajay river in the East Bardhaman district of West Bengal. It dates back to 1600 BC. From these excavations, it was revealed that well-planned towns were built. The roads were made of stones, gravels and clay with the combination of water. Copper tools were also used for agriculture and hunting by pre-historic people. Pre-historic sites have been found concentrated in South-Western part of West Bengal. There is no reference to Bengal in Rigveda. But archaeological records suggest that there was a well-developed culture in Bengal even before the advent of the Aryan settlement. Primitive inhabitants in Bengal were different in ethnicity and culture from the Vedic people and are regarded as Dasyus (Pundras). Scriptures suggest that Bengal was divided into many small kingdoms – Vanga (southern Bengal), Pundra (Northern Bengal), Suhma (Western Bengal). Anga, Harikela and Samatata kingdoms. Mahabharata mentions Bengali kings who were defeated by Bhima. Kalidasa mentions that Raghu defeated a coalition of ‘Vanga’ kings. Post-Vedic era starts from the time when the Aryans settled on the land of Bengal. Subsequently, the 16 Mahajanapadas were consolidating themselves in the Post-Vedic period. These were also quoted as in Buddhist text called Anguttara Nikaya as 16 great nations. The 16 Mahajanapadas are Anga, Kosala, kasha, Magadha, Videha, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchal, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja. Among these Anga and Magadha were sited in Bengal and symbolise the Post-Vedic era in Bengal. In a significant development of events, recently a third-century civilisation beneath the surface of Gobardhanpur in Pathar Pratima Block, Sundarbans was discovered. The place has remnants of cauldrons and pots that would have been used to make herbal medicines. The artefacts include terracotta human and animal figurines dating back to pre and early centuries of the Christian era. Prominent ancient kingdoms in West Bengal: - Vanga Kingdom Originated in Bengal, this kingdom was an ancient kingdom, and its contemporary neighbouring states included Suhma, Anga Pundravardhana, Samatata or Harikela. The Boundary of the Vanga Kingdom formed by Padma and Bhagirathi rivers in the West, North and East and the Bay of Bengal bounded the South. The founders of Angas, Vangas, Kalingas, Pundras and Suhmas shared a common ancestry. They were all adopted sons of a king named Vali Or Bali, born by a sage named Gautama Dirghatamas. - Anga Kingdom Anga was an early kingdom covering parts of Bengal and modern central Bihar state. Its capital was Champa (formerly known as Malini). Anga rulers were all descended from KingBali. According to the Mahabharata, Duryodhanamadehis friend KamaKingofAnga. The Ramayana mentions Anga as the place in which Lord Shiva burned Kamadeva, the god of love to death. - Pundra Kingdom It was an Eastern kingdom located in West Bengal. This group of people was led by King Pundravardhana, who had his territory from North Bengal to the land which is now under Bangladesh. Pundra belonged to the warrior Kshatriya tribes. The Pundra dynasty did not conform to the Vedic culture of the period. One of the legendary leaders of Pundra dynasty was Paundraka Vasudeva. He united the three regions, i.e. Pundra, Vanga and Kirataÿ further entered into an alliance withJarasandha of Magadha. - Suhmas Kingdom The earliest reference to the Suhmas and their country is found in the 'Acharanga Sutra' of the Jainas belonging to the 6th century BCE. Regarding the origins of the Suhmas, there are many traditional and mythical stories recorded in the early texts. In the Mahabharata, it is stated that the Suhmas originated from Suhma, the son of Bali. Suhmas were spread over a large territory which included parts of the area covered by the modern districts of Burdwan, Hooghly, Midnapore, Nadia, portions of Murshidabad and also of 24-Parganas, i.e. extending upto the sea. In the land lying on West of the Bhagirathi extending upto the sea was included within the territorial jurisdiction of the Suhma country wherein lived the Suhmas. - Harikela Kingdom Harikela kingdom encompassed much of the Eastern regions of the Bengal in the Indian sub-continent. There are numerous references to the kingdom in historical texts as well as archaeological artefacts, including silver coinage. Arab traders recognised Harikela (known as Harkand in Arabic) as the coastal regions of Bengal in the early period. In 10th century CE, Harikela rulers, were defeated by Chandra rulers. - Samatata Kingdom Samatata, an ancient Indian region in South-Eastern Bengal finds its earliest reference in the Allahabad Prashasti. Samatata boundaries were well defined by the mountains of Tripura and Arakan in the East and the Meghna (the combined waters of the Padma, Meghna, and Brahmaputra rivers) in the West. Not much is known about this kingdom. It was ruled by Buddhist kings in the late 7th century. Chinese travellers like Xuan Zang andYijing and Romangeographer Ptolemy mentioned about this kingdom in their writings. - Gauda Kingdom Gauda kingdom was a Hindupower during the late classical period on the Indian sub-continent, which originated in the present-day region of Bengal. The citadel of Gauda served as the capital of the Gauda kingdom. KingShashanka, first created the separate political entity ina unified Bengal called Gauda. Shashanka was a strong ruler who developed Bengal's architecture and calendar. He is famous for oppressing Buddhist communities and driving them out of Bengal. Shashanka's capital Karnasuvarna is now known as Murshidabad. It was during the rule of Shashanka that Bengalwitnessed a flourishing period. After his death, Shashanka was succeeded by his son, Manava who ruled only for eight months. - Nanda Dynasty During the 4th century BCE, the Nanda dynasty originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India and lasted between 345-321 BCE. At its greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda dynasty extended from Bengal in the East to the Punjab region in the West. The rulers of this dynasty were famed for the great wealth which they accumulated. Jaina, Buddhist and Puranic sources stated that the Nanda Kings were nine in all. Mahapadma Nanda and Dhana Nanda were famous rulers of this dynasty. - Mauryan Dynasty It came into existence in 322 BCE when Chandragupta Maurya established his rule around Magadha. The Mauryan empire was one of the world's largest empires in its time and the largest ever in the Indian sub-continent including Bengal. The empire was expanded into India's Central and Southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara. The entire region of Bengal came under the Mauryan empire. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. - Gupta Dynasty The Gupta Dynasty (320 to 550 CE) was an ancient Indian empire, founded by Srigupta covered much of the Indian sub-continent including Bengal. A portion of Northern or Central Bengal has been the home ofGuptas at that time which is evident from the writings of Buddhist MonkYijing of around 690 CE. The Poona copper inscription ofPrabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta, describes Maharaja Srigupta as the founder of the Gupta dynasty. Ghatotkacha was a pre-imperial Gupta KinginNorthern India, the son of Maharaja Srigupta, who started the Gupta dynasty. He ruled from 280-319 CE. Chandragupta I, was a major king of the Gupta empire around 320 CE. As the ruler of the Gupta empire, he is known for forging alliances with many influential families in the Ganges region. Samudragupta was the ruler of the Gupta empire, and successor to Chandragupta I. Samudragupta was the third ruler of the Gupta dynasty. His reign included whole Bengal and Assam. Chandragupta II was also known as Vikramaditya and was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire in India. His rule spanned 380-415 CE during which the Gupta Empire reached its peak. - Malla Dynasty It came into existence in694 CE. The Western District (Bankura) in modern-day West Bengal was once known as Mallabhum, the land of the Mallas. The Alalia kings ruled the Western provinces of Bengal from the 7th century, and their dynasty can be traced to this date. Some prominent Alalia kings are AdiAlalia (694-710), Jay Malla (710-720), Benu Malla (720-733), Kinu Malla (733-742), IndraMalla (742-757), etc. Alallabhum was the kingdom ruled by the Alalia kings ofBishnupur. Their last king Kalipada Singha Thakur became the king of Mallabhum in 1930 an ruled till his death in 1983. 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Keep Your Child and the General Public Safe with VaccinationsApr 17, 2019 Widely considered one of the greatest medical achievements of modern civilization, vaccines have prevented countless cases of disease and saved millions of lives. Lauren Snabb, MD, pediatrician on staff at the Children’s Hospital of Michigan, says that because vaccinations have been so effective in preventing many infectious diseases, parents may not realize that the threat of acquiring these diseases is still present today. “Many children have died from diseases that vaccines now prevent. These include whooping cough, measles, and polio. Germs that lead to these deadly conditions still exist today, but because most babies are routinely protected by vaccines, we don't see these diseases nearly as often in this country. When parents choose to leave their child unimmunized, this will not only place that child at risk of acquiring deadly diseases, it can endanger the lives of other children as well,” she says. National Infant Immunization Week (NIIW) is April 27-May 4, 2019, a good time to raise awareness of several important milestones that have been reached in controlling vaccine-preventable diseases among infants worldwide. According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), vaccines have drastically reduced infant death and disability caused by preventable diseases in the United States. In addition: - Through immunization, we can now protect infants and children from 14 vaccine-preventable diseases before age two. - In the 1950's, nearly every child developed measles, and unfortunately, some even died from this serious disease. Today, many practicing physicians have never seen a case of measles. - Routine childhood immunization in one birth cohort prevents about 20 million cases of disease and about 42,000 deaths. It also saves about $13.5 billion in direct costs. - The National Immunization Survey has consistently shown that childhood immunization rates for vaccines routinely recommended for children remain at or near record levels. It can be easy to think of these as diseases of the past. But children in the United States still get some of these diseases. In fact, as of April 17, 2019, the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services has confirmed 43 total measles cases statewide since March 13, 2019. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from January 1 to April 19, 2019, 626 individual cases of measles have been confirmed in 22 states. This is the second-greatest number of cases reported in the U.S. since measles was eliminated in 2000. Dr. Snabb says outbreaks of preventable diseases can occur when many parents decide not to vaccinate their children. She advises parents to speak to their child’s pediatrician if there are any concerns about the safety and effectiveness of vaccinations, which undergo careful review by scientists, doctors, and the federal government to make sure they are safe. Organizations including the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Academy of Family Physicians, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention all strongly support protecting children with recommended vaccinations.Children’s Hospital of Michigan offers immunizations through appointments with a pediatrician. Additionally, an Immunization Station Clinic is offered to children of all ages – six weeks through eighteen years- if they qualify under the Vaccines for Children (VFC) program. Visit Immunization Station Clinic for further information. Visit the Michigan Health and Hospital website for further information on measles vaccination.
Missions and Expansion Written by: Christopher Bellitto The pattern of trying to adapt Christianity to local customs while maintaining the integrity of the faith's beliefs and rituals began with Paul's address to the Athenians when he pointed to a statue labeled "the unknown God" and informed the Greeks that they were already worshipping the God he now named as Jesus (Acts 17:22-23). As Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire, it often used Greek ideas and language to describe Jesus, but that approach was forced to change. The faith turned north to Europe after the 7th and 8th centuries when Islam, in just a century after Mohammad's death in 632, swept rapidly across the Roman Empire's former eastern, southern, and western provinces. With Islam now in control of the Middle East, north Africa, and the Iberian peninsula, Rome looked north for a protector and for new evangelization opportunities. Monks from Ireland, Britain, and Germany played a key role and implemented a strategy of discovering where people's faith already was operating, even if it was still a mix of Roman paganism and Arianism, which was often the case in central and northern Europe. One example is St. Patrick, a 5th-century Briton who was successful in converting the Irish precisely because he had lived among them as a captive for six years. Missionaries tended to Christianize pagan sites rather than destroy them. People already inclined to believe in the healing power of water at a particular site, for instance, would now find a baptistery at a well or bend in the river. Pagan temples were sprinkled with holy water and converted to altars. A local magus would be replaced by a Christian saint known for healing; pagan objects were supplanted by Christian relics, such as the wood of the cross or a strand of a saint's hair. In this way, Catholicism spread quickly and fairly successfully across Visigothic Spain, Merovingian and Carolingian Gaul, and Anglo-Saxon England before turning east to Poland, Hungary, and Russia in the closing decades of the first millennium. Moreover, there was a measure of liturgical variation in the Middle Ages that was eventually regulated in 1570, with the Roman Missal issued shortly after the Council of Trent. A precise order for Mass was laid down, but variations were permitted as long as they were at least 200 years old, which was the case with the Ambrosian rite in Milan and Spain's Mozarabic rite, both dating to the middle of the first millennium. Much of the Church's evangelization and enculturation efforts in the first 1500 years of Catholicism were increasingly driven by an emerging, then strengthening papacy that was concentrating power and authority in Rome, culminating in the creation of a papal monarchy in the Middle Ages. In the Church's first few centuries, the bishop of Rome enjoyed no special jurisdictional status among his many brother bishops across the Mediterranean world, although there was a certain recognition of his unique place as Peter's successor.
On January 29, 1783, Connecticut became the first state to pass a general colonial copyright law, entitled “An Act for the Encouragement of Literature and Genius.” Printing books in the colonies got off to a slow start. At the time, many colonial authors still sent their manuscripts back to the established presses in England. The few printers operating in the colonies made their living printing proclamations, sermons, broadsides, and newspapers as well as by selling writing supplies, stationary, and imported books. Larger and lengthier works could be produced far more cheaply in London, and law books were almost the only printed books in the colonies before 1740. But by the revolutionary era, authors became worried about protecting their rights. It was not uncommon for a printer, who had been paid by the author to print a set number of copies, to produce extras to sell on the side. Also, another printer might copy and sell the author’s book without permission. In October of 1781, Andrew Law, a singing master with ambitions to publish a music book, petitioned the Connecticut General Assembly regarding his volume, A Collection of the Best and Most Approved Tunes and Anthems for the Promotion of Psalmody. Law was granted an “exclusive patent” for a five-year period. At that time, patents were the only form of protection for an author’s work and legislatures generally granted these private bills for relatively short periods. Another vocal advocate for copyright was Noah Webster, a Connecticut schoolteacher and member of the New York bar. He had completed the first volume of his three-part American textbook, A Grammatical Institute of the English Language. Webster, also concerned about safe-guarding his rights, sought protection for what would become known as the “blue-backed” speller. In 1782, he petitioned the legislatures in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut for general copyright protection. His efforts, however, proved unsuccessful. Ultimately, it was John Ledyard who succeeded in securing the first general copyright protection, which set the precedent for other colonies to enact similar laws. The author of A Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, Ledyard petitioned the Connecticut General Assembly and was granted copyright on January 29, 1783. The General Assembly, instead of passing a private bill for Ledyard, issued the first general colonial copyright statute. It secured the rights to the author for 14 years with the ability to renew the copyright once. Nathaniel Patten in Hartford printed Ledyard’s book in 1783.
There’s something poetic about blowing dandelions to the wind, but there’s also a lot of science to it. A new study has shown that dandelion seeds fly in a way that’s never been seen before in nature, and that could inspire a new generation of airborne sensors. Blowing dandelions might have a romantic appeal, but for these plants, taking to the air is of utmost importance. Using their parachute-shaped bundle of bristles, their seeds can spread over more than a kilometre, sustained by nothing but wind power. This is essential for the plant to be able to spread out over large areas, which also helps explain why the plant is so common in many parts of the world. But a team of researchers working in Edinburgh, Scotland, realized that we don’t really know how dandelions are able to fly such a long distance. “Dandelions (Taraxacum officinale agg.) are highly successful perennial herbs that can be found in temperate zones all over the world,” researchers write. “Dandelions, as with many other members of the Asteraceae family, disperse their bristly seeds using the wind and convective updrafts.” Their long fights are a bit surprising because the parachute-like structure the flowers exhibit is, for the most part, empty — it’s filled with air, which at a first glance seems woefully unfit for taking flight. Essentially, instead of looking like an umbrella or a parachute, it looks more like the skeleton-like frame of a parachute — and having a porous parachute doesn’t seem to make much sense. Dandelions use a bundle of bristly filaments, called a pappus, to help keep their seeds aloft for dispersal. After the pappus takes to the air, it also prolongs the descent of the seed, enabling it to be carried much farther away. This is not uncommon in the plant world, as many other species employ a similar strategy — but they have a wing-like membrane instead of the spiky pappus. So Naomi Nakayama, Ignazio Maria Viola, and colleagues set out to study exactly what happens to the dandelion flight. They constructed a vertical wind tunnel to visualize the flow around freely flying and fixed dandelion seeds, employing long-exposure photography and high-speed imaging to monitor any effects. They illuminated the seeds with a laser to make the entire system easier to visualize. Researchers found that air does indeed flow through the bristles of the pappus, but the amount of air is very closely controlled by the spacing between the bristles, and this is very important. This particular structure formes a stable, doughnut-shaped air bubble, floating around each pappus. They call this air bubble a vortex ring. According to co-author Cathal Cummins, an applied mathematician at the University of Edinburgh, the pressure differences between the air moving through the spokes and the air moving around the seed creates the vortex ring. The vortex ring is detached from the seed body, and the dandelion’s pappus porosity is fine-tuned to stabilize this vortex. The porous dandelion pappus consistently contains 90 to 110 filaments — no more and no fewer. If the number of filaments strays outside this range, the air bubble doesn’t form and the dandelion’s flight properties are negated. But if it stays within that range, the pappus delivers more than four times more drag per unit area compared to a conventional, wing-like membrane. The authors argue that this makes the plumed design far more efficient than a wing-like membrane for the dispersal of lightweight seed. It’s also a type of flight that’s never been observed before. “The discovery of the separated vortex ring provides evidence of the existence of a new class of fluid behavior around fluid-immersed bodies that may underlie locomotion, weight reduction and particle retention in biological and manmade structures,” the paper states. This is very significant, for more than just dandelions. This type of structure could be replicated in the design of small-scale drones that require very little or no power consumption at all. These drones could function as remote sensing or pollution sensors. The study has been published in Nature.
Sound Transmission Class, or STC, was first used in 1961. It is one of the original ways to determine how much sound materials block, and is still considered to be one of the best ways to determine sound transmission loss. STC is an integer rating of how well building partitions reduce airborne sound. Simply put, this means that STC measures how much sound is lost when traveling from one side of a wall, floor, or ceiling, to the other side. There are three main terms to understand when understanding STC. The first is decibels. The decibel, or dB, is universally used to measure the intensity of a sound. The decibel is figured by determining how loud a sound is, in relation to how far away from your testing area it is. That determines the intensity. 0 dB is near-total silence, while sounds over 85 dB can cause hearing damage or loss. The second is frequency, measured in hertz (Hz). Frequency is the property of sound that determines pitch, such as the difference in a high pitch or a low pitch sound. The standard human range for hearing is between 20 and 20,000 Hz. Low pitch sounds include things like the lowest pedal on a pipe organ, bass drums, and large truck engines. High pitch sounds include such things as whistles or cymbals. The third term to know is Transmission Loss. Transmission Loss is the measurement of decibel difference on either side of a wall. An example would be if you were playing a drum set in room A, and there was a wall dividing you from room B. The dB in Room A could be 100 dB, and only 75 dB in Room B. Therefore, there is a transmission loss of 25 dB. To simply: Decibels (dB) measures how loud a sound is. Frequency (measured in hertz (Hz) determines the pitch of a sound. Transmission Loss measures how much sound is blocked by a partition. STC works by averaging the amount of noise stopped at 18 different common frequencies, measured in decibels. A curve is created using this test to determine the transmission loss at those 18 common points. The STC only tests frequencies between 125 and 4000Hz, so it cannot give you test data for extremely low or extremely high frequencies. What it can do is assure you of this scientific fact: the higher the STC rating, the more sound is stopped. Another important thing to note is that every partition has an STC rating, that provides some level of sound reduction. A standard wall assembly made of 5/8” drywall with standard 2”x4” studs has an STC rating of 33. This is where the STC rating can confuse some people. Just because you add, for example, a 1LB MLV to a wall does not mean you get to add together the STC ratings. The STC ratings use a logarithmic formula, which would mean that adding a 1 LB MLV with a 26 STC to a wall with a 33 STC would result in around a 41-42 STC. You can then increase this rating through various other methods, including adding another layer of drywall or simply using MLV on both sides of the wall. For example, taking a wall assembly that is constructed of 5/8” drywall, 2x4 studs, and 5/8” drywall, with no insulation, and adding a 1 LB MLV and another layer of 5/8” drywall would result in an even higher STC rating, around a 48-49 STC. Since it is a logarithmic scale, similar to the Richter Scale for earthquakes, a small change of 9 or 10 in the STC represents a much larger change in the amount of sound reduced. Think about this: changing an STC rating from a 28 to a 38 reduces 90% of the noise you experienced at the 28. A change of 28 to 43 brings with it a 95% reduction in noise. For such a small change, these are substantial differences in noise level. The range shown in the chart to the right comes from the test results of our Noise Grabber™ brand MLV. As you can see, it has different degrees of sound blockage at different frequencies and is the most wide-ranging of all the MLV sizes. This is what makes it such a good all-around choice for a project. For us here at SoundproofingMLV.com, the STC rating is a major part of our product. We believe in tested and proven results, and that is why Noise Grabber™ MLV’s STC ratings are gained through laboratory testing per ASTM standards. Thanks to this, we can say without a doubt, Noise Grabber™ MLV will help to reduce sound. We have compiled this information in the most concise possible way, in the hope that you can look at the charts and see what material best fits your need. Sound is subjective, and our goal is to try and help you come up with the best solution for YOU!
Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the terms used for individual clergy are clergyman, clergywoman, and churchman. Less common terms are churchwoman and clergyperson, while cleric and clerk in holy orders both have a long history but are rarely used. In Christianity, the specific names and roles of the clergy vary by denomination and there is a wide range of formal and informal clergy positions, including deacons, elders, priests, bishops, preachers, pastors, ministers and the pope. In Islam, a religious leader is often known formally or informally as an imam, qadi, mufti, mullah, or ayatollah. In the Jewish tradition, a religious leader is often a rabbi (teacher) or hazzan (cantor). The word "Cleric" comes from the ecclesiastical Latin Clericus, for those belonging to the priestly class. In turn, the source of the Latin word is from the Ecclesiastical Greek Klerikos (κληρικός), meaning appertaining to an inheritance, in reference to the fact that the Levitical priests of the Old Testament had no inheritance except the Lord."Clergy" is from two Old French words, clergié and clergie, which refer to those with learning and derive from Medieval Latin clericatus, from Late Latin clericus (the same word from which "cleric" is derived). "Clerk", which used to mean one ordained to the ministry, also derives from clericus. In the Middle Ages, reading and writing were almost exclusively the domain of the priestly class, and this is the reason for the close relationship of these words. Within Christianity, especially in Eastern Christianity and formerly in Western Roman Catholicism, the term cleric refers to any individual who has been ordained, including deacons, priests, and bishops. In Latin Roman Catholicism, the tonsure was a prerequisite for receiving any of the minor orders or major orders before the tonsure, minor orders, and the subdiaconate were abolished following the Second Vatican Council. Now, the clerical state is tied to reception of the diaconate. Minor Orders are still given in the Eastern Catholic Churches, and those who receive those orders are 'minor clerics.' The use of the word "Cleric" is also appropriate for Eastern Orthodox minor clergy who are tonsured in order not to trivialize orders such as those of Reader in the Eastern Church, or for those who are tonsured yet have no minor or major orders. It is in this sense that the word entered the Arabic language, most commonly in Lebanon from the French, as kleriki (or, alternatively, cleriki) meaning "seminarian." This is all in keeping with Eastern Orthodox concepts of clergy, which still include those who have not yet received, or do not plan to receive, the diaconate. A priesthood is a body of priests, shamans, or oracles who have special religious authority or function. The term priest is derived from the Greek presbyter (πρεσβύτερος, presbýteros, elder or senior), but is often used in the sense of sacerdos in particular, i.e., for clergy performing ritual within the sphere of the sacred or numinous communicating with the gods on behalf of the community. Buddhist clergy are often collectively referred to as the Sangha, and consist of various orders of male and female monks (originally called bhikshus and bhikshunis respectively). This diversity of monastic orders and styles was originally one community founded by Gautama Buddha during the 5th century BC living under a common set of rules (called the Vinaya). According to scriptural records, these celibate monks and nuns in the time of the Buddha lived an austere life of meditation, living as wandering beggars for nine months out of the year and remaining in retreat during the rainy season (although such a unified condition of Pre-sectarian Buddhism is questioned by some scholars). However, as Buddhism spread geographically over time - encountering different cultures, responding to new social, political, and physical environments - this single form of Buddhist monasticism diversified. The interaction between Buddhism and Tibetan Bon led to a uniquely Tibetan Buddhism, within which various sects, based upon certain teacher-student lineages arose. Similarly, the interaction between Indian Buddhist monks (particularly of the Southern Madhyamika School) and Chinese Confucian and Taoist monks from c200-c900AD produced the distinctive Ch'an Buddhism. Ch'an, like the Tibetan style, further diversified into various sects based upon the transmission style of certain teachers (one of the most well known being the 'rapid enlightenment' style of Linji Yixuan), as well as in response to particular political developments such as the An Lushan Rebellion and the Buddhist persecutions of Emperor Wuzong. In these ways, manual labour was introduced to a practice where monks originally survived on alms; layers of garments were added where originally a single thin robe sufficed; etc. This adaptation of form and roles of Buddhist monastic practice continued after the transmission to Japan. For example, monks took on administrative functions for the Emperor in particular secular communities (registering births, marriages, deaths), thereby creating Buddhist 'priests'. Again, in response to various historic attempts to suppress Buddhism (most recently during the Meiji Era), the practice of celibacy was relaxed and Japanese monks allowed to marry. This form was then transmitted to Korea, during later Japanese occupation,where celibate and non-celibate monks today exist in the same sects. (Similar patterns can also be observed in Tibet during various historic periods multiple forms of monasticism have co-existed such as "ngagpa" lamas, and times at which celibacy was relaxed). As these varied styles of Buddhist monasticism are transmitted to Western cultures, still more new forms are being created. In general, the Mahayana schools of Buddhism tend to be more culturally adaptive and innovative with forms, while Theravada schools (the form generally practised in Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Sri Lanka) tend to take a much more conservative view of monastic life, and continue to observe precepts that forbid monks from touching women or working in certain secular roles. This broad difference in approach led to a major schism among Buddhist monastics in about the 4th century BCE, creating the Early Buddhist Schools. While female monastic ( bhikkhuni ) lineages existed in most Buddhist countries at one time, the Theravada lineages of Southeast Asia died out during the 14th-15th Century AD. As there is some debate about whether the bhikkhuni lineage (in the more expansive Vinaya forms) was transmitted to Tibet, the status and future of female Buddhist clergy in this tradition is sometimes disputed by strict adherents to the Theravadan style. Some Mahayana sects, notably in the United States (such as San Francisco Zen Center) are working to reconstruct the female branches of what they consider a common, interwoven lineage. The diversity of Buddhist traditions makes it difficult to generalize about Buddhist clergy. In the United States, Pure Land priests of the Japanese diaspora serve a role very similar to Protestant ministers of the Christian tradition. Meanwhile, reclusive Theravada forest monks in Thailand live a life devoted to meditation and the practice of austerities in small communities in rural Thailand- a very different life from even their city-dwelling counterparts, who may be involved primarily in teaching, the study of scripture, and the administration of the nationally organized (and government sponsored) Sangha. In the Zen traditions of China, Korea and Japan, manual labor is an important part of religious discipline; meanwhile, in the Theravada tradition, prohibitions against monks working as laborers and farmers continue to be generally observed. Currently in North America, there are both celibate and non-celibate clergy in a variety of Buddhist traditions from around the world. In some cases they are forest dwelling monks of the Theravada tradition and in other cases they are married clergy of a Japanese Zen lineage and may work a secular job in addition to their role in the Buddhist community. There is also a growing realization that traditional training in ritual and meditation as well as philosophy may not be sufficient to meet the needs and expectations of American lay people. Some communities have begun exploring the need for training in counseling skills as well. Along these lines, at least two fully accredited Master of Divinity programs are currently available: one at Naropa University in Boulder, CO and one at the University of the West in Rosemead, CA. Titles for Buddhist clergy include: In general, Christian clergy are ordained; that is, they are set apart for specific ministry in religious rites. Others who have definite roles in worship but who are not ordained (e.g. laypeople acting as acolytes) are generally not considered clergy, even though they may require some sort of official approval to exercise these ministries. Types of clerics are distinguished from offices, even when the latter are commonly or exclusively occupied by clerics. A Roman Catholic cardinal, for instance, is almost without exception a cleric, but a cardinal is not a type of cleric. An archbishop is not a distinct type of cleric, but is simply a bishop who occupies a particular position with special authority. Conversely, a youth minister at a parish may or may not be a cleric. Different churches have different systems of clergy, though churches with similar polity have similar systems. In Anglicanism, clergy consist of the orders of deacons, priests (presbyters) and bishops in ascending order of seniority. Canon , archdeacon , archbishop and the like are specific positions within these orders. Bishops are typically overseers, presiding over a diocese composed of many parishes, with an archbishop presiding over a province, which is a group of dioceses. A parish (generally a single church) is looked after by one or more priests, although one priest may be responsible for several parishes. New clergy are ordained deacons. Those seeking to become priests are usually ordained priest after a year. Since the 1960s some Anglican churches have reinstituted the permanent diaconate also in addition to the transitional, order of ministry focused on ministry that bridges the church and the world, especially ministry to those on the margins of society. For the forms of address for Anglican clergy, see Forms of address in the United Kingdom. For a short period of history before the ordination of women as deacons, priests and bishops began within Anglicanism they could be "deaconesses". Although they were usually considered having a ministry distinct from deacons they often had similar ministerial responsibilities. In Anglican churches all clergy are permitted to marry. In most national churches women may become deacons or priests, but while fifteen out of 38 national churches allow for the consecration of women as bishops, only five have ordained any. Celebration of the Eucharist is reserved for priests and bishops. National Anglican churches are presided over by one or more primates or metropolitans (archbishops or presiding bishops). The senior archbishop of the Anglican Communion is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who acts as leader of the Church of England and 'first among equals' of the primates of all Anglican churches. Being a deacon, priest or bishop is considered a function of the person and not a job. When priests retire they are still priests even if they no longer have any active ministry. However, they only hold the basic rank after retirement. Thus a retired archbishop can only be considered a bishop (though it is possible to refer to 'Bishop John Smith, the former Archbishop of York'), a canon or archdeacon is a priest on retirement and does not hold any additional honorifics. \|Part of a series on the\| \| Hierarchy of the\| \|Ecclesiastical titles (order of precedence)\| Ordained clergy in the Roman Catholic Church are either deacons, priests, or bishops belonging to the diaconate, the presbyterate, or the episcopate, respectively. Among bishops, some are metropolitans, archbishops, or patriarchs. The pope is the bishop of Rome, the supreme and universal hierarch of the Church, and his authorization is now required for the ordination of all Catholic bishops. With rare exceptions, cardinals are bishops, although it was not always so; formerly, some cardinals were people who had received clerical tonsure, but not Holy Orders. Secular clergy are ministers, such as deacons and priests, who do not belong to a religious institute and live in the world at large, rather than a religious institute (saeculum). The Holy See supports the activity of its clergy by the Congregation for the Clergy (), a dicastery of Roman curia. Canon Law indicates (canon 207) that "[b]y divine institution, there are among the Christian faithful in the Church sacred ministers who in law are also called clerics; the other members of the Christian faithful are called lay persons".This distinction of a separate ministry was formed in the early times of Christianity; one early source reflecting this distinction, with the three ranks or orders of bishop, priest and deacon, is the writings of Saint Ignatius of Antioch. Holy Orders is one of the Seven Sacraments, enumerated at the Council of Trent, that the Magisterium considers to be of divine institution. In the Roman Catholic Church, only men are permitted to be clerics, although in antiquity women were ordained to the diaconate[ dubious ]. In the Latin Church before 1972, tonsure admitted someone to the clerical state, after which he could receive the four minor orders (ostiary, lectorate, order of exorcists, order of acolytes) and then the major orders of subdiaconate, diaconate, presbyterate, and finally the episcopate, which according to Roman Catholic doctrine is "the fullness of Holy Orders". Since 1972 the minor orders and the subdiaconate have been replaced by lay ministries and clerical tonsure no longer takes place, except in some Traditionalist Catholic groups, and the clerical state is acquired, even in those groups, by Holy Orders.In the Latin Church the initial level of the three ranks of Holy Orders is that of the diaconate. In addition to these three orders of clerics, some Eastern Catholic, or "Uniate", Churches have what are called "minor clerics". Members of institutes of consecrated life and societies of apostolic life are clerics only if they have received Holy Orders. Thus, unordained monks, friars, nuns, and religious brothers and sisters are not part of the clergy. The Code of Canon Law and the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches prescribe that every cleric must be enrolled or "incardinated" in a diocese or its equivalent (an apostolic vicariate, territorial abbey, personal prelature, etc.) or in a religious institute, society of apostolic life or secular institute.The need for this requirement arose because of the trouble caused from the earliest years of the Church by unattached or vagrant clergy subject to no ecclesiastical authority and often causing scandal wherever they went. Current canon law prescribes that to be ordained a priest, an education is required of two years of philosophy and four of theology, including study of dogmatic and moral theology, the Holy Scriptures, and canon law have to be studied within a seminary or an ecclesiastical faculty at a university. Roman Catholicism mandates clerical celibacy for all clergy in the predominant Latin Rite, with the exception of deacons who do not intend to become priests. Exceptions are sometimes admitted for ordination to transitional diaconate and priesthood on a case-by-case basis for married clergymen of other churches or communities who become Catholics, but ordination of married men to the episcopacy is excluded (see personal ordinariate). Clerical marriage is not allowed and therefore, if those for whom in some particular Church celibacy is optional (such as permanent deacons in the Latin Church) wish to marry, they must do so before ordination. Eastern Catholic Churches either follow the same rules as the Latin Church or require celibacy only for bishops. In the High Middle Ages, clergy in Western Europe had four privileges:[ citation needed ] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has no dedicated clergy, and is governed instead by a system of lay priesthood leaders. Locally, unpaid and part-time priesthood holders lead the church; the worldwide church is supervised by full-time general authorities, some of whom receive modest living allowances.No formal theological training is required for any position. All leaders in the church are called by revelation and the laying on of hands by one who holds authority. Jesus Christ stands at the head of the church and leads the church through revelation given to the President of the Church, the First Presidency, and Twelve Apostles, all of whom are recognized as prophets, seers, and revelators and have lifetime tenure. Below these men in the hierarchy are quorums of seventy, which are assigned geographically over the areas of the church. Locally, the church is divided into stakes; each stake has a president, who is assisted by two counselors and a high council. The stake is made up of several individual congregations, which are called "wards" or "branches." Wards are led by a bishop and his counselors and branches by a president and his counselors. Local leaders serve in their positions until released by their supervising authorities. Generally, all worthy males age 12 and above receive the priesthood. Youth age 12 to 18 are ordained to the Aaronic priesthood as deacons, teachers, or priests, which authorizes them to perform certain ordinances and sacraments. Adult males are ordained to the Melchizedek priesthood, as elders, seventies, high priests, or patriarchs in that priesthood, which is concerned with spiritual leadership of the church. Although the term "clergy" is not typically used in the LDS Church, it would most appropriately apply to local bishops and stake presidents. Merely holding an office in the priesthood does not imply authority over other church members or agency to act on behalf of the entire church. \|Part of a series on the\| \|Eastern Orthodox Church\| The Orthodox Church has three ranks of holy orders: bishop, priest, and deacon. These are the same offices identified in the New Testament and found in the Early Church, as testified by the writings of the Holy Fathers. Each of these ranks is ordained through the Sacred Mystery (sacrament) of the laying on of hands (called cheirotonia ) by bishops. Priests and deacons are ordained by their own diocesan bishop, while bishops are consecrated through the laying on of hands of at least three other bishops. Within each of these three ranks there are found a number of titles. Bishops may have the title of archbishop, metropolitan, and patriarch, all of which are considered honorifics. Among the Orthodox, all bishops are considered equal, though an individual may have a place of higher or lower honor, and each has his place within the order of precedence. Priests (also called presbyters) may (or may not) have the title of archpriest, protopresbyter (also called "protopriest", or "protopope"), hieromonk (a monk who has been ordained to the priesthood) archimandrite (a senior hieromonk) and hegumen (abbot). Deacons may have the title of hierodeacon (a monk who has been ordained to the deaconate), archdeacon or protodeacon. The lower clergy are not ordained through cheirotonia (laying on of hands) but through a blessing known as cheirothesia (setting-aside). These clerical ranks are subdeacon, reader and altar server (also known as taper-bearer). Some churches have a separate service for the blessing of a cantor. Ordination of a bishop, priest, deacon or subdeacon must be conferred during the Divine Liturgy (Eucharist)—though in some churches it is permitted to ordain up through deacon during the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts—and no more than a single individual can be ordained to the same rank in any one service. Numerous members of the lower clergy may be ordained at the same service, and their blessing usually takes place during the Little Hours prior to Liturgy, or may take place as a separate service. The blessing of readers and taper-bearers is usually combined into a single service. Subdeacons are ordained during the Little Hours, but the ceremonies surrounding his blessing continue through the Divine Liturgy, specifically during the Great Entrance. Bishops are usually drawn from the ranks of the archimandrites, and are required to be celibate; however, a non-monastic priest may be ordained to the episcopate if he no longer lives with his wife (following Canon XII of the Quinisext Council of Trullo)In contemporary usage such a non-monastic priest is usually tonsured to the monastic state, and then elevated to archimandrite, at some point prior to his consecration to the episcopacy. Although not a formal or canonical prerequisite, at present bishops are often required to have earned a university degree, typically but not necessarily in theology. Usual titles are Your Holiness for a patriarch (with Your All-Holiness reserved for the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople), Your Beatitude for an archbishop/metropolitan overseeing an autocephalous Church, Your Eminence for an archbishop/metropolitan generally, Master or Your Grace for a bishop and Father for priests, deacons and monks,although there are variations between the various Orthodox Churches. For instance, in Churches associated with the Greek tradition, while the Ecumenical Patriarch is addressed as "Your All-Holiness," all other Patriarchs (and archbishops/metropolitans who oversee autocephalous Churches) are addressed as "Your Beatitude." Orthodox priests, deacons, and subdeacons must be either married or celibate (preferably monastic) prior to ordination, but may not marry after ordination. Remarriage of clergy following divorce or widowhood is forbidden. Married clergy are considered as best-suited to staff parishes, as a priest with a family is thought better qualified to counsel his flock.It has been common practice in the Russian tradition for unmarried, non-monastic clergy to occupy academic posts. Clergy in Protestantism fill a wide variety of roles and functions. In many denominations, such as Methodism, Presbyterianism, and Lutheranism, the roles of clergy are similar to Roman Catholic or Anglican clergy, in that they hold an ordained pastoral or priestly office, administer the sacraments, proclaim the word, lead a local church or parish, and so forth. The Baptist tradition only recognizes two ordained positions in the church as being the elders (pastors) and deacons as outlined in the third chapter of I Timothy [1Tim 3] in the Bible. The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) ordains two types of presbyters or elders, teaching (pastor) and ruling (leaders of the congregation which form a council with the pastors). Teaching elders are seminary trained and ordained as a presbyter and set aside on behalf of the whole denomination to the ministry of Word and Sacrament. Ordinarily, teaching elders are installed by a presbytery as pastor of a congregation. Ruling elders, after receiving training, may be commissioned by a presbytery to serve as a pastor of a congregation, as well as preach and administer sacraments. The process of being designated as a member of the Protestant clergy, as well as that of being assigned to a particular office, varies with the denomination or faith group. Some Protestant denominations, such as Methodism, Presbyterianism, and Lutheranism, are hierarchical in nature; and ordination and assignment to individual pastorates or other ministries are made by the parent denominations. In other traditions, such as the Baptist and other Congregational groups, local churches are free to hire (and often ordain) their own clergy, although the parent denominations typically maintain lists of suitable candidates seeking appointment to local church ministries and encourage local churches to consider these individuals when filling available positions. Some Protestant denominations require that candidates for ordination be "licensed" to the ministry for a period of time (typically one to three years) prior to being ordained. This period typically is spent performing the duties of ministry under the guidance, supervision, and evaluation of a more senior, ordained minister. In some denominations, however, licensure is a permanent, rather than a transitional state for ministers assigned to certain specialized ministries, such as music ministry or youth ministry. Many Protestant denominations reject the idea that the clergy are a separate category of people, but rather stress the priesthood of all believers. Based on this theological approach, most Protestants do not have a sacrament of ordination like the pre-Reformation churches. Protestant ordination, therefore, can be viewed more as a public statement by the ordaining body that an individual possesses the theological knowledge, moral fitness, and practical skills required for service in that faith group's ministry. Some Lutheran churches form an exception to this rule, as the Lutheran Book of Concord allows ordination to be received as a sacrament. Some Protestant denominations dislike the word clergy and do not use it of their own leaders. Often they refer to their leaders as pastors or ministers, titles that, if used, sometimes apply to the person only as long as he or she holds a particular office. Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense; there is no institution resembling the Christian priesthood. Islamic religious leaders do not "serve as intermediaries between mankind and God",have "process of ordination", nor "sacramental functions". They have been said to resemble more rabbis, serving as "exemplars, teachers, judges, and community leaders," providing religious rules to the pious on "even the most minor and private" matters. The title mullah (a Persian variation of the Arabic maula, "master"), commonly translated "cleric" in the West and thought to be analogous to "priest" or "rabbi", is a title of address for any educated or respected figure, not even necessarily (though frequently) religious. The title sheikh ("elder") is used similarly. Most of the religious titles associated with Islam are scholastic or academic in nature: they recognize the holder's exemplary knowledge of the theory and practice of ad-dín (religion), and do not confer any particular spiritual or sacerdotal authority. The most general such title is `alim (pl. `ulamah ), or "scholar". This word describes someone engaged in advanced study of the traditional Islamic sciences (`ulum) at an Islamic university or madrasah jami`ah . A scholar's opinions may be valuable to others because of his/her knowledge in religious matters; but such opinions should not generally be considered binding, infallible, or absolute, as the individual Muslim is directly responsible to God for his or her own religious beliefs and practice. The nearest analogue among Sunni Muslims to the parish priest or pastor, or to the "pulpit rabbi" of a synagogue, is called the imam khatib. This compound title is merely a common combination of two elementary offices: leader (imam) of the congregational prayer, which in most mosques is performed at the times of all daily prayers; and preacher (khatib) of the sermon or khutba of the obligatory congregational prayer at midday every Friday. Although either duty can be performed by anyone who is regarded as qualified by the congregation, at most well-established mosques imam khatib is a permanent part-time or full-time position. He may be elected by the local community, or appointed by an outside authority – e.g., the national government, or the waqf which sustains the mosque. There is no ordination as such; the only requirement for appointment as an imam khatib is recognition as someone of sufficient learning and virtue to perform both duties on a regular basis, and to instruct the congregation in the basics of Islam. The title hafiz (lit. "preserver") is awarded to one who has memorized the entire Qur'an, often by attending a special course for the purpose; the imam khatib of a mosque is frequently (though not always) a hafiz. There are several specialist offices pertaining to the study and administration of Islamic law or shari`ah. A scholar with a specialty in fiqh or jurisprudence is known as a faqih . A qadi is a judge in an Islamic court. A mufti is a scholar who has completed an advanced course of study which qualifies him to issue judicial opinions or fatawah . In modern Shia Islam, scholars play a more prominent role in the daily lives of Muslims than in Sunni Islam; and there is a hierarchy of higher titles of scholastic authority, such as Ayatollah . Since around the mid-19th century, a more complex title has been used in Twelver Shi`ism, namely marjaʿ at-taqlid. Marjaʿ (pl. marajiʿ) means "source", and taqlid refers to religious emulation or imitation. Lay Shi`ah must identify a specific marjaʿ whom they emulate, according to his legal opinions (fatawah) or other writings. On several occasions, the Marjaʿiyyat (community of all marajiʿ) has been limited to a single individual, in which case his rulings have been applicable to all those living in the Twelver Shi'ah world. Of broader importance has been the role of the mujtahid, a cleric of superior knowledge who has the authority to perform ijtihad (independent judgment). Mujtahids are few in number, but it is from their ranks that the marajiʿ at-taqlid are drawn. The spiritual guidance function known in many Christian denominations as "pastoral care" is fulfilled for many Muslims by a murshid ("guide"), a master of the spiritual sciences and disciplines known as tasawuf or Sufism. Sufi guides are commonly styled Shaikh in both speaking and writing; in North Africa they are sometimes called marabouts . They are traditionally appointed by their predecessors, in an unbroken teaching lineage reaching back to Muhammad. (The lineal succession of guides bears a superficial similarity to Christian ordination and apostolic succession, or to Buddhist dharma transmission; but a Sufi guide is regarded primarily as a specialized teacher and Islam denies the existence of an earthly hierarchy among believers.) Muslims who wish to learn Sufism dedicate themselves to a murshid's guidance by taking an oath called a bai'ah . The aspirant is then known as a murid ("disciple" or "follower"). A murid who takes on special disciplines under the guide's instruction, ranging from an intensive spiritual retreat to voluntary poverty and homelessness, is sometimes known as a dervish. During the Islamic Golden Age, it was common for scholars to attain recognized mastery of both the "exterior sciences" (`ulum az-zahir) of the madrasahs as well as the "interior sciences" (`ulum al-batin) of Sufism. Al-Ghazali and Rumi are two notable examples. The highest office an Ahmadi can hold is that of Khalifatu l-Masih. Such a person may appoint amirs who manage regional areas.The consultative body for Ahmadiyya is called the Majlis-i-Shura, which ranks second in importance to the Khalifatu l-Masih. However, the Ahmadiyya community is declared as non-Muslims by many mainstream Muslims and they reject the messianic claims of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. Rabbinic Judaism does not have clergy as such, although according to the Torah there is a tribe of priests known as the Kohanim who were leaders of the religion up to the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 AD when most Sadducees were wiped out; each member of the tribe, a Kohen had priestly duties, many of which centered around the sacrificial duties, atonement and blessings of the Israelite nation. Today, Jewish Kohanim know their status by family tradition, and still offer the priestly blessing during certain services in the synagogue and perform the Pidyon haben (redemption of the first-born son) ceremony. Since the time of the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, the religious leaders of Judaism have often been rabbis, who are technically scholars in Jewish law empowered to act as judges in a rabbinical court. All types of Judaism except Orthodox Judaism allow women as well as men to be ordained as rabbis and cantors.The leadership of a Jewish congregation is, in fact, in the hands of the laity: the president of a synagogue is its actual leader and any adult male Jew (or adult Jew in non-traditional congregations) can lead prayer services. The rabbi is not an occupation found in the Torah; the first time this word is mentioned is in the Mishnah. The modern form of the rabbi developed in the Talmudic era. Rabbis are given authority to make interpretations of Jewish law and custom. Traditionally, a man obtains one of three levels of Semicha (rabbinic ordination) after the completion of an arduous learning program in Torah, Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), Mishnah and Talmud, Midrash, Jewish ethics and lore, the codes of Jewish law and responsa, theology and philosophy. Since the early medieval era an additional communal role, the Hazzan (cantor) has existed as well. Cantors have sometimes been the only functionaries of a synagogue, empowered to undertake religio-civil functions like witnessing marriages. Cantors do provide leadership of actual services, primarily because of their training and expertise in the music and prayer rituals pertaining to them, rather than because of any spiritual or "sacramental" distinction between them and the laity. Cantors as much as rabbis have been recognized by civil authorities in the United States as clergy for legal purposes, mostly for awarding education degrees and their ability to perform weddings, and certify births and deaths. Additionally, Jewish authorities license mohels , people specially trained by experts in Jewish law and usually also by medical professionals to perform the ritual of circumcision.Traditional Orthodox Judaism does not license women as mohels, but other types of Judaism do. They are appropriately called mohelot (pl. of mohelet, f. of mohel) . As the Jewish News Weekly of Northern California states, "...there is no halachic prescription against female mohels, [but] none exist in the Orthodox world, where the preference is that the task be undertaken by a Jewish man.". In many places, mohels are also licensed by civil authorities, as circumcision is technically a surgical procedure. Kohanim, who must avoid contact with dead human body parts (such as the removed foreskin) for ritual purity, cannot act as mohels, [ citation needed ] but some mohels are also either rabbis or cantors. Another licensed cleric in Judaism is the shochet , who are trained and licensed by religious authorities for kosher slaughter according to ritual law. A Kohen may be a shochet. Most shochetim are ordained rabbis. Then there is the mashgiach . A mashgiach is someone who supervises the kashrut status of a kosher establishment. The mashgiach must know the Torah laws of kashrut, and how they apply in the environment he is supervising. Obviously, this can vary. In many instances, the mashgiach is a rabbi. This helps, since rabbinical students learn the laws of kosher as part of their syllabus. However, not every mashgiach is a rabbi, and not every rabbi is qualified to be a mashgiach. In contemporary Orthodox Judaism, women are forbidden from becoming rabbis or cantors.[ citation needed ] Most Orthodox rabbinical seminaries or yeshivas also require dedication of many years to education, but few require a formal degree from a civil education institution that often define Christian clergy. Training is often focused on Jewish law, and some Orthodox Yeshivas forbid secular education. In Hasidic Judaism, generally understood as a branch of Orthodox Judaism, there are dynastic spiritual leaders known as Rebbes , often translated in English as "Grand Rabbi". The office of Rebbe is generally a hereditary one, but may also be passed from Rebbe to student or by recognition of a congregation conferring a sort of coronation to their new Rebbe. Although one does not need to be an ordained Rabbi to be a Rebbe, most Rebbes today are ordained Rabbis. Since one does not need to be an ordained rabbi to be a Rebbe, at some points in history there were female Rebbes as well, particularly the Maiden of Ludmir. In Conservative Judaism, both men and women are ordained as rabbis and cantors. Conservative Judaism differs with Orthodoxy in that it sees Jewish Law as binding but also as subject to many interpretations, including more liberal interpretations. Academic requirements for becoming a rabbi are rigorous. First earn a bachelor's degree before entering rabbinical school. Studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism and most importantly the academic study of Bible, Talmud and rabbinic literature, philosophy and theology, liturgy, Jewish history, and Hebrew literature of all periods. Reconstructionist Judaism and Reform Judaism do not maintain the traditional requirements for study as rooted in Jewish Law and traditionalist text. Both men and women may be rabbis or cantors. The rabbinical seminaries of these movements hold that one must first earn a bachelor's degree before entering the rabbinate. In addition studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism; and academic biblical criticism. Emphasis is placed not on Jewish law, but rather on sociology, modern Jewish philosophy, Theology and Pastoral Care. Sikh clergy consists of five Jathedars , one each from five takhts or sacred seats. The Jathedars are appointed by the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC), an elected body of the Sikhs sometimes called the "Parliament of Sikhs." The highest seat of the Sikh religion is called Akal Takht and the Jathedar of Akal Takht makes all the important decisions after consultations with the Jathedars of the other four takhts and the SGPC. Historically traditional (or pagan ) religions typically combine religious authority and political power. What this means is that the sacred king or queen is therefore seen to combine both kingship and priesthood within his or her person, even though he or she is often aided by an actual high priest or priestess (see, for example, the Maya priesthood). When the functions of political ruler and religious leader are combined in this way, deification could be seen to be the next logical stage of his or her social advancement within his or her native environment, as is found in the case of the Egyptian Pharaohs. The Vedic priesthood of India is an early instance of a structured body of clergy organized as a separate and hereditary caste, one that occupied the highest social rung of its nation. A modern example of this phenomenon the priestly monarchs of the Yoruba holy city of Ile-Ife in Nigeria, whose reigning Onis have performed ritual ceremonies for centuries for the sustenance of the entire planet and its people. In recent years, studies have suggested that American clergy in certain Protestant, Evangelical and Jewish traditions are more at risk than the general population of obesity, hypertension and depression. Their life expectancies have fallen in recent years and in the last decade their use of antidepressants has risen.[ citation needed ] Several religious bodies in the United States (Methodist, Episcopal, Baptist and Lutheran) have implemented measures to address the issue, through wellness campaigns, for example - but also by simply ensuring that clergy take more time off. It is unclear whether similar symptoms affect American Muslim clerics, although an anecdotal comment by one American imam suggested that leaders of mosques may also share these problems. One exception to the findings of these studies is the case of American Catholic priests, who are required by canon law to take a spiritual retreat each year, and four weeks of vacation. Sociological studies at the University of Chicago have confirmed this exception; the studies also took the results of several earlier studies into consideration and included Roman Catholic priests nationwide.It remains unclear whether American clergy in other religious traditions experience the same symptoms, or whether clergy outside the United States are similarly affected. In certain Christian churches, holy orders are ordained ministries such as bishop, priest, or deacon, and the sacrament or rite by which candidates are ordained to those orders. Churches recognizing these orders include the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, Assyrian, Old Catholic, Independent Catholic and some Lutheran churches. Except for Lutherans and some Anglicans, these churches regard ordination as a sacrament. The Anglo-Catholic tradition within Anglicanism identifies more with the Roman Catholic position about the sacramental nature of ordination. A deacon is a member of the diaconate, an office in Christian churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. Major Christian churches, such as the Catholic Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican church, view the diaconate as part of the clerical state. The Reverend is an honorific style most often placed before the names of Christian clergy and ministers. There are sometimes differences in the way the style is used in different countries and church traditions. The Reverend is correctly called a style but is often and in some dictionaries called a title, form of address or title of respect. The style is also sometimes used by leaders in non-Christian religions, such as Judaism. Subdeacon is a title used in various branches of Christianity. Ordination is the process by which individuals are consecrated, that is, set apart and elevated from the laity class to the clergy, who are thus then authorized to perform various religious rites and ceremonies. The process and ceremonies of ordination vary by religion and denomination. One who is in preparation for, or who is undergoing the process of ordination is sometimes called an ordinand. The liturgy used at an ordination is sometimes referred to as an ordination. Defrocking, unfrocking, or laicization of clergy is the removal of their rights to exercise the functions of the ordained ministry. It may be grounded on criminal convictions, disciplinary problems, or disagreements over doctrine or dogma, but may also be done at their request for personal reasons, such as running for civil office, taking over a family business, declining health or old age, desire to marry against the rules for clergy in a particular church, or an unresolved dispute. The form of the procedure varies according to the Christian denomination concerned. The term defrocking implies forced laicization for misconduct, while laicization is a neutral term, applicable also when clergy have requested to be released from their ordination vows. Clerical celibacy is the requirement in certain religions that some or all members of the clergy be unmarried. These religions consider that, outside of marriage, deliberately indulging in lustful thoughts and behavior is sinful; clerical celibacy also requires abstention from these. The ordination of women to ministerial or priestly office is an increasingly common practice among some major religious groups of the present time. It remains a controversial issue in certain Christian denominations where "ordination" has for almost 2,000 years been limited only to men. Minor orders are ranks of church ministry lower than major orders. Clerical marriage is a term used to described the practice of allowing Christian clergy to marry. This practice is distinct from allowing married persons to become clergy. Clerical marriage is admitted among Protestants, including both Anglicans and Lutherans. In Christianity, a minister is a person authorized by a church or other religious organization to perform functions such as teaching of beliefs; leading services such as weddings, baptisms or funerals; or otherwise providing spiritual guidance to the community. The term is taken from Latin minister, which itself was derived from minus ("less"). A religious is, in the terminology of many Western Christian denominations, such as the Catholic Church, Lutheran Churches, and Anglican Communion, what in common language one would call a "monk" or "nun", as opposed to an ordained "priest". A religious may also be a priest if he has undergone ordination, but in general he is not. The term secular clergy refers to deacons and priests who are not monastics or members of a religious institute. A diocesan priest is a Catholic, Anglican or Eastern Orthodox priest who commits themself to a certain geographical area and is ordained into the service of the citizens of a diocese, a church administrative region. That includes serving the everyday needs of the people in parishes, but their activities are not limited to that of their parish. The sacrament of holy orders in the Catholic Church includes three orders: bishop, priest, and deacon. In the phrase "holy orders", the word "holy" simply means "set apart for some purpose." The word "order" designates an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ordination means legal incorporation into an order. In context, therefore, a group with a hierarchical structure that is set apart for ministry in the Church. Dimissorial letters are testimonial letters given by a bishop or by a competent religious superior to his subjects in order that they may be ordained by another bishop. Such letters testify that the subject has all the qualities demanded by canon law for the reception of the order in question, and request the bishop to whom they are addressed to ordain him. The priesthood is one of the three holy orders of the Catholic Church, comprising the ordained priests or presbyters. The other two orders are the bishops and the deacons. Only men are allowed to receive holy orders, and the church does not allow any transgender people to do so. Church doctrine also sometimes refers to all baptised Catholics as the "common priesthood". This is a timeline of women's ordination in America. This is a timeline of women's ordination. This is a timeline of women in religion. \|Look up clergy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\| \|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Clergy\|
Whether you’re lucky enough to have visited Paris or have only ever dreamed of going there, chances are you know of the French capital’s most beloved landmark: the Eiffel Tower. The Eiffel Tower, La Tour Eiffel in French, was the main exhibit of the Paris Exposition — or World’s Fair — of 1889. It was constructed to commemorate the centennial of the French Revolution and to demonstrate France’s industrial prowess to the world. Gustave Eiffel, a French civil engineer, is usually credited with designing the tower that bears his name. However, it was actually two lesser-known men, Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier, who came up with the original drawings for the monument. Construction of the Eiffel Tower Each of the 18,000 pieces used to build the tower was calculated specifically for the project and prepared in Eiffel’s factory on the outskirts of Paris. The wrought iron structure is composed of four immense arched legs, set on masonry piers, that curve inward until joining in a single, tapered tower. Building the tower required 2.5 million thermally assembled rivets and 7,300 tons of iron. To protect the tower from the elements, workers painted every inch of the structure, a feat that required 60 tons of paint. The tower has since been repainted 18 times. Eiffel Tower fun facts - Gustave Eiffel used latticed wrought iron to construct the tower to demonstrate that the metal could be as strong as stone while being lighter. - Gustave Eiffel also created the internal frame for the Statue of Liberty. - Construction of the Eiffel Tower cost 7,799,401.31 French gold francs in 1889. - The Eiffel Tower is 1,063 feet (324 meters) tall, including the antenna at the top. Without the antenna, it is 984 feet (300 m). - It was the tallest manmade structure until the Chrysler Building was built in New York in 1930. - The tower was built to sway slightly in the wind, but the sun affects the tower more. As the sun-facing side of the tower heats up, the top moves as much as 7 inches (18 centimeters) away from the sun. - The sun also causes the tower to grow about 6 inches. - The Eiffel Tower weighs 10,000 tons. - There are 5 billion lights on the Eiffel Tower. - The French have a nickname for the tower: La Dame de Fer, “the Iron Lady.” - The first platform is 190 feet above the ground; the second platform is 376 feet, and the third platform is almost 900 feet up. - The Eiffel Tower has 108 stories, with 1,710 steps. However, visitors can only climb stairs to the first platform. There are two elevators. - One elevator travels a total distance of 64,001 miles (103,000 kilometers) a year. Uses of the tower When the Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel first won the commission to build a tower on the Champs de Mars, it was understood that the structure was temporary and would be removed after 20 years. But Gustave Eiffel was not keen on seeing his favorite project dismantled, and so he set about making the tower an indispensable tool for the scientific community. Just days after its opening, Eiffel installed a meteorology laboratory on the third floor of the tower. He invited scientists to use the lab for their studies on everything from gravity to electricity. Ultimately, however, it was the tower’s looming height, not its laboratory, that saved it from extinction. In 1910, the city of Paris renewed Eiffel’s concession for the tower because of the structure’s usefulness as a wireless telegraph transmitter. The French military used the tower to communicate wirelessly with ships in the Atlantic Ocean and intercept enemy messages during world war 1. The tower is still home to more than 120 antennas, broadcasting both radio and television signals throughout the capital city and beyond. The tower today The Eiffel Tower is still the centerpiece of Paris’ cityscape. More than 7 million people visit this iconic tower every year, according to the attraction’s official website. Since its opening in 1889, 250 million people from around the world have enjoyed all that the Eiffel Tower has to offer. And it has a lot to offer. The tower’s three platforms are home to two restaurants, several buffets, a banquet hall, a champagne bar and many unique gift shops. Educational tours of the tower are available for children and tourist groups. The tower is open to visitors 365 days a year, with visiting times varying by season. From June to September, the tower remains open until after midnight. Rates vary, but visitors can expect to pay between $19 (14.5 euros) and $13 (10 euros) per person for access to the tower’s three public lifts and 704 stairs. Tickets, including group-discounted tickets, can be purchased online or at the ticket office at the foot of the tower.
