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One of the mysteries of the English language finally explained. A large, heavily built, swift-running bird, found in open country in the Old World. The males of most bustards have a spectacular courtship display. - ‘Apart from the globally-extinct great auk, the bustard is the only bird known to have bred in Britain that hasn't done so in recent times.’ - ‘The male bustards, which already weigh more than 5kg, were flying into the net roof with such force that it acted like a trampoline and threw them back to the ground.’ - ‘Ms Ray, who drove the hire van with the crates containing the bustard chicks, said: ‘We are all over the moon.’’ - ‘Wildlife was plentiful, especially bustard which soared vertically into the air when disturbed, flying noisily in a wide circle until we were past.’ - ‘Despite these trapping efforts, more than half the bustards released were quickly killed by predators - three-quarters of these by red foxes.’ - ‘We used these two traits to investigate the relationship between social dominance and migratory behavior among male bustards.’ - ‘That is why emus have many children but cannot fly and why bustards (brush turkeys) can fly but only have two offspring each season.’ - ‘This kind of hunting, in which the falcons are trained to attack much larger birds, is one reason bustards are threatened throughout much of their range.’ - ‘Out of 28 bustards that arrived on the Plain last July, there are still ten out in the wild.’ - ‘Today Mr Hussey said everyone at the hotel was hopeful of seeing the bustard returned as the centrepiece of the garden.’ - ‘As they grow in confidence, the bustards will be encouraged to venture on to Salisbury Plain.’ - ‘The are also important breeding colonies of birds in this area including the blue swallow, Denham's bustard, Njombe cisticola and Kipengere seedeater.’ - ‘The great bustard, the world's heaviest flying bird, was widely distributed in England until the end of the 18th century.’ - ‘The savanna landscape supports a small antelope species called Grimm's duiker, side striped jackals, and rare birds including Denham's bustard.’ - ‘Foxes are one of the bustard's main enemies and experts are experimenting with ways of keeping the chicks away, including squirting them with water pistols if they get too close to their predators.’ - ‘Depending on how well the young bustards do when released to the wild, more chicks may well be brought over next year.’ - ‘Certain large-bodied flying birds, such as bustards, pelicans, and vultures, pneumatize virtually the entire skeleton, out to the tips of the wings.’ - ‘As villagers at Market Lavington were told when Karen Ray, another member of the Great Bustard team, visited their annual parish meeting last week, bustards are difficult to breed.’ - ‘And in Austria there is a well-funded project to try to prevent one of the world's most spectacular birds, the great bustard, from dying out.’ - ‘By the mid 19th century the great bustard was extinct in Britain.’ Late 15th century: perhaps an Anglo-Norman French blend of Old French bistarde and oustarde, both from Latin avis tarda ‘slow bird’: the name is unexplained, as the bustards are fast runners. In this article we explore how to impress employers with a spot-on CV.
This preview shows page 1. Sign up to view the full content. Unformatted text preview: alculation of test statistic (z for this case). 2. Set an α. Say, α = 0.05. 3. Figure out the critical value zα such that P (Z ≥ zα ) = α. The z-value with right-tail probability of α. 4. Make a decision about H0 by comparing the test statistic with with the critical value. Critical value tells us which values are too far oﬀ from the null hypothesis value. Left-tailed tests: Reject H0 if z < −zα . Right-tailed tests: Reject H0 if z > zα . 5. Choosing an α and ﬁnding the critical value creates a rejection region. If the test statistic is in this region, H0 is rejected. Utku Suleymanoglu (UMich) Hypothesis Testing 15 / 37 Testing Hypothesis about the Population Mean: σ known Example Cont. For our example, critical value with α = 0.05 is −1.645 = −zα . Then any test static which is smaller than than −1.645 is in the rejection region. We had z = −1.66, so we reject the the null hypothesis. 0 Utku Suleymanoglu (UMich) Hypothesis Testing z 16 / 37 Testing Hypothesis about the Population Mean: σ known Right-Tailed Test Example Suppose now that you also believe that µ > 1.5. So you want to test the claim µ ≤ 1.5. Let’s do that. First, let’s properly state the hypotheses: H0 :µ ≤ 1.5 H1 :µ > 1.5 This is a right-tailed test. Under the assumption that null hypothesis is true, we need to evaluate the chances of x ≥ 2.5. If small, the null hypothesis is not likely to be true. Next step: relevant test statistic is z = x −µ0 σ/ n = 2.5−1.5 0.3 = 3.33. Next: Critical value for α = 0.01 is z0.01 = 2.33. Next: Use the decision rule: z > 2.33 so we reject H0 . OR: p-value for z = 3.33 is smaller than 0.001, so we reject the null hypothesis for reasonable α. Utku Suleymanoglu (UMich) Hypothesis Testing 17 / 37 Testing Hypothesis about the Population Mean: σ known Determinants of Tests Results Before we go on and discuss testing with diﬀerent situations, let’s summarize determinants of the test results. The diﬀerence between hypothesized parameter and calculated statistic: x − µ0 . Generally speaking, if the claim is too far oﬀ from the hypothesized value, test statistic would be larger in absolute terms. The eﬀect of this on test depend on the sign of the test statistic and the tail of the test. Precision of the sampling distribution: Standard error of the sample statistic (x ) determines how much variation we should expect in x from sample to sample. If it is high, it is more likely to have samples with x that deviates largely from the hypothesized value. Utku Suleymanoglu (UMich... View Full Document This note was uploaded on 03/17/2014 for the course ECON 404 taught by Professor Staff during the Spring '08 term at University of Michigan. - Spring '08
What are the language features in Act 2 Scene 2 in Romeo and Juliet? There are actually quite a few examples of figurative language in Act 2, scene 2 of the play. In the very beginning, there are obvious examples of personification when Romeo is giving his first soliloquy; one such example is: In lines 28-29, Romeo says, "...As glorious to this night, being o'er my head / As is a winged messenger of heaven", which is clearly a simile comparing Juliet to an angel. There are also examples of alliteration throughout the scene. One example is when Romeo says, "With love's light wings did I o'er-perch these walls". In addition to these exmples, the entire scene is full of hyperbole, which is extreme exageration.
Two interesting papers have come out recently that share a common author, and a common pollinator. Work by Steven Johnson and colleagues has been looking at butterflies as pollinators. It’s known that butterflies can act as pollinators, but there’s not a lot of opportunity to place pollen on legs or bodies of butterflies. They’re mainly wing. What these two papers look at are plants that have developed to use the wings on butterflies to carry pollen. Hannah Butler and Steven Johnson report on butterfly-wing pollination in Scadoxus and some other South African plants in the Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The authors studied Scadoxus multiflorus, sometimes known as the ‘blood lily’, that grows in eastern South Africa. They examined to see if the plants were self-compatible and then also observed butterfly visits. “Because much of the pollen on butterfly wings is lost when they are netted and handled, we used high-resolution (16.2 mega pixels) macrophotography of butterflies visiting flowers to assess the distribution of individual pollen grains on wings of butterflies visiting flowers of S. multiflorus subsp. katherinae, Brunsvigia marginata (Jacq.) W.T.Aiton (n = 5 photographs), Cyrtanthus elatus (Jacq.) Traub (n = 3 photographs) and Clivia miniata (Lindl.) Verschaff. (n = 6 photographs),” write Butler and Johnson. “For each plant species we captured a sample of butterfly visitors and, using microscopy, confirmed that the pollen visible on their wings was from the species on which it was observed.” Results showed the wings of the butterflies were well dusted with pollen. The authors were not surprised, and mention that the flowers, looking like brushes look like they’re specialised to use butterfly wings to pollinate plants. But it’s not just the flowers that are adapted for wing pollination. Butler and Johnson say the pollen also shows signs of adaptation. “The relatively flattened shape of the pollen grains may increase their adhesion to the corrugated surface created by the scales on the surface of the butterfly wing.” Another recent paper by Ryan Daniels, Steven Johnson and Craig Peter finds evidence of butterfly-wing pollination in another plant, Gloriosa superba. G. superba, the Flame lily, is another plant with an elaborate shape. The flowers are divided into five male meranthia and one hermaphrodite meranthium, these being pollination units of a flower. “Based on previous reports of visitors to Gloriosa flowers and our preliminary field observations, we hypothesized that G. superba is pollinated by butterflies and that pollen is transferred on their wings. The style of G. superba often appears orientated towards open spaces in the vegetation. We hypothesized that this is a developmental adaptation that promotes cross-pollination by increasing the probability that butterflies will settle first on a hermaphrodite meranthium,” write Daniels and colleagues. The team performed a number of experiments on self-compatibility and visitor observations to find out how butterflies were interacting with the flowers. They then correlated their findings with citizen science observations on LepiMAP and iNaturalist. This highlighted Eronia cleodora, the vine-leaf vagrant, as the likely key pollinator for the flower. “From field observation and collected specimens we observed pollen on the underside of the wings of the visiting butterflies, particularly the pierid E. cleodora. We further documented clear evidence of regular contact of their wings with the stigma and anthers when feeding and we found a positive correlation of pollen grains and wing scales on stigmas… This supports the likely role of butterflies in pollen transfer, as has been shown for other butterfly-pollinated species. Citizen science records… further indicated that pierid butterflies of similar sizes may be important throughout Africa as they have been frequently observed on flowers of G. superba,” write the authors. Again, it’s not just the flower that has adapted to pollinate on the wing. Daniels and colleagues find evidence of adaptation in the pollen too. In particular, in the pollenkitt, the outermost hydrophobic lipid layer of the pollen grain. “Pollenkitt has numerous possible functions,” say the authors. “In entomophilous species there is increased viscosity of the pollenkitt and an increased presence of pollenkitt on the exine, while in anemophilous species pollenkitt is often between columellae instead of the exine. This is likely related to its role in adhesion to the pollinator. The adhesive force between neighbouring pollen grains in G. superba, possibly facilitated by the exine microstructures observed, may cause clumping, which could collectively contribute to adhesion to the wings.” This stickiness means that when the butterflies are lured to the flower by the colour and promise of nectar, the pollen can attach to the wings as the insect beats them. The elaborate shape of the plant peppers the wings with pollen, that can travel to another flower. Getting a lift means that the pollen is much more likely to be able to outcross with another plant, and not be wasted in self pollination.
In this math art activity, for each question pupils need to calculate missing angles, the questions include isosceles triangles, parallel lines and polygons. Pupils then shade all the squares with those answers in the colour stated. There are three different worksheets of three different levels of difficulty, each worksheet results in a different Easter image. Worksheet 1: There are 14 questions on angles on a straight line, around a point and within a triangle. Worksheet 2:There are 14 questions which quickly move from angles around a point, on straight line to triangles, including triangles within parallel lines. Worksheet 3:There are 13 questions to answer on calculating missing angles; including angles in parallel lines, isosceles triangles, polygons and finally finding the number of sides given the exterior angles. Math Art combines the fun of colouring and the consolidation of mathematical skills. Ideal as a plenary activity to determine what learning has taken place, alternatively use to determine pupils prior knowledge to a topic and of course great for revision. All our resources come complete with instructions, solutions and where appropriate ides to stretch and support pupils. Check out www.numberloving.com for more ideas and resources like this. We hope you enjoy using this resource with your students, we would love to hear how it went, please leave a review. Get in touch via the links below. For the use of the purchaser only, see full terms and conditions.
A glowing green comet zipped past the Earth during its elongated orbit around the sun 50,000 years ago. Now, it has finished that orbit and is again passing Earth, making it a once-in-a-lifetime sight for stargazers. According to Francisco Guzman Fulgencio, assistant professor of physics and astronomy at the University of North Georgia, the C/2022 E3 (ZTF) comet, nicknamed the “green comet,” will be most visible this week. “Now it’s passing closest to us just across the plain where the earth is moving and it’s going away from us, but this week is the best time to see it with the naked eye,” Fulgencio said. “In 4-5 days you will need a telescope and in a few weeks you’ll need big telescopes.” The story continues below. Comets have an orbit that is elongated, he said, so for most of their orbit they’re far away from the earth. This comet is unique in that its orbit is so elongated it hasn’t passed the earth in 50,000 years. “It passed 50,000 years ago when there were Neanderthals on the earth,” Fulgencio said. “It’s very interesting because it has such a big elongation. Halley’s Comet, for comparison, has about a 70-year elongation.” The comet gets its bright green hue from its interaction with the sun. “The comet looks green because the comet is a big snowball, so when it gets close to the sun there is a lot of UV radiation from the sun and that is breaking up the organic molecules,” Fulgencio said. “So what you’re seeing is Carbon 2, C2, which is excited by the UV rays of light and emits green.” The comet has both a long faint ion tail and a short broad dust tail coming off of it, which is caused by this erosion of the comet by the sun as it flies past. “A comet is like a dirty snowball and the sun emits particles that erode the comet,” Fulgencio said. “The comet is going around the sun and leaving a trail of dust, so we can see the trail of dust on its trajectory.” The comet will be most visible in the evening of Feb. 1 and into the early morning hours of Feb. 2. “With your naked eye it’s just on the limit of visibility, but you probably can see a small spot in the sky; with binoculars you may see the tail,” Fulgencio said. “It’s going to be visible the whole night but probably better during the early hours.” It will remain visible for the next several days with the naked eye, he said, and then for the next few weeks with the aid of a telescope. If the weather is clear on Friday, Feb. 3, UNG will be opening its observatory, located at 3000 Dawsonville Highway in Dahlonega, from 8 p.m. to midnight to allow the public to view the comet through the observatory’s telescopes. Any updates on conservatory hours and changes due to weather will be posted on social media at https://www.facebook.com/UNGObservatory/. More information about the comet, including its current position in the sky, can be found online through The Sky Live at https://theskylive.com/where-is-c2022e3. The Virtual Telescope Project will also be providing a live stream observation of the comet’s flyby on Youtube beginning at 11 p.m. on Wednesday, Feb. 1.
\|The Smithsonian’s National Museum of African American History and Culture, with the help of White Fragility author Robin DiAngelo, recently released a few resources to assist conversations on race. More specifically, the idea was to promote a dialogue on whiteness. According to their resource, Talking About Race:“Whiteness and the normalization of white racial identity throughout America’s history have created a culture where nonwhite persons are seen as inferior or abnormal.” Of course, there is no provision made for how nonwhite persons see themselves. As part of their effort to explain whiteness, they crafted a handy chart (see picture, sourced from the Talking About Race webpage). This chart has since been curiously removed from the Talking About Race webpage. If we were to design a similar chart on blackness (not something we suggest as we don’t think these blanket identifications are very meaningful), what would be included? For example, if whites value hard work, are we to assume that other races don’t? Would it be considered racist to create such a chart? If so, why? We understand the argument that whiteness is “normative” and therefore something that needs more scrutiny. However, if the argument goes that (as the Smithsonian intimates) whiteness exists because of blackness, then a more thorough examination would allow for a contrasting chart for context. Let’s examine just a few of these assertions, starting with Rugged Individualism. - The individual is the primary unit - Independence & autonomy highly valued + rewarded - Individuals assumed to be in control of their environment, “You get what you deserve” The black American experience is replete with examples of individuals who lived by self-reliance: - Rev. Lemuel Haynes taught himself to read the Bible by candlelight and displayed such high intelligence that he was urged to attend college in the late 1700s. He became the first black man ordained as a minister in the United States. - Macon Bolling Allen, with no forerunner to light his way, left his home in Indiana, traveled to Maine and was admitted to the Maine State Bar on July 3, 1844. Allen was the first black lawyer and judicial officer in this country. - John Mercer Langston sought training in the law from an Ohio judge. Langston would later become the top lawyer in his Ohio county during the 1850s, the founder of the law school at Howard University, Acting President of Howard University, and the first black congressman from Virginia. - Mordecai Johnson had a strong vision for Howard University when he was appointed president in 1926. Johnson set upon his task to transform Howard and lobbied Congress relentlessly over the next two to three years and was to secure permanent congressional funding. For this achievement, he was awarded the Spingarn Award for outstanding achievement by a black American. These are just four out of thousands, if not millions, of examples we could give of black rugged individualism, not white rugged individualism but black rugged individualism. What about the Protestant Work Ethic? - Hard work is the key to success - Work before play - “If you didn’t meet your goals you didn’t work hard enough” From Booker T. Washington to George Washington Carver and from William T. Coleman, Jr. to Charles Hamilton Houston and many more, a strand of the Protestant work ethic has always run through black American culture. It was perhaps this assertion that led to the chart’s removal. The suggestion that black Americans don’t, or shouldn’t, value hard work is anathema to many black Americans’ life stories. Whiteness doesn’t have a monopoly on hard work. And this work ethic along with other “white” traits aren’t the sole domain of those in America. As just one example, take the Igbo people of Nigeria. The Igbo culture is distinguished by ambition, achievement and striving. Some notable Igbos that exemplify this spirit include: - Olaudah Equianco, a former slave and author of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano published in London, England in 1789. - Chinua Achebe, acclaimed novelist and author of the masterpiece Things Fall Apart (1958). - Harold Ekeh was accepted to all eight Ivy League colleges. One commentator recalled his high school days in Nigeria: we “jokingly questioned the Igboness of any Igbo person who wasn’t among the top three in his class.” Let’s look at one more disputed example from the Smithsonian’s chart, Future Orientation. - Plan for future - Delayed gratification - Progress is always best - “Tomorrow will be better” The Black American experience is flush with examples of individuals who set their eyes on the future. In honor of Black History Month, let’s lift up just a few of those who ushered in a better tomorrow for black Americans. - Because of the “future orientation” of Bishop Richard Allen in 1794, millions of worshipers would come to know the warm embrace of the African Methodist Episcopal Church throughout the world today. - Due to the steadfast desire of Hampton Institute graduate Booker T. Washington to uplift his people from the aftereffects of slavery in 1881, the lives and careers of thousands of black teachers would be made possible through that graduate’s creation, the Tuskegee Institute. - Out of the nadir of the 1910s came a Dunbar high school graduate, Charles Hamilton Houston, who upon completing his education with an S.J.D. at Harvard Law School in 1923, returned home to fight public school segregation throughout the 1930s and 1940s. After his death, his labors bore fruit and the U.S. Supreme Court declared in 1954 that public school desegregation was unconstitutional. The racial caricatures conveyed in charts and discussions on racism fail to move us towards a better tomorrow. Instead, the emphasis on race has created more division and has lumped humans together into homogeneous masses based solely on the color of their skin. In essence, this serves to not only erase black culture and achievement, but also to undermine the universal connection of our common humanity. It is this recognition of our humanity that is the drumbeat of true racial reconciliation and equality in a liberal society. To the coming of a better time, J.D. Richmond & W.F. Twyman, Jr. J.D. Richmond is the founder of Truth in Between and the host of the Hold my Drink Podcast: navigating the news and politics with a chaser of civility. She is constantly searching for context through correspondence and conversation. W.F. Twyman, Jr. is a former law professor in search of truth in the public square. Want to help us deliver principled and knowledgeable content on all things CSJ? 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Colonial perspectives about hierarchies of human worth and worldviews shaped the creation of anthropology, and modern archaeologists are grappling with this legacy. This unit encourages students to explore the impacts of colonialism on the discipline and consider how archaeologists are taking steps to decolonize their methods and theories. Flewellen, Ayana Omilade. 2017. “Locating Marginalized Historical Narratives at Kingsley Plantation.” Historical Archaeology 51 (1): 71–87. Panich, Lee. 2013. “Archaeologies of Persistence: Reconsidering the Legacies of Colonialism in Native North America.” American Antiquity 78 (1): 105–122. Tuck, Eve, and K. Wayne Yang. 2012. “Decolonization Is Not a Metaphor.” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education, & Society 1 (1): 1–40. Article: Science’s “Caribbean Excavation Offers Intimate Look at the Lives of Enslaved Africans” TEDx Talk: Nikki Sanchez’s “Decolonization Is for Everyone” Video: Students on Ice Foundation’s “Decolonizing Archaeology” Eshe Lewis (2020)
In celebration of Earth Day, we’ve selected five of our favorite children’s books that teach kids about the people, landscapes, plants, and animals that make our shared planet so special. Nature is not only healthy, but it’s also healing for people of all ages. Countless studies have shown how spending time in nature benefits our mental health and wellbeing. “When we spend time in nature—a stroll through a park or sitting near a body of water—frontal lobe activity decreases and our brain’s alpha waves (associated with a calm, but alert state) increase.” (Green Child Magazine). Whether on Earth Day, or any day, here are some great children’s books that help build a love and appreciation of planet Earth. To practice reusing and sharing materials, we recommend checking these books out from your local library! Happy reading, and Happy Earth Day. My Friend Earth written by P Celebrate Earth Day with this valentine to our wonderful planet from the Newbery Award-winning author of Sarah, Plain and Tall. Our friend Earth does so many wonderful things! She tends to animals large and small. She pours down summer rain and autumn leaves. She sprinkles whisper-white snow and protects the tiny seeds waiting for spring. Readers of all ages will pore over the pages of this spectacular book. The interactive format and kid-friendly art will engage both toddlers and young readers. You Can Change the World by Lucy Bell You Can Change the World empowers kids to make changes in their lives and communities with the powerful message that anyone can make a difference in the world. This colorfully illustrated book is packed with information, ideas, and activities for everyday sustainability—like mending clothes, composting, and avoiding single-use plastics. Interspersed throughout are features on children around the globe who are making a difference, such as Greta Thunberg or Solli Raphael, reminding kids that ordinary people can spark extraordinary change. Spending time outdoors isn’t just enjoyable—it’s also necessary. Many researchers agree that kids who play outside are happier, better at paying attention and less anxious than kids who spend more time indoors. —The Child Mind Institute We Planted a Tree by Diane Muldrow A simple poem that packs a powerful punch reminds kids of all ages that trees have to offer: clean air, shelter for animals, fruit to eat, and so much more. Combined with whimsical illustrations, this must-read will leave you eager to get planting. Wilderness written by This captivating book brings the natural world into sharp focus. Beautifully colored and intricately detailed illustrations depict wide-ranging locations across the globe, including Senegal’s Niokolo-Koba National Park, Sinharaja Forest Reserve in Sri Lanka, Daintree National Park in Australia, the Mexican desert, and China’s bamboo forests. The animals that live in these remote places, cleverly hidden in the trees, plants, and flowers, create a marvelous challenge for young readers to find and identify. Each spread contains more than twenty different species including birds, snakes, frogs, iguanas, leopards, tigers, gorillas, pandas, and wolves. Young readers will find much to discover, explore, and learn in this absorbing celebration of our planet and the amazing creatures we share it with. Wonder Walkers by When two curious kids embark on a “wonder walk,” they let their imaginations soar as they look at the world in a whole new light. They have thought-provoking questions for everything they see: Is the sun the world’s light bulb? Is dirt the world’s skin? Are rivers the earth’s veins? Is the wind the world breathing? I wonder . . . Young readers will wonder too, as they ponder these gorgeous pages and make all kinds of new connections.
