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A new scientific study that aims to end the so-called reading wars has found that phonics is an essential foundation in the early stages of learning to read. Phonics involves sounding out words rather than reading them, but this new study shows that combining phonics and a whole language approach works best. There are studies that show that phonics is important and the reason being the way the written structure is structured around representing sound, so it makes sense to teach that to children, let them know how the writing system is set up and then they can crack the code. Researchers have found that phonics is a key component, it isn't enough on its own with children needed to move from identifying individual sounds to whole words/sight words together with comprehension. The aim of the review is to bring an end to reading wars because they are getting in the way of scientific evidence flowing through to the classroom. For phonics printables: Phonic Printables For sight word printables: Sight Word Printables Collins, Antonette, "Is This The End Of The Reading Wars? Study Finds Phonics An Essential Foundation In Learning To Read", ABC News, June 16th 2018. Check out Appsessment - Documentation App For Educators!
In 2017, an international team headed by the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry travelled around the Arabian Peninsula on a research vessel in a spectacular expedition. Various measuring instruments were kept on board to sample aerosol particles and trace gases such as ozone and nitric oxides. The researchers also discovered that the Suez Canal, the northern Red Sea and especially the Arabian Gulf are regional hotspots for ozone; the exceptionally strong concentration of ozone in these areas indicates that the harmful gas is also a problem in other densely populated regions of the Arabian Peninsula. Furthermore, the scientists found that concentrations of nitrogen oxides were significantly higher than the WHO guidelines. “There are relatively few measurements from the region around the Arabian Peninsula and in the Middle East in general. That is why this research campaign is so important,” says Sergey Osipov, an atmospheric physicist at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz and the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) in Saudi Arabia. “We used the data in atmospheric chemistry models in order to draw conclusions about general air quality and health consequences.” Air pollution in the Middle East leads to high mortality rates “The thresholds for particulate matter are constantly exceeded in the region, which is home to 400 million people,” says Jos Lelieveld, director at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry and project leader. “While the measurements have been performed several years ago, looking into the data more closely with new atmospheric modeling tools surprisingly showed that the health hazardous fraction of the pollution particles is almost exclusively human-made”. In addition to numerous researchers from Mainz, scientists from Kuwait, the Cyprus Institute, as well as from Saudi Arabia, France and the USA were also involved in the project. “The extreme air pollution results in an annual excess mortality rate of 745 people per 100,000. It has similar significance to other leading health risk factors, such as high cholesterol and tobacco smoking, and is also comparable to the mortality rate of COVID-19,” adds the atmospheric scientist, who is also a professor at the Cyprus Institute in Nicosia. Given that anthropogenic air pollution is a key factor in climate change in the Middle East as well, measures to reduce emissions are all the more important, he said. Communications Earth & Environment Method of Research Subject of Research Severe atmospheric pollution in the Middle East is attributable to anthropogenic sources Article Publication Date
Learning, thought, creativity, and intelligence don’t just come from the brain alone, but from the entire body. Movement combinations increase memory, order, and sequencing skills. Creating dances also increases self-esteem which is so very important to learning. We already witness the need for children to move throughout the day. Having experienced first hand the positive effects that music and dance have on students’ development, the importance of dance as a co-curricular activity cannot be overstated. There are so many reasons why dance is important to the health and development of our young people. Above all, children need to move! Any way to get kids moving on their feet is a must (especially in a digital era). Dance burns calories, strengthens muscles, improves balance, increases flexibility, and gives the heart a good workout. Dance has also been proven to increase cognitive development. Current research documents the importance of exercise on the brain and supports what dancers have always known – the body and mind are connected in vital ways. Utilising dance in academics also helps children develop skills that are necessary for learning such as creativity, communication, critical thinking, and collaboration. Through the creative process, students are encouraged to use their imagination, collaborate with their peers to solve problems, and discover multiple solutions to challenges. Dance teachers educate students in the technique, performance, and choreography of dance. Teachers focus on many forms, among them ballet, jazz, modern, tap, ballroom, swing, salsa, hip-hop, folk, and traditional dance forms from the various regions in India. Most classes involve some combination of warm-up exercises, technique-based drills, learning or practising choreography, and rehearsing for performance. Classes may also include the opportunity for students to develop their own choreography, workshop each other's pieces, or practice improvisation. For Puffins Kindergarten, dance teachers incorporate dance techniques in playtime activities, aiming to develop fundamental aspects of rhythm and movement. Every year, the annual mega event, KEFI, consists of multifarious performances showcases the flair of students in various Indian as well as Western dance forms with great exuberance. Special assemblies are conducted to display the skill and finesse acquired by the students. Continual examination and revision of the curriculum is done to facilitate excellence in these budding professional arenas. In the pursuit of creating comprehensive personalities by seamlessly interspersing performing arts into the academic fabric, Mother Teresa Mission Higher Secondary School has set a benchmark of its own. The hidden language of the soul, dance goes beyond verbal language in engaging dancers and promoting the development of multi-sensory beings. It helps students develop physical fitness, appreciation of the body and effective stress management approaches.
WDYS - Emergent Reading Curriculum For our WDYS (What Do You See) section we take a close look at a set of materials from ETC Montessori. We try to look at how it connects with other materials, and try to give you ideas of how to use things in your classroom to create a truly interconnected curriculum. We leave words on the side of the road and let pictures do the "talking." Develop phonological awareness, phonemic mastery, decoding, and constructing meaning. Student centered so it may be implemented even if the teacher is not familiar with the skills necessary for teaching reading. Contains all the necessary elements to expose older children to the reading process, even if they missed their sensitive period. We have perfected the art of teaching reading in the Montessori classroom, with specifically designed activities and curriculum that is now viewed as the standard. The Emergent Reading Curriculum was specifically written for the elementary developmental level to address the needs of the non-reader coming in the elementary classroom but are not fluent in their beginning reading skills. The well crafted sequence of activities will allow teachers to assess a child's skill level and enhance their emergent skills with materials that look similar to those activities that fluent readers are using. As a teacher you will be given the tools to truly differentiate a child's work based on their skill level. Phonics and word recognition Reading foundation skills that meet Core Standards.
French-Latin American Relations French-Latin American Relations French-Latin American Relations France became involved in the discovery, conquest, and colonization of Latin America as early as 1504, when its ships began to prowl the coasts of Brazil looking for dyewoods to trade. France did not view itself as bound by the Treaty of Tordesillas, for as King François I remarked, "I should very much like to see the passage in Adam's will that divides the New World between my brothers, the Emperor Charles V and the King of Portugal." Although from 1532 to 1550 the Portuguese drove the French from their outposts in northern Brazil, in 1555 a French expedition founded a Huguenot colony, France d'Antarctique, on an island in the harbor of Rio de Janeiro, that lasted until 1566–1567. In 1594 another French mission established a settlement, this time in the Bay of Maranhão (São Marcos Bay) that was destroyed in 1614–1615. In 1624 merchants from Rouen established a trading post on the coasts of Tierra Firme known as Guiana. Other Frenchmen followed and in 1643 founded Cayenne, today the capital of French Guiana. Cayenne was occupied by the Dutch in 1664 but awarded to France by the Treaty of Breda (1667), which gave France a legal presence it had never obtained in Brazil. The Dutch were driven out in 1676, and the area around Cayenne has remained under French control ever since. From 1624 to the present, settlement in French Guiana has centered around Cayenne and adjacent coastlands. Agriculture and forest products have anchored the economy for 300 years. The inhabitants, mostly creoles of African and European descent, have been citizens of France since 1877, and French Guiana has been a département of France since 1946. From 1852 to 1939 it was a penal colony and received 70,000 convicts at Devil's Island and other points. Since 1968 French Guiana has hosted the rocket-launching program of the European Space Agency. The population of about 100,000 (1992) remains highly dependent on France. Although the French pirate François Le Clerc destroyed Yaguana, the forerunner to Port-au-prince, in 1553, it was not until the seventeenth century that the French would become active in the Caribbean. In 1635 Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc conquered the island of Martinique for France, while Jean du Plessis did the same for Guadeloupe during that year. Martinique became a great sugar producer and France assumed sovereignty over the island in 1674. Many important contributors to French and international culture were born there, including the Empress Josephine and the revolutionary theoretician Frantz Fanon. In 1946 both Martinique and Guadeloupe became overseas départements of France. Jacques Jean David Nau, known as L'Ollonais from his French birthplace, grew up in the Caribbean and became a buccaneer on the island of Tortuga, terrorizing the Spaniards with his atrocities, including the sack of Maracaibo (1667), from 1653 until 1671. In 1641 other buccaneers established themselves on the northwestern shores of Hispaniola. In 1664 Louis XIV claimed settlements there for France and gave control over them to the French West India Company, a title that was sustained by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. French settlers founded Port-au-Prince in 1749. The Treaty of Aranjuez (1777) determined the boundary between that territory, known as Saint Domingue, and the Spanish part known as Santo Domingo. On 14 August 1791, the slaves in Saint Domingue revolted, and three years later they murdered 800 white planters, prompting many to flee to other French islands. In 1800 the leader of the revolt, Toussaint Louverture, took control over Saint Domingue, which the following year promulgated its first constitution. Although the French tried to recapture their part of the island with twenty thousand troops in 1802, the nation of Haiti proclaimed itself independent in 1804 and was recognized as such by France in 1825. French activity sparked Spanish exploration in many parts of the present-day continental United States. For example, Admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés defeated the French settlement at Fort Caroline prior to establishing Saint Augustine in 1565. French explorations of the Midwest under Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet in 1673 and Chevalier Robert La Salle in 1685–1687 halted Spanish incursions into the area. The French gave possession of Louisiana to Spain in late 1762, but in 1800 Napoleon I demanded that the territory be returned. In 1803 it was sold to the United States as the Louisiana Purchase. French military technology and practice had a decided impact on the Spanish American officers who fought the wars of independence, including Simón Bolívar. The copying of French uniforms in the nineteenth century was such that when Argentine intellectual and politician Domingo Fausto Sarmiento joined Justo José de Urquiza's troops to oust Juan Manuel de Rosas from power, he was attired as a French officer. French immigrants came to northern Argentina after independence and by the 1830s had set up sugar refineries, known as ingenios, while others went to central Argentina, especially Buenos Aires province. French merchants were active in Mexico, Chile, and Peru during the nineteenth century. In Central America the French economic impact was weaker, but schools run by French nuns and priests influenced politicians. During that period the French occasionally meddled in Latin American affairs, usually in Mexico where a series of inept ministers only worsened relations. In 1838 they bombarded Veracruz in hostilities dubbed the Pastry War because France was demanding reparations for damage to the shop of a French baker. During the same year they sought to extend their trade and power in the Río de la Plata area and to show their displeasure at the Rosas regime by organizing an ineffective blockade on Buenos Aires in the 1830s. However, the worst example of French interference in Latin American affairs came with the ill-fated "French Empire" in Mexico. In late 1861 France, Britain, and Spain agreed to force Mexico to pay outstanding debts by blockading the port of Veracruz in December. Britain and Spain bowed out once they learned that the French intended to invade Mexico and establish an empire there. French forces suffered a humiliating defeat at the battle of Puebla (5 May 1862) but took Mexico City in June 1863. Hapsburg prince Ferdinand Maximilian, younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph, accompanied by his Belgian wife, Charlotte, arrived in Mexico in June 1864 and became Emperor and Empress Maximiliano and Carlota of Mexico. Maximilian was too liberal for his clerical supporters and became heavily dependent on French troops, which deserted him soon after the U.S. Civil War ended and French emperor Napoleon III faced a growing challenge across the Rhine from Otto von Bismarck's Prussia. Empress Carlota traveled to Europe in the summer of 1866, hoping to restore the commitment of Napoleon III and secure the intervention of the pope. These efforts failed (and cost Carlota her sanity), leaving Maximilian to be captured and executed on 19 June 1867. The invasion helped solidify the political dominance of the Liberals; consequently the Mexican government became generally stable until the 1910 Revolution. The most enduring consequence of this French fiasco has been the term Latin America. French publicists coined the phrase in an effort to justify Napoleon's intervention by claiming a kinship among the peoples who spoke languages derived from Latin. The Mexican adventure was the last major French enterprise in Latin America. Subsequently, French influence has been felt chiefly in the financial and cultural spheres. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, France has been among the major investors in Latin America. In 1900 France had $600 million invested in Latin America, twice as much as the United States but less than one-third of Britain's total. By 1970, French investment in Latin America totaled about $540 million, well below the U.S., British, and German figures. France continues to be economically important through the European Union. Trade doubled between the EU and Latin American countries between 1990 and 2002. Even as the works of Latin American intellectuals and artists gave rise to national cultures, France played an important part in the evolution of Latin American culture. Enlightenment ideology and the example of the French Revolution helped spark the revolutions of 1808–1826; when King João VI wished to invite an artistic mission to visit Brazil in 1816, he sought a French one. Virtually every Latin American capital was remade in the late nineteenth century to look like Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann's Paris, with its wide boulevards. In Argentina, French intellectual Paul Groussac was influential in improving education and enhancing the role of the National Library, of which he became the director. The impact of French socialist theories was felt in Latin America into the twentieth century, as were the works of Charles Maurras from the 1930s on fascism. Especially important is the respect accorded to existentialist works by Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus along with French cinema in the post-World War II era. Although its cultural prestige in Latin America has declined somewhat in the twentieth century, those countries with large European immigrant populations still regard Paris as the source of cultural trends and fashion. See alsoEnlightenment, The; French Artistic Mission; French Guiana; Haiti; L'Olonnais, Francis; Louverture, Toussaint; Maracaibo; Martinique and Guadeloupe; Maximilian; Mexico: 1810–1910; Pastry War; Piracy; Puebla, Battle and Siege of; Santo Domingo; Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494); Veracruz (City). For books from a French perspective, see Fernando Campos Harriet, Veleros franceses en el Mar del Sur, 1700–1800 (1964); W. Adolphe Roberts, The French in the West Indies (1971); Carl Ludwig Lokke, France and the Colonial Question: A Study of Contemporary French Opinion, 1763–1801 (1976). For a more Latin American focus, see Pierre Chaunu, L'Amérique et les Amériques (1964); Alfred Jackson Hanna and Kathryn Abbey Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico: American Triumph over Monarchy (1971); Yuyu Guzmán, Estancias de Azul y pobladores franceses en la zona rural de Azul (1976); and Angel Sanz Tapia, Los militares emigrados y los prisioneros franceses en Venezuela durante la guerra contra la revolución: Un aspecto fundamental de la época de la preemancipa-ción (1977); Nancy Nichols Barker, The French Experience in Mexico, 1821–1861: A History of Constant Misunderstanding (1979). Bohdziewicz, Jorge C. Rosas y Lefebvre de Bécourt: Actuación del encargado de negocios de Francia en el Río de la Plata, 1840–1842. Buenos Aires: Scholastica, 2003. Cunningham, Michele. Mexico and the Foreign Policy of Napoleon III. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, U.K., and New York: Palgrave, 2001. Meyer, Jean A. Yo, el francés: La intervención en primera persona: Biografías y crónicas. Mexico: Tusquets Editores, 2002. Pelosi, Hebe Carmen. Vichy no fue Francia: Las relaciones franco-argentinas (1939–1946). Buenos Aires: Nuevohacer Grupo Editor Latinoamericano, 2003. Schoonover, Thomas David. The French in Central America Culture and Commerce, 1820–1930. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2000.
1 Teaching Reading with Nonfiction - Just the facts, Ma am The Facts About What our Students are Reading The average child spends less than 4 minutes a day of his/her leisure time reading nonfiction materials (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010). The average child spends about 3.6 minutes with nonfiction text in school each day. Juvenile fiction outsells nonfiction by 4-to-1 (Mulliot, 2012). In a study of 20 first grade classrooms, informational text comprised, on average, only 9.8% of all the text available for students to read (Duke, 2000). The average number of nonfiction books per child in high-income school libraries is 3.3. In poorer districts, it s even less. The Facts About the Need to Increase the Amount of Nonfiction our Children Read Nonfiction is real-world reading. Statistics show that at least 85% of the reading adults do is nonfiction. Children need to be prepared for this reality. In studies conducted in the past 10 years, researchers have found that what children read is as important as how much they read. Nonfiction improves students background knowledge, which can account for as much as 33% of variance in student achievement (Marzano, 2000). Nonfiction reading has the potential to motivate young children to read by tapping into their personal interests (Caswell & Duke, 1998). Fifty percent (50%) of the passages on the elementary Minnesota Comprehensive Assessment (MCA)-III are nonfiction. With the implementation of the Common Core Standards, at nearly all grade levels, students are expected to develop research skills across content areas with a strong focus on nonfiction, including literary nonfiction; essays; biographies and autobiographies; journals and technical manuals; and charts, graphs, and maps (Gewertz, 2012). The Facts About the English/Language Arts Common Core Standards Minnesota adopted the ELA Common Core Standards in The MCA-III test questions are based on the Common Core. The Department of Education s College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards (CCR) are interwoven throughout each sub-strand of the ELA Common Core. (See handout). The 4 main components of the CCR standards are: 1) Main Ideas and Details, 2) Craft and 2 Structure, 3) Integration of Knowledge and Ideas, and 4) Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity. Each standard in the Common Core has benchmarks identified by a four-digit code. For example, in the code o The 5 refers to grade five; o The 2 refers to the sub-strand (For the Reading Standards, a 1 stands for Literature and a 2 stands for Informational Text) o The first 8 refers to the eighth CCR anchor standard, Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, including the validity of the reasoning as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence o The second 8 refers to the benchmark for that standard, Explain how an author uses reasons and evidence to support particular points in a text, identifying which reasons and evidence support which point(s). The Facts About Critical Literacy Critical Literacy is actively reading text in a way that promotes deeper understanding of socially constructed concepts such as power, inequality, injustice, and control. Training in critical literacy helps students to understand, question, analyze, and critique societal attitudes, beliefs, and values. It helps create thoughtful, reflective, and active citizens. The four key principles governing instruction in critical literacy include: o Challenging common assumptions and values o Exploring multiple perspectives and imagining those that are silenced or absent o Examining relationships, especially those with differences in power o Reflecting on and using literary practices to take action for social justice. The Facts About Teaching Nonfiction Any strategy taught to students should be modeled for them several times before expecting them to perform it on their own. Some good, general strategies students should know about reading nonfiction text are: o Preview the text, reading headings, subheadings, and looking at graphics. o Using think-alouds with students. o In most cases, read nonfiction text more slowly than fiction. o Re-read text when necessary. o Look back in text when necessary. o The illustrations and graphics in nonfiction are very important, and may contain information not included in the text. It s important to help students identify the general format of a nonfiction text (sequence, cause/effect, problem/solution, compare/contrast, description, list). 3 Evidence-Based Strategies for Teaching with Nonfiction Text Key Ideas and Details Think Alouds The teacher verbally models his/her thought processes while reading a selection. This may include visualizing, defining unfamiliar words, decoding, and asking questions about the text. Students are able to witness the thought process of an expert reader and apply the strategy to their own reading. Reciprocal Teaching Students are in groups of 4, and each student plays a different role while reading the text: 1) Predictor: predicts what the text will be about based on the title/cover, and predicts what may appear in the next sections of longer text; 2) Clarifier records unknown words or hard-to-understand ideas that need to be discussed with the group; 3) Questioner develops 3 open-ended questions about what has been read to check the group s understanding, and 4) Summarizer states the main ideas or summarizes the text, or parts of it. Main Idea Sort After reading a text, the teacher writes main ideas and details of the text on separate notecards. Individuals or small groups sort the cards to distinguish the main ideas from the details. Students share their reasoning for why they sorted as they did. Quick Draw After a section of nonfiction text is read, students create a pictorial summary of what was read by drawing a quick sketch, including as many details as possible. Students are allowed to share and describe their drawings to others. (It is helpful for the teacher to model this strategy several times before having the students do it.) Red Card, Green Card Give each student a small red card and a small green card. After reading a piece of nonfiction text, ask the class a question about the text, and call on a student to provide an answer. Note: Open-ended or higher level questions with more than one possible answer will make this activity more beneficial and interesting (i.e. After reading a text about the kinds of pets people have, ask, Would it be better to have a dog or a cat as a pet? ) After the student answers the question, ask the other students to hold up the red card if they disagree and the green card if they agree. Call on students to share why they agree or disagree. What s the Title? Before having students read a text (or before reading one aloud), cover the front cover and the title page, and don t tell the students the title. When finished with the text, ask students to suggest titles for the book What was it mostly about? What were the big ideas? Compare the students titles with the author s title. Snowball Toss After reading a text with several main ideas, explore and make a list of all the main ideas with the students. Write each main idea on a separate sheet of paper. Put students in groups of 3 or 4 (so there are an equal number of groups and main ideas). Crumple up the main ideas papers into snowballs. Toss the snowballs around the room so each group gets one. Have the groups open up the papers and read the main idea. Each group then needs to find and write on the paper one supporting detail from the text. Then crumple the papers and repeat until each group has a chance to respond to each main idea at least once. QAR (Question-Answer Relationship) An explanation of this strategy can be found at: Timeline - Have students create timelines of events contained in sequential text. Or, provide the events on slips of paper, and have the students put them in order. Exit Slips After reading a piece of text, ask the students to respond independently in writing to two or three important questions you pose to them about the text. Collect and read responses, and adjust the next day s instruction based on the understandings evident (or not evident) within the responses After reading the text, have students write a 4-paragraph reflection of the text using the following format: 1 st paragraph Big Idea, 2 nd paragraph Important details, 3 rd paragraph Personal connections to the text, and 4 th paragraph Any questions you still have. Have students share their writings with partners, a small group, or the whole class. Craft and Structure Structure Search On separate notecards, the teacher writes the names of several different text structures the students will encounter in the nonfiction text they are reading (i.e. heading, title, index, glossary, chart, map inset, etc.). Notecards are handed out, one to each student. While reading, the student locates somewhere in the text the text structure on his/her notecard. Then, on the back of the notecard, the student writes the ways this particular structure helped him/her to understand the text. Author/Illustrator Studies Throughout the year, focus on various authors or illustrators. Share books by a chosen author/illustrator and help students identify the style or unique features of the authors/illustrators. 4 Help children compare the styles of different authors/illustrators you study. A pdf of an author study toolkit can be found here: Venn Diagram - On one side of the Venn Diagram, write author and on the other write illustrator. Ask students to help complete the diagram by describing the styles of each, and the ways each use their craft to help us understand and enjoy the text. The students will see that the author and illustrator have similar and different roles. Context Clue Challenge Put students in groups of 3-4. Provide groups with a list of 3 or 4 difficult words from the text they ve read. Ask students to write definitions to the words on their list, without using a dictionary, glossary or any other reference. They may use only each other and the text as resources. When finish, put 2 groups together to share their definitions and come up with a definition for each word both groups agree on. Four Square This is a vocabulary aid. See attached for graphic organizer Strategy This strategy required the student to write 3 discoveries, 2 interesting ideas, and 1 question he/she still has after reading the text. Model this strategy several times before expecting independence of the students. Four Corners After having students read text on a controversial topic (i.e. Should animals be kept in zoos?), discuss the author s point of view with students. Then mark 4 corners of the classroom: Strongly Agree, Somewhat Agree, Somewhat Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. Have students go to the corner of the room that best represents to what extend they agree or disagree with the author. Have students discuss their reasoning with those in their group, and then return to their desks and write a brief defense of their own positions [i.e. I strongly disagree with (author) because ] Anticipation Guides Create a set of statements related to the text students are about to read. The best statements often contain a controversial element. Before reading, students should decide whether they agree or disagree with the statements, or whether they think the statements are true or false. After reading the text, the students should revisit the statements and their responses to see if their thinking has changed as a result of reading. Website Features Explore some websites with students like Time for Kids or National Geographic for Kids. Have students discuss the feature similarities and differences between web sources and print sources (i.e. You can often link to videos on a web source but not on a print source.) Ask students to discuss which web sources they see are the most helpful and why. Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Helpful Illustration? Some illustrations can add information that goes beyond the text, and others may just clarify or provide a visual representation of a concept in the text. Some illustrations are helpful, and others may not be. Have students discuss certain illustrations in their texts Are they helpful or not, and why? Encourage the students to think about: What clues do I see in the illustration? Why did the illustrator draw this? Can I learn anything from this illustration? Write a Caption, or Caption Match - For illustrations without captions in students text, have them create their own captions. For illustrations with captions, make Xeroxed copies of up to 5 of them. Separate the caption from the illustration, and then have the students match them. Author s Point After reading a text, provide students with a statement (either true or false) about the author s purpose (i.e. I think the author wrote this text to try and convince us that global warming is not really happening. ) Have students go back into the text, finding actual words of the author to prove your statement either true or false. Hula Hoop Venn Diagram Have students read two different texts about the same topic. Put students in groups of 6-8 and give them two Hula Hoops. Students should place the hoops into a Venn Diagram on the floor and use notecards to label the sides of the diagram, either by book title or author/illustrator. Tell students they should think about ways the two texts were similar and different, including the ways the author and illustrator presented information, whether the authors seemed to agree or disagree on certain points, etc. Then, each student should state either one similarity or one difference to his/her group and stand in the Venn diagram in an appropriate place. For example, if a student says, I think both authors agreed that global warming is really happening in the world, he/she should stand in the overlapping center of the Hula Hoops. When all students have made a statement and stood in the hoops, they can start over. Get My Point? Introduce a piece of nonfiction text by listing the author s key points on the board. Review those points with the students. Pair up students, and have one start reading a short section of the text. While one student is reading, the other student marks with a Post-It flag sentences that support any of the author s key points. Have students take turns reading and marking sentences. When finished, have students either sort sentences by key points, or discuss the sentences the students found as a whole class. 5 Divide and Conquer Put students into groups of 2. Assign each group an image (illustration, chart, map, etc.) from a piece of text. After examining the image, one person should tell the main idea the image is trying to convey. The second person should tell whether he/she feels the image clarifies or expands on the text or not, and if so, how Have students read 2 texts on the same topic. When finished, have them list 2 similarities between the texts and 2 differences. Share findings in class. Three Facts and a Fib After reading a piece of nonfiction text or examining a graphic or illustration from the text, have students independently write 3 facts they gained from the text/illustration and one fib. Have them share their facts and fib with another student. The job of the other student is to figure out which statement is the fib. Listen, Watch, or Written? Have students read text on a certain topic, and then listen to or watch information (video, recording, etc.) about the same topic (i.e. Reading King s I Have a Dream speech, and then watching of King actually giving the speech). Discuss how the two formats are the same and different and which form they feel is better and why. Write Around After reading text, give students 2-3 minutes to respond to the text in writing. Then, have students pass their responses to another student who will then respond to the text again or respond to what was written by the first person. After several passes of the papers, have students read the responses on their original papers and discuss any interesting findings. Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity Read, Cover, Remember, Retell See attached sheet for process. Coding/Tracking the Text Students mark the text, when possible, while reading, using coding symbols. (See attached for symbol samples.) When finished reading, students can share markings with a partner, getting clarification or sharing key points. 6 Read, Cover, Remember, Retell Comprehension Strategy Read Read a small section of the text. Cover Cover what you just read with your hand. Remember - Think about what you read. Retell (Writing Optional) Summarize what you read orally or in writing. 7 Four Square Vocabulary #2 Picture What is it? (Define in your own words.) Antonyms or Synonyms Antonyms Your sentence with the word: Synonyms - 8 Text Coding and Tracking Symbols Draw a box around the main idea(s) in text. Underline the details in a text. Circle key words to remember.?! * Use a question mark to identify something confusing in the text. Use an exclamation mark to identify new information. Use an asterisk to identify something interesting. Use a checkmark to identify already known items. X Mark with an X items that contradict what is already known. Draw an eye to indicate an opportunity to mentally visualize. Use the infinity symbol to show a connection to another text, to self, or to the world. 9 Before Reading Anticipation guide 1. Cats make better pets than dogs. 2. Cats are funnier than dogs. 3. Cats enjoy bringing gifts of critter parts to their owners, and because this shows true devotion, it is a positive trait of cats. 4. Cats are better than dogs at providing stress relief for their owners. 5. Cats are less demanding than dogs. After Reading 2 Texts Similarities: Differences: 1. 2. Using Think-Alouds to Improve Reading Comprehension Lesson Plan Estimated Lesson Time: One class period Overview: Studies have shown that the think-aloud strategy improves comprehension on tests. Through 1 27 Before, During, and After Reading Activities with Graphic Organizers to be used with nonfiction passages for students in Grades 2 5! - These activities and graphic organizers can be: - used by teachers Determining Importance How do you The modern world is inundated by Facts. Television, the Internet-more information than your grandparents every imagined-is at your fingertips with the click of a button. Compiled By: Pat Elliott, Resource Teacher & Dale Mays, Grade 4 Teacher Simcoe County District School Board Ontario Canada Literacy Circles There is no one right way to conduct literacy circles. The manner Grade 1 LA. 1. 1. 1. 1 Subject Grade Strand Standard Benchmark Florida K-12 Reading and Language Arts Standards 27 Grade 1: Reading Process Concepts of Print Standard: The student demonstrates knowledge The charts below were created as a common language for teachers and students in the Wallingford Public Schools in kindergarten through eighth grade. The level of the chart selected for use in the classroom TM parent ROADMAP SUPPORTING YOUR CHILD IN GRADE FIVE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS 5 America s schools are working to provide higher quality instruction than ever before. The way we taught students in the past Strategies for Struggling Readers Meet the Word-Caller The word-caller reads orally with accuracy and fluency. Silent reading appears rapid, attentive and purposeful. These students can respond to right-there Minnesota K-12 Academic Standards in Language Arts Curriculum and Assessment Alignment Form Rewards Intermediate Grades 4-6 4 I. READING AND LITERATURE A. Word Recognition, Analysis, and Fluency The student OCPS Curriculum, Instruction, Assessment Alignment Subject Area: Grade: Strand 1: Standard 1: Reading and Language Arts Kindergarten Reading Process The student demonstrates knowledge of the concept of FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES, DEFINITIONS, EXAMPLES 1 Minute Essay Give students an open-ended question and one to three minutes to write their answers. Good questions: What is the most important thing Literature Circle Role Sheet Summarizer Book Summarizer: Your job is to prepare a brief summary of today s reading. Your group discussion will start with your 1-2 minute statement that covers the key points, Concept Map Use this map to organize your thoughts and make connections to your topic. Write the main idea in the center, and add supporting ideas or related topics in each surrounding oval. Continue to Helping English Language Learners Understand Content Area Texts English language learners (ELLs) experience intense problems in content area learning because they have not yet acquired the language proficiency READING 1.) Reads at grade level. 1 st Student has achieved reading success at Level 14-H or above. Student has achieved reading success at Level 10-F or 12-G. Student has achieved reading success at Level Catering for students with special needs In preparing students for the assessment tasks, teachers need to be aware of the specific learning needs of individual students in their classes. These could include Monitoring for Meaning Grades 3-5 eeee Wwh Monitoring comprehension is above all engagement. When readers monitor their thinking, they have an inner conversation with the text. They listen to the voice Correlation to the Series, Grades K 2 Common Core State Standards, 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved. College Common Core Teaching and Learning Strategies English Language Arts Reading Informational Text Grades K-5 Draft May, 2012 Illinois State Board of Education www.isbe.net 100 N. 1st Street Springfield, IL Behaviors to Notice Teach Level A/B (Fountas and Pinnell) - DRA 1/2 - NYC ECLAS 2 Solving Words - Locates known word(s) in. Analyzes words from left to right, using knowledge of sound/letter relationships 1 Section I Focus and Motivation Section II Input G.L.A.D. Resource Book (Guided Language Acquisition Design) Table of Contents Pages Cognitive Content Dictionary 3-4 Exploration Report. 5-7 Observation High School Science Lesson Plan: Biology Introduction Each lesson in the Adolescent Literacy Toolkit is designed to support students through the reading/learning process by providing instruction before, Unit 1 Title: ing Grade Level: Second (2 nd ) Timeframe: 5 Weeks Unit Overview: In Unit 1 students will gain an understanding of the overall structure of a story and its components. also be able to identify NOTE-TAKING Rutgers School of Nursing WHEN TO TAKE NOTES BEFORE DURING AFTER I. Before Class: Preparation (mental and physical) Read Textbook BEFORE Class Start Taking Notes BEFORE Class The SQ3R Method Content Strategies by Domain In order to be proficient in a language, students need to develop proficiency in four domains: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Intentional practice each day in content WORLD-CLASS INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND ASSESSMENT The English Language Learner CAN DO Booklet Grades 9-12 Includes: Performance Definitions CAN DO Descriptors For use in conjunction with the WIDA English (MIRP) Monitoring Independent Reading Practice ~ A Returning Developer ~ For further information contact Kathy Robinson Lake Country Elem. School 516 County Road 29 Lake Placid, Florida 33852 863.699.5050 Grade 5: Module 2B: Unit 1: Lesson 9 Using Quotes and Comparing and Contrasting Structure: The Invention of Basketball This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike Language Arts Literacy : Grade 5 Mission: Learning to read, write, speak, listen, and view critically, strategically and creatively enables students to discover personal and shared meaning throughout their SEMINOLE COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS ESOL Strategies For Mainstream Teachers 2011-2012 ESOL/World Languages Department For additional resources and strategies, visit the ESOL/ World Languages Department website Graphic organizers help students to visualize the relationships between words and their possible meanings. Teachers can use these graphic organizers and games with explicit vocabulary instruction. These Sequence Make a connection Make a prediction Map a Story Analyze Retell Re-read Ask a Question Visualize Reflect in Writing Reading Comprehension Graphic Organizers for Title: Setting: Characters: Problem: Language Arts Literacy : Grade 6 Mission: Learning to read, write, speak, listen, and view critically, strategically and creatively enables students to discover personal and shared meaning throughout their English Language Arts Targeted Tutoring Plan For Middle and High Schools Lafayette Parish Schools Developed in 2009-2010 Table of Contents Introduction........... 1 Research Findings.......... 2 Procedures Advice for Class Teachers Moderating pupils reading at P 4 NC Level 1 Exemplars of writing at P Scales and into National Curriculum levels. The purpose of this document is to provide guidance for class Choral Reading Strategy Literacy Skill: Reading Fluency Grade Level Uses: K-20 Special Population: N/A; Need to modify the reading for ELL and Special Needs with accommodations Cognitive Process: Comprehension The Minnesota Literacy Council created this curriculum with funding from the MN Department of Education. We invite you to adapt it for your own classrooms. Intermediate Level (CASAS reading scores of 201-220) Test Blueprint Grade 3 Reading 2010 English Standards of Learning This revised test blueprint will be effective with the administration of the 2012-2013 English Standards of Learning (SOL) tests. Notice Implementing the Common Core State StandArds Teacher's Guide to Meeting the Common Core State Standards* with Scott Foresman Reading Street 2008 Table of Contents Grade 5 Introduction................................................ A Correlation of Prentice Hall Writing Coach 2012 To the Virginia English Standards of Learning A Correlation of, 2012, Introduction This document demonstrates how, 2012, meets the objectives of the. Correlation Session One: Increasing Comprehensibility One goal for every teacher working with ELL students is to increase comprehensibility. In other words, to increase understanding or make course content more intelligible. VISUAL ALGEBRA FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS Laurie J. Burton Western Oregon University VISUAL ALGEBRA FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS Welcome and Introduction 1 Chapter 1: INTEGERS AND INTEGER OPERATIONS Genre Mini Unit Writing Informational Nonfiction By Joyce Dunning Grade Level: 2 nd Grade State Core Standards: Standard 2, Objective 1: Demonstrate an understanding that print carries the message. Standard Academic Standards for Reading, Writing, Speaking, and Listening June 1, 2009 FINAL Elementary Standards Grades 3-8 Pennsylvania Department of Education These standards are offered as a voluntary resource econtent Construction for the ipad: Designing for comprehension Session Themes Revisit the characteristics and skills for reading proficiency Examine a UDL approach to econtent Design Accessibility benchmarks Ohio Standards Connection Informational, Technical and Persuasive Text Benchmark C Identify the central ideas and supporting details of informational text. Indicator 3 Identify and list the important central ACQUISITION OF VOCABULARY AV 6.1 - Define the meaning of unknown words by using context clues and the author's use of definition, restatement and example. AV6.6 - Apply the knowledge of prefixes, suffixes Common Core Standards Pacing Guide Fourth Grade English/Language Arts Pacing Guide 1 st Nine Weeks Key: Objectives in bold to be assessed after the current nine weeks Objectives in italics to be assessed Study Strategies Used By Successful Students Test performance not only reflects how much one studied in the hours and days right before the test but also how well the person has been studying throughout ELL/SDAIE Strategies Instructional Strategies used throughout the year: Anticipatory KWL Chart - Before reading a selection, hearing a selection or viewing a video students are asked to complete the first 3 rd Grade Reading District Curriculum Map Theme 1 Finding My Place/ Six Weeks Apply knowledge of letter/sound correspondence. Learnings or Understandings (ICC) Use a variety of strategies to develop and Note to Teachers/Parents Legend has it that when Ernest Hemingway was challenged to write a six-word novel, he came up with, For Sale: baby shoes, never worn. Inspired by Hemingway s short story, SMITH [Type text] Guiding Comprehension Teaching for Meaning Guiding Comprehension Teaching For Meaning Comprehension is a process in which readers construct meaning by interacting with text through the combination Ohio Standards Connection: Government Benchmark A Identify the responsibilities of the branches of the U.S. government and explain why they are necessary. Indicator 2 Explain the structure of local governments STUDENT S PACKET FOR THE SCIENCE FAIR PROJECT SCIENCE PROJECT STEPS 1. Choose a topic. Be sure it interests you. Don t pick one because you think it will be easy. Talk it over with your parents and when ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS INTRODUCTION Clear student learning outcomes and high learning standards in the program of studies are designed to prepare students for present and future language requirements. Changes Running Records are taken to: guide teaching match readers to appropriate texts document growth overtime note strategies used group and regroup children for instruction How to Take Running Records (adapted KINDGERGARTEN READING FOUNDATIONAL SKILLS Print Concepts Follow words from left to right in a text Follow words from top to bottom in a text Know when to turn the page in a book Show spaces between words Unit Map 2011-2012 Columbia University Teachers College Collaboration / Writing* / Kindergarten (Elementary School) June 21, 2011, 9:13AM Unit 01 Launching The Writing Workshop (Week 1, 4 Weeks) Unit Rationale Bebop Books Guided Reading with Emergent Readers by Jeanne Clidas, Ph.D. What Is Guided Reading? Guided reading involves a small group of children thinking, talking, and reading through a new text with Miss Taylor Brooke Stancil s Differentiated Instruction Strategies Choral Response: Choral response is a very simple technique in which the teacher asks questions to the class as a whole and the students [ SADLIER Common Core Progress English Language Arts Aligned to the [ Florida Next Generation GRADE 6 Sunshine State (Common Core) Standards for English Language Arts Contents 2 Strand: Reading Standards 1. Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support conclusions drawn from the text. RL.2.1. ELL Considerations for Common Core-Aligned Tasks in English Language Arts A substantial body of research clearly indicates that utilizing specific instructional modifications as well as targeted pedagogical GRADE 1 READING Guiding Principle: Students read a wide range of fiction, nonfiction, classic, and contemporary works, to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United What Is Leveled Reading? Learn how teachers are helping kids become better readers by matching them to the right books at the right time. By Deborah Wilburn-Scholastic & Jennifer Smith The Importance of Content: English Language Arts Enduring Understandings 1. Oral discussion helps to build connections to others and create opportunities for learning. 2. Effective speakers adapt their style and content Ohio Standards Connections Reading Process: Concepts of Print, Comprehension Strategies and Self- Monitoring Strategies Benchmark A Establish a purpose for reading and use a range of reading comprehension CRCT Content Descriptions based on the Georgia Performance Standards Reading Grades 1-8 Kathy Cox State Superintendent of Schools June 2007 Criterion-Referenced Competency Tests (CRCT) Content Descriptions Literature Circles Implementing Literature Circles may seem like a daunting task, but, with foresight and planning, this approach provides students an opportunity for tremendous growth. Literature Circles Modern foreign languages Programme of study for key stage 3 and attainment targets (This is an extract from The National Curriculum 2007) Crown copyright 2007 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 2007 Teaching Children to Read and Comprehend Nonfiction Presented By Tony Stead Learning to Read (print concepts, working with words, letters and sounds, text features) Pre Emergent Readers Early print concepts 1 Ohio Standards Connection: Geography Benchmark D Analyze ways that transportation and communication relate to patterns of settlement and economic activity. Indicator 8 Identify systems of transportation Benchmarks: Second Grade Comprehension: Identify and Discuss the Author s Purpose Preparation/Materials: Preparation/Materials: large graph, large copy of each story, highlighter, pictures of a U.S. map, Lesson Closure with Examples or 40 Ways to Leave a Lesson Page 1 of 5 CLOSURE - what the instructor does to facilitate wrap-up at the end of the lesson - it is a quick review, to remind students what it Reading Strategies R Introduction to Reading Strategies Getting Ready to Read: Previewing a Text Analyzing the Features of a Text Finding Organizational Patterns Anticipation Guide Finding Signal Words Running head: INFORMATIONAL TEXT IN THE PRIMARY CLASSROOM 1 Informational Text in the Primary Classroom A Research Project Submitted as a Requirement For The Degree of Masters In Reading Education In The Jan/Feb 2007 What Does Research Tell Us About Teaching Reading to English Language Learners? By Suzanne Irujo, ELL Outlook Contributing Writer As a classroom teacher, I was largely ignorant of, and definitely Independent Reading Assessment Tools User s Guide Table of Contents INTRODUCTION...3 ANECDOTAL RECORDS...4 Sample Record (Daily Reading Observation Record Sheet)...5 READING CONFERENCES...6 Sample Strategies...6
Gather on the rug. I show the students all the work we’ve done in our Biography unit. I tell them we are going to answer a WHY question: Why are these people famous? We’ve learned a lot from the biographies we’ve read. We have analyzed what questions the authors of these books asked and answered for us. We’ve compared two books and two authors’ ways of telling the story of MLK’s life. We have learned a lot about Martin Luther King, Jr and other famous people. Now, I want to know what you think…. Why were these people worthy of someone writing their life story? Why are they famous? First, I will use a NON Civil rights leader – Neil Armstrong – as the subject for crafting a model paragraph. I want the students to come to the civil rights change agent idea themselves, so I don’t want to start with a social reformer. I expect my students to transfer the charateristics we've been learning about biography to ANY biography. I open the First American Heroes book to the page on Neil Armstrong. As we read the info under the doc camera, I reinforce the “great questions” with turn and talk strategies. I have a poster of "Great questions to ask for close reading" that I refer to all the time. I ask students to tell their neighbors what questions are being answered. See resources. Tell your partner what questions the author answered in the bullet list. Tell your partner the main idea of this paragraph. Let’s read the subtitle under the title of his name. How did the author describe him? Do you think that might be the main idea of the whole article? Let’s consider the images. Why did the author include this picture and not a picture of Neil Armstrong blowing out birthday candles or playing baseball? I write a paragraph about Neil Armstrong on chart paper so I can post it as a model. I use the OREO formula: O – opinion stated; R – reason for that opinion; E – and example that supports that reason O – restate my opinion. Next I will use MLK as the subject for doing a shared write to craft a paragraph telling why they believe MLK was famous. We will do a modified co-operative strip paragraph in this step. · Team sits in a knee circle. Together each team finishes one of the frame sentences I hand out. · We assemble the paragraph in a pocket chart. This is where I zero in on the CCSS W2.1. I quickly project the standard up (I use the BL site. The standards are formatted nicely to project for whole group view) We read the standard, and use it as a checklist to review our paragraph. Depending on how much time I have, I help the students refine the paragraph, adding and changing words so it flows and, of course, editing for conventions. Finally, I will give them copies of the biography pages they used to study text features and a copy of their questionnaire, and I ask them write an opinion paragraph about their person. The task will be to write a 5 to six sentence paragraph using the OREO model of opinion writing. I will give them the OREO worksheet to support the structure of their paragraph. They will not be required to write on the form, but it will be a handy reference. I will pull my struggling students up to the table with the OREO form, their biography page and their questionnaire. I will stand by for support, as well as circulating around the class. The structure of the paragraph will be my focus as I monitor work. Are they writing supporting reasons and examples? Did they restate their opinion in slightly different words?
According to NASA, this beautiful NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope image is a Wolf–Rayet star known as WR 31a, located about 30,000 light-years away in the constellation of Carina (The Keel), Joinfo.ua reports. “The distinctive blue bubble appearing to encircle WR 31a is a Wolf–Rayet nebula — an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and other gases. Created when speedy stellar winds interact with the outer layers of hydrogen ejected by Wolf–Rayet stars, these nebulae are frequently ring-shaped or spherical. The bubble — estimated to have formed around 20,000 years ago — is expanding at a rate of around 220,000 kilometers (136,700 miles) per hour!” – European Space Agency said in the statement. “Unfortunately, the lifecycle of a Wolf–Rayet star is only a few hundred thousand years — the blink of an eye in cosmic terms,” – ESA said. “Despite beginning life with a mass at least 20 times that of the sun, Wolf–Rayet stars typically lose half their mass in less than 100,000 years. And WR 31a is no exception to this case. It will, therefore, eventually end its life as a spectacular supernova, and the stellar material expelled from its explosion will later nourish a new generation of stars and planets,” – said in the statement.
The Importance of Play AAP advises making play a significant part of a child's life to nurture happiness, development, education, and parent-child bonding. Throughout most of history, kids have spent hour after hour playing with parents, siblings, babysitters, and friends. Play is so important in child development that it's been recognized by the United Nations High Commission for Human Rights as a right of every child. But the amount of time that children spend playing each day has gone down considerably over the last two decades. A 1989 survey taken by the National Association of Elementary School Principals found that 96 percent of schools had at least one recess period for kids. A decade later, a similar survey found that only 70 percent of kindergarten classes offered even one recess period each day. The American Academy of Pediatrics' recent report explains why children are playing less and what the impact is on today's kids. Over the last few decades, the amount of play time has been reduced both at school and at home, according to the AAP. Many school districts have responded to increased government pressure about academics (including the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001) by reducing the time committed to free play to focus more on reading and mathematics. And a child's playtime at home has been negatively affected by the hectic lifestyles of today's working parents and the increased focus that parents often put on the academic end of their children's education. But this all comes at a cost. "Play allows children to use their creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and physical, cognitive, and emotional strength," according to the AAP report. It allows children to explore the world, practice adult roles, and gain confidence. And it improves children's social skills as well, by helping them to "learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts, and to learn self-advocacy skills." If play is so important to a child's development, then what's the impact of this reduction in play? In conjunction with secondary message that kids are receiving from today's high-pressure world -- that they must be the "best" at all times -- kids are showing higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression. They even resort to cheating in school more than ever before, according to the report. The key to helping your child reach his potential -- without the added anxiety -- is to find the right balance between work and play. Here are some recommendations from the AAP: - Give kids ample, unscheduled time to be creative, to reflect, and to decompress - Encourage your children to engage in active play (running around or playing tag) in lieu of passive entertainment (video games or television) - Buy your children "true" toys, such as blocks or dolls, that encourage imagination and creativity - Spend unscheduled, unstructured time together with your kids - Ask your child regularly whether he feels overly tired, burned out, or overscheduled - Allow your children to have a say in which extracurricular activities they are involved in - Get involved in your child's school and take an active role in ensuring that all kids are getting ample free time Remember, play is a cherished part of childhood. By finding the right balance between work and play, your children will grow up happier, better adjusted, and more prepared to conquer the world.