PoliomyelitisOften called polio or infantile paralysis, is aninfectious disease caused by a virus. This virus is a member of the enterovirussubgroup of the Picornaviridae familyand has three serotypes: PV1, PV2 and PV3. The tissue mostcommonlyaffected is thespinal cord whichleads to theclassicmanifestations ofparalysis. EpidemiologyAs a result of a massive, global vaccinationcampaign over the past 20 years, polio exists onlyin a few countries in Africa and Asia.In the Philippines, the last polio case wasrecorded in 1993, and in 2000 the Philippines wascertified polio-free (UNICEF, 2005). TransmissionPerson-to-person spread of poliovirus via thefecal-oral route is the most important route oftransmission, although the oral-oral route mayaccount for some cases. Compromisedimmmune system Lack of immunization against polio Extreme stress orstrenous activity Travel to an area that hasexperienced a polio outbreak PathogenesisThe mouth is the portal of entry of the virus andprimary multiplication of the virus occurs at the site ofimplantation in the pharynx and gastrointestinal tract.The virus is usually present in the throat and in thestools before the onset of illness. One week after onsetthere is little virus in the throat, but virus continues tobe excreted in the stools for several weeks. The virusinvades local lymphoid tissue, enters the blood stream,and then may infect cells of the central nervoussystem. Replication of poliovirus in motor neurons ofthe anterior horn and brain stem results in celldestruction and causes the typical manifestations ofpoliomyelitis. Paralytic polio is classified into three types... Spinal polio - the most common, and accounted for 79% of paralytic cases from 1969-1979. It is characterized by asymmetric paralysis that most often involves the legs.Bulbar polio - accounts for 2% of cases and leadsto weakness of muscles innervated by cranialnerves.Bulbospinal polio - it accounts for 19% of casesand is a combination of bulbar and spinalparalysis. Clinical Features The incubation period for poliomyelitis is commonly 6 to 20 days with a range from 3 to 35 days. The response to poliovirus infection is highly variable and has been categorized based on the severity of clinical presentation. PATHOGNOMONIC SIGNflaccid paralysis, weakness or paralysis andreduced muscle tone. • PATHOGNOMONIC SIGN• flaccid paralysis, weakness or paralysis and reduced muscle tone. INAPPARENT INFECTION no manifestation no manifestationABORTIVE • sore throat • upper respiratory • PainPOLIOMYELITIS • abdominal pain tract infection • Fluid Volume • constipation or • fever Deficit diarrhea • Imbalanced • nausea Nutrition: less than body requirement • decreased appetite • Fatigue • HyperthermiaNONPARALYTIC • stiffness of the • PainPOLIOMYELITIS neck, back, and/or • Hyperthermia legsPARALYTIC • severe muscle • loss of superficial • Disturbed bodyPOLIOMYELITIS aches and spasms reflexes image in the limbs or • diminished deep • Risk for Injury back tendon reflexes • Self-Care Deficit • flaccid paralysis • weakened • Impaired breathing breathing pattern • flushed or blotchy skin DIAGNOSTIC STUDIESVirus CultureThe laboratory diagnosis of polio is confirmed by isolation of virus bycultures, from the stool or throat swab or cerebrospinal fluid (rare). In aninfected person, the virus is most likely to be cultured in stool cultures.Serologic testAcute and convalescent serum sample may be tested for rise in antibodytiter (antibodies to the poliovirus), but the report can be difficult tointerpret as in many cases, the rise in titer may occur prior to paralysis.Cerebrospinal fluid testInfection with polio virus may cause an increased number of white bloodcells and a mildly elevated protein level in cerebrospinal fluid MANAGEMENT Treatment of pain with analgesics (such as acetaminophen). Antibiotics for secondary infections (none for poliovirus). Fluid Therapy Bed rest (until fever is reduced) Adequate diet Minimal exertion and exercise Hot packs or heating pads (for muscle pain). Prolong rehabilitation may be necessary including braces, splint or surgery. MANAGEMENTHospitalization (may be required for those individuals who develop paralytic poliomyelitis).If the respiratory is involved, LONG-TERM VENTILATION is necessary.Physiotherapy may be necessary.Place the child on firm mattress with support for feet, change position frequently.Encourage oral intake of food and fluid.Catheterization of distended bladder may be necessary. PREVENTION• The best preventive measure for poliomyelitis is ensuring hygiene and encouraging good sanitation practices. But, polio prevention begins with polio vaccination. Polio vaccine has been developed against all 3 subtypes of the poliovirus and is very effective in producing protective antibodies that induces immunity against the poliovirus and provides protection from paralytic polio. Two types of vaccine are available: an inactivated (killed) polio vaccine (IPV) and a live attenuated (weakened) oral polio vaccine (OPV). ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGESInactivated Polio Vaccine It is inactivated, so it cannot Requires injection replicate, and cannot be More expensive shed in the stool of a Produces less local vaccinated person. gastrointestinal immunity It cannot cause vaccine Recipients could become associated paralysis, and is infected with wild polio safe to use in virus immunodeficient persons or in household contacts of immunodeficient persons.Oral Polio Vaccine It is very easy to administer May cause vaccine- Less expensive associated paralytic polio Produces excellent intestinal immunity which helps Prevent infection with wild virus GUIDE ON POLIOMYELITIS IMMUNIZATION (OPV)Route OralSite MouthNumber of Dose 3 dosesAge at First Dose 6 weeks after birthMinimum Intervals 4 weeksbetween DosesDosage 2 dropsStorage Temperature -15 to -25 °C EVALUATIONPROGNOSIS• The outlook depends on the form of the disease (subclinical, or paralytic) and the body area affected. Most of the time, complete recovery is likely if the spinal cord and brain are not involved.• Brain or spinal cord involvement is a medical emergency that may result in paralysis or death (usually from respiratory problems).• Disability is more common than death. Infection that is located high in the spinal cord or in the brain increases the risk of breathing problems
Crimean Tatar diaspora \|This article does not cite any references or sources. (December 2007)\| \|Part of a series on\| \|By region or country\| \|Languages and dialects\| \|People and groups\| The Crimean Tatar diaspora dates back to the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 1783, after which Crimean Tatars emigrated in a series of waves spanning the period from 1783 to 1917. The diaspora was largely the result of the destruction of their social and economic life as a consequence of integration into the Russian Empire. The Soviet Union brought about the final dispersal of Crimean Tatars in 1944, in the midst of the World War II, when it deported all Tatars remaining in the Crimea to Central Asia. This population is considered an exiled community rather than a diaspora. Experiences in exile within the Ottoman Empire \|This article needs additional citations for verification. (May 2010)\| There have been continuously members of Tatar nobility in the Ottoman Empire, due to close relations between the two states. There was a Giray vassal state in the Ottoman province of Bucak (Bessarabia). It was centered on the towns of Bender and Çatal Osman, and considered semi-independent (only controlled by Ottoman Pasha in Rusçuk.) In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ottomans colonized Dobruja with Crimean Tatars from Bucak. Between 1593 and 1595, Crimean Tatars were also settled to Dobruja. (Frederick de Jong) Some Crimean Tatars went to Greece and Turkey. However, the first Crimean Tatar emigration took place after the Russian annexation of Crimea. Crimean Tatar ruling class (mirzas) and mullahs sought asylum within the North Caucasian people, fearing persecution. Their number were around 8,000. Their relations to Crimea continued from their Caucasian safe havens. Hopes that a Giray from the Caucasus would return to liberate Crimea continued until the very conquest of North Caucasus by the Russians in 1859. The Crimean Tatars in the North Caucasus were exiled to Anatolia in 1877-1878 together with Circassians and Chechens by the Russian Empire. The exiled Muslims from the North Caucasus were around one million. After the annexation, 4,000 Tatars also escaped to westward direction to the Ottoman fortress of Ozu (Ochakov), and from there to the Ottoman province of Bucak (Bessarabia) where a vassal Giray dynasty existed. With the conquest of Bessarabia by the Russians in 1812, all Tatars here migrated to southwards, to the Dobruja province. Crimean Tatars immigrated to the Ottoman Empire, where they were welcomed as fellow Muslims and as the populace of the formerly protected Crimean Khanate. The Ottoman territory was called "aqtopraq" ("white soil" or more probably "soil of justice") by the Crimean Tatar immigrants, as they conceived of their migration as a "hijra" similar to the prophet's temporary retreat to Medina under the pressure from enemies of Islam. The outflow of the Crimean Tatars turned into an exodus after the Crimean War (1854–1856), as the Russian government began to treat the Crimean Tatars as internal threats to its security because of their historical relations with the Ottoman Empire. The majority of the Crimean Tatar immigrants were settled in the Dobruja region of the Balkans by the Ottoman authorities, but some were directed to various parts of Anatolia, where significant numbers of Crimean Tatars perished due to changes in environmental and climate conditions. Although there were Crimean Tatars who emigrated from the mountainous, coastal, and urban parts of the Crimea among them, the majority of the emigrants were from the steppes of Crimea and its surroundings, who lived largely in closed peasant communities. According to ancient Crimean Tatar traditions, marriage between relatives (e.g. cousins), even very distant ones, has always been strictly prohibited, unlike the local population of Anatolia. The ones who lived in a concentrated manner in adjacent villages, such as the ones around Eskişehir region, were able to maintain their ethnic identity and language intact almost up until the 1970s. The Crimean Tatar diaspora identity emerged over this period in the form of predominantly oral cultural traditions in stories, songs, poems, myths, and legends about the loss of the "homeland" and the miseries of immigration. An excerpt from Crimean Tatar exile literature is as follows: - The angry and wild Black Sea roared, - Rushed to extinguish my burning motherland. - The old Çatırdağ, distressed and worried, - "Where are the Tatars going?" she cried. Eskender Fazıl, from his poem Stand Up The end of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of modern Turkey With the shrinking of the Ottoman Empire in the last quarter of the 19th century, once again the majority of the Crimean Tatars in Dobrudja migrated to Anatolia, and sometimes re-migrated several times more within Anatolia. This pattern of immigration contributed to the severing of kinship ties, and hence ties to the homeland, amalgamating the previously more segregated sub-groups of Crimean Tatars. A small number of Crimean Tatar refugees from the USSR joined the diaspora in Turkey after World War II, and a small number migrated from Romania and Bulgaria to Turkey after the decline of communism. The Crimean Tatar diaspora in Turkey established several ethnic associations. Exile within the Soviet Union On May 18, 1944, the Soviet government deported the Crimean Tatars who were left in Crimea to Central Asia. After 1989, nearly 300,000 Tatars were able to return to Crimea from their places of deportation. Their return was met the strong opposition of the rest population of Crimea. Another roughly 270,000 Crimean Tatars remain in Uzbekistan and other parts of the former Soviet Union. This population is best considered as an exiled community rather than a diaspora, although they might develop into a diaspora if their exile is prolonged. Diaspora within the Eastern Bloc and elsewhere The Crimean Tatar diaspora community in Romania, today numbering 24,000 (2002 Romanian Census) had been a very vibrant one until the beginning of the communist era in Romania. It has also recently experienced an ethnic revival and renewal of links with the homeland, as well as with other diaspora communities, particularly the one in Turkey. The Crimean Tatar diaspora community in Bulgaria number only in the thousands, but they also recently began to link themselves with their co-ethnics abroad, and especially with the repatriated Crimean Tatars. The Crimean Tatars in the USA are the highest number of the diaspora in the Western hemisphere, they are composed of refugees from Crimea, Romania, Bulgaria and Greece. The main challenges to the Crimean Tatar diaspora in the 1990s were the erosion of ethnic identity as a result of swift modernization of communities and the consequent difficulties in mobilization of resources among the apathetic diaspora members (especially in Turkey) in order to support the repatriation of co-ethnics. As in other diasporas, diaspora political activity is mostly conducted by elites and ethnic organizations. As in other diasporas, Crimean Tatars also suffered from problems stemming from the differentiation of their identities over time due to their acculturation into various host-societies. In the last decade, the various diaspora communities, as well as the homeland community, have been ardently negotiating what it means to be a "Crimean Tatar", seeking an agreement on a common sense of identity. There are also differences among Crimean Tatars as to what the goals of the diaspora and the national movement should be and how to reach those goals, leading to a lively internal politics, as in other flourishing diasporas of the 1990s. However, the Crimean Tatar diaspora in general seems to be unified in recognizing the legitimacy of Crimean Tatar National Assembly (Mejlis) in Crimea, and recognizes its head, Mustafa Abdülcemil Qırımoğlu as their leader in taking the major decisions concerning the fate of the nation. The diaspora is also in agreement with the leadership of Cemiloğlu with respect to non-violent political struggle for the restitution of the rights of the deported Tatars within the framework of respect for the territorial integrity of Ukraine. For the diaspora, the restitution of Crimean Tatar sovereignty seems to be replaced by a contemporary agenda related to how to mobilize political and economic resources for the return of the remaining Crimean Tatars from their places of deportation to homeland and for the recognition of Crimean Tatar political rights by the Ukrainian and Crimean authorities. The pressing concern for the diaspora as well as the Crimean Tatars in homeland is the restoration of historical justice in relation to the crime perpetrated against their ethnic community. This is viewed by Crimean Tatar diaspora as the last link in the chain of historical injustices perpetrated by Russia since the illegitimate annexation of its homeland by the violation of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and therefore entitled to return. However, the collective return of the Crimean Tatars from the diaspora does not seem to be likely for the near future, although it always remains as an option, especially within the more romantic circles of diaspora. As of today, however, the most plausible prospect for the diaspora seems be the establishment of certain political rights for the members of diaspora, such as political representation, property-owning, and dual citizenship. - Lipka Tatars - Crimean Tatars in Romania - Crimean Tatars in Bulgaria - Crimean Tatars - Crimean Khanate - List of Crimean Tatars - List of Crimean khans - Giray Dynasty
The development of academic, language, physical development (motor) and social/emotional skills are closely related says Ms. Uma Pratap, Pre-Primary Co-ordinator, Samsidh MLZS- Vidyaranyapura What is Physical development? Motor skills are movements and actions of the muscles. Typically, they are categorized into two groups: Gross motor skills and Fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are involved in movement and coordination of the arms, legs, and other large body parts and movements. They participate in actions such as running, crawling, swimming, etc. Fine motor skills are involved in smaller movements that occur in the wrists, hands, fingers, and the feet and toes. They participate in smaller actions such as picking up objects between the thumb and finger used for holding the pencil and writing. These two motor skills work together to provide coordination. Personal, Social and Emotional Development : What is PSED and why is it important? Personal, Social and Emotional Development (PSED) are three building blocks of future success in life. They are closely linked to each other and often bracketed together as one area of learning and development. • Personal development (Being me) – how we come to understand who we are and what we can do, how we look after ourselves. • Social development (Being social) – how we come to understand ourselves in relation to others, how we make friends, understand the rules of society and behave towards others. • Emotional development (Having feelings) – how we come to understand our own and others’ feelings and develop our ability to ‘stand in someone else’s shoes’ and see things from their point of view, referred to as empathy. Starting the process of successful PSED is essential for young children in all aspects of their lives. It will help them to: • relate well to other children and adults; • make friends and get on with others; • feel secure and valued; • explore and learn confidently; and ultimately to feel good about themselves. Early PSED has a huge impact on later well-being, learning, achievement and economic circumstances. There was a time when 'academic' meant "pertaining to the development of the mind." Nowadays it seems to mean "anything that occurs in a school." The goal of education used to be the development of mental powers, to the exclusion of everything else. The goal was seldom achieved. The teaching of values, ethics, and the general socialization of the individual was left to the home and community. We at MLZS assume responsibility for the "development of the whole individual," We try to teach anything society wants or needs, or which is not being addressed elsewhere. In the process a lot of things are going on here that have nothing to do with academics. Students are actively involved in learning academic skills like learning their letters, letter combinations (for Jr & Sr. KG) and some sight words (that is, recognizing certain words by sight, without necessarily being able to decode them). They are using very simple mathematical operations too. Other than these they are learning the basic topics of EVS and GK through activities. MLZS, Kindergarten is not only "Developmental" or "child-centered", but also focussed to stimulate the love of learning in a more general sense. Children are given many cross curricular developmental activities (each activity caters to development of fine motor, Aesthetic & also Cognitive. We also plan cross curricular activities where each activity develops Language, math & motor skills at a time). They are provided with opportunities to work on different learning corners/centers, circle time activities and free play. Children learn while playing with peg boards, puzzles, flash cards, building blocks, colouring with crayons, creating art work with painting by using finger, brush, vegetables, sponge, cotton, etc. All these they learn by using their senses.
Colour vision deficiency can be classified as acquired or inherited. Inherited colour vision deficiency is primarily genetic, characterised by red-green colour blindness or defects in most cases. Acquired colour vision deficiency is often associated with pathological changes of retina or optic nerve, which may be caused by glaucoma or side effects of drugs. Cases of total colour blindness are rare, and people with colour deficiency may not find it too inconvenient coping with everyday life. They can tell the differences by other signals, such as the positions or icons of traffic lights. However, their choices on occupation may be limited, particularly in the fields requiring colour perception like fine art, medicine, chemical engineering, electrical engineering and telecommunications. There are commercially available specialty contact lens tailored for people with red-green colour deficiency. This red contact lens may help them better differentiate the colour by comparing the different contrast between two eyes. When conducting a colour vision assessment, optometrists will use Ishihara test to screen red–green colour blindness or defects. More accurate colour test such as a Farnsworth D-15 test is needed in order to ascertain the severity of colour deficiency.
The US Supreme Court: Dred Scott Decision New York Post Classroom Extra March 6, 2012 by: Robin Wallace The US Supreme Court upholds the practice of slavery with the Dred Scott decision The African slave trade, and the practice of slavery, is often referred to as the darkest and most shameful chapter in the history of the United States. Within the history of slavery itself, one of the darkest episodes is a decision rendered by the U. S. Supreme Court 155 years ago today. Known commonly as the Dred Scott decision, it reaffirmed the acceptance and practice of slavery in America at a time when the abolitionist movement – the movement to abolish slavery – seemed to be gaining ground. Specifically, on March 6, 1857, the US Supreme Court ruled, by a strong majority, that black people, regardless of whether they were slaves or free, were not considered citizens under the U.S. Constitution, the law of the land. In the 1800’s, the movement to abolish slavery was growing. America was also expanding westward, adding new territories and new states. The debate over whether new territories or states would be “slave states” or “free states” was a hot one. Slave owners wanted to bring their slave labor west with them, while opponents were vehemently against the expansion of a practice they were hoping to abolish. Congress tried to settle the matter with a law known as the Compromise of 1850, which gave the residents of the new territories the power to decide the issue of slavery themselves by a vote. However, slavery was such a contentious issue that this system proved to be extremely problematic. Against the backdrop of this unrest, a slave named Dred Scott decided to use the court system to sue for his freedom, and that of his family. Although Scott had been born into slavery in Virginia, he lived for extended periods of time, as a slave serving two different masters, in the free territories of Illinois and Wisconsin, eventually settling with the widow of his second master in Missouri. He tried to buy his freedom from the widow, but she refused the offer. Scott sued for his freedom. He lost his first case because he could not prove that the widow of his second master actually owned him. But, the Missouri Supreme Court granted a retrial, and in 1850, the court ruled that Scott was free. However, a year later, the court reversed its own decision. Scott took his case to federal court in Missouri, and that court held up the lower court’s decision. Scott appealed his case all the way to the US Supreme Court, the highest court in the land. Of the nine justices that were sitting on the Supreme Court in 1857, seven, including Chief Justice Roger Taney, were staunchly pro-slavery, and their decision reflected those views. In the majority opinion authored by Taney, the court ruled that because black people were not and could not be citizens, Scott did not have the right to sue in court. The court ruled that Scott was the property of his owner. Taney wrote that neither the authors of the Declaration of Independence, nor the framers of the U.S. Constitution, intended for blacks to be given the equality and freedom those documents guaranteed white people. He wrote that the founding fathers believed that black people “had no rights which the white man was bound to respect; and that the negro might justly and lawfully be reduced to slavery for his benefit. He was bought and sold and treated as an ordinary article of merchandise and traffic, whenever profit could be made by it.”. After the ruling, the sons of Dred Scott’s first master, who had paid some of his legal fees, purchased Scott and his family from their second master’s widow, and set them free. Dred Scott died nine months later, a free man.