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, access and generate emotions to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and reflectively regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Research indicates that emotional intelligence can be learned and improved through measurable differences directly associated with professional and personal success. Furthermore, it may be responsible for up to 80% of the success we experience in EIQ is based on two competencies, measured as Recognition and Management: - The ability to recognize, understand and manage emotions (self or intrapersonal) - The ability to recognize, empathize and relate to the emotions of others (social or interpersonal) Let’s focus on Self-Management The Self-Management Quotient adds to self-evaluation by coupling with self-regulation. The awareness and discipline to control and harness feelings directly impact one’s ability to achieve personal objectives and develop determination and drive. Satisfaction, happiness, and fulfillment are known results of strong Self-Management. This Quotient is one of four quotients that can measure emotional intelligence. The other three are - Social Recognition - Social Management
At the women’s convention in 1851, Sojourner Truth delivered one of her famous speeches where she discussed her exclusion from womanhood and her painful experience as a black slaved woman rather than just being a woman. In her speech “aint I a woman,” she notes that men are expected women to be treated with chivalry and fragility, but yet she is placed in a barn and works like a man and not treated like her white counterparts who were only seeking suffrage. Ironically they had more freedom and privilege than she did and were facing half of her oppression. This speech being from the 18th century still speaks true that somehow women are seen to be weak unless it’s a black woman as noted by author Vidal. Unfortunately, somewhere down the line the two movement slowly drifted apart where women suffrage was just that of the white woman’s struggle and everything else were not in such importance as their cause, which eventually led to exclusion within their Born as Isabella Baumfree, Sojourner Truth was brought into slavery since the minute she was born, being forced to live an intense and labor-filled life, all the while being sold to five total slave owners . But at the age of 29, she was able to obtain her freedom, and afterwards, Sojourner Truth became the voice of change and reason during an oppressive era of human slavery. In the likes of Harriet Tubman, Frederick Douglas, and other fellow anti-abolitionists leaders, Sojourner spoke her mind, only seeking the freedom and liberty for not only for slavery, but for the female gender . During a time where many feared to do the unthinkable, Sojourner was part of a very few group of people who stood up to the oppressive forces at the time, and Sojourner Truth Sojourner Truth was born under the name of Isabella Baumfree in 1797. She was one of twelve children born to Elizabeth and James Baumfree in Swartkill in Ulster County New York. Her Father was caught in Ghana and brought to America to become a slave. Her mother was the daughter of slaves from Guinea. Truth’s entire family was owned by Colonel Hardenberg and lived in his estate in Esopus New York. Stanton’s “Declaration of Sentiments” was the first convention for women rights. Its purpose was to address the status of American women. Stanton felt that women were feeling they were getting shorted and disrespected of their rights. It was a list of resolutions to the problems dealing with their rights. She also included needs for women’s right to education, property, and vote. Has someone ever proved you wrong on your first impression of him or her? Imagine that small kid in the back of class that never spoke a whisper, you would never imagine that he or she would speak on all of the things they observed in their silence. That is what sojourner truth did with the speech she recited at the women’s right convention in 1851. Truth did not just write down her feelings and thoughts on a pad without planning or coordination. Truth lied this speech out with rhetorical devices to create multiple effects effect on the audience using pathos, ethos, allusions, etc. Sojourner Truth’s most important legacy is the tone and substance of her language (Sojourner Truth-History)but with such strong characteristics, Truth didn’t know how to read or write. She used passages from the bible to develop her voice as an individual. Her short speeches were insightful, straight to the point, and her intimidating stage presence made the attending audience and speakers listen and observe. The article Declaration of Sentiments and Resolution written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, her topic and argument in the text is that women should have the same rights as men. Also Stanton argues that since the declaration states that men and women are created equally that mean women should be treated the same as men. God did not created one person to rule over another person. Stanton also stated that she does not distant herself from the blacks and slaves, but she sees herself as one of them. Stanton believes that everyone has inalienable rights: “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”. Truth is powerful and it prevails, as did Sojourner Truth. The feminist and abolitionist leader deserves to be commemorated with a monument. The ex-slave and mother of 5 was a traveling preacher and the first female, African-American abolitionist speaker. The prominent activist became famous when she filed a lawsuit fighting for her son who had been illegally sold into slavery, and won, resulting in her becoming the first African-American woman to win a court case against a white man. She was then recruited as a lecturer on the anti-slavery circuit, earning a reputation as a powerful speaker for abolition and women’s rights. Sojourner Truth early life Sojourner truth’s real name was Isabella baumfree(Also called by “Belle”)She changed it on June 1, 1843 at the age of 46 sojourner truth means “itinerant preacher“ No one knows truth’s date of birth because she was a slave and slaves’ exact date of birth weren’t recorded (especially since no one knew that this slave was going to make history!!!) historians though guessed that it was about 1797 she was born in Swartekil, New York. Sojourner was born to James and Elizabeth Baumfree Truth was born along with 10 - 12 siblings. In 1806 when she was 9 she was separated from her family and sold to john Neely because her former owner Charles Hardenbergh had died. Sojourner Truth was famous for being an abolitionist slave who would stick up for the women and men that were slaves and who didn’t have the same rights as a white man. She went through so much as a slave that she became someone famous and she was able to protest about the issues in life. Her speeches brought people’s attention and they were able to relate to the same problem Sojourner went through. After they made a law where they couldn’t hold slaves anymore, there was one owner holding her son after that law was passed. She was the first woman to win a case against a white man to get her son back. Story time was always something to look forward to when going over to my grandparents house. Every time my younger brother and I visited my grandparents, we were in for a treat as my grandpa told us stories of his time during WW2, and even going back further to the Enlightenment Period, the crusades, explorations, etc. “I wonder what grandpa is going to tell us today.” Joshua, my younger brother said- anticipation embedded on his face. After a couple of minutes driving we reached our destination - a brightly yellow painted house, with a big front yard that houses so many family of flowers, and a flag pole with the flag of the United States proudly sailing in the air. Sojourner Truth was born the year 1797 (they don’t know the exact month or date she was born only the year) in New York. At birth she was named Isabella Baumfree, but she later renamed herself Sojourner Truth. Her parents James and Elizabeth Baumfree, were believed to have ten to twelve kids, Sojourner Truth being one of the youngest. She was born into slavery, but when she was nine she was sold at an auction with a flock of sheep for one hundred dollars. At the time she only knew how to speak Dutch. The Narrative of Sojourner Truth Being a slave was a common thing for African American people in the 1700’s. Being a slave could be a bad or good thing depending on who you’d ask. Some masters cared more about their slaves than others. Sojourner Truth was born in 1797 in New York and lived their until later in her life. 1991 Pulitzer Prize winner, Natalie Angier, is famous for her scientific topics, many of which have been published in many popular magazines and newspapers. One of her writings, Intolerance of Boyish Behavior appeared in the New York Times in 1994. Angier’s main topic is that today’s young males are subjected to more intolerance, studies prove that mental disabilities are seen more in males, and these speculations occur often. Many people use the “tautology ‘boys will be boys’” (Angier 389) to describe how young boys typically act. There are many movies that are being made in today’s society that have a certain portrayal of how women and men should behave, and what roles are supposed to be filled in society. Typically, the male roles are seen as the protector of the woman and in control. Women are stereotyped as having to rely on the male and being the caregiver of the children. The movie “The Pacifier” challenges the social rank between men and women and what their ‘meant’ to do.
Trekkies might rejoice at the news that NASA has recently decided to fund a research group employed to study how tractor beam technology might become applicable in space exploration missions. The agency has awarded a $100,000 initial grant to a team of reserachers who will study three experimental techniques involving capturing small-particle samples with lasers. “Though a mainstay in science fiction, and Star Trek in particular, laser-based trapping isn’t fanciful or beyond current technological know-how,” says Paul Stysley, part of the team researching tractor beam possibilities. “The original thought was that we could use tractor beams for cleaning up orbital debris. But to pull something that huge would be almost impossible – at least now. That’s when it bubbled up that perhaps we could use the same approach for sample collection.” One of the three studied techniques involved using what’s called ‘optical tweezers’. This method uses two counter-propagating beams of light, which outputs a ring-like geometry capable of pulling particles inside the dark core of the overlapping beams. Changing the intensity of one beam heats air around trapped particles and can cause them to travel toward a probe, however for this to work the technique requires an atmosphere. Not a problem if applied to Mars missions, though. Rovers employed so far on the surface of Mars using a drill to probe samples or soil, however this requires a lot of time and the drill is constantly subjected to wear, and thus malfunctioning. A laser could prove to be a more interesting alternative – pointed towards various minerals, it would zap them and use its tractor beam to bring in the particles to the probe for analysis. Laser beams shot through the atmosphere could also provide valuable information on how gases change in response to day-night cycles on Mars. For deep space missions, where the medium is vacuum, the researchers are considering a technique that employs optical solenoid beams, whose intensity peaks spiral around the axis of propagation, creating a force that pulls particles back along the entire beam of light. The main advantage with this method is that solenoid beams are capable of pulling in material from far away, which would be useful for satellites orbiting high above a comet or asteroid. The third technique involves a Bessel beam and, so far, only exists in theoretical status, as of yet to be demonstrated in the lab. Bessel beams generate rings of light unto a contact surface, unlike a regular laser which casts a simple dot. These rings are thought to induce electric and magnetic fields in the path of an object, enough to trap and transport particle samples. “We want to make sure we thoroughly understand these methods. We have hope that one of these will work for our purposes,” says team member Barry Coyle. “We’re at the starting gate on this. This is a new application that no one has claimed yet.”
Reading fluency is one of the most important things we teach our students in the progression of reading skills! Being fluent frees up a child’s brain to be able to comprehend the text they are reading. And without comprehension, what is reading even for? Today, I am sharing how I set up Fluency Toolkits with you all, so you can promote reading fluency all year long in your classrooms! Keep reading to see how you can snag these printables for FREE, and to grab your spot at my free workshop! You can create toolkits for your students by simply adding a label to the front of a folder or a small box. The folders can be used to hold passages, tracking sheets to graph words read per minute, task cards, etc. Or, use plastic boxes (like the ones pictured above) to store fluency tools (pointer fingers, timers, highlighter, etc.), along with short paragraphs on task cards for students to practice fluency with! The labels remind students what a fluent reader should sound like, as well as the purpose of fluency. They are prompted to read naturally, smoothly, accurately, and with expression. But, most importantly, they are doing all of that to make meaning from what they read! I recommend having students begin any task by reading that reminder on the front of their toolkits. In conjunction with the toolkits, I recommend setting up a fluency center in your classroom this year! Building a routine around fluency practice helps students to grow as fluent readers more quickly. To create a center, allow students to choose texts on their level, or provide pre-leveled passages. Students read the text to themselves 2-3 times to work through any decoding work that may arise. When they feel confident, they can read the passage a final time, and time themselves reading it. Students record the time. They should return to that text on a later date and re-time their reading to measure how they improve. In addition, students should do a brief comprehension check. This can be oral: students share with a partner what their text was about. Or, it can be written: students briefly journal a summary of the text they read. Always bring the focus back to comprehension, so students are reminded that they are reading for meaning! Outside of the fluency center, you need to practice in small group instruction with your students! You can snag a set of printables with ideas on how to approach fluency instruction with your students. These ideas will give you new ways to practice fluent reading while modeling, in groups, and during independent reading practice. Looking to learn more? All printables featured in this post can be grabbed for FREE by signing up for my Fluency Workshop. This 5 day email series workshop will provide you with ideas for incorporating fluency work into your daily literacy instruction. If this is an area you’re looking to improve for your students this year, you don’t want to miss it! Sign up for the workshop HERE.
Literary criticism serves as a vital tool for analyzing and interpreting works of literature, shedding light on their underlying themes, techniques, and cultural significance. By examining the various forms of critique within the realm of arts and literature, one can gain a deeper understanding of literary texts and appreciate the complexities inherent in their creation. For instance, imagine a case study where an acclaimed novel receives both adulation and condemnation from critics; this scenario exemplifies how diverse perspectives shape literary criticism. In academia, literary criticism encompasses different approaches that enable scholars to explore various dimensions of a text. Formalist criticism focuses on close reading and scrutinizes elements such as language, structure, imagery, and symbolism to unravel hidden meanings embedded within a work. Through this lens, critics analyze how an author employs literary devices to craft narratives that resonate with readers. Similarly, historical criticism examines a piece of literature by situating it within its socio-cultural context. This approach considers factors like time period, political climate, and social norms to decipher the intended meaning behind a text or uncover subtexts that reflect societal issues or challenges prevalent during the era of its creation. The intersection between these two forms of criticism elucidates not only the artistic choices made by authors but also their reflection upon broader historical contexts. Historical Criticism: Examining the literary work in relation to its historical context Forms of Criticism in Arts and Literature: Literary Criticism When analyzing a piece of literature, it is essential to consider the historical context in which it was written. Historical criticism seeks to understand how societal events, cultural norms, and political ideologies influence the creation and interpretation of literary works. By examining the relationship between the text and its historical backdrop, scholars can gain valuable insights into the author’s intentions and the broader implications of the work. Exploring Historical Context: To illustrate this approach, let us delve into an example from classic literature – George Orwell’s dystopian novel “1984.” In this iconic work, Orwell presents a totalitarian society governed by Big Brother, where personal freedom is suppressed. To fully comprehend Orwell’s critique of authoritarianism, one must examine his own experiences living during a time marked by rising totalitarian regimes such as Stalinist Russia and Nazi Germany. This analysis allows readers to grasp the impact of these historical events on Orwell’s portrayal of power dynamics within “1984.” To evoke an emotional response from readers when engaging with historical criticism, we can highlight some key points through bullet points: - Highlighting instances of oppression or injustice portrayed in literary works. - Revealing connections between real-life events and fictional narratives that resonate with contemporary issues. - Uncovering hidden perspectives overlooked by traditional interpretations. - Inspiring empathy towards characters who represent marginalized groups or voice dissent against oppressive systems. Additionally, presenting information visually can enhance audience engagement. Here is a table showcasing examples of famous literary works analyzed using historical criticism: \|Literary Work\|\|Historical Context\|\|Key Themes\| \|“Pride and Prejudice”\|\|Regency-era England\|\|Social class\| \|“The Grapes of Wrath”\|\|Great Depression-era United States\|\|Poverty and migration\| \|“Things Fall Apart”\|\|Colonial Nigeria\|\|Cultural clash\| \|“To Kill a Mockingbird”\|\|1930s Southern United States\|\|Racism\| Transition to Formalist Criticism: By examining literary works through the lens of historical criticism, scholars gain valuable insights into the broader social and cultural implications. However, another form of analysis known as formalist criticism focuses on the internal elements of literature, such as structure and language. This approach allows for a deeper understanding of how these formal aspects contribute to meaning and interpretation. Let us now explore this perspective further in the subsequent section. Formalist Criticism: Focusing on the formal elements of the literary work such as structure and language Transitioning from the previous section on Historical Criticism, we now turn our attention to another prominent form of literary criticism: Formalist Criticism. This approach emphasizes the examination of a literary work’s formal elements, such as structure and language, in order to gain insight into its meaning and artistic value. To illustrate this approach, let us consider the novel “Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austen. In employing Formalist Criticism to analyze “Pride and Prejudice,” one must pay close attention to its narrative structure and linguistic techniques. For instance, the novel is structured around social interactions within English society during the early 19th century. By examining how Austen constructs these encounters between characters, scholars can unravel the underlying dynamics of class, prejudice, and romance that drive the plot forward. When delving further into the linguistic aspects of “Pride and Prejudice,” readers may notice Austen’s masterful use of irony throughout the text. Through ironic remarks made by her characters or through subtle juxtapositions within descriptions, she unveils societal hypocrisies and challenges readers’ preconceived notions about love, marriage, and gender roles. To better understand the impact of Formalist Criticism in appreciating literature like “Pride and Prejudice”, let us explore some emotional responses it can evoke: - A sense of awe at discovering hidden layers of meaning beneath seemingly ordinary words. - An appreciation for an author’s skill in crafting complex narratives that engage both intellect and emotions. - Excitement when identifying patterns or motifs that enhance understanding of a work’s themes. - Intrigue at unraveling symbolic devices employed by authors to convey deeper messages. Furthermore, a visual representation in table format can help emphasize key points: \|Narrative Structure\|\|Reveals social hierarchies\|\|Linear progression of events\| \|Provides insights into character development\|\|Use of focalization for multiple voices\| \|Language Techniques\|\|Enhances themes and messages\|\|Irony, metaphor, symbolism\| \|Adds depth to characterization\|\|Dialogue, monologue\| As we conclude our exploration of Formalist Criticism in literary analysis, it is evident that this approach offers a valuable lens through which readers can appreciate the artistic elements within a work. By focusing on structure and language, scholars gain new perspectives on the intricate craftsmanship employed by authors like Jane Austen. Transitioning seamlessly towards Biographical Criticism: Analyzing the literary work by considering the author’s life and experiences, let us now delve into another fascinating dimension of understanding literature. Biographical Criticism: Analyzing the literary work by considering the author’s life and experiences Forms of Criticism in Arts and Literature: Literary Criticism Formalist Criticism, which focuses on the formal elements of a literary work such as structure and language, offers valuable insights into understanding the artistic techniques employed by authors. Now, let us delve into another significant approach to literary criticism – Biographical Criticism. Biographical Criticism involves analyzing a literary work by considering the author’s life and experiences. By examining how an author’s personal history might have influenced their writing, readers can gain a deeper appreciation for the text. To illustrate this concept, let us consider the case study of Virginia Woolf’s novel “To the Lighthouse.” Virginia Woolf drew heavily from her own life when crafting this novel. The character of Mrs. Ramsay was based on Woolf’s mother, while Lily Briscoe represented her artist sister Vanessa Bell. Understanding these biographical connections allows readers to appreciate the complex relationships depicted in the story with greater nuance. This approach to literary criticism can offer unique perspectives that enrich our understanding of literature: - Unveiling hidden layers: Exploring an author’s background can reveal underlying themes or motivations behind their work. - Contextualizing narratives: Considering an author’s historical circumstances enables readers to contextualize events within a particular time period. - Empathy towards characters: Recognizing parallels between an author’s personal experiences and those portrayed in their works fosters empathy towards fictional characters. - Appreciating creative processes: Examining an author’s biography sheds light on their creative process, helping us understand how they transform personal experiences into art. \|Insight\|\|Offers depth\|\|May oversimplify\| \|Connection\|\|Establishes context\|\|Can overlook other interpretations\| \|Empathy\|\|Fosters emotional engagement\|\|Assumes direct correlation\| \|Creativity\|\|Reveals artistic process\|\|May limit interpretation\| Biographical Criticism allows us to explore the intricate relationship between an author’s life and their literary creations. By considering the personal experiences of authors, readers can gain a more profound understanding of the stories they tell. Now, let us turn our attention to Psychological Criticism: interpreting literary works through psychological theories and concepts. Psychological Criticism delves into the intricate workings of the human mind as it relates to literature. This approach explores how characters’ behavior, motivations, and emotions can be analyzed using psychological frameworks such as Freudian psychoanalysis or cognitive psychology. Understanding these psychological aspects provides valuable insights into the complexities of a literary work. Psychological Criticism: Interpreting the literary work through psychological theories and concepts Forms of Criticism in Arts and Literature: Literary Criticism Biographical Criticism delves into the author’s life and experiences to gain insights into their works. Now, let us explore another form of literary criticism – Psychological Criticism. This approach interprets literary works through psychological theories and concepts, shedding light on the human mind and behavior as depicted in literature. To illustrate this perspective, consider a hypothetical case study involving Emily Brontë’s novel “Wuthering Heights.” Through psychological criticism, one might analyze the complex characters of Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw. By applying theories like Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis or Carl Jung’s archetypes, we can delve deeper into their motivations, desires, and conflicts that drive the narrative. Psychological Criticism employs various techniques to understand literary works from a psychological standpoint: - Psychoanalysis: Examines unconscious desires, fears, and repressed emotions within characters. - Archetypal Analysis: Identifies universal symbols and patterns in literature that tap into collective unconsciousness. - Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behaviors displayed by characters to infer their personality traits. - Cognitive Psychology: Explores how readers interpret texts based on mental processes such as memory, attention, and perception. To demonstrate these approaches further, here is an example table showcasing different psychological perspectives applied to Fyodor Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment”: \|Psychoanalysis\|\|Analyzing Raskolnikov’s inner conflict between his ego and superego\| \|Archetypal Analysis\|\|Identifying recurring motifs of guilt and redemption\| \|Behaviorism\|\|Observing Raskolnikov’s actions throughout the story\| \|Cognitive Psychology\|\|Investigating readers’ cognitive responses when reading scenes related to morality\| In summary, Psychological Criticism offers a compelling lens through which to interpret literature, unraveling the complexities of characters and their psychological dynamics. By employing psychoanalytic theories, archetypal analysis, behaviorism, and cognitive psychology, we can gain profound insights into the human mind as portrayed in literary works. Moving forward, let us now explore another form of literary criticism – Feminist Criticism. This approach examines literature from a feminist perspective, exploring gender roles and inequality within the text. Feminist Criticism: Analyzing the literary work from a feminist perspective, exploring gender roles and inequality Forms of Criticism in Arts and Literature: Literary Criticism Psychological Criticism: Interpreting the literary work through psychological theories and concepts has shed new light on understanding characters’ motivations, subconscious desires, and mental states. By examining the text’s underlying psychological dimensions, readers can gain deeper insight into the author’s intentions and explore how various theories apply to different aspects of the work. For instance, let us consider a hypothetical example where a reader applies Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory to analyze a character’s behavior in a novel. Through this lens, they might interpret certain actions as manifestations of repressed desires or unresolved conflicts from the character’s past. Feminist Criticism: Analyzing the literary work from a feminist perspective involves exploring gender roles, inequality, power dynamics, and representation within the text. This approach seeks to highlight societal biases embedded in literature while uncovering female voices that may have been marginalized or silenced. To illustrate this further, imagine analyzing a classic novel using feminist criticism and identifying instances where women are depicted as passive objects rather than active agents in shaping their own narratives. Such an analysis would reveal underlying patriarchal structures perpetuated by the text. Literary Criticism through Psychological Theories: - Unveils hidden motives and psychological complexities - Provides insights into characters’ behaviors based on theoretical frameworks - Explores unconscious desires and psychological conflicts - Enhances understanding of authorial intent by applying relevant psychological concepts In addition to these critical approaches, it is important to note that there are several other forms of literary criticism worth exploring: \|Forms of Literary Criticism\|\|Description\| \|Marxist Criticism\|\|Examines literature through the lens of social class divisions and economic systems\| \|Poststructuralist Criticism\|\|Challenges traditional notions of meaning-making by emphasizing language’s role in constructing reality\| \|Reader-response Criticism\|\|Focuses on the reader’s subjective interpretation and response to a literary work\| \|Ecocriticism\|\|Analyzes literature in relation to environmental concerns and ecological relationships\| Moving forward, our exploration of literary criticism leads us to delve into Postcolonial Criticism: Examining the literary work in the context of colonialism and its aftermath. By examining how texts reflect or challenge dominant narratives about colonial experiences, this critical approach sheds light on historical power dynamics and their ongoing implications within society today. Postcolonial Criticism: Examining the literary work in the context of colonialism and its aftermath Building on the exploration of feminist criticism, another significant form of literary analysis is postcolonial criticism. This approach examines literary works in the context of colonialism and its aftermath, shedding light on the power dynamics between colonizers and the colonized. By analyzing how literature reflects and challenges these historical narratives, postcolonial critics aim to foster a deeper understanding of cultural identities and promote social justice. Section Title: Postcolonial Criticism: Examining Literature through a Decolonized Lens To illustrate the essence of postcolonial criticism, let us consider the hypothetical case study of “The Island’s Daughter,” a novel set in an imaginary nation that has recently gained independence from a colonial power. In this work, the author explores themes such as identity, language preservation, and cultural hybridity. Through a postcolonial lens, readers can critically examine how this text engages with various aspects related to decolonization. Key Concepts Explored: Postcolonial criticism encompasses several key concepts that guide scholars’ analyses: - Colonial Legacies: Postcolonial critics scrutinize how literary works reveal lasting impacts of colonization on individuals, societies, and cultures. - Hybridity and Cultural Identity: They explore how authors portray characters who navigate complex identities resulting from interactions between indigenous traditions and foreign influences. - Language Politics: An important aspect discussed within postcolonial criticism involves examining linguistic choices made by writers and their implications for representation and resistance against dominant discourses. - Subaltern Voices: Scholars highlight marginalized voices or perspectives often excluded from mainstream narratives to challenge existing power structures. Emotional Bullet Point List (Markdown Format): - The pain experienced by those dispossessed during colonization - The struggle for self-representation amidst cultural erasure - The resilience demonstrated by communities reclaiming their heritage - The hope for intercultural understanding leading to meaningful reconciliation Table (Markdown Format): \|Identity\|\|“The Island’s Daughter”\|\|Exploration of individual and collective self\| \|Language Preservation\|\|Poetry in indigenous dialects\|\|Resistance against linguistic hegemony\| \|Cultural Hybridity\|\|Characters embodying dualities\|\|Celebration of multiculturalism\| \|Power Dynamics & Marginalization\|\|Subaltern narratives\|\|Deconstruction of dominant discourse\| By delving into postcolonial criticism, readers gain valuable insights into the complexities surrounding colonial legacies, cultural identities, language politics, and marginalized voices. Through a decolonized lens, literature becomes a powerful tool for challenging oppressive systems while fostering empathy and understanding among diverse communities. As scholars continue to engage with this approach, their analyses provide new perspectives that contribute to ongoing dialogue on historical injustices and social transformation.