Last week I helped to train Master Gardeners about pruning fruit trees. January and February are the months that we recommend fruit tree pruning in Southern California. In colder climates, pruning may not occur until later when freezing temperatures are minimized and there is less chance of damage to new growth. While trees don’t “need” pruning to bear fruit, pruning practices can enhance fruit production, promote earlier fruiting bearing buds, and increase fruit quality if done in an informed way. In many respects, modern fruit trees have been bred for big fruit, and pruning might need to be done to prevent limb breakage, reduce the number of fruit and position it in the tree fore ease of harvest. Misinformed pruning can lead to disease or loss of bearing wood. “Fruit tree” is a broad category, but for this blog, I am referring to deciduous trees (not subtropicals such as citrus, avocado, mango etc.). Two main categories are common: Pome fruits such as apples and pears and Stone fruits such as cherries, plums, apricots, peaches, almonds and pluots. The first thing to figure out when pruning any tree grown for fruit production is where the fruit will be formed. This requires examining and understanding buds, twigs and the age of growth that is produced. Second we need to understand the tree’s responses to pruning and how that will affect future fruit production. Finally an understanding of negative consequences of pruning is essential. Why prune you ask if trees will produce without pruning? Pruning shapes a tree, and helps to create fruiting buds that are conveniently placed for harvest-this keeps fruit pickable with less time on ladders. Pruning gives an opportunity to remove fruiting buds thereby invigorating remaining buds and increasing size and quality of the fruit that will form with less fruit thinning later. Pruning also gives an opportunity to remove diseased, damaged, tangled or infested branches. While various training styles can be used for structural pruning of young fruit trees the open vase or modefied central leader systems are preferred and descriptions of them can be found in extension leaflets. For my own trees I usually do not prune them the first year after planting in order to encourage a stronger root system. In the second and third years I pick scaffold branches or train branches on the central leader. Fruit is produced on various aged twigs or branches depending on tree species. Peaches produce fruit on growth from the previous year or one year old wood. Since peaches grow vigorously fruiting wood ends up on the outside of a tree. Heading back (or heading) cuts (reducing last year’s branches by at least half their length) will remove ½ the fruit and stimulate buds lower in the tree that will make more fruiting wood. For this reason peaches are usually pruned “hard” to stimulate maximum amounts of fresh fruiting wood. Apples, Pears, Plums, Cherries and Apricots produce most of their fruit on small side branches called spurs. Apples and Pears may also produce fruit from the terminal bud. Young trees often make many long whips and these are usually headed back (heading cuts remove the terminal bud) to stimulate spurs in the following years. Once the overall shape and size of the trees are set, less pruning is required as spurs may produce fruit over decades of time. As trees mature spurs build up so removing densely clustered spurs on mature trees with thinning cuts (removing an entire branch, spur or twig) will increase the size and quality of fruit formed on the remaining spurs. Pruning is often used on newly planted trees to form the structure of the tree. When forming the branch structure do no indiscriminately head back every branch as this will stop the growth of the branch that is headed. New growth will only resume from buds that are released to grow. Think carefully about what you want to grow and what you want to slow-down in growth. Pruning is always a growth retarding practice. Branches are best spaced up and down and around a central leader. In other training systems for stone fruits one heading cut when the tree is just a whip will create an open vase shape where all the branches arise from a single point on the trunk. While this is considered a branch defect in shade trees, it is a convenient training system for fruit trees if you don’t let the tree get too large and manage the fruit loads that are produced. Trees trained to a modified open center where branches are spaced on a central leader have stronger branch attachments and can bear greater fruit. As trees age and grow they require regular training with heading cuts to shorten vigorous branches of peaches or thinning cuts to remove whips, water sprouts or other unwanted branches. Be careful not to over-prune especially in summer or sunburn can result. When fruit sets in the spring or early summer it can be thinned by hand. This form of pruning will increase size of the remaining fruit and quality. Summer pruning is sometimes practiced on very vigorous trees to slow their growth and invigorate buds for the following spring. Prune with care in the summer espeically on green barked trees like apple and pears to avoid sunburn.
The operation of a cyclotron is based on the fact that the period of the motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field is independent of the velocity of the particle, as can be seen in the following derivation: Solve for : Now find the period, : The 's cancel: The 'Cyclotron Frequency' immediately follows: Fig. 1 is a schematic drawing of a cyclotron. The particles move in two semicircular metal containers called DEEs (because of their shape). The dees are housed in a vacuum chamber that is in a uniform magnetic field provided by an electromagnet. (The region in which the particles move must be evacuated so that the particles will not lose energy and be scattered in collisions with air molecules.) Between the dees there is maintained a potential difference that alternates in time with a period , which is chosen to be equal to the cyclotron period that was found in the above derivation. This potential difference creates an electric field across the gap between the dees. At the same time, there is no electric field within each dee because of the shielding of the metal dees. The charged particles are initially injected into dee 1 with a small velocity from an ion source near the center of the dees. They move in a semicircle in dee 1 and arrive a the gap between dee 1 and dee 2 after time , where is the cyclotron period, and is also the period with which the potential across the dees is alternated. The alternation of the potential is adjusted so that dee 1 is at a higher potential than dee 2 when the particles arrive at the gap between them. Each particle is therefore accelerated across the gap by the electric field across the gap and gains energy equal to q. Because it has more kinetic energy, the particle moves in a semicircle of larger radius in dee 2, and again arrives at the gap after a time . By this time the potential between the dees has been reversed so that dee 2 is now at the higher potential. Once more the particle is accelerated across the gap and gains additional kinetic energy equal to . Each time the particle arrives at the gap, it is accelerated and gains kinetic energy . Thus, it moves in larger and larger semicircular orbits until it eventually leaves the magnetic field. In the typical cyclotron, each particle may make up to 50 to 100 revolutions before reaching its final energy. The kinetic energy of a particle leaving a cyclotron can be calculated by the following derivation: 1st set the following equal to the of the dees and solve for the particle's velocity: Next solve for the Kinetic Energy: Cancel the 's and finally get: Now for an example with the Rutgers 12-Inch Cyclotron running protons, determine the cyclotron frequency and maximum Kinetic Energy: 12-INCH CYCLOTRON PARAMETERS: 1st Determine the Cyclotron Frequency: 2nd Find the maximum Kinetic Energy of the protons: - adapted from Tipler's Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Vol. 2.
The chemical equation for photosynthesis involves the input (reactants) of carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce the outputs (products) of glucose and oxygen. This chemical process is a fundamental equation for understanding how photosynthesis compliments respiration. Do you know what the most critical thing for life on earth is? It’s sunlight. Sunlight is responsible for providing life on earth with everything it needs: water, oxygen, and food. Yet we clearly can’t sustain ourselves with just sunlight, so how does this sunlight get converted into the key ingredients for life? This happens through the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is how plants are able to convert the radiant energy from sunlight into glucose, the food that they need and that animals need. As a byproduct of this process plants also create water and oxygen. Humans and many other animals feed off of plants and ingest the water and oxygen that photosynthesis creates. The Equation For Photosynthesis Photosynthesis drives life on earth, but how exactly does it work? Let’s take a closer look at the balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis, and contextualize it by examining how it is part of the plant’s lifecycle. The balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis is as follows: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 This translates to the production of glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. O2 Is known as dioxygen but frequently referred to as simply oxygen. Vertebrates rely on oxygen to convert glucose into ATP, the energy that enables the cells of an animal to carry out their functions. Oxygen is brought into the body by the respiratory system, and then red blood cells pick it up for use. C6H12O6 can technically refer to many different molecules since it is dependent upon how the atoms within the molecule are arranged. Most of the molecules that the formula can refer to are sugars of one kind or another, and the most widely known formation of the molecules is glucose. Glucose is converted into a substance known as pyruvate in the cells of animals, which is then utilized to generate ATP. Glucose is also known by a variety of other names including blood sugar and dextrose. So what happens when the cells of animals utilize the glucose and oxygen produced in plants, along with water, to live and carry out their functions? The process of cellular respiration releases byproducts, much as the process of photosynthesis does. These byproducts are 6CO2 + 6H2O. In other words, cellular respiration releases water and carbon dioxide. Notice anything about how these byproducts are related to photosynthesis? They’re the exact ingredients that photosynthesis uses to create glucose and oxygen. This means that the two processes are intertwined, relying on the byproducts of one another to function. This interdependent relationship is known as the carbon cycle, and it is what enables the vast variety of life on earth to exist. The carbon cycle is what allows carbon molecules to move through the entire biosphere, being recycled and allowing both plants and animals to live. The carbon that is released into the atmosphere by cellular respiration and animals is released as carbon dioxide, while plants absorb the carbon dioxide, get it out of the atmosphere, and release oxygen instead. Key Parts of Animal Cells and Plant Cells The key part of a cell involved in cellular respiration is the mitochondria. Mitochondria are often known as the powerhouse of the cell, as they generate the energy the cell uses. Cellular respiration takes a molecule of glucose and transforms it to generate ATP. Some ATP is produced during the transformation of glucose, but more ATP is made during the process of phosphorylation. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs as electrons move through the “electron transport chain”, deep within the membrane the mitochondria. Glycolysis is the first part of the process, and it transforms the glucose into pyruvate. The pyruvate is then oxidized, to create a compound called acetyl CoA. As a result, carbon dioxide is released. More carbon dioxide is released during the citric acid cycle, the next step of cellular respiration. The acetyl CoA created in the last phase combines with a four-carbon molecule during this phase. The final part of cellular respiration is oxidative phosphorylation, and it sees the creation of more ATP as electrons move down the electron transport chain. The oxygen cells use in this phase is combined with electrons and protons of hydrogen to form water. Plants cells have a structure called a chloroplast within them, which generates energy, being analogous to the mitochondria in animal cells. Chloroplasts are examples of organelles called plastids, found within the cells of plants. Chloroplasts convert solar energy into carbs, by trapping wavelengths of light. When the light energy is absorbed, it starts the process of photosynthesis, as long as the plant has sufficient water and carbon dioxide. Different plants can absorb different wavelengths of lights utilizing different pigments. Most plants are green, the color coming from the chlorophylls in the cells of the plant. However, there are other pigments like carotenoids and phycobilins that absorb different wavelengths of light and give plants different colors. Through the processes carried out in both mitochondria and chloroplasts carbon can cycle through an environment rather quickly. It is estimated that between 1,000 to 100,000 million metric tons of carbon go through the carbon cycle a year. The Geological Carbon Cycle The biological carbon cycle accounts for what happens to much of the carbon on Earth. There’s another type of carbon cycle though. It’s the geological carbon cycle, and it refers to the way carbon is stored and released by parts of the Earth itself. The amount of carbon in the atmosphere depends on how much carbon is stored in the ocean and in the soil. The remains of carbon-based ocean life become sediment, which becomes part of the seafloor. Geological processes turn sediment into limestone, and limestone is thought to be the largest reservoir of carbon on the planet. Carbon can exist as both inorganic and organic carbon on land. Organic carbon refers to the decomposition of dead animals while inorganic carbon is stored in a variety of rocks and minerals. The process of weathering releases this carbon into the atmosphere. Carbon may also be released into the atmosphere through the eruption of volcanoes, or through the combustion of fossil fuels mined out of the ground. The biological carbon cycle and the geological carbon cycle are dependant on one another. Most carbon is found in the ambient air as carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide dissolves into water, where it produces a molecule called bicarbonate. Bicrobaronate and carbon dioxide are converted into organic molecules by bacteria and plants through photosynthesis, which moves up the food chain while cellular respiration turns this organic carbon back into C02. As carbon cycles through the biological and geological carbon cycles, it plays an integral role in photosynthesis. Photosynthesis drives life on Earth by allowing energy from the sun to sustain lifeforms at all levels of the food chain.
As a parent, how you use devices and what you do online shapes how your children relate to the online world. As you pick up your phones, use social media or open your laptops to check your email, the children are watching and learning from you. What you do online and how you use devices provides a model that can help to lay the foundations for their online safety. So it’s important for you, as parents and carers, to be aware of setting a good example. In practice, this means getting involved in what children are watching and doing online, protecting their personal information and involving them in decisions about what you share online, as well as carving out some device-free time. Below are some tips on modelling good screen practices so you can help your child stay safe as they explore. You may often use screen time to occupy and entertain you little ones while you get on with your busy lives. But it’s also important to use devices and screens as a way to start conversations with younger children, to help build their understanding of the online world. Getting into the habit of talking also means that, as your child grows older, they know they can always come to you if they have a question or experience something negative online, such as seeing content that it not age appropriate. It is widely understood that to see a purpose for online safety, you must understand the concept of networked technologies. Young children are building their understanding of this concept. While they may not yet understand the internet or data sharing, you can lay the foundations for online safety by talking about how devices and people ‘talk’ to one another online. Starting early with conversations about how the internet works and online safety encourages children to think critically about how data is stored, who can contact them online and how online sharing might affect them. Read advice on online safety basics. If you pick up your phone to send a text, post an update on social media or use a map to search for an address, take the opportunity to explain to your child what you are doing. Let them ask questions and talk about what you are doing and why. Watching or playing alongside your child can be a positive experience that promotes learning and development. Ask questions, be curious and follow their interests — at the same time you can gently introduce online safety tips, such as not clicking on pop-ups and always coming to you if they encounter anything that makes them feel uncomfortable or if someone outside their family and close friends contacts them online. There are many benefits to sharing pictures and updates online and many valid reasons to share, whether it’s to celebrate the birth of a child or another special event. All those Facebook photos are cute — but have you thought about how they might affect your child, grandchild, niece or nephew in the future? That picture of them covered in cake on their first birthday may still be online when they are a teenager. Once it’s online it can be very difficult to remove, and it may keep resurfacing in search results connected to their name. As they grow older and begin to develop their sense of self, their online identity or digital footprint will already have been shaped in detail by their parent and other family members. Here are some tips to help you protect your child’s personal information and model good sharing practices. Before you take a photo of your child, ask their permission from an early age. Do the same before you share a photo or write something about them on social media. Let them know who will see it, why you want to share it and respect their decision if they don’t want to share it. It may seem silly to ask permission from a two-year-old, particularly as children can’t legally give consent to share their image. But that’s not the point. The aim is to model consent and respectful data sharing practices. This example will come in handy when it’s time for them to share photos online themselves. Make sure your child is aware of what their ‘personal information’ is. Talk with children about how you protect your personal information — and theirs — online. Discuss what is appropriate to share, on which platforms and why, as well as the types of information that should stay private, like your address, contact information and date of birth. Decide, together with your child, what you should share and who you should share it with. As a rule of thumb, it’s a good idea to only post something online that you would be OK to share publicly with everyone. Check the privacy and safety settings on all devices regularly. If you have older children, sit with them and show them the privacy settings for your social media accounts. Talk with them about the settings and explain how you can restrict sharing to smaller groups of people. Remember, updating your privacy settings is not failsafe, but it’s a positive step to improving your online safety. You can also use parental controls, filtering and other online safety tools on devices that connect to the internet. Read advice on how to tame the technology. It’s important to create some device-free times and zones in your home to help your child learn how to balance their activities. By demonstrating that you can put your phone down and concentrate on spending time with your child, without the distractions of being online and connected, you provide a really important model for them. This is important for babies, toddlers, preschoolers and older children. Remember, as you pick up your phone and focus on the screen, your children are watching and learning from you. Do you know how long you spend on social media or email each day? If not, it’s a good idea to find out. Apple and Android devices have settings that allow you to monitor how much time you spend online. There are also apps you can use to monitor your online activity. Sometimes all you need is a little knowledge about how long you are spending online in order to change your habits. You can also use the settings built into Apple and Android phones and tablets to set time limits on how long your child can use the device. This is especially useful for very young children as they see it as the device ‘turning off’ – not you imposing a rule. Talking about a set amount of screen time with your child before they start to play a game or watch a program may also help them to transition to another activity when it is time to switch the device off. Talk together as a family about when everyone should put their devices down. Depending on your routine, this may be during meals and at night. You might decide that you won’t use devices in the morning before day care, school or work. Or you could decide that Saturday afternoons are a device-free time for your family, in which you can all play a game together or do another special activity. Research shows that it’s important to turn devices off at least an hour before bedtime to ensure your child has the best quality sleep. Setting up a charging station in a communal spot, where everyone’s devices are stored overnight, is a good way to ensure that devices are not used late at night. It can also help to ensure that children don’t use devices in their bedrooms or away from communal areas of your house, where it is easier for you to supervise what they are doing online. Online safety basics — getting the basics right for preschoolers, kids and teenagers. Are they old enough? — when is your child ready for online access, their own smartphone or social networking? Good habits start young — build digital intelligence and help your child act responsibly online. Taming the technology — using parental controls and other tools to maximise the online safety of your home. Privacy and your child — protecting your child’s personal information online. (This article is contributed to by the eSafety Commissioner, the national government agency responsible for promoting online safety for all Australians.)
A database management system (DBMS) interface is a user interface which allows for the ability to input queries to a database without using the query language itself. User-friendly interfaces provide by DBMS may include the following: - Menu-Based Interfaces for Web Clients or Browsing – These interfaces present the user with lists of options (called menus) that lead the user through the formation of a request. Basic advantage of using menus is that they removes the tension of remembering specific commands and syntax of any query language, rather than query is basically composed step by step by collecting or picking options from a menu that is basically shown by the system. Pull-down menus are a very popular technique in Web based interfaces. They are also often used in browsing interface which allow a user to look through the contents of a database in an exploratory and unstructured manner. - Forms-Based Interfaces – A forms-based interface displays a form to each user. Users can fill out all of the form entries to insert a new data, or they can fill out only certain entries, in which case the DBMS will redeem same type of data for other remaining entries. This type of forms are usually designed or created and programmed for the users that have no expertise in operating system. Many DBMSs have forms specification languages which are special languages that help specify such forms. Example: SQL* Forms is a form-based language that specifies queries using a form designed in conjunction with the relational database schema.b> - Graphical User Interface – A GUI typically displays a schema to the user in diagrammatic form.The user then can specify a query by manipulating the diagram. In many cases, GUI’s utilize both menus and forms. Most GUIs use a pointing device such as mouse, to pick certain part of the displayed schema diagram. - Natural language Interfaces – These interfaces accept request written in English or some other language and attempt to understand them. A Natural language interface has its own schema, which is similar to the database conceptual schema as well as a dictionary of important words. The natural language interface refers to the words in its schema as well as to the set of standard words in a dictionary to interpret the request.If the interpretation is successful, the interface generates a high-level query corresponding to the natural language and submits it to the DBMS for processing, otherwise a dialogue is started with the user to clarify any provided condition or request. The main disadvantage with this is that the capabilities of this type of interfaces are not that much advance. - Speech Input and Output – There is an limited use of speech say it for a query or an answer to a question or being a result of a request it is becoming commonplace Applications with limited vocabularies such as inquiries for telephone directory, flight arrival/departure, and bank account information are allowed speech for input and output to enable ordinary folks to access this information. The Speech input is detected using a predefined words and used to set up the parameters that are supplied to the queries. For output, a similar conversion from text or numbers into speech take place. - Interfaces for DBA – Most database system contains privileged commands that can be used only by the DBA’s staff. These include commands for creating accounts, setting system parameters, granting account authorization, changing a schema, reorganizing the storage structures of a databases. - Need for DBMS - Deadlock in DBMS - Starvation in DBMS - Difference between DDL and DML in DBMS - Recoverability in DBMS - Cascadeless in DBMS - Disadvantages of DBMS - Interesting Facts about DBMS - File Organization in DBMS \| Set 2 - Number of possible Superkeys in DBMS - Bitmap Indexing in DBMS - File Organization in DBMS \| Set 1 - Schema Integration in DBMS - Database Objects in DBMS - Log based Recovery in DBMS If you like GeeksforGeeks and would like to contribute, you can also write an article using contribute.geeksforgeeks.org or mail your article to [email protected]. See your article appearing on the GeeksforGeeks main page and help other Geeks. Please Improve this article if you find anything incorrect by clicking on the "Improve Article" button below.
Hey there, reader! In this tutorial we are going to explain how values are stored in variables as either signed or unsigned. Try to not get lost! Everything is made up of bits in the computing world, like the atom makes up the basic building blocks of everyday materials such as your computer or your house. How these bits are arranged give you a certain value. Let's take a 1-byte value for example. Each byte is made up of 8 bits, so here is what 1 byte looks like: Looking at my poorly drawn image in Paint, we can see that one byte has 8 bits from bits 0 to 7. Why start at 0, you say? Because in C (and in most things in computing), everything starts at 0 and you will see this later on. So, currently, the value is 0 because everything is 0. What the "Value" row is for is to help calculate the value of the byte. Each bit can only be 1 or 0 so if the bit is a 1, that bit contains the corresponding value in the "Value" row. Note: If you are having trouble imagining this, try referencing one of those mechanical counters except with only 1s and 0s. Let's do a simple example: What is the value of this byte? Okay, so, first of all, we get each bit that has a 1 in it. Once we know which ones are 1, all we need to do is to add the value in the "Value" row so, in this one, there are 1s in the 0th, 1st, 3rd and 5th bits. Now we need to add up their values, i.e. 32 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 43. So the value of this byte is 43. Easy. Here's a question: What is the maximum number a byte can hold? But where do these values in the "Value" row come from you ask? Looking at the "Bit" row, all we need to do to calculate the value of each bit is to exponent 2 with the bit number, i.e. 2^0 = 1, 2^1 = 2, 2^7 = 128 and so on. The reason why signed data types are half unsigned data types is because in the signed world, the highest bit, in this case, 7, is used to represent the sign (+/-). If the highest bit is 1, the value is negative. In the unsigned world, this highest bit sign representation isn't considered and that allows for an extra bit which is actually all the other bits summed together plus one and voila! Let's see this theory in some code. First we declare "num" as an int type with value 42 and you should know by now that this means num is signed by default. We also declare "uNum" as an int with value 42 but this time, we specified that it is an unsigned type. Is there any difference between the two? Let's compile and run! Note: %u is used to specify an unsigned format. Looks like they are the same, no difference at all. This time, we will change the values of the two and see what happens... The variables now hold the value of 4,000,000,000. What do you think will happen? Oops! Looks like an error has occurred! Apparently something broke and num is now some seemingly random negative value but I didn't give it this value?! What happened and why? If you guessed that the signed variable didn't have the size capacity to hold such a value then you are right. As I have previously mentioned in the last tutorial, the maximum positive value a signed integer can hold is 2^31-1, which is approximately 2,147,000,000. What this strange behavior we've just experienced is called an integer overflow meaning that the value in the variable was too great to be held and therefore "wrapped" itself back around into its negative values. Okay, let's switch from programmer mode to hacker mode for a second. A problem with integer overflows is that numbers are used for things such as counting. If a part of a program requires a certain integer variable to count something, say, the current number of loops in a loop (we will get into loops later), if the variable is compromised, it can cause some serious damage to the program because it is susceptible to infinite looping and therefore potentially denial of service. Another problem with integer overflows is concerned with buffers which can invoke a vulnerability called a buffer overflow (this is a high severity case) but we will not discuss this yet (sorry!). I will explain buffers and then buffer overflows in future tutorials. Okay, back to programmer mode. Now we should know how numbers are stored in the form of bits and the differences between signed and unsigned data types. We also learned a bit about security which is super sweet and it's only the fourth tutorial! Until next time.
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Liver, the largest gland in the body, a spongy mass of wedge-shaped lobes that has many metabolic and secretory functions. The liver secretes bile, a digestive fluid; metabolizes proteins, carbohydrates, and fats; stores glycogen, vitamins, and other substances; synthesizes blood-clotting factors; removes wastes and toxic matter from the blood; regulates blood volume; and destroys old red blood cells. Liver tissue consists of a mass of cells tunneled through with bile ducts and blood vessels. Hepatic cells make up about 60 percent of the tissue and perform more metabolic functions than any other group of cells in the body. A second group of cells, called Kupffer cells, line the smallest channels of the liver’s vascular system and play a role in blood formation, antibody production, and ingestion of foreign particles and cellular debris. Each day the liver secretes about 800 to 1,000 ml (about 1 quart) of bile, which contains bile salts needed for the digestion of fats in the diet. Bile is also the medium for excretion of certain metabolic waste products, drugs, and toxic substances. From the liver a duct system carries bile to the common bile duct, which empties into the duodenum of the small intestine and which connects with the gallbladder, where it is concentrated and stored. The presence of fat in the duodenum stimulates the flow of bile out of the gallbladder and into the small intestine. Senescent (worn-out) red blood cells are destroyed in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. A pigment, bilirubin, formed in the process of hemoglobin breakdown, is released into the bile, creating its characteristic greenish orange colour, and is excreted from the body through the intestine. The liver cells synthesize a number of enzymes. As blood flows through the liver, both from the portal vein and from the hepatic artery, the cells and enzymes are filtered. Nutrients entering the liver from the intestine are modified into forms that are usable by the body cells or are stored for future use. Fats are converted into fatty acids and then into carbohydrates or ketone bodies and transported by the blood to the tissues, where they are further metabolized. Sugars are converted into glycogen, which remains stored in the liver until it is needed for energy production; it is then reconverted into glucose and released into the bloodstream. The liver manufactures blood serum proteins, including albumin and several clotting factors, and supplies them to the blood. The liver also metabolizes nitrogenous waste products and detoxifies poisonous substances, preparing them for elimination in the urine or feces. A common sign of impaired liver function is jaundice, a yellowness of the eyes and skin arising from excessive bilirubin in the blood. Jaundice can result from an abnormally high level of red blood cell destruction (hemolytic jaundice), defective uptake or transport of bilirubin by the hepatic cells (hepatocellular jaundice), or a blockage in the bile duct system (obstructive jaundice). Failure of hepatic cells to function can result from hepatitis, cirrhosis, tumours, vascular obstruction, or poisoning. Symptoms may include weakness, low blood pressure, easy bruising and bleeding, tremor, and accumulation of fluid in the abdomen. Blood tests can reveal abnormal levels of bilirubin, cholesterol, serum proteins, urea, ammonia, and various enzymes. A specific diagnosis of a liver problem can be established by performing a needle biopsy. The liver is subject to a variety of other disorders and diseases. Abscesses can be caused by acute appendicitis; those occurring in the bile ducts may result from gallstones or may follow surgery. The parasite that causes amebic dysentery in the tropics can produce liver abscesses as well. Various other parasites prevalent in different parts of the world also infect the liver. Liver cancer is common, occurring mostly as secondary tumours originating elsewhere in the body. Glycogen-storage diseases, a group of hereditary disorders, generate a buildup of glycogen in the liver and an insufficient supply of glucose in the blood. Certain drugs may damage the liver, producing jaundice. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: human digestive system: LiverThe liver is not only the largest gland in the body but also the most complex in function. The major functions of the liver are to participate in the metabolism of protein, carbohydrates, and fat; to synthesize cholesterol and bile acids; to initiate the… pregnancy: LiverThe liver, which plays an essential role in many of the vital processes—processes as diverse as participating in the metabolism of nutriments and vitamins and the elimination of the waste products of metabolism—changes anatomically and functionally during pregnancy to meet the added load placed… animal development: The liver, pancreas, and lungsThree additional important organs develop from the endoderm: the liver, the pancreas, and the lungs. The liver develops as a ventral outgrowth of the endodermal gut just posterior to the section that eventually will become the stomach. Initially, the liver takes…
Tossing out your sheet music, and winging it with a song, is like turning off your GPS and trying to find your own way home – it can seem scary and intimidating at first (seriously, how did people live before GPS technology?), but once you step out of your comfort zone, you may find it even more rewarding than playing off the page! Learning how to improvise can give you more than just the fun of going off the beaten trail; it also has many benefits that can help you become a better musician. Start with short improvisation sessions at home, and work your way up to longer playing times, you’re sure to notice a boost to your musical prowess. Check out the numerous ways that improvising in music enhances your musical skills. 1. It trains your ears An important component of being a musician is being able to hear the music. Oftentimes, students are only taught how to read and reproduce music; but the art is much more involved than moving your fingers across the keys in a certain rhythm. Hearing the notes, and understanding how they work together, makes the tasks of playing and understanding music theory easier on students. Improvising trains your ear to hear and identify whether you’re producing the sounds you intended, or not. As students get better at this, it can also help them compose their own pieces in the future. 2. It helps you recognize patterns and scales When warming up, students often play scales from bottom to top; or, top to bottom. When music students get into a cycle of remembering which note follows another, they often fail to recognize how all the other notes on the scale interact in a musical piece. Think about the way you remember the alphabet, by singing the letters in a particular order – without singing the ABC song, can you identify whether J or H comes first? When it comes to a piece of music, it’s helpful to know how different notes sound together, whether they sit next to each other on the scale or not. Improvising helps refine scale, chord, and arpeggio concepts. It helps hone a student’s overall musical understanding. 3. It teaches students to think ahead When students read off a piece of sheet music, it’s easy to get caught up in a habit of reading note by note, as they play each note. This often results in slowing down the student’s playing, causing frustration. Improvising teaches you to plan for what’s coming next, and think about the song as a flowing, unified piece, instead of a collection of single notes. It doesn’t just make it easier to anticipate what’s to come; it teaches students to think ahead, so that when they’re reading sheet music, they can read it faster, and stay on the beat. 4. It allows for self-expression Music is meant to be a form of expression; a form of communicating emotions. Students tend to focus more on reproducing the sounds written on the page than creating emotion with their instruments. Improvisation interrupts the cycle of reproducing; helping students express their emotions, hone their talents, and develop their unique musical voices. In one study, researchers monitored the brain activity of musicians in both “play-from-memory” and improvised scenarios. They found that in when playing from memory, areas of the brain associated with problem-solving lit up. In the improvised scenarios, brain areas associated with self-expression, making up stories, and recounting memories were more active. Essentially, the areas of the brain that were active during improvisation weren’t active when musicians played songs from memory. This suggests that it’s beneficial to incorporate both types of play into a student’s learning experience. This helps them become more well-rounded musicians. 5. It fosters creativity Improvising is all about composing on the spot. It’s completely up to the student where to take the music next, giving them an outlet to work creatively with music. Creativity itself, whether through music or other art forms, comes with its own slew of benefits; studies have shown that exercising creativity can actually boost your physical and mental health. Some of the benefits of creativity include: - It gives you a sense of control over the outside world. - It provides an outlet to create something positive out of a bad experience. - It promotes abstract thinking, to come up with new (and sometimes better) solutions. - It helps you resolve conflicts. - It gives you a place to express emotions, to learn more about yourself, and to effectively work through your thoughts. - It provides a greater sense of well-being. - It helps you better understand empathy, which can help you build better relationships. All of these benefits translate to your everyday life. Creativity isn’t just about becoming a better musician; it’s about becoming a better person. 6. It can boost health Similar to the concept that creativity improves physical and mental health; researchers have also studied the effect of music improvisation on your health. They found that improvising music can have a distinct effect on well-being, separately from other musical behaviors. Engaging in improvisation exercises helps reduce stress and anxiety, which in turn can improve mental health conditions. Improvising music also has been shown to improve communication skills in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Music is an outlet to communicate and process emotions, often assisting children who have trouble processing emotions on their own. When improvising in a group, students learn how to listen to other students’ music, and communicate something back to them. 7. It reinforces listening Improvising isn’t just for solo artists; entire groups can improvise together, and even sound quite good when they have an effective leader. Group improvisation sessions reinforce how important it is to watch your conductor, and to pay attention to what the rest of the group is doing. If your musical ensemble can master the act of improvising together, then when you switch back to sheet music, the group will work much better as a whole. Group improvisation also helps students communicate with their musical peers better; which can translate to other areas of communication in life. Improvisation exercises also help promote a sense of community within a music group, which often benefits a student’s well-being outside of class. 8. It’s fun and motivating! Reading the same sheet music, day after day, can become repetitive. This may leave students feeling disengaged in their music lessons. Improvisation is always a new experience, and it oftentimes feels like a game. Because it’s fun, it acts as a good motivator for students who feel like they’re not being challenged in class, or engaging their creativity. Improvising is scary at first, as you ditch the familiar guide of the notes on your page – but even simple improvisation makes a difference! Start out small, perhaps by improvising quarter notes on a single octave scale; and continue to practice your improvisation skills, challenging yourself (or your music students) more and more each time. Whether you’re practicing on your own or teaching music to eager students, you’ll find that improvising will mold better music skills, and well-rounded, healthier musicians. Featured photo credit: www.npr.org via npr.org
✔ For students in years 7-11 Problems such as global warming and diminishing natural resources demand action from all of us. How are we going to ensure we have enough energy for generations to come? What differences can you make to the way you use energy, how is it generated, transmitted and consumed? As students, you have the creativity and education needed to solve the environmental issues of today and of the future. After all, YOU are the ones who will be most affected. Biodiversity is the most complicated and crucial aspect of our planet. Water pollution is a massive problem for us and our environment. … We need to have plants and trees to survive. … City, urban and rural areas have different and interconnected issues. There is a lot to consider in this category! Here are some interesting websites to help you generate ideas: - Climate Change (Young People’s Trust For the Environment) - National Geographic – Environment - Eco Evaluator – Water Conservation Facts - Children’s Museum Manchester – Energy and Environment - ECO Friendly Kids UK - Carbon Detectives UK - Department of Energy Climate Change - GOV.UK 2050 emission reduction target and calculator
Oedipus and Antigone are blood relatives; and as in many relatives, they have both striking similarities and minor differences. Oedipus was the son of King Laus and Queen Jocasta. Oedipus was a very strong king during his reign until the city of Thebes was struck by a plague sent by the gods. Oedipus was a strong leader and the people of Thebes were happy during his time of leadership. Oedipus had a very short temper. When Creon brought the blind profit to speak with Oedipus and the profit told Oedipus that it was he who murdered the king, Oedipus flew into a rage and blamed Creon for the crime. Another example of Oedipuss enormous temper was when the three highways met and Oedipus wanted to go ahead of an old man and his workers. Oedipus had a tantrum and killed all but one man. This is now known as modern day road rage. Antigone was the daughter/sister of the former king of Thebes, Oedipus. Antigone was a very strong woman. She stuck up for what she believed even if the consequences were harsh, such as death. Antigone was a very stubborn woman. She always fought to get her way. An example of this is when there was a direct order from the king not to bury her brother because he was fighting against the city of Thebes. Creon the king stated, Anyone that buries that person will be sent to death by stoning. She does not care about this threat and buries her brother anyway. Antigone had a lot in common with her father/brother, Oedipus. Both Oedipus and Antigone had strong personalities. Antigone showed her mental strength when going to risk her life for the burial of her brother. Oedipus showed his mental strength when he was asked a riddle from the sphinx. He also showed it when he was a prosperous king. Antigone was more even-tempered than Oedipus but they were both very stubborn people.