Astronomers have peered beneath the smooth surface of baby-face regions of Mars, and what they see isn't pretty. Craggy lines and craters wrinkle the subsurface, revealing an impact-riddled past whose history has since been covered over in the low plains of Mars' northern hemisphere [image]. Learning about the ancient lowland crust has been challenging because that crust was buried first by vast amounts of volcanic lava and then by sediments carried by episodic flood waters and wind. The machine used in the investigation is the European Space Agency's Mars Express orbiter. It packs a radar instrument built by NASA and the Italian Space Agency. "It's almost like having X-ray vision," said Thomas Watters of the National Air and Space Museum's Center for Earth and Planetary Studies, Washington. "Besides finding previously unknown impact basins, we've also confirmed that some of the subtle topographic depressions mapped previously in the lowlands are related to impact features." The technique uses echoes of waves that have penetrated below the surface, bouncing off features in the subsurface with electrical properties that contrast with those of materials that buried them. Areas with fewer visible surface craters are generally interpreted as younger surfaces where geological processes have erased the impact scars. The abundance of buried craters that the radar has detected beneath Mars' smooth northern plains means the underlying crust of the northern hemisphere is extremely old, "perhaps as ancient as the heavily cratered highland crust in the southern hemisphere." The study confirms previous work that had suggested buried craters based on barely detectable surface features. The findings bring planetary scientists closer to understanding one of the most enduring mysteries about the geologic evolution of the red planet. In contrast to Earth, Mars shows a striking difference between its northern and southern hemispheres. Almost the entire southern hemisphere has rough, heavily cratered highlands, while most of the northern hemisphere is smoother and lower in elevation. Watters and nine co-authors report the findings in the Dec. 14 issue of the journal Nature. - New Craters Found: Mars Takes a Fresh Pounding - Potential Danger: Moon Hit By More Space Rocks Than Thought - Changing Mars Gullies Hint at Recent Flowing Water - Images: Visualizations of Mars - All About Mars
Astronomer Ryan Foley says observing the explosion of two colliding neutron stars–the first visible event ever linked to gravitational waves–is probably the biggest discovery he’ll make in his lifetime. That’s saying a lot for a young assistant professor who presumably has a long career still ahead of him. So what makes this strange cataclysm in another galaxy so exciting to astronomers? And what the heck is a neutron star, anyway? A neutron star forms when a massive star runs out of fuel and explodes as a supernova, throwing off its outer layers and leaving behind a collapsed core composed almost entirely of neutrons. Neutrons are the uncharged particles in the nucleus of an atom, where they are bound together with positively charged protons. In a neutron star, they are packed together just as densely as in the nucleus of an atom, resulting in an object with one to three times the mass of our sun but only about 12 miles wide. “Basically, a neutron star is a gigantic atom with the mass of the sun and the size of a city like San Francisco or Manhattan,” said Foley, an assistant professor of astronomy and astrophysics at UC Santa Cruz. These objects are so dense, a cup of neutron star material would weigh as much as Mount Everest, and a teaspoon would weigh a billion tons. It’s as dense as matter can get without collapsing into a black hole. Like other stars, neutron stars sometimes occur in pairs, orbiting each other and gradually spiraling inward. Eventually, they come together in a catastrophic merger that distorts space and time (creating gravitational waves) and emits a brilliant flare of electromagnetic radiation, including visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Merging black holes also create gravitational waves, but there’s nothing to be seen because no light can escape from a black hole. Foley’s team was the first to observe the light from a neutron star merger that took place on August 17, 2017, and was detected by the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO). Now, for the first time, scientists can study both the gravitational waves (ripples in the fabric of space-time), and the radiation emitted from the violent merger of the densest objects in the universe. It’s that combination of data, and all that can be learned from it, that has astronomers and physicists so excited. The observations of this one event are keeping hundreds of scientists busy exploring its implications for everything from fundamental physics and cosmology to the origins of gold and other heavy elements. All the gold in the universe It turns out that the origins of the heaviest elements, such as gold, platinum, uranium—pretty much everything heavier than iron—has been an enduring conundrum. All the lighter elements have well-explained origins in the nuclear fusion reactions that make stars shine or in the explosions of stars (supernovae). Initially, astrophysicists thought supernovae could account for the heavy elements, too, but there have always been problems with that theory, says Enrico Ramirez-Ruiz, professor and chair of astronomy and astrophysics at UC Santa Cruz. A theoretical astrophysicist, Ramirez-Ruiz has been a leading proponent of the idea that neutron star mergers are the source of the heavy elements. Building a heavy atomic nucleus means adding a lot of neutrons to it. This process is called rapid neutron capture, or the r-process, and it requires some of the most extreme conditions in the universe: extreme temperatures, extreme densities, and a massive flow of neutrons. A neutron star merger fits the bill. Ramirez-Ruiz and other theoretical astrophysicists use supercomputers to simulate the physics of extreme events like supernovae and neutron star mergers. This work always goes hand in hand with observational astronomy. Theoretical predictions tell observers what signatures to look for to identify these events, and observations tell theorists if they got the physics right or if they need to tweak their models. The observations by Foley and others of the neutron star merger now known as SSS17a are giving theorists, for the first time, a full set of observational data to compare with their theoretical models. According to Ramirez-Ruiz, the observations support the theory that neutron star mergers can account for all the gold in the universe, as well as about half of all the other elements heavier than iron. Ripples in the fabric of space-time Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916 in his general theory of relativity, but until recently they were impossible to observe. LIGO’s extraordinarily sensitive detectors achieved the first direct detection of gravitational waves, from the collision of two black holes, in 2015. Gravitational waves are created by any massive accelerating object, but the strongest waves (and the only ones we have any chance of detecting) are produced by the most extreme phenomena. Two massive compact objects—such as black holes, neutron stars, or white dwarfs—orbiting around each other faster and faster as they draw closer together are just the kind of system that should radiate strong gravitational waves. Like ripples spreading in a pond, the waves get smaller as they spread outward from the source. By the time they reached Earth, the ripples detected by LIGO caused distortions of space-time thousands of times smaller than the nucleus of an atom. The rarefied signals recorded by LIGO’s detectors not only prove the existence of gravitational waves, they also provide crucial information about the events that produced them. Combined with the telescope observations of the neutron star merger, it’s an incredibly rich set of data. LIGO can tell scientists the masses of the merging objects and the mass of the new object created in the merger, which reveals whether the merger produced another neutron star or a more massive object that collapsed into a black hole. To calculate how much mass was ejected in the explosion, and how much mass was converted to energy, scientists also need the optical observations from telescopes. That’s especially important for quantifying the nucleosynthesis of heavy elements during the merger. LIGO can also provide a measure of the distance to the merging neutron stars, which can now be compared with the distance measurement based on the light from the merger. That’s important to cosmologists studying the expansion of the universe, because the two measurements are based on different fundamental forces (gravity and electromagnetism), giving completely independent results. “This is a huge step forward in astronomy,” Foley said. “Having done it once, we now know we can do it again, and it opens up a whole new world of what we call ‘multi-messenger’ astronomy, viewing the universe through different fundamental forces.”
The Humid Subtropical Climate is characterized by hot and humid summers, and extremely cold winters. It’s mostly prevalent on the eastern sides of all continents, and at latitudes of 25 and 35 degrees, and located poleward near the tropical climates. During the coldest months of winter temperatures go down to 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit. All year precipitation of 30 to 65 inches occurs uniformly in humid subtropical climate. That is why, in this climate, there is direct sun all year round. Most humid subtropical climates are in coastal regions, but there are exceptions where they occur inland mostly in parts of the US and China. In this type of climate, farming is easier since the growing season is about 8 months long. In the humid subtropical climate, the vegetation comprises of mostly evergreen trees, shrubs, and bushes. Trees in this climate are evergreen to enable them endure long months of consistent rains and warmth. Palm trees and fern plants are common in humid subtropical climate, as well as other delicate and broad leaf vegetation. This climate sustains the evergreens species because of long summer months and consistent rains. The Indian River Lagoon on the Atlantic coast of Florida is in a humid sub tropical climate environment. That makes it the most biologically varied estuary in North America, and it’s a habitat for over 2,100 plant species, and over 2,200 animal species. The warmth in the humid subtropical climate environments, creates ideal habitats for some select mammals, amphibians, and reptiles. The deer, panther, and the American alligator can be found in this type of climate. For reptiles like the American alligator which are cold blooded, the humid subtropical climate enables them warm and cool down their body when necessary. The habitat fostered by this type of climate also ensures the alligators are well camouflaged from their prey like the python, or predators like small mammals like the capybaras and squirrels. Birds like hawks and falcons are also found in humid subtropical climate habitats as well as frogs, turtles, and dragon flies. Around the world, the humid subtropical climate is widely spread in all continents. In Africa this climate is found in two regions of the continent’s southern hemisphere. These include the middle and eastern Africa regions, in countries like Angola, northeastern Zimbabwe, the Tete, Manica, and Amukelanixhantini provinces in Mozambique, south Congo provinces, southwest of Tanzania, and many regions of Zambia and Malawi. There are also parts of Ethiopian highlands, KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape provinces in South Africa with humid subtropical climate. In Asia, humid subtropical climate is spread in regions of East and South East Asia, South Asia, and Western Asia. In Central Europe, Northern Italy, Black Sea Coast in Bulgaria, and Crimea in Ukraine have humid subtropical climate. In Australia, this climate is prevalent in the coastal eastern Australia from Mackay in Queensland to Sydney southern Coast. In South America, southern Brazil regions like Parana, some regions of Paraguay, the entire Uruguay, and the Rio de la Plata region of Argentina, have the humid subtropical climate. Humid subtropical climate makes cities like Savannah, Georgia and parts of Florida in the US, Sydney, and Australia, Shanghai, China, and New Zealand get hurricanes and other aggressive storms.
In biology and ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "re-appears" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. Through evolution, new species are created by speciation - where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche - and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance, although some species, called living fossils, survive virtually unchanged for hundreds of millions of years.
Pitcher plants are some of the most intriguing plants one can find on Mt. Kinabalu. To survive on the nutrient poor soils, they have pitcher shaped tendrils at the end of their leaves. These pitchers trap insects or gather bird droppings. These are decomposed in the liquid inside the pitcher and supply the plants with nutrients such as Nitrogen and Phosphorus. Mount Kinabalu is home to 14 species of pitcher plants. Of these species, four are only known from Mount Kinabalu and the neighbouring Mount Tambuyukon. Nepenthes villosa and N. edwardsiana are found from 1600 to 3240m, while N. raja is found from 1500-3030m. N. burbidgeae is found at lower altitude, from 1100 to 2300m. Another interesting pitcher plant is the N. x kinabaluensis, which is a natural hybrid between N. villosa and N. rajah. Nepenthes burbidgae (left) and Nepenthes edwardsiana (right) Nepenthes x kinabaluensis
the repetition of initial sounds, as in "scorching summer sensations." reference to a well-known person, place, thing, idea, event, etc. a comparison of two or more similar objects, suggesting that if they are alike in certain respects, they will probably be alike in other ways as well a character who opposes the main character a published collection of works or parts of works by an author or several authors the repetition of vowel sounds a narrative passed on in the oral tradition a poet, Shakespeare is sometimes referred to as the Bard a list of written sources of information method the author uses to acquaint readers with characters learn about characters through what they say, what others say about them, and what they do directly told through exposition the most important figure in a literary work. the "support cast" for the most important figure in a literary work. a figure in a story that undergoes important changes as a plot unfolds. a figure in a story who remains the same no matter what. an overused, predictable, and therefore uninteresting expression or idea The point of greatest interest in a story or play. of speech and informal writing, conversational the struggle between opposing forces. meaning suggested by a word beyond its definition, what a reader believes the word means repetition, at close intervals, of final consonant sounds of accented syllables or important words a rhymed pair of lines a dictionary definition a major subdivision of a language conversation carried on by the characters in a literary work usually a lyric poem on death or some other somber subject. a long narrative poem recounting the exploits of larger-than-life character in important and heroic acts use of a less direct, less offensive word or phrase a short, simple story that teaches a lesson. It usually includes animals that talk and act like people literature based on a highly humorous and highly improbable plot writing from a writer's imagination. It can be inspired by actual events or completely made up. using figures of speech to heighten meaning i.e. metaphor, simile, personification interruption in the narrative to show an episode from the past someone who serves as a contrast or challenge to another character the customs, legends, songs, and stories of a people or nation once handed down in the oral tradition a hint to the reader of what is to come a form or type of literature: novel, short story, poem, play, etc. a quality that provokes laughter or amusement. an extreme exaggeration in language, a customary expression, "She has rats in her hair." the sensory details that relate to the senses and create pictures in our minds calling upon a divine power for aid. Many poems begin with an invocation asking for inspiration a contrast between what appears to be and what really is. language of a trade or profession a form of autobiographical writing in which a writer shares his or her own personal experiences and observations of significant events or people. an implied comparison, "A green plant is a machine that runs on solar energy" A regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a poem. in drama, an extended speech by one person alone, with or without an audience the emotions the literature makes the reader feel a lesson that a story teaches. a traditional story connected with religion of a people usually explaining something in nature writing about real people, places, things, and events. Essays, news stories, speeches, etc. a long work of fiction. a lyric poem usually composed in complex stanza form and generally intended to praise or commemorate words that sound like the thing being spoken about, Boom, Crack, Sizzle, Screech a brief fictional work that teaches a lesson statement that seems contrasting to common sense yet may be true: "Coach said it was a good loss." a form of literature intended to mock a particular literary work or its style, a comic effect is intended giving human qualities to non-living objects LITERARY THEFT, when a writer duplicates another writer's work without giving proper credit the officially recognized or chief poet of a nation terms used to describe features of a poem a kind of rhythmic, compressed language that uses figures of speech and imagery designed to appeal to our emotions and imagination. _____ is usually arranged in lines, often has a regular pattern of rhythm, and has a regular rhyme scheme. Point of View the relationship between the teller of the story and the characters in it. literary writing not marked by rhyme or meter a play on words; a humorous way to use a word repeating a word or phrase to stress its importance, especially in poetry the art of persuasion by speech or writing pattern of rhyme in a stanza the rhyming of words at the ends of lines of poetry a rhyme that happens inside a line of poetry ("use a log to hit a hog") the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables the stage of the plot that develops the conflict, or struggle. a literary tone used to ridicule or make fun of human vice or weakness, often with the intent of correcting, or changing the way things are. a work of fiction that centers on a single idea and can be read in one sitting. a comparison using like or as, "She stood in front of the altar, shaking like a freshly caught trout." in drama, a speech in which character does not address others, but rather speaks aloud to himself a type of short poem, usually 14 lines, popular in English since the Renaissance the person talking in a poem, not always the poet a group of two or more lines that form a unit in a poem. the lines follow each other without formal grouping, the only breaks being dictated by units of meaning, as paragraphs are in prose. poet writes in a series of stanzas; repeated units having the same number of lines, usually the same meter, and often an identical rhyme scheme traditional pattern that applies to a whole poem (i.e. haiku in Japan, and sestinas in France) In English poetry only two fixed forms have really taken hold: Limerick, Sonnet made to look like the topic which it addresses (i.e. mountain, swimming laps) a manner of expression characteristic of the author something concrete that represents something else a humorously exaggerated story about impossible events, often involving the supernatural abilities of the main character. the main idea of a piece of literature as it applies to human beings in general, not the plot the author's attitude toward the subject matter literature in which the character suffers disaster after a serious struggle but faces his or her downfall with heroic stature a group of three related works a technique of creating emphasis by saying less than is actually or literally true. the native language of any particular place a unique use of language that allows a reader to "hear" a human personality in a writer's work. written or verbal sketch of a brief scene or incident verb: to clasp or hold tightly noun: a person with an exceptional talent adjective: likely to noun: a close friend verb: to stoop with bent knees adjective: sharp or keen verb: to think of verb: to disturb or annoy adverb: cautiously; secretly noun: shameless daring or boldness adverb: with intense emotion adjective: false or deceptive noun: a carefree or spirited adventure noun: a place where two roads meet adjective: suggesting or threatening evil noun: a guarantee or pledge noun: tedious sameness adjective: partially open adverb: uncertainly or hesitantly noun: nervous trembling verb: to signal to come adjective: roughened, as from age or work noun: the name of a personality test that uses inkblot designs noun: a state of great interest and excitement adjective: able to be seen, touched, or understood noun: a focus on a particular area of study adjective: ridiculously unreasonable verb: to prove as false verb: to weaken or damage adjective: having a constant relation in degree or number noun: a facial expression of pain or disgust noun: a power that is thought to determine the course of events noun: a disposition to believe too readily noun: something, such as money, received in payment noun: acceptance of something that is inescapable verb: to make unhappy noun: a sense of impeding misfortune verb: to make strong noun: wild uproar or noise noun: sorrow or regret adjective: obvious or bold verb: to talk at length or aimlessly noun: the leader of a work crew verb: to reach about with uncertainty verb: to bend forward or down from the waist or middle of the back noun: one who agrees to provide services for a specific price adjective: very angry adjective: weak or faint noun: an unpleasant situation from which it is difficult to free oneself. noun: information that supports a certain cause noun: the condition of not having one's needs met; a lack of adjective: barren; lacking vitality verb: to lose strength and vitality noun: one that has the same functions and traits as another adjective: foreign; unusual; exciting verb: to use for selfish purposes noun: an unsuitable or inappropriate act or quality adverb: enough to satisfy a requirement or meet a need verb: to remove from consideration by defeating verb: to completely destroy or defeat noun: hostile or destructive behavior or action noun: a strong belief adjective: insulting or arrogant verb: to hold oneself back; to stop verb: to become smaller or less noun: the act of opposing or resisting noun: resistance to motion, action, or change Please allow access to your computer’s microphone to use Voice Recording. 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A Local Development Investigation These activities encourage students to consider the impacts of development and explore the concept of sustainable development. Discuss as a group how we can balance the needs of local people with the needs of our environment. Activity 1: Community Development List the benefits a new development in your village will bring to the local community. Does it bring any disadvantages to: - The environment? Activity 2: Habitat Development Imagine a world where development activities did not consider the needs of wildlife or the environment. - What would that world look like? Activity 3: Sustainable Development Draw a poster, write a story or write a poem about the planet Earth in 150 years time. - Has development been sustainable between now and then in your fantasy future world? - Have people considered or ignored the needs of wildlife or the environment? - What impact has this had on how people live?