Collaborating researchers from the University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine (Penn Dental Medicine) and the Adams School of Dentistry, and the Gillings School of Global Public Health at the University of North Carolina (UNC) have discovered that a bacterial species called Selenomonas sputigena can have a major role in causing tooth decay. Scientists have long considered another bacterial species, the plaque-forming, acid-making Streptococcus mutans, as the principal cause of tooth decay—also known as dental caries. However, in the study, which appeared on May 22, 2023, in Nature Communications, the Penn Dental Medicine and UNC researchers showed that S. sputigena, previously associated only with gum disease, can work as a key partner of S. mutans, greatly enhancing its cavity-making power. Dr Hyun (Michel) Koo DDS, study co-senior author and a professor in the department of orthodontics and divisions of paediatrics and community oral health and co-director of the Center for Innovation and Precision Dentistry at Penn Dental Medicine, said, “This was an unexpected finding that gives us new insights into the development of caries, highlights potential future targets for cavity prevention, and reveals novel mechanisms of bacterial biofilm formation that may be relevant in other clinical contexts.” The other two co-senior authors of the study were Kimon Divaris, PhD, DDS, professor at UNC’s Adams School of Dentistry, and Di Wu, PhD, associate professor at the Adams School and at the UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health. Kimon said, “This was a perfect example of collaborative science that couldn’t have been done without the complementary expertise of many groups and individual investigators and trainees.” Caries is considered the most common chronic disease in children and adults worldwide. It arises when S. mutans and other acid-making bacteria are insufficiently removed by teeth-brushing and other oral care methods, and end up forming a protective biofilm, or plaque, on teeth. Within plaque, these bacteria consume sugars from drinks or food, converting them to acids. If the plaque is left in place for too long, these acids start to erode the enamel of affected teeth, in time creating cavities. Scientists in past studies of plaque bacterial contents have identified a variety of other species in addition to S. mutans. These include species of Selenomonas, an “anaerobic,” non-oxygen-requiring group of bacteria that are more commonly found beneath the gum in cases of gum disease. But the new study is the first to identify a cavity-causing role for a specific Selenomonas species. The UNC researchers took samples of plaque from the teeth of 300 children aged 3-5 years, half of whom had caries, and, with key assistance from Koo’s laboratory, analyzed the samples using an array of advanced tests. The tests included sequencing of bacterial gene activity in the samples, analyses of the biological pathways implied by this bacterial activity, and even direct microscopic imaging. The researchers then validated their findings on a further set of 116 plaque samples from 3 to 5-year-olds. The data showed that although S. sputigena is only one of several caries-linked bacterial species in plaque besides S. mutans, and does not cause caries on its own, it has a striking ability to partner with S. mutans to boost the caries process. S. mutans is known to use available sugar to build sticky constructions called glucans that are part of the protective plaque environment. The researchers observed that S. sputigena, which possesses small appendages allowing it to move across surfaces, can become trapped by these glucans. Once trapped, S. sputigena proliferates rapidly, using its own cells to make honeycomb-shaped “superstructures” that encapsulate and protect S. mutans. The result of this unexpected partnership, as the researchers showed using animal models, is a greatly increased and concentrated production of acid, which significantly worsens caries severity. The findings, Hyun said, show a more complex microbial interaction than was thought to occur, and provide a better understanding of how childhood cavities develop—an understanding that could lead to better ways of preventing cavities. Hyun commented, “Disrupting these protective S. sputigena superstructures using specific enzymes or more precise and effective methods of tooth-brushing could be one approach.” The researchers now plan to study in more detail how this anaerobic motile bacterium ends up in the aerobic environment of the tooth surface. Hyun added, “This phenomenon in which a bacterium from one type of environment moves into a new environment and interacts with the bacteria living there, building these remarkable superstructures, should be of broad interest to microbiologists.”
A wild idea to combat global warming suggests creating an artificial ring of small particles or spacecrafts around Earth to shade the tropics and moderate climate extremes. There would be side effects, proponents admit. An effective sunlight-scattering particle ring would illuminate our night sky as much as the full Moon, for example. And the price tag would knock the socks off even a big-budget agency like NASA: $6 trillion to $200 trillion for the particle approach. Deploying tiny spacecraft would come at a relative bargain: a mere $500 billion tops. But the idea, detailed today in the online version of the journal Acta Astronautica, illustrates that climate change can be battled with new technologies, according to one scientist not involved in the new work. Mimic a volcano All scientists agree that Earth gets warmer and colder across the eons. A delicate and ever-changing balance between solar radiation, cloud cover, and heat-trapping greenhouse gases controls long-term swings from ice ages to warmer conditions like today. Those who are often called experts admit to glaring gaps in their knowledge of how all this works. A study last month revealed that scientists can’t pin down one of the most critical keys: how much sunlight our planet absorbs versus how much is reflected back into space. Nonetheless, most scientists think our climate has warmed significantly over the past century and will grow warmer over the next hundred years. Various studies claim the planet is destined to warm by anywhere from 1 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit over the next few centuries. Seas will rise dramatically, the scenario goes, inundating coastal cities. But another group of scientists argue that the temperature data supporting a warming planet is not firm and that projections, based on computer modeling, might be wildly off the mark. Either way, perhaps our fate is more in our hands than we might have imagined. “Reducing solar insolation by 1.6 percent should overcome a 1.75 K [3 degrees Fahrenheit] temperature rise,” contends a group led by Jerome Pearson, president of Star Technology and Research, Inc. “This might be accomplished by a variety of terrestrial or space systems.” The power of scattering sunlight has been illustrated naturally, the scientists note. Volcanic eruptions, such as that of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991, pumped aerosols into the atmosphere and cooled the global climate by about a degree. Other researchers have suggested such schemes as adding metallic dust to smoke stacks, to flood the atmosphere and reflect more sunlight back into space. In the newly outlined approach, reflective particles might come from the mining of Earth, the Moon or asteroids. They’d be put into orbit around the equator. Alternately, tiny micro-spacecraft could be deployed with reflective umbrellas. A ring created by a batch of either “shades the tropics primarily, providing maximum effectiveness in cooling the warmest parts of our planet,” the scientists write. An early version of their idea was presented but not widely noticed in 2002. Eccentric but reassuring Those researchers who don’t buy the argument that global warming is occurring at any significant rate nor that humans are largely to blame may warm up quickly to the new idea. Benny Peiser, a social anthropologist at Liverpool John Moores University in the UK, tracks climate research and the resulting media coverage. He’s among the small but vocal group that goes against mainstream thought on the topic of global warming. “I don’t think that the modest warming trend we are currently experiencing poses any significant or long-term threat,” Peiser told LiveScience. “Nevertheless, what the paper does show quite impressively is that our hyper-complex civilization is theoretically and technologically capable of dealing with any significant climate change we may potentially face in the future.” Peiser also notes that the Kyoto Protocol, a global agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, is estimated to cost the world economy some $150 billion a year. He also sees a broader rationale for supporting the seemingly bizarre manner of managing Earth’s temperature budget. “I believe that this mindset, despite its apparent eccentricity, is actually rather reassuring,” Peiser said. “It provides concerned people with ample evidence of the extraordinary human ingenuity that, as so often in the past, has helped to overcome many predicaments that were regarded as impenetrable in previous times.” He also sees an ultimate big-picture reasoning to look favorably on the notion of controlling Earth’s climate. “Whatever the cost and regardless of whether there is any major risk due to global warming,” Peiser said, “it would appear to me that such a space-based infrastructure will evolve sooner or later, thus forming additional stepping stones of our emerging migration towards outer space.”
Watch in a different language The Bronze Age Hello friends, welcome to a new Happy Learning video. Today we are going to learn about the last prehistoric period. Let’s learn about the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age began approximately 6.500 years before Christ, when man kind started to use different types of metals instead of stones to make tools. The first metal which was used was copper, then bronze, which is a mixture of copper and tin, and then finally iron, which is a much more abundant mineral and therefore easier to find in nature. In order to mold these metals, they were melted at extremely high temperatures and then transformed into the desired shape. This is how utensils such as fire arms, tools and decorations were made. This process is called metallurgy. Through metallurgy crafts and trade began. The metallurgists were the first specialized craftsmen, as metallurgy is a very complex and difficult task which few knew how to do. The rise of the agrarian production and the appearance of crafts caused bartering that is the exchanging of products. This is when trade began. Trades, in time, made some villages grow, in size turning into cities. This then created large commercial and cultural exchange between these new cities and new inventions such as sail boats and wagons used to transport goods were made. Trade also changed society by creating social classes, the rich and the poor, the powerful and the slaves. During the Bronze Age, people began questioning the mysteries of life as well as death and the first religious representations arose. Constructions called megaliths were created with large blocks of Stone. Mega meaning large and liths Stone. The simplest megalith was the menhir, a large Stone riveted vertically into the ground. Dolmens were also constructed such as the ones seen in these images. The Bronze Age ended with the appearance of writing about 4000 years ago, but that is a different story.
The tenor is a type of male singing voice and is the highest male voice within the modal register. The typical tenor voice lies between C3, the C one octave below middle C, to the A above middle C (A4) in choral music, and up to high C (C5) in solo work. The low extreme for tenors is roughly B♭2 (two B♭s below middle C). At the highest extreme, some tenors can sing up to two Fs above middle C (F5). The term tenor is also applied to instruments, such as the tenor saxophone, to indicate their range in relation to other instruments of the same group. Within opera, the lowest note in the standard tenor repertoire is A2 (Mime, Herod), but few roles fall below C3 (one octave below middle C). The high extreme: a few tenor roles in the standard repertoire call for a "tenor C" (C5, one octave above middle C). It must be noted that most (if not all) of the few top Cs in the standard operatic repertoire are either optional (such as in Che gelida manina in Puccini's La Boheme) or interpolated (added) by tradition (such as in Di quella pira from Verdi's Il Trovatore). Some operatic roles for tenor require a darker timbre and fewer high notes. In the leggiero repertoire the highest note is an F5 (Arturo in I puritani), therefore, very few tenors can have this role in their repertoire.. It must be noted that a shift in pitch since the mid 19th century means that the few written top Cs (such as in Salut demeure from Gounod's Faust) would have in fact demanded a note at least a semitone lower than today's standard pitch. Within musical theatre, most tenor roles are written between B♭2 and A♭4, especially the romantic leads, although some fall as low as A♭2 and others as high as G5. Origin of the term The name "tenor" derives from the Latin word tenere, which means "to hold". In medieval and Renaissance polyphony between about 1250 and 1500, the tenor was the structurally fundamental (or ‘holding’) voice, vocal or instrumental. All other voices were normally calculated in relation to the tenor, which often proceeded in longer note values and carried a borrowed Cantus firmus melody. Until the late 15th century introduction of the contratenor bassus, the tenor was usually the lowest voice, assuming the role of providing a harmonic foundation. It was also in the 15th century that "tenor" came to signify the male voice that sang such parts. Thus, for earlier repertoire, a line marked 'tenor' indicated the part's role, and not the required voice type. Indeed, even as late as the eighteenth century, partbooks labelled 'tenor' might contain parts for a range of voice types. Tenor in choral music In four-part choral music, the tenor is the second lowest voice, above the bass and below the soprano and alto. While certain choral music does require the first tenors to ascend the full tenor range, the majority of choral music places the tenors in the range from approximately B2 up to A4. The requirements of the tenor voice in choral music are also tied to the style of music most often performed by a given choir. Orchestra choruses require tenors with fully resonant voices, but chamber or a cappella choral music (sung with no instrumental accompaniment) can rely on light baritones singing in falsetto. Even so, one nearly ubiquitous facet of choral singing is the shortage of tenor voices. Most men tend to have baritone voices and for this reason the majority of men tend to prefer singing in the bass section of a choir (however, true basses are even rarer than tenors). Some men are asked to sing tenor even if they lack the full range, and sometimes low altos are asked to sing the tenor part. The late 19th century saw the emergence of male choirs or TTBB (Tenor1, Tenor2, Bass1, Bass2). In the USA these are sometimes called Glee Clubs. The Welsh choirs are perhaps the best personification of this type of choir. Male Choirs sing specially written music for male choirs, music adapted from mixed sex choirs and in most genres including classical, sacred, popular and show. Male choirs differ from Barbershop choirs in that they are usually accompanied, often by but not restricted to a piano. Male choirs are often larger than the Barbershop style partly because the foundation of the Barbershop style is the solo quartet sound. In Male Choirs, tenors will often sing both in chest tone and falsetto. As a result, a male choir has a wider pitch range than one consisting only of females. Some examples of male choirs are: The Morriston Orpheus Welsh Male Voice Choir, the Sydney Male Choir and the Treorchy Male Choir. There are some impressive male ensembles in the Russian Orthodox Church choral tradition and also there are some excellent Jewish ensembles. There are four parts in Barbershop harmony: bass, baritone, lead, and tenor (lowest to highest), with "tenor" referring to the highest part. The tenor generally sings in falsetto voice, corresponding roughly to the countertenor in classical music, and harmonizes above the lead, who sings the melody. The barbershop tenor range is B♭-below-middle C (B ♭ 3) to D-above-high C (D5), though it is written an octave lower. The "lead" in barbershop music is equivalent to the normal tenor range. In bluegrass music, the melody line is called the lead. Tenor is sung an interval of a third above the lead. Baritone is the fifth of the scale that has the lead as a tonic, and may be sung below the lead, or even above the lead (and the tenor), in which case it is called "high baritone." A tenor is also classified as a drum used in a drum corps. or drum-line. The tenor drum consists of 5 or 6 drums of different tones, 4, 3, 2, 1, and one or two spocks. 4 is the lowest sounding drum and the right spock is the highest sounding drum. Tenors are also referred to as quads because of the four main drums, or quints including the spocks. The tenors, in a drum cadence, are usually a combination of bass drum and snare drum beats to give the cadence more of a groove. Though strictly not musical, the Muslim call to prayer (azan) is always chanted by tenors, possibly due to the highly placed resonance of the tenor voice which allows it to be heard from a longer distance than baritones or basses during pre-amplification times. Some such chanters (termed bilals) may modulate up to E3 in certain passages, while incorporating a distinctive Middle-Eastern coloratura run. Tenor voice classification Within Choral and pop music, singers are classified into voice parts based almost solely on range with little consideration for other qualities in the voice. Within classical solo singing, however, a person is classified as a tenor through the identification of several vocal traits, including vocal range (the lowest and highest notes that the singer can reach), vocal timbre, vocal weight, vocal tessitura, vocal resonance, and vocal transition points (lifts or "passaggio") within the singer's voice. These different traits are used to identify different sub-types within the tenor voice sometimes referred to as fächer (sg. fach, from German Fach or Stimmfach, "vocal category"). Within opera, particular roles are written with specific kinds of tenor voices in mind, causing certain roles to be associated with certain kinds of voices. Here follows the operatic tenor fächer, with examples of the roles from the standard repertory that they commonly sing. It should be noted that there is considerable overlap between the various categories of role and of voice-type; and that some singers have begun with lyric voices but have transformed with time into spinto or even dramatic tenors. (Enrico Caruso is a prime example of this kind of vocal development.) It must be said that in the operatic canon the highest top note generally written by composers is B. Top Cs are rare (they are either given as oppure that is, up to the singer to interpolate or are traditional additions). An ability to sing C and above, therefore, is musically superfluous. Indeed, many famous tenors never even attempted C at least on record—for example, in Caruso's 1906 recording of Che Gelida Manina, the whole aria is transposed to avoid the oppure top C. This is a normal transposition. The male equivalent of a lyric coloratura, this voice is a light lyric instrument, is very agile and is able to perform difficult passages of fioritura. The Lirico-Leggiero tenor has a range of approximately the C one octave below middle C (C3) to the D above tenor C (D5), with a few leggiero tenors being able to sing F5 and even higher while maintaining quality to the sound. Similarly, the lirico-leggero may be able to sing a little lower than the C3. The voice is the highest operatic tenor voice and is sometimes referred to as "tenore di grazia". This voice is utilized frequently in the operas of Mozart, Rossini, Donizetti and the highest Baroque repertoire for tenors. Lirico-Leggiero Tenor Roles In Opera & Operettas: Lirico-Leggiero Tenor Singers: A warm graceful voice with a bright, full timbre that is strong but not heavy and can be heard over an orchestra. Lyric tenors have a range from approximately the C one octave below middle C (C3) to the D one octave above middle C (D5) with some able to sing up to E♭5 and higher. Similarly, their lower range may extend a few notes below the C3. There are many vocal shades to the lyric tenor group, repertoire should be selected according to the weight, colors, and abilities of the voice. Lyric Tenor Roles In Opera & Operettas: - Alfredo, La traviata (Giuseppe Verdi) - Arturo, I Puritani (Vincenzo Bellini) - Chevalier, Dialogues des Carmélites (Francis Poulenc) - David, Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (Richard Wagner) - Il Duca di Mantova, Rigoletto (Giuseppe Verdi) - Edgardo, Lucia di Lammermoor (Gaetano Donizetti) - Elvino, La Sonnambula (Bellini) - Faust, Faust (Charles Gounod) - Fenton, Falstaff (Giuseppe Verdi) - Hoffmann, The Tales of Hoffmann (Offenbach) - Lensky, Eugene Onegin (Tchaikovsky) - Oronte, I Lombardi alla prima crociata (Giuseppe Verdi) - Pinkerton, Madama Butterfly (Giacomo Puccini) - Rinuccio, Gianni Schicchi (Giacomo Puccini) - Rodolfo, La Bohème (Puccini) - Roméo, Roméo et Juliette (Gounod) - Tamino, Die Zauberflöte (Mozart) - Werther, Werther (Jules Massenet) - Wilhelm Meister, Mignon (Ambroise Thomas) - Guillaume Tell, Arnold (Giacchino Rossini) Lyric Tenor Singers: This voice has the brightness and height of a lyric tenor, but with a heavier vocal weight enabling the voice to be "pushed" to dramatic climaxes with less strain than the lighter-voice counterparts. (They are also known as "lyric-dramatic" tenors.) This fach is divided into lirico-spinto and drammatico-spinto, though it is an old-school Italian tradition to do so and Spinto tenors today are simply labeled "Spinto". Spinto tenors have a darker timbre than a lyric tenor, without having a vocal color as dark as a dramatic tenor. However, other spinto tenors, such as Carlo Bergonzi have brightly colored and lyrical sounding voices, but are nevertheless able to perform spinto roles due to large vocal size or high volume . Spinto tenors have a wide range of flexibility within the fach system being able to perform such roles as Radames in Aida and Don Alvaro in La forza del destino as well as lighter roles such as the Duca in Rigoletto and Werther. The German equivalent of the Spinto fach is the Jugendlicher Heldentenor and encompasses many of the Dramatic tenor roles as well as some Wagner roles such as Lohengrin and Siegmund. The difference is often the depth and metal in the voice where some lyric tenors age or push their way into singing as a Spinto giving them a lighter tone and Jugendlicher Heldentenors tend to be either young heldentenors or true lyric dramatic voices giving them a dark dramatic tenor like tone. Spinto tenors have a range from approximately the C one octave below middle C (C3) to the C one octave above middle C (C5), and, like the lyric tenors, they are often capable of reaching D5 and sometimes higher. Similarly, their lower range may extend a few notes below the C3. Spinto Tenor Roles In Opera & Operettas: Spinto Tenor Singers: Also "tenore di forza" or "robusto" – a rich,dark, emotive, ringing and very powerful, clarion heroic tenor. The dramatic tenor has an approximate range from the C one octave below middle C (C3) to the C one octave above middle C (C5). Many successful dramatic tenors have historically avoided the coveted high C in performance. Their lower range tends to extend into the baritone tessitura or, a few notes below the C3. Dramatic Tenor Roles In Opera & Operettas: Dramatic Tenor Singers: A rich, dark, powerful and dramatic voice. As its name implies, the Heldentenor (English: heroic tenor) vocal fach features in the German romantic operatic repertoire. The Heldentenor is the German equivalent of the tenore drammatico, however with a more baritonal quality: the typical Wagnerian protagonist. The keystone of the heldentenor's repertoire is arguably Wagner's Siegfried, an extremely demanding role requiring a wide vocal range and great power, plus tremendous stamina and acting ability. Often the heldentenor is a baritone who has transitioned to this fach or tenors who have been misidentified as baritones. Therefore the heldentenor voice might or might not have facility up to high B or C. The repertoire, however, rarely calls for such high notes. A Heldentenor is less a true tenor than a baritone with a strong top register. Heldentenor Roles In Operas & Operettas: Tenor buffo or Spieltenor A tenor with good acting ability, and the ability to create distinct voices for his characters. This voice specializes in smaller comic roles. The range of the tenor buffo is from the C one octave below middle C (C3) to the C one octave above middle C (C5). The tessitura of these parts lies lower than the other tenor roles. These parts are often played by younger tenors who have not yet reached their full vocal potential or older tenors who are beyond their prime singing years. Only rarely will a singer specialize in these roles for an entire career. In French opéra comique, supporting roles requiring a thin voice but good acting are sometimes described as 'trial', after the singer Antoine Trial (1737–1795), examples being in the operas of Ravel and in The Tales of Hoffmann. Tenor Buffo or Spieltenor Roles in Opera & Operettas: Tenor Buffo or Spieltenor singers: Tenor Roles in Operetta: All of the Gilbert and Sullivan comic operettas have at least one lead lyric tenor character; other notable roles are: - ^ McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN 978-1565939400. - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Boldrey, Richard (1994). Guide to Operatic Roles and Arias. Caldwell Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1877761645. - ^ Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0802086143. - ^ a b Smith, Brenda (2005). Choral Pedagogy. Plural Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1597560436. - ^ Shortage of tenors acknowledged (but blamed on cultural discouragement) - ^ Joseph Callega interview: mentions shortage of tenors - ^ The disciplines of vocal pedagogy By Karen Sell: mentions shortage of tenors - ^ Averill, Gage (2003). Four Parts, No Waiting: A Social History of American Barbershop Harmony. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195116724. - ^ Cantwell, Robert (2002). Bluegrass Breakdown: The Making of the Old Southern Sound. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252071171. - ^ Appelman, D. Ralph (1986). The Science of Vocal Pedagogy: Theory and Application. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253203786. - ^ Cotte RJV. Trial, French family of musicians. In: The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Macmillan, London and New York, 1997. - David Fallows, Owen Jander. Tenor, Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy, grovemusic.com (subscription required)
Do you know why things fall on the ground? They do because they are pulled by a force known as gravity. Have you seen how magnets stick to each other? They do so because they are pulled by a force known as the magnetic force. Do you know how we are able to walk? Our legs of course! But other than our legs, we also have to give credit to a small force that exists between our feet and the ground when we walk. This force is called ‘friction’. Whenever two surfaces rub or move against each other, the force of friction is generated between them. Friction is a resisting force which is always in the direction opposite to the direction in which the object is moving. Can’t get it? No Problem! Let us understand it with an example. When you walk, your feet rub the ground. At this point, a small force of friction gets generated. Since it is a resisting force, it pulls your feet in the direction opposite to where you are moving. But you don’t feel your feet getting pulled, you would say. That’s correct! The frictional force is so tiny that you don’t feel the pull. But this tiny force gives your feet a grip. You need grip to propel yourself forward on each foot as you walk otherwise you will slip. Think about how difficult it is to walk or drive on ice on an icy day. Smooth surfaces create very little friction. There is not enough resistance to give you a grip. In the park, slides are always super smooth. No points for guessing why! Let’s take another example. When you throw a ball on the grass, it stops after travelling some distance. Why? Try deliberating on it now. It stops because of friction. The surface of the ball rubs to create some friction on the grass. Friction starts pulling the ball in the opposite direction. Because of this, ball first slows down and then comes to a stop. Without friction, the objects would keep on moving for much longer. Imagine if there were no friction, fielders would have to run hard to stop the ball in the game of cricket. That’s funny! Friction also comes into play when objects are in the air. When an aircraft is in the air, the air particles create friction and cause resistance. The engines push the plane, and the air resistance pulls the plane back. The force from the engines (thrust) pushing the craft forward always exceeds the air resistance (drag) pulling the plane back. That’s why the plane is stable when it moves through the air. In all the above instances, friction proved to be a helpful force. Can you think of instances where friction can be quite unhelpful? For one, if there were no friction our shoes would have lasted much longer. Ha!