State of the Snake Rainbow Snake (Farancia erytrogramma) Photo Credit: J.D. Willson Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC) is celebrating 2013 as the Year of the Snake! This effort aims to raise awareness about the global status of snakes and the threats and human perceptions that contribute to their decline. As the Year of the Snake unfolds, it is the goal of PARC to educate the public about the importance of these species, their importance to our ecosystems, the value of snakes to humans, and the beauty and mystique of these animals and the places they inhabit. Log on to www.yearofthesnake.org to learn more! The Wonderful, Wild World of Snakes Snakes are one of the most fascinating groups of animals on the planet. They occur in a variety of habitats everywhere around the world with the exception of Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, Ireland, New Zealand, the Falkland Islands, Antarctica, and some smaller islands. Snakes survive in some of the most extreme environments on Earth, including inside the Arctic Circle, high in the Himalaya Mountains, Map showing the approximate deep in Amazonian rainforests, and in some of global distribution of snakes is based on: Ernst (2011) and Cogger the driest deserts. Some snakes, such as Blindet al. (1998) for terrestrial snakes snakes, Threadsnakes, and Wormsnakes, spend and Ernst (2011), Campbell (2004), most of their time underground, while some, such Phillips (2002), and Spawls (1995) as Paradise Tree Snakes (Chrysopelea paradisi), for sea snakes. live in the tree tops and have the ability to glide through the air, and others, such as Sea snakes, spend their entire lives swimming in the open ocean. Snakes can have a variety of diets, including mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, other reptiles (even other snakes, eggs), snails, insects and other invertebrates. In almost every aspect of their biology, snakes teach us amazing things about the natural world. Photo Credit: Marisa Ishimatsu Lined Coachwhip (Coluber flagellum) The Life of a Snake Foraging Snakes are either active foragers, like Indigo Snakes (Drymarchon spp.), ambush predators, such as Bushmasters (Lachesis spp.), or a combination of the two, for example Cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus).Â Snakes that are ambush predators will sit and wait, often on frequently used prey trails, and strike the prey as it passes close to them. Ambush predators often spend long periods of time on the surface in foraging postures and rely on camouflage coloration (also known as cryptic coloration) to hide themselves from potential predators and prey. Active foraging involves the snake moving regularly through an area searching for prey, and may include searching known nest sites or bedding areas. Snake species that utilize both ambush and active foraging techniques usually exhibit an ontogenetic shift in foraging strategy, with juveniles employing ambush tactics then developing an active foraging behavior as adults. Movement and Habitat Selection Movement and habitat selection vary significantly across snake species. For example, some small fossorial species (adapted for living underground) may have very small home ranges (less than a hectare), compared to large pythons that hunt sizeable mammalian prey (100s of hectares). Snakes have evolved to use a variety of approaches to moving through their habitat, including burrowing, climbing, swimming, and gliding. While habitat selection varies across the many environments snakes inhabit, it is most often related to the availablity of resources, like thermoregulation and prey availability, and to a lesser degree, competition and predation. Photo Credit: J.D. Willson Photo Credit: Manojkumar Pardeshi Indian Sand Boa (Eryx johnii) consuming prey. Eastern Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula getula), an example of an oviparous snake. Mating systems and seasons vary among snake species. Some snakes, such as Gartersnakes (Thamnophis spp.), breed in the spring, whereas others, such as some Rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp. and Sistrurus spp.), breed in the late summer and fall. Snake fertilization is internal. Males have paired hemipenes that they insert into the cloaca of the female. The hemipenes are often hooked or spiny to attach temporarily to the wall of the cloaca. There are three modes of reproduction in snakes: ovoviviparity, oviparity, and viviparity. Ovoviviparity is when the embryos develop inside eggs within the motherâ€™s body until they are close to hatching. The snakes are born live, but there is never a placental connection to the mother, and the embryos are nourished by egg yolk. Many, but not all, pit vipers are ovoviviparous. Oviparity is when the snake lays eggs, with all development occurring within the egg outside of the body of the mother. Oviparous snakes include Pythons (Python spp.), Kingsnakes (Lampropeltis spp.), Pine Snakes (Pituophis spp.), Milk Snakes (Lampropeltis spp.), and Corn Snakes (Pantherophis spp.). Finally, viviparity is the development of the embryos inside of the mother, where the mother has a connection to the young and is able to provide the embryos with nourishment and remove waste, resulting in live birth of young snakes. Viviparous snakes include Seasnakes (Pelamis spp.), Green Anacondas (Eunectes murinus), and Boa Constrictors (Boa spp.). 3 Only one-fifth of all snake species have the ability to produce venom in order to kill or subdue prey for consumption; this includes elapid, viperid, colubrid and hydrophiid snakes. Consuming a prey item that does not struggle requires less energy than eating moving prey. In addition, some snake venom contains enzymes that aid in digestion (such as Puff Adders [Bitis arietans] and Mulga or King Brown Snakes [Pseudechis australis]). All snakes within the Viperidae (such as Feaâ€™s Viper [Azemiops feae]) and Elapidae (such as Taipans [Oxyuranus spp.]) families produce venom, as do many colubrids (such as Black-headed Snakes [Tantilla spp.], Cat-eye Snakes [Leptodeira seqtentrionalis], and Boomslangs [Dispholidus typus]). Venom is produced in the venom glands and delivered to the fangs when the snake bites its prey. The venom is then either delivered through a closed canal in the center of the fangs, or flows through grooves on the fangs into the injection site. Some species, such as Indonesian Cobra (Naja sputatrix), can also spit venom in intricate patterns; however, this is primarily a defense mechanism and not a method of subduing prey. Photo Credit: Mark Danaher Eastern Coral Snake (Micrurus fulvius) Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) One distinguishing trait that separates snakes from most other reptiles is the lack of legs. Snakes can slither, climb, swim, burrowâ€Ś.but how? Here are three of the ways snakes can move terrestrially. Lateral undulation is the movement most people think of when they imagine a snake moving. The snake employs muscles, scales, and resistance points on the ground surface to move. The process starts with the snake using its muscles to bend its body, and then using the scales to push into resistance points on the ground so it can move forward. Most colubrid snakes employ this type of movement. Sidewinding is similar to lateral undulation, except that it relies more on muscle and less on scales and resistance points. The snake contracts its muscles to form an s-shape, then flings its body from side to side to move forward. With the sidewinding technique, all but two points of the snakeâ€™s body are off the ground. There is a species of snake named after this type of movement - Sidewinders (Crotalus cerastes). Reticular movement is when the snake moves straight forward by gripping the ground or rough surface with its belly scales and moving its body up and down in arches to move forward. Reticular movement is similar to the movement of an inch worm, but without legs and much less exaggerated. An example of a species that employs this type of movement is Red-tailed Boa (Boa constrictor constrictor). 4 Common Threats to Snakes Habitat Loss and Fragmentation Photo Credit: Abir Ahmed Like most species, snakes suffer from loss and fragmentation of habitat. This is possibly the greatest overall threat to snakes. All snakes are predators. They need to hunt for prey, and may move widely across a fragmented landscape. In the process, they come in contact with many physical barriers, such as roads with fast-moving traffic, open areas where no cover is available, and other hazards that contribute to their decline. Many species suffer from habitat loss. For example, the Southeastern Coastal Plain of the United States, 98% of historical Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) habitat no longer exists, causing declines in snake species such as Southern Hognose Snakes (Heterodon simus), Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus), Pinesnakes (Pituophis melanoleucus), and Eastern Indigo Snakes (Drymarchon couperi), which are listed as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). Where rainforest once covered over 14% of the Earthâ€™s surface, it now covers only 6% and is still declining, thereby affecting many species like anacondas, pythons, Golden Tree Snakes (Chrysopelea ornata), coral snakes (Micrurus spp.), Mangrove Catsnakes (Boiga dendrophila), and Bushmasters. Many of the majestic ecosystems that snakes inhabit are in decline, and what remains of these ecosystems is often very fragmented or degraded. Known for their incredible biodiversity, the loss of any patch of rainforest can result in the loss of many species, not only snakes, but lizards, frogs, insects, birds, and plants, some of which may be unique (endemic) to a single patch. Rainforest in Costa Rica. Photo Credit: Chris Jenkins Burmese Python (Python molurus bivittatus) in Bangladesh. Some snake species are so charismatic and unique that they are heavily exploited for the pet and skin trade. For example, in 1997, King Ratsnakes (Elaphe carinata) were one of the most numerous reptile imports into the United States for the pet and skin trade; China alone exported 37,425 King Ratsnakes to the U.S. that year. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) recorded the trade of three snake species in Southeast Asia, the Oriental Ratsnake (Ptyas mucosus), the Reticulated Python (Python reticulatus), and Indonesian Cobra, and determined that these species are heavily collected and exported for food, traditional medicines, skins to make fashion accessories and footwear, and for pets. Snakes are often not managed appropriately for sustainable use, unlike most game birds, mammals, and fish. Yet collection and take is often allowed for snakes for personal, commercial, and scientific purposes, sometimes without permit, or reporting requirements or collection limits on species, sex, size or geographical areas. Unregulated use and collection of wild snake species can result in undetected declines. Overcollecting is manageable threat. It is possible to implement collection regulations that still allow the sustainable use of snakes. 5 Common Threats to Snakes Disease and Parasitism Like most species, snakes can suffer from disease and parasitism both in captivity and in the wild. An example of this is the Chrysosporium fungus that is currently affecting Timber Rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) in the Northeastern United States. This sometimes-fatal fungal infection is commonly found in captive snakes, but is now being found in snakes in the wild. It is thought that the fungus causes lesions, most often on the head and face of the snake, and weakens the snakeâ€™s immune system, potentially inhibiting its ability to hunt or ingest prey. Graphic Credit: Mike Jackson Photo Credit: Heidi Hall Human persecution of snakes is rampant, particularly against venomous snakes. Many snakes are killed, regardless of whether or not they are venomous, because people tend to have an irrational fear of these creatures. It is not uncommon to hear, â€œthe only good snake is a dead snake.â€? An excellent example of the extent of human persecution against snakes involves a study conducted in Kansas, where 8 out of 10 drivers were found to intentionally hit snakelike objects placed on the road. It is critical to educate people on the value of snakes, how to identify venomous and nonvenomous species, how to avoid being bitten and, that when a snake is encountered, to leave it alone. Venomous snake species in an enclosure. Rattlesnake What?! Why? Rattlesnake Roundups are events, often held throughout the southern United States, where wild rattlesnakes are caught and collected to display. These snakes are very often killed for food, skins, or rattles, or sold to pharmaceutical companies to be milked for their venom. It is estimated that approximately 15% of the 125,000 rattlesnakes caught are killed during these events. Killing adult rattlesnakes, which is the most common age class collected for these events, can put a tremendous strain on the population, as they reach sexual maturity late in their life and may breed only once every three years. Taking adults out of the population means that fewer animals remain to reproduce. In addition, these species are collected by pouring gasoline in dens or burrows to get the rattlesnakes to come out. This method is harmful to many other species that inhabit those same refugia, including the Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia) and the federally threatened Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) and Eastern Indigo Snake (Drymarchon couperi). But there are some success stories. In 2011, the Claxton Rattlesnake Roundup in Georgia (United States) changed the tone of this event to the first ever Rattlesnake and Wildlife Festival. The event now focuses on the value and beauty of rattlesnakes and educates the public about their biology and the need for these species to 6 maintain our ecosystems! Common Threats to Snakes Invasive Species Photo Credit: Jenny Daltry The introduction of invasive species into an ecosystem can negatively impact snakes. For example, the Antiguan Racer (Alsophis antiguae), a once abundant species on Antigua in the Eastern Caribbean, is now considered â€œCritically Endangeredâ€? by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. The introduction of the predatory Asian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) and black rats (Rattus rattus) nearly decimated this species, with only 50 individuals once remaining. The Antiguan Racer Conservation Project was created to implement conservation actions to save this species, one of which was the eradication of rats and mongoose from a number of islands within the range of the snake. As of December 2012, after successful eradication efforts and a reintroduction program for this species, there are now just over 890 Antiguan Racers in the wild. The introduction of invasive plant species can also be detrimental to snake species. For example, disturbance in the sagebrush steppe ecosystem in the western United states allows for the invasion of Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), a nonnative grass. It has been found that the presence of Cheatgrass in these ecosystems reduces the numbers of small mammals, limiting prey availability for species such as the Great Basin Rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus lutosus), which can lower their body condition and affect reproduction. Global Climate Change Because snakes are ectotherms (obtaining most of their body heat from the environment), they make great indicators of climate change and how it will affect other species. Studies indicate that snakes will be negatively affected by climate change because they cannot evolve or migrate fast enough to keep up with the changes in suitable habitat. For example, a study conducted by the University of Indiana Bloomington found that, although an initial increase in temperature may expand the range of Timber Rattlesnakes in the eastern United States, a temperature increase of 6.4 degrees Celsius would eventually displace this species from its range entirely. Some species, such as the rattlesnakes of the Sky Island Mountains of southern Arizona and New Mexico, occupy a very limited area where habitat may be reduced or altered faster than these species can adapt, if they can adapt at all, while their dispersal in search of new habitats may be blocked by the inhospitable lower-elevation desert habitats surrounding the peaks. Photo Credit: Pete Oxford Antiguan racer (Alsophis antiguae). Twinspot Rattlesnake (Crotalus pricei), a rattlesnake of the Sky Islands. ervatio s n o C e k a n Few S Conserving the Lake Erie Watersnake An example of a snake conservation success story can be found in the Lake Erie Watersnake (Nerodia sipedon insularum), which was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species List in August of 2011, after being listed in 1999. Found only on the islands of Lake Erie, this species was most threatened by human persecution in the form of intentional killing and loss of habitat due to shoreline development. The federal government and state agencies implemented intensive public outreach programs aimed at educating people about the importance of this species to local ecosystems and afforded protection to the remaining habitat used by Lake Erie Watersnakes. The local community became enthusiastic about the protection of this species when informed of its importance in keeping in check populations of Round Gobies (Neogobius melanostomus), an invasive fish species in Lake Erie. Photo Credit: Beth Schlimm Respect The Snake is dedicated to educating people about the Lake Erie Water Snake (often called LEWS) through good scientific research and continued public outreach. www.respectthesnake.com Conserving the Eastern Indigo Snake The Eastern Indigo Snake was listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1978. By 2008, little had been done to conserve this species, prompting The Orianne Society to start a collaborative effort to save the Indigo. The Orianne Society brought together private stake-holders, state and federal agencies, universities, zoos, and other nonprofits for a round-table discussion to determine the conservation needs for Indigos. This effort has resulted in the development of a captive-breeding program for future reintroductions of these snakes into areas where they have been extirpated, the reintroduction of Eastern Indigos into Alabama, an extensive inventory and monitoring program for this species, identification of over 14,568 hectares of Indigo habitat to be managed and restored, and multiple research projects that are answering the critical questions needed to conserve the species. Eastern Indigo Snake (Drymarchon couperi) Conserving Armenian Vipers Viper species in Armenia, eastern Turkey, Azerbaijan, and northwest and northeast Iran, have experienced an 88% decline in the last two decades. In 2004 The Saint Louis Zooâ€™s WildCare Institute began efforts to conserve Armenian Vipers (Montivipera raddei) through the Center for Conservation in Western Asia. The Center is using radio-telemetry to study the spatial ecology and habitat use of Armenian Vipers in developed areas as well as in natural landscapes. This research has resulted in the enlargement of a State Forest Reserve and the establishment of Zangexur Sanctuary and Arevic National Park in Armenia. The Zoo plans to use its work on Armenian Vipers as a model to research the needs of other mountain vipers. Armenian Viper (Montivipera raddei) Photo Credit: Mark Wanner Snake Conservation Needs Further Research Photo Credit: Kiley Briggs In order to conserve snake species, we need to learn more about these often secretive animals. Currently, in comparison to research on other vertebrates, very few organizations or institutions do research on snake species. In addition, snakes are one of the most difficult groups of animals to study, and new techniques are needed that will allow us to effectively study or monitor snakes, especially small species and young age classes. Timber Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) with external radio transmitter. Habitat Protection and Restoration Habitat loss and fragmentation are possibly the biggest threats to snake populations globally. Direct mortality from roads, behavioral changes, and forced interactions with threats such as humans, farm equipment, and pets put snake populations at serious risk. Currently most protected land in North America is in remote areas and mountains, but much of the snake diversity occurs in lowlands, which are the areas that are often most heavily developed for cities, towns and agriculture. It is critical that we conserve, restore, and manage more snake habitat, especially the much-altered lowland areas. Photo Credit: Heidi Hall Prescribed fire can be an effective habitat restoration tool. Some rare and declining snake species simply do not have large enough populations to remain viable on their own, even if environmental conditions were suitable. In these cases, captive propagation and carefully planned reintroductions may be the only means to restore critically threatened snake species. Photo Credit: Pete Oxford Louisiana Pinesnake (Pituophis ruthveni), a species that may benefit from captive conservation efforts. Along with the occasional need for captive propagation comes the need to reintroduce snake species back into areas where they have been extirpated, particularly when habitat fragmentation and loss is so severe that it would be next to impossible for a species to naturally recolonize a portion of its historical range. It is also important to determine the effectiveness of reintroduction programs on snake populations and the suitability of a release site prior to any reintroduction effort. Reintroducing a species back into an area is ineffective when factors that caused the species to initially decline are not mitigated prior to reintroduction efforts. Photo Credit: J.D. Willson Policy and Regulations Most regulatory wildlife agencies allow various uses of snakes for personal, commercial, scientific, or educational purposes. However, many wildlife management agencies donâ€™t have adequate regulations in place to track these uses or their resulting impacts on native wild snake populations. A systematic assessment* of current regulations has been completed, and now work is needed to improve regulations on the use, import/export, and transfer of snakes. For example, Sonoran Mountain Kingsnakes (Lampropeltis pyromelana) are protected in Utah and Nevada, yet collection for personal use is allowed in Arizona and for personal and commercial use in New Mexico. Another example is the Black-necked Gartersnake (Thamnophis cyrtopsis), which is protected in Colorado, Oklahoma, and Utah, yet commercial collection is allowed in New Mexico and Texas. There are numerous examples of the need for regulations, law enforcement, associated funding and the need for states to work together to ensure the range-wide survival of these species. *Nanjappa, P. and P. Conrad, Ed. 2011. State of the Union: Legal Authority Over the Use of Native Amphibians and Reptiles in the United States. Version 1.03. Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, Washington, D.C. Sonoran Mountain Kingsnake (Lampropeltis pyromelana) Photo Credit: Shahriar Caesar Rahman Educating the public on the importance and value of snakes may be the most important conservation tool of all. The fact is, organizations and agencies can implement the best conservation actions to save a snake species, but if the public does not support or understand the effort, it cannot be effective. Human persecution of snakes is rampant, and people must be made aware of the importance (and most often, harmlessness) of snakes to make any conservation effort effective. Snake awareness and identification outreach efforts in Bangladesh. Though very few organizations actually implement snake conservation, finding funding for these types of efforts is extremely difficult. The conservation of snakes is seriously overlooked and underfunded. 10 Snakes Do A Great Deal For Us - What Can You Do For Snakes? • • • • • • • Become a member of a snake conservation group Join a herpetology club Educate the public about the need for snake conservation Work to create or protect snake habitats in your region, city, or your own backyard Submit your snake observations to the Natural Heritage Program Stay up-to-date and participate in public forums regarding snake regulations Don’t collect snakes from the wild Photo Credit: J.D. Willson Become a member of a Snake Conservation Group! Here a few suggestions: PARC The Orianne Society Center for Snake Conservation North American Field Herping Association International Reptile Conservation Foundation Or, join your local or state herpetological conservation group! Cornsnake (Pantherophis guttatus) Learn More About Endangered Snakes Read State of the Union: Legal Authority Over the Use of Native Amphibians and Reptiles in the United States (Appendix C) to learn more about what snakes are considered endangered where you live and whether or not you can collect a species: http://www.parcplace.org/images/stories/YOS/SOU_AppC_Snakes.pdf Log on to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to learn more about endangered snakes in the United States: http://www.fws.gov/endangered/ Log on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Redlist to find out more about endangered snakes globally: http://www.iucnredlist.org/ Photo Credit: Charles Peterson Nightsnake (Hypsiglena spp.) Submit Your Observations! There are many ways to submit your snake observations so that the data can be used to help conserve these species. Here are a few places you can submit data: • Project Noah: http://www.projectnoah.org/ • H.E.R.P. Database: http://www.naherp.com/ • The Center for Snake Conservation Yearly Snake Count: http://www.snakecount.org/submit-results • Or, find your state Natural Heritage Program: http://www.natureserve.org/visitLocal/ Spread the Word this Year Snakes Have Value! Ecological Value Snakes, like all other species, are an important part of their native ecosystems. Snakes act as both predator and prey, often feeding on prey such as small mammals, birds, amphibians, fish and insects. Also, snakes serve as prey for other species such as birds, other snakes, and medium-sized mammals. Removing snakes from the food-web can cause a chain of events that leads to the decline or overpopulation of other animals, which can contribute to changes in the composition and structure of vegetation, which result in an altered and often degraded ecosystem. We are only now scratching the surface of the many uses of snake venom in the world of medicine. For example, Malayan Pit Viper (Calloselasma rhodostoma) venom, in the form of a drug called Ancrod, is being used to break down blood clots. This drug could reduce or eliminate the need for surgical procedures for those who are prone to or who have already had strokes. Also, Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) snake venom shows promise in the fight against breast cancer in a drug that inhibits the development of blood vessels that supply tumor cells, retarding their growth and ability to spread. Many animals feed on snakes, but perhaps more importantly, all snakes are predators and control the populations of many species that are thought of as pests. For example, many snake species feed on rodents such as young mice and rats. These are species that reproduce rapidly and often become a problem in households and agricultural areas. Some snake species consume garden pests, such as slugs and caterpillars. Removing snakes from these ecosystems can allow pest species to overpopulate and would require more costly controls, such as chemicals and traps, to balance the system. Snakes are very aesthetically appealing, with a variety of patterns and colors and graceful movements. Imagine yourself in a rainforest in Indonesia—lush trees and the smell of the damp earth. Complete the picture with a beautiful Green Tree Python (Morelia viridis) draped over a branch, its lovely scales shimmering like emeralds. At that moment, there could be no denying the beauty of these animals and the thrill of seeing a snake wild and free in its natural habitat. In addition, because they are so important to our ecosystems, snakes often increase or maintain the aesthetic appeal of the environment they inhabit, keeping the ecosystem in balance. Just as the definition implies, snakes have intrinsic value, meaning they are important just because they are, because they belong here like all other species on our planet, and we, as fellow animals, do not have the right to take part in their decline. Snake species deserve to flourish just as all other species do, because they belong in their natural habitat. Photo Credit: Pete Oxford Educational Snakes are a great tool for teaching people the value of conservation. Children are often fascinated by snakes. Value Snakes used in educational displays evoke a great deal of emotion and can give people an opportunity to observe, touch, and interact with an animal they don’t get to see every day—and perhaps begin to lose their fear of the creatures. This creates a fantastic environment for people to learn more about and appreciate the value of these species. Snakes are also model organisms for the study of certain aspects of biology such as thermal ecology, reproductive biology, digestive physiology and foraging ecology. For more information go to www.yearofthesnake.org For all inquiries contact [email protected] Thanks to all the members of the Year of the Snake Planning Team: Heidi Hall (The Orianne Society, GA), Chris Jenkins (The Orianne Society, GA), Polly Conrad (PARC Nat’l Co-Chair; The Orianne Society, UT), Kathryn Ronnenberg (U.S. Forest Service, OR), Scott Angus (NE PARC Co-Chair), Scott Smith (Maryland Dept. of Natural Resources), Valorie Titus (Wildlife Conservation Society, WY), Carrie Elvey (Wilderness Center), Cameron Young (Center for Snake Conservation), Priya Nanjappa (PARC State Agencies Coordinator; Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies, DC) and Terry Riley (PARC Federal Agencies Coordinator; National Park Service, CO). Guatemalan Palm Viper (Bothriechis aurifer) Published on Dec 30, 2012
According to the latest NASS report, the 2019 corn crop is about 2-weeks behind normal in terms of reaching dent stage. What are the implications of this delay in grain filling period and end of season yield? We address this question by examining two key weather variables; solar radiation and temperature. Solar radiation interception is expected to be 15% lower during the dent phase in 2019 compared to past years (Fig. 1). This is because daylength, and therefore amount of solar radiation, decreases as we move from August to September. An unknown factor is the clouds during 2019 dent phase, which may compensate for the decreased radiation energy. Solar radiation is the main driver for crop photosynthesis, which for the present week is estimated at 210 lbs dry matter/acre/day for Iowa (see FACTS website). Crop photosynthesis is strongly related to corn grain accumulation, which for the present week is estimated at 4.5 bushels/acre/day for Iowa (Fig. 2). For reference, the maximum grain accumulation rate can be up to 7 bushels/acre/day. Fig 1. Average solar radiation (left panel), average daily temperature (middle panel) and minimum temperature (right panel) for central Iowa. Data points are averages over 10-day period (e.g. 5 June is the average from 1 June to 10 June). Horizontal green lines in the middle and right panel indicates the base temperature of 50oF and killing frost temperature of 32oF, respectively. Blue and red horizontal lines indicate the normal grain fill duration (blue line) and the expected 2019 grain fill duration (red line). Fig 2. Simulated current grain accumulating rates (in bushels per acre per day) across three I states. Data are from the FACTS project simulations. Temperature during the dent phase is also expected to be around 5oF lower in 2019 than past years (Fig. 1). A 2-week delay in the start of dent stage will probably delay corn maturity by 3 weeks because temperatures begin decreasing from late August to September. When crops can be expected to reach maturity this year depends on the planting date and hybrid maturity combinations. In general, crops planted before June 1 should not have an issue reaching maturity in Iowa. Historically, the average temperature will be above 50oF until October 10 for central Iowa, while the first frost likely would occur after October 20 in central Iowa, thus crops will likely make it to maturity. The key issue this year will be the dry down period for grain moisture to reach 15-20%. While it is expected that with normal fall conditions, even late planted corn will reach maturity, grain dry down will be slower resulting in wetter corn at harvest For the state of Iowa, the 2019 corn yields can be expected to be lower than the past 3 years because temperature and radiation during the grain filling period is less than would typically be expected due to later than normal planting dates. However, there is a lot of variability across the state for planting date, corn maturity, and weather conditions that will be addressed in a follow up article.
Researchers say three of Switzerland’s most iconic animal species spend more time at higher elevations each autumn than they did in the past due to climate warming.This content was published on July 1, 2017 - 15:00 An international research team led by the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL) studied data for the Swiss ibex, goat-like chamois, and red deer from 1991 to 2013. They found the animals lived an average of 135, 90 and 80 metres higher, respectively, than previously recorded. The data published in the journal Ecosphere in April came from the canton of Graubünden’s Hunting and Fishing Authority, which kept records for 230,000 locations where the species were hunted. The researchers concluded the animals took to higher elevations because of rising temperatures. In the past two decades, average temperatures in the prime hunting months of September and October rose 1.3°C in Graubünden. It’s normal for animal behaviour to vary from year to year, because of hunters, weather or climate. Dry, warmer winters make it easier on the animals, even at higher elevations. Until now, scientists found mostly reptiles and insects shifting to higher, cooler habitats in response to climate change. "This data set is unique and shows that even large, warm-blooded species react to rising ambient temperatures", said study co-author Kurt Bollmann of WSL's Conservation Biology research group in a statement on Thursday. While these data suggest that the ibex, chamois and red deer are responding behaviourally in reaction to climate change in Switzerland, it’s not yet known what the long-term consequences of such a trend might be in terms of populations. However, as study co-author Hannes Jenny of Graubünden's Hunting and Fishing Authority pointed out in a statement: “Consistent, precise and continuous documentation of kill sites is an important and valuable basis for future research on the impact of climate change on large game species”. This article was automatically imported from our old content management system. If you see any display errors, please let us know: [email protected]
Ever since our nation’s founding, the issue of equal voting rights has been central to our definition of democracy. After we fought the Civil War to end black slavery – the ultimate contradiction of living in a free republic – the country enacted the 14th and 15th amendments to the Constitution. Black people were guaranteed equal protection under the laws; black men earned the right to vote. Women too had demanded the suffrage, a battle they finally won with ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920. And in a fight waged under the slogan “one person, one vote,” the civil rights movement secured enactment of the Voting Rights Act in 1965. Finally, it seemed, America had guaranteed the right of every citizen, black or white, male or female, to have equal access to the polling place – one person, one vote. Alas, it was not true. One reason was the existence of the Electoral College, an institution that by design sought to deny one person, one vote. Almost always, this denial was connected to the issue of race. Initially, the Electoral College became part of the presidential selection system to protect the interests of slave-holding whites. Although black slaves were not citizens and could not vote, they were counted as part of the population in Southern states based on the 3/5th clause of the Constitution. So 60 percent of slaves were counted as part of the state’s population in order to expand the number of electoral votes a Southern state could cast, even though no Southern blacks could vote. The Electoral College – and race – once again played a decisive role in 1876-77. The Republican nominee, Rutherford B. Hayes, had lost the popular vote to Samuel Tilden. At that point, Hayes, despite being the nominee of the party that had fought the Civil War, proposed a deal. If the members of the Electoral College from Florida, South Carolina and Louisiana would cast their votes for Hayes, even though he had not won the popular vote in these states, Hayes pledged to remove the federal troops that had occupied the South to preserve and protect the rights of newly freed blacks, including the right to vote. Reconstruction came to an end, and the descendants of Confederate white power-brokers resumed control.
Tuberculosis is a disease caused by a bacteria (germ) that usually affects the lungs (pulmonary TB), but other parts of the body can be affected (extrapulmonary TB). Tuberculosis is spread through the air when a person with untreated pulmonary TB disease coughs or sneezes. People who breathe TB bacteria into their lungs can become infected; close contact for a long period of time is usually necessary for TB to be spread. Tuberculosis can affect anyone, including people of any age, nationality or income level. Latent Tuberculosis Infection Latent TB infection (LTBI) means TB bacteria are in the body but are not active, the person is not sick, has no TB symptoms, and cannot spread TB to others. The TB bacteria stay in the body, but for most people with LTBI, they will never become active. A tuberculin skin test (also called a Mantoux or PPD test) can show if a person has TB infection. There is also a recently licensed blood test that is used to test for LTBI in some situations. Active TB Disease Active TB disease is a serious illness that may happen shortly after the person is infected with TB, or after many years, when the body defenses are weakened. This may be the result of aging, a serious illness, drug or alcohol abuse, or HIV infection. A person with active TB disease has symptoms, and can infect other persons when he or she coughs or sneezes. The symptoms of TB include a cough that lasts a long time, fever, night sweats, constant tiredness, weight loss, loss of appetite, and/or coughing up blood. Treatment of TB People with latent TB infection should be evaluated by their doctor, or a TB clinic, have an examination and a chest x-ray taken. LTBI treatment may be prescribed, which must be taken for four to six months or longer. People with active TB disease must take treatment with at least four different TB drugs, prescribed for six months or more. TB drugs must be taken exactly the way the doctor orders. A person with TB that is not treated adequately can spread TB to other persons, can become severely ill and may even die. Directly Observed Therapy (DOT) programs are recommended for all persons with TB disease to help them complete their TB treatment. In a DOT program, a trained health care worker meets with the person with TB to help them remember to take every dose of all their medicine. Sometimes the drugs usually given for TB disease are not able to kill the TB bacteria. When this happens, it is called drug-resistant TB (also called MDR-TB). Drug-resistant TB occurs when people with active TB disease take their medicine incorrectly, or if they are not been given the right TB drugs. Although drug-resistant TB can take longer to treat, most persons can be cured. Preventing the Spread of TB The best way to stop the spread of TB is for persons with TB infection or disease to take all their TB medicine, exactly the way it is prescribed. Also, a person with active TB of the lungs should cover his or her mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing.
Migraine is a health condition that usually involves severe, throbbing headache pain and sometimes includes nausea, as well as sensitivity to light and sound. Roughly 20 per cent of migraine patients experience focal neurological symptoms, also known as aura. In general, the term focal suggests that a symptom is localised or concentrated, rather than generalised throughout the body; thus, focal migraines involve specific sensory symptoms. Focal neurological symptoms related to migraine with aura most often involve visual disturbances. Less common are a lack of sensation or a tingling in the hands or face; an altered sense of smell, taste or touch; or speech problems. Since visual problems are related to brain activity, they are noticeable in either eye and might include perception of shifting jagged lines, blurry or blind spots, or flashing lights. According to womenshealth.gov, migraines last from a few hours to a day or two. When present, focal disturbances begin 10 to 30 minutes before the migraine attack, though some people experience the aura without feeling headache pain. Treatment for focal migraines is determined by a physician on the basis of the patient's comprehensive medical history.
Pustules of leaf rust are small and circular producing a mass of orange-brown powdery spores predominantly on the upper leaf surfaces, (Figure 2.22). Later in the season pustules also develop on leaf sheaths. The pustules easily rub off on a finger. As the crop matures the pustules turn dark and produce black spores embedded in the old plant tissues. Leaf and stem rust may be confused but are distinguished by their colour and size, leaf rust being lighter coloured, smaller and rounder than stem rust. Figure 2.22 Leaf rust symptoms on barley leaf The primary source of inoculum for leaf rust is green volunteer barley plants that survive over summer. Development of leaf rust is most rapid during warm (15-20°C) moist (rain or dew) weather. Crops sown before May, when nights are still warm, are often more severely infected. The ‘Star of Bethlehem’ ( Ornithogalum umbellatum ) weed, (Figure 2.23) can also be a source of inoculum and is a host for the alternate, sexual stage of teleospores. The existence of a sexual cycle means the formation of new strains of rust can occur, increasing the occurrence of new, virulent strains that can overcome current resistances. Currently the Star of Bethlehem weed occurs in South Australia with isolated occurrences through the Victorian cropping zone. Figure 2.23 Star of Bethlehem RUSTS OF BARLEY
Blackfoot Lodge Tales, by George Bird Grinnell, , at sacred-texts.com The primitive clothing of the Blackfeet was made of the dressed skins of certain animals. Women seldom wore a head covering. Men, however, in winter generally used a cap made of the skin of some small animal, such as the antelope, wolf, badger, or coyote. As the skin from the head of these animals often formed part of the cap, the ears being left on, it made a very odd-looking head-dress. Sometimes a cap was made of the skin of some large bird, such as the sage-hen, duck, owl, or swan. The ancient dress of the women was a shirt of cowskin, with long sleeves tied at the wrist, a skirt reaching half-way from knees to ankles, and leggings tied above the knees, with sometimes a supporting string running from the belt to the leggings. In more modern times, this was modified, and a woman's dress consisted of a gown or smock, reaching from the neck to below the knees. There were no sleeves, the armholes being provided with top coverings, a sort of cape or flap, which reached to the elbows. Leggings were of course still worn. They reached to the knee, and were generally made, as was the gown, of the tanned skins of elk, deer, sheep, or antelope. Moccasins for winter use were made of buffalo robe, and of tanned buffalo cowskin for summer wear. The latter were always made with parfleche soles, which greatly increased their durability, and were often ornamented over the instep or toes with a three-pronged figure, worked in porcupine quills or beads, the three prongs representing, it is said, the three divisions or tribes of the nation. The men wore a shirt, breech-clout, leggings which reached to the thighs, and moccasins. In winter both men and women wore a robe of tanned buffalo skin, and sometimes of beaver. In summer a lighter robe was worn, made of cowskin or buckskin, from which the hair had been removed. Both sexes wore belts, which supported and confined the clothing, and to which were attached knife-sheaths and other useful articles. Necklaces and ear-rings were worn by all, and were made of shells, bone, wood, and the teeth and claws of animals. Elk tushes were highly prized, and were used for ornamenting women's dresses. A gown profusely decorated with them was worth two good horses. Eagle feathers were used by the men to make head-dresses and to ornament shields and also weapons. Small bunches of owl or grouse feathers were sometimes tied to the scalp locks. It is doubtful if the women ever took particular care of their hair. The men, however, spent a great deal of time brushing, braiding, and ornamenting their scalp locks. Their hair was usually worn in two braids, one on each side of the head. Less frequently, four braids were made, one behind and in front of each ear. Sometimes, the hair of the forehead was cut off square, and brushed straight up; and not infrequently it was made into a huge topknot and wound with otter fur. Often a slender lock, wound with brass wire or braided, hung down from one side of the forehead over the face. As a rule, the men are tall, straight, and well formed. Their features are regular, the eyes being large and well set, and the nose generally moderately large, straight, and thin. Their chests are splendidly developed. The women are quite tall for their sex, but, as a rule, not so good-looking as the men. Their hands are large, coarse, and knotted by hard labor; and they early become wrinkled and careworn. They generally have splendid constitutions. I have known them to resume work a day after childbirth; and once, when travelling, I knew a woman to halt, give birth to a child, and catch up with the camp inside of four hours. As a rule, children are hardy and vigorous. They are allowed to do about as they please from the time they are able to walk. I have often seen them playing in winter in the snow, and spinning tops on the ice, barefooted and half-naked. Under such conditions, those which have feeble constitutions soon die. Only the hardiest reach maturity and old age. It is said that very long ago the people made houses of mud, sticks, and stones. It is not known what was their size or shape, and no traces of them are known to have been found. For a very long time, the lodge seems to have been their only dwelling. In ancient times, before they had knives of metal, stones were used to hold down the edges of the lodge, to keep it from being blown away. These varied in size from six inches to a foot or more in diameter. Everywhere on the prairie, one may now see circles of these stones, and, within these circles, the smaller ones, which surrounded the fireplace. Some of them have lain so long that only the tops now project above the turf, and undoubtedly many of them are buried out of sight. Lodges were always made of tanned cowskin, nicely cut and sewn together, so as to form an almost perfect cone. At the top were two large flaps, called ears, which were kept extended or closed, according to the direction and strength of the wind, to create a draft and keep the lodge free from smoke. The lodge covering was supported by light, straight pine or spruce poles, about eighteen of which were required. Twelve cowskins made a lodge about fourteen feet in diameter at the base, and ten feet high. I have heard of a modern one which contained forty skins. It was over thirty feet in diameter, and was so heavy that the skins were sewn in two pieces which buttoned together. An average-sized dwelling of this kind contained eighteen skins and was about sixteen feet in diameter. The lower edge of the lodge proper was fastened, by wooden pegs, to within an inch or two of the ground. Inside, a lining, made of brightly painted cowskin, reached from the ground to a height of five or six feet. An air space of the thickness of the lodge polestwo or three incheswas thus left between the lining and the lodge covering, and the cold air, rushing up through it from the outside, made a draft, which aided the ears in freeing the lodge of smoke. The door was three or four feet high and was covered by a flap of skin, which hung down on the outside. Thus made, with plenty of buffalo robes for seats and bedding, and a good stock of firewood, a lodge was very comfortable, even in the coldest weather. It was not uncommon to decorate the outside of the lodge with buffalo tails and brightly painted pictures of animals. Inside, the space around was partitioned off into couches, or seats, each about six feet in length. At the foot and head of every couch, a mat, made of straight, peeled willow twigs, fastened side by side, was suspended on a tripod at an angle of forty-five degrees, so that between the couches spaces were left like an inverted V, making convenient places to store articles which were not in use. The owner of the lodge always occupied the seat or couch at the back of the lodge, directly opposite the door-way, the places on his right being occupied by his wives and daughters; though sometimes a Blackfoot had so many wives that they occupied the whole lodge. The places on his left were reserved for his sons and visitors. When a visitor entered a lodge, he was assigned a seat according to his rank,the nearer to the host, the greater the honor. Bows were generally made of ash wood, which grows east of the mountains toward the Sand Hills. When for any reason they could not obtain ash, they used the wood of the choke-cherry tree, but this had not strength nor spring enough to be of much service. I have been told also that sometimes they used hazle wood for bows. Arrows were made of shoots of the sarvis berry wood, which was straight, very heavy, and not brittle. They were smoothed and straightened by a stone implement. The grooves were made by pushing the shafts through a rib or other flat bone in which had been made a hole, circular except for one or two projections on the inside. These projections worked out the groove. The object of these grooves is said to have been to allow the blood to flow freely. Each man marked his arrows by painting them, or by some special combination of colored feathers. The arrow heads were of two kinds,barbed slender points for war, and barbless for hunting. Knives were originally made of stone, as were also war clubs, mauls, and some of the scrapers for fleshing and graining hides. Some of the flint knives were long, others short. A stick was fitted to them, forming a wooden handle. The handles of mauls and war clubs were usually made of green sticks fitted as closely as possible into a groove made in the stone, the whole being bound together by a covering of hide put on green, tightly fitted and strongly sewed. This, as it shrunk in drying, bound the different parts of the implement together in the strongest possible manner. Short, heavy spears were used, the points being of stone or bone, barbed. I have heard no explanation among the Blackfeet of the origin of fire. In ancient times, it was obtained by means of fire sticks, as described elsewhere. The starting of the spark with these sticks is said to have been hard work. At almost their first meeting with the whites, they obtained flints and steels, and learned how to use them. In ancient times,in the days of fire sticks and even later, within the memory of men now living,fire used to be carried from place to place in a "fire horn." This was a buffalo horn slung by a string over the shoulder like a powder horn. The horn was lined with moist, rotten wood, and the open end had a wooden stopper or plug fitted to it. On leaving camp in the morning, the man who carried the horn took from the fire a small live coal and put it in the horn, and on this coal placed a piece of punk, and then plugged up the horn with the stopper. The punk smouldered in this almost air-tight chamber, and, in the course of two or three hours, the man looked at it, and if it was nearly consumed, put another piece of punk in the horn. The first young men who reached the appointed camping ground would gather two or three large piles of wood in different places, and as soon as some one who carried a fire horn reached camp, he turned out his spark at one of these piles of wood, and a little blowing and nursing gave a blaze which started the fire. The other fires were kindled from this first one, and when the women reached camp and had put the lodges up, they went to these fires, and got coals with which to start those in their lodges. This custom of borrowing coals persisted up to the last days of the buffalo, and indeed may even be noticed still. The punk here mentioned is a fungus, which grows on the birch tree. The Indians used to gather this in large quantities and dry it. It was very abundant at the Touchwood Hills (whence the name) on Beaver Creek, a tributary of the Saskatchewan from the south. The Blackfeet made buckets, cups, basins, and dishes from the lining of the buffalo's paunch. This was torn off in large pieces, and was stretched over a flattened willow or cherry hoop at the bottom and top. These hoops were sometimes inside and sometimes outside the bucket or dish. In the latter case, the hoop at the bottom was often sewed to the paunch, which came down over it, double on the outside, the needle holes being pitched with gum or tallow. The hoop at the upper edge was also sewed to the paunch, and a rawhide bail passed under it, to carry it by. These buckets were shaped somewhat like our wooden ones, and were of different sizes, some of them holding four or five gallons. They were more or less flexible, and when carried in a pack, they could be flattened down like a crush hat, and so took up but little room. If set on the ground when full, they would stand up for a while, but as they soon softened and fell down, they were usually hung up by the bail on a little tripod. Cups were made in the same way as buckets, but on a smaller scale and without the bail. Of course, nothing hot could be placed in these vessels. It is doubtful if the Blackfeet ever made any pottery or basket ware. They, however, made bowls and kettles of stone. There is an ancient children's song which consists of a series of questions asked an elk, and its replies to the same. In one place, the questioner sings, "Elk, what is your bowl (or dish)?" and the elk answers, "Ok-wi-tok-so-ka," stone bowl. On this point, Wolf Calf, a very old man, states that in early days the Blackfeet sometimes boiled their meat in a stone bowl made out of a hard clayey rock. 1 Choosing a fragment of the right size and shape, they would pound it with another heavier rock, dealing light blows until a hollow had been made in the top. This hollow was made deeper by pounding and grinding; and when it was deep enough, they put water in it, and set it on the fire, and the water would boil. These pots were strong and would last a long time. I do not remember that any other tribe of Plains Indians made such stone bowls or mortars, though, of course, they were commonly made, and in singular perfection, by the Pacific Coast tribes; and I have known of rare cases in which basalt mortars and small soapstone ollas have been found on the central plateau of the continent in southern Wyoming. These articles, however, had no doubt been obtained by trade from Western tribes. Serviceable ladles and spoons were made of wood and of buffalo and mountain sheep horn. Basins or flat dishes were sometimes made of mountain sheep horn, boiled, split, and flattened, and also of split buffalo horn, fitted and sewn together with sinew, making a flaring, saucer-shaped dish. These were used as plates or eating dishes. Of course, they leaked a little, for the joints were not tight. Wooden bowls and dishes were made from knots and protuberances of trees, dug out and smoothed by fire and the knife or by the latter alone. It is not known that these people ever made spears, hooks, or other implements for capturing fish. They appear never to have used boats of any kind, not even "bull boats." Their highest idea of navigation was to lash together a few sticks or logs, on which to transport their possessions across a river. Red, brown, yellow, and white paints were made by burning clays of these colors, which were then pulverized and mixed with a little grease. Black paint was made of charred wood. Bags and sacks were made of parfleche, usually ornamented with buckskin fringe, and painted with various designs in bright colors. Figures having sharp angles are most common. The diet of the Blackfeet was more varied than one would think. Large quantities of sarvis berries (Amelanchier alnifolia) were gathered whenever there was a crop (which occurs every other year), dried, and stored for future use. These were gathered by women, who collected the branches laden with ripe fruit, and beat them over a robe spread upon the ground. Choke-cherries were also gathered when ripe, and pounded up, stones and all. A bushel of the fruit, after being pounded up and dried, was reduced to a very small quantity. This food was sometimes eaten by itself, but more often was used to flavor soups and to mix with pemmican. Bull berries (Shepherdia argentea) were a favorite fruit, and were gathered in large quantities, as was also the white berry of the red willow. This last is an exceedingly bitter, acrid fruit, and to the taste of most white men wholly unpleasant and repugnant. The Blackfeet, however, are very fond of it; perhaps because it contains some property necessary to the nourishment of the body, which is lacking in their every-day food. The camas root, which grows abundantly in certain localities on the east slope of the Rockies, was also dug, cooked, and dried. The bulbs were roasted in pits, as by the Indians on the west side of the Rocky Mountains, the Kalispels, and others. It is gathered while in the bloomJune 15 to July 15. A large pit is dug in which a hot fire is built, the bottom being first lined with flat stones. After keeping up this fire for several hours, until the stones and earth are thoroughly heated, the coals and ashes are removed. The pit is then lined with grass, and is filled almost to the top with camas bulbs. Over these, grass is laid, then twigs, and then earth to a depth of four inches. On this a fire is built, which is kept up for from one to three days, according to the quantity of the bulbs in the pit. When the pit is opened, the small children gather about it to suck the syrup, which has collected on the twigs and grass, and which is very sweet. The fresh-roasted camas tastes something like a roasted chestnut, with a little of the flavor of the sweet potato. After being cooked, the roots are spread out in the sun to dry, and are then put in sacks to be stored away. Sometimes a few are pounded up with sarvis berries, and dried. Bitter-root is gathered, dried, and boiled with a little sugar. It is a slender root, an inch or two long and as thick as a goose quill, white in color, and looking like short lengths of spaghetti. It is very starchy. In the spring, a certain root called mats was eaten in great quantities. This plant was known to the early French employees of the Hudson's Bay and American Fur Companies as pomme blanche (Psoralea esculenta). All parts of such animals as the buffalo, elk, deer, etc., were eaten, save only the lungs, gall, and one or two other organs. A favorite way of eating the paunch or stomach was in the raw state. Liver, too, was sometimes eaten raw. The unborn calf of a fresh-killed animal, especially buffalo, was considered a great delicacy. The meat of this, when boiled, is white, tasteless, and insipid. The small intestines of the buffalo were sometimes dried, but more often were stuffed with long, thin strips of meat. During the stuffing process, the entrail was turned inside out, thus confining with the meat the sweet white fat that covers the intestine. The next step was to roast it a little, after which the ends were tied to prevent the escape of the juices, and it was thoroughly boiled in water. This is a very great delicacy, and when properly prepared is equally appreciated by whites and Indians. As a rule, there were but two ways of cooking meat,boiling and roasting. If roasted, it was thoroughly cooked; but if boiled, it was only left in the water long enough to lose the red color, say five or ten minutes. Before they got kettles from the whites, the Blackfeet often boiled meat in a green hide. A hole was dug in the ground, and the skin, flesh side up, was laid in it, being supported about the edges of the hole by pegs. The meat and water having been placed in this hollow, red-hot stones were dropped in the water until it became hot and the meat was cooked. In time of plenty, great quantities of dried meat were prepared for use when fresh meat could not be obtained. In making dried meat, the thicker parts of an animal were cut in large, thin sheets and hung in the sun to dry. If the weather was not fine, the meat was often hung up on lines or scaffolds in the upper part of the lodge. When properly cured and if of good quality, the sheets were about one-fourth of an inch thick and very brittle. The back fat of the buffalo was also dried, and eaten with the meat as we eat butter with bread. Pemmican was made of the flesh of the buffalo. The meat was dried in the usual way; and, for this use, only lean meat, such as the hams, loin, and shoulders, was chosen. When the time came for making the pemmican, two large fires were built of dry quaking aspen wood, and these were allowed to burn down to red coals. The old women brought the dried meat to these fires, and the sheets of meat were thrown on the coals of one of them, allowed to heat through, turned to keep them from burning, and then thrown on the flesh side of a dry hide, that lay on the ground near by. After a time, the roasting of this dried meat caused a smoke to rise from the fire in use, which gave the meat a bitter taste, if cooked in it. They then turned to the other fire, and used that until the first one had burned clear again. After enough of the roasted meat had been thrown on the hide, it was flailed out with sticks, and being very brittle was easily broken up, and made small. It was constantly stirred and pounded until it was all fine. Meantime, the tallow of the buffalo had been melted in a large kettle, and the pemmican bags prepared. These were made of bull's hide, and were in two pieces, cut oblong, and with the corners rounded off. Two such pieces sewed together made a bag which would hold one hundred pounds. The pounded meat and tallowthe latter just beginning to coolwere put in a trough made of bull's hide, a wooden spade being used to stir the mixture. After it was thoroughly mixed, it was shovelled into one of the sacks, held open, and rammed down and packed tight with a big stick, every effort being made to expel all the air. When the bag was full and packed as tight as possible, it was sewn up. It was then put on the ground, and the women jumped on it to make it still more tight and solid. It was then laid away in the sun to cool and dry. It usually took the meat of two cows to make a bag of one hundred pounds; a very large bull might make a sack of from eighty to one hundred pounds. A much finer grade of pemmican was made from the choicest parts of the buffalo with marrow fat. To this dried berries and pounded choke-cherries were added, making a delicious food, which was extremely nutritious. Pemmican was eaten either dry as it came from the sack, or stewed with water. In the spring, the people had great feasts of the eggs of ducks and other water-fowl. A large quantity having been gathered, a hole was dug in the ground, and a little water put in it. At short intervals above the water, platforms of sticks were built, on which the eggs were laid. A smaller hole was dug at one side of the large hole, slanting into the bottom of it. When all was ready, the top of the larger hole was covered with mud, laid upon cross sticks, and red-hot stones were dropped into the slant, when they rolled down into the water, heating it, and so cooking the eggs by steam. Fish were seldom eaten by these people in early days, but now they seem very fond of them. Turtles, frogs, and lizards are considered creatures of evil, and are never eaten. Dogs, considered a great delicacy by the Crees, Gros Ventres, Sioux, Assinaboines, and other surrounding tribes, were never eaten by the Blackfeet. No religious motive is assigned for this abstinence. I once heard a Piegan say that it was wrong to eat dogs. "They are our true friends," he said. "Men say they are our friends and then turn against us, but our dogs are always true. They mourn when we are absent, and are always glad when we return. They keep watch for us in the night when we sleep. So pity the poor dogs." Snakes, grasshoppers, worms, and other insects were never eaten. Salt was an unknown condiment. Many are now very fond of it, but I know a number, especially old people, who never eat it. 202:1 See The Blackfoot Genesis, p. 141.
Milkweed Asclepias syriaca, A. cornuti - Common Names - Botanical Name - Asclepias syriaca, A. cornuti Medicinal Uses & Benefits of Milkweed How to Use: Milkweed All the plant members of the milkweed family have similar properties, however, milkweed, Asclepias syriaca is better known as the preferred food of the milkweed butterfly (Danaus plexippus.) Milkweeds secrete latex containing cardiac glycosides that are medicinally valuable in the treatment of heart disease. This same latex is an old home remedy for warts. These compounds are also part of a chemical defense that the butterflies deploy against birds who would prey on them, explaining in part their fascination with these plants. 1 Preparation Methods & Dosage : “One cannot stay long around a patch of milkweeds without seeing the monarch butterfly (Anosia plexippus), that splendid, bright, reddish-brown winged fellow, the border and veins broadly black, with two rows of white spot on the outer borders and two rows of pale spots across the tip of the fore wings. Like the dandelion, thistle, and other triumphant struggles for survival, the milkweed sends its offspring adrift on the winds to found fresh colonies afar. From eastern Massachusetts to Virginia, and westward to the Mississippi, or beyond, it is to be found in dry fields, woods, and thickets. (Netje Blanchan. "Wild Flowers Worth Knowing". (1917)) “ On the first of November, when Mexicans celebrate a holiday called the Day of the Dead, some also celebrate the millions of monarch butterflies that, without fail, fly to the mountainous fir forests of central Mexico on that day. They are believed to be souls of the dead, returned. This year, for or the first time in memory, the monarch butterflies didn't come, at least not on the Day of the Dead. They began to straggle in a week later than usual, in record-low numbers. Last year's low of 60 million now seems great compared with the fewer than three million that have shown up so far this year. Some experts fear that the spectacular migration could be near collapse. Jim Robbins The contrast between these two descriptions of the iconic monarch butterfly in our American landscape makes clear how much has been lost. We notice the monarch and bees because they are iconic insects, But what do you think is happening to everything else? A major cause is farming with Roundup, a herbicide that kills virtually all plants except crops that are genetically modified to survive it. As a result, millions of acres of native plants, especially milkweed, an important source of nectar for many species, and vital for monarch butterfly larvae, have been wiped out. One study showed that Iowa has lost almost 60 percent of its milkweed, and another found 90 percent was gone. The agricultural landscape has been sterilized. You can help! Become an active participant now. Make a difference today. It all starts with one seed...and you to plant it. Live Monarach History and Traditions & Folklore The milkweeds (Asclepias)were named for Aesculapius, who is said to have learned his knowledge of healing from an apprenticeship to Cheiron, the centaur whose herbal and medical skills came directly from Apollo. - Hoffmann, David (2010-12-15). Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine (p. 34). Healing Arts Press.
Top 5 Ways to Go Green in the Classroom Go green in your classroom with one of these five teacher-suggested lesson plans and other activities. PreK–K, 1–2, 3–5, 6–8 Our “Go Green” winners this month showed that many teachers are thinking seriously about the environment and are aware of the consequences of not going green. When teachers help students understand the importance of saving our resources and protecting the environment, kids will carry those “green” values into adulthood. With a little help from teachers and other adults who care, these kids are going to change the world we live in for the better. As always, we thank all who sent in their ideas, and we invite you to submit new ideas for the latest contest topic. 1. Water Conservation Unit Susan Delago, Grade 4, Spring Creek Elementary School, Florida Our region has been under one of the worst droughts we have had in many years. Therefore, we have spent considerable amounts of time studying the effects of water quality, water quantity and availability in our state, and water conservation. When our county began instituting and enforcing water restrictions, I began demonstrations on statistics of fresh water availability throughout the world, using fractions in my demonstration. This led into discussions and demonstrations of aquifers and sources of fresh water in our state. We examined each step of the water cycle and learned about naturally purifying water as it percolates through the different layers of soil and rock on its way to the aquifers. The unit continued with a simulation I found on the National Energy Foundation website about water usage and conservation. In the story, students became detectives who had to find out how many people were living in the landlady's apartment. The landlady had specified that four was the maximum number of occupants allowed, but the water bill for the particular month in question was very high. In order to determine what average water usage would be, students completed the math operations using scientific inquiry. Math was integrated using measurement, including: frequency, tables for data, volume, fractions, customary measurement, and metric measurement. Students used a tally sheet to gather data about the water used in their households on a daily basis. Using this raw data, students calculated the total number of gallons of water used daily in their homes and the average number of gallons of water used per person, per day. We then compiled and compared all of the data and made specific connections between results, like mean and mode. These figures were used to "solve" the mystery and make hypotheses about the number of people living in the landlady's apartment. Next, students planned how they, as individuals, would save water and created reports that were shared with the class. Finally, students designed illustrations and interactive questions for a bulletin board in a main school hallway to impact the learning of others about the importance of water conservation. I think the crucial moment for student understanding happened when they were deciding what to feature on their bulletin board. Students had brought in gallon milk and water jugs to be used during instruction of volume as related to gallons of water. At one point during the compiling and synthesizing of the water usage data, I put ten, one-gallon jugs on the desks in front of the group that was in the middle of the classroom. The students were amazed that the ten jugs equated to approximately one sixth of our class' average daily water usage they had just calculated. They all realized then, that if this demonstration had made such a big impact on our class, it would affect the others in the school as well. This is how they decided to put the gallon jugs on the bulletin board: 65, for our class' average gallons of water used, per person, per day. In this way, students realized they could make an impact on the lives of others by sharing what they've learned. This indeed happened, as many adults and students expressed their surprise at this average, after seeing the students' bulletin board. 2. A School-Wide Initiative Katherine Mundorf, 5th grade, Cathedral Elementary School, North Carolina Our 5th grade class has taken the month of April for our service project month. We are focusing on encouraging our students and families to help the environment and protect what has been given to us. Below you will find all of our activities that will be implemented in our class as well as school wide. - Reading for the Rainforest (ClassroomsCare) - A speaker from the Wake County Department of Solid Waste will speak to us on recycling. - Our class will take the information from the speaker and create commercials to be presented at lunch to our other students in the school. They will talk about recycling, water conservation, Earth Day, GO GREEN, etc. - Our school will have a PAPER Recycling challenge in which each classroom will receive a recycling bin and the students will log the weight of paper collected on a bar chart. - During Earth Day week students will create creatures made out of trash and turn it into something useable such as a pencil holder, a letter holder, etc. This TWIST ON TRASH exhibit will be in our school hall for others to see and learn how they can GO GREEN at home with their trash. - Also, during Earth Day our school will collect flowers to use to beautify our school and classrooms while wearing green to accessorize our uniforms to celebrate. Students will be handing out stickers that were created for each student. - Finally, we will announce how much paper our school has collected and how that helps save our environment and our world. Students will send home information for families via our Friday Newsletters in all grades. Student written work about the environment, GO GREEN, etc will be published. We hope to encourage our school to GO GREEN for a lifetime. 3. Start a Recycling Program Charlene Endicott, Flemingsburg Elementary School, Kentucky Our school did not have a recycling program so our class decided to start one. We contacted the city to have recycled bins delivered. We placed the bins throughout our school. I emailed each teacher to let them know about our bins. We have juice and water sales on Friday afternoons and encouraged everyone to deposit their plastic bottles in the recycle bins. Paper and cardboard boxes are also recycled. My class is in charge of putting the bins out twice a week. They are all excited about it and have encouraged their parents to get recycling bins at home. Our class also made a pledge with parents to replace any light bulb that goes out in their home with a new energy efficient bulb. The students are now thinking of other ways to go green. 4. Students Solve the Plastic Problem Kara Fucci, 4th grade, Franklin Elementary School, Massachusetts This is my first year of teaching and I am blessed to teach a very dedicated and enthusiastic group of 4th graders who are very interested in "going green" and preserving the environment. They inspired quite a movement in our classroom and in our school. My class was discouraged that we were throwing away so much plastic during our snack and lunch times. Our school has a paper recycling program, but does not incorporate plastics. Time went on and we decided to take action. My students brainstormed ideas to decide how to best deal with our plastic problem. We decided to set up our own recycling center. We have a place to store cleaned out bottles and yogurt containers. We also have a place for cardboard, books and miscellaneous paper. Every Friday we weigh the paper that we have collected. We also count the bottles and containers we recycle. We graph this information and keep track of our progress. Students volunteer to take the plastics home each week to recycle it with their home recycling. More importantly, my class has headed a movement in our school. I have begun to take the steps to start a school-wide plastics recycling program that will begin in May. My students will be traveling to classrooms to educate the student population of the program and explain how they can help. My students will also help to collect the schools recycling and bring it to the curb. I am so happy my students have helped (and motivated!) me to begin this project. Our classroom has become a place to share ideas and information about global issues. 5. Raise Monarch Butterflies Sarah Mulhern, Pine Brook Elementary School, New Jersey After participating in an amazing summer workshop called "Teaching with Monarch Butterflies," I begin each year with a study of Monarch butterflies. While I don't preach the ideals of "living green" to my students, it becomes second nature after this unit of study. My students become aware of the relationships between themselves and their surrounding environment and how small actions can affect these relationships negatively and positively. We raise monarch caterpillars in our classroom, on milkweed plants that we find in our neighborhood. The caterpillars are also from eggs we find outside. (As a class, we discuss why buying caterpillar eggs is an unhealthy practice and how these lab-bred specimens can harm the wild population). Throughout the month of September we observe our cats and wrote about each stage of the metamorphosis from a microscopic egg, through the larval, pupal and finally butterfly stages of life. During the months of September and October we raised and released almost 30 monarchs. We also tagged a few in conjunction with the University of Kansas Etymology Department's Monarch tagging program. We follow the trans-continental migration via the web as the Monarchs leave their summer homes way up in the northern Provinces of Canada, migrate down along the east coast through New Jersey on their way to their final overwintering sites in the Monarch Sanctuaries of Sierra Chincua, El Rosario and Pelon, high up in the Trans-Volcanic range in the central Mexican State of Michoacan. Why do we study the monarchs? Imagine this... these Monarchs have never been to Mexico. They are the great-great-great grandchildren of the Monarchs who overwintered in Mexico last year. Yet... somehow, something tells them to stop mating in late August and early September and their instinct tells them to begin flying south to a place they have never been before, but to where every 4th to 5th generation has gone for thousands of years, back to the earliest know settlers of central Mexico at Teotihuacan. It is truly an amazing mystery as to how the Monarchs are able to fly, in some cases, over 2,400 miles across a continent to a place they have never been. As you see, Monarch butterflies are not only insects, they carry a long legacy of connecting 3 nations; Canada, the United States and Mexico. They also symbolize a re-birth to the Mexican people as well as are worldwide symbols of peace and understanding and beauty. Monarchs are also symbols of an indomitable spirit that allows them to migrate extremely long distances over very rough terrain to a place they have never been before. They are also an inspiration to writers throughout the world. We hope to be inspired by them as we continue to build our global community this year. Finally, monarchs are an inspiration to "live green". Throughout the year, we learn about global warming, deforestation, and lawn practices/ gardening from our monarchs. Global warming is a serious threat to the monarch migration through its affect on weather and climate in the monarch winter sanctuaries in Mexico. In January 2002, close to 80% of the Mexico overwintering monarchs were killed by a severe winter storm. This storm was abnormal for the area and many scientists blame it on global warming. While monarchs themselves are not endangered, their miraculous migration is. Because of their hands-on experience with the monarchs, students are inspired to take care of their earth and want to convince the adults around them to do the same. In regards to deforestation, the monarchs migrate to a small area of oyamel fir forests in Mexico. Sadly, this area is under threat from illegal loggers. A study of monarchs inevitably leads to the topic of deforestation and what we can do to help. According to statistics, every American consumes approximately 700 pounds of paper per year; every 10% of recovered waste paper saves a million acres of forest from being cut. Statistics like this inspire my students to recycle throughout the year. Finally, our monarchs teach us a lot of lawn and gardening practices in the US. The United States produces more grass than almost any other crop- and lawn is useless! Lawns destroy natural diversity (due to chemicals) and diversity is necessary for nature's survival. Our study of monarchs produces heartfelt persuasive letters to newspapers and town officials, seeking the protection of fields and forests. Students are aware of overdevelopment and the effects on the environment. Our monarch butterflies inspire not only our class, but our entire school. They are a tangible connection to the natural world and their miraculous migration begs to be preserved. We live green because we must if we want to save our butterflies!