Types of Numbers: Part-1 In this first article of our topic ‘Numbers’, we deal with ‘Numbers’ themselves. What are numbers? Where do we see and meet them? Are they of different types? Can we learn these distinct types of numbers? Well, numbers are all around us, floating all over the place. They demand our attention and careful evaluation. A number here or there can make a huge difference. In fact a misplaced zero or decimal is the difference between one being poor or rich. Such being their importance, it is critical we begin with the most basic concepts in Mathematics: types of numbers. But before we do that, let’s define what is a number line: Number line:A number line is line where all the numbers are allocated their positions. The origin of the number line starts from zero and it continues to infinity, on either side. Few Basic Types of Numbers Positive Numbers : Numbers which are to the right of zero are said to be positive numbers. For example 1, 3 ,1.2 , 2.6 , 7 etc. Negative Numbers : Numbers which are to the left of zero are said to be negative numbers. For example -1, -5 , -7.2 , -2.5 , -9 etc. Counting Numbers:Counting numbers are those numbers which are well managed on the number line with the difference of 1. The smallest counting number on the number line is 1. Natural Numbers: Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11…and so on are called natural numbers. They are also called positive integers. Also we can say that the other name for counting numbers is natural numbers.The lowest natural number is 1. Whole Numbers:Whole numbers are numbers without fractions, they take integral values. Whole numbers are those numbers which start from 0 or we can say if 0 is included in set of counting numbers (natural numbers) then we get set of whole numbers.Remember whole numbers would always take non- negative integral values
Electric arc welding has been the most common and fastest means of joining metals when compared with gas welding. Most industries uses arc welding due to it effectiveness of joining metals and how it offers great speed of work. This operation is done using welding power supply to create an electric arc between the electrode and the base metal. Heat produce with arc welding are less expensive due to the source of heat been from electricity non like gas welding that uses oxygen and acetylene gas to produces it flames. at the end of this articles, the reader is expected to understand the six types of arc welding. The following listed below are different types of arc welding: - Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) - Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) - Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) - Plasma arc welding (PAW) - Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) - Submerged arc welding (SAW) - Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) This type of arc welding is simple, versatile and one of the oldest welding methods. It is commonly used in constructions, pipeline work and shipbuilding. The arc is obtained when the coated electrode tip touch the workpiece. heat generated melts the tip, coating, and base metal and the weld is formed out of that alloy when it solidifies. 2. Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) This type of arc welding are popularly used when welding heavy metal materials like thick tanks, to a higher weld-metal deposition rate. It uses cannular electrodes that are filled with flux and less brittle than the coatings on Shielded metal arc welding electrodes and protect most of the alloying benefits. 3. Submerged arc welding (SAW) This type of arc welding has a granular flux that is fed into the weld zone that forms a thick layer, completely covering the molten zone and preventing sparks and spatter. It allows for deeper heat penetration since it acts like a thermal insulator. The process is limited to horizontal welds and used for high speed sheet or plate steel welding. It can be semiautomatic or automatic. The flux can be recovered and treated then used again. This method provides 4-10 times as much productivity as shielded metal arc welding. 4. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) This type of arc welding is also known as TIG welding. It gas contains argon and helium or mixture of the two. It uses tungsten electrodes as one pole of arc in order to create heat needed. Filler wires can also be provide to act as molten materials to the surface welding is required only if necessary. Gas tungsten arc welding is good for thin materials. 5. Plasma arc welding (PAW) This is another type of arc welding that has ionized gases and electrodes, which generate hot plasma jets that are aimed at the welding area. Due to extremely hotness of the jets, the concentration of higher energy is good for narrow and deeper welding which can also lead to increase in welding speeds. 6. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) This type of arc welding is simple, competent and economical. It temperature are relatively low and can be use for thin sheet and section. The gas metal arc welding is also called MIG welding. Furthermore, gas metal arc welding shields the welding arc with a gas such as argon and helium or mixture of both. The electrode contains deoxidizer to prevent oxidation in order to weld multiple layer. This arc welding can be automated. i hopefully believed you now understand the six types of arc welding, if so cheers. hey dude you don’t have to leave yet there’s lot more you still need to learn and don’t forget to share with other technical student. watch in video clip below;
Salient Features of the Constitution of India: The Preamble, Fundamental Rights and Duties, Directive Principles; Parliamentary System and Amendment Procedures; Judicial Review and Basic Structure doctrine The Constitution of India is considered as a distinctive constitution around the globe. It is the largest written liberal democratic constitution of the world. It offers for a mixture of federalism and Unitarianism, and flexibility and with rigidity. The Constitution of India was outlined by a Constituent Assembly. This Assembly was an indirectly chosen body. It had laid down certain ideals to be included in the Constitution. These ideals included commitment to democracy, guarantee to all the people of India, Justice, equality and freedom. It had also proclaimed that India will be a Democratic Republic. Reports suggested that the Constituent Assembly held its first sitting on the 9th December, 1946. It reassembled on the 14th August, 1947, as the sovereign Constituent Assembly for the Dominion of India. Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishing the structure, procedures, powers and duties, of the government and spells out the fundamental rights, directive principles and duties of citizens. Passed by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, it came into effect on 26 January 1950. The date 26 January was chosen to commemorate the declaration of independence of 1930. Since its inauguration on 26th January 1950, the Constitution India has been efficaciously guiding the path and development of India. With the help of Article 368, Parliament can amend the constitution. Every part of constitution can be modified by the Parliament except “basic structure” of the constitution as held by the Supreme Court. Any law which violates the basic structure of the constitution is declared unconstitutional & invalid by the court. Indian Constitution can be said as the hugely written constitution in the world because of its contents. In its innovative form, it consisted of 395 Articles and 8 Schedules to which additions have been made through subsequent amendments. At present, it contains 395 Articles and 12 Schedules, and more than 80 amendments. There are many factors responsible for the long size of the constitution. One major factors was that the framers of the constitution copied provisions form several sources and several other constitutions of the world. They have followed and reproduced the Government of India Act 1935 in providing matters of administrative detail. It was needed to make provisions for a typical problems of India like scheduled castes, Scheduled Tribes and backward regions. In Indian constitution, provisions were made for elaborate centre-state relations in all aspects of their administrative and other activities. The size of the constitution became large, as provisions regarding the state administration were also included. Additionally, a detail list of individual rights, directive principles of state policy and the details of administration procedure were laid down to make the Constitution clear and unambiguous for the ordinary citizen. Therefore, the Constitution of India became an exhaustive and lengthy one. India has implemented the Parliamentary system as established in Britain. In this system, the executive is responsible to the legislature, and remains in power only as long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature. The president of India, who remains in office for five years is the nominal, titular or constitutional head. The Union Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as its head is drawn from the legislature. It is jointly responsible to the House of People (Lok Sabha), and has to resign as soon as it loses the confidence of that house. The President, the nominal executive shall exercise his powers according to the advice of the Union Council of Ministers, the real executive. In the states also, the government is Parliamentary in nature. The Constitution of India identifies only single citizenship. In the United States, there is provision of dual citizenship. In India, people are citizens of India only, not of the respective states to which they belong. This provision would help to promote harmony and integrity of the nation. India is a secular state, because it does not discriminate between individuals on the basis of religion. Neither it encourages nor discourages any religion. In contrast, right to freedom of religion is ensured in the Constitution and people belonging to any religious group have the right to acknowledge, practice or propagate any religion they like. The salient features of the Constitution of India are as under: 1. Preamble of the Constitution: The Constitution of India initiates with a Preamble. The Preamble consists of the ideals, objectives and basic principles of the Constitution. The salient features of the Constitution have developed directly and indirectly from these objectives which flow from the Preamble. The Preamble is described as an introduction or preface of a book. As an overview, it is not a part of the contents but it explains the purposes and objectives with which the document has been written. So is the case with the ‘Preamble’ to the Indian Constitution. As such the ‘Preamble’ provides the guide lines of the Constitution. Basically, it is a brief introductory statement that sets out the guiding purpose and principles of the document, and it indicates the source from which derives its authority, meaning, and the people. The Preamble describes the objectives of the Constitution in two ways: one, is about the structure of the governance and secondly, it explains the ideals to be achieved in independent India. It is because of this, the Preamble is considered to be the major element of the Constitution. The objectives, which are laid down in the Preamble, are: - Description of Indian State as Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic. (Socialist, Secular added by 42nd Amendment, 1976). - Provision to all the citizens of India i.e. - Justice social, economic and political. - Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. - Equality of status and opportunity. - Fraternity assuring dignity of the individual and unity and integrity of the nation. The Preamble to the Constitution of India is a well drafted document which signifies the values of the constitution. It asserts India to be a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and a welfare state committed to secure justice, liberty and equality for the people and for promoting fraternity, dignity the individual, and unity and integrity of the nation. The Preamble is the nature of Indian state and the objectives it is committed to secure for the people. 2. Fundamental Rights and duties: The Constitution of India grants and guarantees Fundamental Rights to its citizens. It is called the Indian Bill of Rights. Initially, seven Fundamental Rights were granted but after the deletion of the Right to Property from the list of Fundamental Rights (44th Amendment Act 1979) their number came down to six. Prof. H.J. Laski stated that "A state is known by the rights it maintains". The constitution of India confirms the basic principle that every individual is permitted to enjoy certain basic rights and part III of the Constitution deals with those rights which are known as fundamental right. The Six Fundamental Rights are under: 1. Right to Equality: It provides for Equality before Law, End of Discrimination, Equality of Opportunity, Abolition of untouchability and Abolition of Titles. 2. Right to Freedom: It incorporates six fundamental freedoms that include freedoms of speech and expression, freedom to form associations, freedom to assemble peaceably without arms, freedom to move freely in India, freedom of residence in any part, and freedom of adopting any profession or trade or occupation. It safeguards personal freedom and protection in respect of conviction for certain offences. The Constitution lays down that the freedom of life and liberty cannot be limited or denied except in accordance with the procedure established by law. Now under Art 21A Right to Education for the children between the ages of 6-14 years has been granted. Art. 22 guarantees protection against arbitrary arrest and detention. 3. Right against Exploitation: This Fundamental Right forbids sale and purchase of human beings, forced labour (begaar) and employment of children in hazardous jobs and factories. 4. Right to Freedom of Religion: The objectives of this right include the freedom of conscience, religion and worship. Any person can follow any religion. It gives to all religions freedom to establish and maintain their religious institutions. Citizens cannot be compelled to pay any tax for the propagation of any religion. The state cannot levy a tax for any religion and constitution prohibits the imparting of religious instructions in schools and colleges. 5. Cultural and Educational Rights: In this right, the Constitution guarantees the rights of the minorities to maintain and develop their languages and cultures. It also confers upon them the right to establish, maintain and administer their educational institutions. 6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Art. 32): This fundamental right is the key of the entire Bill of Rights. It provides for the enforcement and protection of Fundamental Rights by the courts. It empowers the Supreme Court and High Courts to issue writs for the enforcement of these rights. It is stated that these fundamental rights are justiciable and the individual can move to the higher judiciary that is the Supreme Court or the High Courts, if there is an encroachment on any of these rights. The right to move to the Supreme Court straight for the enforcement of fundamental rights has been guaranteed under Article 32 (Right to Constitutional Remedies). However, fundamental rights in India are not absolute. Reasonable constraints can be imposed keeping in view the security-requirements of the state. It is further added by political scientist that fundamental rights for Indians have also been intended to overturn the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Precisely, they have also been used to abolish untouchability and thus prohibit discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. They also prohibit trafficking of human beings and forced labour. They also protect cultural and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages and also establish and administer their own education institutions. They are covered under articles 14 to 32 of the Indian constitution. Fundamental Duties of constitution are as under: A new part IV (A) after the Directive Principles of State Policy was combined in the constitution by the 42nd Amendment, 1976 for fundamental duties. These duties are mentioned below: - To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem. - To apprize and follow the noble ideals, which inspired our national struggle for freedom. - To sustain and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. - To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so. - To promote coordination and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic, regional or sectional diversities, to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of woman. - To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture. - To protect and improve the natural environments including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. - To develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform. - To defend public property and to abjure violence. - To endeavour towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of Endeavour and achievement. The main aim of integrating these duties in the Constitution is to remind the people that while enjoying their right as citizens, should also perform their duties as rights and duties are correlative. Directive Principles of State Policy. A unique aspect of the Constitution is that it comprises of a chapter in the Directive Principles of State Policy. These principles are in the nature of directives to the government to implement them to maintain social and economic democracy in the country. It exemplifies important philosophies such as adequate means to livelihood, equal pay for both men and women, distribution of wealth so as to serve the common good, free and compulsory primary education, right to work, public assistance in case of old age, unemployment, sickness and disablement, the organisation of village Panchayats, special care to the economically disadvantaged group in country. Most of these principles could help in making India welfare state. These principles have been stated a; "fundamental in the governance of the country". Parliamentary System and Amendment Procedures: The Constituent Assembly decided to espouse Parliamentary form of government both for the Centre and the states. A parliamentary system is a system of democratic governance of a state where the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from the legislature and is also held responsible to that legislature. In a parliamentary system, the head of state is normally a different person from the head of government. In Indian parliamentary system, distinction is made between nominal and real executive head. The Council of Ministers is responsible before the Lok Sabha, The lower house of union parliament. There are close relations between executive and legislature. The tenure of the Council of Ministers is not fixed as it stays in office till it enjoys the confidence (Shashishekhar Gopal Deogaonkar, 1997). Figure: Structure of Indian parliament There are limited powers of parliament in Indian constitution: It can pass laws on those subjects which have been entrusted to it by the constitution. The bills passed by the Parliament need the approval of the President. The Supreme Court can exercise the powers of judicial review over the laws passed by the parliament and can declare unconstitutional the laws which it considers are against the constitution. Amending the Constitution of India: Amending the Constitution of India is the procedure of making modifications to the nation's fundamental law or supreme law. The procedure of amendment in the constitution is laid down in Part XX (Article 368) of the Constitution of India. This procedure guarantees the sanctity of the Constitution of India and keeps a check on uninformed power of the Parliament of India. Though, there is limitation imposed on the amending power of the constitution of India, which developed during conflicts between the Supreme Court and Parliament, where Parliament wants to exercise discretionary use of power to amend the constitution while the Supreme Court wants to restrict that power. This has led to the laying down of various principles or rules in regard to checking the validity/legality of an amendment. The most famous among them is the Basic structure doctrine as laid down by the Supreme Court in the case of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala. The Constitution of India offers a distinctive amending process when comparing with the Constitutions of other nations. It can be defined as partly flexible and partly rigid. The Constitution provides for a variety in the amending process. This feature has been commended by Australian academic Sir Kenneth Wheare who realized that uniformity in the amending process imposed “quite unnecessary restrictions” upon the amendment of parts of a Constitution. An amendment of the Constitution can be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill in either House of Parliament. The Bill must then be approved in each House by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that House present and voting. There is no provision for a joint sitting in case of disagreement between the two Houses. The Bill, passed by the required majority, is then presented to the President who shall give his assent to the Bill. If the amendment seeks to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the proviso to article 368, it must be approved by the Legislatures of not less than one-half of the States. Although, there is no set time limit for ratification, it must be completed before the amending Bill is presented to the President for his assent. Every constitutional amendment is articulated as a statute. The first amendment is called the "Constitution (First Amendment) Act", the second, the "Constitution (Second Amendment) Act". Each amendment has the long title "An Act further to amend the Constitution of India". The judiciary has significant position in Indian Constitution and it is also made independent of the legislature and the executive. The Supreme Court of India stands at the peak of single integrated judicial system. It operates as defender of fundamental rights of Indian citizens and guardian of the Constitution. The entire judicial system of India is systematized into a hierarchical order. Supreme Court is at the highest position of judicial administration below that there are high courts at the state level and there are district courts at the district level. All the courts of India are bound to accept the decisions of the Supreme Court. Figure: structure of the judiciary The constitution of India makes provisions for the independence of judiciary because only independent judiciary can protect the rights and authorities of the people, can protect the supremacy of the constitution: - - An impartial method has been implemented for the appointment of the judges. - - High qualifications have been fixed for the judges. - - The judges of the Supreme Court stay in office till 65 years of age and of High courts till 62 years of age. - - Difficult method has been espoused for the elimination of the judges as they can be removed only through impeachment by the union parliament. - - There is prohibition of practice after the retirement of the judges. If any law passed by the legislature or action taken by the executive contravenes the provisions of the Constitution, they can be declared as null and void by the Supreme Court. Therefore, it has the power of judicial review. Judicial Review denotes to the power of the judiciary to interpret the constitution and to declare any such law or order of the legislature and executive void, if it finds them in conflict to the Constitution of India. In Indian constitution, the judiciary is provided with the power of judicial review through the constitution which means that all the laws passed by the parliament and State Legislatures, constitutional amendments, ordinances and executive orders issued by the executive are reviewed by the judiciary and in case judiciary finds that any one of these is against the constitution, the judiciary has the power to declare it unconstitutional. After independence, the inclusion of explicit provisions for judicial review were compulsory in order to give effect to the individual and group rights guaranteed in the text of the Constitution. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who headed the drafting committee of Indian Constituent Assembly, had described the provision related to the same as the ‘heart of the Constitution’. Article 13(2) of the Constitution of India prescribes that the Union or the States shall not make any law that takes away or abridges any of the fundamental rights, and any law made in contravention of the aforementioned mandate shall, to the extent of the contravention, be void. While judicial review over administrative action has grown on the lines of common law principles such as ‘proportionality’, ‘legitimate expectation’, ‘reasonableness’ and principles of natural justice, the Supreme Court of India and the various High Courts were given the power to rule on the constitutionality of legislative as well as administrative actions to protect and enforce the fundamental rights guaranteed in Part III of the Constitution. The higher courts are also approached to rule on questions of legislative competence, mostly in the context of Centre-State relations since Article 246 of the Constitution read with the 7th schedule, contemplates a clear demarcation as well as a zone of intersection between the law-making powers of the Union Parliament and the various State Legislatures. Judicial Review is the power of the Judiciary by which: The court reviews the laws and rules of the legislature and executive in cases that come before them; in litigation cases. The court determines the constitutional validity of the laws and rules of the government. The court rejects that law or any of its part which is found to be unconstitutional or against the Constitution. But judicial review in India constitutes a middle path between the American judicial supremacy in one hand and British Parliamentary supremacy in the other. Basic Structure doctrine: The basic structure doctrine is an Indian judicial norm that the Constitution of India has certain basic features that cannot be changed or destroyed through amendments by the parliament. The "basic features" principle was first explained in 1964, by Justice J.R. Mudholkar in his disagreement, in the case of Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan. He wrote, "It is also a matter for consideration whether making a change in a basic feature of the Constitution can be regarded merely as an amendment or would it be, in effect, rewriting a part of the Constitution; and if the latter, would it be within the purview of Article 368 ?" The basic features of the Constitution have not been openly defined by the Judiciary. At least, 20 features have been described as "basic" or "essential" by the Courts in numerous cases, and have been incorporated in the basic structure. In Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Naraian and also in the Minerva Mills case, it was witnessed that the claim of any particular feature of the Constitution to be a "basic" feature would be determined by the Court in each case that comes before it. Several aspects of the Constitution termed as "basic" are mentioned below: - Supremacy of the Constitution - Rule of law - The principle of Separation of Powers - The objectives specified in the Preamble to the Constitution - Judicial Review - Articles 32 and 226 - Federalism (including financial liberty of states under Articles 282 and 293) - The Sovereign, Democratic, Republican structure - Freedom and dignity of the individual - Unity and integrity of the Nation - The principle of equality, not every feature of equality, but the quintessence of equal justice - The "essence" of other Fundamental Rights in Part III - The concept of social and economic justice - to build a Welfare State: Part IV in toto - The balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles - The Parliamentary system of government - The principle of free and fair elections - Limitations upon the amending power conferred by Article 368 - Independence of the Judiciary - Effective access to justice - Powers of the Supreme Court under Articles 32, 136, 141, 142 - Legislation seeking to nullify the awards made in exercise of the judicial power of the State by Arbitration Tribunals constituted under an Act Important elements among these "basic features", are the fundamental rights granted to individuals by the constitution. The policy forms the basis of a limited power of the Supreme Court to review and strike down constitutional amendments passed by the Parliament which conflict with or seek to alter this "basic structure" of the Constitution. The basic structure doctrine applies only to constitutional amendments. The basic structure doctrine does not apply to ordinary Acts of Parliament, which must itself be in conformity with the Constitution. Initial position of the Supreme Court on constitutional amendments was that no part of the Constitution was unamendable and that the Parliament might, by passing a Constitution Amendment Act in compliance with the requirements of article 368, amend any provision of the Constitution, including the Fundamental Rights and article 368. In 1967, the Supreme Court reversed its earlier decisions in Golaknath v. State of Punjab. It held that Fundamental Rights included in Part III of the Constitution are given a "transcendental position" and are beyond the reach of Parliament. It also declared any amendment that "takes away or abridges" a Fundamental Right conferred by Part III as unconstitutional. By 1973, the basic structure doctrine succeeded in Justice Hans Raj Khanna's judgment in the landmark decision of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala. Previously, the Supreme Court had held that the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution was unfettered. However, in this breakthrough ruling, the Court refereed that while Parliament has "wide" powers, it did not have the power to destroy or weaken the basic elements or fundamental features of the constitution. Although Kesavananda was decided by a narrow margin of 7-6, the basic structure doctrine has since gained widespread approval and legality due to subsequent cases and judgments. Primary among these was the imposition of a state of emergency by Indira Gandhi in 1975, and her subsequent attempt to suppress her trial through the 39th Amendment. When the Kesavananda case was decided, the underlying apprehension of the majority bench that elected representatives could not be trusted to act responsibly and was perceived as unparalleled. However, the passage of the 39th Amendment by the Indian National Congress' majority in central and state legislatures, proved that in fact such apprehension was well-founded. In Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain and Minerva Mills v. Union of India, Constitutional Benches of the Supreme Court used the basic structure doctrine to knock down the 39th Amendment and parts of the 42nd Amendment respectively, and paved the way for restoration of Indian democracy. The Supreme Court's position on constitutional amendments laid out in its judgements is that Parliament can amend the Constitution but cannot destroy its "basic structure". To summarize, all these features of the Indian Constitution is a constitution suitable to the Indian environment. The Constitution assist India to organise and operate government and administration in an effective way both in the times of peace and war. The basic structure of the Constitution and its most fundamental features are Preamble, Fundamental Rights, and Directive Principles. The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world.[Note 1]B. R. Ambedkar, the chairman of the Drafting Committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect. It imparts constitutional supremacy and not parliamentary supremacy, as it is not created by the Parliament but, by a constituent assembly, and adopted by its people, with a declaration in its preamble.Parliament cannot override the constitution. It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, and came into effect on 26 January 1950. With its adoption, the Union of India became the modern and contemporary Republic of India replacing the Government of India Act, 1935 as the country's fundamental governing document. To ensure constitutional autochthony, the framers of the constitution repealed the prior Acts of the British Parliament via Article 395 of the constitution. India celebrates its coming into force on 26 January each year, as Republic Day. It declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular,democraticrepublic, assuring its citizens of justice, equality, and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity among them. The major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1857 to 1947. When the Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950, it repealed the Indian Independence Act. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign democratic republic. The date of 26 January was chosen to commemorate the Purna Swaraj declaration of independence of 1930. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393 and 394 of the Constitution came into force on 26 November 1949 and the remaining articles on 26 January 1950. Previous legislation used as sources It is drawn from many sources. Keeping in mind the needs and conditions of India its framers borrowed different features freely from previous legislation viz. Government of India Act 1858, Indian Councils Act 1861, Indian Councils Act 1892, Indian Councils Act 1909, Government of India Act 1919, Government of India Act 1935 and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The last legislation which led to the creation of the two independent nations of India and Pakistan provided for the division of the erstwhile Constituent Assembly into two, with each new assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it, to enable each to draft and enact a new constitution, for the separate states. Main article: Constituent Assembly of India It was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies. The 389 member Constituent Assembly took almost three years (two years, eleven months and eighteen days to be precise) to complete its historic task of drafting the Constitution for independent India, during which, it held eleven sessions over 165 days. Of these, 114 days were spent on the consideration of the draft Constitution. On 29 August 1947, the Constituent Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to prepare a draft Constitution for India. While deliberating upon the draft Constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed of as many as 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635 tabled.Dr B.R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were some important figures in the assembly. There were more than 30 members of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi. The Chairman of the Minorities Committee was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a distinguished Christian who represented all Christians other than Anglo-Indians. Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha Community. Prominent jurists like Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau and K. M. Munshi, Ganesh Mavlankar were also members of the Assembly. Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur and Vijayalakshmi Pandit were important women members. The first temporary 2-day president of the Constituent Assembly was Dr Sachchidananda Sinha. Later, Rajendra Prasad was elected president of the Constituent Assembly. The members of the Constituent Assembly met for the first time on 9 December 1946. B. N. Rau was appointed as the Constitutional Adviser to the Constituent Assembly in formulating the Indian Constitution in 1946. He was responsible for the general structure of its democratic framework of the Constitution and prepared its initial draft in February 1948. This draft was debated, revised and finally adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949. On 14 August 1947 meeting of the Assembly, a proposal for forming various committees was presented. Such committees included a Committee on Fundamental Rights, the Union Powers Committee and Union Constitution Committee. On 29 August 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed, with Dr B. R. Ambedkar as the Chairman along with six other members assisted by a constitutional advisor. These members were Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi (K M Munshi, Ex- Home Minister, Bombay), Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer (Ex- Advocate General, Madras State), N Gopalaswami Ayengar (Ex-Prime Minister, J&K and later member of Nehru Cabinet), B L Mitter (Ex-Advocate General, India), Md. Saadullah (Ex- Chief Minister of Assam, Muslim League member) and D P Khaitan (Scion of Khaitan Business family and a renowned lawyer). The constitutional advisor was Sir Benegal Narsing Rau (who became First Indian Judge in International Court of Justice, 1950–54). Later B L Mitter resigned and was replaced by Madhav Rao (Legal Advisor of Maharaja of Vadodara). On D P Khaitan's death, T T Krishnamachari was included in the drafting committee. A draft Constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on 4 November 1947, which was debated and over 2000 amendments were moved over a period of two years. Finally on 26 November 1949, the process was completed and the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution. 284 members signed the document and the process of constitution making was complete. This day is celebrated as National Law Day or Constitution Day. The assembly met in sessions open to the public, for 166 days, spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution, the 308 members of the assembly signed two copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on 24 January 1950. The original Constitution of India is hand-written with beautiful calligraphy, each page beautified and decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose. The illustrations on the cover and pages represent styles from the different civilisations of the subcontinent, ranging from the prehistoric Mohenjodaro civilisation, in the Indus Valley, to the present. The calligraphy in the book was done by Prem Behari Narain Raizda. It was published in Dehra Dun, and photolithographed at the offices of Survey of India. The entire exercise to produce the original took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India became the law of all the States and territories of India. Rs.1,00,00,000 was official estimate of expenditure on constituent assembly. It has undergone many amendments since its enactment. The original 1950 Constitution of India is preserved in helium cases in the Parliament house, New Delhi. There are two original versions of this – one in Hindi and the other in English. The original constitution can be viewed here. Influence of other constitutions The Indian constitution is the world's longest.[Note 1] At its commencement, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. It is made up of approximately 145,000 words, making it the second largest active constitution in the world. In its current form (September 2012), it has a preamble, 25[Note 2] parts with 448 [Note 3] articles, 12[Note 4] schedules, 5 appendices and 101 amendments, the latest of which came into force on 8 September 2016. The individual articles of the constitution are grouped together into the following parts: Schedules are lists in the Constitution that categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and policy of the Government. - First Schedule (Articles 1 and 4) – This lists the states and territories of India, lists any changes to their borders and the laws used to make that change. - Second Schedule (Articles 59(3), 65(3), 75(6), 97, 125, 148(3), 158(3), 164(5), 186 and 221) – This lists the salaries of officials holding public office, judges, and Comptroller and Auditor General of India. - Third Schedule (Articles 75(4), 99, 124(6), 148(2), 164(3), 188 and 219) – Forms of Oaths – This lists the oaths of offices for elected officials and judges. - Fourth Schedule (Articles 4(1) and 80(2)) – This details the allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of Parliament) per State or Union Territory. - Fifth Schedule (Article 244(1)) – This provides for the administration and control of Scheduled Areas[Note 5] and Scheduled Tribes[Note 6] (areas and tribes needing special protection due to disadvantageous conditions). - Sixth Schedule (Articles 244(2) and 275(1)) – Provisions made for the administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. - Seventh Schedule (Article 246) — The union (central government), state, and concurrent lists of responsibilities. - Eighth Schedule (Articles 344(1) and 351)—The official languages. - Ninth Schedule (Article 31-B) – Validation of certain Acts and Regulations. - Tenth Schedule (Articles 102(2) and 191(2)) – "Anti-defection" provisions for Members of Parliament and Members of the State Legislatures. - Eleventh Schedule (Article 243-G) —Panchayat Raj (rural local government), - Twelfth Schedule (Article 243-W) — Municipalities (urban local government). - Appendix I – The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954. - Appendix II – Re-statement, with reference to the present text of the Constitution, of the exceptions and modifications subject to which the Constitution applies to the State of Jammu and Kashmir. - Appendix III – Extracts from the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978. - Appendix IV – The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002. - Appendix V – The Constitution (Eighty-eighth Amendment) Act, 2003. The constitution and the government Institutions of governance – the Parliament, the President, the Judiciary, the Executive, etc. get their power from the Constitution and are bound by it. With the aid of the Constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature. It states that there shall be a President of India who shall be the head of the executive, under Articles 52 and 53. The President's duty is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law under Article 60 of the Indian constitution. Article 74 provides that there shall be a Prime Minister as the head of union cabinet which would aid and advise the President in performing his constitutional duty. Union cabinet is collectively responsible to the House of the People per Article 75(3). The Constitution of India is federal in nature but unitary in spirit. The common features of a federation such as written Constitution, supremacy of Constitution, rigidity of Constitution, two government, division of powers, bicameralism and independent judiciary as well as unitary features like single Constitution, single citizenship, integrated judiciary, flexible Constitution, a strong Centre, appointment of state governor by the Centre, All-India Services, Emergency Provisions etc. can be seen in Indian Constitution. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form. Each state and each Union territory of India has its own government. Analogous to President and Prime Minister, each has a Governor (in case of states) or Lieutenant Governor (in the case of Union territories) and a Chief Minister. Article 356 permits the President to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority when a situation has arisen in which the Government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. This power, known as President's rule, was abused earlier as state governments came to be dismissed on the flimsiest of grounds, and more due to the political discomfiture of the party in power at the centre. Post – Bommai judgment, such a course of action has been rendered rather difficult, as the courts have asserted their right to review it. Consequently, very few state governments have been disbanded since. The 73rd and 74th Amendment Act also introduced the system of Panchayati Raj in rural areas and Municipality in urban areas. Also, Article 370 of the Constitution gives special status to the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The constitution and the legislature Main article: Amendment of the Constitution of India See also: List of amendments of the Constitution of India The process of addition, variation or repeal of any part of the constitution by the parliament under its constituent powers, is called amendment of the constitution. The procedure is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by each House of the Parliament by a majority of the total membership of that House when at least two-thirds members are present and voted. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike the ordinary bills under legislative powers of Parliament as per Article 245 (with exception to money bills), there is no provision for joint sitting of the two houses (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) of the parliament to pass a constitutional amendment bill. During recess of Parliament, President can not promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers per Article 123, Chapter III which needs constitutional amendment. Deemed amendments to the constitution which can be passed under legislative powers of Parliament, are no more valid after the addition of Article 368 (1) by Twenty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India. As of September 2015[update], there have been 120 amendment bills presented in the parliament, out of which 100 have been passed to become Amendment Acts. Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Constitution of India is the most frequently amended national governing document in the world. The Constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many of these amendments address issues dealt with by ordinary statute in other democracies. As a result, the document is amended roughly twice a year, and three times every two years. In 2000, the National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC) was set up to look into updating the constitution. Government of India, establishes term based law commissions to recommend law reforms for maximising justice in society and for promoting good governance under the rule of law. Main article: Basic structure doctrine The Supreme Court has ruled in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case that an amendment cannot destroy what it seeks to modify, which means, while amending anything in the Constitution, it cannot tinker with the "basic structure" or its framework, which is immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid even though no part of the constitution is explicitly prevented from being amended, nor does the basic structure doctrine protect any single provision of the Constitution. Yet, this "doctrine of basic features" lays down that, the Constitution when "read as a whole", that what comes to be understood as its basic features cannot be abridged, deleted or abrogated. What these "basic features" are, have not been defined exhaustively anywhere, and whether a particular provision of the Constitution of India is a "basic feature" is decided as and when an issue is raised before a court in an instant case. The judgment in the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case laid down the following as the basic structure of the constitution of India: - The Supremacy of the Constitution - Republican and Democratic form of the Government - Secular Character of the Constitution - Maintenance of Separation of powers - The Federal Character of the Constitution This implies that the Parliament, while amending the Constitution, can only amend it to the extent so as to not destroy any of the aforesaid characters. The Supreme Court/High Court(s) may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, by performing Judicial review. This is typical of Parliamentary governments, where the Judiciary has to exercise an effective check on the exercise of the powers of the Parliament, which in many respects is supreme. In the Golak Nath v. State of Punjab case of 1967, the Supreme Court ruled that the State of Punjab could not restrict any of the Fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine. Extent of land ownership and practice of profession, in this case, were held to be a fundamental right. The ruling of the Golak Nath v. State of Punjab case was eventually overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971. The constitution and the judiciary The Judiciary interprets the Constitution as its final arbiter. It is its duty as mandated by the Constitution, to be its watchdog, by calling for scrutiny any act of the legislature or the executive, who otherwise, are free to enact or implement these, from overstepping bounds set for them by the Constitution. It acts like a guardian in protecting the fundamental rights of the people, as enshrined in the Constitution, from infringement by any organ of the state. It also balances the conflicting exercise of power between the centre and a state or among states, as assigned to them by the Constitution. While pronouncing decisions under its constitutional mandate, it is expected to remain unaffected by pulls and pressures exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. And crucially, independence of the judiciary has been held to be a basic feature of the Constitution, and which being inalienable, has come to mean – that which cannot be taken away from it by any act or amendment by the legislature or the executive. Judicial review is adopted in the Constitution of India from judicial review in the United States. In the Indian constitution, Judicial review is dealt with under Article 13. Judicial Review refers that the Constitution is the supreme power of the nation and all laws are under its supremacy. Article 13 states that: - All pre-constitutional laws, if in part or completely in conflict with the Constitution, shall have all conflicting provisions deemed ineffective until an amendment to the Constitution ends the conflict. In such situation the provision of that law will again come into force, if it is compatible with the constitution as amended. This is called the Doctrine of Eclipse. - In a similar manner, laws made after adoption of the Constitution by the Constituent Assembly must be compatible with the constitution, otherwise the laws and amendments will be deemed to be void ab initio. - In such situations, the Supreme Court or High Court interprets the laws to decide if they are in conformity with the Constitution. If such an interpretation is not possible because of inconsistency, and where a separation is possible, the provision that is inconsistent with constitution is considered to be void. In addition to article 13, articles 32, 226 and 227 provide a constitutional basis to judicial review in India. Due to the adoption of the thirty-eighth amendment, the Indian Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency that infringes upon fundamental rights under article 32 i.e. Right to Constitutional Remedies. Later with the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India, article 31 C was widened and article 368(4) and 368(5) were added, which stated that any law passed by the parliament can't be challenged in the court on any ground. The Supreme court in the Minerva Mills v. Union of India case said that Judicial Review is one of the basic character of the constitution and therefore can't be taken away quashing Article 368(4)&(5) as well as 31 C. The constitution – a living document "The Indian Constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people."[Note 7] The Constitution's provisions have consciously been worded in generalities, though not in vague terms, instead of making them rigid and static with a fixed meaning or content as in an ordinary statute, so that they may be interpreted by coming generations of citizens with the onward march of time, to apply to new and ever-changing and demanding situations, making the Constitution a living and an organic document. Justice Marshall asserts: “It is the nature of (a) Constitution that only its great outlines be marked”. It is a document intended “to endure for ages” and therefore, it has to be interpreted not merely on the basis of the intention and understanding of the its framers but on the experience of its working effectively, in the existing social and political context. For instance, "right to life" as guaranteed under Article 21,[nb 1] has by interpretation been expanded to progressively mean a whole lot of human rights[nb 2] In the conclusion of his Making of India's Constitution, Justice Khanna writes: "If the Indian constitution is our heritage bequeathed to us by our founding fathers, no less are we, the people of India, the trustees and custodians of the values which pulsate within its provisions! A constitution is not a parchment of paper, it is a way of life and has to be lived up to. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and in the final analysis, its only keepers are the people." Notes on Article 21 - ^ abThe Constitution of Yugoslavia briefly held this position from 1974 till the nation split up in 1990. - ^The Constitution was in 22 Parts originally. Part VII & IX (older) was repealed in 1956, whereas newly added Part IVA, IXA, IXB & XIVA by Amendments to the Constitution in different times (lastly added IXB by the 97th Amendment). - ^Although the last article of the Constitution is Article 395, the total number, as of March 2013 is 465. New articles added through amendments have been inserted in the relevant location in the original constitution. In order not to disturb the original numbering, the new articles are inserted with alpha numeric enumerations. For example, Article 21A pertaining to Right to Education was inserted by the 86th Amendment Act. - ^By 73rd & 74th Amendment, the lists of administrative subjects of Panchayat raj & Municipality included in the Constitution as Schedule 11 & 12 respectively in the year 1993. - ^Scheduled Areas are autonomous areas within a state, administered federally, usually populated by a predominant Scheduled Tribe. - ^Scheduled Tribes are groups of indigenous people, identified in the Constitution, struggling socioeconomically - ^These lines by Granville Austin from his book The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation at p. 50, have been authoritatively quoted many times - ^Art. 21 – "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law" - ^Right to speedy trial Right to water Right to livelihood Right to health Right to education
Click on the image for larger version This artist concept shows the planetary system called HD 189733, located 63 light-years away in the constellation Vupecula. Astronomers performed the surprising feat of measuring methane and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the system's known gas planet from a telescope on the ground -- NASA's 3-meter (10-foot) Infrared Telescope Facility, located atop Mauna Kea in Hawaii. Astronomers say this technique, when used with future space telescopes, would enable the atmospheric study of even smaller planets, perhaps even Earth-like ones expected to be discovered in coming years. The chart above explains how the process works. The ground telescope, NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility atop Mauna Kea, Hawaii, is illustrated along with the planetary system at upper left. To detect the chemicals in a planet's atmosphere, astronomers measure light from the star system as its planet, which is lined up edge-on from our point of view, orbits around. The total light is measured (B in the chart at lower left), and then, when the planet disappears behind the star, the light of the star alone is measured (A). By subtracting A from B, you get light from just the planet. A breakdown of this light into its basic wavelength components is then plotted out to reveal the "fingerprints" of chemicals. These data, shown at upper right, are called a spectrum. The molecular drawings at lower right show the three molecules identified so far in the planet HD 189733b -- water, carbon dioxide and methane.