Overconsumption of meat has the greatest negative impact on environmental and human health. Diets need to change. In order to eat within our planetary boundaries (i.e. feeding ourselves without damaging the planet), we should consume a maximum of 100g of red meat, 200g of poultry and 200g of fish per week. However, high-income countries are currently consuming double this, with middle income countries predicted to follow the trend over the next ten years. The pressures on the world’s food system will increase exponentially in the coming decades as the worldwide population is set to rise to ten billion people by 2050. A paradigm shift is needed in how food is produced at every level of the food chain. If we are ever to achieve planetary balance and environmental health, world leaders must stand up to powerful food companies by implementing new laws and creating effective, tangible change. The health of humans, our planet, domesticated animals, and wild animals are interlinked. This article will provide an overview of the many reasons why we all need to eat less meat, including human health, environmental health, food efficiency, economic consequences, and animal welfare, while looking at the factors that contribute to unsustainable eating patterns and what we can do to help. Whilst meat contains essential nutrients, important for human nutrition, such as B12, iron and calcium, excessive consumption is associated with adverse health, such as bone, kidney and liver disorders, obesity, stroke, diabetes, cancer, and heart disease. People who consume red and processed meat four times per week have a 20% increased risk of bowel and colon cancer. That’s four meals per week, not four days per week. We would still be able to achieve adequate protein levels by eliminating meat entirely and instead obtaining our protein from plants. Protein is essential for building muscle mass, repairing injuries, maintaining strong immune systems, and transporting and storing nutrients. Protein is made up of amino acids; there are 20 in total, nine of which – known as essential amino acids – our bodies cannot naturally produce. However, meat is far from the only source of protein; beans, peas, nuts, quinoa, soy, mushrooms and hemp all provide enough protein to render meat almost redundant. But trying to eliminate meat entirely from the human diet is an extreme over-correction, unnecessary and unrealistic. By just halving our meat intake we would deliver dramatic improvement in general health. In fact, a small amount of animal protein is actually vital for human health. Vitamin B12 – which the human body needs to make red blood cells, nerves, DNA, and more – does not occur naturally outside of animal products. Many vegans never address their B12 deficiency through supplements, placing themselves at higher risk of suffering numbness in the hands, legs, or feet; cognitive difficulties; anemia; weakness; fatigue; sleep disorders; Alzheimer’s; and depression. The human health implications of animal agriculture go well beyond those due to direct consumption. Livestock farmers suffer from respiratory diseases at a much higher rate than the general population. The way animals are raised also affects our health; the growing reliance on antibiotics is contributing to antibiotic-resistance in humans. Meat overconsumption is detrimental to our environment in every way, harming our land, our waters and our air. Livestock farming generates as much greenhouse gas emissions as all cars, trucks and automobiles combined – accounting for 56% of all Greenhouse Gas emissions from the food sector. Those are startling statistics. Animal agriculture is a leading cause of habitat destruction – such as deforestation in the Amazon. The Amazon rainforest acts as a huge sponge for carbon dioxide, cooling global temperatures by absorbing harmful carbon in the atmosphere. Rising deforestation rates will degrade Amazon forests into desert, causing 50 billion tonnes of carbon to be released into the atmosphere over the next 30 to 50 years. To put that in perspective, we are hurtling towards a world with a rapidly growing population, ever-decreasing food sources, and a significantly worsening environment. In Latin America, large areas of forest have been cut down to make way for soybean crops – 90% of which is used to feed livestock. Cattle farming is the single largest driver of deforestation across the region (70%), resulting in annual forest loss of 2.7 million hectares – ten times that of the much-maligned palm oil. Cattle also emit significant quantities of the greenhouse gas, methane, which is 23 times more damaging to the environment than carbon dioxide. Aside from contaminating water supplies, rivers, and streams, animal products also have a significantly higher water footprint than plant-based farming. The production of 1kg of beef, for example, requires 43,000 litres of fresh water (raising the livestock and growing the crops needed to feed it) compared to the 1,000 litres required to grow 1kg of grain. In terms of calories, beef has a 20 times greater water footprint compared to cereals, and a 6 times greater water footprint compared to its protein-rich pulses, such as beans and peas. The seafood industry, as well, is far from free of environmental consequences. Global fish populations are collapsing as unsustainable rates of depletion continue to rise. As fish populations have decreased, the industry has turned to more intensive practices, such as trawling, where nets are dragged along the ocean floor, causing significant damage. Coral reefs, vital in maintaining fish populations and oceanic biodiversity, are especially damaged by trawlers. Another effect of trawlers is bycatch (marine life that is accidentally caught), which threatens the population of many species, including sea turtles, dolphins, and seals. Red meat, poultry and seafood intake in North America, South America and Europe is approximately 500% higher than daily recommended levels. Meanwhile, consumption of fruits, vegetables and plant-sourced protein is approximately half of the recommended levels. In order to meet ever-rising demands, livestock production systems are using more and more fit-for-human-consumption crops to feed animals. In Ireland, we are used to seeing herds of sheep and cattle, grazing on grass, roaming happily across large, open pastures. Grass is inedible for humans, but provides all the nutrients necessary to turn these herds into delicious, fit-for-human calories. But most countries are not blessed with Ireland’s abundance of lush grassland. Instead, crops which would be better used to feed humans are being diverted to animals, creating an unsustainable and hugely inefficient system. Globally, over one third of grain is fed to livestock, with significant calories lost along the way, severely exacerbating an already failing food system. Animal products provide only 18% of global calories but use 83% of farmland. If all crops currently used for animal feed were instead directly consumed by humans, it would create 70% more calories, which could feed up to 4 billion more people. While many efforts to address food security have focused primarily on improving crop yields, it is also possible to dramatically increase the availability of food in the world by shifting the allocation of our crops from animal feed and biofuels towards more direct means of feeding the human population. Animal products are the third most subsidised food group in OECD countries, behind only sugar and rice, creating artificially cheap meat. These subsidies lower food prices, increase consumption and reduce farmers’ incomes in countries where such subsidies are not available. When external factors are accounted for, the true cost of animal agriculture is far higher than what consumers pay at the tills. If health care costs were included in the price of meat, red meat costs would increase by up to 25% and processed meat by up to 100%. The global health care costs of red and processed meat are $285 billion annually. Wastage of meat has economic consequences too. Meat, fish, dairy and eggs are wasted by households each year at almost twice the rate of fresh fruits and vegetables. And if the moral dilemma of animal welfare was included, the true cost of meat production would be astronomic. Every generation is more progressive than the one that preceded (a scary thought). Just as we look back on past generations and wonder how some things could have been acceptable, let alone considered commonplace and standard, so too will future generations scrutinise in horror what we in 2020 have normalised. In my opinion, the practice of factory farmed meat will be looked upon by our grandchildren with the same depression with which we now view gender inequality, segregation, and even slavery. When I was training as a chef, one of my lecturers showed us videos of undercover documentaries of exactly what happens at these factory farms. Because we should all know where our food is coming from. I’m not advocating for vegetarianism, and I believe the adage that “we would all be vegetarian if we had to kill our food” is nonsense on so many levels. But I do believe that if everyone saw the way most animals are treated before they become food, it would severely altar attitudes. What I am advocating is for more humane treatment of animals at early stages of the food chain. The current methods treat animals as inanimate objects rather than living creatures, because the giant, faceless food corporations make more profit that way. The only way things will change is if demand for meat drastically diminishes. Take for example the living conditions of egg-laying hens or chickens raised for meat: kept in rows of small cages piled on top of one another, reducing their mobility and ability to complete normal biological functions, such as standing, turning, or stretching. Dairy cows, sheep and pigs are often kept in similarly cramped conditions, living a life of unimaginable pain and cruelty. Indeed, their death is the high point of a factory farmed animal’s miserable existence – although the final moments of these animals are often the most torturous. Such conditions are most prevalent in larger countries, such as China, the United States, Brazil and Australia. Other western countries, including Ireland, France and New Zealand, carry an air of superiority when it comes to such matters. After all, drive from Dublin to Dingle, Lyon to La Rochelle, or Hamilton to Hastings, and you’ll pass endless grazing herds of sheep and cattle as far as the eye can see. But did you ever wonder where the chicken and pigs are? When it comes to pork and poultry, we’re just as guilty. Then there’s the abomination that is foie gras. The abhorrent way this food is created is the stuff of nightmares. Foie gras is produced by force-feeding ducks to unnaturally enlarge their livers. During force-feeding, a large metal tube is pushed down the bird’s throat and food is then forced down the tube from a funnel. The bird’s beak is then wired shut to prevent vomiting. The process continues for around two weeks until the liver has swelled to ten times it’s normal size, making movement and even breathing difficult. Revolting. Accessing ethical and sustainable foods is not easy for many reasons. The global food system is not only inherently complex, but also deeply embedded within cultural, economic and political norms that are hard to change and do not incentivise healthy, sustainable food consumption. Social factors, such as holiday traditions, change our perception of meat from a source of nourishment to a cultural symbol, closely linked with personal, family and group identity. Take Christmas dinner for example; so many of us in the west will prepare at least two large pieces of meat, traditionally, turkey and ham. However, as families come together, traditions often merge. Many families will prepare a full turkey or goose, a large cut of ham or bacon, a roast or confit duck, smoked salmon, and a beef wellington – all in the name of continuing different family traditions. Most food choices are ingrained habits and difficult to change. When grocery shopping, we tend to fill our trolleys with the same kind of foods week in week out, especially those of us who mainly shop in supermarkets. If you picked up chicken, pork, beef and fish last week, chances are you’ll get them this week and again next week. Likewise, when preparing our meals, the first consideration is almost always the choice of meat. Humans tend toward behaviours with short-term payoffs without considering long-term consequences – even our own health. This is evident when we see politicians make decisions designed to help them get reelected in a few years but will be ultimately detrimental further down the line. Because voters generally fall for these cheap tricks and reelect these same politicians, the problems descend into a vicious circle. In terms of food, most people will prioritise taste, convenience and price over long-term sustainability, never worrying about the consequences to their own health or the living conditions of future generations. The same politicians responsible for such short sighted policies are also vulnerable to the influence of large food companies and their lobbyists. The power of these companies is used to great effect to manipulate not only policy makers but consumers at every level. How can we eat less meat? As we examine how best to curtail meat overconsumption and unsustainable diets, the most controversial option is potentially the most effective. Many people believe governments should introduce measures to eliminate choice, such as restrictions on processed meats, a tax on red meat, and greatly increased legislation surrounding factory farming. Several groups argue politicians should not intervene in what citizens are eating, yet almost all countries have policies related to reductions in alcohol, tobacco and drugs – why should food be any different? The advance of lab grown meats, increasing advocacy for eating insects as a protein alternatives, and the popularity of vegan substitutes, such as the Impossible burger, means there is light at the end of the meat tunnel. But changing consumer behaviour is too slow and too small in scale to have any meaningful effect. Therefore, it is crucial that immediate steps are taken at the highest levels. Governments should also limit, or even remove meat subsidies. This would disincentivise farmers from concentrating their efforts on livestock production and shift the focus to a more earth-friendly food chain. The domino effect of fewer farmers producing animal products would see those who continue the practice receiving higher prices for their more premium products. We do not need to stop eating meat, in fact I hope we never do. But by halving our intake of animal protein, we would eliminate all the for-profit suffering experienced by animals across the world. Small, family farms, specialising in one or two animals would adequately provide for the meat needs of every citizen on earth. And for those carnivorous gluttons out there who want steak and bacon seven days a week, may I suggest a hunting licence and some butchery training.
How W.E.B. Du Bois combined photographs and infographics to communicate the everyday realities of Black lives and the inequities of race in America At the 1900 Paris Exposition the pioneering sociologist and activist W.E.B. Du Bois presented an exhibit representing the progress of African Americans since the abolition of slavery. In striking graphic visualisations and photographs (taken by mostly anonymous photographers) he showed the changing status of a newly emancipated people across America and specifically in Georgia, the state with the largest Black population. This beautifully designed book reproduces the photographs alongside the revolutionary graphic works for the first time, and includes a marvelous essay by two celebrated art historians, Jacqueline Francis and Stephen G. Hall.Du Bois' hand-drawn charts, maps and graphs represented the achievements and economic conditions of African Americans in radically inventive forms, long before such data visualization was commonly used in social research. Their clarity and simplicity seems to anticipate the abstract art of the Russian constructivists and other modernist painters to come. The photographs were drawn from African American communities across the United States. Both the photographers and subjects are mostly anonymous. They show people engaged in various occupations or posing formally for group and studio portraits. Elegant and dignified, they refute the degrading stereotypes of Black people then prevalent in white America. Du Bois' exhibit at the Paris Exposition continues to resonate as a powerful affirmation of the equal rights of Black Americans to lives of freedom and fulfilment. Black Lives 1900 captures this singular work. American sociologist, historian, author, editor and activist W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963) was the most influential Black civil rights activist of the first half of the 20th century. He was a protagonist in the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909, and his 1903 bookThe Souls of Black Folk remains a classic and a landmark of African American literature.
For a child, developing Theory of Mind skills is important, because these skills affect how well a person can communicate throughout their entire life. Theory of Mind is when someone learns that they have their own thoughts, desires, and beliefs—and also recognizes that other people have their own thoughts, desires, and beliefs. It’s the idea behind “putting yourself in another person’s shoes.” Want to help build your child’s Theory of Mind? A good place to start is with books. Build Theory of Mind Skills It can be straightforward for a child to learn some basic skills for interacting with people, because they can see other people interacting with them and each other in daily life. But what’s not so visible is what someone is thinking, feeling or believing. Listening and language skills alone aren’t always enough to understand the thoughts of others. This is where developing Theory of Mind skills is necessary: teaching your child concepts like “think,” “know,” “believe,” “like,” and so forth can help them to learn to understand other people’s beliefs, feelings, and perspectives. These words are called ‘mental state verbs’ because they describe what’s going on in someone’s mind. A great way to help your child develop these skills is through reading books together. Depending on your child’s age, here are some ways you can use books to help build their Theory of Mind skills: For Young Children From an early age children will start to participate in “joint attention:” knowing that someone else is focusing on the same object they are, or trying to get the other person to focus on an object they are interested in. Reading books with your child helps to encourage joint attention skills, because you’re giving them the chance to focus on the same book that you are, and in doing so you are also giving them a chance to learn language that is relevant to what you are both attending to. Ideas with books: - Sit close to your child so that they are near to the sound of your voice. - Tell your child that you’ll read a book together—then grab the book, show it to your child, and repeat to them that you’ll read this book together. As you’re saying this look at your child, then at the book, and then back at your child. This will help to encourage their joint attention skills. - Draw your child’s attention to specific pictures and describe what you see with sounds, words and sentences that you’d use in normal communication. All the while, point out what you’re talking about to help your child identify the pictures in the book. - Brightly colored books with bold pictures are great to help grab their attention. - Or, use books that your child can interact with, like touch-and-feel books. - Choose books that have basic social language, such as a book that says “goodnight” or “good morning” to each character, to help your child learn about how people interact socially. - You can also help build your child’s social skills by waving and saying “hello” to new characters as they appear in the story. Toddlers will be developing their language skills rapidly, and will have an increased awareness that each word they use or hear has a unique meaning. You can support their Theory of Mind skills by using mental state verb words about “likes,” “dislikes,” and “wants” while talking with your child. Also, try to use specific words like “remember”, “forget”, “guess,” “know,” and “surprise” that hint at what they or someone else might be thinking. Ideas with books: - Use lift-the-flap or peek-a-boo books. You can “guess” what is under a specific flap, or talk about “knowing” what’s under the flap if you’re re-reading the book. Here are some example sentences you could use: - “Let’s guess what’s under the flap.” - “I know what’s under there, do you? We saw it the last time, so we know what’s hiding there!” - “I haven’t read this book before, so I don’t know what is under there.” - “I think it might be a rabbit.” - “What do you think it could be?” - “Can you remember what’s under the flap? I’ve forgotten!” - Choose books that have familiar routines or objects, like a book that talks about different familiar foods or activities. This will allow you to talk about them, and relate what’s in the story to what’s common in your child’s daily life. Bring up which ones you or your child like or dislike: - “He’s eating an apple for breakfast. I like Your big brother also likes apples. Do you like apples?” - “That boy is riding his bicycle. You like riding your bike on the weekend, too.” - “I like to read my books on the weekend and so do you, but daddy likes to play tennis on the weekend.” - “I don’t like the taste of onion.” - Read books that talk about emotions, and talk with your child about the different emotions they experience about in their daily life, as well as the ones in the stories: - Identify the emotions and say why the characters might be feeling these emotions. This will help your child to begin thinking about the emotions that others might be feeling, and reasons for why they might be feeling that way. - Show your child that different characters in the story might have differing emotions at the same time. This shows how different people can perceive the same thing in different ways. - “That little girl is crying. I think she feels sad because her brother won’t share his toys with her. What do you think? Her brother looks like he might be feeling He might not want to share his toys with his little sister. I wonder if they might like to play a new game together instead.” Children who are of preschool age or older will have started to understand Theory of Mind concepts, so your goal is to help them further develop their skills. You can do this by applying the concepts to real-life situations. Ideas with books: - Choose books where there are different problems and solutions. Identify the problem, what has caused it (why you think it may have happened), and possible solutions. By talking about problems that are likely to occur in social situations, you can help your child understand that different individuals can have different perspectives on the same situation. - Read books with jokes or silly stories, and talk with your child about why the stories are silly. Explain why we laugh at jokes, and why some people might find a joke funny while others might not. - Point out the different facial expressions that characters have and try to guess what you think they might be feeling. And, ask your child what they think the character might be feeling. - Try and relate events in the book to events in your child’s life. - Ask your child, “The man looks sad. Can you remember a time when you felt sad? What made you feel sad? How did you feel better?” - Talk about a situation when you felt a certain way, but someone else didn’t know your feelings. This will help your child to see that other people can’t see our thoughts and feelings. - Before turning a page, have your child think about what has already happened. - Ask your child to guess what might happen next. - Then, make your own guess. It’s a good idea to guess something different than what your child did, because this will help show that different people can have different beliefs. Want to help your child keep developing their Theory of Mind skills? Check out these two other blog posts that we’ve written: - 5 different strategies to incorporate Theory of Mind concepts into what you’re saying. - 4 more quick activities to develop your child’s Theory of Mind skills. This post was written by Ingrid Steyns, a speech-language pathologist and Rehabilitation Specialist at MED-EL. Subscribe to the MED-EL blog for more tips about building Theory of Mind skills, and more! - Dunn J, Brown J, and Beardsall L. 1991a. Family talk about feeling states and children’s later understanding of others’ emotions. Developmental Psychology 27: 448-455. - Miller, C. A. (2006). Developmental relationships between language and theory of mind. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15(2), 142-154. - Symons, D. K., Peterson, C. C., Slaughter, V., Roche, J., & Doyle, E. (2005). Theory of mind and mental state discourse during book reading and story‐telling tasks. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23(1), 81-102. - Taumoepeau M and Ruffman T. 2008. Stepping stones to others’ minds: maternal talk relates to child mental state language and emotion understanding at 15, 24, and 33 months. Child Dev. 79(2):284-302. - Tomasello, M. (1995). Joint attention as social cognition. Joint attention: Its origins and role in development, 103-130. - Westby, C., & Robinson, L. (2014). A developmental perspective for promoting theory of mind. Topics in Language Disorders, 34(4), 362-382.
Learn how race and racism evolved within North America’s first European settlements with the stories of two African Americans who secured freedom in colonial Virginia. Learn about the 1963 Chicago Public School Boycott, when students demanded better schools for black neighborhoods and equal opportunity for all. Find out how songs by Otis Redding and The Staple Singers echoed the calls for respect by activists during the civil rights movement. Lessons and resources help you explore the black sanitation workers’ strike and other events that brought Dr. King to Memphis in the spring of 1968. This lesson is part of our partnership with the National Civil Rights Museum's MLK50 initiative.
Cubic Metre (m3) Definition - What does Cubic Metre (m3) mean? Cubic Metre is an international standard unit of volume which is denoted by symbol m3. The other abbreviations for Cubic Metre are cu, m3, M3, m, m^3, cbm or m**3. These abbreviations are only used when it is not possible to use the superscript characters. Cubic Metre is the total volume of the cube with edges of 1 metre of length. Cubic Metre's alternate names are kilolitre and stere, which are no longer in use. A Cubic Metre is equal to 1000 liters. Petropedia explains Cubic Metre (m3) A cube is an object with six square sides, with three sides meeting at each vertex. A cube's volume is measured in m3, i.e., Cubic Metre. Cubic Metre is usually used for measuring different objects such as concrete, wood etc. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures uses the term Cubic Metre for the unit of volume. It is spelled Cubic Meter in American English. A Cubic Metre can be converted in different units such as liters, oil barrels, cubic feet, imperial gallons, cubic yards and US fluid gallons. It also has multiples and submultiples such as cubic decametre, cubic hectometre, cubic kilometre, cubic decimetres, cubic centimetre to name a few.
Definition: Lung Function Tests Lung Function Tests Lung (or pulmonary) function tests are a variety of tests that measure how well a person breathes. They can be used to help diagnose asthma, as well as to assess the severity of a person's asthma and how effectively it's being managed. One example of a lung function test is called spirometry, which involves breathing into a device that records how much and how quickly air can be breathed out following a deep breath in.
Students with developmental disabilities come to college for the same reason that other college students do: - to further their education - to develop life long friendships - to develop career opportunities through practicums - to gain independence - to create life enriching experiences \|How it works\| \|Participating students audit courses so there's flexibility to set a suitable individual learning pace, set individual goals, complete adapted course assignments and exams, complete practicums and also allow time for taking part in campus life. Staff work closely with both students and instructors, to ensure that the students’ inclusion in the classroom and campus life is successful and is a positive experience for everyone involved. The initiative runs year-round. Students are encouraged to find work in the summer and receive support from Initiative staff to ensure students experience success. \|History of Inclusive Post Secondary Education\| \|Alberta has more inclusive post-secondary initiatives and more experience with inclusive post secondary education than any jurisdiction in the world. Inclusive post secondary education is defined as facilitating the inclusion of students with developmental disabilities in regular programs of study and campus life. Initiated by families with the support of advocates in 1987, the University of Alberta became the first university to offer inclusive post secondary education. Since then, with the support of Alberta Association for Community Living and the provincially funded Persons with Developmental Disabilities (PDD),18 post-secondary institutions across the province now offer inclusive educational opportunities to students with developmental disabilities. In the past 20 years students have taken a variety of programs at colleges and universities across the province. This has included golf operations management, personal trainer, digital arts and media, animal health technology and nursing. \|For more information, contact:\| \|If you or someone you know are interested in learning more about this initiative, please call: The first half of this video spotlights Kendra Morrison and her family.
Math is a PROCESS It's not just finding the right answer! Making mistakes and trying to figure things out is part of doing math: This is how kids learn problem solving and how to really do math. How you respond when your kid makes an error can send the message that math is a process and that success comes from effort. How to make math a PROCESS Be a Cheerleader Acknowledge their effort: “I like that you’re thinking really hard about this!” Point out what your child is doing that is a step in the right direction: “You’re right that if we’re adding these numbers together, the answer is going to be a larger number.” Let your child know that you believe she is capable of figuring it out: “That’s not the right answer, but I know you can figure it out.” Make sure your child knows that making mistakes means that they are doing math well: “It’s okay that you didn’t get the right answer yet, because now you know why that isn’t the best way to figure it out!” Pause...and Allow Some Struggle If your child doesn’t get the right answer, or even the right strategy to find the answer, give them a moment to figure it out before offering assistance. This lets them know it’s okay to not get it right away. Parents often find it tough to watch their kids struggle, so if you are tempted to jump in with the right answer, try this: - Count to five to give your child a little extra time - If he still needs help, just give hints at first and see if then he can figure it out - Take a break if he needs it, and come back to it later Emphasize Effort Leading to Success When your child does get the right answer, reflect on the process it took to get there: “Look at that! You kept trying, and you figured it out!” Don't Stop at the Right Answer Even if your child find the answer easily, you can still encourage her to make it a more effortful process. Ask her how she figured out the answer, or explore it further: “I wonder if there’s another way we could figure it out.” “What if we had five pieces instead of four? Then how would we split them in half?”