Over the past 50 years, the use and disposal of plastic has increased dramatically, causing a world-wide pollution issue. The use of plastic is attractive because it is lightweight, strong, water-resistant and inexpensive, but it is coming at a very high cost. It is estimated that at this rate, by 2050, we are expected to accumulate more plastic than fish by weight. Over a third of plastic packaging does not make it to a collection system and ends up polluting oceans and clogging infrastructure. The degrading process for plastic is extremely slow, and the majority of the world’s glutinous consumption of plastic has led to the over pollution of our lands and oceans. When plastic breaks down into smaller particles, it’s toxins and material are consumed by animals, contaminating food chains and environments. There are ways to help reduce your plastic usage: - Use less disposable plastics - Avoid microbeads - Purchase items secondhand - Support and encourage bag taxes or bans - Buy in bulk - Bring your own bags and containers while shopping or dining - Reuse durable, non-toxic plastic for as long as you can - Put pressure on manufacturers and governments to help make change
A String is a sequence of characters. In older versions of Python a character was represented by a 7-bit ASCII code. The 7 bits allowed us to represent 128 unique characters. This was sufficient to represent all the upper and lower case letters of the alphabet of English, all the punctuation marks, and digits. There were even enough symbols left over to represent control characters that could represent end of line, or spaces and tabs. The 7 bits were padded to the left by a single 0 bit and a character came to be represented by a byte. Since computer programming is an international activity, the letters in the alphabet of other languages had to be included. In the newer versions of Python, characters are represented by 16 bit Unicode. ASCII forms a subset of Unicode. A string literal is defined within single or double quotes. firstName = 'Alan' lastName = "Turing"To read string input from the console, the function raw_input() has to be used. You can also use the function input() provided you supply the quotation marks in your input. name = raw_input ("What is your name? ") print name What is your name? Alan Turing Alan Turing OR name = input ("What is your name? ") print name What is your name? "Alan Turing" Alan Turing You can think of a string as a sequence of characters. The length of a string is given by the operator len. The length gives the number of characters in a string including blank spaces. The index of a character in a string gives its position in the string where the first character has an index of 0 and the last character has an index of (length - 1). Python also allows for negative indexing. The index -1 represents the last character, and the index -2 represents the last but one character, and so on. You can use a for loop to iterate through the string one character at a time. str = "Hello World" print str print str[-5] print len (str) for ch in str: print ch, r W 11 H e l l o W o r l d The + symbol is the concatenation operator. And the * symbol is the repetition operator. str = "spam" + "a" + "lot" print str str = 2 * "spam" + "a" + "lot" * 3 print str spamalot spamspamalotlotlot You can slice a string into substrings. Python provides an easy way to slice strings. You must provide the starting index and the ending index, like so: start = 2 end = 9 subStr = str[start:end]The substring that Python returns will contain all the characters from the start index and up to but not including the character at the end index. If you omit the start index then Python will return all the characters starting with the first character. If you omit the end index, then Python will return all the characters to the end of the original string. Python has an extensive number of string functions that are stored in a string library. To use these functions, this library has to be included in your program. You can do this explicitly by writing the following statement at the very beginning of your program: import stringHere is the actual reference to the string library. \|capitalize()\|\|Returns a copy of the string with only its first character capitalized.\| \|center (width)\|\|Returns a copy of the string centered in another string of length width.\| \|count (sub)\|\|Returns the number of occurrences of substring sub.\| \|endswith (suffix)\|\|Returns True if the string ends with the specified suffix and False otherwise.\| \|find (sub)\|\|Returns the lowest index in the string where the substring sub is found and -1 if it is not found.\| \|isalnum ()\|\|Returns True if all the characters are alphanumeric and there is at least one character, and False otherwise.\| \|isalpha ()\|\|Returns True if all the characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least one character, and False otherwise.\| \|isdigit ()\|\|Returns True if all the characters in the string are digits and there is at least one character, and False otherwise.\| \|islower ()\|\|Returns True if all alphabetic charactes are in lower case, and there is at least one character, and False otherwise.\| \|isspace ()\|\|Returns True if there are only white space characters, and there is at least one character, and False otherwise.\| \|isupper ()\|\|Returns True if all alphabetic characters are in upper case and there is at least one character, and False otherwise.\| \|join (seq)\|\|Returns a string that is a concatenation of elements of the sequence seq.\| \|ljust (width)\|\|Returns a string of length width with the original string left justified in it.\| \|lower ()\|\|Returns a copy of the string converted to lowercase.\| \|lstrip ()\|\|Returns a string with leading whitepace characters removed.\| \|replace (old, new)\|\|Returns a copy of the string with all occurences of the substring old replaced with new.\| \|rfind (sub)\|\|Returns the highest index in the string where substring sub is found and -1 if the substring is not found.\| \|split ([sep])\|\|Returns a list of substrings of the string using the sep as the delimiter.\| \|startswith (prefix)\|\|Returns True if the string starts with the prefix and False otherwise.\| \|strip ()\|\|Returns a copy of the string with the leading and trailing characters removed.\| \|swapcase ()\|\|Returns a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lower case and vice versa.\| \|upper ()\|\|Returns a copy of the string converted to uppercase.\| Strings are immutable, i.e. once created they cannot be changed. Even though you have functions like replace() that give the appearance of changing characters in a string, the reality is that the original string is untouched and new copy with the replacements is returned. If the orginal variable is assigned the address of the new string, then the space in memory occupied by the old string is reclaimed by the garbage collector. Internally, the characters in a string are represented in binary code. Python allows you to get the numerical value of that binary code using the function ord(). It also allows you to convert a valid numerical value to a character using the chr() function. print ord ('5') print chr (75) 53 KYou can also force Python to evaluate a string as if it were an expression by using the eval() function. For example, "2 + 3" is a string. However, doing eval ("2 + 3") will return the result of the expression 2 + 3, i.e. 5. Similarly you can convert an expression into a string by using the str() function. To convert the literal floating point number 3.14 into a string you do str (3.14). The % symbol in arithmetic operations represents the modulo or remainder operation. The % operator is also used to indicate the format in which an output is going to be printed out. The general syntax for formatted output is as follows: format-string % (val1, .., valn)The format-string not only has the specifications for the each of the variables but also any additional output that you would like to add. The placement and number of format specifications must match the order and number of variables that you wish to print. The general form of a format specifier is: % [flag][width][precision] typeEach format specifier must start with the % sign, followed by an optional flag, width field, and an optional precision that begins with a period. The type is not optional. Since width is the amount of space (measured in number of characters) that will be allocated to print out a variable, if the width denoted is smaller than needed, Python will expand the width to use just the right amount of space. When you do not know the size of the variable to be printed it is best to give the width a value of 0. When the width is larger than the number of characters to be printed out, the value of the variable is right justified. To fill the empty spaces to the left with zeroes on the left add a 0 flag to the left of the width. To left justify place a negative sign as a flag before the width. The flags are: \|#\|\|Value conversion will use alternate form.\| \|+\|\|The sign character (+ or -) will precede the value\| The conversion types are: \|d or i\|\|Signed integer decimal\| \|x or X\|\|Unsigned hexadecimal (lower / upper case)\| \|e or E\|\|Floating point exponential format\| \|f or F\|\|Floating point decimal format\| \|g or G\|\|Floating point format. Uses exponential format if less than precision and decimal format otherwise\| x = 1234 >> print "The value of x is %4d." % (x) The value of x is 1234. >> print "The value of x is %+-6d." % (x) The value of x is +1234 . >> print "The value of x is %4o in octal." % (x) The value of x is 2322 in octal. >> print "The value of x is %0x in hex." % (x) The value of x is 4d2 in hex. pi = 3.14159265358979323846 >> print "pi is %0.4f" % (pi) pi is 3.1416 >> print "pi is %0.4e" % (pi) pi is 3.1416e+00 >> print "pi is %0.7g" % (pi) pi is 3.141593 >> print "sigma is %0.4g" % (sigma) sigma is 5.671e-05 ch = 97 >> print "The character is \"%c\"" % (ch) The character is "a" lumberJack = "Michael Palin" >> print "%s gave one rendition of the Lumberjack Song." % (lumberJack) Michael Palin gave one rendition of the Lumberjack Song.
'HAVING THIN SKIN' ‘I am often told that I should grow a thicker skin. I’m too sensitive. I let things get to me too much.’ What is thick/thin boundaries? The Boundaries in the mind concept, developed by Ernest Hartmann, offers an angle from which we can understand individual differences in sensitivity. Boundaries in the mind is a concept that characterises the way a person operates in the world, particularly how that person handles energies and feeling tone of his or her surroundings: To what extent are stimuli “let in” or “kept out”? How are a person’s feelings processed internally? Quoting Hartmann’s words: “There are people who strike us as very solid and well organized; they keep everything in its place. They are well defended. They seem rigid, even armoured; we sometimes speak of them as “thick-skinned. At the other extreme are people who are especially sensitive, open, or vulnerable. In their minds, things are relatively fluid… such people have particularly thin boundaries.” To recap, people with thin boundary are highly sensitive, and may demonstrate the following from an early age: - Reacting more strongly to sensory stimuli and can become agitated due to bright lights, loud sounds, particular aromas, tastes or textures. - Responding more strongly to physical and emotional pain in themselves as well as in others. - Becoming stressed or fatigued due to an overload of sensory or emotional input. - Be more allergic and have immune systems that are more reactive. - Be more deeply affected by events during childhood. People with thick boundaries, in contrast, are often described as stolid or thick skinned, they may have tendency to: - Brush aside upsetting emotions, in order to solve the problems at hand or to get practical matters in order. - Have less apparent mood swings, are slower to recognise how and what they are feeling. - Less sensitive towards subtle changes or nuances in their environment. - May experience an ongoing sense of detachment and sometimes emptiness. - It is worth pointing out that people with thick boundaries experiences are affected by feelings as much as people with thin boundaries. This was indicated by bodily signals such as heart rates, blood pressure, hand temperature and tension in experiments. Who has thick/thin boundaries? Since its discovery in the 1980s, at least 5,000 people have taken Hartmann’s Boundary Questionnaire (BQ) and more than 100 published papers have referenced it. Research is mounting to build a picture of issues and symptoms that are associated with the ‘thickness’ of mind-boundaries. Interestingly, significantly thinner boundaries were found in the following population: - art students (Beal, 1989, Hartmann, 1991) - music students - mixed groups of creative persons (Beal, 1989) - frequent dream recallers (Hartmann, 1991, Hartmann Elkin, & Garg 1991) - adults and adolescents with nightmares (Hartmann, 1991, Levin, Galin, & Zywiak 1991; Galvin, 1993) - male and female fashion models (Ryan 2000) - persons with unusual mystical experiences (Krippner,, Wickramasekera, Wickramasekera, & Winstead, 1998), - persons with a diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder, Schizoid Personality Disorder or Schizotypal Personality Disorder (Hartmann, 1991). On the other hand, groups that score significantly “thicker” on the inventories include: - naval officers - persons with a diagnosis of Obsessive-compulsive Personality Disorder - persons suffering from “Alexythymia” (Hartmann, 1991) - patients with a diagnosis of Sleep Apnea (Hartmann, 1992). The concept of mind-boundaries is unique in that it also ties in with impact on physical health. It was found that thick boundary people are more prone to hypertension, chronic fatigue syndrome, and ulcers; whereas thin boundary people are more susceptible to migraine, irritable bowel syndrome, and allergies. There also appears to be a relationship between thin boundaries and multiple chemical sensitivities (Jawer, 2001). Why does this matter? Nowadays, understanding towards mental health and difficulties are often confined to boxing people based on a disorder or diagnosis. Whilst there are certainly tremendous value in acquiring a formal diagnosis (accessing the right treatment, feeling validated for the difficulties, realising that one is not alone, research), such ‘one size fit all’ mentality has its limitations. In their work ‘Your Emotional Type’, Dr. M. Jawer and M. Micozzi pointed out that being aware of your emotional type (where you are on the mind-boundary spectrum) would allow you to access the kind of support that is more likely to benefit you. Interestingly, a survey suggests that people with thin boundaries are more likely to value psychotherapy, to have been involved in psychotherapy, and to have benefited from psychotherapy (Hartmann, 1996). In other words, people with thin boundaries likely make up majority of therapy clients. Despite its limitations (lack of quantitative data, inevitable generalisations), the idea of mind-boundaries offer a unique framework that can enhance therapy effectiveness by valuing individual differences. Have I got thick/thin boundaries? For a quick reference, here are a few items listed on the boundary inventory. For further information please refer to ‘The Emotional Type’ developed by Dr. M. Jawer and M. Micozzi : - My feelings blend into one another. - I am easily hurt. - I spend a lot of time daydreaming, fantasizing or in reverie. - Sometimes it’s scary when one gets too involved with another person. - A good parent has to be a bit of a child, too. - I can easily imagine myself as an animal or what it might be like to be an animal. - When something happens to someone close to me, it is almost as if it happened to me. - In my dreams, people merge into each other or become other people. - There are no sharp dividing lines between normal people, people with problems and people who are considered psychotic or crazy. - I am far from a down-to-earth, no nonsense kind of person. - I have had the experience of someone calling me or speaking my name and not being sure whether it was really happening or whether I was imagining it. It would appear that the difficulties and woundings experienced by a person with thin boundaries are not dis-similar to that experienced by others with heightened emotional sensitivities. Without awareness and understanding, one can imagine how sensitive people might have been plagued with misunderstanding and confusion for many years. Awareness and information about individual differences are invaluable in that they can help you make sense of your life history. By reviewing events and difficulties that you have experienced through a new perspective, you can realise where many of the old hurtful, uninvited commentary might have come from, and be liberated to embark on a journey of true self-discovery. “I’ve never gotten thick skin. If you close yourself off and you get this protective armor, there is a price you pay with that – of not feeling. And feeling is important when you are a songwriter.” – Taylor Swift
(PhysOrg.com) -- Teaching children mathematics at a young age may be as simple as helping them see how math is all around them. "Children as young as three to five years of age have the potential to learn mathematics that is surprisingly complex and sophisticated," said Doug Clements, a State University of New York Distinguished Professor at the University at Buffalo. "Further, they are motivated to learn mathematics. Indeed, almost half of the time they engage in free play, they use mathematical ideas, although usually implicitly." Helping children identify and connect the mathematics ideas that they use in free play and other daily activities is crucial to children gaining a strong math foundation at an early age. However, not all children have the opportunity to develop these ideas and skills. "Unfortunately, this potential is left unrealized for many children throughout the world--especially for children from low-income communities," said Clements. "They have the same implicit understanding of mathematics as their higher-income peers but have not had the opportunities to think and talk about mathematics explicitly--that is, to learn the language of mathematics." With funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF), Clements and Julie Sarama, professor and chair of the Department of Learning and Instruction at the University at Buffalo, and their colleagues develop intervention curriculums and tools that help children better understand the "language of mathematics" and learn early math skills. Finding math in everyday activities What does understanding the language of mathematics entail? Clements explains that it is a way of understanding the world through a "mathematical lens." "It is important that all children learn to mathematize their informal experiences by understanding and talking about them," said Clements. "If they do not, lower-income children lose the connection between their informal knowledge and later school mathematics--and the gap between them and their more advantaged peers widens, year after year." "Mathematization emphasizes representing and elaborating mathematically--creating models of everyday situations with mathematical objects, such as numbers and shapes; mathematical actions, such as counting or transforming shapes; and their structural relationships--and using those models to solve problems so derived," said Clements. "Mathematizing often involves representing relationships in the situation so these relationships can be quantified. We love the mathematics in puzzles, blocks and songs. However, if it's 'just play with blocks,' too often little mathematics is learned." Clements explained that understanding math is something that everyone can learn and excel in. "We see no signs, in our research or the research in general, of 'natural' inclinations," said Clements. "Experience and opportunity to learn--these are the factors that appear to influence children's motivation as well as achievement in most areas." Clements, Samara and their colleagues developed Building Blocks, which is an intervention designed to help children identify and learn basic mathematical concepts through daily activities. The goal of Building Blocks is to help children find the mathematics in, and develop the mathematics from, their everyday activities--whether it's through art, stories, puzzles or games. Comprised of print materials, software and more, Building Blocks seeks to help children learn number concepts, such as counting, basic arithmetic and spatial and geometric concepts and processes. Building Blocks led to large increases in mathematical knowledge of young children in several small studies. To evaluate Building Blocks on a larger scale, Clements and his team conducted a study of 36 classrooms to understand the impact of these interventions. It was found that Building Blocks increased scores on a mathematics achievement test and increased the quantity and quality of the mathematics environment and teaching in all classrooms, from low and middle income groups. An example of Building Blocks involves children using the Building Blocks software to complete puzzles by putting together different 2-D shapes on the computer screen. Children can also make their own puzzles using the shapes. The goal of this activity is to help children see shapes as composed of various parts, a foundational concept of early mathematics. Children can eventually apply this idea to other part-whole relationships, like counting units that make up a set arrangement, or in language arts, combing letters to create words. Even larger-scale studies have shown that Building Blocks has been especially beneficial for pre-schoolers from low-income communities. Clements and Sarama are further investigating Building Blocks through TRIAD (Technology-enhanced, Research-based, Instruction, Assessment, and professional Development), which is a framework to develop Building Blocks on a larger scale and provide Building Blocks pre-kindergarten mathematics curriculum. It is designed to be a collaborative project among administrators, teachers and families, and also provides on-site classroom support, professional development for teachers, coaches and mentors, and assessments for research collaborators. "We are now following the largest cohort of children into their intermediate grades," said Clements. "With NSF funding, we are developing a new interdisciplinary version of Building Blocks with colleagues. We do hope these interventions catch on in all preschools." Explore further: Consumer loyalty driven by aesthetics over functionality
Separate parenthetical expressions with commas. Definition of Parenthetical Expression. These are expressions that do not add essential content for understanding the sentence, such as an off-topic comment or a phrase inserted in a sentence that breaks the flow of the idea. These expressions may be placed in parentheses; hence the name. Rule AA is something of a catch-all, a grammatical version of “other duties as assigned.” Many phrases and clauses are considered parenthetical expressions, including appositives, direct addresses, interpolated asides, and interjections. Basically, any expression, description, comment, etc. that interrupts the flow of ideas, that can be moved around in the sentence, and that can be placed in parentheses without confusing the reader needs to be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. Sample 12.1. The new mall, I have heard, will be huge. In sample 12.1, the parenthetical expression is I have heard. This is not part of the idea being expressed in the sentence. It can be moved to the front or end of the sentence. And it could be placed in parentheses. As such, it is separated from the rest of the sentence with commas, one before and one after. Also, if I had written it at the end of the sentence, I would still need to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Sample 12.2. This economic forecast model, compared to other models, shows flat growth. In sample 12.2, the parenthetical expression is compared to other models. Wherever I put it in the sentence, it will need to be separated by commas. Sample 12.4. Compared to other models, this economic forecast model shows flat growth. Sample 12.5. This economic forecast model shows flat growth, compared to other models. Sample 12.4 uses the parenthetical expression as an introductory adverbial phrase (Rule G), and sample 12.5 uses it as a non-grammatical final description (Rule X). Because it is a parenthetical expression, no matter where it is in the sentence, it needs to be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, an instructive reference guide on the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.
Electing a President[change \| change source] The President of the United States is elected by the electoral college. Some other countries choose a president this way. In some, the Parliament does it. Some countries have direct elections to choose a president. Many countries have a monarch instead of a president and some have neither. Power of a President[change \| change source] The president of a country is not the same thing as a prime minister. A prime minister is part of a parliament, but a president is not. In some countries, (such as the United States or France), the president has more power and responsibility than anyone else. Such a president is often called the nation's chief executive. As chief executive, the president must take an active role in all phases of government. In other countries (such as the Republic of Ireland or Israel), to be president is more of an honor or a symbol, and the position has no real power. This kind of president is often called "head of state". The American President is restricted by the written United States Constitution, which can be changed but only if two-thirds of Congress as well as the President and three-fourths of the states agree to it. The American constitution was created to make sure that the American executive never became as powerful as the British system it had broken away from. The British Prime Minister is part of both the Legislature and Executive, whereas the American President is the head of the Executive. The American governmental system shows a clear separation of powers unlike the British system. - All the president's ministerial appointments have to be vetted by Congress (Parliament) and Congress may have an opposition majority. - The president does not have the ability to introduce and influence legislation in the same way as the British prime minister. - Congress has much greater control over the budget and foreign policy than the British Parliament. - There are broad areas of American life, such as education, crime and punishment, over which the president has virtually no influence at all. - The president even has very limited control over the economy.
A wildlife-tracking satellite looking down on a wide area of the globe from its high vantage point is a useful tool for biologists, naturalists and conservationists working with animals, birds and fish in their natural environments. 'Vodka' is an endangered Siberian Crane tracked by the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center and NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, which use satellites orbiting over Earth to monitor migration routes of endangered species. Data collected through satellite tracking helps us understand and protect the endangered and threatened species of the world. Scientists have attached tiny transmitters to wild animals for years, tracking their radio signals with receivers nearby on the ground. Now they track wildlife ranging over much wider areas with receivers high above the ground. A receiver in an orbiting space satellite can hear a transmitter attached to an animal. Even if the animal is out of sight over the horizon from a tracker on the ground, a satellite high in space still can hear the transmitter and repeat its signal down to trackers on the ground. How Animals Are Tracked To track a bird or animal on the ground or in the air, scientists strap a tiny radio transmitter to the animal, bird or fish. Information collected from the animal, bird or fish is impressed on a signal sent from the transmitter up to a NOAA weather satellite orbiting far above Earth. NOAA is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Weather Bureau people. NASA is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. A signal sent up to a satellite is known as an uplink. A signal sent down from a satellite to a ground station is a downlink. At the end of the transmission link, the data from the tracked animal, bird or fish goes to the wildlife researchers. The transmitter is a miniature electronic device designed for locating and tracking wildlife. It sends data about the bird or animal's environment to a special section of a NOAA weather satellite known as the ARGOS Data Collection System. The transmitter is carried in a harness strapped to the animal or bird's body. Each harness is custom-designed for each species and manually adjusted for each bird or animal for maximum comfort and fit. The Satellites and Ground Stations As the NOAA weather satellite flies along its orbit above an animal or bird's location, the ARGOS section of the satellite receives and stores the uplinked data. Later, as the NOAA satellite passes over a ground station, ARGOS downlinks the information to the ground station. The downlinked data received by the ground station is sent on to NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center where it is analyzed and the information about the animal or bird is extracted. What do we learn from the data? Most importantly, the data reveals the location of the animal or bird when the original signal was transmitted. In addition, several other kinds of information may be sent up from the bird or animal to the satellite. The information depends on the manufacturer and purpose of the radio transmitter. For instance, the data might include the local temperature where the animal or bird is. Here are some other kinds of information: Maps of Migration Routes - Animal/Bird Activity is determined by a small motion-activited switch in the transmitter pack. As an animal or bird changes positions, the switch is turned on or off by the motion. How useful is that? If the switch is off in one message and on in another, researchers assume the bird or animal is active. If the switch stays on or off, researchers assume the animal or bird is inactive. - Animal/Bird Latitude/Longitude is determined as the transmitter sends signals to the NOAA satellites. A satellite can determine the speed with which it is approaching a transmitter by measuring the so-called doppler shift of the radio signal frequency. The speed meaurement is transmitted to a ground station along with the data. As a ground station receives several downlinks, it calculates the location of the transmitter attached to the animal or bird. - Battery voltage depends on battery charge and temperature. Colder temperatures slow the chemical reactions in a battery and reduce the power available to the transmitter. Battery voltage can reveal temperature around the transmitter. One place satellite tracking data is sent is the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center where researchers are studying habitats and migration routes of birds. The satellite tracking data is converted into maps and animations of bird activities. NASA locates a picture of the bird or animal on a map on the Birdtracks web page. An STO reader asks: Does satellite tracking hurt an animal or bird? Technology: How Doppler satellite tracking works Copyright 2001 Space Today Online Satellites main page E-Mail
The practice of learning to prepare food by watching others may have roots in our closest living relative – the chimpanzee. Scientists have discovered that chimpanzees learn how to open and prepare fruit by watching their companions. The study suggests that chimpanzees may be capable of rudimentary human-like traditions within food preparation and provides insight into how humans have developed culture. University of Portsmouth psychologists, Bruce Rawlings and Dr Marina Davila-Ross, study the evolutionary roots of human culture by examining semi-wild chimpanzees. Their recent study looked at whether chimpanzees socially acquire their natural food preparation skills, known as ‘extractive foraging’ (such as opening hard-shelled fruit) from within their communities. Extractive foraging is an essential skill for both chimpanzees and ancient humans, requiring a combination of intelligence and dexterity. The results, published today in the journal, Animal Cognition, reveal that the primates socially learn extractive foraging from their companions, demonstrating an important component of culture in chimpanzee natural foraging. The question of nonhuman primate culture has been a contentious subject for several decades. Mr Rawlings said: “Culture is a hallmark of the human species; we far exceed all other animals in the way we learn skills from within our social communities, particularly within the context of food and cuisine. There is still a huge debate about whether humans are the only species capable of cultural traditions, and indeed how and when this capacity evolved. “But the clear differences in the natural way the three chimpanzee groups opened the fruits is most likely the result of social learning, which helps form certain behaviour in chimpanzees in a similar way to early human cultures. “As humans we might learn the best way to crack a nut or how to stone a peach from watching someone else and it appears chimpanzees learn how to handle food in similar ways.” The study also reported that the chimpanzees occasionally cracked open the hard-shelled fruits and then put the fruits aside to open a few other fruits in a similar way. This indicates that fruits are prepared in advance to eat them one after another at a later stage. Planning in advance indicates a form of intelligence, and these findings link with evidence from the wild where chimpanzees prepare their tools for ant fishing well before using them. The scientists studied distinct social groups of chimpanzees in the Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage in Zambia, Africa. The groups were living in close proximity and in the same kind of environment. But the scientists found that the three groups differed in the way they opened the same hard-shelled fruit. There were six main techniques that the chimpanzees used to open the fruits: banging two fruits together, scraping or peeling it, cracking the fruit on the ground, banging it on trees or roots, a half bite to remove a little of the shell and get the peeling process started and a full bite like biting into an apple. Importantly, three techniques differed across the groups, and two of these were present in some communities but absent in others. For example, fruit cracking – hitting one fruit against another – was used by two of the chimpanzee groups but was completely absent in the other group. The same was found for a specific biting technique. The chimpanzee groups also differed in the number of techniques they combined to open the fruits, with one group averaging almost double the number of techniques for each fruit than the other groups. Dr Davila-Ross said: “The fruits we studied are also eaten by wild chimpanzees all across Africa and they can be opened without the use of any sticks or stones, unlike the nut-cracking techniques that are also be found in wild chimpanzee populations. Since the fruit preparations did not require any additional tools, we find ecological explanations for the differences unlikely. Furthermore, their social and ecological surroundings showed no notable differences. “Our analysis on a subspecies level indicated that the differences in foraging techniques are unlikely to result from genetic reasons and they were not influenced by humans. “Much of the previous research has focussed on captive primate groups, especially with tool use or unnatural feeding behaviours. Half of the chimpanzees in the groups were orphans from throughout Africa and were housed based on their arrival date. Our findings provide important insights to how primordial forms of culture may have emerged. The research was carried out in collaboration with Professor Sarah Boysen from The Ohio State University, who originated the idea for the study. The study is part of an ongoing field project at Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage, led by Dr. Marina Davila-Ross, who started the project in 2007. In a previous study, laughter of chimpanzees was compared across the groups, where it was found that the groups differed how they used laughter as a social response.
The Present Is Perfect: Using Present Perfect Tense Your developing language users rewrite 10 sentences by changing the underlined verbs to present perfect tense verbs with one of the helping verbs: have, has, or had. Resource contains explanatory material as well as a practice activity. 1 Collection 168 Views 397 Downloads CCSS: Adaptable Daily Warm-Ups: Grammar and Usage If grammar practice is anywhere in your curriculum, you must check out an extensive collection of warm-up activities for language arts! Each page focuses on a different concept, from parts of speech to verbals, and provides review... 3rd - 6th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Past Tense, Affirmative and Negative Find out what people did or didn't do with a grammar learning exercise, which focuses on the past tense of different verbs. After kids use a word bank to complete a paragraph, they use the words did and didn't in several exercises about... 3rd - 8th English Language Arts CCSS: Designed Verb Tenses: Present, Past, and Future In this recognizing verb tenses: present, past, and future worksheet, students read a review of verb tenses with example sentences, identify the tenses of verbs in sentences, rewrite sentences to change them to past tense and future... 3rd - 5th English Language Arts Conjugating Verbs: Verb Tense and Aspect \| Parts of Speech App Take a look at an in depth video to learn all there is to know about conjugating verbs. Find out what conjugating verbs are, why we conjugate verbs, and all the rules to properly form grammatically correct sentences. After gaining much... 13 mins 3rd - 6th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
When a hurricane strikes, wind is only a part of the concern. In many cases, storm surge does more damage. In 2014, the National Hurricane Center has a plan to make the potential threat clearer using color-coded maps that better predict the surge. Here's how storm surge works: A hurricane's winds pushes the ocean water toward the coast. When the surge arrives at the same time as the incoming tide, the water piles even higher. The shape of the ocean floor plays a big part in how high the water will climb. Some areas along the Gulf Coast, especially Louisiana and Mississippi, are particularly vulnerable to storm surge because the ocean floor gradually deepens offshore. But along the east coast of Florida, especially the Volusia and Brevard county coasts, the shelf of the ocean floor is on a steep incline. We need a stronger hurricane to get significant storm surge. Continuous crashing waves can still batter the coast causing beach erosion and flooding well inland, especially in Flagler County. For years, the National Hurricane Center categorized storm surge based on storm category. The higher the category, the worse the storm surge was. But what they found over the past few decades is that doesn't always work. For example, Hurricane Charley in 2004. It did not produce the storm surge that it should have based on those models. New models take into account the depth of the ocean, elevation, and other factors, and better highlight the most at-risk areas on a storm The color-coded maps will be issued when a hurricane or tropical storm watch is first issued, or approximately 48 hours before the anticipated onset of tropical storm force winds.
Most commonly known as the point of no return, the event horizon is an astronomical point that has puzzled even Stephen Hawking, famous for his controversial theories towards black holes. It is a sphere-like boundery surrounding the singularity of a black hole (Couper, H., & Henbest, N. 1996). This mysterious outline is made up of millions and millions of photons. In the region where the photons are located, the gravity is too strong to allow them to escape, but not strong enough to pull them into the black hole (Couper, H., & Henbest, N. 1996). The numerous photons remain motionless, unable to direct itself in anyway, marking the boundary known as the event horizon (Couper, H., & Henbest, N. 1996). It is important to remember that the event horizon is the point that if crossed, the speed (escape velocity) needed to escape the black holes gravitational pull exceeds that of the speed of light. Yet, being on the exterior of the event horizon does not mean that there is no gravitational pull on the other side of this invisible wall of photons. Even if you have not passed the event horizon, escape is still possible, yet very unlikely (Couper, H., & Henbest, N. 1996). The event horizon was, surprisingly, not discovered by Stephen Hawking, but by another man named Karl Schwarzschild (Couper, H., & Henbest, N. 1996). This physicist and astronomer used Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity to create an equation that proved the existence of a “magic circle” through which nothing could escape. The name: “Magic Circle” was later changed to the present day title, the event horizon (Couper, H., & Henbest, N. 1996). Stephen Hawking believed that in space, there are many "virtual matter particles" (Ferguson, K. 1991). They are invisible, but prove to exist due to their reactions and effects on objects sorrounding them. Around the region of the event horizon, these particles, travelingu in pairs (positive and negative), were attracted to the mysterious outline. The negative particle would be caught inside the event horizon, and sucked into the black hole. Thus, this originally virtual particle was made into a real particle (Ferguson, K. 1991). We must acknowledge the fact that this process is being repeated constantly and in large numbers all around the black hole. To the observers of black holes, these positive particles are seen as a sort of radiation (Ferguson, K. 1991). Hawking called this the Hawking Radiation. This proves that a black hole can get smaller and eventually evaporate. However, this contradicts with his first theory that states that black holes can never get smaller due to the placement and functions of the photons that make up the event horizon. But to any thinking person, this statement doesn’t make any sense. If nothing can escape the black hole, it is impossible for it to get smaller and disappear. But Hawking came up with another statement that proved this contradiction wrong. According to Ferguson, when the black hole changes the virtual particles into real particle, it loses energy. When the black hole takes this NEGATIVE energy in, it takes the energy OUT of the black hole, therefore making it smaller because when something has less energy, it has less mass (Ferguson, K. 1991). Hence, Albert Einstein’s famous equation: E=mc2 "...the event horizon is the point that if crossed, the speed (escape velocity) needed to escape the black holes gravitational pull exceeds that of the speed of light." 5
Short plays, also known as skits, can be humorous take-offs of well-known events or stories or involve funny behaviour or a punch line. To create your own short funny play, consider a tried-and-true camp skit, let the audience help you devise an improvised skit or create your own original comic skit as a group. And don't forget the ridiculous costumes and absurd props! Other People Are Reading A Mixed-Up Plot Split the participants into groups. Each group must write, on three separate cards, the beginning, middle and end of a story. Encourage the groups to be simple, as the play they will create should be short. They can use the plot of a fairy tale or movie they know well, as long as they can boil it down to a short, simple beginning, middle and end. Once you've got each group's three cards, split them into three separate bowls or hats -- one for "beginning" cards, one for "middles" and one for "endings." Draw one beginning, middle and end and create a play based upon the absurdly random combination. Short, funny skits are a summer camp staple and great for kids looking for short play ideas. The Ultimate Camp Resource website (ultimatecampresource.com) offers these skit ideas: "The Balloon Orchestra," in which any number of kids stand onstage with blown-up balloons that they let the air out of in "squeaks" to the rhythm of a popular tune such as "Jingle Bells," and "The Crying Skit," in which any number of kids come onstage one by one bawling their eyes out. Finally someone enters and asks why they're crying. The kids onstage reply, in unison, "Because we don't have a skit!" History Gone Wacky Take a well-known history topic such as The Trojan War. Working quickly, brainstorm a list of characters. Take whatever ideas come up -- even "that guy with the heel problem" for Achilles. Create a simple plot -- beginning, middle and end -- that is connected to the historical event. For the Trojan War, this might be: Beginning -- Goddess makes the wind blow once king kills his daughter; Middle -- Looks bad for the Greeks until Achilles stops pouting and joins the fight; End -- Trojans are whipped and everyone becomes a Greek slave. Humour can be created here by jamming together the plot elements so they happen over a very short time. Costumes made to represent Greek armour and clothing made from modern, everyday items can also add to the humour. If your performers are seasoned actors, have them let the audience create their skit. Ask the audience for a location (take the simplest or wackiest one), such as a bus stop, restaurant or even Britney Spears' backyard. Then have the audience give the actors a problem, such as "can't speak English," "late for work," or "thinks he's being followed by a monster." You can also ask the audience to give the characters a flaw ("painfully shy" or "hothead," for example), or pinpoint a time of day as well. Then have the actors improvise (make the skit up as they go), using the criteria provided by the audience. - 20 of the funniest online reviews ever - 14 Biggest lies people tell in online dating sites - Hilarious things Google thinks you're trying to search for
What is a Brain Hemorrhage? A brain hemorrhage happens when an artery in the brain bursts. This discharge of blood can disrupt the normal circulation to the brain, so it can lead to a stroke, which occurs when part of the brain is deprived of oxygen. Strokes can cause temporary or permanent brain damage. Bleeding within the brain can also raise the pressure inside the skull to dangerous levels. This high pressure in turn can cause the hemorrhage to bleed faster, leading to a vicious cycle of damage within the brain. Subarachnoid hemorrhaging, which recently landed reality-show star Bret Michaels in intensive care, refers to hemorrhages that occur in the tiny space between the brain and the thin tissue that covers the brain. This type of hemmorrhage is rare -- subarachnoid hemorrhaging accounts for just 3 percent of all strokes. Symptoms of a brain hemorrhage include a sudden, severe headache (referred to by doctors as a thunderclap headache), dizziness, slurred speech, vision problems, vomiting, seizures and paralysis on one side of the body, according to the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. Brain hemorrhages can be deadly. The damage that a hemorrhage wreaks on the brain is determined by the size of the hemorrhage, the amount of swelling in the skull and how quickly the bleeding is controlled. Some people may be left with permanent brain damage while others recover completely. While brain hemorrhages, also known as cerebral hemorrhages, often occur as a result of head trauma, it is possible for a person to lower the chances of experiencing a brain hemorrhage in their lifetime. Staying off drugs would be a smart thing to do. Cocaine and methamphetamines both increase the risk of bleeding in the brain, according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Smoking cigarettes has also been show to increase the risk of brain hemorrhages. The risk persists even after an individual has quit smoking, according to a study conducted by University at Buffalo and Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions researchers. According to the International Council on Alcohol, Drugs, and Traffic Safety, 45 percent of traumatic brain injuries are caused by car accidents, so seatbelts must always be worn. People who ride motorcycles are at a greater risk of sustaining a brain injury and should always wear a helmet. MORE FROM LiveScience.com
Interviewing a character helps your students learn the language, gives them an opportunity to be creative and use their imagination, and, whilst having fun, allows them to share their reading experiences. As with previous activities, you can see the steps to actually do the activity with your class here. Beyond the fun and imagination, there is serious language work taking place. Let’s look at it a bit more closely, taking the example of Becky Thatcher from The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. First, reading for pleasure helps students improve their language skills. In this case, students improve vocabulary and grammatical structures when they are writing the questions for the interview, as well as when they listen to the answers. Whether it is simple questions like, “What’s your favourite colour?” or “How did you feel on your first day at school?”, you can help your students write their questions correctly. You can also focus their questions on the language you are working on in class. For example, if you are working on past tenses, you can focus the questions on Becky’s last holiday or weekend. Questions might be, “Where did you go?” or “What did you do?” The activity also helps students improve their listening and speaking skills. Since every student has a question, it is important not to repeat the same question for the interview. This means students will need to say their questions out loud to the class to make sure there is no repetition. In a controlled way, they are beginning to speak. Weaker or shy students can do this in a safe environment, focussing only on their own question. The person who will play Becky in the interview is listening to the questions from the class and so can prepare her answers in advance. The interview itself further improves listening and speaking. Students will ask their questions, listen to the answers, and some may even have follow-up questions. There are great opportunities for students to be creative and use their imagination. First, students should be encouraged to ask questions they want an answer to. Any student who knows the story a little may ask questions about Tom, which usually raises a few giggles in the class. The student playing Becky is free to imagine some of the answers that are not directly in the story. Becky’s favourite colour is not in the story, nor is there anything about who buys her clothes. To answer these questions, “Becky” is free to use her imagination and the information in the story. This will certainly make it more interesting for everyone. Questions concerning Becky’s opinions may even raise a few interesting discussions. The language in the activity can quickly become secondary as students focus on the “Becky’s” answers. This is a fun activity that can easily lead to students being curious about the story and wanting to read it. It is important to encourage students to enjoy the interview. Would they ask the same questions in their own language? If not, then they are focussing on the language more than on the interview itself. Help them ask the questions they really want to ask. Questions about her relationship with Tom, how she feels about school, living in the small town, or her family can raise interesting discussions. The interview allows “Becky” to share her reading experience with the class. She will expand on the parts she enjoyed more, talk about events in the story, like being lost in the cave. In this way, many students will become curious about the book and want to read it. By helping students with the language, encouraging them to use their imagination, and allowing them to have fun with the activity, they will become more personally involved in their reading. This will help them learn more effectively.
Hypothermia is defined as having a core body temperature less than 95 degrees F or 35 degrees C. It most often occurs because of prolonged exposure to cold weather. Shivering is the body's automatic defense against cold temperature, as it attempts to warm itself. It is one of the symptoms of hypothermia. Other symptoms include clumsiness or lack of coordination, slurred speech, confusion, poor decision making (i.e. removing clothes), drowsiness, apathy, loss of consciousness, weak pulse and shallow breathing. People with hypothermia often do not know what they are suffering from because of their confused state. According to WebMD, treatment for hypothermia includes restoring warmth slowly. This is done by getting the person indoors and removing any wet clothing. If wet, dry the person off and warm their trunk first (warming extremities first can cause shock). Wrap the person in blankets or put dry clothes on them. Do not immerse the person in warm water. Rapid warming can cause heart arrhythmia. If using hot water bottles or chemical hot packs, wrap them in cloth; don't apply them directly to the skin. Begin CPR, if necessary, while warming the person. Give the person warm fluids if they are conscious, but not coffee or alcohol. Finally, keep them warm and seek medical treatment.
When working with data to analyse results and draw conclusions, it is essential that the data with which you are working is ‘clean’. This means that it is consistent, accurate and complete. Refer below for more information on each of these categories. The person working with the data should be alert to any anomalies, either within the numerical data itself or the demographic information attached to it. For example, a student number may be missing, or a cell has no information, or a year level for one student is incorrect. Making sure that data is clean before you start to work with it will help prevent misinterpretations, or having to go through the process again if you discover problems further down the track. It is essential that each data record is consistent with others. If you are downloading information from more than one source, it must be in exactly the same format, so you must be sure before you combine data (for example, records for more than one class) that the format is the same. Data which shows progress over time should always be matched, so that the same students are represented in both sets of figures. The data must be accurate. Scan all data for anomalies – are you sure you have the right student records, the right test results? If the data is entered manually, data entry should be double-checked for accuracy. Each data record should be complete. Make sure that there are no student records that have no result against them. Although it’s important to find out why some students do not have assessment results, their records for the purposes of immediate analysis should be deleted. This is particularly important when calculating medians and means, as empty records can skew the data. To learn how you can use Excel to sort and merge assessment data, view the video tutorial below.
Set a good example. It’s unfair to expect politeness of a child if his parents are not polite themselves. Teach your child manners in stages, as his comprehension and skills develop. It probably won’t do any good to ask a 2-year-old to stop chewing with his mouth open; he probably lacks the understanding and physical coordination to comply. But by 4 or 5 years of age, your child should have the ability to grasp the reasoning behind such a rule. Start using words and phrases like ‘please,’ ‘thank you,’ ‘excuse me,’ ‘I’m sorry,’ and ‘may I?’ as early as possible around your child. Encourage your child to do the same. Take care what language you use around children; they mimic the way adults speak. Ask your child to address adults with a certain degree of formality – that is, Ms. Lee, Mrs. Doe, Mr. Smith – unless the adult tells them to do otherwise. Review the other basics of etiquette with your child whenever necessary. He should learn how to shake hands, show respect for older people, behave quietly in public places, and avoid interrupting other people in conversation. He should also learn not to play with other people’s belongings unless given permission to do so. Avoid ignoring bad behavior or waiting to talk about it. Address a rule as soon as your child breaks it. Bring up the behavior again in private so you can discuss it more thoroughly and make sure your child understands how to behave in the future. Praise your child for good behavior.