The banker horse is a breed of feral horse that can be found in the Outer Banks area of North Carolina. This breed is a descendant of the Spanish horse and the foundation stock is thought to have been brought to the America’s during the 16th century. It is thought that these horses may have become feral after surviving shipwrecks or after being abandoned during exploration or settlement expeditions. Although these horses roam free, they are not true wild horses because they are descended from domestic horses. The banker horse is relatively small in stature, reaching a height between 13 to 14.3 hands and a weight between 800 to 1,000 pounds. It comes in a variety of colors including bay, brown, chestnut, and dun. Individuals of this breed have broad foreheads and oval shaped cannon bones, which is indicative of strength. It is known for its docile and friendly temperament and is easy to maintain. Bankers can be adopted and used as mounts for children and pleasure riding. The population of banker horses, which has been assessed to be about four hundred, resides on a few islands in the Outer Banks of North Carolina, where vegetation and water sources are limited. This is thought to be a factor in the small stature of the breed, although domestic bankers that feed on manufactured horse food tend to be only slightly larger. Because water is not often available, it depends upon its food to retain much of its moisture. It has been seen digging holes in order to hold rain water and reach water under the ground, which are its other main sources of water intake, but in hard times it will resort to drinking sea water. The National Park Service, which helps manage the banker horse population, has expressed concern about the breed’s impact on the health of the islands in inhabits. Studies have shown that it does not damage native plant life by consuming it but rather by trampling certain species and the greatest harm to other animal species comes from their presence near the nesting sites of sea turtles and birds. Despite the fact that the banker horse is not native to the islands, it is allowed to remain and is managed by several organizations. The herd on Ocracoke Island is managed by confinement in an area that contains 180 acres, which protects them from major roadways and protects the rest of the island from over grazing. The herd on Shackleford is jointly managed by the National Park Service and by various other organizations, like the Foundation for Shackleford Horses. On this island, the population is managed by careful adoptions and by administering a contraceptive vaccine. Management on this island also consists of testing for the deadly disease equine infectious anemia and moving horses into separate herds on different islands. The herd on Currituck Banks was once endangered by its close proximity to humans, but it has now been placed in a protected area of 1,800 acres. This herd is managed by the adoptions of fillies, yearlings, and geldings. The population residing in the North Carolina National Estuarine Research Reserve in the Rachel Carson area may have been brought there by people using the area for their livestock or they may have traveled there from neighboring islands. These horses are managed by the state, who prevent over population using a birth control program. Image Caption: Five of the wild Spanish Mustangs in Corolla, North Carolina. Credit: Kevincollins123/Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 3.0)
Chasing Vermeer Extension Activities - Grades: 3–5, 6–8 About this book About the book When a book of unexplainable occurrences brings Petra Andalee and Calder Pillay together, strange things start to happen: seemingly unrelated events connect, an eccentric old woman seeks their company, and an invaluable Vermeer painting disappears. Before they know it, the two find themselves at the center of an international art scandal, where no one—neighbors, parents, teachers—is spared from suspicion. As Petra and Calder are drawn clue by clue into a mysterious labyrinth, they must draw on their powers of intuition, their problem-solving skills, and their knowledge of Vermeer. Can they decipher a crime that has left even the FBI baffled? Great readers make connections while they read in at least three important ways. They think about connections between the book they are reading and others they have already read (text-to-text connections), they think about how the book relates to their own personal life or memories (text-to-self connections), or how it reminds them of something from the larger world, like issues in the news or something that is happening in their own neighborhood (text-to-world connections). As you read Chasing Vermeer create a chart with columns for each of these three connections and keep track of the connections you make. Inspired by Brett Helquist’s illustrations, draw a scene from the novel (with or without the main characters) and embed clues about the mystery. Frame them with black construction paper(or create fancy frames with interesting hand-drawn carvings on brown construction paper) to create a mystery gallery. Hang in the hallway or use as a bulletin board display. Study the art of Johannes Vermeer (http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/vermeer/). Choose your favorite painting by Vermeer and explain in a journal entry why this piece is your favorite. Discuss the following elements of the piece you chose: the subject, the palette, the light, and the texture. Are there any Vermeer paintings that you feel the thief might have been right about, that don’t fit with the rest of the artist’s work? Explain what makes you think this. Science and Art Calder loves the Vermeer painting "The Geographer" and the idea of mapmakers. “Mapmaking was a respected profession, something between a science and an art.” (p. 74) Create your own map of your neighborhood using the science of geography and your own artistic ability. Make it a map that is useful to you and your family and don’t forget the important details. Petra and Calder are interesting characters to follow on their quest for the Vermeer painting. Brainstorm a list of qualities characters in a mystery of your own might possess. Decide the following: What do they look like? What are their favorite hobbies? What are their best subjects in school? What do they struggle with at school, home, and with other people? What are their favorite foods? Write a brief scene where one of your characters discover something has gone wrong.
‘Explorify in the Garden’ is a practical one day course that will inspire you to take the Primary Science curriculum outdoors with confidence, using the rich tapestry of opportunities that nature, plants and growing provide. The RHS has teamed up with Wellcome to develop this enjoyable course, based on Wellcome’s innovative Explorify approach to teaching and learning in science and set in the context of school gardens. The focus of learning is that of the journey, rather than on finding the right answer. It’s about discovery and asking ‘Why?’ ‘What if?’ and ‘What does this mean?’ to get pupils discussing and debating the world around them. The course will enable you to gain experience working with fascinating digital images and videos from the Wellcome collections and to explore with the RHS the outdoor spaces that offer endless opportunities to make and build your own. You will understand how to use images and ‘found’ materials in the garden to stimulate learning and discussion, and discover some fascinating plants and how to grow them. At the end of the course you will understand how to work scientifically with your pupils, whilst covering key content from the Primary Science programmes of study. Using ideas from Explorify in the Garden will enable you to encourage future generations to be proactive participators and not just passive observers! For more information about the Explorify programme, visit The Wellcome Trust. - Work with Explorify resources developed by the Wellcome Trust, share ideas and enthusiasm with other teachers and start to see your school grounds as a fantastic canvas of resources with endless opportunities to build your own collections. - Improve your growing techniques and horticultural understanding. - Realise how ‘growing topics’ can spark curiosity and inspire children to question the world around them. - Identify garden plants and discover exciting new ones that help teach Primary Science in an exciting way whilst having a positive impact on learning.
The use of literary devices as 1 literary devices writers often use words in special ways to help readers see things in a different way devices are tools, so literary devices are. Literary devices in song lyrics have you ever wondered if songwriters use literary devices to enhance their lyrics. Get an answer for 'what makes the literary devices and conventions used in poetry so effective' and find homework help for other poetry questions at enotes. Transcript of 1984 literary devices imagery the use of vivid and descriptive language in order to appeal to human senses and create an in depth idea. Study the following poetic devices learn the definitions and click on the terms to see examples and get a more detailed explanation when finished, try one of the quizzes that can be found at the bottom of the page. The raven this unit lets users view each stanza of the poem, pointing out poe's use of some common literary devices by moving the mouse over the highlighted words, users can learn more about poe's use of these devices. Throughout the great gatsby, f scott fitzgerald makes use of numerous literary devices he uses them to convey deeper meanings of his novel as well as to make the text more interesting. Free essay: literary devices used in macbeth imagine how dull a shakespearean play would be without the ingenious literary devices and techniques that. Using picture story books to teach literary devices: recommended books for children and young adults volume 4 [susan hall] on. Elevated language and meter composed around 700 bc, the odyssey is one of the earliest epics still in existence and, in many ways, sets the pattern for the genr. Tools authors use: literary devices and figurative language onomatopoeia onomatopoeia a single word that sounds like the thing to. Welcome to the website dedicated to literary devices (literary terms) here you will find a list literary devices with definitions and examples please fee free to post your thoughts and vote on your favorite literary device. Literary devices, terms, and elements contact authors generally use ellipsis examples in their works of literature to indicate an omission of unnecessary words. A professional journalist of elie wiesel's experience demonstrates that a knowledge and application of literary devices become a natural part of writing sprink. The leftovers pilot is packed with literary flourishes that carry throughout the entire series fred venturini breaks down the techniques that. Literary terms are devices used to make writing better some examples of literary terms for kids can be found here. A list of literary devices and literary terms with detailed definition and examples for students and writers. Vocabulary to describe literary devices april 9, 2013 use it to prep for your next a simile is a literary device where the writer employs the words. Literary devices in poetry well, one answer is to use one of a set of literary devices that load the maximum possible impact into the minimum amount of space. The use of literary devices as How can you add depth to your characters, settings, and events the answer is simple: develop literary devices within your story. - Using short stories to teach vocabulary and literary terms by mariama use them to help literary criticism and analysis literary devices literature story. - This lesson plan allows students to review literary terms, rhetorical devices and either hold a discussion about how king’s use of these literary terms. - We want to teach students how to identify and analyze literary devices in stories, poems, and plays analyzing literary devices like analogies, allusions, and hyperbole helps students understand how authors use figurative language and other literary devices to create stylistic, experiential texts. - Literary devices are numerous, and writers don’t have to use every one in existence or use them on every page they only need use a few dotted throughout a novel to enhance the story and give it deeper meaning for the reader. - Literary devices are the tools and techniques of language that authors use to convey meaning skilled use of literary devices brings richness and clarity to a text. Browse through our list of literary devices and literary terms with definitions, examples, and usage tips explore each device in depth through literature. Authors use literary devices in their works for a variety of reasons the same holds true in shakespeare’s julius caesar the use of these devices has. Griffin has already done a really great job in his answer so, let’s see how this one goes literary devices are used as embellishments for run-of-the-mill pieces of writings. Why is it important authors can use irony to make their audience stop and think about what has just been said, or to emphasize a central idea. What kinds of literary techniques are used in the bible by alex carmichael here are some of the more commonly used literary devices found in scripture.
\|seed-bearing plant \| A plant that produces seeds. The gymnosperms and the angiosperms together form the seed-bearing plants. The seed-bearing plants have been an enormously successful group in the history of life, owing to the evolution of seeds and pollen. The seed is a superior unit of dispersal to the naked spore, since it includes a food reserve and, among angiosperms, a protective layer. Also, seedless plants are dependent upon the presence of liquid water for sperm dispersal. Pollen makes water unnecessary for sperm transport. Instead, eggs are fertilized after male nuclei have been transported within the protective pollen grain to the female reproductive parts, usually by pollinating agents such as insects or the wind. Also called seed plant, spermatophyte. In the second genus, Miadesmia, the seed-bearing plant was herbaceous, and much like a recent Selaginella.
Methane hydrates can be seen as a potential energy source or as a dangerous source of methane – a greenhouse gas that is 20 times more potent than CO2. With the help of a supercomputer and an interdisciplinary team, scientists have uncovered important details about their stability if they are disturbed by human-induced or natural forces. Methane hydrates are a kind of ice that contains methane, and that form at certain depths under the sea or buried in permafrost. They can also form in pipelines that transport oil and gas, leading to clogging. Yet methane hydrates are nearly impossible to study because it is very hard to get samples, and the samples themselves are highly unstable in the laboratory. A team of scientists from Norway, China and the Netherlands has now shown how the size of grains of the molecules that make up the natural structure of methane hydrates determines how they behave if they are loaded with weight or disturbed. That could have important implications for everything from climate science to their use as a future energy source, said Zhiliang Zhang, a professor at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology and founder of the university’s Nanomechanical Lab. “If we have basic knowledge about the mechanical properties of methane hydrates, we can use this information so that we manage them properly,” Zhang said. “How methane hydrates behave can have a big impact on safety, environmental issues and climate change.” Poorly understood and unstable Methane hydrates have been known since the 1930s, when natural gas companies found that their pipelines were sometimes clogged by a kind of ice composed of water and methane. Methane hydrates were later found in permafrost in the 1960s, and in the oceans, commonly on the edges of the continental shelves, but only at certain ocean pressures and temperatures. They are also thought to be found on other planets, including Mars. When methane hydrates “melt”, they release the methane trapped inside the ice, but because the methane was first trapped under pressure when the hydrate was formed, one cubic metre of solid methane hydrate will release 160 cubic metres of methane gas. That makes them either a potent energy source, or if they melt as the permafrost melts, a potent source of methane, which will act as a greenhouse gas. But mining methane hydrates as an energy source, an option that is being explored by Japan among others, is technically difficult. Their location on the soft, sediment-loaded edges of the continental shelves makes them difficult to mine, and when they are disturbed, their crystal structure may suddenly dissociate and release the methane trapped inside. This mechanism has been suggested as one reason why the largest landslide known to humankind, the Storegga Slide, was so destructive. The Storegga Slide took place about 8000 years ago, from an underwater location off the west coast of southern Norway. The slides – there were three in total– sent a wall of water roaring out across the North Sea and Norwegian Sea. The evidence of the passage of the tsunami wave in Scotland that shows the wave reached heights of 3-6 metres in that region. One hypothesis for the slide was that an earthquake caused the methane hydrates in the region to become unstable and to explosively release their gas. Computer simulations show surprising behaviour Researchers at NTNU’s Nanomechanical Lab and from the university’s Department of Chemistry and their collaborators in China and the Netherlands are interested in understanding the relation between molecular structures and the mechanical stability of materials. Methane hydrates, with their ice lattice structure containing trapped molecules of methane, pose an intriguing three-dimensional and practical problem from this perspective. In a paper published in the 2 November edition of Nature Communications, corresponding author Zhang and his colleagues describe how they used a computer simulation of two types of methane hydrates, monocrystalline hydrates and polycrystalline hydrates, to see what would happen if they were compressed or if pressures on the hydrates were suddenly released. The researchers built their computer models using common molecular models for ice/water and methane, arranged as either monocrystalline or polycrystalline grains, and simulated the effect of applying forces to the collection of grains. Maximum capacity found The simulated hydrate structures were subjected to two different kinds of stress: tensile stress, or the forces they would experience as they were pulled apart, and compressive stress, or the forces they would experience if they were squashed by weight. The simulations showed that the size of the crystals—what researchers call the grain size—that made up the hydrate structure had a great deal to say in terms of how the structure reacted to both kinds of stresses. In both tensile and compression stress simulations, the surprising finding was that as the grain size got smaller, the hydrates first got stronger, able to tolerate both compression and tensile stress—but only until they reached a certain grain size. If the researchers conducted simulations on grain sizes smaller than those identified as the turning point, the hydrate actually got weaker. The maximum capacity of the hydrates appears when the grain size is around 15 to 20 nm. This resembles the behaviour of polycrystalline metals, such as copper. However, this is the first time that researchers have seen this type of behaviour in methane hydrates as a material. The grain size-dependent strength and maximum capacity that the researchers found can be used in predicting and preventing the failure of hydrates in the future. Instability can be triggered This unexpected rapid weakening of the crystal structure as the grain size gets smaller has important implications for any work in areas where hydrates are found. The researchers reported that the dissociation of methane hydrates can be triggered by the ground deformation caused by “earthquakes, storms, sea-level fluctuations or man-made disturbances (including well drilling and gas production from hydrate reservoirs).” “This has an impact on these big issues,” Zhang said. “Here we have taken one step forward, but of course there is a lot more work to be done.” Zhang said the researchers plan to continue their collaboration and are currently at work on a centre of excellence application to the Research Council of Norway. Reference: Jianyang Wu, Fulong Ning, Thuat T. Trinh, Signe Kjelstrup, Thijs J.H. Vlugt, Jianying He, Bjørn H. Skallerud and Zhiliang Zhang. Mechanical instability of monocrystalline and polycrystalline methane hydrates. Nature Communications. DOI:10.1038/NCOMMS9743
This doodle was published last year to commemorate Grace Hopper’s 107th Birthday. Hopper (December 9, 1906 – January 1, 1992) was an American computer scientist who first developed the first compiler for a computer programming language. Her ideas led to development of COBOL programming language. She was buried in Arlington National Cemetery. My last post about the Science Museum is about Charles Babbage. We’ve seen that there is a difference machine in the groundfloor of the museum but in the mathematical section there is a special space dedicated to him and his machines: Charles Babbage (1791-1871) is widely regarded as the first computer pioneer and the great ancestral figure in the history of computing. Babbage excelled in a variety of scientific and philosophical subjects though his present-day reputation rests largely on the invention and design of his vast mechanical calculating engines. His Analytical Engine conceived in 1834 is one of the startling intellectual feats of the nineteenth century. The design of this machine possesses all the essential logical features of the modern general purpose computer. However, there is no direct line of descent from Babbage’s work to the modern electronic computer invented by the pioneers of the electronic age in the late 1930s and early 1940s largely in ignorance of the detail of Babbage’s work. Apart of his portrait from 1860, we can see in the exhibition the right sagittal section with cerebellum of his brain. Babbage’s son donated it for research to the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons in England. There also are extracts from his diary (1844): Charles Babbage invented the Difference Engine in 1821 but never built a full example. The only complete Difference Engine built during Babbage’s lifetime was made by Swedish engineers George and Edvard Scheutz. Inspired in Babbage’s ideas, and encouraged by Babbage himself, they printed the first ever mathematical tables calculated by machine. The Scheutz brothers went on to sell two further Difference Engines of which this is the second: Practical and finantial problems meant that Babbage and his engineer Joseph Clement completed only about a seventh of Babbage’s original mechanism, which is on display in the ‘Making the Modern World’ gallery on the ground floor. Known as Difference Engine No. 1, it is one of the finest examples of precision egineering from 19th-century England. The world’s first mechanical computer was also invented by Babbage in 1834. He never saw his Analytical Machine finished and this small section was under construction when he died: There is also a model of the Difference Engine No. 2: Charles Babbage designed this mechanical calculating machine, called Difference Engine No. 2, between 1847 and 1849. He aimed to print mathematical tables that were much more accurate than the hand-produced versions available to Victorian engineers, scientists and navigators. Babbage called his machine a Difference Engine because it calculated tables of sums automatically using ‘the method of finite differences’. This mathematical method involves only addition and subtraction, and avoids multiplication and division, which are more difficult to mechanise. I have a picture in front of this machine with my students from our visit to the museum in February 2012: Nowadays, the machine is part of this section dedicated exclusively to Babbage. I am going to visit the Science Museum again next February and I am sure that another post will be written because there are a lot of pictures and things that I don’t have time now to share with you! This is not going to be the only post dedicated to Babbage in the Science Museum. I’ve visited this museum in my birthday and I am going to write some posts about the mathematical section. However, the first thing that I saw after the exhibition about Turing is this Babbage’s Difference Machine No. 1. This trial portion of the Difference Engine is one of the earliest automatic calculators and is a celebrated icon in the prehistory of the computer. Charles Babbage was a brillant thinker and mathematician. He divised the Difference Engine to automate the production of error-free mathematical tables. In 1823 he secured 1500 pounds from the government and shortly afterwards he hired the engineer Joseph Clement. The Difference Engine was designed to perform fixed operations automatically. During its development Babbage’s mind leapt forward to the design of the Analytical Engine, which using punched cards could be programmed to calculate almost any function. This design embodied almost all the conceptual elements of the modern electronic computer. The project collapsed in 1833 when Clement downed tools. By then, the government had spent over 17.000 pounds to build the machine -equivalent to the price of two warships. The collapse of the venture was traumatic for Babbage and, in old age, he became embittered and disillusioned. Historians have suggested that the design was beyond the capability of contemporany technology and would have required greater accuracy than contemporany engineering could have provided. However, recent research has shown that Clement’s work was adequate to create a functioning machine. In fact, the scheme founderer on issues of economics, politics, Babbage’s temperament and his style of directing the enterprise. Today is my birthday and I’m in London! My wife, my son, my daughter and me have decided to go to the Science Museum and we have found an interesting exhibition about Alan Turing: The Second World War was not just fought with bombs and shells. It was a war of electronic whispers and secret radio signals snatched from the ether. At Bletchey Park, Buckinghamshire, thousands of men and women laboured night and day to crack these coded radio messages which held Germany’s most secret plans. One of these codebreakers was Alan Turing. But Turing was not just a codebreaker. Born 100 years ago, the British mathematician was also a philosopher and computing pioneer who grappled with some of the fundamental problems of life itself. Yet his own life was cut tragically short. In 1954 he was found dead, poisoned by cyanide. He was 41. Throughout his life, Turing broke the codes of science and society. His ideas helped shape the modern world – but it was a world he did not live to see. This is his story. After the Second World War, Alan Turing as asked to put his theories and experience into action by developing a ground-breaking electronic computer at the government’s National Physical Laboratory. His first specifications were written in 1945. Following administrative delays, Turing left the project in 1948, but a trial version (known as Pilot ACE) was completed in 1950. It is now the most significant artefact in existence. Yet the Pilot ACE computer was more than just a trial. It was used for several years by a variety of external customers desperate to employ its computing power. It also became a public celebrity, referred to as Turing’s ‘electronic brain’. So Turing was the man who broke Enigma and this machine is also shown in the exhibition: Enigma machines were first introduced in the 1920s for keeping commercial messages secret. An Enigma machine was used at both the transmitting and the receiving end of the message. Senders typed their messages on the keyboard. Each typed letter was encrypted by passing an electrical signal through a plug-board and rotors, causing a different letter to light up. These new letters formed a secure message, ehich could be transmitted by radio to the recipient. At the receiving end, the message was decrypted using an Enigma machine that had been set up initially in exactly the same way as the sending machine. Soon after their introduction, government institutions and the military began to use modified Enigma machines for their secret communications, believing nobody would be able to break the cipher system. But this was what Alan Turing and his colleagues managed to do. Alan Turing worked at Bletchey and he developed sophisticated decryption processes and devised the machines called ‘bombes’ that could break the code on an industrial scale. Some 200 bombes were built at a secret facility nearby. The exhibition had some pictures about the bombs and these two wheels from a bomb machine, c. 1940: Next to Turing’s bombs and computers we can also see these two pioneer calculating machines: The right one is a mechanical logic machine by William Stanley Jevons (1869) and the other is an electrical logic machine by Dietrich Pronz and Wolfe Mays (1949). We have some personal aspects of this important man too. For example, the exhibition points to the fact that in 1927 Turing began a close friendship with a boy at this school, Christopher Morcom. In 1930 Morcom died from tuberculosis, aged 18, and Turing wrote a short essay expressing his belief that the human spirit can live outside the body. The exhibition also shows this calculating machine used at the Scientific Computer Service in 1939: I didn’t know that questions like… What will be the position of the Moon in A.D.2000? How would you know the right direction in which to point an anti-aircraft gun? were posed in a 1942 newspaper articleabout the Scientific Computing Service. Before Turing’s computer, ‘computers’ were human and usually women. In fact, in 1936 Turing wrote an article which was the theoretical basis for today’s computers because he imagined a machine that could compute any problem. In 1948, Alan Turing moved to Manchester University to work on a ground-breaking stored-program computer developing mathematical theories of morphogenesis (growth and patterns in animals and plants). In those years he began a relationship with Arnold Murray and in 1952 Turing was arrested under anti-homosexuality legislation. Given a choice of imprisonment or a one-year course of female hormones, he opted for the latter. It seems that he couldn’t stand that kind of experiment and he committed suicide.