- What is a perfect fifth power? - How do you know if a number is a power of 4? - What is to the power of in maths? - What pattern do you see in the powers of 5? - What does 4 raised to the fourth power mean? - Is cubed 3 or 4? - What does 4 to the 5th power mean? - What is the 3rd power called? - How do you calculate powers? - What does 3 to the power of 5 mean? - How do you calculate the power of 5? - What does 4 mean in math? - What does 5 to the second power mean? - What is the power of 4 called? - What does 2 to the 4th power mean? - What is 2 to the power? - What does 10 to the power of 4 mean? What is a perfect fifth power? For a power chord that has a root note on the sixth string, you can make it a perfect fifth by simply playing the fifth string two frets up.. How do you know if a number is a power of 4? A simple method is to take log of the given number on base 4, and if we get an integer then number is power of 4. 2. Another solution is to keep dividing the number by 4, i.e, do n = n/4 iteratively. In any iteration, if n%4 becomes non-zero and n is not 1 then n is not a power of 4, otherwise n is a power of 4. What is to the power of in maths? The power (or exponent) of a number says how many times to use the number in a multiplication. It is written as a small number to the right and above the base number. In this example the little “2” says to use 8 two times in a multiplication: 82 = 8 × 8 = 64. What pattern do you see in the powers of 5? The positive powers of five — 5, 25, 125, 625, 3125, 15625, … — have a compact, repeating pattern in their ending m digits, in the powers of five from 5m on. What does 4 raised to the fourth power mean? In arithmetic and algebra, the fourth power of a number n is the result of multiplying four instances of n together. So: n4 = n × n × n × n. Fourth powers are also formed by multiplying a number by its cube. Furthermore, they are squares of squares. Is cubed 3 or 4? When you multiply a whole number (not a fraction) by itself, and then by itself again the result is a cube number. For example 3 x 3 x 3 = 27. An easy way to write 3 cubed is 33. This means three multiplied by itself three times. What does 4 to the 5th power mean? Explanation: Exponents represent repeated multiplication, so. 45 = 4⋅4⋅4⋅4⋅4. Then it’s just a matter of doing the multiplication to arrive at the answer of. 45=1024. What is the 3rd power called? In arithmetic and algebra, the cube of a number n is its third power, that is, the result of multiplying three instances of n together. The cube of a number or any other mathematical expression is denoted by a superscript 3, for example 23 = 8 or (x + 1)3. How do you calculate powers? Calculating an exponent is as simple as multiplying the base number by itself.Work with Positive Exponents and Base Numbers.Calculate with Negative Exponents.Look Out for Negative Base Numbers.Calculate the Number to the Power of 0. What does 3 to the power of 5 mean? The ‘fifth power of 3’ simply means the number you get when you multiply 3 together five times. So it is – 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3. – which equals 243. This can also be written 35 where the small 5 means ‘to the fifth power’. How do you calculate the power of 5? Exponents, or powers, are a way of indicating that a quantity is to be multiplied by itself some number of times. In the expression 25, 2 is called the base and 5 is called the exponent, or power. 25 is shorthand for “multiply five twos together”: 25 = 2×2×2×2×2 = 32. What does 4 mean in math? Example: 4! is shorthand for 4 × 3 × 2 × 1. The factorial function (symbol: !) says to multiply all whole numbers from our chosen number down to 1. What does 5 to the second power mean? 5 to power 2 is 5 time itself twice, or 5×5. 5 to power 3 is 5 times itself thrice, or 5x5x5. What is the power of 4 called? “to the fourth” You could say “tesseracted”, but nobody says that and you would not be understood. You could be long and say “to the power of four” or “to the fourth power”, but most people shorten that to “to the fourth”. What does 2 to the 4th power mean? Example: 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16 In words: 24 could be called “2 to the fourth power” or “2 to the power 4” or simply “2 to the 4th” What is 2 to the power? Computer science. Two to the power of n, written as 2n, is the number of ways the bits in a binary word of length n can be arranged. A word, interpreted as an unsigned integer, can represent values from 0 (000…0002) to 2n − 1 (111… 1112) inclusively. What does 10 to the power of 4 mean? Example: 104 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10,000 In words: 104 could be called “10 to the fourth power”, “10 to the power 4” or “10 to the 4”
Few scientific breakthroughs have been as important as the discovery of the CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) technique as a gene editing tool. CRISPR/Cas9 is a natural system that provides bacteria with an adaptive response against viruses. In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier published a study in which they detailed how this system could be used to perform programmed gene editing in different cell types. Other gene editing techniques had previously been discovered, such as TALENs (transcription activator-like effector nucleases) or ZFNs (zinc finger nucleases). However, their complexity of use, high cost and poor or moderate efficacy has prevented their widespread application, even though good results had been obtained in some cases. The CRISPR/Cas9 technique overcomes these three obstacles, so it has spread very quickly to laboratories around the world, relegating the former techniques to second place. Thus, the number of publications in this field is increasing rapidly. It seems fair to say that, with the discovery of CRISPR/Cas9, gene editing is here to stay. In 1987, the first article was published that described repeated sequences in the genome of bacteria, specifically Escherichia coli (2). It was initially considered that these repeated sequences lacked any function. In 1993, Spaniard Francisco Martínez Mojica described that same sequence in another type of bacteria, Haloferax mediterranei, whose habitat is found only and exclusively in the salt flats of Santa Pola on the shores of the Mediterranean in Spain (3). In 2000, Martínez Mojica described this same sequence in another group of bacteria, and called them short regularly spaced repeats (SRSRs) (4). Two years later, Ruud Jansen identified some genes associated with these repeat sequences and, with Martínez Mojica’s consent, renamed the repeat sequences, which came to be called clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) (5). In 2005, Martínez Mojica identified similarities between the spacers associated with CRISPR described by Ruud Jansen and the genetic material of certain viruses that affect bacteria. It was then that the CRISPR system was identified as a bacterial system of defence against viruses, a system than can be passed on to successive generations of bacteria (6). Martínez Mojica’s discoveries laid the foundation for the subsequent development of the gene editing technique (see HERE), which earned him a nomination for the 2016 Nobel Prize for Medicine (although he did not win). In 2012, the team led by Doudna and Charpentier made the first “cut” using the CRISPR/Cas9 system in a test tube, and suspected that the same could be done in other types of cells, such as eukaryotic cells, and that it could be used for gene editing. Both investigators were awarded the Princess of Asturias prize for scientific and technical research in 2015 for their work . Later that same year, Feng Zhang and his team managed to make the first cut using CRISPR/Cas9 on the genome of a live mammalian cell (7). Zhang inscribed this finding in the United States patent register. This register is currently in a legal dispute with researchers Doudna and Charpentier. How CRISPR/Cas works Bacteria are prokaryotic cells, which means that their DNA is not protected within a cell nucleus, but is “loose” in the cytoplasm. This leads to the need for a defence system, the CRISPR/Cas system, which has been shown to be very important for bacterial survival, because if the CRISPR sequences are removed, the bacteria die (6). In the natural environment, when a bacterium detects the entry of a viral DNA, it sends an RNA sequence that can “copy” up to 20 nucleotides of the virus DNA. The copy sequence then binds to the Cas9 cutting protein. Once bound in a unique complex, the RNA with the 20 copied nucleotides locates the binding site in the viral DNA, binds, and the Cas9 protein makes a cut in the invader’s DNA. Use of gene editing techniques in medicine, environment, agriculture and livestock applications. We are only beginning to glimpse the enormous possibilities offered by this new biotechnology tool, which as well as a multitude of applications in the medical field, has environmental, agricultural and livestock applications. The ethical aspects of these applications are discussed in our Observatory. The healthcare applications arouse most interest due to their direct impact on people’s lives, and at the same time the most controversy, mainly in relation to germline genetic modification (gametes and embryos). Hundreds of studies on this aspect are being conducted, with multiple and diverse objectives, from the design of new methods to combat difficult-to-treat diseases, such as HIV and several types of cancer, to the possibility of treating genetic diseases. In this sense, what would be the first trial in humans in the United States was recently approved . Researchers in this trial will select 18 subjects with different types of melanoma, myeloma and carcinoma who do not respond to standard treatments. The expectations placed on this trial are huge, as it raises the possibility of combating cancer in a way that is efficient and relatively non-invasive, dispensing with current treatments based on surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy (8). However, Chinese scientists have raced ahead, and have used the technique in a patient with lung cancer, who will be monitored to check the safety and efficacy of the method. Despite considerable reservations among scientists (9) (10), studies have already been conducted on non-viable embryos (11) (12), both in China . Gene editing germline a bioethics assessement Gene editing germline. Great possibilities is offered by this new biotechnology tool but it involves objective ethical problems when affects human germlineWhile it is true that the scientific community almost unanimously agrees that gene editing for non-therapeutic use, e.g. to select eye colour — in other words, for genetic “enhancement” — is objectionable because it is ethically unacceptable, it is also true that the community is currently divided into two large groups: those who reject this technology because of the ethical problems involved in germline therapy, and those who believe that it can have a legitimate use to prevent genetic diseases. This division only refers to the use of gene editing on the germline, as there is a wide consensus in favour of its use in somatic cells. Nevertheless, it seems that the tendency is to accept research on embryos but prevent their implantation in the uterus (see HERE). In fact, studies of this type have already been authorised in England (see HERE). From our point of view, this is morally unacceptable, as the human embryo has equal dignity to a person already born. You can read our reflection on genetic modification of human embryos to treat diseases HERE. A study conducted on 39 countries to try to clarify the current legal situation with respect to germline gene editing (13) revealed the following: - 25 countries prohibit it by law. This group includes Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Costa Rica, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Norway, United Kingdom, Portugal and Spain. This is the largest group, and encompasses most neighbouring countries. - 4 prohibit it using directives, which are less restrictive than a law, and can be subject to modifications more easily than a law. This is the case of China, Japan, India and Ireland. - 9 are ambiguous in their laws. This group includes Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Greece, Iceland, Peru, Russia, Slovakia and South Africa. - It is restrictive. This is the interesting case of the United States. There are 2 state agencies involved. The FDA (Food and Drug Administration) regulate clinical trials, while the NIH (National Institutes of Health) restrict their practical application in humans. Gene editing germline modification in humans The panorama of current international regulation in this respect suggests that human germline genetic modification is not completely banned, as there are areas for research in countries classified as “ambiguous” in their regulation. In the case of China and the United Kingdom, studies have been authorised in this respect, despite their regulations. Likewise, the four countries named previously with bans through directives could lift these bans when the safety of germline gene correction improves. A report from the Nuffield Council on Bioethics on gene editing, published in September 2016 (14), notes that, in addition to reproductive medicine, another vitally important area to address is the application of these techniques in agriculture. There is also the possibility of modifying ecosystems. This is the case of mosquitoes, major vectors that transmit many difficult-to-control diseases. Scientists have speculated about the possibility of genetically altering a series of individuals and releasing the modified insects into the natural environment, so that they interact with their respective populations and thus spread the desired genetic modification. In this respect, it has been proposed that CRISPR be combined with gene drive (see HERE), which would allow almost any gene in any species with sexual reproduction to be altered, and to spread the alterations produced through wild populations. Nevertheless, the consequences of modifying an entire population are unknown and worrisome . Hence, the United States National Academy of Sciences launched guidelines for responsible conduct of gene drive-related research. In order to discuss the scientific, medical, legal and ethical implications of these advances, Doudna convened a meeting with specialists in various scientific fields in January 2015 in Napa (California, US), identifying a series of steps to be followed (9). In the case of use of gene editing in the primary industry, agriculture and livestock, we cannot but be in favour of all those uses that involve a benefit for humanity. A case-by-case analysis would be necessary, discarding those uses in which the benefit sought is lower than the potential risk of the genetic manipulation. For example, manipulation of plant species so that they are resistant to various types of plagues presents a large benefit for mankind, namely by avoiding the use of pesticides and other chemical products to protect crops, as these can be dispersed through the air, reaching populated areas or filtering through to subterranean aquifers. It should be noted that, sometimes, the problem may not be a safety concern, but rather a question of justice. It must be guaranteed that any advance in this field will not lead to a form of exploitation. Moreover, information to the final consumer should be regulated by labelling the origin of the product. We must be more cautious, if possible, with interventions on ecosystems, as any alteration could lead to incalculable, extremely serious problems, even on a world scale, since the natural environment does not respect political boundaries. As regards medical applications, the use of gene editing techniques on somatic cells is likely to occur sooner than other applications, and in fact, the first study of this type has already been authorised. Although hugely promising, studies in this field still have a long way to go. Scientists have great expectations in this respect, and a multitude of studies are being conducted, with enormous investments of resources. In order for this technique to be acceptable, its safety must be improved, and it should be used only in those diseases for which there is currently no effective treatment, or in diseases in which current treatments involve major side effects; moreover, their success rate and possibility of side effects should be the same as those of current treatments. However, if there is one use of this technique that generates more controversy, it is its application in germ cells, above all because of the hereditary nature of the changes made in the DNA of these cells. The history of genetics is relatively recent, and there are still many gaps in our knowledge. As this has to do with the germline and inheritable modifications, we must harbour no doubts about any mechanism involved. If gene editing of somatic cells requires safety and efficacy as good as, or better than, those of traditional medicines or vaccines, then in germline modification these must be 100%. In addition, application of this technique requires in vitro fertilisation, with the ethical difficulties that this entails. Moreover, their use already includes preimplantation genetic diagnosis, which implies that gene editing in this case might not be useful. Although the potential benefits are many, the number of people that might benefit is small, and the risks to assume are incalculable, irreversibly affecting the entire species. Germline gene editing is ethically unacceptable. Limitations of CRISPR-Cas9 and alternatives Despite the great potential of the CRISPR-Cas9 technique, it also has its limitations, for which several alternatives have been proposed (15). The components of the CRISPR-Cas9 system — an enzyme called Cas9 and a strand of RNA that directs this enzyme to the desired sequence — are too large to be introduced into the genome of the virus most commonly used in gene therapy to transport foreign genetic material into human cells. One solution presents in the form of a mini-Cas9, which was obtained from the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus (16). This enzyme is small enough to fit inside the virus. Last December, two groups used the mini-Cas9 in mice to correct the gene responsible for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (17) (18). Cas9 will not always cut where intended – a certain DNA sequence must be nearby for that to happen. This demand is easily met in many genomes, but can be a limitation in some experiments. Researchers are looking at microbes to obtain enzymes with different sequence requirements so that they can expand the number of sequences that can be modified. One of these enzymes, called Cpf1, could become an attractive alternative. Smaller than Cas9, it has different sequence requirements and is highly specific (19) (20). Another enzyme, called C2c2, targets RNA instead of DNA, a characteristic that has great potential for studying RNA and fighting against viruses with RNA genomes (21). Many laboratories use CRISPR-Cas9 only to delete sections in a gene, thereby suppressing its function. Those who want to exchange one sequence for another face a more difficult task. When Cas9 cuts the DNA, the cell often makes mistakes as it joins the loose ends together, thereby obtaining the desired deletions. However, researchers who want to rewrite a DNA sequence depend on a different repair pathway that can insert a new sequence – a process that occurs at a much lower frequency. Recently, though, researchers announced that they had disabled Cas9 and tied it to an enzyme that converts one DNA letter to another. The disabled Cas9 still targeted the sequence dictated by its guide RNA, but did not cut; instead, the attached enzyme exchanged the DNA letters, ultimately producing a T where once there was a C (22). A paper published recently in Science reported similar results (23). In May, a paper in Nature Biotechnology (24) revealed a new gene-editing system. Researchers claimed that they could use a protein called NgAgo to cut the DNA at a predetermined site without needing a guide RNA or a specific neighbouring genome sequence. Instead, the protein — of bacterial origin — is programmed using a short DNA sequence that corresponds to the target area. Laboratories have nonetheless failed to reproduce the results so far, so the efficacy of this technique cannot be confirmed. Even so, there is still hope that proteins from the family to which NgAgo belongs ( Ago or Argonautes) made by other bacteria could work. There are also other gene editing systems, some of which have existed for years. George Church, a geneticist at Harvard Medical School (Boston, US) did not use CRISPR for a large project that aimed to modify genes in bacteria. Instead, the team relied to a large degree on a system called lambda Red, which can be programmed to alter DNA sequences without the need for a guide RNA. Despite 13 years of study in Church’s laboratory, however, lambda Red works only in bacteria. G. Church and Feng Zhang, a bioengineer at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard in Cambridge, Massachusetts, say that their laboratories are also working on developing enzymes called integrases and recombinases for use as gene editors. - Doudna J, Charpentier E, Jinek M, Chylinski K, Fonfara I, Hauer M. A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity. 2012 August 17; 337(6096): p. 816-821. - Ishino Y, Shinagawa H, Makino K, Amemura M, Nakata A. Nucleotide sequence of the iap gene, responsible for alkaline phosphatase isozyme conversion in Escherichia coli, and identification of the gene product. Journal of Bacteriology. 1987 December; 169(12). - Matinez Mojica FJ, Juez G, Rodriguez-Valera F. Transcription at different salinities of Haloferaxmediterranei sequences adjacent to partially modified PstI sites. Molecular microbiology. 1993 August; 9(3). - Martinez Mojica FJ, Diez-Villaseñor C, Soria E, Juez G. Biological significance of a family of regularly spaced repeats in the genomes of Archaea, Bateria and mitochondria. Molecular microbiology. 2000 April; 36(1). - Jansen R, van Embden JDA, Gaastra W, Schouls LM. Identification of genes that are associated with DNA repeats in prokaryotes. Molecular microbiology. 2002 March; 43(6). - Martinez Mojica F, Diez-Villaseñor C, Garcia-Martinez J, Soria E. Intervening Sequences of Regularly Spaced Prokaryotic Repeats Derive from Foreign Genetic Elements. Molecular Evolution. 2005 February; 60(2). - Cong L, Ran FA, Cox D, Lin S, Barretto R, Habib N, et al. Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/Cas systems. 2013 February 15; 339(6121): p. 819-823. - Kaiser J. First proposed human test of CRISPR passes initial safety review. 2016. Available at: http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/06/human-crispr-trial-proposed. - Baltimore, D., et al. A prudent path forward for genomic engineering and germline gene modification. Science. 2015. 348, 36-38. - Lanphier, E., Urnov, F., Haecker, S. E., Werner, M. &Smolenski, J. Don’t edit the human germ line. Nature. 2015. 519, 410-411. - Liang, P. et al. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in human tripronuclear zygotes. Protein Cell. 2015. 6, 363-372. - Kang, X., et al. Introducing precise genetic modifications into human 3PN embryos by CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome editing. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2016 May;33(5):581-8. doi: 10.1007/s10815-016-0710-8. Epub 2016 Apr 6. - Araki M, Ishii T. International regulatory landscape and integration of corrective genome editing into in vitro fertilization. Reproductive biology and endocrinology. 2014 November; 12(108). - Ledford, H. Beyond CRISPR: A guide to the many other ways to edit a genome. Nature. 2016 Aug 8;536(7615):136-7. doi: 10.1038/536136b. - Ran, F. A. et al. In vivo genome editing using Staphylococcus aureus Cas9. Nature. 2015. 520, 186–191. - Nelson, C. E. et al. In vivo genome editing improves muscle function in a mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Science. 2016. 351, 403–407. - Tabebordbar, M. et al. In vivo gene editing in dystrophic mouse muscle and muscle stem cells. Science. 2016. 351, 407–411. - Kim, D. et al. Genome-wide analysis reveals specificities of Cpf1 endonucleases in human cells. Nature Biotechnol. 2016. doi: 10.1038/nbt.3609. Lucía Gómez – Tatay
Jump down to: Exoskeleton, Setae, Coloration • Senses, Pheromones • Head, Brain • Eyes, Hearing • Antennae, Mouth • Thorax, Legs, Wings • Abdomen, Circulation, Respiration, Digestion • Reproduction, Cerci • Anatomy at immature stage Note: This page describes the anatomy of insects, not spiders. Insects belong to Class Insecta. Spiders belong to Class Arachnida—there’s a thorough article about them here. There are a million identified insect species in the world, and you’ve seen lots of them “in person.” Have you ever wondered what makes them tick? Literally: Do they have a heart? And, what about a brain? How do they ingest food? What’s with their “buggy” eyes? Do they poop? You’ll find those answers here, and more. So, here we go: First of all, there’s at least one exception to nearly everything that can be said about insects and their anatomy. But, no matter how much they may vary, they all have these three things in common: The exoskeleton, sometimes called the cuticle, covers the entire outer body of an insect; there’s no interior skeleton. Made of a polysaccharide derived from glucose, and called chitin, it protects a completely soft interior. The chitin can be firm or yielding, depending on its thickness. So, while an insect’s face and legs have thin layers to allow flexibility, other parts of the exoskeleton are thicker and more protective. Setae (sing. seta), cover the entire body of most species. They often look like hair, but are actually chitin, like the rest of the insect’s exoskeleton, and can take several forms, including hairy-looking, bristly, and spiny. Setae may also be widened and flattened into scales, like those on the wings of butterflies and moths. Most setae are attached to tiny organs that sense feel and touch, and their length and density varies—from long and thick, like a bumblebee’s, to bald-looking (to our eyes, anyway), like an ant’s body. The setae on some water insects are formed to trap air bubbles for breathing underwater, and others have fine setae around their mouthparts for trapping water-borne food particles. Digging insects have stout, non-sensory setae aligned in rows on their legs. Some caterpillars have setae modified to trap organic materials on their body to use as camouflage, and there are others that have venomous spines or urticating hairs (irritating to the skin) as a defense mechanism. Insects produce colors in nearly every hue imaginable, sometimes in spectacular fashion, like some of the scarab beetles and butterflies. The colors are produced in several different ways: Some are the result of ordinary pigments, mainly melanin, which don’t change. But others result from light waves that refract (bend) after striking microscopic ridges and layers in an insect’s exoskeleton (like light through a prism). Colors also are produced when they reflect a light wave directly back to its source without bending it. Some insects are iridescent. Iridescence occurs when overlapping scales produce peaks and valleys: Light waves striking them interfere with each other by either combining or canceling each other out, and the colors change as our angle of view or the light source changes. Most insects have five senses, but they don’t detect stimuli in the same way humans do. For instance, they don’t have an actual nose, but they do have sensory organs all over their body that serve the same purpose. Insects can: - See, using compound eyes for visual resolution, and ocelli for light detection. - “Hear” through the movement of receptor-connected setae that respond to sound waves vibrating across them, and with sensory organs on their antennae. A few species have tympanic organs, like eardrums. - Touch when they use their antennae as “feelers,” as well as feel it when their setae are being touched. - Taste with setae located on their antennae, legs, and other body parts. - Smell with receptors on their antennae and mouthparts that can distinguish the differences between thousands of chemical compounds. A means of communication among insects is with organic compounds called pheromones (scents). They’re messages that elicit responses from other members of the same species: there’s food over here; come mate with me; stay away from my eggs; help me fight this predator; flee; and more. The pheromones are released through glands located in several places in the body and are attached to external ducts. They may be released into the air or secreted onto the ground or other surfaces. Sex pheromones are most often used by females to attract males. Social insects, such as ants, lay a pheromone food trail between a discovered food source and the insect’s nest. Alarm pheromones are emitted by insects in response to danger. Some species release unpleasant pheromones into the air when threatened by a predator, or emit scents that incite aggression in others of their kind (an angry hive of honeybees, for example). Some females leave a territorial scent to mark the location of their eggs. Among social insects—all ants and termites, and some bees and wasps—pheromones govern almost every aspect of nest behavior. The head contains the brain, eyes, antennae, and mouthparts. The brain, tiny as it is, can process myriad bits of input, and direct actions to the rest of the body. And, it has a human-like mid-brain structure (although more basic) that demonstrates levels of consciousness! Research suggests that they probably don’t feel grief or jealousy, but they may feel something like hunger and pain, and perhaps a sort of anger. And, there’s more: The lowly fruit fly, a favorite subject of research, which has a brain the size of a poppy seed, with 100,000 neurons (humans have 100 billion) can gather information and make decisions before it acts. That’s considered to be a sign of higher intelligence. Amazing! And, there are even smarter insects: Bees, ants, and termites, all of which live in social communities and share information, are insect geniuses. Honeybee studies show they can recognize and distinguish between human faces, count, learn and problem-solve, and “waggle dance” to communicate to others the direction and distance to a nectar source. All about honeybees Most adult insects have two large compound eyes. They’re comprised of hundreds or even thousands of tiny lenses. Each lens (ommatidium) is connected to an optic nerve and faces a single direction, one that’s just a tad different from all the others. The brain receives and interprets visual input from all of them to form a complete picture. Compound eyes are usually located at the sides of the head, with some so large they touch each other in the middle, or nearly so. There’s a small group of unique flies (Family Diopsidae) inhabiting Southern Africa and Southeast Asia with their compound eyes (and their antennae) located at the ends of two stalks that project from the front of their head! Black and shades of brown are common eye colors, but those of the fruit fly are bright red. The Green-eyed Flower Bee, Anthophora bimaculata, has . . . well, you can guess! Many insects, including