“After political pressure, money and arm-twisting were applied, the Piegan (usually referred to as Blackfeet) sold the mountain portion of their land for $1,500,000 in 1895. It was half of what they wanted, but they were resigned to losing it anyway. This “ceded strip”represents all of today’s Glacier National Park east of the continental divide. The Blackfeet reservation abuts the park’s eastern boundary at the foot of Lake Sherburne.” – Malcolm R. Campbell in “Bears, Where They Fought” The historical lands of the tribes comprising the Blackfoot Confederacy (the term “Blackfeet” is also used) stretched from the continental divide in the Rocky Mountains in Glacier National Park eastward into present-day North Dakota, and on the north near present-day Edmonton, Alberta to the Yellowstone River in Montana. In the United States, this land would be reduced by the Lame Bull Treaty of 1855 to lands” “. . .lying within lines drawn from the Hell Gate or Medicine Rock Passes in the main range of the Rocky Mountains, in an easterly direction to the nearest source of the Muscle Shell River, thence to the mouth of Twenty-five Yard Creek, thence up the Yellowstone River to its northern source, and thence along the main range of the Rocky Mountains, in a northerly direction, to the point of beginning, shall be a common hunting-ground for ninety-nine years, where all the nations, tribes and bands of Indians, parties to this treaty. . .” William E. Farr writes in “The End of Freedom: The Military Removal of the Blackfeet and Reservation Confinement, 1880” in the Summer 2012 issue of “Montana The Magazine of Western History,” that the removal and confinement of tribes was facilitated in 1871 when Congress decided to no longer consider Indian Nations as sovereign. From that point on, landholdings were reduced by executive orders that required no negotiation or consent from the tribes involved. To this end, President Grant reduced the size of Blackfeet lands by creating a southern boundary along the Missouri River through his orders of 1873 and 1874. The change in policy evolved with the discovery of gold and other minerals in present-day Glacier Park’s Swiftcurrent Valley and elsewhere, and the demands of frontier settlements and travelers on transcontinental migration routes. Today, the Blackfeet (Southern Piegan) reservation lands begin at the eastern Edge of Glacier National Park. While the Blackfeet sold the eastern half of present-day Glacier to the U.S. in 1895, the enduring association of the tribe with the park (other than for periodic hunting trips) appears to be more a product of legend, imagination and publicity than recorded history. The Southern Piegan were plains oriented, as C. W. Buchholtz notes in Man in Glacier. In addition to the 1895 land sale, he believes that the association of the Tribe with the park as a whole was based on legends that could have arisen during numerous migrations over the course of time from any mountain range, the Blackfeet place names assigned to park rivers and mountains by James Willard Schultz (Signposts of Adventure), George Bird Grinnell and others, and by the Great Northern Railway’s “Glacier Park Tribe” publicity campaign in the 1930s. (The railway built, and originally managed, the park’s historic hotels up until 1960.) Present-day programs within the park honor the legends as well as Glacier’s Blackfeet neighbors headquartered at Browning. Since park visitors, especially those at Glacier Park Lodge on U.S. Highway 2, are only a few miles away from Browning, it’s easy to include the Museum of the Plains Indian in vacation plans. You May Also Like: The Blackfeet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains by John C. Ewers, the Summer 2012 issue of “Montana The Magazine of Western History” (Montana Historical Society) and Place Names in Glacier National Park by Jack Holterman. Malcolm R. Campbell is the author of two contemporary fantasies partially set in the park, Sarabande and The Sun Singer. He served as an editorial assistant for the publication of the original edition of “Place Names in Glacier National Park.”
1 Answer \| Add Yours Each multiple choice question has four options of which one is the correct answer. The probability that a student making a guess and choosing answers at random gets any one of them right is 1/4. On the other hand the probability that a wrong answer is chosen is 1 - 1/4 = 3/4. The probability of the student getting less than 3 answers right is required. This implies either 0 or 1 or 2 answers are correct. The probability that none of the answers are right is (3/4)^10. The probability that only 1 answer is right is 10(1/4)(3/4)^9 and the probability that only 2 of them are right is 45(1/4)^2(3/4)^8. Adding the three gives 0.5255 The probability that the student gets less than 3 answers right if they are chosen at random is approximately equal to 0.5255. We’ve answered 319,807 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
The origins of our western type of astrology are commonly believed to be from Ancient Greece. A deeper study in to the history of astrology shows how the Egyptians were involved in laying the foundations of ancient Greek astrology based largely on an even earlier Assyrian, Babylonian and Sumerian teaching. Studies show that as early as around 4000 BC the Sumerians of Mesopotamia actively worshiped The Moon, The Sun and The Planet Venus as Gods. To the Sumerians, The Moon was known as Nanna, The Sun was Utu and Venus was Inanna. The Sumerian rulers were also their priests due to their ability to communicate with The Gods. Some of these priests became the military leaders and eventually their Kings. Sumerian kings would employ a seer or baru-pries. It was the seer’s job to read and interpret the sky. To help communicate with the gods, shrines were built which later became larger structures called ziggurats. These structures were used to map star formations and to watch the skies. As well as following the usual movement of The Sun and The Moon, the baru-pries also predicted eclipses. Eclipses were some of the most important events in the sky and were usually interpreted as a warning. The Sumerian baru-priests were able to predict eclipses due to their excellent knowledge of mathematics. At this time, astrology was not in existence as such, the baru-priests were more concerned about predicting natural events in the sky and on earth, such as the the coming of the seasons. Their efforts contributed to the development of both astrology and the science of astronomy. The Sumerians were also responsible for the creation of a working calender by identifying the basic cycles of The Sun, The Moon, planets and stars. It was the Sumerians who first divided our year in to twelve months based on The Moon’s cycles. Astrology as we now know it begun during the Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia. The Babylonians, who had taken over from the earlier Sumerians, focused on the predictions that would affect the well being of the King and his lands. The Babylonians associated Venus with love and war because of the planet’s constant appearance and disappearance. Individual birth or natal horoscopes were first formed around 1300 BC, alongside particular personal astrological traits. The Assyrians later conquered Babylon and developed a more consistent and accurate calender from the earlier Sumerian version. At this time many individual stars were named and some of our common constellations formed. It was during this period when the interpretation of Omens became very important, based on the movement on the planets within the Zodiac constellations. Through both trade and conquest, astrological ideas had spread all over the region, and became deeply entrenched in the early development of the ancient Egyptian civilisation. Much of Egyptian life and death was ruled by the stars and planets, so much so there is evidence that even the great pyramids at Giza were aligned with the stars in the belt of the constellation Orion. The Ancient Greek influence on our western astrology came about between the 4th and 5th century BC. Connections with Egypt were growing to the point where Greece ruled Egypt in the 3rd century BC. The Greeks were responsible for developing the rich mythology associated with the planets and our constellations, as well as the astrological traits we use today.
Weddell seals: Antarctica’s extreme mammal Weddell seals are one of Antarctica’s icons. Besides being undeniably charismatic, they are the southern-most mammal in the world, can live up to 30 years, and they are perfectly adapted to living in some of the harshest conditions on the planet. Research on Weddell seals has been on-going since the late 1960s – research that has shown us how they deal with extreme environmental changes and how important it is to be a good mom. These animals give us a glimpse into what it’s like to be a species at the extreme. © Michelle LaRue But Weddell seals are important for another reason: they are what we call an “indicator species” because they prey on Antarctic toothfish. Never heard of Antarctic toothfish? We bet you’ve heard of another moniker, Chilean seabass, which a high-end delicacy in many upscale restaurants around the world – and it’s also a critical part of the ecosystem in the Ross Sea. The problem with fishing for a species like Antarctic toothfish is that we know so little about some pretty basic life history information: exactly how long it lives, what age it first reproduces, or even where the fish spawn. Knowing how many fish to take while maintaining balance in the ecosystem is pretty tough to do. But despite having little information about Antarctic toothfish, we can gain insight into the health of the Ross Sea by understanding how Weddell seal populations are doing! By counting seals in satellite imagery, we hope to learn how the Ross Sea is functioning – or not – in the face of this fishery. © Kim Goetz Join us on an Antarctic adventure! So, why count seals on DigitalGlobe’s satellite imagery? The answer is pretty easy: because we couldn’t do this without you! Even though our team has people who are Weddell seal experts and know how to count seals on the images, it would take years – literally – if we wanted to count them all. By surveying the sea ice with us, you will be assisting not only the pursuit of science, but you will help us better protect and conserve the most pristine piece of ocean left: the Ross Sea. Join us, won’t you? © Kim Goetz Here’s a few pointers to help you on your search: - Weddell seals will show up on the images as black dots on the ice, like this picture (Figure 1): - Seals are associated with cracks in the ice – it’s how they get in and out of the ocean. Do you see the crack in the ice on the image above (Figure 1)? That kind of crack is what you want to look for when you’re looking for seals, and you might also find seals near pressure ridges and tide cracks like in this image below (Figure 2): - If you see an image like this one below (Figure 3), it is very unlikely you will see any seals. Just keep looking around! - Don’t be fooled by rocks or dirty ice (Figure 4). Rocks sometimes fall onto the ice near land – so don’t forget to zoom out every once in a while to see where you are! - Have fun counting Weddell seals in imagery, knowing that you’re helping to do science and conservation in the last true wilderness on Earth: Antarctica. Thank you for your help! © Linnea Pearson Michelle LaRue is a wildlife ecologist at the University of Minnesota, interested in understanding broad-scale populations of marine and terrestrial predators, particularly in polar regions. She uses high-resolution satellite imagery to understand biogeography, population status, and drivers of population change in emperor penguins, Adelie penguins, Weddell seals, polar bears, and walrus.
APEX Images Cosmic Dust Filament Light-years Long Star formation in “dark markings of the sky” A new image from the APEX (Atacama Pathfinder Experiment) telescope in Chile shows a sinuous filament of cosmic dust more than ten light-years long. In it, newborn stars are hidden, and dense clouds of gas are on the verge of collapsing to form yet more stars. It is one of the regions of star formation closest to us. The cosmic dust grains are so cold that observations at wavelengths of around one millimeter, such as these made with the LABOCA camera on APEX, are needed to detect their faint glow. The Taurus Molecular Cloud, in the constellation of Taurus (The Bull), lies about 450 light-years from Earth. This image shows two parts of a long, filamentary structure in this cloud, which are known as Barnard 211 and Barnard 213. Their names come from Edward Emerson Barnard´s photographic atlas of the “dark markings of the sky”, compiled in the early 20th century. In visible light, these regions appear as dark lanes, lacking in stars. Barnard correctly argued that this appearance was due to “obscuring matter in space”. We know today that these dark markings are actually clouds of interstellar gas and dust grains. The dust grains – tiny particles similar to very fine soot and sand – absorb visible light, blocking our view of the rich star field behind the clouds. The Taurus Molecular Cloud is particularly dark at visible wavelengths, as it lacks the massive stars that illuminate the nebulae in other star-formation regions such as Orion. The dust grains themselves also emit a faint heat glow but, as they are extremely cold at around -260 degrees Celsius, their light can only be seen at wavelengths much longer than visible light, around one millimeter. These clouds of gas and dust are not merely an obstacle for astronomers wishing to observe the stars behind them. In fact, they are themselves the birthplaces of new stars. When the clouds collapse under their own gravity, they fragment into clumps. Within these clumps, dense cores may form, in which the hydrogen gas becomes dense and hot enough to start fusion reactions: a new star is born. The birth of the star is therefore surrounded by a cocoon of dense dust, blocking observations at visible wavelengths. This is why observations at longer wavelengths, such as the millimeter range, are essential for understanding the early stages of star formation. The upper-right part of the filament shown here is Barnard 211, while the lower-left part is Barnard 213. The millimeter-range observations from the LABOCA camera on APEX, which reveal the heat glow of the cosmic dust grains, are shown here in orange tones, and are superimposed on a visible light image of the region, which shows the rich background of stars. The bright star above the filament is Ï† Tauri, while the one partially visible at the left-hand edge of the image is HD 27482. Both stars are closer to us than the filament, and are not associated with it. Observations show that Barnard 213 has already fragmented and formed dense cores – as illustrated by the bright knots of glowing dust – and star formation has already happened. However, Barnard 211 is in an earlier stage of its evolution; the collapse and fragmentation is still taking place, and will lead to star formation in the future. This region is therefore an excellent place for astronomers to study how Barnard´s “dark markings of the sky” play a crucial part in the lifecycle of stars. The observations were made by Alvaro Hacar (Observatorio AstronÃ³mico Nacional-IGN, Madrid, Spain) and collaborators. The LABOCA camera operates on the 12-meter APEX telescope, on the plateau of Chajnantor in the Chilean Andes, at an altitude of 5000 meters. APEX is a pathfinder for the next generation submillimeter telescope, the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), which is being built and operated on the same plateau. APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut fÃ¼r Radioastronomie (MPIfR), the Onsala Space Observatory (OSO), and ESO, with operations of the telescope entrusted to ESO. ALMA, an international astronomy facility, is a partnership of Europe, North America and East Asia in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. ALMA construction and operations are led on behalf of Europe by ESO, on behalf of North America by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), and on behalf of East Asia by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ). The Joint ALMA Observatory (JAO) provides the unified leadership and management of the construction, commissioning and operation of ALMA. The year 2012 marks the 50th anniversary of the founding of the European Southern Observatory (ESO). ESO is the foremost intergovernmental astronomy organization in Europe and the world´s most productive astronomical observatory. It is supported by 15 countries: Austria, Belgium, Brazil, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Finland, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. ESO carries out an ambitious program focused on the design, construction and operation of powerful ground-based observing facilities enabling astronomers to make important scientific discoveries. ESO also plays a leading role in promoting and organizing cooperation in astronomical research. ESO operates three unique world-class observing sites in Chile: La Silla, Paranal and Chajnantor. At Paranal, ESO operates the Very Large Telescope, the world´s most advanced visible-light astronomical observatory and two survey telescopes. VISTA works in the infrared and is the world´s largest survey telescope and the VLT Survey Telescope is the largest telescope designed to exclusively survey the skies in visible light. ESO is the European partner of a revolutionary astronomical telescope ALMA, the largest astronomical project in existence. ESO is currently planning a 40-meter-class European Extremely Large optical/near-infrared Telescope, the E-ELT, which will become “the world´s biggest eye on the sky”. Image 1: This image from the APEX telescope, of part of the Taurus Molecular Cloud, shows a sinuous filament of cosmic dust more than ten light-years long. In it, newborn stars are hidden, and dense clouds of gas are on the verge of collapsing to form yet more stars. The cosmic dust grains are so cold that observations at submillimeter wavelengths, such as these made by the LABOCA camera on APEX, are needed to detect their faint glow. This image shows two regions in the cloud: the upper-right part of the filament shown here is Barnard 211, while the lower-left part is Barnard 213. The submillimeter-wavelength observations from the LABOCA camera on APEX, which reveal the heat glow of the cosmic dust grains, are shown here in orange tones. They are superimposed on a visible-light image of the region, which shows the rich background of stars. The bright star above the filament is Ï† Tauri. Credit: ESO/APEX (MPIfR/ESO/OSO)/A. Hacar et al./Digitized Sky Survey 2. Acknowledgment: Davide De Martin. [ Full size image ] Image 2: These two images are of the same part of the Taurus Molecular Cloud, about 450 light-years from Earth. Its relative closeness makes it an ideal place to study the formation of stars. The dramatic comparison shows how clouds of cosmic dust grains appear dark and obscuring when observed with visible light (left image), but are seen to glow when observed with light of wavelengths around one millimeter (right image). The observations on the right were made with the LABOCA camera on the APEX telescope. The upper-right part of the dusty filament shown here is known as Barnard 211, while the lower-left part is Barnard 213. An interactive mouseover comparison image can be seen on this link. Credit: ESO/APEX (MPIfR/ESO/OSO)/A. Hacar et al./Digitized Sky Survey 2. Acknowledgment: Davide De Martin. Image 3: This diagram shows the constellation of Taurus (The Bull). The position of the star-forming regions Barnard 211 and Barnard 213 is shown in red. Credit: ESO, IAU and Sky & Telescope On the Net:
In politics, a partition is a change of political borders cutting through at least one territory considered a homeland by some community. That change is done primarily by diplomatic means, and use of military force is negligible. Common arguments for partitions include: - historicist — that partition is inevitable, or already in progress - last resort — that partition should be pursued to avoid the worst outcomes (genocide or large-scale ethnic expulsion), if all other means fail - cost-benefit — that partition offers a better prospect of conflict reduction than the if existing borders are not changed - better tomorrow — that partition will reduce current violence and conflict, and that the new more homogenized states will be more stable - rigorous end — heterogeneity leads to problems, hence homogeneous states should be the goal of any policy - It disrupts functioning and traditional state entities - It creates enormous human suffering - It creates new grievances that could eventually lead to more deadly violence, such as the Korean and Vietnamese wars. - It prioritizes race and ethnicity to a level acceptable only to an apartheid regime - The international system is very reluctant to accept the idea of partition in deeply divided societies HOLY BOOK OF RACIAL GOVERNMENT
What is Blood Pressure? carried from the heart to all parts of your body in vessels called arteries. Blood pressure is the force of the blood pushing against the walls of the arteries. Each time the heart beats (about 60-70 times a minute at rest), it pumps out blood into the arteries. Your blood pressure is at its highest when the heart beats, pumping the blood. This is called systolic pressure. When the heart is at rest, between beats, your blood pressure falls. This is the Blood pressure is always given as these two numbers, the systolic and diastolic pressures. Both are important. Usually they are written one above or before the other, such as 120/80 mmHg. The top number is the systolic and the bottom the diastolic. When the two measurements are written down, the systolic pressure is the first or top number, and the diastolic pressure is the second or bottom number (for example, 120/80). If your blood pressure is 120/80, you say that it is "120 over 80." Blood pressure changes during the day. It is lowest as you sleep and rises when you get up. It also can rise when you are excited, nervous, or active. Still, for most of your waking hours, your blood pressure stays pretty much the same when you are sitting or standing still. That level should be lower than 120/80. When the level stays high, 140/90 or higher, you have high blood pressure. With high blood pressure, the heart works harder, your arteries take a beating, and your chances of a stroke, heart attack, and kidney problems are What causes it? In many people with high blood pressure, a single specific cause is not known. This is called essential or primary high blood pressure. Research is continuing to find causes. In some people, high blood pressure is the result of another medical problem or medication. When the cause is known, this is called secondary high blood This section © National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute What is high blood pressure? A blood pressure of 140/90 or higher is considered high blood pressure. Both numbers are important. If one or both numbers are usually high, you have high blood pressure. If you are being treated for high blood pressure, you still have high blood pressure even if you have repeated readings in the normal There are two levels of high blood pressure: Stage 1 and Stage 2 (see the chart Categories for Blood Pressure Levels in Adults* (In mmHg, millimeters of mercury) \|\|Less than 120 \|\|Less than 80 \|High Blood Pressure \|\|160 or higher \|\|100 or higher * For adults 18 and older who: Are not on medicine for high blood pressure Are not having a short-term serious illness Do not have other conditions such as diabetes and kidney disease Note: When systolic and diastolic blood pressures fall into different categories, the higher category should be used to classify blood pressure level. For example, 160/80 would be stage 2 high blood pressure. There is an exception to the above definition of high blood pressure. A blood pressure of 130/80 or higher is considered high blood pressure in persons with diabetes and chronic kidney disease. Hypertension & Women Symptoms of High Blood Pressure Headaches & High Blood Pressure Measuring High Blood Pressure Stress & High Blood Pressure As the world’s top supplier of commercial blood pressure monitors and health management systems, Lifeclinic is committed to helping to improve the health and wellbeing of individuals across the globe. Active monitoring of blood pressure, heart rate, weight, body fat, body mass index (BMI) and blood oxygen levels when combined with proper diet, nutrition and physical fitness can help ensure a longer, more healthy lifestyle. © 2011 Sentry Health Monitors, Inc.
Generate and evaluate reasons why people may not appreciate the cultural point of view of others. Use at least 2 references as well as 1 sociologist view. Discuss how appreciating cultural diversity affects peoples' ability to communicate effectively in the context of a multinational corporation or an international nonprofit agency. Feel free to add your own experiences as well as quoting others. You can also use the listed references for further research. Good luck and thank you for using BrainMass. Expert 105878/Xenia Jones What does cultural viewpoint mean? Simply put, it is the perspective from which a culture or a group of people sharing the same beliefs, ethnicity, traditions or history view the world and their reality. In a way we can equate it to the idea of a worldview. The idea is simple - people from different cultures and backgrounds view things differently. Even people who are in the same culture still have different interpretations of the world because of the uniqueness of their socialization, history, experience and personality. So people hold different views about God, about love, about morality, about education, about wealth, for example. Even in the most common of things we do not all share the same view - like food for example; some like spicy, some cannot eat such food, some cannot live without meat, some can't live with meat. What does this mean? Human beings are unique and societies are increasingly multicultural and diverse and while people can share in a culture, this does not necessarily mean they agree on everything. At the same time, it does not mean that just because you are of the same ethnicity and culture, your opinions and ideas are going to be different from someone outside your culture. Now, how can people agree? In sociology and anthropology we use the concept of relativism to look past the borders of our beliefs, our own culture and see the culture of another within its own context. It helps us avoid judging other cultures based on our own standards and morality so that we can understand others and meet halfway to resolve conflicts. There are 4 'main' relativistic viewpoints: anthropological, philosophical, descriptive and normative, each with their own set of assumptions. Anthropological viewpoints focus on methodology and are usually applied in ... The solution provides a 1,272-word tutorial module that is geared at discussing cultural differences - why people are unable to understand the viewpoint of others. Among the sociological theories and views discussed include ethnocentricism, relativism and cultural viewpoint. These concepts are explained and discussed to provide an answer to the original question. Examples of situations that exemplify effective cross-cultural communication is included. References are listed for further research.
an n cube , is the n dimensional analog of a cube. It has two hyperfaces on each axis; the hyperfaces are n In general, we call the volume enclosed by a hypercube an n-volume Ordinary "volume" (measured in things like quarts and liters) . Area (measured in things like acres and square meters) is 2-volume The magnitude of the volume of an n-cube with edge length r We can form such an n -cube by "sweeping" )-cube with edge length r in a direction perpendicular to itself, through a distance of r units. The rest of this page just expands on, explains, and attempts to justify those statements. Some examples of "low-dimension" n - A 0-cube is a point, and has no defined volume. - A 1-cube is a line segment; its 1-volume is its length. - A 2-cube is a square; its 2-volume is its area. - A 3-cube is an - A 4-cube is a tesseract, and is occasionally just called a "hypercube". 1: Sweeping out a cube To construct an n start with an n -1 cube, and sweep it through space perpendicular to the hyperplane in which it lies. In figure 1 show this operation for the first three dimensions. We start with a point, at the origin, which out a line segment; the line segment then moves perpendicularly to its length, and sweeps out a square; the square then moves perpendicularly to its surface, and sweeps out a cube. We have a hard time drawing anything higher than 3 dimensional figures so we stopped there. By paying attention to what happens as we do this, we can learn what we need to know about how an n looks. For clarity, we'll usually call 2-dimensional faces "2-faces and n-1 dimensional faces, "hyperfaces We want to know how many vertices, edges, and hyperfaces an n-cube has; each of those is described by a "recurrence relation", based on the number of vertices, edges, and hyperfaces an (n-1)-cube has, and by paying attention to the details as we build a cube we can see what those relations must be. - We started with a point (0 dimensions). A point has 0 edges, 0 "2-faces", and 1 vertex. It also has zero hyperfaces. It has no We sweep the point through space r units to form a line segment, or 1-cube, with length r. It has 1 edge, zero "2-faces", and 2 vertices: - The single vertex of the point was replaced with two new vertices when it swept along: one (old) vertex at its starting and one (new) vertex where it ended. We observe that the vertex was doubled as a result. In general, we will see that an n-dimensional hypercube will have 2n general, just as the single point formed two images of itself -- one where it started sweeping, one where it finished sweeping -- we would expect any hypercube to form two images of itself if it were swept through space perpendicular to the plane in which it lies. each edge will form two "image edges", each face will form two "image faces", and so forth. - The edge was created as the vertex swept along. It seems clear that every vertex will form an edge when it's swept through space. - The 1-volume of the line segment is r, the distance which was "swept out" by the point. - The line segment has two "hyperfaces", which are its vertices; they lie on the axis along which the point swept. We sweep the line segment through space to form a square, or 2-cube. The square has four vertices, four edges, and four "hyperfaces" (the edges). - The two vertices on the line segment each "doubled", giving us four vertices. The number of vertices is, - The line segment "doubles", leaving an edge where it started, and forming another where it ended. of the two vertices of the original line segment has swept out a new edge. Thus, we have four edges altogether: two for edge in the 1-cube, plus one for each vertex in the 1-cube. - The 2-volume of the square is the distance swept times the "1-volume" of the 1-cube, or r2. - The square has four "hyperfaces", which are its edges. The line segment moved along the y axis, and left two images of itself along that axis. The two vertices of the segment each swept out new edges, and they lie on the x see that in general, (n-1)-cube forms two images of itself, which become two hyperfaces of the n-cube. In other words, the n-cube is the volume swept out by one of its hyperfaces. In addition, each hyperface of the (n-1)-cube sweeps out a new (n-1)-cube, which in turns becomes a face of the n-cube. So, we acquired one hyperface for each hyperface of the (n-1)-cube, plus two new hyperfaces: we're "sweeping" along each axis in turn, this means we have one pair of hyperfaces along each axis; the total number of hyperfaces is We sweep the square through space to form a cube, or 3-cube. The 3-cube has eight vertices, 10 edges, and six "hyperfaces" (in the case of a 3-cube, they're the ordinary 2-faces). \|Figure 4: "3-cube"\| - The four vertices on the square each "doubled", giving us eight vertices. Again, we have 2n - Again, each edge of the square "doubled", giving us two new edges in place of each old one. - In addition, each vertex on the square swept out a new edge as it moved. Thus, the number of edges on the 3-cube is equal to the number of vertices on the 2-cube plus twice the number of edges on the 2-cube: - The 3-volume of the 3-cube is the area of the square, times the distance the square moved, or r3. square formed two faces for our cube: one where it started, and one where it ended. In addition, each edge (hyperface) of the formed a new square. So the number of hyperfaces on the 6, which is, as we expected, 2n. Reflective Symmetry Along the Axes There is an additional item here worth emphasizing, which is that it does not make any difference what axis we start with. We can sweep a point along any axis, then sweep the resulting line segment along any of the remaining axes, and so forth. In other words, the hypercube which results is symmetric in swaps of the axes. -- and related -- it is symmetric in reflections through a hyperplane which passes through the center of the cube, and which is perpendicular to one of the axes. Less obscurely, the cube is r units on an edge and we formed it by sweeping along each axis in turn, then if we reflect the cube across the plane xi /2, for any coordinate xi , it will be unchanged. To see this, consider first the last axis, along which we swept an (n -1)-cube to form the n -cube. We have two images of the (n -1)-cube "lying on" that axis: One at 0, and one at r . But think about what happens on the other axes during the final sweep: Each of the faces of the (n -1)-cube, which is, itself, an (n -2)-cube, will sweep out a new -1)-cube, which will become a face of the newly formed n -cube. But because of the way we performed the earlier sweeps, there will be a pair of these along each axis, and we'll end up with a pair of faces along each axis. This is, of course, directly related to the fact that there are 2n faces on an n argument could be formalized into an induction proof fairly easily, but we won't be depending on it in any formal proofs so I won't go through Coordinates of the Vertices Let's consider the process of "sweeping" which we used to construct the hypercubes. We start with a single point in a 0 dimensional space, which has no coordinates. We then introduce a single coordinate (the x coordinate), in which our point is at the origin; when we "sweep" it along the newly introduced axis, we create a second coordinate r units from the origin. So, we have the vertices: Next we introduce a second coordinate (the y coordinate), and place each existing vertex at 0 on the y (0, 0), (r, 0 That's still a line segment lying on the x axis. When we sweep this segment r units along the y axis, we introduce additional vertices which have y values of r . We now have four (0,0), (0, r so it goes. With each "sweep" operation, we add a new "0" coordinate to each existing vertex and we add new vertices which have the same old coordinate values as the old vertices, but " for the new coordinate value instead of 0. For the cube, we thus obtain the set: If we do this again, the vertices of the 4 In general, we see (and we can prove by induction) that every possible combination of "r" and "0" is a vertex. There are two possible values for each coordinate, and n coordinates, so the number of vertices must be 2n , which matches the value we already determined, above. The Set Enclosed Within an n-Cube Each time we "sweep" along an axis as we construct the cube, we start at 0 and move r units. Thus, the length spanned by the cube on each axis is r units, and it includes all points in that region. Since we sweep along each axis, all the points along each axis which fall between 0 and r must be included in the cube. So, the set of points inside the cube must be all those points for which all coordinates are less than or equal to r . (This, by the way, shows that the faces must be where one or more coordinates take on the values r , and from that, we can in turn deduce that the coordinates of the vertices must all be 0 or r , as we already pointed out in the last section.) Formally, we can say: Or, if we wish to include the "skin", we could say the volume occupied by the cube is the set: Page first posted on 11/04/2007
REMOTE-CONTROLLED insects may sound like the stuff of science fiction, but they have already been under development for some time now. In 2006, for example, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA, the Pentagon’s research and development branch) launched the Hybrid Insect Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems program, whose ultimate aim is to turn insects into unmanned aerial vehicles. Such projects provide proof of principle, but have met with limited success. Until now, that is. In the open access journal Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, a team of electrical engineers led by Hirotaka Sato of the University of California, Berkeley, report the development of an implantable radio-controlled neural stimulating device, with which they demonstrate, for the very first time, the accurate control of flight in freely flying insects. The miniaturized system developed by Sato and his colleagues is mounted onto the pronotum (the dorsal, or upper, plate of the exoskeleton), and consists of electrodes implanted into the brain and wing muscles. Flight commands to start and stop flight and control the insect’s elevation and turning were generated on a personal computer running specialized software, and transmitted to a microcontroller which is equipped with a radio transceiver and powered by a microbattery. The device is much simpler to program and use than similar ones developed previously, because it makes implicit use of the beetle’s own flight control capabilities. The researchers found that flight could be initiated by simply applying a single pulse of electrical stimulation via the electrodes implanted into the left and right optic lobes. A single pulse from the same electrodes was also sufficient to stop the wing beats. Exactly how this occurs is unclear; it is known that visual inputs can initiate flight in locusts and fruit flies, and the researchers speculate that stimulation of the optic lobe activates large diameter “giant fibre” motor neurons which project from the brain to the wing muscles. Once initiated, flight continued in the absence of further stimulation. The beetle powers its own flight, and levels with the horizon on its own, so that the neural and muscle stimulators are only used when a change in orientation or elevation is required. Turning could be initiated by asymmetrical stimulation of the muscles at the base of the wings, with a left turn being triggered by an electrical pulse to the right flight muscle, and vice versa. The stimulator could also be used to modulate the frequency of wing oscillations, which caused changes in altitude. Electrically-controllable insects have obvious military applications. They could be used as micro air vehicles for reconnaissence missions, or as couriers which deliver small packages to locations that are not easily accessible to humans or terrestrial robots. The beetles used here (Mecynorrhina torquata) are among the largest of all insect species, and are capable of carrying addditional loads of up to 30% of their 8g body weight. But they could also be very useful to researchers who study insect mating behaviour, the foraging behaviour of insect predators, and flight dynamics and energetics. Sato, H., et al (2009). Remote Radio Control of Insect Flight. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 3 (24). DOI: 10.3389/neuro.07.024.2009.
Step into the ancient world of the Scythians and discover a tale of conquest, displacement, and cultural assimilation that shaped history. Imagine a vast expanse of rolling grasslands, stretching from the Black Sea all the way to China, populated by a diverse yet culturally related group of nomads known as the Scythians or Saka. These horseback-riding warriors were the masters of the steppes, feared and respected by ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Persians, Romans, and Chinese. As Barry Cunliffe, the British archeologist and academic, states, “The valley of the Yenisei river, which rises in the eastern Sayan mountains and flows across the vastness of Siberia to the Arctic Ocean, can fairly claim to be the birthplace of the horse-riding hordes that were to dominate the steppe.” Legend has it that the ancient Greeks coined the term “Scythian” to describe this fierce and proud group of people. And why wouldn’t they? The Scythians were renowned for their unparalleled archery skills on horseback, even without the luxury of stirrups or saddles. They were the ultimate hit-and-run masters, striking fear into their enemies with their ferocious battle tactics. Between the years 800 B.C. and A.D. 300, Scythian culture flourished on the steppes (modern-day Ukraine and southern Russia), leaving an indelible mark on history. Yet, despite their power and influence, they left behind very few records of their own. So, how do we know about this enigmatic empire? It’s a fascinating tale of archaeological discoveries and written accounts from their neighbors. These fragments of history, pieced together like a puzzle, give us a glimpse into the world of the Scythians and the impact they had on the ancient world. Through the study of their burial mounds, weapons, and artifacts, we can catch a glimpse of their culture, customs, and beliefs. And, of course, the written accounts of their neighbors provide a wealth of information about the Scythian Empire and the people who lived within it. So, while the Scythian Empire may have left behind few records of their own, their legacy lives on through the fascinating discoveries of modern-day archaeologists and the written accounts of the ancient world. What did the Scythians Look Like? Many ancient historians painted a vivid picture of the people of Scythia, suggesting a variety of unique and intriguing physical characteristics. The ancient Greeks and Chinese had quite a bit to say about the people of Scythia, and their descriptions are simply fascinating. According to Halicarnassus, a Greek historian from the 5th century BC, the Budini of Scythia had red hair and gray eyes. The Greek physician Hippocrates also weighed in, claiming that the Scythians had light skin and impressive flexibility, which even impacted their warfare strategies. Callimachus, a Greek poet from the 3rd century BC, described the fair-haired Arismapes of Scythia, while Zhang Qian, a Han Chinese envoy from the 2nd century BC, said that the Sai (Saka) had eyes that were yellow (probably meaning hazel or green) and blue. Later Greek philosophers and physicians like Polemon and Galen associated the Scythians with reddish or fair hair as well as blue-grey or reddish hair. And according to the fourth-century bishop Gregory of Nyssa, the Scythians were fair-skinned and blond-haired. Read About: Who Were the Phoenician People in the Bible? Tracing the Origin of the Scythians in Central Asia This region is a melting pot of diverse cultures, languages, and peoples, making it an important hub for studying human evolution. With its strategic location at the crossroads of Eurasia, Central Asia has seen countless waves of migration and genetic mixing over the centuries, leading to some of the highest levels of genetic diversity in Eurasia. From their base in the Caucasus Steppe, the Scythians expanded their territory, conquering the vast lands to the north of the Black Sea up to the Danube River, where they drew the western boundary of their territory. But their thirst for power didn’t stop there. Rumor has it that they might have even had access to the lush plains of Wallachia and Moldavia. It was also noted by ancient historians that they intermarried with the early Iranian populations of the Catacomb culture, leaving their mark on the land and creating a unique blend of cultures. Recent advancements in ancient DNA research have shed light on the genetic history of Central Asian populations. These studies have shown that migration and admixture involving different genetic ancestries have taken place since the Bronze Age. The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), which flourished in southern Central Asia during this time, has been found to have genetic ancestries primarily related to Iranian early farmers (around 60–65%), along with smaller proportions of Anatolian farmer-related ancestry (around 20–25%), and West Siberian hunter-gatherer-related ancestry (around 10%). The BMAC, as it is also known, is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age civilization of Central Asia, previously dated to c. 2400–1900 BC by Sandro Salvatori, in its urban phase, or Integration Era. Around 4,100 years ago, steppe-related ancestry emerged in Central Asia, and during the Iron Age, the genetic makeup of eastern nomads was found in the Central Steppe Scythians and Xinjiang populations. Recently, a new genetic ancestry represented by Tarim_EMBA1 mummies from the Early and Middle Bronze Age in the Tarim Basin of Xinjiang was discovered. Tarim_EMBA1 is believed to have been mainly derived from ancient Northern Eurasian populations and isolated since the early Holocene. However, it is unclear how the unique Xinjiang Bronze Age component, Tarim_EMBA1, contributed to modern Central Asian populations. Although the complex demographic history of Xinjiang populations over the past 5,000 years has been revealed, the admixture of the genetic ancestries mentioned above that contributed to modern Central Asian populations remains unknown. Read About: Indigenous Tribes of Asia How the Scythians Built a Thriving Trading Network? The Pontic Scythians were well-known for their extensive trading activities, importing luxury goods such as personal ornaments, gold and silver items, carved gemstones, wine, oil, weapons, and pottery from mainland Greece and the Aegean Islands. They mainly sourced these items from the workshops of Pontic Olbia during the early Scythian period. However, in the 5th century BC, they began importing pottery from Corinth and Athens. During the late Scythian period, their trade shifted towards the Bosporan kingdom, with most of their imported pottery and decorated items coming from Panticapaeum. It is worth noting that the market for Pontic Olbia was limited to a small part of western Scythia during this period. A significant trade route existed in Scythia during the early Scythian period. It began in Pontic Olbia and followed the Inhul River, crossed the Dnipro, then turned east towards the Gelonians’ country. The route continued by crossing the Don and Volga rivers, passing through the Ural Mountains, and extending into Asia until the Altai Mountains. Scythian traders traveled along this route to engage in commerce, and it was also used to transport gold from eastern Eurasia to Pontic Olbia. The Scythians’ conquest of the north Pontic region and their establishment of a “Pax Scythica” made it safe for traders to use this route. Pontic Olbia’s location allowed it to become an important commercial and cultural center in the northern Pontic region, and the city maintained friendly relations with its neighboring populations. The Scythian kings possibly provided protection and cooperation to enable flourishing trade relations, resulting in the rapid growth of Greek colonies on the northern shores of the Black Sea during the 6th century BC. The Scythian upper classes also benefited from these relations and became significantly wealthier. The trade relationship between the Greeks and the Scythians had a significant impact on both cultures. Greek art influenced Scythian art, and during the Late Scythian period, most of the artwork found in Scythian tombs was created by Greek artisans and depicted Scythian motifs and scenes. However, in the 5th century BC, the Scythians, and Greek cities’ relations became more hostile, resulting in the former destroying the latter’s rural settlements and grain-producing hinterlands. The Scythians then instituted an economic policy that made the sedentary peoples of the forest steppe north of them the primary producers of grain. This grain was transported through the Buh and Dnipro rivers to Greek cities like Tyras, Niconium, and Pontic Olbia, which exported it to mainland Greece at a profit. This arrangement ended sometime between 435 and 400 BC, with the Greek cities regaining their independence and rebuilding their rural settlements. The Scythians also participated in the Silk Road, a vast trade network that connected Greece, Persia, India, and China. Settled metalworkers produced portable decorative objects for the Scythians, resulting in a distinctive Scythian art style. While most Scythian groups were not direct beneficiaries of the Silk Road trade, they had the opportunity to organize raids on trading caravans or collect tolls. Some Scythians also traded with Silk Road merchants, and Scythian warriors traveled the Silk Road to sell their services as mercenaries or bodyguards. Who are the Descendants of the Scythians? Research suggests that Ossetians are the last remaining linguistic and cultural descendants of the ancient nomadic Scythians. Ossetians are a unique ethnic group who call the southern side of the Caucasus mountains their home, specifically South Ossetia in central Georgia and North Ossetia in southern Russia. There are around 500,000 Ossetians, and the majority of them live in Kabardino-Balkaria and near Stavropol in the Caucasus area of southern Russia, as well as in Tbilisi and other locations in eastern Georgia. Ossetians can also be found in other former Soviet Union countries, while Turkey is home to several Muslim Ossetians. North Ossetia is home to the majority of Muslim Ossetians. With their distinctive physical features, such as high cheekbones and blade-like noses, which is why it’s easy to spot an Ossetian in a crowd. The Ossetians have inherited much of the culture of the medieval Alans, who introduced equestrian culture to Europe. Their rich oral literature includes the epic of the Narts, a body of heroic legends that shares much in common with the Persian Book of Kings and other works of Indo-European mythology. What Happened to the Scythians? For a long time, the Scythians were a force to be reckoned with. Their reputation for fearlessness and strength preceded them, and many believed that they were invincible. However, as time passed, it became clear that they were not invulnerable after all. Their defeat at the hands of King Philip II of Macedonia in 339 B.C. was a turning point. The Scythians, led by King Ateas, tried to cross the Danube River but were met with fierce resistance from Philip’s troops. The ensuing battle was savage, with Ateas losing his life and tens of thousands of his people being taken captive. Years later, the Saka tribe of Scythians suffered another crushing defeat, this time at the hands of the young prince named Alexander, a name that would go down in history as “the Great.” In the Battle of Jaxartes, Alexander proved himself to be a strong opponent, finally cornering the elusive nomads and slaying their leader. Ignite your personal growth journey with our handpicked collection of inspiring content. Sign up now for a life-changing dose of motivation and wellness.
13.8 billion years ago, all the matter and energy contained within our Universe was concentrated into a volume of space about the size of a soccer ball. Even with all that energy in such a small space, however, we didn't collapse into a black hole. Instead, the Universe expanded at a rapid rate that balanced the energy density so precisely that, for all of our measured cosmic history, we've walked that fine line between expanding and recollapsing. Today, all we can see within the Universe extends for some 46 billion light-years in all directions, and scientists can trace this origin back to a hot, dense, more uniform and more rapidly expanding state. Like many theorists, you might be tempted to extrapolate this back even farther, to an arbitrarily hot and dense state: a singularity. But that temptation is the root of most of our misunderstandings surrounding the birth of the Universe. The Big Bang wasn't the beginning, after all. Instead, that honor goes to cosmic inflation, and everyone should understand why. When we look out at the Universe today, we see a number of observable facts that cry out for an explanation. They include: - the fact that more distant galaxies appear to recede from us in direct proportion to their distance from us, - the fact that galaxies, at greater distances, appear to be smaller, bluer, younger, and less evolved, - the fact that the Universe, at greater distances, appears to be less clumpy and more uniform, with less clustering on large-scales, - the fact that the percentage of heavy elements (atoms heavier than hydrogen and helium) asymptotes to 0% at the greatest distances, - and the fact that we see a very cold but clearly identifiable background of blackbody radiation in all directions in space. Remarkably, one framework is consistent with each and every one of these observations: the Big Bang. According to the big idea of the Big Bang, the Universe was hotter, denser, and more uniform in the past, and that it evolved into what it is today by expanding, cooling, and gravitating to form a great cosmic web. The fabric of space itself expands as time goes on, as the laws of General Relativity demand for a Universe that's filled with roughly equal amounts of matter and energy in all directions and locations, causing the wavelengths of photons to stretch, the kinetic energy of massive particles to decrease, and enabling gravitational imperfections to steadily grow. In the framework of the Big Bang, each of the observable phenomena mentioned earlier get a physical explanation: distant galaxies appear to redshift because the expanding Universe stretches the light's wavelength; more distant galaxies really are younger and less evolved; the Universe was less clustered in the past; the primeval atomic ratios are 75% hydrogen, 25% helium, and 0.00000007% lithium; the leftover radiation was discovered in the mid-1960s. That last discovery pretty much killed every one of the Big Bang's alternatives, and installed the Big Bang as the cosmic origin story for everything within our observable Universe. The Universe emerged from this early hot, dense, and uniform state, and over time it expanded and cooled. When it cools below a specific energy threshold, it becomes unable to spontaneously generate particles whose mass (via E = mc2) is too great; over the first few fractions-of-a-second, every antimatter particle other than positrons and anti-neutrinos annihilate away. About 1 second after the Big Bang, neutrinos and antineutrinos "freeze out," meaning their (energy-dependent) interaction rates drop to such a low frequency that they effectively never interact again. And as we move forward, nuclear reactions occur and then cease; neutral atoms stably form, releasing that primeval radiation; gravitational imperfections grow on progressively larger and larger scales, leading to the formation of the first stars, then galaxies, and then the enormous cosmic web. But what about the Big Bang's origin story? Where did the Big Bang itself come from? If you extrapolate the expanding and cooling Universe all the way back as far as theoretical physics allows you to go, you'll come to an event in the past known as a singularity. Essentially, you'd be packing all the matter and energy in the Universe into a single point. (The laws of physics break down, and stop giving sensible answers, once you reach an extremely high energy of ~1019 GeV per particle, which corresponds to an "age of the Universe" of ~10-43 seconds after the Big Bang.) A singularity, from the perspective of General Relativity, is the only event that can correspond to the beginning or ending point of space and time. Therefore, we could extrapolate all the way back to a singularity in the framework of the Big Bang, and arrive at a point that we could legitimately refer to as "the beginning." From the 1920s up through the 1970s, scientists thought they had a satisfactory story for our cosmic origins, and only a few questions remained unresolved. All of them, however, had something in common: they all asked some variety of the question, "why did the Universe begin with a specific set of properties, and not others?" - Why was the Universe born perfectly spatially flat, with its total matter-and-energy density perfectly balancing the initial expansion rate? - Why is the Universe the exact same temperature, to 99.997% accuracy, in all directions, even though the Universe hasn't existed for enough time for different regions to thermalize and reach an equilibrium state? - Why, if the Universe reached these ultra-high energies early on, are there no high-energy relics (like magnetic monopoles) predicted by generic extensions to the Standard Model of particle physics? - And why, since the entropy of a system always increases, was the Universe born in such a low-entropy configuration relative to its configuration today? In physics, we have two ways of dealing with questions like these. Because all of these questions are about initial conditions — i.e., why did our system (the Universe) begin with these specific conditions and not any others — we can take our pick of the following: - We can attempt to concoct a theoretical mechanism that transforms arbitrary initial conditions into the ones we observe, including that reproduces all the successes of the hot Big Bang, and then tease out new predictions that will allow us to test the new theory against the old theory of the plain old Big Bang without any alterations. - Or, we can simply assert that the initial conditions are what they are and not only is there no explanation for those values/parameters, but we don't need one. Although it's not clear to everyone, the first option is the only one that's scientific; the second option, often touted by those who philosophize about the landscape or the multiverse, is tantamount to giving up on science entirely. The big idea that actually succeeded is known, today, as cosmic inflation. In 1979/80, Alan Guth proposed that an early phase of the Universe, where all the energy wasn't in particles or radiation but in the fabric of space itself instead, would lead to a special type of exponential expansion known as a de Sitter phase. In this state, any initial patch of the Universe that began inflating would: - get stretched, on incredibly short timescales, to such a large size that its topology would become indistinguishable from flat to any observer, - have the same initial conditions (density and temperature) everywhere, up to the scale of quantum fluctuations, which get superimposed atop a uniform background, since our entire observable Universe was once all causally connected in the same region of space in the distant past, - only reach a maximum temperature that was significantly lower than the Planck scale (that 1019 GeV energy scale mentioned earlier) when inflation ends and transitions into the hot, dense, uniform, expanding-and-cooling state we associate with the hot Big Bang, - and would go from a lower-entropy state of an inflating Universe to a much-higher entropy state of the hot Big Bang, where entropy will continue to increase as it does in our observed Universe. Since inflation was first proposed and refined during the early-to-mid 1980s, we've learned a lot about our cosmic origins. In addition to reproducing the hot Big Bang's successes and explaining these otherwise inexplicable initial conditions, it made six novel predictions about properties the Universe should have today, with four observationally verified and two not yet sufficiently tested to know for certain. Among most people who study the early Universe, inflation is accepted as the new consensus theory. We might not know everything there is to know about inflation, but either it — or something so similar to it that we don't have an observation to tell them apart — must have happened. With all that said, what does that mean for our cosmic origins? From a timeline perspective, what comes first: the Big Bang or inflation? Believe it or not, the above graph contains all the information you'd need to know for certain. Two of the curves — red and blue — represent a Universe dominated by either matter or radiation. As you can clearly see, if you extrapolate them back arbitrarily to the past, you get an inifinitely small size at a finite time of t=0, which is a singularity. But if at some early time, the Universe isn't dominated by matter or radiation, but by a form of energy inherent to space itself, you get the yellow curve. Note how this yellow curve, since it's an exponential curve, never reaches zero in size, but only approaches it, even if you go infinitely far back in time. An inflating Universe doesn't begin in a singularity like a matter-dominated or radiation-dominated Universe does. All we can state with certainty is that the state we call the hot Big Bang only came about after the end of inflation. It says nothing about inflation's origins. In fact, our entire observable Universe contains no signatures at all from almost all of its pre-hot-Big-Bang history; only the final 10-32 seconds (or so) of inflation even leave observably imprinted signatures on our Universe. We do not know where the inflationary state came from, however. It might arise from a pre-existing state that does have a singularity, it might have existed in its inflationary form forever, or the Universe itself might even be cyclical in nature. There are a lot of people who mean "the initial singularity" when they say "the Big Bang," and to those people, I say it's long past due for you to get with the times. The hot Big Bang cannot be extrapolated back to a singularity, but only to the end of an inflationary state that preceded it. We cannot state with any confidence, because there are no signatures of it even in principle, what preceded the very end-stages of inflation. Was there a singularity? Maybe, but even if so, it doesn't have anything to do with the Big Bang. Inflation came first, and its end heralded the arrival of the Big Bang. There are still those who disagree, but they're now nearly a full 40 years out of date. When they assert that "the Big Bang was the beginning," you'll know why cosmic inflation actually came first. As far as what came before the final fraction-of-a-second of inflation? Your hypothesis is just as good as anyone's.