Phytoplankton bloom off the coast of Argentina Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC Off the east coast of Argentina, the South Atlantic Ocean is blooming. This true-color MODIS image from November 9, 2001, shows the waters off southern Argentina swirling with the blues and greens that indicate massive amounts of microscopic marine plants called phytoplankton. The blooms in this area are a regularly occurring phenomenon due to the existence of what oceanographers call a convergence zone-where two strong ocean currents meet. In this case, the meeting is that of the warmer, lower-nutrient Brazil Current, which flows southward toward the pole along the coast of South America and the northward flowing Falkland Current. Although the exact meeting point varies, convergence is usually somewhere around 39( South Latitude, south of Buenos Aires and the Rio De la Plata estuary (obscured by clouds in the upper left of this image). The turbulence caused by the convergence of the two currents causes upwelling in some areas, and cold-nutrient rich water is drawn up from the depths of the ocean, supporting a phytoplankton bloom.
1823 – Germany A significant improvement on the apparatus used by Newton. Sunlight, instead of passing through a pinhole before striking a prism, is passed through a long thin slit in a metal plate. This creates a long ribbon-like spectrum, which may be scanned from end to end with a microscope. Cutting across the ribbon of rainbow colours are thin black lines. The lines are present even when a diffraction grating is used instead of a prism, proving that the lines are not produced by the material of a prism, but are inherent in sunlight. An equivalent way of describing colours is as light waves of different sizes. The wavelength of light is fantastically small, on average about a thousandth of a millimeter, with the wavelength of red light being about twice as long as that of blue light. Fraunhofer’s black lines correspond to missing wavelengths of light. By 1823 Fraunhofer had measured the positions of 574 spectral lines, labeling the most prominent ones with the letters of the alphabet. The lines labeled with the letters ‘H’ and ‘K’ correspond to light at a wavelength of 0.3968 thousandths of a millimeter and 0.3933 thousandths of a millimeter, respectively. The lines are present in the spectrum of light from stars, usually in different combinations. Fraunhofer died early at the age of 39 and it was left to the German GUSTAV KIRCHOFF to make the breakthrough that explained their significance. Astronomers today know the wavelengths of more than 25,000 ‘Fraunhofer lines’.
Answering the question "how did we get here?" is one of the key goals in NASA's Astrophysics Division, and is the prime objective of its Cosmic Origins (COR) Program. The subject of Origins is a very broad one. Some of the questions and topic areas are: No one space or airborne observatory can provide all the answers. The COR Program includes telescopes—both present and future—that together operate across a wide swath of the electromagnetic spectrum, from the far-ultraviolet through the far-infrared and sub-millimeter. Currently operating facilities in COR are the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and the Spitzer Space Telescope (SST). Future facilities and efforts within or with COR related science include the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), currently in implementation and the #1 recommendation of the 2001 Decadal Survey; advanced future instruments for SOFIA; and studies of a UV-optical successor to HST. Advances in key technologies will enable the building of powerful future facilities. An exciting aspect of the Program is that the telescopes of the future are significantly more capable than those that have flown before. HST, currently in orbit and at the peak of its scientific powers, has observed galaxies as long ago as only 500–600 million years after the Big Bang. Yet it will take JWST—with a larger mirror and a longer reach into the infrared—to see all the way back to when the first star systems formed, perhaps only 200 million years after the birth of the universe. In science, the past and present inform the dreams and efforts of the future, and that is certainly true in NASA's Cosmic Origins Program. Program News and Announcements
What Is It? Moles are small, pigmented spots on the skin that usually appear during childhood or adolescence, although they are sometimes present at birth. They are composed of clusters of pigmented cells called melanocytes. People may develop more moles during adolescence and pregnancy, and existing ones may enlarge or darken somewhat during these times. Despite such changes, moles should always remain: Evenly pigmented — The color is the same across the mole. Sharply demarcated — The edges of the mole are clear-cut. Symmetrical in shape and color — All parts of the mole look similar. Moles can vary in color. They can be flesh-colored, yellow-brown or dark brown. They also can be flat or raised and can be smooth, hairy or warty. Although moles usually are harmless, in some cases they can become cancerous, causing a potentially deadly tumor called malignant melanoma. For this reason, it is important to monitor moles and have them examined by a dermatologist if they: Get larger suddenly Develop an irregular border Become darker or inflamed Show spotty color changes Begin to bleed, crack or itch Moles called atypical moles, or dysplastic nevi, have somewhat different physical characteristics and sometimes run in families. They are more likely than common moles to turn into cancer. People with multiple dysplastic nevi and melanoma in two or more first-degree relatives have 25 times the risk of developing melanoma. This is called the dysplastic nevus-melanoma syndrome. Your doctor can determine the type of mole you have by looking at it: Common moles usually are no more than 1 to 10 millimeters (less than half an inch) in diameter. They are flesh-colored, yellow-brown or dark brown and can be located anywhere on the body. They usually appear during childhood or adolescence. Atypical moles (dysplastic nevi) are usually larger in diameter (5 millimeters to 12 millimeters). They are tan to dark brown and may have a mixture of colors, including tan, dark brown, and sometimes pink or black. The border is often irregular and indistinct and often fades into the surrounding skin. Most commonly, atypical moles appear on sun-exposed skin, but they can occur elsewhere, and they continue to develop after age 35. Most moles never become a problem. However, moles should be inspected regularly for any abnormal changes. When melanocytes become cancerous, they are called melanomas. It is important to examine your moles regularly to look for any suspicious changes. Get someone else to inspect your scalp and other areas that are hard to see. Watch for the early warning signs of melanoma by using the ABCDE criteria: Color variation (different colors within the same mole) Diameter greater than 6 millimeters (larger than a pencil eraser) Evolving (a new mole developing) Practice safe sunning. Never sunbathe or visit a suntan parlor for the sake of tanning. Use high-SPF sunscreen when outdoors, wear protective hats and clothing, and avoid the outdoors when the sun is most intense, from 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. Sweating or swimming can cause sunscreen to wash off, even if it is labeled as "waterproof". Reapply sunscreen often. Common moles do not need to be removed. However, some people choose to have them removed for cosmetic reasons; if they are raised and located in areas where clothing irritates them, such as the waistline; or if they are on the scalp and are irritated by hair brushing. Most moles can be cut off in a simple in-office procedure. Moles and dysplastic nevi whose appearance suggests they may be cancerous should be removed and examined under a microscope. If they are found to be cancerous, additional skin in the surrounding area also must be removed. When To Call A Professional Do not ignore warning signs. Have suspicious moles checked by a dermatologist. Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer, but early diagnosis could save your life. If a mole appears abnormal, your doctor will do a biopsy by taking some of the mole tissue so it can be examined in a laboratory. Also, having a doctor check your moles once is not enough. Normal-looking moles can become cancerous later. Moles must be examined from time to time, especially if you notice any changes. If you have dysplastic nevi or if there is a history of melanoma in your family, you should have a physician check all of your moles regularly. Your physician will recommend how often you should have them checked. Since moles can become cancerous, it is important to see a dermatologist if a mole changes. American Academy of Dermatology P.O. Box 4014 Schaumburg, IL 60168-4014 Phone: (847) 330-0230 Toll-Free: (888) 462-3376 Fax: (847) 330-0050
Operating System Design/Kernel Architecture The kernel is the core of an operating system. It is the software responsible for running programs and providing secure access to the machine's hardware. Since there are many programs, and resources are limited, the kernel also decides when and how long a program should run. This is called scheduling. Accessing the hardware directly can be very complex, since there are many different hardware designs for the same type of component. Kernels usually implement some level of hardware abstraction (a set of instructions universal to all devices of a certain type) to hide the underlying complexity from applications and provide a clean and uniform interface. This helps application programmers to develop programs without having to know how to program for specific devices. The kernel relies upon software drivers that translate the generic command into instructions specific to that device. An operating system kernel is not strictly needed to run a computer. Programs can be directly loaded and executed on the "bare metal" machine, provided that the authors of those programs are willing to do without any hardware abstraction or operating system support. This was the normal operating method of many early computers, which were reset and reloaded between the running of different programs. Eventually, small ancillary programs such as program loaders and debuggers were typically left in-core between runs, or loaded from read-only memory. As these were developed, they formed the basis of what became early operating system kernels. The "bare metal" approach is still used today on many video game consoles and embedded systems, but in general, newer systems use kernels and operating systems. Four broad categories of kernels: - Monolithic kernels provide rich and powerful abstractions of the underlying hardware. - Microkernels provide a small set of simple hardware abstractions and use applications called servers to provide more functionality. - Exokernels provide minimal abstractions, allowing low-level hardware access. In exokernel systems, library operating systems provide the abstractions typically present in monolithic kernels. - Hybrid (modified microkernels) are much like pure microkernels, except that they include some additional code in kernelspace to increase performance.
Journeys first grade basal reading series Unit 3 Lesson 15 Thanks for purchasing this resource. Print each scrambled sentence on different colored cardstock. Laminate if possible, cut them apart and then put the sets of sentences (1 of each sentence) into a baggie. Students order one sentence at a time and then they write it beside the picture that it matches. This can be used as a center, but also as a whole group activity where students work with partners on the floor with clipboards. During whole group, partners order one sentence and raise their hand for the teacher to check. They read aloud it aloud to the teacher and this gives the teacher an opportunity to ask questions. Questioning can include capitalization/punctuation, subject/predicate, grammar, and comprehension over the basal. Students then write in the sentence in their nicest handwriting, put cards to the side and pick another set to order. Fish live in water and have gills. Reptiles have scales and hatch from eggs. Amphibians have skin that is wet. Birds have feathers and wings. Mammals have hair and feed their babies milk. All pages show in preview.
MADISON - University of Wisconsin-Madison animal scientist Mark Cook is finding ways producers can raise chickens economically with fewer antibiotics. "I believe that our new tools and strategies will increase both animal and human health," he says. The research could slow the development of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains, preserve the useful life of antibiotics, and allow scientists to breed chickens with strong immune systems, according to Cook, a researcher at the UW-Madison College of Agricultural and Life Sciences. There have been growing concerns about the development of new bacterial strains resistant to antibiotics. The increasing number of antibiotic-resistant strains means doctors are losing their ability to cure human infections. One controversial aspect of the antibiotic-resistance issue has been whether the routine feeding of antibiotics to agricultural animals contributes to the increase in antibiotic-resistant strains. European countries have banned the routine use of antibiotics in chicken feed. However, Cook believes that banning antibiotics would dramatically increase food costs, leave animal producers with few strategies to control diseases and pathogens, and greatly reduce investment in new pharmaceuticals to fight infection in both animals and people. "To keep birds healthy, we've come to rely on antibiotics, which promote growth by warding off infections and their growth-reducing effects," Cook says. "We need other ways that poultry producers can keep the birds growing rapidly without feeding antibiotics routinely in the diet." In the 1950s, Cook says, researchers found that animals fed antibiotics grew faster than those not fed the compounds. Using antibiotics in feed gave producers an economic advantage in raising animals to market weight quickly and at low cost. The routine addition of growth promoting antibiotics to animal feed soon became commonplace in agriculture. When the practice began, researchers didn't fully understand why antibiotics improved animal growth, according to Cook. "You might expect that infectious microbes themselves decrease animal growth. Instead, the animal's own immune system is responsible for the growth depression that occurs when an animal is infected." "Chickens respond to immune stimulants much the way we do to the flu," Cook says. "They don't want to eat, their muscles begin to break down and they lose weight." The reason, Cook explains, is that when faced with a foreign substance -- such as an infectious microbe -- the immune system's white blood cells release cytokines. These chemical messengers cause the gut to produce peptides that result in animals not eating. The cytokines also trigger a response in muscles that promotes wasting. Cook has tested two compounds that allow birds to grow just as fast as birds fed antibiotics. The compounds don't kill microbes but work by blocking the pathways that lead to weight loss. The first is an antibody -- not an antibiotic -- that Cook identified. The antibody binds to the gut peptides, keeping them from causing the birds to lose their appetites. When fed the antibody, chickens retain their appetites, even when their immune systems are attacking microorganisms. Cook has patented a method for producing the antibodies in eggs, a rich source of antibodies. Dried egg powder from these birds can be fed to large flocks. The egg antibodies improve feed conversion and growth, but should not lead to drug-resistant bacteria. The company with the exclusive rights to the production method is scaling up for mass production with the help of many other companies. The other compound Cook has tested is conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), which was originally identified as a compound in ground beef that inhibits some forms of cancer. Cook believes that CLA inhibits the message that triggers the breakdown of muscle cells. Based on his analysis of studies of domestic poultry, Cook believes that chickens today have weaker immune systems than birds grown on farms 50 years ago. He and several colleagues at the UW-Madison have begun a long-term project to test this idea. "I believe that by selecting for animals that grow rapidly, we've bred animals with weakened immune systems," he says. "Animals that respond strongly to diseases, vaccinations and other immune system stimulants eat less and lose muscle mass. Breeders can't now select for birds with strong immune systems because that means selecting for slower-growing animals, which would put them out of competition in the industry." Feeding animals antibodies and CLA, rather than antibiotics, will allow breeders to select for animals with stronger immune systems, according to Cook. That would lead to animals better able to fight off infections on their own, thus further decreasing the need for antibiotics to treat sick birds. Cite This Page:
The epiglottis is comprised of cartilage and can be found beneath the tongue. It is responsible for preventing food from going into the windpipe. However, the tissue of the epiglottis is susceptible to swelling, and when this happens the child’s airway can become blocked. This is a dangerous condition that requires prompt medical assistance. What is epiglottitis? Epiglottitis is a condition where the tissue of the epiglottis becomes inflamed. It is rare and mostly appears in children. Bacteria will enter the child’s body through their nose, and their epiglottis will become infected. Haemophilus influenza type b is the bacteria most responsible for the infection, and it is contracted when someone who already has the bacteria sneezes, and a child nearby inhales the germs. Other types of bacteria that can cause epiglottitis include Streptococcus pneumonia as well as Streptococcus A, B, or C. This condition may also be contracted through viruses. New born children are at greatest risk of developing epiglottitis. The reason for this is because they haven’t yet received the Hib vaccine. Also, children between the ages of 3 and 7 are also at increased risk of contracting epiglottitis, especially if they live in a country where the vaccine isn’t widely available. Male children are more likely to contract epiglottitis than female children, and the reasons for this are not understood. A child with a weakened immune system is vulnerable to epiglottis because their body is less capable of warding off germs. What are the symptoms of epiglottitis? Regardless of what causes epiglottitis, the symptoms are always the same. Children will contract the condition within hours of exposure. Once the airway is blocked, the child may display skin discoloration due to a lack of oxygen. Symptoms which are associated with this condition include: - An infection in the upper respiratory tract - Fever accompanied by chills - The child drools - The throat becomes sore or itchy - The child’s voice is hoarse - Breathing via the mouth How is the diagnosis established? Because this condition is life threatening, your child will be diagnosed in an emergency setting. Dr. Samadi will review both the medical history of your child as well as performing physical observations. If he suspects epiglottitis he will conduct some additional tests, including a throat and chest exam using an X-ray, as well as a fiber optic tube to examine the throat. He may also collect blood or throat cultures in order to determine the cause for the infection. How is epiglottitis treated? Once epiglottitis has been diagnosed, Dr. Samadi will review the oxygen levels of the child using a device called an oximeter. If the blood/oxygen levels of the child become dangerously low, he will provide oxygen to the child with a breathing tube. Epiglottitis treatment involves providing the child with food and fluids intravenously until they can swallow again, and antibiotics will be used to destroy the infection itself. To reduce the swelling in the throat, anti-inflammatory medicines such as corticosteroids will be administered. If you suspect that your child is suffering from this condition, contact us at ENT for Children immediately, as this is a life threatening ailment that is treatable, if medical assistance is provided in time.
Scientists have located an ancient solar system, dating back to the dawn of the galaxy, which appears to be a miniature version of the inner planets in our own solar system. An international research group, including Yale University professors of astronomy Sarbani Basu and Debra Fischer, announced the discovery Jan. 27 in The Astrophysical Journal. The findings are the result of observations made by the NASA Kepler spacecraft over a period of four years. The old, Sun-like star, named Kepler-444, has five orbiting planets with sizes between those of Mercury and Venus. Kepler-444 formed 11.2 billion years ago, when the universe was less than 20% of its current age. This makes Kepler-444 the oldest known system of terrestrial-sized planets. The Kepler-444 system was already older than our own solar system is today when our Sun and planets were born. “This system shows that planet formation could take place under very different conditions from the ones in which our solar system was formed and has implications for estimating the total number of planets in our galaxy, and other galaxies,” Basu said. The five planets in the Kepler-444 system have orbits that are equivalent to less than one-tenth of Earth’s distance from the Sun. The Kepler-444 planets are rocky and Earth-like, but their exact compositions are uncertain. The scientists carried out their research using asteroseismology — listening to the host star’s natural resonances, which are caused by sound trapped within it. These oscillations lead to miniscule changes or pulses in the star’s brightness, allowing researchers to measure the star’s diameter, mass, and age. The planets were then detected from the dimming that occurs when the planets transited, or passed across, the stellar disc. This fractional fading in the intensity of starlight enabled scientists to measure accurately the sizes of the planets relative to the size of the star. “There are far-reaching implications for this discovery,” said lead author Tiago Campante of the University of Birmingham (U.K.). “We now know that Earth-sized planets have formed throughout most of the universe’s 13.8-billion-year history, which could provide scope for the existence of ancient life in the galaxy.” The research collaboration involved nearly two-dozen institutions in the United States, England, Denmark, Portugal, Australia, Germany, and Italy. View an animation of Kepler-444 and its five orbiting planets here.
It will come as no surprise when I tell you children are not born with this skill! While some children feel emotions with more or less intensity, all children need to learn emotional competence. Children learn this skill in their environment, when situations are appropriate for their age, and when they see adults regulate emotions. Children who successfully regulate emotions are better learners because learning is hampered by strong emotions such as anxiety, anger, and sadness. Children who regulate emotions are more successful with social skills and have better mental health. Any age child can use some direct teaching when it comes to emotions and the lesson plans for this are not terribly hard. Parents can watch for appropriate times to do the following: Name the emotion and the actions that go with it: - Your hands are in fists; are you angry? - You are standing close to me; are you worried? - You are not talking very much; are you sad? Normalize the emotion: - You are angry about losing the soccer game. Your teammates are angry, too. Soon, you will feel better and then you can use your anger to practice harder. - You are very sad about losing your pet. You feel sad because you loved your pet very much. Right now it feels like you will never feel better, but you will feel a bit better every day. - You are very nervous about going to the dentist. Do you remember that you were nervous last year, too? You were brave and got through that with a little bit of help. What will help you this time? Read books with emotions as part of the plot: - How does this boy feel about what has happened? - What will help this girl with her sadness? - Is it okay for this person to be angry? - How can you cool down? - How can you relax? - What can you do to feel better? Praying is a good way to calm down, practice mindfulness, and to remember that control of our emotions is a blessing from God. For God is not a God of confusion, but of peace. I Corinthians 14:33
Astronomers have accurately measured the distance between Earth and a particular black hole for the first time. And wow, is it close. The researchers determined that the black hole V404 Cygni is located 7,800 light-years from Earth — or just slightly more than half the distance that was previously assumed. That puts it relatively nearby to Earth, where the distance to the center of the galaxy is about 26,000 light-years, and the nearest star beyond the sun is a mere 4.2 light-years away. The more accurate distance measurement will enable scientists to paint a better picture of how black holes evolve, the team says. "For example, we hope to be able to answer the question as to whether there is a difference between black holes that evolve directly from the collapse of a star without a supernova and black holes that evolve via a supernova and a temporary intermediate star," said study team member Peter Jonker of SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research. "We expect that the black holes in the last group can get a kick. Black holes formed in this way could then move through space faster." Jonker and his team measured the distance to V404 Cygni by measuring radio emissions from the black hole and its associateddying star. The outermost layers of the star are being siphoned by the black hole. The swirling gas forms a hot plasma disk around the black hole before it disappears, and the process emits a lot of X-rays and radio waves. Using an international system of radio telescopes called the High Sensitivity Array, the team measured the so-called parallax shift of the black hole system. This method involves measuring the annual movement in the sky of the black hole system as a consequence of Earth's orbit around the sun. The team says the previous overestimation of V404 Cygni's distance was due to an underestimation of the absorption and diffraction of interstellar dust, which can give an error margin of about 50 percent. The error margin of the new measurement is less than 6 percent.
Skip Manipulative Use If Your Students Already Know The Material - Manipulatives are designed to be outgrown. - Suggestion: Don't force anyone to speak a "less sophisticated language." Use it yourself. Speak it to them. Do not force them to reply using that language. - Once the mastery in representation and computation is achieved or it becomes more easy to complete the problem by written or mental work, Term Tiles should be sidelined. Trust this advise. If your students can complete integer computation or simplify algebraically expressions mentally, don't make them complete work manipulatively! They may, however, require manipulatives to write algebraic expressions and equations. It may be that for a given class, writing algebraic expressions and equations and solving word problems are their biggest challenges. If so, let these be the only tasks you complete Suppose students have mastered integer addition and subtraction, manipulatively or otherwise. Suppose they've gone on to other work but someone goofed and doesn't see the SIGNED INTEGER ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION ERROR. If working with Term Tiles, address the issue with tile manipulation. If Term Tiles are not handy, THINK MONEY. - Add -3 and +5. - Add +3 and -2. - Simplify 3 - -4. - Lose $3 and win $5. - Win $3 and lose $2. - Win $3, then the opposite of lose $4. Thinking in terms of money permits a concrete thought process though no concrete item is present. This technique also works extremely well with simple fractions. - Simplify 5 - 1 1/2. - What's 20% of 20? - You have $5 and spend $1.50, what's left? - What's 20% of $20? Suppose instead they've made a SIGNED INTEGER MULTIPLICATION OR ADDITION ERROR. Whether working with tile or paper and pencil think OPPOSITES, or, think of THE GOOD GUYS AND THE BAD GUYS. The Good Guys and The Bad Guys The story goes: \| If the Good Guys (+) come into town (+) , that's good (+). If the Bad Guys (-) come into town (+), that's bad (-). Good Guys (+) leave town (-) , that's bad (-). If the Bad Guys (-) leave town (-), that's good \| (+)(+) is +\| (-)(+) is - (+)(-) is - (-)(-) is + More to the point and mathematically accurate: - In multiplication or division: - An ODD number of NEGATIVE SIGNS is NEGATIVE. - An EVEN number of NEGATIVE SIGNS is POSITIVE. The Signed Number Hundreds Borad Click on the graphic to enlarge it. For a signed number addition and subtraction manipulative that is more sophisticated than Term Tiles use the Signed Number Hundreds Board. Addition and subtraction are completed through sequences of vertical and The Hundreds Board for more info. www.termtiles.com, Unit 4 © 2008, A. Azzolino
8 Stages of Moral Development By: Tammy Tajeddine My immediate purpose is to provide the audience with a well-researched theory on moral development according to Eric Erikson. I chose Erikson’s theory because of his passion on this topic and his research included himself. Experiencing feelings of ‘not belonging’ from early on, he was prompted due to questions about his own identity as he grew. I hope to give the audience an idea on how our development or social molding begins at birth and continues through-out our lives. Beginning with stage 1: Trust VS. Mistrust Infancy to 18 months This stage begins the moment the infant is born to around 18 months to 2 years old. A baby is totally dependent from minute 1- The babies life depends on the caregiver. If the infant does not receive the essential care, worst case scenario, the baby will die. At this stage an infant needs all of his needs met in order to develop the beginning stages of trust. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately age two to three years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a greater sense of self-control. They see things in simple ways like ‘good/bad’ , ‘yes/no’ , ‘yours/mine’. Gaining a sense of personal control over the world is important at this stage of development. Toilet training plays a major role; learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences and clothing selection. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt This begins preschool years ages 4 to 5. Children begin to really engage their surroundings. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction. Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment by taking initiative by planning activities, accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. During this stage, it is important for caregivers to encourage exploration and to help children make appropriate choices. Caregivers who are discouraging or dismissive may cause children to feel ashamed of themselves and to become overly dependent upon the help of others. Play and imagination takes on an important role at this stage. Children have their sense of initiative reinforced by being given the freedom and encouragement to play. When efforts to engage in physical and imaginative play are stifled by caregivers, children begin to feel that their self-initiated efforts are a source of embarrassment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt. The positive outcome of The stage occurs during childhood between the ages of six and eleven. School and social interaction play an important role during this time of a child’s life. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. During the industry versus inferiority stage, children become capable of performing increasingly complex tasks. As a result, they strive to master new skills. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful. According to Erikson, this stage is vital in the development of self-confidence. During school and other social activities, children receive praise and attention for performing various tasks such as reading, writing, drawing and solving problems. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads...