robber flies and dragonflies, whose eyes are normally dark, flash with brilliant colors when caught in the light. The structure of compound eyes was thought to result in blurry vision, until researchers at the University of Sheffield, in England, made a surprising discovery: They found tiny photoreceptor cells (which are associated with the retina) just beneath each ommatidium in fruit flies. The cells rapidly move in and out of focus and, combined with normal head movements, produce a much sharper image than previously thought.1 In addition to their compound eyes, all adult insects have two or three tiny “simple eyes,” called ocelli (oh-CELL-ee). They have only one lens each, and can’t focus. Located at the top or front of the head (the position varies), their job is to detect the intensity of light and dark. Immature insects—known variously as nymphs, caterpillars, naiads, larvae—lack compound eyes, but they do have ocelli. That means, for example, that the butterfly caterpillar on your plant can’t discern your form, but it can detect the shadow you cast. Insects don’t have ears, but that doesn’t mean they can’t “hear,” in their own way. Sound waves create vibrations, and insects can detect them through sensory organs attached to stiff hairs scattered here and there on their body. Some species also have these organs on their antennae. A few, including cicadas, grasshoppers, and moths, have a thin tympanic organ (eardrum) on each side of their body: located at the surface, they vibrate, like our own eardrums, in response to sound waves. In every case, the inset’s brain analyses the “sound” to distinguish mating calls, predators, prey, distance away, speed, and other information. The head has two antennae (an-TEN-ee), with three (some flies) up to 140 (cockroaches) muscled segments. The antennae (singular: antenna) serve as primary sense organs for smell, taste, touch, temperature, humidity, and pressure. They’re flexible and highly varied: long, short or stubby, feathery, bristly, thin, straight, or hair-like. Some even resemble a string of beads. There are five basic components—mandibles and maxillae (jaws), labium and labrum (lips), and hypopharynx (tongue-like)—of an insect’s mouth. However, they vary so much in size, form, and function among groups, it’s more accurate to use the term mouthparts. Some mouthparts are designed for chewing, others are modified for sucking, or piercing, or sponging—it all depends on an insect’s method of ingesting food. Some insects also have appendages called palps attached to their labium; they’re finger-like and used to manipulate food. One group of insects is aptly named for its novel use for the mouth: In the summer, if a blowfly’s body gets too hot for comfort, it uses saliva to blow a bubble. Research has shown that as the bubble begins to evaporate in the air, it cools down; when the fly re-ingests it, its body temperature drops, too. The flies sometimes do this repeatedly on very hot days. Examples of how insects consume their food: Dragonflies chew their food, female mosquitoes pierce skin with a sharp proboscis to suck blood, and most flies have a sponge-like organ for sopping up liquids. Butterflies chew their food when they’re larvae, but suck liquid foods as adults. (Some insect species, like most moths, don’t eat at all during their adult stage.) The middle part of the insect’s body, the thorax is comprised of three segments (prothorax, mesothorax, metathorax), which can usually be distinguished. Three pairs of legs and (usually) two pairs of wings are attached to it. Spiracles, which are openings for air intake, are usually present, too (more about them later). In adults, one pair of legs is attached to each segment of the thorax (many larvae are caterpillar or worm-like, and don’t have true legs). The legs are jointed and have a coxa (hipbone), trochanter (muscles from the femur attach to it), femur (thigh bone), tibia (shinbone), and tarsus (below the shinbone). Each leg usually ends in a claw (that sometimes is equipped with an adhesive pad). The legs also have sensory organs that taste foods by interpreting their chemical properties. When walking, insects usually move three legs at a time—the front and back legs on one side and the middle leg on the opposite side—to help maintain balance. Their legs aren’t just for walking, though: they may also be called on for jumping (crickets, grasshoppers, others), catching prey (dragonflies, others), burrowing (solitary bees, ants, others), or swimming (whirligig beetles, others). All about dragonflies Many have modified legs to be used for other purposes, too. Some examples: Honeybees can use their hind legs for storing pollen to be carried back to the hive. Water striders have paddle-shaped legs. Digging insects, like some bumblebees, have strong front legs shaped something like shovels, and crickets and other jumping insects have large, powerful back legs. And, katydids are among those that produce “songs” by rubbing their hind legs together. Wings are made of chitin, the same natural material that makes up the exoskeleton. Almost all adult insects have two pairs of (not always visible) wings attached to the thorax—one to the second segment and the other to the third. Wings are usually thin and are given structural support by the many rigid veins that run through them. A muscular hinge joins them to the thorax and provides the range of motion and strength they need for flight. Adult flies are the only insects that don’t have two pairs of wings—they have a front pair only. The hind wings are modified into halteres (HALL-tiers), little nubs that act as flight stabilizers. The only adult insects that truly lack wings are fleas, lice, silverfish, firebrats, and small groups of various other little-known insects. Beetles and some true bugs, unlike other insects, have hardened forewings called elytra (ELLA-truh), which are designed to protect their delicate hind wings, which do all the flying. (The photo at top of this page shows a lady beetle’s raised elytra.) Other insects, including some dragonflies, grasshoppers, and butterflies, have wings that are transparent, but may also have colors and patterns. All about true bugs The abdomen is usually the largest part of an insect’s body. It’s formed of flexible segments, typically 11 or 12, and contains the rearmost parts of the circulatory, nervous and digestive systems, as well as the excretory and reproductive systems. An insect’s “heart,” (dorsal vessel) is tube-like and long—which is a relative term, because “long” in a fly, for example, is only 0.04 inches (1 mm). The heart doesn’t transport oxygen, as in humans, but it does pulse in response to body movement and pumps nutrient-rich insect blood (hemolymph) to the cells and removes waste products. Insects don’t lack only a heart, but arteries, too. The dorsal vessel pumps blood forward to the front of the body and releases it. From there, it flows freely backward through the thorax and into the abdomen, with no constrictions. Along the way, it bathes all the organs in nutrients, while taking up waste products. It circulates round and round like this in a passive process called rhythmic tracheal compression. Insect blood, by the way, isn’t red—it’s greenish, yellowish, or clear. (Human blood is red because it contains iron, which reacts to oxygen by turning red.) Like us, insects can’t survive without oxygen. But along with the heart and arteries, they also lack lungs. Instead, they get their air through spiracles, which are tiny pores along each side of their body, usually one pair per segment. Different orders of insects have a different number of them, but no adult has more than ten pairs. These spiracles are connected to tracheal tubes that get smaller and smaller and feed oxygen to every cell, while picking up carbon dioxide to be dispelled from the body. Through muscular action, insects can force air in through their spiracles. But, there’s a physical limit to their tracheal system, and that prevents them from getting the amount of oxygen they would need to grow larger than they are. That’s why we don’t have foot-long wasps flying around our yards! Whew! As for water insects, some breathe by way of gills filled with air tubes and get their oxygen from the water, just like fish. Others go to the surface and grab an air bubble, which they carry under their wings or abdomen. Insects poop! Their digestive system, called the alimentary canal, is one long coiled tube that extends from the insect’s mouth to its anus. It has three major regions: the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. As food moves through the system, nutrients are extracted and passed through semi-permeable membranes into the hemolymph, for use by the body’s cells. Meanwhile, at the end of the hindgut, there are “Malpighian tubes” that absorb waste products from the hemolymph, and they’ll be compressed in the rectum and eliminated. Females have a vagina and a pair of ovaries that produce eggs. Males have a complex organ called an aedeagus (e-d-A-gus) that functions like a penis. Most insects copulate as you might imagine: the male inserts his organ into the female’s genitalia. Researchers have discovered that male fruit flies feel pleasure when they ejaculate, but it isn’t known whether other insects do.2 Fertilized eggs exit the female’s body through a tube-like organ called an ovipositor. In the case of bees and wasps, this organ is modified—it’s connected to a venom gland and can be used as a stinger. Honeybees, wasps, some ants, and others are well known for theirs! Many insects have two appendages at the tip of their abdomen called cerci. They may be long (even conspicuous) or short, and are usually segmented and jointed. Most of the time, they serve one of three purposes: as sensory organs, as graspers used during copulation, or as weapons used for pinching. They’re a mystery in some species—scientists haven’t yet figured out their use and believe they may simply be vestigial structures that have lost their original purpose. Anatomy of immature insects The life cycle of an insect involves either complete metamorphosis (holometabolism), incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolism), or no metamorphosis (ametabolism). Complete metamorphosis means the insect progresses from egg to larva to pupa to adult. The immature and adult stages are anatomically different from each other. Some examples are the maggots, grubs, and caterpillars of flies, beetles, and butterflies—their organs are rudimentary and mature during the pupal stage into adult form. The larvae of insects that undergo incomplete metamorphosis, on the other hand, are similar in form to the adults they’ll become; they just differ in size, body proportion, and color. They have compound eyes, developed legs, and wing stubs that can be seen. By the time they shed their exoskeleton for the final time (molt), their wings and sex organs are fully developed. Examples of these insects are cicadas, grasshoppers, crickets, and praying mantises. The third type of development, ametabolism, affects only one species, Silverfish, Lepisma saccharina. They just hatch and grow up, with little to no change in form. \|1 Sheffield.ac.uk, Sept., 5, 2017: Insects can see the world in much finer resolution than previously thought\| \|2 Conducted by Galit Shohat-Ophir and others, of Bar-Ilan University in Ramat Gan, Israel, and reported by Andy Coghaln, New Scientist.com, April 19, 2018: Male fruit flies feel pleasure when they ejaculate\| \|*Top image: Seven-spotted Lady Beetle facing the camera with wings raised. (© Cornel Constantin / Shutterstock)\|
Students need daily opportunities to be physically active for their optimal health. The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, recommend that children and adolescents aged 6-17 years should have 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. Regular physical activity in childhood and adolescence improves strength and endurance, helps build healthy bones and muscles, helps control weight, reduces anxiety and stress, increases self-esteem, and may improve blood pressure and cholesterol levels. In addition, physical activity is important for effective learning. Numerous research studies have found increased academic performance and school-based physical activity, including physical education. Many academic indicators are also enhanced, such as mood, attendance, and on-task behavior. What can schools do? Schools can play a significant role in providing opportunities for students to be physically active through implementing active schools strategies. The Active Schools Minnesota Initiative intentionally expands opportunities for physical activity during the school day through quality physical education, active classrooms and active recess, as well as opportunities to be physically active before and after school. Active School Strategies in the Active Schools Minnesota Initiative Physical education is foundational in an active schools initiative. Physical education is a curriculum taught by a qualified physical education teacher. Instruction is designed to promote physical fitness, to develop motor skills, and to instill knowledge and understanding of rules, concepts, and strategies for a lifetime approach to being physical active. Physical education standards help to maintain quality and provide a sequential approach to learning. Active classrooms is the intentional act of embedding movement throughout the school day, within any classroom setting. Acknowledging that learning is enhanced when the brain is turned on, physical activity can be a component of any discipline or subject matter and is an important part of differentiated instruction. Oftentimes, these short bursts of physical activity are called “energizers” allowing individuals the ability to regroup and enhance their learning experience. Active recess provides opportunities for all elementary students to be engaged in free play physical activity during the structured school day. Active recess takes into account many best practices including: a wide array of self-selecting activities to choose from, the opportunity for all students to participate, and time and space for students to come back to the classroom ‘ready to learn.’ In addition, many secondary schools have found benefits in drop-in opportunities for physical activity that allow students the chance to increase movement throughout the school day. Before and after school physical activity programs provide opportunities for activity for students outside of the regular school day. These activities can help provide students with opportunities to engage in physical activity and to further develop the knowledge, attitudes, motor skills, behavioral skills and confidence needed to adopt and maintain physically active lifestyles. Safe Routes to School provide students and families a more active alternative in transportation to and from schools. A comprehensive safe routes to school approach includes the five Es: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation.
Santana Hamond’s mother waits anxiously for the test results for her son. The test will show how her child hears certain sounds, a critical indicator of whether he will have difficulty learning to read. Her boy didn’t sit for testing or answer questions from a researcher. Her baby is less than a day old. In Louisville, Kentucky, doctors Dennis and Victoria Molfese are studying the ability of infants to distinguish sound. “The discrimination of speech sounds is really independent of the child’s ability to hear,” says Dr. Dennis Molfese in the film. “The problem is their ability to not just hear, but then to discriminate between the different sounds.” The researchers attach brain sensors to the baby’s head to measure neuron activity. The neuron activity is represented by lines on a graph known as brainwaves. If the brainwaves are identical when different sounds are played, the scientists know that the baby can’t differentiate between them. “We can predict, with about 80 percent accuracy from birth, if a child is going to be a good or a very poor reader by as late as eight years of age,” says Dr. Dennis Molfese. The Molfeses are working on specific interventions to help children hone their sound discrimination skills. Until those strategies are finalized, they recommend a surprisingly simple tactic — teaching nursery rhymes. “All of that word play is important for developing and honing the skills in speech discrimination,” says Dr. Victoria Molfese in “Reading and the Brain.” “Reading and the Brain” is a new 30-minute television show that will air on PBS stations across the country beginning in fall 2006 (check local listings or visit www.ReadingRockets.org to watch the show online).
sums will set you free how to teach your child numbers arithmetic mathematics equality and equations Before proceeding with this page, make sure that you are familiar with ‘equality’ or ‘same as’, the first page on equality. When dealing with equations, the essential and vital factor is to keep both sides balanced. Two blocks equals two blocks: Whatever is done to one side, must be done to the other side - add, subtract, multiply, divide, double, square, or turn inside out - must be done to the other side. adding - addition - in balance taking away- subtraction - in balance multiplying - multiplication - in balance dividing - division - in balance At times, making sure that the two sides are in balance can be complicated, but you always have a remedy - check what you are doing with small numbers and see whether the two sides are, in fact, still in balance after your actions. Numbers can be referred to as constants. When we don’t know what a number is, a variable can be used. That is, we know there is a number, but we don’t yet know what it is. All manner of symbols can be used for variables, usually starting with the lower case alphabet, but eventually you may come across Greek letters, German gothic letters, made-up symbols, or even words. So x, y, teacup, or pink balloon could all be used as variables. While it is common to talk of constants and variables, it is important to realise that constants are also a form of variable. ‘One’ can mean one elephant, one galaxy, or the one drawing pin you just sat on. Always remember, there is nothing ‘special’ about numbers. They are just more words used by humans as they seek to commmunicate about, and to become masters of, the known universe. Before immersing yourself in this section, you might want to study, or re-study, any or all of the following pages: Equations often will include several variables and operations. (Operations are actions done to numbers and include adding, subtracting, dividing, squaring - multiplying a number by itself.) Supposing you have the following equation, (2 + 5² - 1/4) ÷ 3 = x, and you want to find the value of x. Yes, you can work it out using lots of blocks but that takes quite a while and isn't very convenient a lot of the time. So what to do, where to start with teasing out a value for x. This is where BODMAS comes in, an acronym for No, algebra is not particularly complicated. Instead of using numbers, you merely use letters or combinations of letters and numbers, or should that be numbers and letters. Note that, in algebra, 2 x a is written as 2a. Another example is 3 x a is written as 3a. 7b is the same as 7 x b. Thus two blocks equals two blocks, and a = a, and 2b = 2b. Or you may have two equations, one telling you that b = 3c, and the other that c = 4. Believe it or not, by this time you are already doing simultaneous equations (two equations and one ‘unknown’). Here are some simple algebraic sums: They call this sort of thing simplifying equations. The prime objective is usually to isolate one element of the equation and express [describe it] it in terms of the rest of the equation. As has already been discussed, the important thing is to keep the equation in balance. The next section takes two nicely complicated equations and shows you how to isolate one element. This is called transformation - you tranform an equation from say, a +b = c, into a = c - b. You might think that I would build up through lots of simple equations, but this way, you will see just about every trick in the book applied to isolating an element, while maintaining the balance of the equation. If you can tackle these two, you can approach almost anything with confidence and fun. This is the way I go about such things, but some people may prefer to go slowly through myriads of graded examples, climbing step by step up the stairs. Here, we go up the lift and balance out of the high wire! Remember, it’s all about balance. What you must do is to keep rigorously to the rule that, “what you do to one side, you must do to the other side” - and not to part of one side, but to the whole of the side. An equation can be thought as, for instance, a shorthand question about a particular (scientific) situation. For instance, if a string is 10 cm long, how quickly will a pendulum swing? But sometimes the equation, or shorthand question, has the wrong object as the subject of the sentence. Maybe you know how fast the pendulum is swinging, and you want to know the length of the string. Here the question has been rearranged. But to calculate the value of one variable (string length, pendulum swing time), the mathematical sentence, or equation, will have to be rearranged. Finding the answer you want is called ‘transforming the equation’. Take the Pendulum Equation. This equation describes mathematically how long a weight on the end of a string (the pendulum) takes to swing back and forth once (its period of oscillation). how a pendulum swings But the pendulum cannot go straight down because it is constrained by the pendulum string. When the pendulum reaches its lowest point, where the pendulum line is vertical again, it cannot stop immediately. There is enough energy for the pendulum to keep moving. And it does so until the pull of gravity is equal to the energy in the moving pendulum. At this point, the pendulum falls back earthward. This we see as the pendulum swinging back and forth. If there is no friction where it is attached to its suspension point and there is no wind resistance to the pendulum’s, this would continue forever. Here is the simple form of the Pendulum Equation: Each letter stands for one of the variables in how a pendulum moves. In the simple pendulum equation, the bob (the lump at the end of the string that swings) is assumed to have no mass. T = period in seconds. The period is the time taken during for one full swing, or oscillation, of the bob back and forth. The bob moves away from its starting point and returns to it. L = length of the pendulum arm [or string] in metres. π = the constant pi, whose value is 3.14159... and so on. Pi is used in geometry calculations involving circles and arcs. g = acceleration due to gravity. An average value for g on Earth is 9.81 m/s². And now let’s delve into the nitty-gritty of the equation. We rearrange the equation. This takes are a number of And here follows the more orthodox method of rearranging this equation. abelard is of the opinion that it is not so easy to understand: The resitor equation is another tricky mathematical animal to tame. But why is there a resistor equation, and why on Earth someone might want to use it? Here is some fairly easy explication, but you can skip it if your head starts to go fizz. A resistor is an electrical element found in almost every electronic circuit. Resistors, as the name suggests, impede current flow and they are used to control the way current courses through the circuit. Their resistance is measured in ohms (symbol Ω). Because most resistors are too small to display figures or letters, their ratings are displayed by colour-coded bands. The behaviour of an ideal resistor is defined by Ohm’s law, “current, I, is directly proportional to voltage, V, for a metal conductor, R, at a constant temperature”, or mathematically: I=V/R [we have rearranged Ohm’s law, V=IR, to match the definition just given]. Ohm’s law will be referred to later on when we explain the resistor equations (yes, there is more than one version). Resistors can be combined by connecting together in in series or in parallel, or in a combination of these ways. This can be helpful if you do not have a resistor of the exact value needed as the values combine.. Often, when building electronic (or electrical) devices, it is necessary to calculate the voltage, or the current being used, or the resistance in the circuit, so that the electronic elements both work, and do not burn up and fail. The resistor equation is used to find out the combined resistance of several resistors in a circuit. This is when resistors are linked one after the other, in a series. Their total equivalent resistance is found by the equation, Req = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn . Finding the value of one of the resistors in the circuit is just a matter isolating that resistor by subtraction. Thus, to find R1 in the equation Req = R1 + R2 + R3, subtract R2 + R3 from each side : connecting in parallel Resistors which connected together so they are in paralleleach have the same potential difference, or voltage. To find their total equivalent resistance, this equation is used: Now supposing the circuit has two resistors in parallel, the equation will be . Find R2, what is R2? Now this is quite tricky to do, we use several mathematical tools which have already been described on other related pages at abelard.org. The mathematical tools are highlighted here in yellow, if you click on them you will be taken to the relevant section of that page. \|sums will set you free includes the series of documents about economics and money at abelard.org.\| \|moneybookers information\|\|e-gold information\|\|fiat money and inflation\| \|calculating moving averages\|\|the arithmetic of fractional banking\| \|You are here: how to teach your child number arithmetic mathematics - equality and equations < sums will set you free < Home \|about abelard\|\|memory, paranoia & paradigms\|\|francis galton\|\|france zone\|\|memory & intelligence\|\|loud music & hearing damage\|\|children & tv violence\| \|information\|\|abstracts\|\|briefings\|\|news headlines\|\|news archives\|\|latest\| email abelard at abelard.org © abelard, 2009, 11 october the web address for this page is http://www.abelard.org/sums/teaching_number_arithmetic_mathematics_equality_and_equations.php
Punctuation is the practice or system of using certain conventional marks or characters to make clear the meaning of written or printed language. Punctuation marks are used to add emphasis, minimize ambiguity, and aid reader comprehension. They achieve this by separating groups of words, as well as conveying pauses and a feeling for changes in volume and pitch of the written or printed material. The choice of punctuation to use may be clear-cut. In other instances, the writing may accommodate several different patterns of punctuation. Therefore, different writers may punctuate a writing differently because of their differing tastes and judgments. Skilful phrasing necessitates less punctuation. Consequently, no overall punctuation pattern can be stipulated, except in broad terms. However, any punctuation style that is adopted, should be based on sentence structure and be consistent. The overriding principle governing punctuation is that punctuation must clarify the text. It should help the reader to understand the writer's thoughts. If it does not, the punctuation should be omitted. Details on the uses of specific punctuation marks are provided at:
Dr. Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming Pigweed is the common name for several closely related summer annuals that have become major weeds of vegetable and row crops throughout the United States and much of the world. Most pigweeds are tall, erect-to-bushy plants with simple, oval- to diamond-shaped, alternate leaves, and dense inflorescences (flower clusters) comprised of many small, greenish flowers. They emerge, grow, flower, set seed, and die within the frost-free growing season. Pigweeds thrive in hot weather, tolerate drought, respond to high levels of available nutrients, and are adapted to avoid shading through rapid stem elongation. They compete aggressively against warm season crops, and reproduce by prolific seed production. In organic production systems, pigweeds can be managed through a combination of: Virtually every farmer in North America knows and grapples with pigweed, a term that covers several species in the genus Amaranthus, including: These heat-loving summer annuals emerge after the spring frost date, grow rapidly, compete vigorously against warm-season crops, reproduce by seed, and die with the fall frost. Pigweeds are major weeds of warm season vegetables (Webster, 2006) and row crops (Sellers et al., 2003). Also called amaranths, pigweeds are native to parts of North and Central America. Crop cultivation and human commerce have opened new niches, allowing pigweeds to invade agricultural ecosystems throughout the Americas, and parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Most amaranths make nutritious green vegetables or grain crops, and deliberate planting for food has helped some weedy species spread around the world. However, none of the pigweeds discussed here is grown commercially for grain, and modern grain amaranth varieties are not considered major agricultural weeds. Pigweed problems have increased in no-till production systems with conventional herbicides, which leave weed seeds at the surface and select for herbicide-resistant populations (Sellers et al., 2003). However, high pigweed populations can occur on organic and non-organic farms, and in conventional, conservation, and no-till systems. Pigweeds are easy to recognize, yet correct identification of pigweed species can be tricky. Two or more pigweed species often occur together in the same field (Fig. 1), significant variation can occur within a species, and interspecific hybrids occasionally occur (Sellers et al., 2003). Some researchers consider tall waterhemp and common waterhemp a single species: A. tuberculatus (Pratt and Clark, 2001). Kansas State University Extension has published an excellent pigweed identification guide with photo illustrations and a key to distinguish mature plants of nine different weedy amaranths (Horak et al., 1994). Figure 1. Two pigweed species, tentatively identified as Palmer amaranth (left) and smooth pigweed (right), grow at the edge of a plastic mulched bed in organic vegetable production in Clemson, South Carolina. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Newly emerging pigweed seedlings open a pair of long, narrow cotyledons, about 0.5 inch long by 0.1 inch wide, followed by the first true leaves, which are broader in outline (Fig. 2). Plants form moderately deep, branching taproots, and may show a distinct reddish coloration on roots, lower stems, and undersides of leaves. Figure 2. In this flush of summer annual weed seedlings, pigweed (Amaranthus sp.) can be distinguished by its pair of long, narrow cotyledons (seed leaves), and, on older seedlings, true leaves that are much more broadly oval in outline. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Most pigweeds grow into large, erect-to-bushy plants, 2–7 feet in height, with simple, petiolate (stalked) leaves arranged alternately (singly) on stems (Fig. 3a). Leaf blades are generally oval-to-diamond shaped, and 2–6 inches long. Prostrate pigweed forms a low, spreading mat, with smaller (about one inch) leaves that are distinctly notched at the tip (Fig. 3b). Figure 3. a. These smooth pigweeds in early heading are about four feet tall. b. Prostrate pigweed forms a low, spreading mat. Photo credits: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Individual pigweed flowers are small, inconspicuous, and usually greenish in color. Male and female flowers are borne on the same plant (most species) or separate plants (waterhemp, Palmer amaranth). Each plant bears thousands of flowers in small clusters in leaf axils, or larger, often branched, densely-packed spikes at the tips of main stems and major branches (Fig. 4). Female flowers form single, small, round, usually shiny, dark reddish-brown-to-black seeds, roughly 0.04 inch in diameter (Fig. 5). About 50,000–90,000 seeds weigh one ounce. Figure 4. Spiny amaranth (left) and smooth pigweed (right) in bloom. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Figure 5. (a) Seeds of tumble pigweed. (b) Seeds of redroot pigweed, magnified, showing dark, shiny seed coat of mature seeds. Figure credits: (a) Steve Dewey, Utah State University, Bugwood.org. (b) Ken Chamberlain, Ohio State University, Bugwood.org. See Table 1 below for a quick guide to eight common North American pigweed species, with links to additional information about each. \|Common and Scientific Name\|\|Growth Habit\|\|Inflorescence\|\|Geographic Range\|\|Other Plant Characteristics\| \|Redroot Pigweed Amaranthus retroflexus\|\|Erect, branched, 2–7 ft\|\|Stiff, branched terminal spikes, individual branches usually <2 in long, thicker than pencil\|\|Throughout North America including Alaska\|\|Upper stem and leaves usually covered with fine hairs; leaf blades large (6 in) on vigorous plants\| \|Smooth Pigweed Amaranthus hybridus\|\|Erect, branched, 2–7 ft\|\|Soft, highly branched terminal spikes, individual branches thinner than pencil\|\|Throughout North America\|\|Similar to redroot but highly variable, many local variants, may hybridize with closely related species\| \|Palmer Amaranth Amaranthus palmeri\|\|Erect, branched, 2–10 ft\|\|Long (to 18 in), simple or sparingly branched terminal spikes; male soft, female bristly\|\|Southern half of U.S., Great Plains, Mexico\|\|Extremely rapid, aggressive growth in hot climates, male and female flowers on separate plants; plants smooth and hairless\| \|Powell Amaranth Amaranthus powellii\|\|Erect, branched, 2–6 ft\|\|Stiff, branched terminal spikes, branches 4–8 in long, thicker than pencil, held close to main axis\|\|Throughout North \|First true leaves narrower and more tapered toward tip than redroot or smooth; plant may be smooth or hairy\| \|Spiny Amaranth Amaranthus spinosus\|\|Erect to bushy 1–4 ft\|\|Slender, branched terminal spikes mostly male flowers; axillary clusters mostly female\|\|Throughout North America, but mostly Southeastern U.S.\|\|Pair of stiff, sharp ½-in spines at base of each leaf; stems smooth, hairless, often red\| \|Waterhemp Amaranthus rudis or A. tuberculatus*\|\|Erect, tall 3–10 ft\|\|Slender, simple or branched terminal spikes\|\|Throughout U.S. and southern Canada except driest areas\|\|Male and female flowers on separate plants; stems and leaves smooth and hairless; leaves often longer and narrower than other species\| \|Prostrate Pigweed Amaranthus blitoides\|\|Prostrate mat to 3 ft across\|\|Small, dense clusters in leaf axils\|\|Throughout U.S. and southern Canada\|\|Leaves small (blade about 1 in) with distinct notch at tip; seeds dull black, larger than in other pigweeds (0.06 in)\| \|Tumble Pigweed Amaranthus albus\|\|Globular bush, 1–3 ft diameter\|\|Small, dense clusters in leaf axils\|\|Throughout North America\|\|Mature plants break off at ground level, and are carried by wind, dispersing seeds; stems white to pale green, leaves light green\| \| Small clusters of flowers are usually present in leaf axils of all amaranths Within North America (Canada, U.S., Mexico); many species have become naturalized on other continents. * Some authors recognize two species, common waterhemp (A. rudis) and tall waterhemp (A. tuberculatus); others consider them subspecies, or synonymous. Pigweeds are frost-tender summer annuals that emerge, grow, flower, and form mature seed within the frost-free period. Seedlings emerge over an extended period, with major flushes in late spring or early summer (Fig. 6). In most species, flowering and seed development take place mainly after the summer solstice, in response to shortening daylengths. Figure 6. A flush of smooth pigweed seedlings on a vegetable farm in the Tidewater region of Virginia, photographed on June 20, 2010, about two weeks after emergence. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Pigweeds reproduce entirely by seed. A single large plant can mature 100,000–600,000 seeds, and populations of 0.1–1 plants per square foot can shed 10,000–45,000 seeds per square foot, or 0.4–2 billion per acre (Massinga et al., 2001; Sellers et al., 2003). This prolific seed production makes pigweeds especially difficult to manage, since successful maturation of just one plant per 10,000 emerging seedlings can allow pigweed populations to increase severalfold from one year to the next. Pigweeds typically begin to flower and shed pollen (anthesis) about six weeks after emergence (WAE), although flowers can occur as early as 3 WAE or as late as 9 WAE (Huang et al., 2000; Keeley, et al., 1987; Shrestha and Swanton, 2007). Flowers open about 1–2 weeks after flower buds first become visible to the unaided eye. Reported time intervals from pollination to formation of viable seeds range from 7–12 days in waterhemp (Bell and Tranel , 2010) to 6 weeks in field populations of redroot pigweed in Ontario (Shrestha and Swanton, 2007). In California, Palmer amaranth formed viable seeds 2–6 weeks after flowering (Keeley et al., 1987). Seeds become viable at about the same time that they develop their mature dark brown or black color. Reproductive development is accelerated by shortening daylength after the summer solstice in field populations (Keeley et al., 1987), and proceeds faster in short (~12 hour) than in longer (≥14 hour) photoperiods in a growth chamber (Huang et al., 2000). Although most seed production occurs in late summer and early fall, some mature seeds have been found in smooth pigweed seed heads at the summer solstice in Virginia (personal observation). The ability of pigweed plants uprooted or severed at flowering to complete seed maturation has not been researched. However, in upstate New York, 2–4-inch fragments of Powell amaranth inflorescences lying on the soil surface were found to contain black seeds 3 weeks after the weeds were disked down at flowering (Charles Mohler, Cornell University, pers. commun.). Apparently, if pollination takes place before pigweeds are pulled or chopped, some potential exists for viable seed production. Pigweed seeds are dispersed to new locations by irrigation or flood water, manure, and soil clinging to footwear, tractor tires, or tillage tools. In addition, tumble pigweed actively disperses seeds when mature plants break off and move with the wind. Pigweed seeds have multiple dormancy mechanisms, so that seeds produced in a given season germinate at different times over the next several years, thereby enhancing the weed's long-term persistence (Egley, 1986). Newly shed pigweed seeds are mostly dormant, and become less so by the following spring. Germination is promoted by high temperatures (95 °F), diurnally fluctuating temperatures (e.g., 85–95 °F day, ~ 70 °F night), and sometimes light (Guo and Al-Khatib, 2003; Schonbeck and Egley, 1980 and 1981 Steckel et al., 2004). Pigweed emerges most readily from the top 0.5–1.0 inch of the soil profile, with few emerging from seeds located deeper than one inch (Mohler and Di Tommaso, unpublished). The seeds require adequate moisture and good seed–soil contact to absorb moisture and germinate. More deeply buried seeds remain dormant and viable for several years, and germinate when brought to the surface by tillage or cultivation. Although flushes of emergence commonly follow seedbed preparation or cultivation, increasing pigweed problems in agronomic crops have been attributed to widespread adoption of no-till and minimum-tillage, which leave recently-shed weed seeds at or near the soil surface (Sellers et al., 2003). Pigweeds have the C4 photosynthetic pathway, which confers an ability to grow rapidly at high temperatures and high light levels, to tolerate drought, and to compete aggressively with warm-season vegetables for light, moisture, and nutrients. Growth is related to cumulative Growing Degree Days, with a base temperature of 50 °F (Shrestha and Swanton, 2007; Horak and Loughin, 2000); thus, pigweeds grow much faster in hot climates than in northern regions with cooler summers. Erect pigweed species can rapidly overtop short crops like broccoli or snap bean. In taller crops like corn, pigweeds respond to canopy shade by increasing stem growth and deploying leaves higher on the plant, thereby intercepting a larger fraction of available light (Massinga et al., 2003; McLachlan et al, 1993). One to three pigweed plants per 10 feet of row emerging with corn or soybean can cause significant yield losses (Klingman and Oliver, 1994; Knezevic et al., 1994; Massinga et al., 2001) Pigweeds that emerge several weeks after the crop has emerged exert much less effect on yields. Pigweeds are highly responsive to nutrients, especially the nitrate form of nitrogen (N) (Blackshaw and Brandt, 2008; Teyker et al., 1991). Fertilization enhances both weed biomass and seed production. In addition, nitrate can stimulate pigweed seed germination (Egley, 1986). A mulch of legume cover crop residues has been observed to enhance pigweed emergence in some years (Fig. 7), likely as a result of rapid mineralization of legume N (Teasdale and Mohler, 2000). Figure 7. In this field trial, a flush of pigweed competes against broccoli planted no-till into killed hairy vetch (foreground), while broccoli planted in killed rye or rye–vetch are relatively free of pigweed (background). Rapid N mineralization from the all-legume cover crop residues apparently stimulated pigweed germination and growth. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Because the small seeds have minimal nutrient reserves, pigweed seedlings are initially more dependent on readily available nutrients from the soil, especially phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), than larger-seeded plants such as corn, beans, and cucurbits (Hoveland et al., 1976; Mohler, 1996). However, in studies conducted on organic (muck) soils in Florida, smooth pigweed and spiny amaranth were less responsive than lettuce to P levels, and a band application of P fertilizer improved the crop's ability to compete against these weeds (Santos et al., 1997; Shrefler et al., 1994). Pigweeds are shade intolerant, and the growth and reproduction of individuals that emerge under a heavy crop canopy are substantially reduced. However, rapid stem elongation allows pigweeds to escape shading in many cropping situations. Late-season pigweeds that break through established cucurbit, tomato, pepper, and other vegetables can promote crop disease by reducing air circulation, interfere with harvest, and set many thousands of seeds (Fig. 8). Figure 8. The pigweed emerged several weeks after squash planting and did not affect yield. By the end of crop harvest, however, each weed matured thousands of seeds, and will make a heavy deposit into the weed seed bank unless they are removed promptly. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Pigweeds are reported to host pest nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and many vegetable crop pathogens, including fungi that cause early blight in potato and tomato (Alternaria solani), lettuce drop (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) and southern blight (Sclerotium rolfsii) in a wide range of crops. Viral pathogens such as cucumber mosaic virus and tomato spotted wilt virus can also be transmitted from pigweeds (Mohler and DiTommaso, unpublished). Pigweeds have become the focus of biocontrol efforts with fungal pathogens and plant-feeding insects, although no biocontrol products have yet become available to farmers. The amaranth flea beetle (Disonycha glabrata) occurs throughout much of the United States (Tisler, 1990), feeds on pigweed foliage (Fig. 9), and may become a significant natural enemy of pigweed in some areas, including Floyd County, Virginia (personal observation). However, it usually does not control the weeds, and occasionally feeds on some vegetable seedlings. Figure 9. The amaranth flea beetle feeds on pigweed foliage, and has been observed to cause substantial defoliation and reduce weed vigor in some parts of Virginia. This insect can occasionally become a pest in beet and chard by feeding on seedlings. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Organic farmers manage pigweeds by taking advantage of their points of vulnerability. The small seeds have minimal nutrient reserves; thus seedlings can emerge only from seeds located within an inch of the soil surface, and are immediately dependent on the soil for readily available nutrients. Transplanted and large-seeded crops have substantial nutrient reserves, and can gain a competitive edge over pigweed seedlings if slow-release nutrient sources are used. The delicate seedlings are readily killed by severing, uprooting, burial, or heat. Timely flame weeding or cultivation with any of a variety of implements can knock out a flush of pigweed seedlings. Emerging pigweed is also susceptible to shading and physical hindrance by mulch. A field study at Beltsville, Maryland documents the greater sensitivity of pigweed to suppression with organic mulches relative to several other common weeds: redroot pigweed > lamb's quarter > giant foxtail > velvetleaf (Teasdale and Mohler, 2000). Timely action is vital, as pigweeds rapidly become harder to kill once they grow taller than one inch and develop four or more true leaves (Fig. 10). In cool climates, pigweed seedlings may remain vulnerable to cultivation for up to 4 WAE (Weaver and McWilliams, 1980); however in warmer climates, they can grow to 2–4 inches within 2 WAE (Sellers et al., 2003). Figure 10. The pigweed seedling on the right is at the vulnerable stage, at which it can be readily killed by shallow cultivation or flaming, or blocked by mulch. When pigweed grows as large as the seedling on the left, it becomes more difficult to kill, requiring more vigorous cultivation. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Pigweed populations readily adapt to production systems and control tactics. For example, seed germination responses show adaptive changes to different crop rotations (Brainard et al., 2007), and widespread herbicide resistance has been reported in several species (Fugate, 2009; Volenberg et al., 2007). Thus, reliance on a single management tool or the same strategy year after year will likely yield diminishing returns over time. When used in combination, the practices described below can provide effective management of pigweed in organic systems. Monitor crops regularly for weed emergence. Cultivate when pigweeds are in the cotyledon stage, or before they reach one inch in height, working as close to the crop row as practical. When the crop is sufficiently established, set cultivators to move an inch or so of soil into rows to bury small weeds. The surface layer of loose, dry soil left by cultivation (dust mulch) deters additional pigweed germination. Avoid recompacting the soil, as compaction can promote another flush of emergence (Fig. 11). Figure 11 Cultivation left a dust mulch around these young squash plants, thereby discouraging germination of pigweed and other small-seeded weeds. However, foot traffic recompacted the soil enough to re-establish seed–soil contact near the surface, thereby allowing weed seeds to imbibe moisture, germinate, and grow in the footprints. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. Flame weeding can remove pigweed and other broadleaf seedlings just before crop emergence. It is often used for slow-starting crops like carrot, beet, and parsnip. Because flaming usually does not kill grass weed seedlings, it is not recommended where grasses make up a significant portion of the weed flora. Once the crop is too large to cultivate by tractor, farmers often mow, cut, or pull weeds in alleys to maintain air circulation around the crop, facilitate harvest, and prevent weed propagation. This should be done before pigweed flowers open (within a few days after flower heads first become visible) to prevent viable seed formation. Some farmers mow alleys between wide rows or plastic mulched beds with a push mower or line trimmer as a soil-saving alternative to cultivation. Two timely mowings prior to canopy closure have given adequate between-row control of giant foxtail, pigweeds, and ragweed in soybean planted in a 30-inch row spacing (Donald, 2000). Most pigweeds are highly palatable to livestock. However, mature seeds pass through the animals' digestive tracts unharmed, and manure is a notorious source of pigweed seeds. Thus, pigweed should be grazed while still vegetative. Note also that the National Organic Program requires a 120-day interval between manure deposits by grazing animals and the next food-crop harvest. Mulching can be an effective control tactic for pigweeds in vegetable production. An organic mulch, such as 3–4 inches of straw or hay (~5–10 tons/ac), applied within a day after cultivating an established crop, can reduce subsequent pigweed emergence by 90%. Alternatively, a synthetic mulch such as black plastic can be laid before crop planting, and alley weeds controlled by cultivation, mowing, organic mulch, or cover crop. Note: If plastic or other synthetic mulch is used to organic crops, it must be removed from the field at the end of the harvest or growing season. Organic no-till transplanting of tomato and other summer vegetables into roll–crimped or mowed winter cover crops can control light-to-moderate pigweed populations. Rye residues release natural plant growth inhibitors (allelochemicals) that suppress pigweed and some other annual weeds (Barnes and Putnam, 1983; Putnam et al., 1983) without affecting transplanted vegetables. Use slow-release sources of N and other crop nutrients, and avoid broadcast application of faster-release materials like blood meal and bone meal, which can give pigweed the jump on the crop. For heavy feeders like broccoli or spinach that need some quick N, band or side dress materials within or near the crop row at the onset of rapid crop growth. Use in-row drip irrigation to provide water and liquid organic fertilizer directly to the crop without feeding and watering between-row weeds. Subsurface drip lines can provide moisture to the crop and leave the soil surface dry, thereby minimizing within-row weed emergence. Plan crop rotation and schedule field operations to disrupt pigweed life cycles. Avoid providing an open niche (bare soil) year after year for pigweed emergence in late spring to early summer. Alternate warm- and cool-season vegetables. Consider delaying seedbed preparation for a summer vegetable until after the time of peak pigweed emergence. After several years of intensive vegetable production, rotate the field to perennial sod (e.g., orchardgrass–red clover) for two or three years to disrupt pigweed life cycles and encourage weed seed predation. If pigweed populations are high (Fig. 12), prepare a stale seedbed in late spring to draw down the weed seed bank. Till or cultivate, then roll or cultipack the soil to improve seed–soil contact, thereby promoting weed germination. Sprinkle irrigate if the soil is dry. Repeat cultivation as needed. Just before crop planting or crop emergence, use shallow cultivation and leave the surface loose to discourage additional weed germination. The final flush can also be killed by flame if grass weeds are few or absent. Figure 12. A carpet of spiny amaranth seedlings arises from a large weed seed bank. A stale seedbed or cultivated fallow is needed to bring this situation under control. Photo credit: Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming. With good early-season weed control, vigorous crops like tomato, sweet potato, and winter squash can tolerate later-emerging pigweed. However, crop competition may not control pigweeds, because of their shade-avoidance response and ability to break through the crop canopy through rapid stem elongation. Competitive summer cover crops such as buckwheat, sorghum–sudangrass, cowpea, and forage soybean are often used to suppress weeds between spring and fall vegetable crops. In Florida, cowpea, sunnhemp, or velvetbean cover crops seeded at high rates reduced but did not eliminate smooth pigweed growth (Collins et al., 2008). When using summer cover crops to combat pigweeds, seed at high rates (1.5–2 times normal), and use good seeding methods to obtain a weed-suppressive cover crop stand. Combine cowpea, forage soybean, or other summer legume with a tall grass like pearl millet or sorghum–sudangrass to develop a canopy that is both tall and dense. Watch the crop closely; if a significant amount of pigweed grows with it, terminate the crop promptly when weed flower heads first appear. Because pigweeds produce seed so prolifically, it is critical to minimize the annual seed rain onto the soil. Although stringent weed control for six years can reduce the pigweed seed bank by 99%, relaxing weed control allows seed numbers to recover to near original levels within three years (Schweizer and Zimdahl, 1984). Pigweed that emerges after a crop's minimum weed-free period may not reduce the crop's yield, but it should be pulled or cut before flowering to prevent formation of mature seeds. It may pay to walk fields of maturing crops to pull or chop out large weeds; small, stunted pigweeds below a crop canopy form only small numbers of seeds. If flower heads are already formed, remove severed or uprooted pigweed plants from the field. If pigweed plants have already formed seed, note that many of the seeds will stay in the head until winter. Therefore, removing the weeds in early fall can still significantly reduce the pigweed seed rain. In the event that a heavy pigweed seed rain occurs, some weed scientists recommend inversion tillage to move seeds to a depth from which they cannot emerge (Mohler and Di Tommaso, unpublished). Although 5–14% of redroot pigweed and waterhemp seeds have survived 9–12 years burial at 8-inch depth in Nebraska (Burnside et al., 1996), others have reported that pigweed seeds are fairly short lived (3–4 years) in the soil in more humid regions such as Mississippi and Illinois (Buhler and Hartzler, 2001; Egley and Williams, 1990; Steckel et al., 2007). Moldboard plowing has been reported to increase pigweed emergence if weed populations are low, but to decrease emergence if populations are high as a result of a recent seed rain (Schweizer and Zimdahl, 1984). When using inversion tillage to manage a heavy seed deposit, moldboard plow the field once, then avoid deep tillage for the next several years to allow buried seeds to lose viability. This is an eOrganic article and was reviewed for compliance with National Organic Program regulations by members of the eOrganic community. Always check with your organic certification agency before adopting new practices or using new materials. For more information, refer to eOrganic's articles on organic certification.
Return to The Crime Lab The thoracic region is surrounded by bone: 12 pairs of ribs, a 3-part sternum, and 12 thoracic vertebrae. A quick reference to the sternum or the nearest rib will guide us very easily when discussing thoracic injuries. In the case of abdominal injuries, given the wide range of organs in each area, the directional terms we have learned so far do not give us enough detail. As such, there are two simple ways to divide the abdomen: 4 quadrants (You expected more, maybe?), and 9 regions. 4 abdominal quadrants have very easy lines to remember. One line is vertical, and it is on the midline, which divides the abdomen into left and right (Don't forget: it's the victim's left or right!). The other line, which divided the abdomen into upper (superior) and lower (inferior), intersects the midline at a visible landmark. Can you guess it? The belly button, or navel, of course. From here onwards, however, we will no longer be using those words. The "belly button" is actually called the umbilicus . . . makes sense, doesn't it! As for naming each of the four, that's really easy. Each quadrant has 3 words in the name: Left or Right Upper or Lower Quadrant. For ease in labeling, we give a three letter abbreviation for each: Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ), Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ), Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ), and Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ). The 9 abdominal regions take a bit more time to name. I'm sure, however, that you can find the Umbilical region . . . around the umbilicus, of course! The areas above and below are given terms relative to the stomach (or at least where people think the stomach is: Epigastric (Epi = above, gastric = stomach), and Hypogastric (Hypo = below, gastric = stomach). The six remaining regions are divided into left and right (the victim's!), so there are only three more names to learn. The regions on either side are named according to the area of the spine (the lumbar region is the lower back): Left Lumbar and Right Lumbar. The regions on either side of the Hypogastric are named according to the bone that makes up the crest of the pelvis (The Iliac crest): Left Iliac and Right Iliac. Lastly, the two regions on either side of the Epigastric are named according to the organs' placement below the cartilage (chondro = cartilage) attaching the ribs to the sternum (costal cartilage, costal = ribs). Since these organs are under the cartilage, their names should make sense: Left Hypochondriac and Right Hypochondriac (no relation to that family member who always complains of being sick!). Using the terms above (in bold), label the images below. Note that the location of the pelvic bones and the costal cartilage has been shown to help guide you. Click HERE for the Solution! Later in the semester we will be looking in detail at the location of certain organs, so that knowing the location of an injury can help you to determine the cause of death (through determining the organs damaged!). So why do they call hypochondriacs hypochondriacs? From the Online Etymology Dictionary ( http://www.etymonline.com/index.php ) : 1839, "illness without a specific cause," earlier (1668) "depression or melancholy without real cause," earlier still (1373) ypocandria "upper abdomen," from L.L. hypochondria "the abdomen," from Gk. hypochondria (neut. pl.), from hypo- "under" + chondros "cartilage" (of the breastbone). Reflecting ancient belief that the viscera of the hypochondria were the seat of melancholy. Hypochondriac (n.) in modern sense first recorded 1888.
They call it “Tree 76”, because it stands 76 meters tall (249 feet) above the Muir Woods floor in California. Researchers wanted to see how old Tree 76 is, and they were surprised to see how young it is – at only 777 years old, it’s much younger than the oldest known trees of its kind. “Tree 76 is one of the larger trees that you can walk near so I think people have been guessing about its age for a long time,” Save the Redwoods League Science Director Emily Burns said. “We know Redwoods can live quite a long time. The oldest one that we know of is 2,500 years old.” Indeed, trees can get incredibly old. Unrelated to this study, Rachel Sussman is documenting the oldest living things in the world – she found 10,500 year old pines and a 9,550 year old spruce, and there’s also giant sequoias like General Sherman, which can go over 2,000 years old. It was somehow expected that Tree 76 was about the same age, revolving around 1,200 – 1,500 years. But biologists from Humboldt State University showed that age and size don’t necessarily correlate, and the tree was born only in the 13th century – still a very old tree, just not as old as they were expecting. Other, smaller trees from the same species are much older. “Age and size don’t correlate well,” Burns said, adding that this is the first time the age of 76 age has been determined by scientists. But even so, Tree 76 was 150 years old when Columbus reached the Americas, and it was alive for half a millennium when the industrial revolution started. It kind of gives you a new sense of scale, doesn’t it? The tree belongs to a species called Sequoiadendron giganteum, also known as Sierra redwoods; it is the sole living species in the genus Sequoiadendron, and one of three species of coniferous trees known as redwoods. Giant sequoias are the world’s largest single trees and largest living thing by volume (read: The Largest Organism in the World / The Heaviest Organism in the World). Despite being adapted to forest fires and rough conditions, it is very difficult for Sierra redwoods to reproduce, due to the seeds only being able to grow successfully in full sun and in mineral-rich soils, free from competing vegetation. Biologists nowadays don’t need to cut a tree to know how old it is – they can simply take a core from it. Now, they plan to find clues about medieval climate based on the tree’s rings. Enjoyed this article? Join 40,000+ subscribers to the ZME Science newsletter. Subscribe now!
At a Glance 1. The Second World War began in September 1939. India was made an ally of Britain. The Congress objected to it. It asked the British government for independence after the war. The Cripps Mission arrived in India in AD 1942. It proposed the giving of Dominion Status to India. It also gave freedom to the Princely States of joining India or remaining independent. The Congress rejected the proposals. 2. Gandhiji launched the Quit India Movement in AD 1942. The government banned the Congress and arrested its leaders. A large number of people were jailed. 3. The Indian National Army or the ‘Azad Hind Fauj’ worked towards securing India’s freedom. Subhas Chandra Bose was actively involved in it. 4. The weakening of Britain after the war, the growing popularity of socialism and the coming to power of the Labour Party conditions that was favorable for India’s independence. 5. The Cabinet Mission of AD 1946 proposed the formation of an interim government and the convening of a Constituent Assembly. Jawaharlal Nehru headed this interim government. 6. Lord Mountbatten announced the partition of India into two countries- India and Pakistan. The partition led to riots all over the country. 7. India became a free country on 15 August 1947. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the first Prime Minister. 8. There were four major tasks before the new Indian government- integration of the Princely States, rehabilitation of the refugees, solving the economic problems and framing the constitution. 9. Even after independence, some areas were still under French and Portuguese rule. By AD 1954, all French ruled areas were integrated with Indian. Goa which was ruled by the Portuguese, became a part of India in AD 1961. 10. Mahatma Gandhi became a martyr on 30 January 1948.