The Colorado Plateau of southern Utah is a kaleidoscope of color. Here, you’ll find coral deserts, crimson canyons, orange spires, and white salt flats. The plateau is also a potpourri of topography. Much of the region seems like a different planet. Here are four ways this wondrous landscape resembles another world. 1. Mirror of Mars In November 2011, NASA launched a robotic rover called “Curiosity.” Nine months later, in August 2012, the vehicle landed on Mars. Its mission is to assess whether the Martian environment is suitable for human exploration. Photographs taken by Curiosity show many similarities between Utah’s red deserts and the salmon landscape of Mars. Marjorie Chan, geology professor at the University of Utah, has compared the two terrains. In September 2012, Professor Chan gave a lecture at Clark Planetarium, highlighting how Utah mirrors Mars. The region with the keenest resemblance is Utah’s Toadstool Trail. 2. Mystical Windows Copper stone arches form mystical windows. At Arches National Park, over 2,000 of these portholes frame panoramic vistas. The formation Landscape Arch spans 300 feet! Easy trails meander through the park, inviting delightful hikes. Originally, the land was a sandstone coastal plain. As time passed, the sand was covered by debris and hardened. Then the land erupted, hurling layers of rock and casting them into domes. Wind and rain scoured the mounds, eventually creating windows. When the sun begins its afternoon descent, the arches reflect its radiance. In 2014, Prague geologists studied how these intriguing sculptures form. Sand becomes strengthened by pressure exerted from above, forging into stone. Wind and water then fracture the stone, eroding it and carving shapes. Lead study author, Jiří Bruthans, explains, “It’s like each rock is inhabited by a spirit, controlling the erosion.” 3. Marching Minarets The majestic rocks of Bryce Canyon form a kingdom of minarets. These narrow, sculpted spires (also known as hoodoos) are comprised of limestone, sandstone, and shale. When the morning sun beams upon them, they smile back with an orange glow. Minerals within the layers paint the pillars with stripes. The colors are also enchanting when bathed in soft moonlight. The rocks date back to a wet period roughly 40 million years ago. Standing 5 to 150 feet in height, some soar as tall as a 10-story building! Resembling elaborate chess pieces, they grant a regal aura to the land. 4. Royal Wave The Wave is a curvaceous sandstone valley, rolling on the Colorado Plateau near the Arizona-Utah border. Its undulating path is embraced by layered, burnished cliffs. Two U-shaped troughs comprise the valley, eroded by wind and rain. A permit is required to hike there. The sandstone is soft and fragile, and hikers must tread lightly to avoid causing damage. The Bureau of Land Management restricts access by issuing 20 permits a day. Ten of them are available in advance through an online lottery, held four months before a prospective trip. The remaining 10 permits are issued by lottery the day before a planned hike. Bryce Canyon National Park is among Utah’s “mighty five,” the most favored national parks in the state. Here, you’ll find natural bridges, towering walls known as “fins,” and the “hoodoos” or minarets mentioned above. Unique animal species make their home in the park, including mule deer, pronghorn, elk, and prairie dog. Several types of Bryce Canyon lodging accommodations are available. Campgrounds offer close-up views of sandstone formations, glinting in the rising and setting sun. Seven motels provide a choice of cozy cabins, cottages, suites, and guest rooms. Nine eateries serve a range of cuisines. Bryce Canyon is a location you won’t forget. Of the eight planets in our solar system, only Earth sustains human life. Among the 50 American states, Utah is unique in natural wonders. Visiting southern Utah is like exploring a different planet. How fortunate we are that this magical place is within the world we call home!
Application of Multiple Intelligence in the Classroom Intelligence is mostly understood in a narrow way within the society. Some people assume that having high grades for mathematics or science means high intelligence; while some people think the ability to acquire many languages means high intelligence. Gardner, Professor of Education at Harvard University, refused the idea of a “single intelligence” that dictate the meaning of intelligence for every person. Instead, he came up with the idea of multiple intelligence. In the school context, it is very important to apply and develop the concept of multiple intelligence; however teachers often find difficulties in applying it to lesson plans. The application of multiple intelligence can open up students’ mind about “what is intelligence” and whether they are “intelligent”, aside from the popular perception of the term. This can also invite the students to be more creative in learning. This example can be applied in various topics or lesson objectives, for instance language ability (stories), essay, history, even science. In this example, the learning objective is dissecting a story for its chronology, character, and moral message. 1. Verbal-Linguistic (Words) Write a story, poetry, or script out a monologue. Explain the logic or theory behind decision-making in the story or using numbers to relate to the stories. Compose or discuss a song that are related to the story. Draw, paint, or collect images/pictures/paintings to show the understanding of the story. Game of charades with the audience or dance. 6. Interpersonal (Communication) Write a play or pretend news story to be delivered by the student or other classmates. 7. Intrapersonal (Self) Present a journal or diary describing any changes of behaviour, habits, or greater self-understanding. Describe what you learn using nature, such as plants or animals. Did you find the information above useful? If so, we have created an E-Book version of this article which you can download for free. Simply use the sign-up form below to access the download links: You're on Brain Optimax's Learning SiteGo to Brain Optimax's Main Site →Pada usia lebih dari 24 bulan, anak mulai memiliki ketertarikan untuk berinteraksi dengan orang selain anggota keluarga. Perilaku yang terlihat bisa berupa menyapa atau memperhatikan orang asing.... The holiday season is an ideal time for your child to rest and recharge. If your child has been yearning for a break from the stress and routine of the hectic academic school term – he now has a “neuro-scientific” excuse for it. … You're on Brain Optimax's Learning Site Go to Brain Optimax's Main Site → Reading is very important in our school-age children’s lives. Even though it is involved in every subject, many children struggle to love it, some even hates the activity. How to get our...
Home \| Cultural and Racial Diversity \| Black athletes Black Athletes Introduction Black Canadian athletes often transformed discriminatory attitudes towards visible minorities by achieving excellence on the field of competition. As captain of the Canadian Olympic track and field team, Dr. Phil Edwards challenged Nazi-fuelled racism at the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin with his leadership and athletic prowess, capturing bronze in the 800-m event. The first female black athlete to represent Canada, sprinter Barbara Howard captured medals at the British Empire Games in 1938 and later became the first black teacher to be hired by the Vancouver school board. The only Canadian ever inducted into the Major League Baseball Hall of Fame, Ferguson Jenkins never forgot the barriers his father had faced only a generation earlier as an athlete in the era of racial segregation. These and the outstanding achievements of many other black athletes have enriched Canada's sport heritage immeasurably, affirming the power of sport to promote equality, diversity, and the universality of human potential.
The demand for food in the UK The changing demand for food in the UK Seasonal food refers to the times of the year when the harvest or the flavour of a given type of food is at its peak. This is usually the time when the item is harvested. Before supermarkets, most food eaten in the UK was sourced in the UK and seasonal. Fruit and vegetables were available according to the season. For example, during the summer months, lettuce and strawberries were widely available, whereas, during the winter, parsnips and cabbage were sold. Food was also preserved by being bottled, frozen and pickled. Today, we are used to enjoying seasonal fruit and vegetables throughout the year. However, because some food cannot be grown throughout the year in the UK, it has to be imported from other countries, along with food that is not native to the UK, such as avocado and mango. Therefore, there has been an increase in food being imported into the UK. Even seasonal fruits and vegetables are imported from other countries. It can be cheaper for food to be grown in low-income countries and transported to the UK, despite the increased food miles. Forty-five per cent of the UK’s food was imported in 2019. Demand for non-seasonal products has brought challenges and benefits for low-income countries (LICs) such as Kenya and the Caribbean. The main benefits are: The challenges associated with the growth in demand for out-of-season fruit and vegetables include: There has been an increasing demand for organic food in the UK. Organic food is produced without chemicals such as fertilisers and pesticides. Organic produce includes meat, fruit and vegetables. Organic farmers operate without chemical pesticides by using natural predators to consume pests such as ladybirds eating blackflies. Crops are rotated to maintain nutrients. Also, natural fertilisers are used. To combat weeds, mechanical weeders are used instead of chemicals. Animals are reared without drugs, such as hormones, to promote growth. Organic food has grown in popularity since the 1990s for several reasons. These include: Demand for organic food declined between 2009-11 due to the global recession leading to households having reduced incomes. Organic food is more expensive because yields (crops) are lower than farms that use chemicals. However, people are prepared to pay the extra as they believe organic produce tastes better. Supermarkets now sell 75% of organic food in the UK. The remaining 25% is sold at farmers’ markets and vegetable box schemes (where organic vegetables are delivered to the customer’s door). The most popular organic products are dairy products, including milk, cheese and yoghurt. Carbon footprints, ‘food miles’ and moves towards local sourcing of food Use the images below to explore related GeoTopics.
- Project plans - Project activities - Legislation and standards - Industry context - Specialist wikis Last edited 25 Aug 2023 Ground coupling, thermal stores and earth bermed buildings What is ground or earth coupling? The ground coupling effect or earth coupling, in terms of the design and construction of buildings, is any mechanism that makes use of the natural effect of the earth's constant ground temperature. Between about three and twelve metres below ground surface, the temperature of the earth remains relatively constant throughout the year, so in summer it is cooler than the outside temperature and in winter it is warmer than the outside temperature. The effect lessens gradually as depth decreases. The earth’s internal heat was originally produced gradually through accretion. Since then heat has been produced by the radioactive decay of elements such as uranium, thorium and potassium. Due to its high enthalpy, this type of heat is often harvested in volcanic areas for electricity production and large district heating. However the majority of heat stored within the Earth’s surface comes from the sun. This heat is widely available, and because of its low enthalpy, meaning it is generally exothermic releasing more heat than is absorbed, it can be beneficial to energy systems and buildings. Ground source heat pumps can pump heat from the ground into a building to provide space heating and domestic hot water. They do so either using a liquid medium to transfer the heat within a closed system of component parts or in an open system making use of natural ground water. In general for every unit of electricity used to pump the the medium containing the heat, 3-4 units of heat can be produced. - A ground loop or ground heat exchanger (GHE), normally made up of lengths of plastic pipe buried in the ground, either in a borehole or a horizontal trench. The pipe is generally a closed circuit and is filled with a mixture of water and antifreeze, which is pumped round the pipe absorbing heat from the ground. In the case of open systems a heat pump is connected directly to the ground water which extracts the warmth or coolth directly. - A heat pump. Heat pumps are used in fridges and air conditioners, they work by using the evaporation and condensing of a refrigerant to move heat from one place to another. In this case, the evaporator, takes heat from the water in the ground loop; the condenser gives up heat to a hot water tank which feeds the distribution system. - A compressor. This uses electricity to move the refrigerant around the heat pump, compressing the gaseous refrigerant to increase the temperature at which it condenses to that needed for the distribution circuit. - A heat distribution system. This consists of under floor heating or radiators for space heating and water storage for hot water supply. Some systems can also be used for cooling in the summer. There are essentially two different design characteristics to consider which create four basic options in the set up of ground source heat pumps, that being closed or open loop systems and vertical or horizontal network. - Horizontal – closed loop heat pump - Vertical (probe) – closed loop heat pump - Vertical – open loop heat pump - Horizontal surface water open heat pump. Inter-seasonal thermal energy storage also called seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) works in a very similar way to ground source heat pumps with the main difference being that rather than extracting the existing heat from the ground via the coupling effect, it actively stores heat in the ground. Solar collectors increase the amount of heat collected during warmer summer months, this heat is then pumped into the ground loop system for longer periods of time, or seasonally. The ground loops or thermal banks are specifically designed to be able to take increased levels of heat and store this over longer periods of time in a storage medium or what is known as salt in matrix (SIM). These systems still benefit from the ground coupling effect but actively store heat, increasing temperatures and cycles of storage and extraction. An earth-to-air heat exchangers work in a similar way to ground source heat pumps but are more direct because the medium used to transport the heat is air, which is directly warmed or cooled. The systems draw ventilation supply air through ducts or tubes buried in the ground. This substantially reduces the fluctuations in ambient air temperature, which can provide conditioned air throughout the year, with the incoming air being heated in the winter and cooled in the summer by means of earth coupling. These types of systems might be driven by natural stack ventilation, which draws the air through the system from a thermal pressure difference at the highest point. However because of design restrictions many systems use low level mechanical ventilation at one or both ends to create the required circulation. In some cases air is circulated via air handling units, allowing filtering and supplementary heating or cooling where a simple controller can be used to monitor inlet and outlet temperatures, as well as indoor air temperatures. Other more simplified systems might use direct air supply either drawn through the system by the stack effect or by mechanical drivers. The ducts or tubes that draw the air though the ground can be of plastic, concrete or clay. The material choice is of little consequence thermally due to the high thermal resistance of the ground. Earth-to-air heat exchangers are suited to mechanically ventilated buildings with a moderate cooling demand, located in climates with a large temperature differential between summer and winter, and between day and night. Location of the duct sin sand or gravel below the water level, where there is moving ground water, gives the best performance, however, the presence of ground water involves extensive sealing precautions. Earth bermed buildings, often called earth shelters or earth sheltered buildings, are a design approach that connects a building more significantly to the ground and landscape around it than simply sitting upon it. This typology is normally built slightly below ground or at ground level with an earth berm around that covers most of the external walls and potentially also the roof, creating a sunken or earth sheltered appearance. Depending on the detail design approach, the building will, to differing degrees, benefit from an earth coupling effect whereby the thermal mass, insulative and protective qualities of the surrounding earth benefit the thermal performance of the building. An earth coupled building does not insulate between the internal space and the earth and as such benefits from the decreased fluctuation of the earths temperature, it will however have insulation and normally high internal mass or glazing on any walls exposed externally. One well known example of an earth bermed housing scheme is the Hockerton Housing Project, which is a linear cluster of five self-sufficient houses built in Nottinghamshire in 1997 by Brenda Vale. Theses houses are earth coupled and as such require zero to minimal heating and have lower-than-normal energy consumption, which is supplied by onsite renewable energy generation from two 6 kW turbines and 7.6 kW solar panels. - Coefficient of Performance CoP. - Dynamic thermal modelling of closed loop geothermal heat pump systems. - Earth berm. - Earth bermed buildings. - Earth to air heat exchangers. - Geothermal energy. - Geothermal pile foundations. - Ground energy options - Ground preconditioning of supply air. - Ground source heat pumps. - Renewable energy sources: how they work and what they deliver: Part 3: Electrically driven heat pumps DG 532 3. - Thermal labyrinths. Featured articles and news Years first report shows good product availability and prices. A guide to the roles, duties and competencies now published. The medieval stained glass of Herefordshire and Shropshire. Environment Committee publish open letter to the Mayor. Significant transformation for built environment landscape. Setting new benchmarks to help reshape design practice. Looking back at the Egan Report and its impact. CLC launch plan to support the natural environment. Terminology, benefits and barriers. Electrotechnical businesses are feeling the effects of the economic slowdown. When did they start and how many are there? Roadmap to guide professionals in using smart technology. Campaigning for buildings of all periods. Meaning, understanding and implementation. Advancing sustainable and regenerative project management. Promised to be pragmatic and practical guidance.
Simple AAC – 3. Months and Months Learning AAC takes time. It’s really important to remember that we might not see results straight away, and some AAC learners will need MONTHS and MONTHS of modelling before they are ready to begin to use AAC themselves. If you think about it, typically developing children get to hear spoken language modelled to them for 12-18 months before we expect them to say a single word! And before they say any words, speaking children will have typically spent time playing around and experimenting with different speech sounds by babbling. AAC users need to babble too! They need time to play around and experiment with different symbols and words. I often hear parents and professionals who are concerned that the AAC learner is “just playing” with the device. That might be true, but this is okay! “Babies have months and months to babble. AAC users need the same opportunity to practice using their language.” We can take this as an opportunity to respond to the ‘babble’ as meaningful communication, to help support the learner to understand the symbols they are selecting. Adults do this all the time with young children who are learning to talk. Sometimes when babies babble, they might make noises which sound like a word, like “dadada”, to which their parents might respond “Yes, daddy! It’s daddy!”. Even if the baby wasn’t saying “Daddy” the response of their parents will help them to learn that word and its meaning. Even children who have been using AAC for some time will often “play” with a new page or new vocabulary when it is added to their device – how else will they learn what those symbols sound like and what they mean? So, if your AAC learner is babbling? Respond to the babble as meaningful, and keep on modelling whilst we keep things interesting! Request a quote Quickly put together what you need and send it over to us.
Students writing in a second language are also faced with social and cognitive challenges related to second language acquisition. L1 models of writing instruction and research on composing processes have been the theoretical basis for using the process approach in L2 writing pedagogy. However, language proficiency and competence underlies the ability to write in the L2 in a fundamental way. The introduction opening paragraph basically accomplishes two goals: Open with a series of questions about the topic. Present startling or unusual facts or figures. Define an important, subject related term. Quote a well known person or literary work. Body Developmental paragraphs body paragraphs are the heart of an essay. They must clearly and logically support the thesis. They must be arranged in the best possible way, e. The paragraphs should flow smoothly from one to the next, e. In addition, minor supporting ideas are linked together within the paragraphs in a smooth manner. Conclusion The conclusion is the summary paragraph. It should accomplish the following: Development General-to-specific sequence The topic sentence should be the first sentence in a paragraph. The topic sentence is a general statement introducing the paragraph and is followed by specific details that expand, explain, or illustrate the topic sentence. Unity All the sentences should relate to one topic. Completeness Supporting ideas should be developed enough to cover the topic. Coherence Coherence equals connection and consistency. Body paragraphs should flow smoothly from one to the next, e. Within a paragraph, there are three major ways to develop coherence through related sentences: Repetition of important words and pronouns - Repetition of key words helps the reader follow from sentence to sentence as important terms are defined and the relationship between them is explained. Synonyms and substitutions - Synonyms are two or more words that have nearly the same thing. Substitution is a word that describes the subject. Transitional expressions - Transitional expressions are words and phrases that point out the exact relationship between one idea and another, one sentence and another, e. Just as the sentences within a paragraph should flow smoothly, so the paragraphs within an essay should be clearly linked one to the next. The first sentence of each new paragraph is linked to the thesis statement or to the paragraph before. The following are four ways to link paragraphs: Repetition of key words or ideas from the thesis statement 2. Reference to words or ideas from the preceding paragraph 3. Use of transitional expressions 4. Use of transitional sentences A closer look at development Comparison and Contrast There are two ways to present similarities and differences between two things being compared or contrasted.The Purdue University Online Writing Lab serves writers from around the world and the Purdue University Writing Lab helps writers on Purdue's campus. Sandra Cisneros (born December 20, ) is a Mexican-American writer. She is best known for her first novel The House on Mango Street () and her subsequent short story collection Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories (). Her work experiments with literary forms and investigates emerging subject positions, which Cisneros herself attributes to growing up in a context of cultural. Learn English Paragraph Writing Skills (new and improved edition II of Academic writing Skills for Graduate Students) is an academic paragraph writing skills guide for International ESL students. Guidelines for using IN-TEXT CITATIONS in a SUMMARY (or RESEARCH PAPER) Christine Bauer-Ramazani. The purpose of a summary is to give the reader, in a about 1/3 of the original length of an article/lecture, a clear, objective picture of the original lecture or text. How to Write a Book Report. In this Article: Article Summary Researching and Outlining Your Report Writing the Body of Your Report Finishing Up Your Report Sample Book Report and Summaries Community Q&A Writing a book report may not seem fun at first, but it gives you a great chance to really understand a work and its author. The Purdue University Online Writing Lab serves writers from around the world and the Purdue University Writing Lab helps writers on Purdue's campus.
ANN ARBOR--Humans have been cooling metal mixtures from liquid to solid for thousands of years. But surprisingly, not much is known about exactly what happens during the process of solidification. Particularly puzzling is the solidification of eutectics, which are mixtures of two or more solid phases. Ashwin Shahani, an assistant professor of materials science and engineering at the University of Michigan, is working to solve the mystery of eutectic solidification, and his research has revealed an intricate and beautiful universe of nanoscale rods, sheets and spirals that form spontaneously in cooling metal alloys. We sat down recently to talk with him about his latest paper, "Multi-Step Crystallization of Self-Organized Spiral Eutectics," and how it could lead to a new generation of lightweight alloys and optical products with properties superior to monolithic materials. What motivated you to study metal solidification? I think it's one of the most remarkable feats of nature. How can these elaborate patterns form spontaneously from a disordered liquid? Why does nature choose one pattern or configuration over another? A lot of it is just inborn curiosity and the joy of sharing it with my students. Why is it important to understand how these nanoscale structures form? A material's nanoscale structure changes its properties. So if we can understand why a given structure forms, we can design a manufacturing process to recreate it, or even change it to build in specific properties that we want. We can make materials that are lighter, or stronger, or that bend light in a certain way, for example. What could those new materials be used for? A material that bends light in a certain way could be used to make an invisibility coating. You could engineer a single sheet of metal with properties that differ along its surface--for example an airplane wing that's stronger in some places and lighter in others. You could make lighter and more fuel-efficient automotive components. The possibilities are just about endless. Why can't we make these materials using existing manufacturing methods? We can, but it's extremely difficult and time-consuming. If we want to fabricate a nanoscale spiral pattern, for example, we have to use lithography to print each tiny spiral. That's not practical for large-scale manufacturing. But what if you could cause those spirals to self-assemble just by cooling the liquid differently or slightly changing its mix of metals? That would make the process much faster and more scalable. If humans have been using solidification for so long, why hasn't someone already figured this out? Because in the past, this kind of research relied on sectioning up a material that has already solidified and looking at it under the microscope. And that gives you a very limited view of how solidification happens. We're using a unique combination of multiscale and multimodal imaging technologies to create a 3D picture of what's happening in real time during the solidification process. It involves combining a lot of different imaging techniques that can give us a cohesive picture from the scale of micrometers all the way down to individual atoms. What are some of the challenges of combining all those technologies? One of the biggest challenges is that high-resolution 3D images are just so data-intensive. That makes this a big data challenge as well as a materials science challenge. Obviously, just having a high level of computing power is important, but we've also introduced some novel strategies. For example, we've begun using machine learning algorithms to comb through our data and find things that are noteworthy. What's the next step for this research? Most engineering materials consist of not just two components but a cocktail of elements. So right now, we're looking at how chemistry affects the solidification process. If I add a small amount of another metal to the molten mix, how does that change the nanoscale structures that form? It's another step toward understanding and ultimately controlling these structures.
Issued as part of the ongoing Bicentennial celebration, the 13¢ State Flags pane was a first in U.S. history. This was the first time a pane with 50 face-different stamps was issued. Each state is represented by its official flag, with the stamps arranged on the sheet in the same order each state was admitted into the Union. Texas’ state flag was adopted in 1845 when Texas became the 28th state in the Union. Its colors are adopted from the U.S. flag, with the blue standing for loyalty, the white representing strength, and the red symbolizing bravery. Texas Admitted To The Union On December 29, 1845, Texas was admitted as America’s 28th state. About 30,000 Indians lived in Texas when the first Europeans arrived in the area. The Caddo were the largest of many tribes, and were known for farming and living in permanent homes. The Arkokisa, Attacapa, Karankawa, and other smaller tribes lived along the coast. The Coahuiltecans lived in southern Texas. The warlike Lipan Apaches lived on the Edwards Plateau in the west and the Comanche and Tonkawa Indians roamed the plains. “Glory, God and gold” was the motto of the Spanish explorers who arrived in the Texas region during the early 1500s. In 1519, Alonso Álvarez de Piñeda mapped the gulf coastline from Florida to Mexico. Most historians believe the members of this expedition were the first Europeans to reach Texas. Many Spanish explorers set out into the interior of Texas looking for “golden cities,” called the Seven Cities of Cibola. In 1682, Franciscan missionaries built the first two missions in Texas. These expeditions and missions were the basis of Spain’s claim to Texas. The French began to explore the area in 1685 and even built a mission there, called Fort Saint Louis. Spain sent a force to remove the French, but Indians killed the settlers and destroyed the fort before they could arrive. By 1731, the Spanish had sent over 90 expeditions into Texas and had established missions in the central, eastern, and southwestern portions of the region. Forts were built to protect missions from attack. In 1718, a fort near San Antonio de Bexar was built to defend the mission of San Antonio de Valero. The mission and fort stood at the site of present-day San Antonio. Spain made San Antonio the center of power in Texas. In 1803, the United States made the Louisiana Purchase, buying 827,987 square miles of land from France. France had made claims involving Texas all the way to the Rio Grande. However, an 1819 treaty between the two nations fixed the southern boundary of the Louisiana Territory at the Sabine and Red rivers. Mexico became independent of Spain in 1821, and Texas became part of the Empire of Mexico. In 1824, Mexico became a republic. In 1820, a Missouri banker, Moses Austin, obtained permission from Spanish officials to establish an American colony in Texas. His son, Stephen F. Austin, brought 300 families there. The colony grew rapidly. In 1823, he founded San Felipe de Austin in today’s Austin County, which became the colony’s seat of government. Soon, more Americans received land grants from Mexico. Between 1821 and 1836, the number of settlers grew to about 30,000 – and most were Americans. The Mexican government became concerned over the high percentage of Americans living in its territory. In 1830, Mexico officially halted American immigration. Relations between the settlers and the government quickly deteriorated. In 1834, a Mexican politician and soldier, General Antonio López de Santa Anna, took over the Mexican government and established himself as a dictator. A year later, Texas began its quest for independence. After a few clashes between Texans and Mexican soldiers, Texas leaders organized a temporary government on November 3, 1835. Texas troops under Colonel Benjamin Milam captured San Antonio on December 11, 1835. Enraged, Santa Anna sent a large army to San Antonio to put down the uprising. Texan forces withdrew to the walls of the Alamo. From February 23 to March 6, 1836, Santa Anna’s forces attacked the fort until it finally fell. Many famous men died while defending the Alamo, including Jim Bowie, Davy Crockett, and William B. Travis. Even while the Alamo was under siege, Texas delegates signed the Texas Declaration of Independence. On March 27th, Santa Anna ordered 330 Texan rebels executed after they surrendered at Goliad. Rather than crush the independence movement, these actions galvanized Texan resolve. Texans rallied to the cries “Remember the Alamo” and “Remember Goliad.” On April 21, Sam Houston led a smaller Texan army against Santa Anna’s forces in a surprise attack at the Battle of San Jacinto. Houston captured Santa Anna and crushed his army. Texas had won its independence. Texas faced many problems. It had no currency, and its economy was limited. Indians and Mexicans staged raids against its people. At the first national Texas elections, voters chose Sam Houston as President – and also voted to join the United States. European powers were against Texas becoming a state, as they feared the U.S. would come to dominate the southwest. There was also political conflict in the U.S. about Texas. Texas law allowed slavery, so the South favored admission and the North was against it. Furthermore, U.S. President Martin Van Buren was reluctant to admit Texas, as he feared it would lead to war with Mexico. Texas remained independent for 10 years. During that time, its population grew rapidly. Texas was admitted to the Union on December 29, 1845. Mexico ceased diplomatic relations with the U.S. immediately after. Boundary disputes erupted a short time later, and in 1846 the Mexican–American War began. By 1848, Mexico surrendered, signing the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. With this treaty, Mexico ended all of its claims to Texas and much of the Southwest. Texas gained a great deal of territory. During the 1850s, settlers poured into the western region of the state, and 89 new counties were organized. In March 1861, Texas seceded from the Union and joined the Confederate States of America. However, there were mixed feelings about the Confederacy in the state. Governor Houston refused to take an oath to support the Confederacy’s constitution, and he was forced out of office. More than 50,000 Texans fought in the Civil War. The last battle of the war was fought at Palmito Hill on May 13, 1865 – the soldiers had not yet heard that the war ended on April 9th. After the war, Texas became embroiled in a struggle between Northern sympathizers called Radicals and the Ku Klux Klan. The state was ruled by a military government, an appointed governor, and three governors elected by the Radicals. Texas was readmitted to the Union on March 30, 1870. Starting in the mid-1860s, Texans drove cattle along trails to major railroad centers. Between 1900 and 1920, the state greatly improved its rail and road systems, great irrigation projects were begun, and the state’s oil and gas industries were started. At that time, many Texans began working in cities. During the 1960s, Texas took a major role in the nation’s space program. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration began constructing the Manned Spacecraft Center near Houston in 1962. It was renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973. Texas has 28 metropolitan areas – more than any other state. The state’s industries have grown since World War II, with only occasional periods of stagnation. Today, Texas is a leader in oil, cattle, sheep, and cotton production. Tourists in Texas spend over 420.6 billion dollars each year.
2nd Grade Math Kids love online flash games! They’re a great way for students to brush up on their math vocabulary. Math games for kids can help make learning math fun with games, flash cards, worksheets, and activities. Math is so much easier when there are cool games to play for online learning. Children can start with flash cards and work up. Teaching math has never been easier! After studying addition facts, students can work on subtraction, multiplication, division, and other advanced facts as well. Math teachers can incorporate online flash games into their elementary math curricula. Elementary schools and middle schools are incorporating fun online games into their regular curricula as playing games, learning songs and watching educational videos online provide the results teachers want for their students. Songs and music can make learning even more fun! Even high school students love flash games, whether they’re learning science, social studies, spelling, vocabulary, art, music, or language arts. Students of all ages–and even students learning ESL (English as a Second Language)–can benefit! Online lessons can help students improve their grades and do better in school. And best of all, kids are having fun while learning!
First Spiral Galaxy in Early Universe Stuns Astronomers Astronomers have spotted the earliest known spiral galaxy, dating to just three billion years after the Big Bang. Theories of galaxy formation held that the Universe was still too chaotic a place to allow such a perfectly formed or “grand-design” spiral to form. It should take far longer for gravity to bring matter into thin, neat discs. But a team reporting in Nature says the galaxy BX442 got the gravitational “kick” it needed to form a spiral from a smaller “dwarf galaxy” orbiting it.
At http://earthsky.org/space/pluto-paints-its-largest-moon-red … Images of Chiron beamed back to earth showed the moon of Pluto was reddish in colour in its northern parts. There was speculation at the time on why this might be and now an explanation has been offered – the red colour was painted by nearby Pluto. The theory is that methane gas escaping from Pluto's atmosphere became trapped by Chiron's gravity. Subsequently, the squirted gas froze at Chiron's north pole and a chemical process occurred in which ultra violet light from the sun transformed the methane into heavier hydrocarbons (and eventually into a reddish organic molecules known as tholins). The article is in Nature and the blog author at Earth Sky accepts the findings without any questioning. Needless to say the results were obtained by modelling. This began with the premise that methane was involved. The modelling also requires the sun to convert the methane into other hydrocarbons and to obtain this in their model they used the 248 year orbit of Pluto (and Chiron) to show that for 100 years there was constant sunshine (warmth) followed by 100 years of darkness (cold).
From SKYbrary Wiki Development and Movement Areas of thunderstorm activity may reinforce pre-existing frontal zones and can 'outrun' cold fronts. This outrunning occurs within the upper level westerly airflow where the upper level jet splits into two streams. The resultant mesoscale convective system (MCS) forms at the point of the upper level split in the wind pattern in the area of best low level inflow. The convection then moves east and toward the equator into the warm sector, parallel to low-level thickness lines. When the convection is strong and linear or curved, the MCS may be described as a squall line, with the feature placed at the leading edge of the significant wind shift and pressure rise. If squall lines form over arid regions, a duststorm known as a haboob may result from the high winds in their wake, picking up dust from the desert floor. Indications of Severe Weather Squall lines typically bow out due to the formation of a mesoscale high pressure system which forms within the stratiform rain area behind the initial line. This high pressure area is formed due to strong descending motion behind the squall line, and could come in the form of a downburst. The pressure difference between the mesoscale high and the lower pressures along the squall line cause high winds, which are strongest where the line is most bowed out. Another indication of the presence of severe weather along a squall line is its morphing into a line echo wave pattern, or LEWP. A LEWP is a special configuration in a line of convective storms that indicates the presence of a low pressure area and the possibility of damaging winds, large hail, and tornadoes. At each kink along the LEWP is a mesoscale low pressure area, which could contain a tornado. In response to very strong outflow southwest of the mesoscale low, a portion of the line bulges outward forming a bow echo. Behind this bulge lies the mesoscale high pressure area.
The current recommended physical activity guidelines for younger people to maintain a healthy lifestyle and improve health is at least 60 minutes of moderate, to vigorous intensity activity per day. This should include aerobic activity, and muscle and bone strengthening activities. In order to gain additional health benefits and well-being Amounts of physical activity greater than 60 minutes is required. (National Health Department 2012, World Health Organisation. 2011)According to the BHF (British Heart Foundation), only 32% of boys and 24% of girls are meeting the current physical activity recommendations in England. In Scotland, 75% of boys and 72% of girls are meeting the guidelines. In England, boys spend on average 427 minutes and girls spend 460 minutes being sedentary per day.In 2009, Ireland were reported the most regularly exercising country in the EU, whereas Bulgaria was REPORTED TO HAVE THE LOWEST INVOLVEMENT OF EXERCISE. THE UK WAS REPORTED 8TH MOST REGULARLY EXERCISING COUNTRY with a percentage of 14%. (British Heart Foundation 2012) According to CDC (centres for disease control and prevention) (2011) 13. 8% of high school youth’s did not participate in 60 minutes of physical activity within the week of the survey, in the United States. However 71. 3% of high school youth’s was physically active during the week of the survey.Although this does not mean they have met the current physical activity guidelines. (Division of Population Health/School Health 2011) Benefits of regular Physical Activity. By participating in regular activity it helps maintain and improve health. Regular activity increases cardio respiratory, decreases blood pressure, increases high density lipoprotein cholesterol, boosts immune system and maintains flexibility. These factors can benefit the adolescent by reducing risks of chronic diseases such as 1 0 Z0940927 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and lung cancer. Importantly activity helps reduce stress levels which can lead to psychological problems. Exercising has been proven to build self-esteem, improve mood, reduce depression symptoms, and reduce anxiety. (Department of Health 2011, Bouchard 2007 and Adams 2010). This is supported by the Department of Health (2011) stating that “evidence proves that physical activity reduces the risk of depression, dementia and Alzheimer’s.It also shows that exercising improves psychological well-being, self-perception and self-esteem, mood and sleep quality and reduces levels of anxiety and fatigue. ” The Department of Health (2011) state that “physical activity has an important role to play in promoting mental health and well-being by preventing mental health problems and improving the quality of life of those experiencing mental health problems and illnesses. ” Haskell et al. 2007, supports that frequent physical activity is an important behaviour for individual and population health. The health-related components of physical fitness are cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular endurance, muscular strength, body composition, and flexibility. According to Bouchard et al. 2007, the risks of physical inactivity can cause health risks which are known as hypokinetic diseases. Being inactive can increase the risks of obesity in later life, it could increase the likely hood of atherosclerosis and hypertension, type 2 diabetes could occur, clinical diseases become more of a likelihood, some cancers such as breast cancer or colon, bone health will decrease and lead to osteoporosis, and types of psychological depression such as anxiety and depression.Warburton et al. (2006) essentially states that body composition can be improved through physical activity as it helps to control weight and fat levels. It also increases high density lipoproteins (HDLs) levels in the blood, as well as decreasing low density lipoproteins (LDLs). In addition, physical activity improves glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity, along with reducing blood pressure, improving autonomic tone and reduces systemic inflammation. Moreover it decreases blood coagulation, improves coronary blood flow, increases cardiac function and improves endothelial function. Routine physical activity is linked with improving with improving psychological well-being by reducing stress, anxiety and depression. Furthermore it states and supports that psychological well-being is important for preventing diabetes, osteoporosis, hypertension, obesity, cancer and depression. 2 0 Z0940927 Future applied practice.In order to increase physical activity within the adolescent population, Hortz and Petosa (2006) suggests increasing activity levels during physical education classes, this is then supported by The Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH) and the Sports, Play and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) interventions.“Programs that promote physical activity during leisure time among high school students are needed. ” This is suggested by The Slice of Life intervention, Project Active Teens, The Stanford Adolescent Heart Health Program and The Cardiovascular Health in Children (Hortz and Petosa 2006). Highlighting the risks and effects of inactivity, educating the adolescence and promoting physical activity with the aim to establish a lifestyle of regular exercise, will increase the physical activity prevalence. Prescribing more activity to the adolescence and indicating the correct requirements of exercise will ensure they have the opportunity to have a healthy lifestyle and hopefully create habits of exercising (Bouchard et al. 2007). Bouchard et al. also states that educating home, school, physician offices and community recreation centre environments should be focused on. Sallis (1998), States that “physical activity interventions should be conceptualised on a population basis, because intervening with individuals or small groups is unlikely to bring about population-wide change.”Additionally Craig et al. (1999) supports the above by stating that providing incentives will increase the prevalence rate of physically active adolescents, for example rewarding the active will motivate them to progress. Along with this, reducing costs of memberships, equipment and user fees would allow exercising to become more accessible and affordable. It is furthermore mentioned that providing information about health benefits and how to be physically active, through the media, local services and schools would help the adolescents be more active.Equally important, the journal suggests providing various activities in leisure centres, physical education classes, activity programmes and places to be active would increase physical activity routine.Taking social support into consideration, increasing the availability of care at home, school and local playing areas is said to help increase the adolescent to be more active, along with family support and orientated programmes. In addition providing more of a physically active infrastructure could increase physical activity, ay, maintaining pathways and trails, facilities such as showers, lockers, bicycle racks and more frequent public transport to leisure centres.Finally it shows that promoting participation of exercise instead of winning will emphasize the adolescent, this is due to respect and fair play. Conclusion. 3 0 Z0940927 In summary physical activity provides overall well-being and health benefits for the adolescent population. It is important to emphasise and educate that physical activity reduces major health risks such as obesity, heart diseases, diabetes, high blood pressure and cancer which can all impact on premature death (Bouchard et al. 2007, British Heart Foundation 2012 and Morandi 2009). Bouchard et al. states “physical activity is associated with health benefits”. Consideration of what types of encouragement children are likely to adhere to should be respected. With today’s modern technology, it could be hard for adolescent’s to give up or cut down on video games. Bouchard et al. (2007) discusses that if a child does give up television, that there’s no guarantee that they will participate in more physical activity.There are variety and a wide range of ways to promote physical activity within the adolescent population. It would be wise to target the school and home environment therefore the adolescent population is concentrated on for the majority of their day. Improving environmental factors are likely to encourage physical activity, in particular, peer influences, school environments and family factors. Parents can provide positive modelling of physical activity, be active with their child and provide support. Peer influences can increase activity because children tend to imitate each other.As a normative we tend to feel more comfortable trying new things in groups which is why we should cogitate that team sports have an advantage to increase participation. Children are passive agents meaning positive word of mouth could indeed increase the prevalence of physical activity. School environments are beneficial for increasing physical activity as physical education is compulsory during adolescence, this however needs to be taken to its full potential. (Bouchard et al. 2007, Craig et al. 1999 and Hortz and Petosa 2006. ) 40
What is the main function of the central nervous system quizlet? The main functions of the central nervous system is to PROCESS information received through sensory systems and other parts of the body and to activate appropriate actions to the external/internal stimuli. What is the function of the central nervous system to gather information? The central nervous system includes the spinal cord and the brain. The brain is the body’s main control center. The main function of the CNS is the integration and processing of sensory information. It synthesizes sensory input to compute an appropriate motor response, or output. What are the 3 functions of the central nervous system? The CNS is comprised of the brain, cerebellum and spinal cord. Remaining neurons, and associated cells, distributed throughout the body form the PNS. The nervous system has three broad functions: sensory input, information processing, and motor output. What are the 4 main functions of the nervous system? The four main functions of the nervous system are: - Control of body’s internal environment to maintain ‘homeostasis’ An example of this is the regulation of body temperature. … - Programming of spinal cord reflexes. An example of this is the stretch reflex. … - Memory and learning. … - Voluntary control of movement. What are the 3 main functions of the nervous system quizlet? Terms in this set (3) - sensory input. when sensory receptors monitor changes that occur both inside and outside of the body. - integration. when sensory information is interpreted and the appropriate response is taken. - motor output. response that is performed by effectors- muscles or glands. What is the central nervous system CNS quizlet? The central nervous system is that part of the nervous system that consists of the brain, brain stem, and spinal cord. -The CNS is the main control center of the body – it takes in sensory information, organizes and synthesizes data, then provides direction for motor output to the rest of the body. What is the main function of the central nervous system coordinating simple reflexes? The central nervous system CNS is responsible for integrating sensory information and responding accordingly. It consists of two main components: The spinal cord serves as a conduit for signals between the brain and the rest of the body. It also controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain. What is the function of the central nervous system group of answer choices? The central nervous system’s responsibilities include receiving, processing, and responding to sensory information. The brain is an organ of nervous tissue that is responsible for responses, sensation, movement, emotions, communication, thought processing, and memory. What is the main difference between the central nervous system CNS and the peripheral nervous system PNS )? What is the main difference between the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)? The CNS involves the brain and spinal cord, and the PNS involves the body nerves.
A new study shows that a baby’s first heartbeat may occur as early as 16 days after conception, rather than the three weeks previously thought. The study is being considered a potentially vital breakthrough for treating congenital heart disease since researchers will be able to understand the initiation of the heart’s function in the developing baby. According to the University of Oxford, where the study was conducted: In the study, published in the journal eLife, researchers looked at the developing mouse heart and found that the muscle started to contract as soon as it formed the cardiac crescent – an early stage in heart development. In mice, this crescent forms 7.5 days after conception, which is equivalent to day 16 in the human embryo. Previously, it was thought that the heart started to contract a stage later, when the heart appears as a linear tube. Researchers hail this finding as crucial; twelve babies a day in the UK are born with congenital heart disease, and such knowledge of heart development could help medical professionals both treat these babies, as well as prevent heart attacks later in life. The heart is the first organ to form during pregnancy and is critical in providing oxygen and nutrients to the developing embryo. The process of heart development is highly conserved between mammalian species, meaning that these findings may add considerably to our understanding of how the human heart develops. BHF Professor Paul Riley, who led the research at the University of Oxford’s Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, said: ‘We are trying to better understand how the heart develops, and ultimately what causes the heart defects that develop in the womb before birth and to extrapolate to adult heart repair. By finding out how the heart first starts to beat and how problems can arise in heart development, we are one step closer to being able to prevent heart conditions from arising during pregnancy.’ The implications of this study for the pro-life movement are profound. Most women have not yet confirmed a pregnancy at just 16 days after conception, and this finding further shows that even early abortions stop a beating heart. The entire study is available here, and it details the methods the researchers used to pinpoint the developing fetal heartbeat, which included “adding fluorescent markers to calcium molecules within the mouse embryo, the team was able to see at exactly which point in time the calcium tells our heart muscle cells to contract and then become coordinated enough to produce a heartbeat.” The study, funded by the British Heart Foundation (BHF) at the University of Oxford, is the latest in a stream of evidence which shows that life unequivocally begins early in fetal development, weeks and even months before abortion is regulated, even in the most restrictive states. The scientific nonprofit, The Endowment for Human Development has produced a video showing a baby’s heart beating at only 4.5 weeks after fertilization (which is 6.5 weeks according to LMP dating). EHD partnered with National Geographic to make the award-winning documentary, “The Biology of Prenatal Development.”
As teachers, we are always looking for instructional tools that can positively impact student engagement and comprehension across all grade levels and subject areas. One such tool is the graphic organizer. Designed to help students visualize the relationships among ideas and concepts, graphic organizers can “offer an entry point into complex material…increase comprehension and retention, and can be used with all students, ranging from gifted and talented to those with cognitive disabilities.” Students can use graphic organizers to interact with instructional content to create meaning. However, as with all instructional tools, the value of graphic organizers is dependent upon how and why they are used. Here are some basic guidelines to keep in mind when using graphic organizers. When introducing graphic organizers into your lesson, be sure to communicate why they are being used. Some common reasons for using graphic organizers include: - Activating prior knowledge - Creating a framework for new information - Organizing one’s thoughts about a topic or concept - Indicating key information to be remembered - Engaging students in drawing conclusions - Highlighting key relationships between concepts or ideas - Clarifying student’s thoughts prior to group or class discussions. Whatever your reason for using a graphic organizer, be sure that the students are clear on the purpose and what your expectations are for their use of this tool. Teach to the Tool. Just as students need to know why they are using the graphic organizer, they also need to know how to use the tool. Be sure to clarify your expectations: what are the students required to do? Does this organizer require student brainstorming? Do students need to refer to the text? Are students making inferences based on what they know? The more frequently you use a particular type of graphic organizer, the more comfortable students will be when using it. Graphic organizers are most effective when they are used to highlight a specific set of relationships. The more complex the organizer becomes, the less likely it is that students will make the desired connections or retain the connections they do make. As you design your graphic organizer, keep it focused on essential information. Be sure relationships are clearly defined (and labeled when appropriate). Avoid extraneous graphics, extended instructions or other elements that may distract the students from the purpose of the organizer. Use Across the Instructional Spectrum. Graphic organizers are tools that can be used across all aspects of instruction. They can be used as instructional hooks, as guided practice during instruction, as a way for students to formulate their thoughts prior to an in class activity or discussion, or even as formative or summative assessments. The more familiar students are with using graphic organizers in a multitude of ways, the more benefit they may glean from them. For more information about using graphic organizers and for sample organizers that can be printed or modified for use, check out the following resources below: - “Graphic Organizers: Guiding Principles and Effective Practices.” http://education.wm.edu/centers/ttac/documents/packets/graphicorganizers.pdf - “Graphic Organizers.” Education Oasis. http://www.educationoasis.com/printables/graphic-organizers/ - “Graphic Organizers.” Scholastic. http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/sites/default/files/asset/file/graphic_organizers.pdf Becky Hunsberger, M.Ed. Coordinator of Teacher Education Did you Know… That TeachBeyond is offering $150 towards the cost of all participants who complete this summer’s Transformational Education Conference in Manila, Philippines? And did you further know that ACSI CEUs are being offered for completion of the conference? This is a great way to deepen your understanding of transformational education and earn some continuing education credits in the process. Don’t miss out. Registration closes on May 30, 2016. For more information or to register for the conference, visit http://dev.teachbeyond.org/teachbeyond-conference/. A graphic organizer is a visual representation used to help students see relationships among ideas within a text or surrounding concept. They provide structure for abstract ideas. Examples of graphic organizers include concept maps, flow charts, venn diagrams, etc. Mentoring Minds. “Research on Graphic Organizers.” https://www.mentoringminds.com/pdf/pdfGraphicOrganizersResearch.pdf. pg. 2.