: any of a superfamily (Hesperioidea, especially family Hesperiidae) of lepidopterous insects that visibly differ from the typical butterflies especially in having stout bodies, smaller wings, and usually hooked antennae The boat was skippered by a skilled veteran sailor. He skippered the team to their latest World Series win. First Known Use of SKIPPER Any of some 3,000 lepidopteran species (family Hesperiidae) named for their fast (up to 20 mph, or 30 kph), darting flight. The head and stout body of the adult skipper resemble a moth's, but most skippers hold the first pair of wings vertically at rest, as butterflies do. Most skippers are diurnal and lack the wing-coupling structures typical of moths. Larvae feed mostly on legumes and grasses, usually living inside folded or rolled leaves that may be woven together. They pupate in a thin cocoon of silk or silk and leaves.
These laws – themselves extracted from tribal customs - became pillars of Roman law and as such, are considered to form the foundation of all modern public and private law. They promoted the organization of public prosecution of crimes and instituted a system whereby injured parties could seek compensation from their aggressors. More importantly, they protected the lower class (plebes) from the legal abuses of the ruling class (the patricians) especially in the enforcement of debts. The common class of Rome (the plebians) struggled mightily against the rich class (patricians). The plebians appreciated the rule of law and the peace and order that it wrought but not the way it was interpreted and administered against them by the patricians - including judex or judges who were taken exclusively from the patrician class. The Cambridge Ancient History sets the context for the Twelve Tables: “The plebians were in ignorance of the Roman laws, which were a secret of the pontifices (priests) and other patricians and were administered with unfair severity against plebians.” In 462, after over 200 years of near civil war between the rich and the not-so-rich, the epiphany came from a plebian named Terentilius. In Ab Urbe Condita, Livy wrote of the historical moment: “(I)n order that (the patricians) unbounded license might not last forever, he (Terentilius) would bring forward a law that five persons be appointed to draw up laws regarding the consular power, by which the consul should use that right which the people should have given him over them, not considering their own caprice and license as law. Terentilius’ suggestion was brilliant: that discretion and arbitrary justice be eliminated by simply writing the law down. Solon had done it in Athens some 150 years earlier, with reported success, but to be sure, the patricians sent a delegation of three to Athens to make inquiries. In 451, the patricians struck a board of ten consuls with the stated eligibility of plebians but none were appointed – it was all patrician commissioners. The Board came up with ten laws and had them passed by the patricians and then by an assembly of the plebians. Then, they were individually inscribed on ten bronze tablets and prominently displayed in the Forum, immortalized in a famous drawing by the Polish artist, Augustyn Mirys (below) wherein the citizens of Rome are shown exalting the Twelve Tables as they are placed on the outside wall of the Forum in Rome. The Board was disbanded but a year later, according to Livy, the Gods sent word that the ten tables were not sufficient because: “(T)he sky seemed to be on fire, and a violent earthquake took place: it was believed that an ox spoke, a phenomenon which had not been credited in the previous year: among other prodigies there was a shower of flesh, which a large flock of birds is said to have carried off by pecking at the falling pieces: that which fell to the ground is said to have lain scattered about just as it was for several days, without becoming tainted.” Two more laws were added, bringing the total of tables to twelve. The additions was approved by the Roman parliament in a statute called Lex duodecim tabularum. From that point on, a basic principle of Roman law is that the law must be written and justice cannot be left in the hands of judges alone to interpret, a correct and wise detour along the path of law that, for example, the common law would not take directly. But the civil law, itself a modern prodigy of Roman law, has always subscribed to this principle. Cicero writes that the Twelve Tables were mandatory learning for all Roman youth. Eventually, the Twelve Tables proved insufficient for the economic and societal necessities of the Roman empire. Lawyers and jurists began a long process of extending the text of the Tables by tendering interpretations which, increasingly, were adopted as law by the Roman courts. No complete original copy of the Twelve Tables has ever been found although significant fragments of copies have been pieced together to give an almost-complete view, albeit with discordance as to the detail of missing words and the usual international issue: translation. The original Twelve Tables survived almost 1,000 years until destroyed by invading Gauls in 390 AD. "It is probably quite true that the original twelve tables were destroyed when Rome was sacked and burned by the Gauls. But they were at once reproduced and ranscripts of them must have been abundant if, as Cicero says was still the case in his youth, the children were required to committ them to memory as an ordinary school task." The Twelve Tables set out as follows: - A person summoned to Court to give evidence must attend and a perjurer is thrown from Tarpeian Rock (Table 1, 2, 4 and 8); - A judgment may be enforced as of the 30th day thereafter and if the debtor does not pay, he may be bound for an additional 30 days and if he still does not pay, he may be killed or sold as a slave (Table 2); - Women shall remain in the permanent guardianship of their father or, if married, of their husband (Table 5); - Marriage is presumed after a year of cohabitation and the wife, in the eyes of the law, to be treated as the daughter of her husband (Table 6); - Marriage between patricians and plebians is forbidden (Table 11); - Women must not wail at funerals (Table 10); - If a person slanders another by song, the slanderer shall be clubbed to death (Table 7); - If a person maims another, let the injurer be similarly injured unless the victim agrees to compensation (Table 8); - Dreadfully deformed newborns are to be killed (Table 4); - Any person who interferes with the growing of crops by the use of magic, shall be put to death (sacrificed; Table 7); - A child born ten months after the father’s death shall not inherit from the father’s estate (Table 4); - It is illegal to hold meetings in Rome at night (Table 8); and - Any judge found to have accepted a bribe in exchange for a decision, shall be put to death (Table 9). - Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Treatises On The Nature Of The Gods, And On The Commonwealth, circa 50 BC. - Cook, S., Adcock, F. and Charlesworth, M., The Hellenistic Monarchies and the Rise of Rome, Volume 7 (VII) of The Cambridge Ancient History, published in Cambridge, England by The University Press in 1928. - Cumin, Patrick, A Manual of Civil Law (London: Stevens and Norton, 1854). - Duhaime, Lloyd, Timetable of World Legal History - Duhaime, Lloyd, Legal Definition of Roman Law - Livy, Titus (died 17 AD), Ab Urbe Condita (Roman History or From the Founding of the City), Book III. - Long, G., Lex Duodecim Tabularum, published in Murray, J., A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (London 1875), online as of March 2008 at penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Lex_XII_Tabularum.html - Muirhead, James, Historical Introduction to the Private Law of Rome (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1899), page 97.
- Education and Science» - Law & Legal Issues Constitution of India; A Brief Note India got independence on 15th August 1947 and become a republic nation on 30th January 1950. Since India is one of the largest countries, which united with many disparities, it was very difficult and a strategic task to formulate a constitution for India. Anyhow, a committee called ‘Drafting Committee’ was appointed on 29th August 1947 on the independence month itself by the resolution passed by the ‘Constituent Assembly’ under the chairmanship of Dr. B.R Ambedker with other six members. Actually Dr. B.R Ambedker was the law minister of the government of India from 1947 to 1951. Finally the ‘Drafting Committee’ submitted a bulky constitution containing 315 articles and 8 schedules after 8 months of the passing of resolution on 4th November at constituent assembly. Main References to the ‘Drafting Committee’: When the drafting committee was appointed, they referred many other constitutions of different countries especially England, United States of America, Switzerland… Actually each of them was widely different from one to other. Mainly they found two types of government in the world. They were, i) Non-Parliamentary system following countries like America and ii) Parliamentary system which is following countries like England. Many differences can be envisaged in both these forms of governments. In America president is the chief head of the executive. On the other side in the England president is labeled as like the king or queen. Another difference is that, American president is the executive, so there are no any requirements of receiving advices from the ministers. But in a parliamentary system of government, the president cannot pass anything without the support from the members of the parliament. Another attractive difference is that, in American government any one can become minister even a person without having membership in the Congress or parliament. The president can choose his members. The Form of Government in the Constitution of India The ‘Drafting Committee’ proposed a form of government for India by incorporating features of different constitutions including American and British constitution. The ‘Drafting Committee’ proposed for India, the post of president as like America, but he is not the executive even he is the head of the country. Another difference from American president is that, the Indian president can’t do anything without the support by the members of the parliament. Since Indian government follows parliamentary system, only the parliament members can become the ministers. Further, a minister has the duty on different departments and enjoys the rights enjoyed by other members of the parliament. Indian Constitution as a Democratic Executive In Ambedker’s speech in the Constituent Assembly, he said, “A democratic executive must have two conditions, first, it must be a stable executive and secondly, it must be a responsible executive”. Actually in a country like India, the concept of democracy is very important in all matters. Because India is a united nation with disparities like languages, religions, regions, people etc. Further Ambedker also said, it is not possible to satisfy both the conditions of democratic executive. When we analyze American constitution, there exist less responsible and more stable executive. But in the British constitution we can see more responsible and less stable executive. The reason for more stable and less responsible or more responsible and less stable is depending on the fact that whether the country follows parliamentary or non- parliamentary system. In a non- parliamentary system like America, the support of majority of the members for a particular decision is not much significant, so it become more stable and less responsible one. On the other side, parliamentary systems like England, where the support of the majority of the parliament members is more important. So the government becomes more responsible and less stable one. Finally, the ‘Drafting Committee’ advised for India an executive system having more responsible to more stable government. “A democratic executive must have two conditions, firstly, it must be a stable executive and secondly, it must be responsible executive”. (From the Speech in the Constituent Assembly).— Dr. B.R Ambedkar which constitution is better in your opinion ? Form of the Constitution According to the ‘Drafting Committee’, there are mainly two forms of constitution can see in the world. That is unitary and federal forms. In America, they follow federal system and in England, they follow unitary system of constitution. The unitary system refers to the system, in which all the powers vested in the hands of the center government. On contrary in federal system, the important feature is the existence of ‘dual polity’. Which means the central and states are different under many respects. The centre government divided its power in to the states and they can lead the state even by formulating their own law and administration system. ‘Drafting Committee’ recommended for India, a constitution which is somewhat similar to both the American constitution and British constitution. In India center has assigned the powers to each states for maintaining state’s functions. At the same time all the final power vested with the central government especially at the time of political instability, law and order issues, war etc. The major difference between the American and Indian constitution is in the case of ‘dual citizenship’. In America they give each and separate citizenship, one for center as country and the other for states. But in India, there exist 'single citizenship’ and which promotes equal rights for all across the country. The foundation of a constitution for any country is a Himalayan task, especially in a country like India. The ‘Drafting Committee’ was assigned to build constitution for India. After eight months of hard work the committee submitted a bulky constitution before the country by referring constitutions of different countries like America, Switzerland, and Australia etc. Now Indian Constitution can claim the heritage of more than 60 years.
Possible origin of Saturn's mysterious G ring With data from the Cassini spacecraft, an international team of scientists may have identified the source of one of Saturn's more mysterious rings. The enigmatic G ring is likely produced by relatively large, icy particles that reside within a bright arc on the ring's inner edge. The particles are confined within the arc by gravitational effects from Saturn's moon Mimas. Micrometeoroids, tiny meteoroids or particles of dust that pervade space, collide with the icy particles, releasing smaller, dust-sized particles that brighten the arc. Plasma, an extremely variable gas made up of charged particles but electrically neutral, pervades the giant planet's magnetic field. It sweeps through this arc continuously, dragging out the fine particles, which create the G ring. The finding is evidence of the complex interaction between Saturn's moons, rings and magnetosphere. Studying this interaction is one of Cassini's objectives. "Distant pictures from the cameras tell us where the arc is and how it moves, while plasma and dust measurements taken near the G ring tell us how much material is there," said Matthew Hedman, a Cassini imaging team associate at Cornell University, in the United States, and lead author of the paper that describes these results. Saturn's rings are an enormous, complex structure, and their origin is a mystery. The rings are labelled in the order they were discovered. From the planet outward, they are D, C, B, A, F, G and E. The main rings - A, B and C from edge-to-edge, would fit neatly in the distance between Earth and the Moon. The most transparent rings are D - interior to C - and F, E and G, outside the main rings. Unlike Saturn's other dusty rings, such as the E and F rings, the G ring is not associated closely with moons that could either supply material directly to it - as its moon Enceladus does for the E ring - or sculpt and perturb its ring particles, as Prometheus and Pandora do for the F ring. The location of the G ring continued to defy explanation, until now. Cassini images show that the bright arc within the G ring extends one-sixth of the way around Saturn and is about 250 km wide, much narrower than the full 5955-km width of the G ring. The arc has been observed several times since Cassini's arrival at the ringed planet in 2004 and thus appears to be a long-lived feature. A gravitational disturbance caused by the moon Mimas exists near the arc. As part of their study, Hedman and colleagues conducted computer simulations which show that the gravitational disturbance of Mimas could indeed produce such a structure in Saturn's G ring. The only other places in the Solar System where such disturbances are known to exist are in the ring arcs of Neptune. Cassini's magnetospheric imaging instrument detected depletions in charged particles near the arc in 2005. According to scientists, unseen mass in the arc must be absorbing the particles. "The small dust grains that the Cassini camera sees are not enough to absorb energetic electrons," said Elias Roussos of the Max-Planck-Institute for Solar System Research, Germany, and member of the magnetospheric imaging team. "This tells us that a lot more mass is distributed within the arc." The researchers concluded that there is a population of larger, as-yet-unseen bodies hiding in the arc, ranging in size from that of peas to small boulders. The total mass of all these bodies is equivalent to that of an ice-rich, small moon that's about 100 metres wide. Joe Burns, a co-author of the paper from Cornell University and a member of the imaging team, said, "We'll have a super opportunity to spot the G ring's source bodies when Cassini flies about 966 km from the arc 18 months from now." Notes for editors: The findings appear in ’The Source of Saturn's G Ring’ by Hedman M., Burns J., Tiscareno, M., Porco, C., Jones, G., Roussos, E., Krupp, N., Paranicas, C., and Kempf, S. in the 2 August issue of the journal Science. The paper is based on observations made by multiple Cassini instruments in 2004 and 2005. The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Cassini-Huygens mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington DC. JPL designed and assembled the Cassini orbiter. Development of the Huygens Titan probe was managed by ESA’s European Space Technology and Research Centre (ESTEC). ASI managed the realisation of the high-gain antenna and the other instruments of its participation. The imaging team is based at the Space Science Institute, USA. The magnetospheric imaging instrument team is based at Johns Hopkins University, USA. For more information: Jean-Pierre Lebreton, ESA Huygens Project Scientist Email: jean-pierre.lebreton @ esa.int
A Guide to Dental Decay Dental decay is the major source of serious dental treatment in the UK. Most of us tend to think of decay as something not too serious. After all, a dentist can simply fill a cavity and make it better, can’t they? If they spot the cavity early enough, then they can. However, if the decay is left untreated and the cavity is left to grow bigger, then this can lead to much more serious complications. Ultimately, it is going to cause you serious pain and require emergency – and probably costly – dental treatment. In this article, we will look closely at the damage that decay can do to your teeth and at the kinds of dental emergencies it can contribute to. We will also look at how decay can be removed – or better still, how it can be prevented in the first place! What causes dental decay? Every day, plaque builds up on our teeth. Plaque is a thin, sticky film that clings to our teeth. It is made up of a variety of matter, debris and, most importantly, millions of types of bacteria. Because plaque is so sticky, the longer it sticks to our teeth, the more it builds up. If we leave plaque to build up on our teeth, it can cause a number of problems. The first is that, as layer upon on layer of plaque builds up, it hardens. Hardened plaque is known as calculus. As the calculus becomes solid, it becomes much harder to remove by simple brushing, especially when it becomes trapped in the pockets around the roots of the teeth and the gums. When calculus builds up in these areas, it can cause the gums to recede and for gum disease to develop. If gum disease is allowed to develop, the gums recede away from the teeth and eventually, the teeth can become loose. Usually, you will need the help of a dentist to remove the calculus, through a technique known as scaling and root planing. The second problem that plaque causes is due to the bacteria that it contains. This bacteria reacts with sugars in the food that we eat to form acid. This acid then attacks and erodes the enamel on our teeth, which causes cavities and decay. How does decay damage teeth? Once the acid in plaque has formed a cavity in a tooth, it creates a space for more plaque and food debris to build up. Of course, this is even harder to remove through brushing. Therefore, the cavity continues to grow and eat through the natural layers of protection that a tooth has, called the enamel and the dentin. Initially, a small cavity may not cause you too much pain – if any. However, once the decay reaches the inner part of the tooth, the tooth can become very sensitive to hot and cold and the pain can be severe. The inner part of a tooth is known as the pulp. The pulp consists of the blood vessels and the nerve endings which keep the tooth alive. So as you would expect, it is a very soft, sensitive area that can easily become infected. If the inner pulp of your tooth becomes infected, this can lead to an abscess which can be very painful. If untreated, your tooth may need to be extracted. How is decay treated? If you start to experience tooth pain, then it is likely that the root cause is decay – especially if it is a dull, throbbing ache that sharpens when you bite down on a particular tooth. Unfortunately, once the decay has reached this stage, there is not much you can do to treat yourself. You need to visit a dentist. There are some steps you can take in an emergency. For example, many people take an Emergency Dental Kit on holiday with them. These normally include some dental cement so that you can temporarily fill a cavity until you can make is back to the UK. This can help to ease the pain – but it really is only a temporary measure so you should still visit a dentist for proper treatment. How your dentist treats your decay will depend upon the severity of the case. Hopefully, the cavity will be identified before it reaches the centre of the tooth, which means that it can simply be filled. There are a number of types of materials that dentists can use to fill cavities. Usually, they will use cheaper, more durable materials for the back teeth and more aesthetic materials – such as tooth-coloured composites – to fill cavities that are more visible. However, if the decay has already reached the centre of the tooth, the pulp may have become infected. In this cases, a cavity would only serve to seal the infection in. Therefore, your dentist has to perform root canal treatment to remove the infected pulp before putting a crown on the tooth so that it is protected against future infection. Removing the pulp means removing the blood supply from the tooth – so obviously, it is much more preferable to identify the decay early and to fill the cavity before any serious damage is done. What other problems can it cause? If a tooth has decayed badly, then it can affect the structure of the tooth. If a tooth has a particularly large cavity, this means that the tooth will be weaker than it should be. Even if the tooth has not been infected, a large cavity still means that there is a problem waiting to happen. If the structure of a tooth is weakened by a large cavity, then that tooth is more likely to split, fracture, break or chip. This can happen when you are simply biting down on some hard food, for example. And unfortunately, it is another example of how dental decay – left unchecked – can lead to more serious emergency dental requirements. How is decay prevented? Therefore, the next questions needs to be ‘how can I prevent dental decay?’ Because if you can prevent dental decay from eroding your teeth, you can prevent a whole range of dental problems ranging from small cavities to abscesses, from split teeth to bad breath! The solution to preventing decay is twofold. First of all, you need to brush your teeth regularly. Plaque builds up on your teeth every day, so it makes sense that you need to brush your teeth every day to remove it. In fact, dentists recommend that you brush your teeth once in the morning and once in the evening. Brushing your teeth is a skill. If you are not sure that you are brushing your teeth correctly and removing the plaque adequately, you should speak to your dentist. They will demonstrate to you the best way to brush teeth so that you remove plaque but also avoid damaging your gums and the enamel on your teeth. You should brush your teeth quite gently, always brushing away from your gums rather than towards them. You should also use a flouride toothpaste, as this will help to strengthen the enamel in your teeth and protect against cavities. As part of your daily hygiene programme, you should also floss regularly – ideally after each meal, or if that is not possible or convenient, at least in the morning after breakfast and in the evening before bed. Flossing is important because it helps you to get right in between your gaps and clear out a lot of the plaque that brushing cannot reach. No matter how regularly or how long you brush for, there will always be some plaque that your brush is unable to reach. None of our teeth are uniform shapes, so plaque and other debris regularly gets caught in the gaps between our teeth. It is the plaque in these areas that can eventually harden into calculus and damage our gums. Finally, many people simply do not visit their dentist often enough. If you wait until you experience tooth ache or discomfort before you visit your dentist, then you are already limiting your treatment options. As much as possible, decay should be treated early and this will minimise its impact. You should aim to visit your dentist at least once every six months. On these visits, your dentist will be able to remove any plaque or calculus that regular brushing has been unable to reach. They will also be able to spot any small cavities before they develop. If these small cavities can be identified and filled, then you can avoid a lot of pain and more visits to the dentist in the future. If you can visit your dentist regularly and maintain a good oral hygiene programme, this will eliminate the majority of dental decay and reduce the need for emergency dental treatments in the future. Most dentists would also recommend that you visit a dental hygienist regularly – perhaps every 12 months or so. They can give your teeth a deeper clean and polish and also advise you on keeping your teeth clean on a daily basis.
June 24, 2013 Image Mission Elapsed Time (MET): Narrow Angle Camera (NAC) of the Mercury Dual Imaging System (MDIS) The crater in the upper center of this image has a diameter of approximately 6.6 km (4.1 miles) Today's image features several of Mercury's simple craters . The morphology of simple craters is characterized by the crater's distinct bowl shape and crisp rim . The largest simple crater in this view is positioned just above a scarp . Scarps are common topographic features on Mercury that form as one block of the planet's crust is thrusted forward over another block. This image was acquired as a high-resolution targeted observation. Targeted observations are images of a small area on Mercury's surface at resolutions much higher than the 200-meter/pixel morphology base map. It is not possible to cover all of Mercury's surface at this high resolution, but typically several areas of high scientific interest are imaged in this mode each week. The MESSENGER spacecraft is the first ever to orbit the planet Mercury, and the spacecraft's seven scientific instruments and radio science investigation are unraveling the history and evolution of the Solar System's innermost planet. During the first two years of orbital operations, MESSENGER acquired over 150,000 images and extensive other data sets. MESSENGER is capable of continuing orbital operations until early 2015. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington For information regarding the use of MESSENGER images, see the image use policy.
What is the Difference Between C and Embedded C? Difference Between C and Embedded C: In our previous posts, we had seen the introduction about Embedded C... Now let us see the difference between C and Embedded C... The following table gives us the summary of the difference between C and Embedded C. \|C Language\|\|Embedded C\| \|A type of high level language.\|\|Nothing but an extension of C.\| \|Has a free-format of program coding.\|\|The source code format depends upon the type of microprocessor/ microcontroller that is used.\| \|Optimization is normal.\|\|High level of optimization.\| \|An Operating system is essential to function.\|\|Can work with or without an Operating system.\| \|Used for desktop applications.\|\|Used for microcontroller/ microprocessor applications.\| \|Does not bother about memory resources. i.e., use entire memory available in CPU. \|Uses limited resources. Hence consider memory allocation of the embedded processor. \|C programs run in console. Hence see the output through desktop \|They run in realtime constraints. Hence output is not available in OS \|Directly or indirectly support other various programming languages during application.\|\|Supports only required processor of the application.\| \|Input can be given to the program while it is running.\|\|Only the pre-defined input can be given to the running program.\| \|C compilers are OS dependent. i.e, run the ram directly from OS terminal. \|Requires compilers of Embedded C. These compilers in turn enable access to all resources of the embedded system. Hence OS independent. \|Some of the examples of Applications: logical programs, system software programs.\|\|Some of the examples of real-time Applications: DVD, TV,Digital camera.\| By the way, these are simple and normal differences that exist between C and Embedded C for an open eye. But in real there is no such logical differences between C and Embedded C. As I said earlier in the previous post, The Embedded C is just an extension of C. Somehow we can say that the only difference between C and C on embedded systems is just their Input and Output is too on the way the input is given and output is seen. Say for example, consider the following: Input: Printf <<< read_pin_no (the pin number where input is given) Output: scanf <<< read_pin_no (the pin number from where output is taken) Hence there is no differences between C and Embedded C except these type of some small disturbances... Thanks for reading....
Invite your students to observe and compare a given area of a wildflower meadow or plot with another type of ecosystem, such as a lawn, garden, or wooded area. Have them use data sheets to inventory and compare the different types and numbers of plants and animals in each and to describe other differences they notice. They might also compare soil conditions and moisture levels. Consider asking small groups to create presentations (e.g., slide show, PowerPoint project, play, poster) describing their findings and any inferences or conclusions they've drawn. Once students have gotten to "know" their wildflower planting, they can design a scavenger hunt for peers or younger students. Here are some sample items: Find . . . a plant that attracts butterflies . . . a flower that would appeal to a pollinator with a long tongue . . . a plant with fuzzy leaves . . . a leaf-eating insect. The class might create a brochure to share with participants that describes what they've learned, through experience or research, about the items being searched for. They could also create a field guide to plants in their wildflower patch. Challege the class to use their eagle eyes (and hand lenses, if possible) to look for signs of insects and other small animal life in your wildflower meadow. Remind them to look in the soil, under leaves, on flowers, and in the air. After all, many creatures carry on their lives out of sight. What is the largest animal they find? The smallest? The most interesting? How are they interacting with plants? Encourage them to write about and draw pictures of their findings. Each student or pair might hone in one one living thing. What does it feel like? How does it move? What does it eat? How does it interact with other living things? Where does it rest or hide? Does it seem to help, hurt, or not affect the wildflowers? Invite pairs or small groups of youngsters to explore the connections between wildflowers and the the bees, birds, butterflies, beetles, and other pollinators that visit them. Use the following types of questions to focus their observations: What types of insects or other animals are visiting which flowers? Are some flowers visited more often or only by certain creatures? What kinds of paths do the insects take as they move among flowers? How do you think different flowers entice these visitors? What evidence do you have? Explore Wildflower Folklore Did you know that coreopsis seeds (from koris, meaning "bedbug" and opsis, meaning "looks like") were once believed to repel bugs, so were used to stuff mattresses? Wildflowers and native plants have played an important role in people's lives throughout the centuries by providing medicine, food, inspiration for art and writing, and beauty to lift the spirits. It can be fascinating to study their folklore, secrets behind their Latin and common names, and their virtues and uses. The more common the wildflower or weed, the richer its history, number of uses, and legends seem to be. Invite students to research the traditional uses, medicinal and otherwise, of wildflowers in their own patch.

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