Imagine a world where everyone could communicate exactly the same way, without any barriers to reading or understanding. While it may sound too good to be true, there have been plenty of strides in the text to speech that may one day make that a possibility, especially as these voice systems become more realistic and lifelike. Instances of Usage Text to speech voices is achieved by software that uses programs to analyze and phonetically translate phrases. These words are assigned sounds, and then those sounds are put together to make spoken sentences and phrases. This can be achieved nearly instantaneously due to technological advancements that have improved the entire process in addition to making the actual output sound better. These programs also find ideal uses for education. Students can gain confidence while reading by hearing, listening, or observing what is written down for themselves. Thus, anyone who learns best by listening will have a bigger advantage by utilizing these services, and students who have difficulty reading will especially benefit. How Realism Can Be Constructed Text to voice technology employs techniques such as machine learning and artificial intelligence to enhance the realism of voice. When these services have access to vast data pools for analysis, substantial changes have been identified over time in relation to the voices themselves. When the services first took off, many faced issues with electronic sounds being badly implemented due to them sounding unrealistic. The transcoded text appears as if it was delivered by a computer instead of by a human being. Fortunately, as time advanced, this changed greatly. People are naturally more inclined to favor human-sounding voices. After all, their interpretation of what certain readings might say could be strongly affected by the personal experience of how they hear it. Various voice styles cater to a lot of different scenarios, depending on the use in text to speech applications. Articulated information can be readily interpreted by individuals and they can understand the appropriate context. The technology can be applied more reliably to simulate a true dialogue with various tones and speaking styles. This articulate voice can be used for corporate uses such as customer support channels, school teaching materials, or web browsers that help users read text on the Internet. Software that adapts to conditions such as expression patterns and feelings may achieve true realism. Machine learning aims to accumulate data to construct an accurate delivery of words and phrases. This allows artificial voices to become even more genuine over time. A device can review vast bundles of data within several minutes in order to communicate them more precisely. Such improvements will take effect immediately, as the text is transcribed and speech sounds are generated in real-time, all with greater accuracy. The potential of these platforms down the road would definitely be more realistic outputs without losing the quality of the interpretations. As that occurs, we might eventually see the point where the text to speech sounds indistinguishable from a conversation you would have with someone standing right next to you.
The syntax of a language is how it works. How to actually write it. Learn HTML syntax in this article… The building blocks of HTML are called elements, and the building blocks of elements are tags. When they are put together, they make a website - sort of like atoms and subatomic particles (HTML elements are not related to scientific elements of course, just one of my weird analogies). Let’s get started! Ok, I’m going to show you a bit of code. WHAT??? Don’t panic. You don’t have to understand what it all means, I will explain below: <h1>Blog Posts.</h1> <div class="controls"> <input type="number" id="first" placeholder="First" oninput="inputsChanged()"> <input type="number" id="last" placeholder="Last" oninput="inputsChanged()"> </div> <span class="total-word-count"><b>Total Word Count:</b> <span id="word-count">0000</span></span> <table> <tbody> <tr> <th>Post number</th> <th>Post Date</th> <th>Post Name</th> <th>Word count</th> </tr> <tr> <td class="post-num">#1</td> <td class="post-date">Friday 29 September 2017</td> <td class="post-title"><a href="https://codetheweb.blog/welcome/" target="_blank">Welcome to Code The Web!</a></td> <td class="post-words">1373</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <br> See? You survived (I hope). For starters, don’t worry about what any of this means - we are only worrying about the structure at the moment. An element is basically bit of content (text), surrounded by HTML tags (I will go into this more later). The tags tell the browser information about what is inside it. For example, <h1>Blog Posts.</h1> is telling the browser that “Blog Posts.” is an h1 element - a type of heading. You don’t need to remember that, I will go into it more in a later article. An element refers to the content as well as the two tags. This is an example of an element: Elements can be nested inside each other. When nesting elements, it is usually good to put the elements on new lines, and indented correctly. There are some exceptions, such as <td class="post-title"><a href="https://codetheweb.blog/welcome/" target="_blank">Welcome to Code The Web!</a></td> Note that putting nested elements on new lines and indenting are not mandatory, they are just what we call good code practice. Good code practice is sort of like etiquette for programming. The aim of good code practice is to make your code easier to read and easier for others to understand (this is especially important when collaborating on large-scale projects). An element inside another element is called it’s child. Similarly, an element’s surrounding element is called it’s parent element. In the example I gave right near the top, <th>Post number</th>, would be the child of <tr>, which is the child of <tbody>, which is a child of <table>. We can represent this as: table > tbody > tr > th Note that this is not code. It is simply an easy way of visualizing how the elements are nested within each other. As I mentioned earlier, tags are the bits of code surrounding the content, such as: <p class="test"> ... </p> Tags are always enclosed within Types of tags Tags fall into two categories: Opening and closing. See the example below: Opening tags always follow the basic pattern of x is the type of element (eg. <p>). Opening tags can also have attributes (which we’ll get into in a sec). Every single element must have an opening tag at the very least. Closing tags are what comes after the contents of the element. They always follow the pattern of </x>, where again x is the type of element (eg. </h1>). Closing tags always look the same (apart from the element name of course) and cannot have attributes. If an element doesn’t have anything inside it, it doesn’t need a closing tag. Take this an example: As it has no contents (only attributes), it doesn’t require a </img> closing tag. As well as having contents, an element can have attributes. Attributes store additional data about the element, and are stored in the opening tag. For example: <h1>Code The Web</h1> Here, all we know is that it is an <h1> element. Now, this is what it looks like when we add attributes: <h1 id="code-the-web-title" class="banner-title" onclick="titleClicked()">Code The Web</h1> titleClicked() when we click on it (we will get into that much later). As you can see, attributes can tell us much more about an element. The syntax for attributes is: <h1 attribute="value" otherattribute="othervalue"> The quotation marks are very important, so don’t forget them! Also note that there is not a space on either side of the equals signs (there must be spaces between attributes though). Let’s consolidate what we know about HTML tags and elements into this diagram: Phew. That might have been a bit confusing, but eventually you’ll get the hang of it. If there’s anything you don’t get you can go back over this article or ask me in the comments. If you liked the article, don’t forget to share with your friends and subscribe to the newsletter. Have fun and I’ll see you next time, where I’ll be talking about the general structure of HTML websites.
- What are the types of electrical drawings? - What is a one-line diagram? - Why do we need single line diagram? - What is a three-line diagram and how is it different from a single-line diagram? - What is a wiring diagram and how to interpret it? - What is a schematic diagram? - What is the difference between the schematic diagram and the wiring diagram? - What is a block diagram and how to interpret it? - How to read the electrical diagram? - How to interpret the ladder diagram (line diagram)? - How to determine the wiring and wire identification in an electrical diagram? - What is the purpose of using device abbreviations in an electrical diagram? - What is the purpose of the line number and wire number in an electrical diagram? Electrical drawings are single-line drawings that use certain symbols to represent the electrical equipment. Electrical diagrams are mostly multi-sheet drawings of the wiring of the electrical devices which is associated with the main control panel its field device and sub-panels. Mostly these drawings are drawn in a format called the ladder diagram. Another form of electrical drawing is a wiring diagram and it would show the wiring in a pictorial format. What are the types of electrical drawings? - One-line diagram (single line diagram) - Wiring diagram - Ladder diagram (line diagram) - Block diagram - Schematic diagram What is a one-line diagram? This type of electrical diagram would use single lines and symbols to show the path and also the components in an electrical circuit. By using this diagram we could determine the circuit connection and their component, but we won’t be able to determine the actual location of the component by using this diagram. By using a line diagram, we could easily determine the connections and also the components in an electrical system. This diagram is widely used in an industrial power system, in this diagram multiple conductors of power and control circuits are shown as single lines. Why do we need single line diagram? - It can be used to create project drawings - Power system problems can be analyzed - We could determine which circuit interrupts must be opened to isolate the electrical circuit during faulty conditions - We would be able to interpret the proposed installation of a power system What is a three-line diagram and how is it different from a single-line diagram? A three-line diagram would give us detailed information about the three-phase circuitry which can’t be seen in a single line diagram. The three-line diagrams would be more useful for the plant maintenance and the operator would be able to determine operations of a power system with the help of a three-line diagram. These diagrams are used to create the wiring diagrams of protective relays. The symbols which are used in this diagram would be the same as in the single line diagram, most of the electrical diagrams would use the same symbol to represent the electrical component. What is a wiring diagram and how to interpret it? The wiring or connection diagram is an electrical diagram that would show the connection of installation or its component device or parts. According to the wiring diagram the electrical inspector can do the electrical wiring in an industry. This diagram would be useful during the wiring and also after the completion of the wiring. The major benefit of a wiring diagram is that it would show almost the proper location of the component in a circuit. These diagrams are used by the equipment manufacturers to install the wires in electrical equipment such as switchboards and panels. We can also determine the interconnection of the electrical component by using this diagram. This diagram would display the electrical equipment in its proper physical location and thus it can be used to check the actual location of the equipment. Single conductors are represented by lines. The multiple conductors which are bundled together or which are installed in the same channel will be shown with single lines with radial branches to show the location where the single conductors or other bundles leave the path of the main trunk bundle. Each conductor would have a unique number. So with the help of this diagram, we could determine the point-to-point wiring between the components in an electrical system. In a wiring diagram, the power circuits are denoted by the bold lines, and the control circuit is represented by the thinner lines. During certain cases, wiring diagrams are used in conjunction with the ladder diagram so that the control process can be easily determined. What is a schematic diagram? A schematic diagram would be mostly, prepared by the equipment manufacturer to show how to do the electrical connections. These diagrams would be very useful for the testing, maintenance, and also troubleshooting of the equipment. The ladder diagram is a type of schematic diagram. This diagram would display the circuit elements and also the internal connections and this would be very useful for the electrician to interpret the function and also the logic of an electrical control circuit. These diagrams are prepared to design electrical circuits. The schematic diagram uses the same symbols as in the one-line, three-line, and wiring diagrams. This diagram would display all the connections and terminals of a functional device. We can describe this electrical diagram as the operational sequencing of the circuit. What is the difference between the schematic diagram and the wiring diagram? \|Sl no\|\|Wiring diagram\|\|Schematic diagram\| \|1\|\|It shows the connection between circuit elements or system\|\|It shows the flow of a system\| \|2\|\|Wires are represented by horizontal and vertical lines\|\|System flow is represented by horizontal and vertical lines\| \|3\|\|Simple pictorials are used which represents the components in a circuit\|\|It uses symbols that represents the circuit functions\| \|4\|\|The equipment and wiring in this diagram is displayed as in the actual location of the system\|\|It doesn’t show the physical layout of the system in this drawing, it would show the flow of the system\| What is a block diagram and how to interpret it? The block diagram is the easiest way to determine the electrical system. These diagrams are used to represent the complex systems to show the flow path of the signal. A block diagram shows the major functional parts of a complex electrical system by blocks instead of symbols. In this diagram, we won’t be able to see the individual components and wires. Each block in this diagram represents the electrical circuit that performs specific functions in the system, the function of the circuit will be written in each block. How to read the electrical diagram? In order to read any of the electrical diagrams, we must be familiar with the graphical symbols which is used to represent the electrical components. In most of the electrical diagrams, the symbols which is used to represent the electrical component would be the same. So it is really important that one should have an idea about the graphical symbols to read the electrical diagram. Graphical symbols in the electrical diagram Graphical symbols are required in an electrical diagram to show the electrical device connections and their terminals. The electrical devices would be represented by symbols. The symbol orientation in an electrical diagram won’t change its meaning or purpose. Graphical symbols in electrical diagram \|Sl no\|\|Electrical equipment\|\|Graphical representation of the electrical device\| \|19\|\|Digital to analog converter\| \|20\|\|Analog to digital converter\| How to interpret the ladder diagram (line diagram)? The above electrical diagram is drawn in a ladder diagram and it will be drawn by adding the circuit between the two vertical lines as we can see in the above image. The ladder diagram is also called the line diagram and it would show the electrical system logic by using symbols. These vertical lines would provide the power, all the devices would be shown between these lines and it is called a single line diagram. So the controlled devices such as relays will be drawn on the right side as we can see in the image and the controlling device would be placed between the controlling device and also the left vertical line. The circuit-breaking devices and the overloads will be placed or connected to the right of the controlled device. Determine the line connection in the diagram Field wiring (wiring which is external to panel) Wiring connections in the electrical diagram Wiring which is not connected How to determine the wiring and wire identification in an electrical diagram? Wiring color code - RED –AC control circuits - Black – Line, load, and control circuits - Blue – DC control circuits - Yellow – Interlock control circuits - Green – Equipment grounding - White – Grounded circuit conductor We can determine the conductors in each termination by marking with a number corresponding with the number on the wire. What is the purpose of using device abbreviations in an electrical diagram? The device’s abbreviations are used in the electrical diagrams in connection with the corresponding graphical symbols so that the function of the particular device can be indicated. - CB – circuit breaker - CR – Control relay - FU – Fuse - LT – Pilot light - OL – Overload relay - PB – Push button - S – Switch - LS – Limit switch - T – Transformer - MTR – Motor - Disc – Disconnect - R – Resistor - C- Capacitors - L – inductors - S – switches - D – Diodes - Q – Transistors - U – Integrated circuits - Y – Oscillators What is the purpose of the line number and wire number in an electrical diagram? Each line in the electrical diagram will be numbered from top to bottom, and also there will be wire numbers in the electrical diagram to determine the wire and its connection. So in case of any fault, we could determine the faulty section by using the line and wire number. Control devices are represented in the electrical diagram by abbreviations and also by numbers and this would be the number of the line where the device is located. So with the help of line and wire numbers, we can easily detect where the devices are located in an electrical system.
You opened an Excel file and it immediately showed an error message saying that there is a circular reference. What to do now? Let’s assume the following situation: You receive an Excel file from your colleague and have to understand it as quickly as possible. How do you start? Working with other people on the same Excel file can be challenging. Especially when you prepare an Excel workbook and another person has to fill in some data. In such case, you probably want to make sure that only your intended values are possible to enter. Have you ever seen these tiny graphs within cells and want to use them too? They are called Sparklines and inserting them is quite simple: You want to get data from different sheets but always on the same cell? INDIRECT returns the value of a cell which you specify by a string. For example, if you write =INDIRECT(“B2”) it’ll give you the value of B2. Instead of just B2, you can also refer to other sheets, for example =INDIRECT(“Sheet1!B2”) or even other workbooks. Sometimes, you want to create random values in Excel. There is a simple formula to generate random numbers: RAND. If you type =RAND() into a cell, you’ll get a number between 0 and 1. So what do you do, if you want to have random number between 20 and 50 for example? You’ve done some calculations in Excel but you aren’t satisfied with the result? So you ask yourself, how you could achieve the desired result. A good starting point for such analysis is the built-in Goal Seek function in Excel. It’s simple to use but yet powerful. On the other side, it does some reverse calculation and therefore has a reputation for cheating in order to achieve the target results. Dealing with text in Excel can be painful as the formatting is limited within Excel cells. One method of organizing text is to add line breaks. The “Conditional Formatting” button is hidden in the middle of the Home ribbon in Excel. Nonetheless, Conditional Formatting offers many options for visualizing your data. As the name already says, Excel can format your table depending on one or more conditions. When you calculate with large numbers, you might want to only show the values as thousands or millions. Unfortunately, Excel doesn’t offer such option with a single click.
Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a symptomatic bacterial infection due to Salmonella typhi. Symptoms may vary from mild to severe and usually begin six to thirty days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. Weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, and headaches also commonly occur. Diarrhea and vomiting are uncommon. Some people develop a skin rash with rose colored spots. In severe cases there may be confusion. Without treatment symptoms may last weeks or months. Other people may carry the bacterium without being affected; however, they are still able to spread the disease to others. Typhoid fever is a type of enteric fever along with paratyphoid fever.The cause is the bacterium Salmonella typhi, also known as Salmonella enterica serotype typhi, growing in the intestines and blood. Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. Risk factors include poor sanitation and poor hygiene. Those who travel to the developing world are also at risk. Humans are the only animal infected. Diagnosis is by either culturing the bacteria or detecting the bacterium's DNA in the blood, stool, or bone marrow. Culturing the bacterium can be difficult. Bone marrow testing is the most accurate. Symptoms are similar to that of many other infectious diseases. Typhus is a different disease.A typhoid vaccine can prevent about 50% to 70% of cases. The vaccine may be effective for up to seven years. It is recommended for those at high risk or people traveling to areas where the disease is common. Other efforts to prevent the disease include providing clean drinking water, better sanitation, and better handwashing. Until it has been confirmed that an individual's infection is cleared, the individual should not prepare food for others. Treatment of disease is with antibiotics such as azithromycin, fluoroquinolones or third generation cephalosporins. Resistance to these antibiotics has been developing, which has made treatment of the disease more difficult.In 2010 there were 27 million cases reported. The disease is most common in India, and children are most commonly affected. Rates of disease decreased in the developed world in the 1940s as a result of improved sanitation and use of antibiotics to treat the disease. About 400 cases are reported and the disease is estimated to occur in about 6,000 people per year in the United States. In 2013 it resulted in about 161,000 deaths – down from 181,000 in 1990 (about 0.3% of the global total). The risk of death may be as high as 25% without treatment, while with treatment it is between 1 and 4%. The name typhoid means ""resembling typhus"" due to the similarity in symptoms.
You use hyperlinks, or simply links, to navigate to other pages in a website. A web page is a resource, and each web page has a unique identifier for people to locate the page. This unique identifier is the URL, short for Uniform Resource Locator. This chapter explains what a URL is and how to use links in your web pages. A URL is a web address. To locate a web page, which is a resource on the Internet, you would click on a link that contains a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or enter one in the Address or Location box of your browser. Here are two examples of URLs: The first part of the URLs is http, which identifies the HTTP protocol. HTTP ...
From the earliest years of the European settlement in North America, whites enslaved and oppressed the black people. In as much as the civil war eventually led to the ending of slavery, the harsh system against the black people continued as the whites asserted their supremacy through suppressing the African Americans. In the early twentieth century, African-Americans living in the South and many other states that practiced abject racism were not allowed to associate with the white people. They were banned from a host of institutions and even public accommodations such as schools, hospitals, restrooms, hotels, restaurants, railroad cars, libraries, concert halls, movie theaters, and even concert halls among others. Some recreation areas have signs that read that dogs and Negroes were not allowed (Freedom Riders). In some regions such as in the south, the black people were even lynched on sight and suffered widespread discrimination, violence, brutality, and intimidation. The bias led to the rise of the Civil rights movement that sought to put an end to the practice. The movement was characterized by violence, demonstration, and massive strikes to force the government to heed to the rights of the black people. The African Americans demanded equal opportunities and rights. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act ended the segregation my public places and banned employment discrimination by color, creed, Sex, religion or national origin and was the crowning of the legislative achievement of the civil rights movement (Freedom Riders). However, the journey to getting the act enacted was marked by tears, death, suffering, hurt, and blood. However, the civil rights bill of 1964 resulted in improvements in the social, economic, and political spheres that made the struggle and sacrifices made in the civil movement worth it. Following the Civil rights Act, the African Americans could now access education at all the levels which led to improved educational levels. The literacy levels among the African Americans increased substantially following the affirmative action that the subsequent governments came up with to ensure that schools, colleges, and universities were accessible to the minority who had been segregated from quality education before the Civil rights Act. Education is fundamental to the growth of every society and therefore, by getting access to education, the African Americans stood a better chance to compete fairly with the rest of the community. It was, therefore, was the struggle for the children to get an education and better their lives. Following the enactment law, there was increased equality in resource allocation and initiation of other legislations such as the removal of disability barriers and women rights, added to the Civil rights Act. It is the access to education, healthcare, restaurants, and opportunities to vote that further empowered the African Americans. Furthermore, the women rights later added to the act were also applicable to the black women and therefore, offered them an opportunity to assert themselves and attain social, economic, and political influence that is essential for the growth of every society. The African Americans could now enjoy the privileges and rights enjoyed by other Americans and denied to them before the Civil rights Act enactment. The physical, emotional, and psychological pain and torture that resulted from having to be exempted from restaurants, trains, schools, and even hospitals was now lifted thanks to the struggle that they had instituted to push for their Civil Rights (Www2.ed.gov). The act led to Increased employment levels for the marginalized leading to reduced crime and other social problems. The Act had provisions that forbade any form of discrimination based on sex and race in hiring, setting wages, apprenticeship, promotions, firing of employees, and other terms of employment. It is this that provided the racially marginalized an opportunity to take up jobs and protected them from any further humiliation and bullying at the workplace. The act protected the employees from being more productive and laid a platform that the racially marginalized could get jobs (Eddison, Debra, and Laura).. The effects of employment are social advantages that came with it such as reduction in crime due to economic and social uplifting that came with the act. The act also led to the Economic growth because of reduced unemployment and increased the productivity of the formerly marginalized groups. Having the previously marginalized groups get educated and have employment opportunities led to a positive effect on the economy of such neighborhoods and states that had formerly denied them an opportunity to work. It is because; the individuals that got the jobs also became more productive. They could now pay taxes, afford housing and even medical insurance. Before the Act, the majority of the individuals were more of an economic burden than positive since they could not afford medical covers and did not have incomes that they would pay taxes. Moreover, having the formerly marginalized groups have a chance to determine and control their spending offered them an opportunity to contribute to the Gross Domestic Product not just to their states but also to the economy of America as whole leading to economic productivity and subsequent growth (Eddison, Debra, and Laura). The act led to political equality leading to inclusive and political stability in the country. All Americans got an opportunity to vote and protected their democratic rights. Before the Act, the racially segregated and oppressed Americans felt the need to have their right to participate in the political decisions of the country without facing discrimination. The Civil War period also was marked by violence, protests, and strikes, which resulted in political, instability in the country. With the Act, the formerly marginalized groups got an opportunity to be part of the political realm of the nation (Www2.ed.gov). The results of the political, inclusive that came with the Act are seen to date that America has an African American president and that there are female senators and other leaders. It was a significant win for the Civil rights movement that faced pain and suffering as they fight for their democratic rights. The most interesting freedom rider is Martin Luther King Jr., who made a fundamental contribution to the civil rights movement. It is interesting that as the leader, King advocated for a non-violent movement and yet he achieved substantial progress towards attaining civil rights freedom to end poverty and racism. Advocates of nonviolence such as Mahatma Gandhi inspired King as he sought for equality for the African Americans (Jackson, 102). Even in the midst of police brutality against peaceful demonstrators led by King himself, he stood firm with his call for nonviolence. It was interesting to see the progress that King achieved without using force like the earlier civil rights activists. It seemed bleak that the government would be influenced without forcing them into a civil war just as slavery was defeated through a Civil War. Despite the measures taken by the government such as the imprisonment of King, he still stood firm with his message of nonviolence and instead focused on the use of letters and speeches to mobilize the African Americans and the entire nation as a whole to join in the fight against the discrimination faced by his people. He was the driving force behind the watershed events like the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington (Jackson, 102). His selfless and empathetic nature made King a martyr and iconic figure of interest among the civil activists. King Jr. was born in a relatively modest and affluent family in Sweet Auburn, which was a neighborhood that had prosperous and prominent African Americans in the country at the time (Jackson, 102). In fact, King had an education and was not subject to poverty like the rest of the African Americans. King had all he required to live a comfortable life without having to spend his days in the streets, jails and eventually assassinated. He, however, could not sit back and watch his brothers and sisters suffer in poverty due to the discrimination by color. He chose the people over his personal life and ambitions. There were countless other affluent African Americans before him and during his time, but they were not as involved in the civil movement as he was. In fact, he left his life as a teacher and as a clergy behind to go out and engage in the civil movement (Kirk, 70). King was also a prominent activist due to his ability to use speeches and letters to call for action and to inspire people. His writings and works remained legendary years after his death and are still very inspiring to date. One of his outstanding writings was the Letter from a Birmingham Jail that he wrote while in the prison cells. The letter was inspirational in the sense that he expressed his remorse that the white majority who were against racism could not speak out and challenges the system. He also challenged them to see racism for what it is, and it is this letter that played a significant role in rallying more support to the Civil rights movement (Kirk, 58-61). Moreover, his “I have a Dream” speech has been one key historical speech. It served to inspire the people not to give up and rallied more support to the movement. King proved his charismatic and leadership skills through his writings that maintained the morale to continue fighting for change but at the same time preaching peace. He used the pieces to bring pout the pain and plight of the African Americans in the midst of the massive segregation that faced them. King’s courage and persistence were also of much interest. In the midst of opposition, police brutality, intimidation, and jailing, he remained focused on the course calling for voting rights and an end to the racial discrimination (Freedom Riders). At the prison cell in Birmingham, instead of caving into the intimidation, he took the time to write and inspire the people to fight more. Moreover, he faced oppositions and further criticism from a section of African Americans that felt the need to use violence to fight for civil rights. There was deepening the rift between King and young radicals that wanted the use of force and challenged King’s commitment to working with the established political framework. Militant leaders such as Stokely Carmichael rose to prominence and challenged King’s tactics, but this did not deter or slow him down. In fact, he broadened his scope of activism addressing other issues such as the Vietnam War (Freedom Riders). In conclusion, the Civil rights Act brought massive changes in the social, economic, and political sphere of all Americans. It offered those who have formerly oppressed an opportunity to get the education, health care, employment and further protected them from any form of discrimination. It also resulted to the coming up of other laws added to the Act such as the Women rights that further assisted in offering opportunities to all Americans. It was possible through the relentless efforts and self-sacrifices that came with sensational activists such as Martin Luther King Jr. that laid his entire life and even got assassinated fighting for the change that initiated the Civil Rights Act of 1964. King and other activists made a sacrifice for the benefit of not just the African Americans but for the entire country as the country stands to gain economically, socially and politically because of equality and inclusion of all Americans. Therefore, the civil rights bill of 1964 was worth the tears, pain, death, and blood encountered in the Civil rights movement.
Human beings are visually-oriented in their daily life; they use the sense of sight more than any of the other senses with which they have been endowed. The modern understanding of human vision and the underlining principles were only discovered in the past couple centuries. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries witnessed the development of photographic and digital imaging camera systems, which partially mimic human visual systems. We will open a small window on the history of human vision and camera systems, and try to compare today’s state-of-the-art cameras with the human visual system, focusing mainly on solid-state image sensors, or camera chips, and the image-sensing element of the human visual system, the eye. History of human vision Human vision has been the subject of conflicting interpretations since ancient times. Many ancient physicians and philosophers believed in the theory of extramission, or the active eye. According to this theory, the eye perceives objects by emanating light and seizing objects with its rays. It was in medieval Islamic culture that research on human vision and optics developed into a system similar to the modern theory of vision. Among others, Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965-1040 A.D.), a Muslim physicist, astronomer, and mathematician in the tenth century, played a great part in this field by promoting the intromission theory which states that vision only occurs because of light rays entering the eye. Ibn Al-Haytham founded physiological optics, which distinguished the functioning of the eye from the behavior of light. On the other hand, ten centuries after Ibn Al-Haytham, Winer et al. (2002) have found recent evidence that as many as 50% of American college students believe in the extramission theory.1 Although the fundamental features, anatomy, and physiology of the eye were documented by Galen (129–200 A.D.), an ancient Greek physician, in the second century A.D., it was Kepler, a close reader of Ibn Al-Haytham, who offered the first theory of the retinal image and the correct operation of the eye in 1604. He proclaimed, “Therefore vision occurs through a picture of the visible things on the white, concave surface of the retina.” Progress came slowly after Kepler, because little was known about the nervous system until the nineteenth century, and only recently have scientists acquired a more knowledge about how the brain apprehends the retinal image. But many questions still elude us. History of the camera In parallel with curiosity about human vision, human beings have also tried to mimic human vision by capturing images of objects with instruments. Around 1000 A.D., Ibn Al-Haytham, also known as the father of modern optics, invented the pinhole camera,2 and explained why the image was upside down. It was Johannes Kepler who further suggested the use of a lens to improve the pinhole camera in the 1600s. Capturing an image on a photographic plate was first achieved in the early 1800s. Consequently, photographic cameras began to be mass-marketed in the twentieth century. The photographic equipment with which we are all familiar today, such as the 35mm camera, flash bulb, Polaroid camera, and the point-and-shoot auto focus camera, all were developed in the twentieth century. The invention of the camera as we know it today paved the way for other technologies, including the moving image capture, and, later, the digital camera, in which electronic image-capture devices were used. In 1972, chemically processing an image onto photographic paper no longer became the sole destination of an image, because the first filmless electronic camera was patented by Texas Instruments Corporation. Filmless electronic cameras were made possible with the invention of solid-state image-capture devices called charge coupled devices (CCD) and metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) image sensors in the late 1960s. Since the invention of solid-state imagers, people have become more visually stimulated and oriented than ever before in history. A comparison of camera chips and the human eye The technological advancements of solid-state image-capture camera chip design and manufacturing during the past twenty-five years has made digital imaging more affordable and accessible to the general public. These advancements have become more visible to consumers in mobile products, particularly in cellular phones, in which there are still and video-camera functions. Although digital cameras are easily available today, the state-of-the-art image sensor chips used in these cameras exhibit a performance gap when compared with the capabilities of the human eye. How good these image sensor chips are today when compared to our eyes is a question that will be elaborated on. It is possible to compare the capabilities of the human eye and state-of-the-art image sensor chips used in cellular phones or in mainstream PC and digital still cameras. It is also possible to compare the capabilities of the human visual system, including the eyes, the optic nerve, the visual cortex, etc. with a digital camera system which includes optics, image-capture and signal-processing chips and other camera apparatuses. The capabilities include ability to see different colors (spectral response), photo-element (pixel) characteristics (size, density, distribution), light sensitivity, light-intensity response range, functionality and operation modes, and signal processing capabilities. A single light-sensing element in a solid-state image sensor is called a pixel. In the human eye it is called the photoreceptor. Both elements convert impinging light or photons into electrical signals. The human eye sees in the so-called visible spectrum, between 380nm (blue) and 750 nm (red), and utilizes two kinds of photoreceptors on the retina; rods and cones. The cones are used for color and daylight vision. Rods are responsible for night vision. There are three types of cone photoreceptors on the retina that contain different types of photosensitive pigments. The three types of cones are L, M, and S, and they have pigments that respond best to wavelengths of light that are long or red (peak at 564 nm), medium or green (peak at 534 nm), and short or blue (peak at 420 nm), respectively. The rods (R) are most sensitive at a wavelength of approximately 498 nm (green), as seen in Figure 1.3 Image sensor pixels in digital cameras mimic the photoreceptors in the human eye for color vision. They utilize three kinds of color filters (red, green, blue) on top of each pixel to convert light rays into electrical signals in different visible spectrums. Unlike the cones in the human eye, camera pixels and color filters can be designed to cover wide spectrums that are not visible to the human eye, for instance, the x-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared spectrums. In the category of spectral response range, camera pixels exhibit greater flexibility than those of the photoreceptors of the human eye. On the other hand, interestingly enough, the eyesight that humans possess has similar spectral characteristics as the sun. The solar light emission peaks in the visible spectrum as seen in Figure 2.4 Figure 1. Spectral absorption curves of the short (S), medium (M), and long (L) wavelength pigments in human cone and rod cells.3 Figure 2. The daylight solar spectral power distribution on earth.4 Pixel and array size The size of pixels in today’s modern digital cameras is getting closer to the size of the photoreceptors in human eye. The typical human eye contains an average of 130 million photoreceptors. The diameter of the rods and cones varies between 1.0m and 8.0m, depending on their location on the retina.5 Today’s state-of-the-art image sensor chips contain 10 to 30 million pixels. Each pixel can be as small as 1.4m in diameter. To date there has been no image sensor that is 1.4m pixel in size or more than 8 million pixels. However, the human being has been equipped with photoreceptors that are as small as 1.0m and has more than 100 million photoreceptors; and this is since the beginning of existence. It is also estimated that the resolution of the human eye is equivalent to an imager sensor chip of 576 million pixels with a 120 degree field of view.6 Thus we still have a long way to go in improving the image-sensor pixel and array sizes used in cameras if we are to match the human eye. Pixel distribution and formation In the human eye the photoreceptor size and densities change, depending on their location on the retina. For example, no rods exist on the focus center of the eye, which is called the fovea. Color vision photoreceptors, which total only 10% of the eye’s photoreceptors, are located mostly on the fovea. There is an irregular distribution of photoreceptors which is unique for every human being, like a fingerprint. Yet, we all see things the same, such as colors (with the exception of people who are colorblind). In camera chips, however, pixels are arrayed regularly, in two-dimensions. As the image-processing techniques and algorithms used in camera systems are linear and do not closely mimic the signal processing that exists in the human visual system, regularly arrayed pixels are required. Light sensitivity and response range Although the pixel sizes in image-sensor chips are approaching the size of the photoreceptors in the human eye, camera systems are not yet close to being able to match performance in terms of light sensitivity and response range. The human visual system and photoreceptors can easily adapt to very dim and bright light, with a light-intensity response range of ten billion to one (1010:1).7 This response range goes from light conditions on a bright sunny day to dim night vision. Typically, a conventional consumer camera pixel has a light intensity response range of one thousand to one (103:1).8 In a camera system, details of a captured scene are either concealed in the dark regions or washed out by the bright light, depending on the exposure settings of the system. Thus, one could say that the human visual system works ten million times (107) more efficiently than that of consumer cameras in terms of transferring scenes into images. In terms of operation principles, the photoreceptors in the human eye convert light rays into electrical signals with extremely rapid electro-chemical reactions which can detect a single photon. Typically, in the image sensor pixel of a digital camera the photoelectric effect is used to convert impinging photons into electrical charges. Electrical charges are collected and stored in each pixel during the exposure period. Collected electric charges in each pixel are amplified and converted into digital ones (logic-1) and zeros (logic-0) during image readout before the image is sent to higher processing elements, such as a personal computer, digital-still or video camera. It is possible for a single photon-counting camera to be developed. However, very special and larger pixel sizes and extra apparatuses are required to build such a camera system. Thus, we could say that it is almost impossible to build imaging pixels that have the capability and dimensions of the photoreceptors of the human eye with today’s state-of-the-art technology. Signal processing capabilities The captured image in the human eye is preprocessed before it is sent to the visual cortex of the brain. This preprocessing consists of a data reduction operation in which nothing is lost, with a compression ratio of 130 to 1, as only 1 million optic nerves leave each eye carrying the information from 130 million photoreceptors. This compression allows the brain to process information at a rate of 25 to 150 scenes or frames per second. Typically, every pixel in an image sensor chip is first transferred to higher processing units. A data compression method is either carried out with some loss of details in the image or the compression is never used. The transfer of frames in camera chips typically takes place sequentially, reducing the speed of the image-capture operation or frame rate. Different techniques are used to maintain a capture rate of, at most, 25 frames-per-second in camera chips. With today’s technology, image sensors that have a capture rate of one million frames per second have been proposed and can be manufactured for scientific applications. The inherent inefficiencies of image-capture in today’s image-sensor chips are hidden by employing the limitations of the human eye. For example, solid-state image sensors have always been produced with row or column-vice uncanny stripes which are easily picked up by the human eye. However, psycho-visual experiments have shown that the human eye can only detect contrasts between two adjacent gray lines when the difference is greater than 0.5%. Thus, if a camera chip is designed to have a column to column or row to row contrast of less than 0.5%, these odd stripes would not be visible. Humans are visually oriented and without a doubt, our eyes are considered to be our primary source of information. It is obvious that the human visual system is extremely complex and this complexity has fascinated human beings throughout history. Yet, the underlining principles and basic functions of human vision and the eye have only been discovered during the last two centuries. These discoveries have led research in how to mimic these functions, which has resulted in moving and still-photographic and camera equipment, and the image sensors chips used in digital cameras today. Even though human beings are only taking baby steps in fully mimicking the human eye, curiosity and scientific inquiry allows us to discover functions and features of the eye and the visual pathways that will increase our knowledge and help us to build better pixels and image sensor chips. 1. Winer, G. A., Cottrell, J. E., Gregg, V., Fournier, J. S., & Bica, L. A., “Fundamentally misunderstanding visual perception: Adults’ beliefs in visual emissions.” American Psychologist, 57, 417-424, 2002. 2. Ertan Salik, “Pinhole Cameras, Imaging, and The Eye” The Fountain Magazine, Issue 54, pp. 30-33, April – June 2006. 3. URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Cone-response.png 4. URL: http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color3.html 5. Stefan Winkler, Digital Video Quality – Vision Models and Metrics, John-Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2005. 6. URL: http://www.clarkvision.com/imagedetail/eye-resolution.html 7. R.C. Gonzalez and R.E. Woods, Digital Image Processing, Addison-Wesley, 1993. 8. M. Schanz, et al., “A high-dynamic-range CMOS image sensor for automotive applications”, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 35, no. 7, pp.932-938, July 2000.
Primary teeth, also known as baby teeth, play a much bigger role in a child’s overall growth and development than most people consider. Baby teeth are important for eating, speech, and appearance, but they also help guide permanent teeth to their proper place. If left unchecked, baby teeth can spread decay to new teeth in the process. Learning to properly brush and floss at a young age is important to keeping teeth cavity-free. Not only does teaching these good habits instill learnings of how to brush and how often, but healthy primary teeth are an important foundation for healthy adult teeth. In some cases, cavities don’t cause your child constant pain but they can still lead to more serious conditions. They may also affect your child’s ability to enjoy certain sweet but healthy foods like apples and berries. In extreme cases, this can lead to malnutrition. Poor oral health at any age can also lead to abscesses and teeth, gum, or underlying bone infections. Proper brushing habits are the best treatment and can prevent these serious health concerns from affecting your child now and later in life. Regular, thorough teeth cleanings can reduce these risks and stop decay before it starts. Baby teeth come in at around six months of age, lasting until the age of 10 to 12 before they’re replaced with adult teeth. The first teeth to fall out are usually the first permanent teeth to grow back. In most cases, this is the bottom two. Parents are advised to begin brushing as soon as the first tooth comes in and to begin flossing as soon as two teeth touch. For the first couple years, only brush with water and a soft, baby toothbrush or fluoride-free toothpaste. During these early brushing stages, you’ll want to be extra careful with your child’s sensitive teeth and gums. Begin using small amounts of fluoride toothpaste at the age of three, or when recommended by your dentist, but limit these portions until your child is seven. Around this time, it’s safe to start using a fluoride rinse to prevent cavities too. Protecting your child’s baby teeth will do more than prevent future health concerns. Improper baby teeth care can jeopardize the future of your child’s speech and the alignment of their smile. Both can affect self-confidence as they get older. Tooth decay in kids is painful and spreads quickly through contaminated saliva. It can easily transfer from baby to adult teeth too. Fortunately, instilling good oral care habits can be easy and fun. If you want to ensure your brushing technique is effective, the below brushing tips can help keep the young smiles in your family healthy and white: • Let them choose the toothbrush they use and get new ones 3 to 4 times a year. • Try a few different kinds of toothpaste until you find one they like. • Use a gentle brushing technique, so when your child starts to brush his/her own teeth, they will hold the toothbrush lightly too. • Teach your kids it takes time to brush effectively by avoiding brushing teeth in a rush. • Set a timer or play a song to remind them to brush for full two minutes. • Teach them to spend time brushing each tooth, every time. • Circular motions for the front and back and swift forward brushes along the top surfaces. • Be sure they know their tongue can have bacteria on it too and should be brushed every time. This can help alleviate bad breath. • Use a new piece of floss for each tooth so you don’t reinsert food and plaque. • Teach to spit without rinsing so the toothpaste and/or rinse can take full effect. • Use a points and reward system to encourage brushing twice a day as your child gets older. Establishing these healthy cleaning habits at a young age is important for both habit forming and health reasons. Kids who use good brushing techniques twice a day from a young age are much more likely to carry those habits into their adult life and might even pass them along to their children. Plus, these habits can prevent oncoming and future oral conditions from developing. Start showing your kids today how fun it can be to keep teeth clean.
Let’s begin at the beginning, the discovery of Indian history. When the British took over Bengal after 1757, there was absolutely nothing known about Indian history prior to the Mughal Empire and early Islamic invaders (when the Islamic historians began chronicling events in India). In fact, everything we know about events before 1000 AD was discovered in the last two hundred years. This is a fascinating story of how that modern understanding of our past began: The biggest challenge was finding that first clue, the thread that could be followed into our ancient past. And the man for the job was Sir William Jones, a Supreme Court judge. Jones had become obsessed with India as soon as he arrived in 1783. At that time, much of India was ruled by Hindu Law that was written in Sanskrit and the British had to rely on local Brahmins to translate it. To bypass this clumsy arrangement, Jones decided to learn Sanskrit for himself. In the process he became the first person to recognize the similarity between Sanskrit and European languages, what would later be recognized as the Indo-European language family. On his agenda was also to uncover the ancient Indian history. To this end, he waded through ancient scripts from Europe and India for ten years before striking gold. As Jones and others studied Sanskrit literature, they found a long list of wars, kingdoms and events. But they were all disconnected. There were no dates and names of all the locations had long since been changed. These were undated stories from places that no one knew about. What Jones needed was a marker – an ancient event that Jones could connect to a modern place and a date.
Heartburn is an uncomfortable feeling or burning pain behind the breastbone. It may occur after eating, soon after lying down, when bending forward, or after taking certain medicines. Heartburn occurs when stomach acid backs up (refluxes) into the tube that leads from the mouth to the stomach (esophagus), causing pain or discomfort behind the breastbone, in the center of the chest, and occasionally in the back of the throat. Sometimes there may be a sour or bitter taste in the mouth. Antacids or other nonprescription medicines (such as acid reducers or acid blockers) may relieve heartburn. Heartburn can be a symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). In GERD, the valve at the top of the stomach (where the stomach and the esophagus connect) does not close tightly enough. This allows the contents of the stomach to move up into the esophagus. GERD usually causes a feeling of burning, warmth, heat, or pain that often starts in the upper part of your belly, just below your breastbone (sternum). This feeling (called heartburn) may spread in waves upward into your throat, and you may have a sour taste in your mouth. Heartburn is sometimes called indigestion, acid regurgitation, sour stomach, or pyrosis.
Molybdenum: the essentials Molybdenum atoms have 42 electrons and the shell structure is 220.127.116.11.1. The ground state electronic configuration of neutral molybdenum is [Kr].4d5.5s1 and the term symbol of molybdenum is 7S3. Molybdenum is a silvery-white, hard, transition metal. Scheele discovered it in 1778. It was often confused with graphite and lead ore. Molybdenum is used in alloys, electrodes and catalysts. The World War 2 German artillery piece called "Big Bertha" contains molybdenum as an essential component of its steel. Molybdenum: physical properties Molybdenum: heat properties - Melting point: 2896 [2623 °C (4753 °F)] K - Boiling point: 4912 [4639 °C (8382 °F)] K - Enthalpy of fusion: 20.5 kJ mol-1 Molybdenum: atom sizes - Atomic radius (empirical): 145 pm - Molecular single bond covalent radius: 138 (coordination number 6) ppm - van der Waals radius: 245 ppm - Pauling electronegativity: 2.16 (Pauling units) - Allred Rochow electronegativity: 1.30 (Pauling units) - Mulliken-Jaffe electronegativity: (no data) Molybdenum: orbital properties - First ionisation energy: 684.32 kJ mol‑1 - Second ionisation energy: 1559 kJ mol‑1 - Third ionisation energy: 2618 kJ mol‑1 Molybdenum: crystal structure Molybdenum: biological data - Human abundance by weight: 100 ppb by weight Molybdenum is a necessary element, apparently for all species. Only very small amounts are required. Molybdenum plays a role in nitrogen fixation, (a process by which the normally unreactive nitrogen gas is turned into other compounds) enzymes, and nitrate reduction enzymes. Reactions of molybdenum as the element with air, water, halogens, acids, and bases where known. Molybdenum: binary compounds Binary compounds with halogens (known as halides), oxygen (known as oxides), hydrogen (known as hydrides), and other compounds of molybdenum where known. Molybdenum: compound properties Bond strengths; lattice energies of molybdenum halides, hydrides, oxides (where known); and reduction potentials where known. Molybdenum: historyMolybdenum was discovered by Carl William Scheele in 1781 at Sweden. Origin of name: from the Greek word "molybdos" meaning "lead". The Molybdenum isotope Mo-95 is used for the production of the medical radioisotope Ru-97. Mo-96 is used for the production of the radioisotopes Tc-96 and Tc-95m, both of which have a medical application. Most Mo isotopes are also used in nutrition studies in humans. Depleted Mo-95 has been suggested for use in UMo fuel elements for materials test (high flux) reactors. Isolation: it is not normally necessary to make samples of molybdenum metal in the laboratory since it is readily available commercially. Industrially, its extraction is sometimes linked to copper production. The normal process is for the sulphide MoS2 to be "roasted" to form the oxide MoO3. This is often used directly in the steel industry. Pure samples of the metal are available by first dissolving the oxide in ammonium hydroxide to make ammonium molybdate, (NH4)2[MO4], and thenreduction of the molybdate with hydrogen gas to form the metal.
A learning style (or learning strength) is the method of learning particular to an individual that is presumed to allow that individual to learn best. For teachers, this knowledge helps them modulate instruction to help many different kinds of students. For students, understanding their personal preferences and strengths allows them to adjust their levels of effort or the kind of effort they apply to learn. John Collins, a colleague from the University of British Columbia, suggests having students explore their learning styles by using three different instruments and then examining their agreement. Why student self-understanding of learning strengths and faculty self-understanding of teaching strengths are important is described below by Richard Felder, of North Carolina State University. Students preferentially take in and process information in different ways: by seeing and hearing, reflecting and acting, reasoning logically and intuitively, analyzing and visualizing, steadily and in fits and starts. Teaching methods also vary. Some instructors lecture, others demonstrate or lead students to self-discovery; some focus on principles and others on applications; some emphasize memory and others understanding. When mismatches exist between learning styles of most students in a class and the teaching style of the professor, the students may become bored and inattentive in class, do poorly on tests, get discouraged about the courses, the curriculum, and themselves, and in some cases change to other curricula or drop out of school. Professors, confronted by low test grades, unresponsive or hostile classes, poor attendance and dropouts, know something is not working. They may become overly critical of their students (making things even worse) or begin to wonder if they are in the right profession. Most seriously, society loses potentially excellent professionals. To overcome these problems, professors should strive for a balance of instructional methods (as opposed to trying to teach each student exclusively according to his or her preferences.) If the balance is achieved, all students will be taught partly in a manner they prefer, which leads to an increased comfort level and willingness to learn, and partly in a less preferred manner, which provides practice and feedback in ways of thinking and solving problems which they may not initially be comfortable with but which they will have to use to be fully effective professionals. (accessed 8/21/07 on Dr. Richard Felder’s (of North Carolina State University) web page.) Instruments to self-assess learning style: There are many free web-based instruments that allow individuals to self-assess learning strengths. Here are a few examples (many more can be found in web search): - North Carolina State University offers a 44-item questionnaire - VARK is a 16-item questionnaire that provides immediate web feedback. - A Learning Style Survey for College (by Caroline Jester, Diablo Valley State College) is a 32-item instant-feedback instrument. - An overview of learning styles and a web survey can be found at this page, Learning Styles Online. The article from Skip Downing's On Course newsletter summarizes much of the present research literature on learning styles.
While early oil production was mostly aimed at paraffin production, the birth of the automobile industry created a new demand for petroleum products. There has been a consistent demand for hydrocarbon products ever since. It’s not just about filling your tank at the petrol station either – much of the UK’s electricity generation now comes from natural gas, and petroleum byproducts are used in many consumer products, which are made by machines that need industrial lubricants like Mobile DTE 25 to function smoothly. This is why the oil industry constantly seeks new reserves. Oil exploration is a costly and risky business, though, so it’s mostly large corporations or national governments involved. These large corporations sometimes even pool their resources, as was seen in the early days of North Sea oil when Esso and Shell combined their efforts in a 50/50 joint venture. It’s therefore a good idea to locate the best place to drill for oil. The early days of oil exploration mostly involved looking for visual clues on the surface, such as oil and gas seeps, but geologists were eventually recruited to study factors like magnetic fields, rock formations, and minor gravity variations in order to better guess where there may be oil. Almost 50 years ago, ExxonMobil pioneered a new technology called 3-D seismic imaging that would revolutionise oil exploration. This technology is based on how sound waves behave differently in various mediums. Geophones are used on the surface to record the sound as it bounces back up. This data can then be analysed by geologists and engineers to establish the likely rock formations and create 3-D images of the subterranean structure. Even with this helpful technology, however, engineers could generally only accurately pinpoint a reservoir about half of the time. A logical extension of this technology is 4-D seismic imaging, which is a time-lapsed version of 3-D seismic imaging. It’s mostly used in existing fields to monitor changes in the reservoir over time and enable more efficient oil production. One problem with seismic imaging was how only a portion of the vast and complex data could be used, but the recent development of full wavefield inversion has changed this. This new technology uses both synthetic and real data to create a model that more accurately reflects reality, ultimately meaning that all of the data can be used to create high-definition images of the subsurface. High-performance computing has enabled many of the recent developments in oil exploration, and this trend will no doubt continue in future.
Obesity and Cancer What is obesity? Obesity is a condition in which a person has an unhealthy amount and/or distribution of body fat. To measure obesity, researchers commonly use a scale known as the body mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated by dividing a person’s weight (in kilograms) by their height (in meters) squared (commonly expressed as kg/m2). BMI provides a more accurate measure of obesity than weight alone, and for most people it is a fairly good (although indirect) indicator of body fatness. Other measurements that reflect the distribution of body fat—that is, whether more fat is carried around the hips or the abdomen—are increasingly being used along with BMI as indicators of obesity and disease risks. These measurements include waist circumference and the waist-to-hip ratio (the waist circumference divided by the hip circumference). The standard weight categories based on BMI for adults age 20 years or older are \|BMI in kg/m2\|\|Weight Category\| \|18.5 to 24.9\|\|Normal\| \|25.0 to 29.9\|\|Overweight\| \|30.0 to 39.9\|\|Obese\| \|40.0 or higher\|\|Severely obese\| The National Heart Lung and Blood Institute has a BMI calculator at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/BMI/bmicalc.htm. For children and adolescents (younger than 20 years of age), overweight and obesity are based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC’s) BMI-for-age growth charts, which are available at http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/clinical_charts.htm: BMI-for-age at or above sex-specific 85th percentile, but less than 95th percentile \|BMI-for-age at or above sex-specific 95th percentile\|\|Obese\| The CDC has a BMI percentile calculator for children and teens at http://nccd.cdc.gov/dnpabmi/Calculator.aspx. Compared with people of normal weight, those who are overweight or obese are at greater risk for many diseases, including diabetes, high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and many cancers. Extreme or severe obesity is also associated with an increased death rate; heart disease, cancer, and diabetes are responsible for most of the excess deaths (1, 2). How common is overweight or obesity? Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) showed that in 2011–2014, nearly 70% of U.S. adults age 20 years or older were overweight or obese and more than one-third (36.5%) were obese (3). In 1988–1994, by contrast, only 56% of adults aged 20 years or older were overweight or obese. The percentage of children and adolescents who are overweight or obese has also increased (3). In 2011–2014, an estimated 9% of 2- to 5-year-olds, 17% of 6- to 11-year-olds, and 20% of 12- to 19-year-olds were overweight or obese. In 1988–1994, those figures were only 7%, 11%, and 10%, respectively. In 2011–2014, about 17% of U.S. youth ages 2 to 19 years old were obese. In 1988–1994, by contrast, only about 10% of 2 to 19-year old were obese (4). According to the CDC, the prevalence of obesity in the United States differs among racial/ethnic groups. For example, in 2011–2012 among adults, non-Hispanic blacks had the highest prevalence of obesity (47.8%) followed by Hispanics (42.0%), non-Hispanic whites (33.4%), and non-Hispanic Asians (10.9%) (5). Among children and adolescents ages 2–19 years, the prevalence of obesity in 2011–2012 was 21.9% among Hispanics, 19.5% among non-Hispanic blacks, 14.7% among non-Hispanic whites, and 8.6% among non-Hispanic Asians. The CDC has state-level estimates of obesity prevalence among U.S. adults available at http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/prevalence-maps.html. What is known about the relationship between obesity and cancer? Nearly all of the evidence linking obesity to cancer risk comes from large cohort studies, a type of observational study. However, data from observational studies can be difficult to interpret and cannot definitively establish that obesity causes cancer. That is because obese or overweight people may differ from lean people in ways other than their body fat, and it is possible that these other differences—rather than their body fat—are what explains their different cancer risk. Despite the limitations of the study designs, there is consistent evidence that higher amounts of body fat are associated with increased risks of a number of cancers (6), including: - Endometrial cancer: Obese and overweight women are two to about four times as likely as normal-weight women to develop endometrial cancer (cancer of the lining of the uterus), and extremely obese women are about seven times as likely to develop the more common of the two main types of this cancer (7). The risk of endometrial cancer increases with increasing weight gain in adulthood, particularly among women who have never used menopausal hormone therapy (8). - Esophageal adenocarcinoma: People who are overweight or obese are about twice as likely as normal-weight people to develop a type of esophageal cancer called esophageal adenocarcinoma, and people who are extremely obese are more than four times as likely (9). - Gastric cardia cancer: People who are obese are nearly twice as likely as normal-weight people to develop cancer in the upper part of the stomach, that is, the part that is closest to the esophagus (10). - Liver cancer: People who are overweight or obese are up to twice as likely as normal-weight people to develop liver cancer. The association between overweight/obesity and liver cancer is stronger in men than women (11, 12). - Kidney cancer: People who are overweight or obese are nearly twice as likely as normal-weight people to develop renal cell cancer, the most common form of kidney cancer (13). The association of renal cell cancer with obesity is independent of its association with high blood pressure, a known risk factor for kidney cancer (14). - Multiple myeloma: Compared with normal-weight individuals, overweight and obese individuals have a slight (10% to 20%) increase in the risk of developing multiple myeloma (15). - Meningioma: The risk of this slow-growing brain tumor that arises in the membranes surrounding the brain and the spinal cord is increased by about 50% in people who are obese and about 20% in people who are overweight (16). - Pancreatic cancer: People who are overweight or obese are about 1.5 times as likely to develop pancreatic cancer as normal-weight people (17). - Colorectal cancer: People who are obese are slightly (about 30%) more likely to develop colorectal cancer than normal-weight people (18). A higher BMI is associated with increased risks of colon and rectal cancers in both men and in women, but the increases are higher in men than in women (18). - Gallbladder cancer: Compared with normal-weight people, people who are overweight have a slight (about 20%) increase in risk of gallbladder cancer, and people who are obese have a 60% increase in risk of gallbladder cancer (19, 20). The risk increase is greater in women than men. - Breast cancer: Many studies have shown that, in postmenopausal women, a higher BMI is associated with a modest increase in risk of breast cancer. For example, a 5-unit increase in BMI is associated with a 12% increase in risk (21). Among postmenopausal women, those who are obese have a 20% to 40% increase in risk of developing breast cancer compared with normal-weight women (22). The higher risks are seen mainly in women who have never used menopausal hormone therapy and for tumors that express hormone receptors. Obesity is also a risk factor for breast cancer in men (23). - Ovarian cancer: Higher BMI is associated with a slight increase in the risk of ovarian cancer, particularly in women who have never used menopausal hormone therapy (24). For example, a 5-unit increase in BMI is associated with a 10% increase in risk among women who have never used menopausal hormone therapy (24). - Thyroid cancer: Higher BMI (specifically, a 5-unit increase in BMI) is associated with a slight (10%) increase in the risk of thyroid cancer (25). How might obesity increase the risk of cancer? Several possible mechanisms have been suggested to explain how obesity might increase the risks of some cancers. - Obese people often have chronic low-level inflammation, which can, over time, cause DNA damage that leads to cancer. Overweight and obese individuals are more likely than normal-weight individuals to have conditions or disorders that are linked to or that cause chronic local inflammation and that are risk factors for certain cancers (26). For example, chronic local inflammation induced by gastroesophageal reflux disease or Barrett esophagus is a likely cause of esophageal adenocarcinoma. Obesity is a risk factor for gallstones, a condition characterized by chronic gallbladder inflammation, and a history of gallstones is a strong risk factor for gallbladder cancer (27). Chronic ulcerative colitis (a chronic inflammatory condition) and hepatitis (a disease of the liver causing inflammation) are risk factors for different types of liver cancer (28). - Fat tissue (also called adipose tissue) produces excess amounts of estrogen, high levels of which have been associated with increased risks of breast, endometrial, ovarian, and some other cancers. - Obese people often have increased blood levels of insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). (This condition, known as hyperinsulinemia or insulin resistance, precedes the development of type 2 diabetes.) High levels of insulin and IGF-1 may promote the development of colon, kidney, prostate, and endometrial cancers (29). - Fat cells produce adipokines, hormones that may stimulate or inhibit cell growth. For example, the level of an adipokine called leptin, which seems to promote cell proliferation, in the blood increases with increasing body fat. And another adipokine, adiponectin—which is less abundant in obese people than in those of normal weight—may have antiproliferative effects. - Fat cells may also have direct and indirect effects on other cell growth regulators, including mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and AMP-activated protein kinase. Other possible mechanisms by which obesity could affect cancer risk include changes in the mechanical properties of the scaffolding that surrounds breast cells (30) and altered immune responses, effects on the nuclear factor kappa beta system, and oxidative stress (31). How many cancer cases may be due to obesity? A population-based study using BMI and cancer incidence data from the GLOBOCAN project estimated that, in 2012 in the United States, about 28,000 new cases of cancer in men (3.5%) and 72,000 in women (9.5%) were due to overweight or obesity (32). The percentage of cases attributed to overweight or obesity varied widely for different cancer types but was as high as 54% for gallbladder cancer in women and 44% for esophageal adenocarcinoma in men. A 2016 study summarizing worldwide estimates of the fractions of different cancers attributable to overweight/obesity reported that, compared with other countries, the United States had the highest fractions attributable to overweight/obesity for colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, and postmenopausal breast cancer (33). Does avoiding weight gain or losing weight decrease the risk of cancer? Most of the data about whether avoiding weight gain or losing weight reduces cancer risk comes from cohort and case-control studies. As with observational studies of obesity and cancer risk, these studies can be difficult to interpret because people who lose weight or avoid weight gain may differ in other ways from people who do not. Nevertheless, when the evidence from multiple observational studies is consistent, the association is more likely to be real. Many observational studies have provided consistent evidence that people who have lower weight gain during adulthood have lower risks of colon cancer, kidney cancer, and—for postmenopausal women—breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancers (34). Fewer studies have examined possible associations between weight loss and cancer risk. Some of these have found decreased risks of breast, endometrial, colon, and prostate cancers among people who have lost weight. However, most of these studies were not able to evaluate whether the weight loss was intentional or unintentional (and possibly related to underlying health problems). Stronger evidence for a relationship between weight loss and cancer risk comes from studies of people who have undergone bariatric surgery (surgery performed on the stomach or intestines to induce weight loss). Obese people who have bariatric surgery appear to have lower risks of obesity-related cancers than obese people who do not have bariatric surgery (35). Nevertheless, the follow-up study of weight and breast cancer in the Women’s Health Initiative (36) found that for women who were already overweight or obese at baseline, weight change (either gain or loss) was not associated with breast cancer risk during follow-up. However, for women who were of normal weight at baseline, gaining more than 5% of body weight was associated with increased breast cancer risk. How does obesity affect cancer survivorship? Most of the evidence about obesity in cancer survivors comes from people who were diagnosed with breast, prostate, or colorectal cancer. Research indicates that obesity may worsen several aspects of cancer survivorship, including quality of life, cancer recurrence, cancer progression, and prognosis (survival) (37, 38). For example, obesity is associated with increased risks of treatment-related lymphedema in breast cancer survivors (39) and incontinence in prostate cancer survivors treated with radical prostatectomy (40). In a large clinical trial of patients with stage II and stage III rectal cancer, those with a higher baseline BMI (particularly men) had an increased risk of local recurrence (41). Death from multiple myeloma is 50% more likely for people at the highest levels of obesity compared with people at normal weight (42). Several randomized clinical trials in breast cancer survivors have reported weight loss interventions that resulted in both weight loss and beneficial changes in biomarkers that have been linked to the association between obesity and prognosis (43, 44). However, there is little evidence about whether weight loss improves cancer recurrence or prognosis (45). The NCI-sponsored Breast Cancer WEight Loss (BWEL) Study, a randomized phase III trial that is currently recruiting participants, will compare recurrence rate in overweight and obese women who take part in a weight loss program after breast cancer diagnosis with that in women who do not take part in the weight loss program. What research is being done on obesity and cancer? Several areas of research are exploring mechanisms that link obesity and cancer (29, 46). One research area involves understanding the role of the microbes that live in the human gastrointestinal tract (collectively called the gut microbiota, or microbiome) in both type 2 diabetes and obesity. Both conditions are associated with dysbiosis, an imbalance in the collection of these microbes. For example, the gut microbiomes of obese people are different from, and less diverse than, those of non-obese people. Imbalances in the gut microbiota are associated with inflammation, altered metabolism, and genotoxicity, which may in turn be related to cancer. Experiments in mice show that the microbiome may influence the efficacy of some types of cancer treatment, particular immunotherapy (47, 48). Researchers are beginning to think about ways to change the microbiota of cancer patients to improve their outcomes. Another area of investigation is the role of insulin receptor signaling in cancer. Many cancer cells express elevated levels of IR-A, a form of the insulin receptor that has a high affinity for insulin and related growth factors. Researchers are investigating how these factors contribute to metabolic disease and cancer and which may be useful targets for therapeutic interventions to prevent obesity-related cancers. Researchers are also trying to understand why the association between obesity and the risks of some cancers vary among racial/ethnic groups. For example, obesity has been found to be more strongly associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer among African American men than among white men (49). This observation might reflect a difference in the biological effects of obesity between these two groups, such as a difference in the effects of obesity on inflammation or insulin secretion. NCI supports research on obesity and cancer risk through a variety of activities, including large cooperative initiatives, web and data resources, extramural and intramural epidemiologic studies, basic science, and dissemination and implementation resources. For example, the Transdisciplinary Research on Energetics and Cancer (TREC) initiative links four research centers and a coordination center to investigate how the combined effects of obesity, poor diet, and low levels of physical activity increase cancer risk. The NCI Cohort Consortium is an extramural–intramural partnership within NCI’s Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences that combines more than 50 prospective cohort studies from around the world with more than seven million participants. The studies are gathering information on energy balance–related factors from each cohort. The large size of the study will allow researchers to get a better sense of how obesity-related factors relate to less common cancers, such as cancers of the thyroid, gallbladder, head and neck, and kidney.
Youth Movements at the time of the Lodz Ghetto (1940-1944) Occupation and Transfer to the Ghetto (September 1939 – April 1940) A week after the outbreak of WWII, on 8 September 1939, the city of Lodz was occupied. Despite many of the youth movement leaders fleeing east from the Nazis, the movements did not completely collapse. In the first six months of occupation, a time of racist decrees and fierce persecution, the youth naturally “retreated” into the family cell, although members maintained contact and gathered (sporadically) to assess the situation and endeavor to continue with their activities under the new and unknown reality. The ghetto was sealed off in the poor neighborhood of Baluty in mid-1940, with some 164,000 Jews squeezed into the area. They were crammed into wooden houses, with no running water and no sewers. Hunger, cold and disease quickly developed. In total some 43,500 Jews – 21% of those trapped in the ghetto – died under these conditions in the more than four years of its existence. Despite this, the majority of youth movements continued to exist, establishing frameworks that allowed the youth to preserve their vitality, to “escape” from the difficult reality to a world they knew before the war, and to sail away in their imagination over the walls of the ghetto. Activities in Marysin (May 1940-March 1941) In May 1940, a special branch in charge of taking care of the gardens and agricultural plots in the ghetto was established within the Jewish administration. A short while afterwards, the ghetto’s residents were notified of the leasing plots of land for agricultural work in Marysin – an agricultural neighborhood east of Baluty within the ghetto’s bounds (see map). This awakened the interest of the various youth group leaders, who requested permission to establish quasi-training collective kibbutzim, similar to those that had existed before the war. The leaders hoped to detach the youth, as much as possible, from the distressing and action-less conditions prevailing in the ghetto, and to renew the movements’ activities. Mordechai Chaim Rumkowski, “the Elder of the Jews” (the name given to the head of the Judenrat), who was a Zionist, at first viewed the idea positively and supported it. The training members in Marysin succeeded, on his initiative, to receive larger allocations of food than the rest of the ghetto’s residents. Each group received one or more houses, according to its number of members, and an agricultural plot. At the end of the summer of 1940, 24 Zionist youth groups, comprising almost 1,000 members, lived in Marysin. There were also two non-Zionist groups: members of the Zukunft (the Bund) and Agudat Yisrael. In parallel, there were also youth groups with no connection to a political party or movement, but who knew other young people there, mostly from school. Even in these groups the lion’s share of members came from a Zionist background, and some of them established a new movement called “Front of the Wilderness Generation.” This movement united all the Zionist sectors on the basis of their common denominator.The training kibbutz members occupied themselves with working the land, community work such as teaching in orphanages and helping in hospitals and soup kitchens, and public work such as paving roads. After work they conducted local cultural and educational activities, according to the ideology of the group. Most groups laid an emphasis on learning Hebrew and Jewish history. Marysin quickly became a draw to hundreds of young people in the ghetto who came to the activities and succeeded in detaching themselves, even for a short while, from the everyday realities. Marysin held joint festivities for all the Zionist groups such as “Herzl Day” and “Bialik Day,” and song and dance evenings. Towards the end of 1940, the situation changed. The increasing levels of distress in the ghetto forced many members to return home to help their families. In parallel, the process of industrialization began in the ghetto, and factories (“resorts”) were established. Rumkowski changed his attitude and demanded that the youth join the work in the “resorts”, but they didn’t hasten to take part in the effort. As a result, friction grew between the “group committees”—the body representing all the training groups—and the Jewish police and ghetto administration. By March 1941, all the groups in Marysin were dismantled. Reorganization and Activities of the Movements until the Liquidation of the Ghetto (April 1941 – Fall 1944) The dismantling of Marysin led to a temporary break in the youth movements’ activities. The young people returned home and gradually rejoined ghetto life. Youth movement activities did not cease, however, but became semi-underground in the houses of the members (although presumably Rumkowski and the Germans knew about them and chose to ignore them). In 1941 the groups mainly involved themselves in reorganization, adapting to the situation and institutionalizing their activities. At the end of that year, all schools ceased to operate and all other educational frameworks were cancelled. In 1942 there was a great decrease in activities due to the terrible hunger and the large number of deportations (in total 70,000 people were deported from Lodz and murdered in the Chelmno death camp in 1942, among them many children). In 1943-44, a time of relative stabilization and no deportations, the movements’ activities began to awaken and return, until the last days of the ghetto. The movements’ activities took a number of principle routes: Educational and cultural activities – leaders conducted activities on a range of Jewish and Zionist topics, with their eyes always turned to Eretz Yisrael. The movements’ members continued to learn Hebrew, perform Hebrew productions, and sing Hebrew songs. Mutual aid between members – crumbs of food and medicines were collected daily, in order to help needy and sick members. Members also aided those who appeared on deportation lists and were in hiding. These actions had not only a physical value, but also a moral one. The members knew they were not alone, but a part of a group with those who cared for them. So, for example, in the “Zionist Front” (the unified Hanoar Hazioni and Front of the Wilderness Generation), every member paid a tax to the movement: 10 grams of bread, 5 grams of sugar and 20 grams of margarine. In the conditions of the ghetto, this was an extraordinary and unprecedented sacrifice. Absorption of new members deported to the ghetto – from the fall of 1941, many Jews were deported to the ghetto from other ghettos in the region that had been liquidated. They arrived with nothing, often orphaned, and their care by local youth movements saved many and gave them hope. Writing pamphlets and posters – continuing the tradition established before the war, many youth movements (secretly) published pamphlets and posters. The first pamphlet was hand written and afterwards printed in secret and distributed to members. The battle to improve work conditions – this battle was conducted mostly by members of the Communist youth movement. The main activities took place in 1943-1944. The password of the youth was “Pracuj Powoli” (slow work), based on the following claim: “We eat little, so we work slowly.” The members organized many strikes, which although Rumkowski managed to break, contributed to the raising of morale. Contrary to other ghettos where, in the later stages of the war, the Jews became aware of the exterminations, the Lodz Ghetto was closed and isolated and few rumors circulated. That they remained unaware of the exterminations meant they could not arm themselves against their pursuers. That was one of the reasons that the youth movements did not revolt, as happened in other ghettos, but instead continued with their regular activities in all areas of ghetto life. When the ghetto was liquidated in 1944, almost all the remaining youth group members were annihilated. Only a few hundred survived, and went on to become a progressive and dominant force in the “She’erit Haplita” (surviving remnant) movement, which moved to Israel after the war. based on the Doctoral work of Dr. Michal Unger – “The Internal life in the Lodz Ghetto” Copyright © 2013 Yad Vashem The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority
About this book This book, presented in two parts, offers a slow introduction to mathematical logic, and several basic concepts of model theory, such as first-order definability, types, symmetries, and elementary extensions. Its first part, Logic Sets, and Numbers, shows how mathematical logic is used to develop the number structures of classical mathematics. The exposition does not assume any prerequisites; it is rigorous, but as informal as possible. All necessary concepts are introduced exactly as they would be in a course in mathematical logic; but are accompanied by more extensive introductory remarks and examples to motivate formal developments. The second part, Relations, Structures, Geometry, introduces several basic concepts of model theory, such as first-order definability, types, symmetries, and elementary extensions, and shows how they are used to study and classify mathematical structures. Although more advanced, this second part is accessible to the reader who is either already familiar with basic mathematical logic, or has carefully read the first part of the book. Classical developments in model theory, including the Compactness Theorem and its uses, are discussed. Other topics include tameness, minimality, and order minimality of structures. The book can be used as an introduction to model theory, but unlike standard texts, it does not require familiarity with abstract algebra. This book will also be of interest to mathematicians who know the technical aspects of the subject, but are not familiar with its history and philosophical background.
The Pareto Principle is such a simple rule, but it seems to pop up time and time again in a number of different applications. We'll take a deeper look at the 80/20 rule, including how it originated and what it really means. The Origins of the Pareto Principle Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) might not be a household name, but his accomplishments and observations form the basis of a number of theories in a wide variety of fields from economics to philosophy. One of his most famous observations forms the basis for the Pareto Principle, also known as the 80/20 Rule. This principle basically states that 80% of the "outcomes" come from 20% of the "inputs." However, I use the terms "inputs" and "outcomes" quite loosely here, because the principle is more far-reaching than that. As the story goes, the origins of the 80/20 rule date back to 1906 when Pareto observed that 80% of the property in Italy was owned by 20% of the population.(1) It should be noted that it was actually Joseph M. Juran who later generalized and named this rule(2), and thus, Juran should be credited with the principle's popularity and widespread use. But What Does the Pareto Principle Really Mean? It's important to note that the Pareto Principle is really a rough generalization that a large majority of X is really caused by a relatively small minority of Y. That is, although the principle is referred to as the 80/20 rule, the numbers 80 and 20 are not written in stone. As an example, when used in Six Sigma quality control processes, the 80/20 rule is really suggesting that a large improvement in quality can be made by focusing on those problems that are causing the most defects. That is, when all is tallied up and analyzed, there could be 30 possible causes for a product defect. However, further analysis may show that 6 of these causes (or 20%) are responsible for over 80% of the defects. So, you would get more bang for your buck by focusing on those 6 causes rather than all 30. Let's look at another example that illustrates the Pareto Principle. Suppose a poll was taken of 200 people who were late for work, and they were asked to explain why they were late. The chart below shows the responses to this poll. (Click any image for a larger view.) In this poll, there were ten different reasons given for being late for work. But, note that many of these reasons were only claimed by one or two people. The vast majority of the respondents gave "Woke Up Late" or "Bad Weather" as their excuse. We can use Excel to create a Pareto chart of this information and get the graph shown below. In this example, we can see that 80% of the reasons for being late came from two excuses (or 20% of the total number of excuses). Other Examples of the 80/20 Rule The Pareto Principle seems to rear its head in several other examples. For instance, if you're a manager, 80% of your section's errors may come from 20% of your employees. If you're a teacher, you may spend 80% of your time trying to help 20% of your students. And, when planning your monthly budget, 80% of your money may go to pay about 20% of your bills – especially if you're single and your biggest expenses are rent and your car payment. And, as Pareto originally observed, it's not uncommon for 80% or more of the wealth to belong to 20% or less of the population of any specific locale.
The U.S.S. Maine was an American battleship on a peaceful visit to Havana, Cuba, when it suddenly exploded at 9:45 PM on February 15, 1898, killing 274 of the 350 American sailors on board. The exact cause was never determined, but most speculation at the time and investigations since pointed to a liberal conspiracy. The sensational event galvanized American public opinion to concentrate on the Cuban issue. The U.S. had vigorously protested the massive, systematic mistreatment of Cubans by Spain, which had an empire it could no longer rule effectively. The sinking of the Maine was blamed on Spain by many Americans, but most opinion leaders, including President William McKinley reserved judgment, while demanding that Spain resolve the crisis in Cuba immediately. The explosion came during escalating tensions between the United States and Spain regarding Spain’s maladministration of Cuba, one of its last colonial possessions, and harsh suppression of the island’s independence movement. The Maine was sent to Cuba to demonstrate America's very strong interest in ending the civil war there. Two months after the explosion, the United States declared war on Spain. The sinking of the Maine riveted American attention on the Cuban crisis, but did not itself cause the war. The war was caused by Spain's inability to peacefully rule its colony, and American anger at its failure. Immediately after the explosion Spain offered its regrets and helped the survivors, while the Maine’s captain said he could not explain what had happened. While newspapers, such as William Randolph Hearst’s New York Morning Journal and Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World, printed sensationalist stories blaming Spain for the explosion, newspapers outside New York City printed sober accounts. President William McKinley, and most American opinion leaders called for a suspension of judgment until the Navy reported on its inquiry a month later. The U.S. Naval Court of Inquiry interrogated survivors and eyewitnesses, and several Navy divers explored the sunken wreck. The explosion of the forward ammunition magazines obviously had caused the sinking. Divers said the ship’s bottom plates were all bent inward, consistent with an external mine. (If an internal accidental explosion had occurred, the bottom plates would have been bent outward.) On the floor of the harbor a large cavity was seen, presumably from the explosion. The official report on March 28, 1898, indicated that the explosion was probably not an accident inside the ship but was deliberately set by an outside mine. On hearing the report many groups demanded war. Public opinion regarding Cuba Public opinion in the United States had been hostile to Spain for several years as that country tried to suppress growing rebellions in Cuba and other colonies. The Maine was sent to Havana to protect American citizens in case of rioting and to show the intense American interest in resolving the crisis. The Maine explosion so dominated headlines and public attention that quiet diplomacy was extremely difficult. Although opposed to war, McKinley demanded that Spain immediately end the chaos. Madrid repeatedly stalled for time, making promises that never took effect, hoping perhaps to gain diplomatic support from European powers that never came. Cuban insurgents advised McKinley that their insurrection would fall apart if Spain granted an armistice. The American business community, although opposed to war, warned that further months of uncertainty were intolerable. Finally McKinley told Congress to make the decision, knowing that the war hawks dominated Congress. On April 25, 1898, Congress declared war on Spain, and "Remember the Maine" became a popular rallying cry and song. The United States quickly won the war, and Cuba gained its independence from Spain. But the mystery of what caused the Maine to explode continued. A thorough investigation in 1911 by the Navy pointed to an outside mine as the source of the initial explosion. Sixty-five years later American Admiral Hyman Rickover reanalyzed the data and concluded it might have been an accident. The latest reanalysis, completed in 1999, was sponsored by the National Geographic Magazine. It commissioned an analysis by Advanced Marine Enterprises (AME), using computer modeling that was not available for previous investigations. The AME analysis concluded that “it appears more probable than was previously concluded that a mine caused the inward bent bottom structure and the detonation of the magazines.” Multiple theories have circulated as to what happened. The first theory is that it was an accident, caused by spontaneous ignition of the bituminous coal in the coal bunkers, located near the powder room, that could have heated the gunpowder to 450 degrees and set it off. There was no direct evidence for this hypothesis. The blast effects on the hull seem to show the causal force was outside not inside; the coal bunkers were inspected daily, had never shown problems before, and the coal used was not known to spontaneously ignite. The alternative theory held that an external mine detonated underwater on the port side by experts that knew what they was doing. Spain had recently purchased mines that could easily have done the job. One could have been seized by Cuban insurgents and set off to incite Americans into declaring war. Or, a mine could have been detonated by rogue Spanish officers angry at the intervention of the Americans. Perhaps Spanish authorities had ordered the mine placement, or one could even have been placed by American authorities seeking to escalate the conflict. Historians agree that it is highly unlikely that the Spanish government or the American government ordered the sabotage. The most likely suspect, for most historians, are the insurgents or rogue Spanish officers, but there is no direct evidence to implicate either group. Spain’s reluctance to negotiate in 1898 was caused by its own internal crisis. Spain was itself on the verge of civil war, but simply withdrawing from Cuba would have worsened its crisis. One honorable solution was to lose a short war to a much more powerful country, which is what happened. A new generation came to influence in Spain (the “Generation of 98”) and civil war was averted for another 35 years. Historians have debated whether American public opinion was deliberately inflamed by the sensationalist "Yellow Journalism" of Hearst and Pulitzer in New York City. Early 20th-century historian James Ford Rhodes concluded that the press “had manipulated the real news, spread unfounded reports, putting all before their readers with scare headlines." By contrast historian John Offner has insisted, "there is no evidence" to indicate that the "sensational press" influenced McKinley's policy, suggesting that "its impact on changing public opinion may have been limited." The Hearst and Pulitzer papers were not widely read outside of New York City, where the public demand for war originated. Impact on U.S. When the war came –"a splendid little war," one official called it--it lasted only six months and drew Americans together, especially the Southerners whose patriotism had been in doubt since the Civil War a generation earlier. The Spanish-American War represented a significant turning point in America's position in the world. Besides acquiring Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and the Philippine Islands in the Pacific, territorial possessions that created new defensive responsibilities, the United States demonstrated that it had built up its naval capacity sufficiently to defeat an established European power. - Allen, Thomas B. "What Really Sank the Maine?." Naval History, April 1998 online - May, Ernest R. Imperial Democracy: The Emergence of America as a Great Power. (1973). - Offner, John L. "McKinley and the Spanish-American War." Presidential Studies Quarterly (2004) 34:1, 50-61. online edition - Perez, Jr., Louis A. "The Meaning of the Maine: Causation and Historiography of the Spanish-American War." Pacific Historical Review (1989), 58:3, 293-322. - Samuels, Peggy, and Harold Samuels. Remembering the Maine. (1995)
CEID - Instructional Terms Glossary of Instructional Design Terminlogy ACTIVE LEARNING: Any approach that engages learners by matching instruction to the learner's interests, understanding, and developmental level. Often includes hands-on and authentic activities. ASYNCHRONOUS LEARNING: When learners participate in an online learning course at different times, it is known as asynchronous learning. This might also be called eLearning or web-based training (WBT). Asynchronous learning allows learners to go through a course at their own pace and on their own schedule. BLENDED LEARNING: Also referred to as hybrid learning. Learning and instructional techniques that integrate e-learning such as podcasts and online discussion with traditional (in-class) techniques such as lectures and tutorials. BLOOM'S TAXONOMY: A classification of behavior and learning developed by Benjamin Bloom and others. Organized into three domains of learning: cognitive (or intellectual), affective (or emotional/attitudinal), and psychomotor (or physical, motor). COGNITIVE STRATEGIES: Learning that is domain-specific or executive, as in Meta cognitive, describes cognitive strategies. DISTANCE LEARNING and DISTANCE EDUCATION: Education that occurs when students and instructors not in the same location. There is often a geographic and time seperation. GAGNE's NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION: A method for organizing instructional strategies within the lesson designed by Professor of Instructional Design, R.M. Gagne. The Nine Events of Instruction include: Gain Attention, Inform Learners of the Objectives, Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning, Present the Stimulus (Content), Provide Learner Guidance, Elicit Performance, Provide Feedback, Assess Performance, Enhance Retention and Transfer (Closure). HYBRID LEARNING: See blended learning. INFORMAL LEARNING: Informal learning occurs when people have a need to know something. They set their own learning objectives and acquire knowledge, skills and information in their own ways. This could be through asking questions, observing experts, practicing and conversing. It’s the kind of natural learning humans do outside of a structured environment. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: Instructional design involves the identification of the knowledge, information, and skill gaps of a particular group of people and creating or selecting learning experiences that close this gap. Instructional designers base their learning decisions on cognitive psychology, instructional theory and best practices. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNER: An instructional designer practices the craft and science of instructional design. This person identifies the needs of a targeted audience and determines the best approaches for meeting the audience’s needs. It could involve designing and writing online learning courses as well as writing the manuals needed for Instructor-Led Training. Some instructional designers also create graphics and use authoring systems to produce online courses. INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES: Means by which the content and skills are transferred from the training delivery system to the learner. Examples include: demonstrations, role plays, hands-on activities, practice, simulations, discussion, lecture, illustrated diagrams, step-by-step review; self-study exercises, reviews, on-the-job training, practice with coaching, video demonstrations, examples, etc. Often organized by these categories: pre-instructional activities, content presentations, learner practice, feedback, and closure. INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA: Interactive multimedia allows learners to provide input to an online course and receive feedback as a result of the input. The input might consist of a mouse click or drag, gestures, voice commands, touching an input screen, text entry and live interactions with connected participants. MOBILE LEARNING: Learning that takes place on a hand-held device, such as a mobile phone, that can take place anytime and anywhere. MODULE: Instructional package with a single integrated theme that provides the information needed to develop mastery of specified knowledge and skills, and serves as one component of a total course or curriculum. MULTIMEDIA: Multimedia refers to the presentation of information and instruction through a combination of graphics, audio, text, or video. Multimedia instruction is often interactive. OBJECTIVES (Learning): The desired outcomes for the training event (what the training should accomplish in terms of performance the learners should exhibit in the learning environment in order to be considered competent); consist of three components (the performance, criterion and standard); are congruent with the tasks and testing strategies. (Objectives can also be established for on-the-job performance, business or impact performance, or ROI). ONLINE LEARNING: The term online learning is often used synonymously with eLearning. It is an umbrella term that includes any type of learning accomplished on a computer and usually over the Internet. PEDAGOGY: The method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept SELF-PACED LEARNING: Self-paced learning refers to the type of instruction that allows a person to control the flow of the courseware. It implies the learning environment is asynchronous. SOCIAL MEDIA LEARNING: Social media learning refers to the acquisition of information and skills through social technologies that allow people to collaborate, converse, provide input, create content and share it. Examples of social media learning can occur through online social networking platforms, blogs and microblogs (like Twitter), online talk radio and wikis. STREAMING MEDIA: Streaming media refers to video and audio that is downloaded to a computer from the Internet as a continuous stream of data and is played as it reaches the destination computer. SYNCHRONOUS LEARNING: When learners participate in an online learning course at the same time but in different locations, it is known as synchronous learning. Synchronous learning allows learners to interact with the instructor and other participants. This is done through software that creates a virtual classroom. VIRTUAL CLASSROOM: The virtual classroom refers to a digital classroom learning environment that takes place over the Internet rather than in a physical classroom. It is implemented through software that allows an instructor and students to interact.
Units Of Measure Today's topic is units of measure (those words and symbols that come after numbers). Page 1 of 2 Today's topic is units of measure—those words and symbols that come after numbers. Put a Space Between Numbers and Units of Measure This first point may seem self-evident: you put a space between the number and the unit of measure. Even though it seems obvious, I'm telling you because I've seen people do it wrong, and there are also exceptions to the rule. For example, if you want to say you threw a ball 100 feet, there is a space between the number 100 and the whole word feet. Obvious, right? But what if you use the abbreviation ft. instead of the word feet? It's the same rule: there's a space between 100 and ft., and if you just think of the abbreviation as the word, it should be easy to remember, but I've seen them squished together without a space many times. Most style guides do recommend writing out units of measure (e.g., the word feet instead of the abbreviation ft.) unless you are writing a technical or scientific document, but abbreviations are acceptable in tables in other kinds of writing too. Degrees and Percentages Sometimes I think people get confused because there are a few exceptions to that rule—percent, degrees, and foot and inch symbols—but it helps to remember that these exceptions occur when you are using symbols instead of abbreviations. For example, if you are writing out the words 100 degrees, there is a space between the number 100 and the word degrees, but if you are using the degree symbol, that little superscript circle, you butt it right up against the number without any spaces in between (100°—no space). The same holds true if you want to use the percent sign. Even though you use a space when you are writing out the word percent, if you use the percent sign, it goes right after the number without any spaces (100%—no space). It’s the same for the foot and inch symbols (those little prime and double prime marks). If you write four feet five inches with symbols (4’5’’), it’s written all together. Units of Measure in Compound Modifiers For the next point, let's go back to talking about feet. The singular is obviously foot, and the plural is usually feet, but when you are using it as a compound modifier, you use the singular. For example, you would say that Squiggly climbed a tree that was 10 feet tall.* But you don't say Squiggly ran up a 10-feet tree—you say Squiggly ran up a 10-foot tree. I don’t have a good explanation for why—that’s just the way it is. (If you know why, please leave a comment!) That’s also true for other units of measure such as inches and pounds. Squiggly was running from a 100-pound monster, and he was terrified of its 10-inch tentacles. Similarly, the abbreviations for units of measure are the same whether the units are singular or plural. The abbreviation is ft. whether it is foot or feet. Occasionally you will see an s after the abbreviation for pounds, lbs. For example, the AP Stylebook notes that lbs. is sometimes used in sports such as weightlifting, (1) but in most cases, the s isn't necessary. Should You Put a Period After Abbreviations? Although it’s technically a style choice, most US style guides recommend putting periods after abbreviations for English units of measure such as feet, inches, and pounds. (2, 3) In general, it's more common to use periods in the US than in Britain. (4) With the metric system, or more formally the International System of Units, you never use a period after the abbreviations. (5) Next: Why Is Pound Abbreviated "Lb"?
The Aral Sea gets almost all its water from the Amu and Syr rivers. Over millennia the Amu’s course has drifted away from the sea, causing it to shrink. But the lake always rebounded as the Amu shifted back again. Today heavy irrigation for crops such as cotton and rice siphons off much of the two rivers, severely cutting flow into their deltas and thus into the sea. Evaporation vastly outpaces any rainfall, snowmelt or groundwater supply, reducing water volume and raising salinity. The Soviet Union hid the sea’s demise for decades until 1985, when leader Mikhail Gorbachev revealed the great environmental and human tragedy. By the late 1980s the sea’s level had dropped so much that the water had separated into two distinct bodies: the Small Aral (north) and the Large Aral (south). By 2007 the south had split into a deep western basin, a shallow eastern basin and a small, isolated gulf. The Large Aral’s volume had dropped from 708 to only 75 cubic kilometers (km3), and salinity had risen from 14 to more than 100 grams per liter (g/l). The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union divided the lake between newly formed Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, ending a grand Soviet plan to channel in water from distant Siberian rivers and establishing competition for the dwindling resource.
Scale factor is the ratio of the length of the scale drawing to the corresponding length of the original object. We are told to find the scale factor when we are given the original and new dimension of an object. The formula for questions like these are : Original dimension(x) = New dimension. X is equal to the unknown scale factor. In this first example, we are told to find the scale factor and the original dimension is 2", while the new dimension is 1/8". Using the formula we just learned, we can find the unknown scale factor by plugging in the numbers into the formula. The equation becomes 2x = 1/8. To get 'x' by itself, also known as isolating the variable, we divide 2 by 2 and 1/8 ÷ 2, which is 1/16. We discover that x = 1/16. This isn't our final answer. Scale factors are written as ratios, so the final answer could be written as 1/16 : 1 or 1:16 . In this final example, we are told to find the new dimension when we are given the original dimension and scale factor. The formula used to solve this question is : Original dimension • First number in scale factor = New dimension. The original dimension is 1/8" and the scale factor is 2:1. We multiply 1/8 · 2, which equals 2/8 and when simplified, 1/4. The answer is 1/4"
Bronchiolitis is a viral respiratory condition that affects the smallest air passages in the lungs, the bronchioles. The job of these small, branching bronchioles is to control airflow in your lungs. When they become infected or damaged, they swell or become clogged. This blocks the flow of oxygen. Although it is generally a childhood condition, adults can be affected as well. There are two types of bronchiolitis. Viral bronchiolitis is the most common and appears primarily in babies. Bronchiolitis obliterans is a rare and dangerous condition seen in adults. In this condition, it is scarring, rather than swelling, that blocks the air passages and causes this condition. Viral bronchiolitis is caused by viruses that enter and infect the respiratory tract. Viruses are microscopic organisms that can reproduce rapidly and challenge the immune system. The following are common types of viral infections that may bring on bronchiolitis. Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Respiratory syncytial virus is the most common cause of bronchiolitis. RSV usually strikes babies less than 1 year of age. This contagious and dangerous viral infection produces inflammation, mucous, and swelling in the airways. These viruses target mucous membranes and cause approximately 10 percent of all respiratory tract infections in children. These viruses produce inflammation in the lungs, nose, and throat. Influenza affects both adults and children, but is especially dangerous for babies whose immune systems are not strong. Causes of Bronchiolitis Obliterans This rare condition sometimes occurs for no known reason. Severe cases can lead to death if left untreated. A few causes have been identified and include: - fumes from chemical agents like ammonia, bleach, and chlorine - respiratory infections - adverse reactions to medications Viral bronchiolitis affects children younger than 2 years, but generally manifests in infants 3 to 6 months of age. A few risk factors for viral bronchiolitis in babies and young children are: - not being breast-fed - being born prematurely or born with a heart or lung condition - having a depressed immune system - being exposed to cigarette smoke - being exposed to crowded environments, such as daycare centers, where the virus may be present Common risk factors for bronchiolitis obliterans in adults are: - working conditions that present exposure to dangerous chemicals - a heart, lung, or bone marrow transplant - a connective tissue disease Both viral bronchiolitis and bronchiolitis obliterans present similar symptoms. These include: - shortness of breath - bluish appearance to the skin from lack of oxygen - crackling or rattling sounds heard in the lungs - ribs appear sunken as child attempts to inhale - nostrils flair in babies - fast breathing - racking or whooping type cough - wheezing or whistling sound when breathing Symptoms for bronchiolitis obliterans can occur two weeks to a little over a month after exposure to chemicals. A lung infection can take several months to several years to produce symptoms. There are several ways to diagnose both types of bronchiolitis. Imaging testing, including chest X-rays, is typically used to diagnose both adults and children. A common tool used in adults is spirometry, which measures how much, and how quickly, air is taken in with each breath. Blood gas tests for both bronchiolitis conditions measure how much oxygen and carbon dioxide are in the blood. Samples of mucous or nasal discharge can be used to diagnose what type of virus is causing the infection. This testing method is commonly used with babies and small children. Viral bronchiolitis requires different treatments than bronchiolitis obliterans. Treatments for Viral Bronchiolitis Many cases of viral bronchiolitis are so mild that they clear up on their own without treatment. However, as this condition most often affects infants, hospitalization may be required for more severe cases. A hospital can provide any oxygen and intravenous fluid treatments that may be needed. Antibiotic medications are useless against viruses but some medications can be used to help open your baby’s airways. Treatments for Bronchiolitis Obliterans Although there is no cure for the scarring in bronchiolitis obliterans, corticosteroids can help rid the lungs of mucous, reduce inflammation, and open up the airways. Oxygen treatments and medications to boost the immune system may be necessary. Breathing exercises and stress reduction can help ease breathing difficulties. In the most severe cases of lung damage, a lung transplant may be the best recourse. Both conditions require extra rest and an increase in fluid intake. Keeping the air in the home clear of smoke and chemicals is very important. A moist-air humidifier may also help. Children and babies with viral bronchiolitis usually improve in three days to a week with prompt, proper treatment. In obliterans, the prognosis varies depending on when the condition was found and how far it has progressed.
The Voyager 1 spacecraft, launched in 1977, has reached a new region at the edge of the solar system called the "magnetic highway." This is exciting because scientists think it is the final region before the space probe enters interstellar space, which is the space between solar systems. Once Voyager 1 reaches this area, it will become the first man-made object to exit our solar system. Scientists know that Voyager 1 has crossed a new zone in space for a couple of reasons. Our sun blows out a stream of charged particles, called solar wind, that form a bubble around our solar system known as the heliosphere. Interstellar space also emits charged particles called cosmic rays, but these are stopped from entering our atmosphere by the Sun's magnetic field. In June, new data showed that intensity of energetic particles from inside the heliosphere was slowing down, while the intensity from charged particles near the outer shell of the bubble, known as the heliosheath, was getting stronger. The particle changes were a strong indication that Voyager 1 was leaving the heliosphere. But there was one problem. If the spacecraft was in fact nearing interstellar space, then the magnetic field of the Sun should also change direction as it's acted on by the interstellar magnetic field. That did not happen. This led researchers to believe that Voyager 1 had entered a region of space that had never been seen before. In this new frontier, the magnetic field lines of the Sun connected to the interstellar field, in turn, creating a "highway" that allowed particles from the Sun to zoom out and particles from interstellar space to stream in. "We believe [the magnetic highway] is the last leg of our journey to interstellar space," Voyager project scientist Edward Stone said in a statement. "Our best guess is it's likely just a few months to a couple years away. The new region isn't what we expected, but we've come to expect the unexpected from Voyager."

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