A bruit is the sound of blood flowing through a narrowed portion of an artery. The sound means that the blood flow may be partially blocked; artery blockage is most often due to atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). A doctor can hear the sound by listening with a stethoscope placed over an artery, such as the carotid artery in the neck. Bruits in the carotid arteries may be a sign that a blood vessel is partially blocked, which may increase the person's risk for having a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or stroke. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2014 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. - Personalized Tips for Managing Migraine - Do You Take Good Care of Your Eyes? - Tips for a Clean Home & Healthy Cat
Scientists at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) in Heidelberg and Regensburg University, both in Germany, and the University of Lisboa, in Portugal, have discovered a promising potential drug target for cystic fibrosis. Their work, published online today in Cell, also uncovers a large set of genes not previously linked to the disease, demonstrating how a new screening technique can help identify new drug targets. Cystic fibrosis is a hereditary disease caused by mutations in a single gene called CFTR. These mutations cause problems in various organs, most notably making the lining of the lungs secrete unusually thick mucus. This leads to recurrent life-threatening lung infections, which make it increasingly hard for patients to breathe. The disease is estimated to affect 1 in every 2500-6000 newborns in Europe. In patients with cystic fibrosis, the mutations to CFTR render it unable to carry out its normal tasks. Among other things, this means CFTR loses the ability to control a protein called the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). Released from CFTR's control, ENaC becomes hyperactive, cells in the lungs absorb too much sodium and -- as water follows the sodium -- the mucus in patients' airways becomes thicker and the lining of the lungs becomes dehydrated. The only drug currently available that directly counteracts a cystic fibrosis-related mutation only works on the three percent of patients that carry one specific mutation out of the almost 2000 CFTR mutations scientists have found so far. Thus, if you were looking for a more efficient way to fight cystic fibrosis, finding a therapy that would act upon ENaC instead of trying to correct that multitude of CFTR mutations would seem like a good option. But unfortunately, the drugs that inhibit ENaC, mostly developed to treat hypertension, don't transfer well to cystic fibrosis, where their effects don't last very long. So scientists at EMBL, Regensburg University and University of Lisboa set out to find alternatives. "In our screen, we attempted to mimic a drug treatment," says Rainer Pepperkok, whose team at EMBL developed the technique, "we'd knock down a gene and see if ENaC became inhibited." Starting with a list of around 7000 genes, the scientists systematically silenced each one, using a combination of genetics and automated microscopy, and analysed how this affected ENaC. They found over 700 genes which, when inhibited, brought down ENaC activity, including a number of genes no-one knew were involved in the process. Among their findings was a gene called DGKi. When they tested chemicals that inhibit DGKi in lung cells from cystic fibrosis patients, the scientists discovered that it appears to be a very promising drug target. "Inhibiting DGKi seems to reverse the effects of cystic fibrosis, but not block ENaC completely," says Margarida Amaral from the University of Lisboa, "indeed, inhibiting DGKi reduces ENaC activity enough for cells to go back to normal, but not so much that they cause other problems, like pulmonary oedema." These promising results have already raised the interest of the pharmaceutical industry and led the researchers to patent DGKi as a drug target, as they are keen to explore the issue further, searching for molecules that strongly inhibit DGKi without causing side-effects. "Our results are encouraging, but these are still early days," says Karl Kunzelmann from Regensburg University. "We have DGKi in our cells because it is needed, so we need to be sure that these drugs are not going to cause problems in the rest of the body." The search for genes that regulate ENaC was undertaken as part of the EU-funded TargetScreen2 project. Cite This Page:
avg is used within the for loop as a running sum and only becomes the average when it is finally divided by 5 on line 19. You set avg = 0.0 so the sum starts at zero. The for loop is executed 5 times. Each time through the loop the following happens: cout<<"Enter a value:"; The user is prompted to "Enter a value:" After the user enters a number and hits the Enter key, the number is stored in the variable val The equal symbol is not the same as the equal symbol as used in a mathematical equation, but is called the assignment operator. Think of it as "Evaluate the expression on the right hand side of the equal sign and store (or assign) this value to the variable on the left hand side of the equal sign." line 18: Marks the end of the for loop at which juncture the variable i is incremented and the condition i<5 is checked and if true the loop is executed again. Finally when i=5 the condition will be false and execution will continue at the next statement following the for loop. This divides the running sum avg by 5 and stores it back in avg. Let's trace the for loop with some specific values entered by the user. I'll use the same names Cubbi used above for those values. val1=3.0, val2=-4.0, val3=1.0, val4=7.0, val5= -2.0 val = val1 = 3.0 Evaluate avg+abs(val) which is 0.0 + 3.0 =3.0 and store this in avg so avg=3.0 val = val2 = -4.0 Evaluate avg+abs(val) which is 3.0 + 4.0 =7.0 and store this in avg so avg=7.0 val = val3 = 1.0 Evaluate avg+abs(val) which is 7.0 + 1.0 =8.0 and store this in avg so avg=8.0 val = val4 = 7.0 Evaluate avg+abs(val) which is 8.0 + 7.0 =15.0 and store this in avg so avg=15.0 val = val5 = -2.0 Evaluate avg+abs(val) which is 15.0 + 2.0 =17.0 and store this in avg so avg=17.0 i=5 and the loop ends. line19: divide avg by 5 and store the result in avg so avg=17.0/5 = 3.4 A few additional comments about the code: 1. The practice of defining all variables at the beginning of a function has the mark of an old C programmer. C++ programmers generally prefer to define variables as close as possible to where they are first used. Consider line 8 The variable i is not used except in the for loop so why not define it there? You can eliminate line 8 and change the first line of the for loop to: 2. Line 9 is certainly legal code, however most programmers generally give each variable declaration its own line. Variable names that are strung across the line horizontally are harder to read than if each is on its own line. In addition, it usually a good idea to initialize variables when they are declared. Line 11 which sets avg to zero can actually be moved up to the line where the variable is declared. I would change lines 9-11 to: The final result: using namespace std; cout<<"Enter a value:"; cout<<"Average of absolute values:"<<avg;
Battle Road, April 19th, 1775 Historical. The British expedition of light infantry and grenadiers had marched to Concord that morning to look for the Rebel's arms and ammunition. Along the way, the first shots of the Revolution had been fired at Lexington Green. Now at Concord, the British force has completed its mission and must return to the safety of Boston. However, the Rebel militia had been called and was responding. The British would find that the march back to Boston would be a long and bloody one. The Battle at Bennington, August 16th, 1777 Historical. British General Burgoyne's campaign had been going well. Up to this point, he had taken the mighty Fort Ticonderoga and defeated the American rear guard at Hubbardton. But now he needed additional supplies, particularly horses for his dismounted German dragoons. So an expedition, led by German Lt. Col. Baum, was launched to advance to the town of Bennington. But what was unexpected was the arrival of the American militia, led by veteran fighter Stark. The result was Burgoyne's first setback in his campaign. The Battle at Bennington (What-If), August 16th, 1777 What-If. The expedition under Baum had anxiously waited for the relief column from Burgoyne's main army to arrive. Unfortunately, given Breymann's delay, the relief column did not arrive in time and the expedition was destroyed. What would have happened at the Battle of Bennington had the relief column arrived two hours earlier, just as the battle was starting? The Battle of Brandywine, September 11th, 1777 Historical. British General Howe began his campaign by taking his army down the American coastline and landing it south of Philadelphia. American General Washington responded in an attempt to block the British advance at the Brandywine Creek. Washington thought he had all of the fords covered, but Howe and Cornwallis crossed at a ford beyond the flank of the American army. The American army was almost destroyed by this attack, but responded in a way that gave the army confidence in its ability to respond to a crisis. The Battle of Brandywine (What-If), September 11th, 1777 What-If. When British Generals Howe and Cornwallis marched their force around the right flank of Washington's army at Brandywine, they very nearly destroyed the American army. Washington had not taken action on reports that such a flanking march was possible. But what if Washington had reacted to this knowledge, predicted a possible British flanking attack, and had been ready to guard the upper fords when the attack occurred. What would have been the outcome of the Battle of Brandywine? The Battle of Brandywine (What-If), September 11th, 1777 What-If. When American General Washington positioned his army on the banks of the Brandywine Creek, he assumed that British General Howe would attack directly across the creek instead of the flanking march that occurred. What if Howe had acted more conservatively and had in fact attacked Washington directly? Would the result have been more favorable to the Americans? The Battle of Brandywine (What-If), September 11th, 1777 What-If. Washington didn't know of fords upstream from his position when the British attacked his right flank. What if he had learned of these fords and spread his forces out to protect them, but then the British did not act as he believed they would? Against a frontal British attack, would the Americans be too thinly spread to hold? The Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17th, 1775 Historical. The clash at Concord and Lexington had started the real fighting in the American Revolution. Both sides knew that a full scale battle was inevitable. The Americans took the first step by occupying the Charlestown peninsula, a move that would force a British response. British General Howe landed a sizeable force on the peninsula later that day, with every expectation of taking the American fortifications on Breeds and Bunker Hill. This he did, but only with a fearful loss of his own soldiers and officers. The Battle of Bunker Hill (What-If), June 17th, 1775 What-If. The three British generals in Boston disagreed over how to react to the American taking of the Charlestown peninsula. General Clinton proposed landing on the neck of the peninsula while Howe made a frontal-attack on the American positions. Howe overruled this idea and the full British force was directed at the American fortifications from a single landing area. What if Clinton had been allowed to land behind the Americans as he proposed? Would that have made the difference in the British difficulties? The Battle of Camden, August 16th, 1780 Historical. The "Hero of Saratoga", American General Gates was sent south in 1780 to take charge of the southern campaign. There he encountered British General Cornwallis, a veteran fighter from the campaigns in the North. Most of Gates's force consisted of militia, which he assumed would fight properly. Given current convention, they were arrayed on the left flank, the "lesser" flank. Unfortunately, in this position, they faced the British right flank, the "greater" flank of Cornwallis's army. And so when the British advanced, the militia gave way, completely destroying Gates's position and destroying American hopes for success in the South. The Battle of Camden (Alt), August 16th, 1780 Alternate. Descriptions of the performance of the American militia vary. According to some accounts, most of the militia, particularly the Virginia militia, dropped their guns and ran without firing a shot. In this scenario, the majority of the militia is setup in a routed state simulating this breakdown. The Battle of Camden (What-If), January 17th, 1781 What-If. In the campaign of 1781, American General Greene elected to let General Cornwallis make the first move offensively. What if Greene had been more aggressive and decided that the time was right to attack the British? Would this battle have turned out as badly for the Americans as the first Battle of Camden the year before? The Battle at Charlotte (What-If), January 16th, 1781 What-If. When Greene arrived in Charlotte to take command of the American southern army, he split his forces sending Morgan to the west and the remaining forces to Cheraw Hills. But what if Greene had kept his army intact at Charlotte and British General Cornwallis had decided to attack? Can Greene and his modest force withstand an attack by British regulars? The Battle at Charlotte (What-If), January 16th, 1781 What-If. A hypothetical clash between the American army under Greene and a portion of the British army under Cornwallis near Charlotte. The Battle at Charlotte (What-If), January 30th, 1781 What-If. A follow-up scenario to the hypothetical battle at Cheraw Hills where the British army under Cornwallis has pursued the retreating American army to Charlotte and there attacks it. The Battle at Charlotte (What-If), January 30th, 1781 What-If. A follow-up scenario to the hypothetical battle at Cheraw Hills where the British army under Cornwallis has pursued the retreating American army to Charlotte and there attacks it. In this version, both sides have been rejoined by their light detachments. The Battle at Cheraw Hills (What-If), January 18th, 1781 What-If. When American General Greene split his force after arriving at Charlotte, he believed that his main position at Cheraw Hills was a strong one and that British General Cornwallis would not dare to attack him there. But what if Cornwallis, after sending Tarleton to deal with Morgan, had decided to attack the small American force at Cheraw Hills. Could Greene withstand an attack by the British army? The Battle at Cowpens, January 17th, 1781 Historical. American General Greene had done something incredible. He had split his army and sent Morgan with a detachment to the west while he and the rest of the American army had marched to the east. British General Cornwallis thought he had Morgan trapped by sending Tarleton with a detachment to catch and destroy Morgan. But Morgan turned and confronted Tarleton at the Cowpens, and gave the American rebellion a much needed victory in the South. Note: this scenario is particularly suited for the Rifle Fire Effects Optional Rule. The Battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8th, 1781 Historical. American General Greene was continuing his campaign in the South that had begun with the Battle of Guilford Court House. He had not won a single battle, but was systematically driving the British out of the Carolinas. Finally he met the remainder of the British force at Eutaw Springs on the road to Charleston. While this also did not produce a victory, it was the last straw for the British who withdrew to Charleston. Greene had demonstrated his words "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again". The Siege of Fort Stanwix (What-If), August, 1777 What-If. Historically the American relief column to Fort Stanwix was ambushed and turned back at Oriskany. What if the column had gotten through without being attack and had then launched an attack on the British forces besieging the fort? Can the siege of the fort be lifted? The Battle of Fort Ticonderoga (What-If), July 4th, 1777 What-If. When the British under General Burgoyne placed cannon on Mount Defiance, the American army under General St. Clair abandoned Fort Ticonderoga without a fight. What if St. Clair had stood his ground and the British had decided on an attack? Could the American continentals and milita withstand a combined attack from the British and German regulars? The Battle of Germantown, October 4th, 1777 Historical. After the defeat at Brandywine, the American army under General George Washington was forced to abandon Philadelphia, the capitol of the new country, to Howe's British Army. But Washington retook the initiative with a surprise attack on the British base at Germantown, just outside Philadelphia. This attack, although unsuccessful, proved that the American army was still capable of waging war against the British. The Battle of Germantown (What-If), October 4th, 1777 What-If. After the victory at Brandywine, British General Howe occupied Philadelphia assured that he had been victorious in the campaign. But Washington, unwilling to accept defeat, launched a surprise attack on Howe's camps at Germantown. What if Howe had not been so confident of victory and was in fact moving his arrmy towards Washington to resume the fighting? The Battle of Guilford Court House, March 15th, 1781 Historical. After the Battle of Cowpens, American General Greene and his army had escaped the pursuing Cornwallis and retreated into Virginia. But now, with reinforcements available, the time had come for Greene to confront Cornwallis for control of the South. Greene picked a site near Greensboro, where he felt he could make a stand. Learning from Morgan, Greene placed his force in three lines, two of militia and a third of regulars. But would that be enough to withstand the British force under Cornwallis, and how far would Cornwallis go to achieve victory? Note: this scenario should be played with the Cornwallis Cannon Optional Rule. The Battle of Guilford CH (What-If), February 14th, 1781 What-If. American General Greene fell back to Guilford Court House after his detachment under Morgan had won a victory at Cowpens. What if Greene had fallen back to Guilford Court House as part of his original campaign and there met the British? Would the eventual fate of Cornwallis and his army have been the same? The Battle of Guilford CH (What-If), February 7th, 1781 What-If. A follow-up scenario to the hypothetical battle at Cheraw Hills, where Greene has fallen back to Guilford Court House and is joined by Morgan's detachment. There, they are attacked by Cornwallis, but he does not have Tarleton's forces. The Battle of Guilford Court House (What-If), February 7th, 1781 What-If. A follow-up scenario to the hypothetical Battle of Cheraw Hills, where Greene and his army has fallen back to Guilford Court House where it is attacked by the full British army under Cornwallis. The Battle of Guilford CH (What-If), February 15, 1781 What-If. After the victory at Cowpens, Greene scrambled to retreat into Virginia ahead of the rapidly advancing Cornwallis. If Greene had been caught, or decided to make a stand, what would the outcome of the battle have been like? The Battle of Hobkirk Hill, April 25th, 1781 Historical. After the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, the British army under General Cornwallis slipped away to rest on the North Carolina coast. But American General Greene still had fight left in him. With his small but experienced army, he marched into South Carolina to confront the British garrison at Camden. Although the battle was a British victory, Greene had started the campaign that would eventually win the South for the American cause, without winning a single battle. The Battle at Hubbardton, July 7th, 1777 Historical. After pressuring the American garrison at Fort Ticonderoga to withdraw, the British army under General Burgoyne wanted to inflict a loss on the retreating Americans. His advance guard got that chance just outside the town of Hubbardton, in present-day Vermont. However, the Americans fought back well and stood their ground until German reinforcements arrived and forced the issue. The Americans had shown that they were willing to fight given the chance. The Battle of Kings Mountain, October 7th, 1780 Historical. British Major Patrick Ferguson had thrown down the gauntlet. His force of Loyalists, on the left flank of Cornwallis's main army, had marched deep into Rebel territory and enraged many of the people who lived there. In response, a force of militiamen from far around the countryside had marched to confront Ferguson. That confrontation would take place on a "royal" mountain in South Carolina and would mark the beginning of the Patriot victory in the South. The Battle of Monmouth, June 28th, 1778 Historical. The British army was pursued by the American army under General George Washington as it left Philadelphia in the Summer of 1778. Washington sent an advance force under General Lee to look for opportunities to attack the rear guard of the British. However, the tables were turned on the Americans as British General Cornwallis struck Lee and forced him back. Washington arrived with the rest of the army to halt the British advance, but not before imparting some choice words to General Lee. Note: the cover painting "George Washington at Monmouth" by Andy Thomas illustrates the meeting of Washington and Lee at Monmouth. The Siege of Ninety Six (What-If), May - June 1781 What-If. Historically, when Greene's army arrived at Ninety Six, it was unable to overcome the defenders of the garrison. Despite this, after Greene retreated from Ninety Six, the British garrison withdrew from the isolated outpost. What if a pitched battle had been fought to decide the fate of Ninety Six? Could the British have prevailed in that clash? The Ambush at Oriskany, August 6th, 1777 Historical. As part of Burgoyne's strategy for taking the northern theater, a British force under St. Leger besieges Fort Stanwix and threatens control of the Hudson River valley. A relief force of Americans marches to the fort's aid, but along the trail is ambushed by a force of Tories and Indians. Although the relief force is turned back with heavy losses, Fort Stanwix remains in American control. The Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777 Historical. After the surprise attack on Trenton, British general Cornwallis reacted by marching his force to Trenton to confront the American army. However, General Washington surprised the British by secretly marching his army to Princeton where it encountered a small British reserve force. But this small force contested the Americans and disrupted their escape. The Battle of Rhode Island, August 28-29th, 1778 Historical. The American victory at Saratoga had convinced the French to join the Americans in their fight for independence. The Rhode Island campaign was to be their first joint effort involving French and American land and sea forces. Unfortunately, John Sullivan, leading the American army, advanced too quickly and motivated d'Estaing, the French naval commander, to withdraw from the operation. Now Sullivan, the attacker becoming the attacked, withdraws from Newport and is attacked by the advancing British. The First Battle of Saratoga, September 19th, 1777 Historical. British general Burgoyne had successfully fought his way south from Canada in his campaign against the Americans. Fort Ticonderoga had fallen to his army and now he was preparing to continue his advance to Albany, New York. But the American army under General Gates stood in his way at Saratoga. The British and American armies advance on each other in the First Battle of Saratoga. The Second Battle of Saratoga, October 7th, 1777 Historical. After the initial setback at the First Battle of Saratoga, the British army under General Burgoyne stopped and dug in on the Bemis Heights. Burgoyne anxiously awaited news of the advance of the British army under Clinton in New York north to his aid. In a last chance effort to break the stalemate, Burgoyne advanced a force to take the high ground overlooking the American position. But along the way, this force was met by an equally aggressive American force intent on breaking the British position. And with the leadership of American General Benedict Arnold, that's what they would achieve. The First Battle of Saratoga (What-If), Sept. 19th, 1777 What-If. When the British army under Burgoyne advanced on the American position at Saratoga, General Arnold convinced Gates to let him advance from the American positions and meet the British head-on. But what would the outcome have been if Arnold had not been allowed to advance? Would the Americans have prevailed? The First Battle of Saratoga (What-If), Sept. 19th, 1777 What-If. The British advanced against the American left flank at the First Battle of Saratoga and General Arnold advanced to meet them. If the British had attacked along the river road, would staying in the fortifications have been a better strategy? The First Battle of Saratoga (What-If), Sept. 19th, 1777 What-If. When General Arnold convinced Gates to allow him to advance beyond the American fortifications, it was to meet a British advance on the left flank. If the British had decided to advance on the river road, would Arnold have been so eager? The Second Battle of Saratoga (What-If), Oct. 7th, 1777 What-If. When the British advanced at the beginning of the Second Battle of Saratoga, General Arnold "convinced" Gates to allow him to advance against them with a sizeable force. This force counterattacked and drove the British back to their fortifications and beyond. What if Arnold had not been so convincing? Would the Americans have prevailed that day? The Second Battle of Saratoga (What-If), Oct. 7th, 1777 What-If. After the initial setback at the First Battle of Saratoga, the British entrenched and then launched a second attack on the American left flank. Would an attack along the river road have resulted in a better outcome for the British? The Second Battle of Saratoga (What-If), Oct. 7th, 1777 What-If. If the British had launched their second attack at Saratoga along the river road instead of at the American left flank, would the Americans have been smarter to have remained inside the fortifications as Gates wanted rather than advancing as Arnold wished? The Battle of Trenton, December 26th, 1776 Historical. On the morning after Christmas, 1776, the battered army of George Washington slipped across the Delaware River and launched a surprise attack on the Hessian garrison at Trenton, New Jersey. In a daring move, Washington retook the initiative after a year of being defeated by the British army. The Battle of Trenton (Alt), December 26th, 1776 Alternate. The American attack on the morning of December 26th took the Hessians in Trenton by surprise. This scenario begins with the Hessian units in a routed state to simulate that surprise. The Attack on Valley Forge (What-If), Spring, 1778 What-If. After taking Philadelphia, the British were not able to resolve their campaign successfully and finally, in the Summer of 1778, decided to withdraw from Philadelphia to their base at New York. But what if the British had acted more aggressively and decided to attack Washington's army at Valley Forge? With their backs to the river, can Washington's army hold off a full-scale attack? The Siege of Yorktown (What-If), September, 1781 What-If. When the combined American and French armies arrived at Yorktown, British General Cornwallis withdrew his army from their outer defenses to the inner works around Yorktown. This resulted in the siege of Yorktown by the Americans and French resulting in the eventual surrender of the British on October 17th. What if Cornwallis had retained his outer works and this had prompted an assault by the Americans and French on the fortifications. Could this assault have taken Yorktown and thus resulted in the defeat of the British?
Desiccants are hygroscopic substances used as drying agents. They attract water-vapor molecules from the air using an absorptive or absorptive process. They’re often open dehumidification systems used for the cold storage of food products to ensure appropriate relative humidity levels. Desiccant wheel and liquid desiccant dehumidification systems are among the most common used for cold food storage because they’re more efficient, produce less heat and prevent the formation of frost. The best system for cold storage depends on the type of food stored, the location of the storage unit and its size. Liquid Desiccant Dehumidification Systems Liquid desiccant systems are a newer technology that use liquid water-lithium chloride as a sorbent and cooling material. In general, they remove more moisture from the air than desiccant wheel dehumidification systems. Liquid desiccant systems have two chambers—a conditioning chamber and regeneration chamber. In the conditioning chamber, the concentrated liquid desiccant absorbs moisture from the incoming air and dehumidifies. The diluted lithium chloride flows to a heat exchanger. In the regeneration chamber, moisture from the desiccant transfers to the exhaust air, humidifying it. The desiccant or exhaust air is then heated to remove the moisture, re-concentrating the diluted liquid desiccant. The desiccant then flows back to the conditioning chamber for reuse. Dry Desiccant Dehumidification Systems Desiccant wheel dehumidification uses adsorbents in which a desiccant doesn’t change phase as it collects moisture. Common types of dry desiccants include zeolites, silica gel and activated alumina. When the desiccant absorbs moisture, it changes chemically or physically. In dry desiccant dehumidification systems, the desiccant is on a rotating wheel. As the wheel slowly turns, it rotates through two streams of air. “Process” air goes through one section of a desiccant-coated wheel, which absorbs moisture and makes the air drier than when it first entered. As it rotates, the wheel exposes the desiccant to a “regenerating” air stream that dries and expels, or desorbs, the moisture that it collected from the process air. The moisture transfer occurs because vapor pressure differences at the desiccant’s surface. The desiccant traps moisture when the surface’s vapor pressure is lower than the vapor pressure of the passing air. The desiccant releases the moisture when the surface’s vapor pressure rises. The direction of the moisture transfer is the result of the difference between the process air stream’s relative humidity and the regeneration air stream’s relative humidity. Dry desiccant humidification systems are good for mixed air systems and cold storage areas that require warmer air or supply-air dew points to be below 50°F. Desiccant wheel dehumidification is also good for dedicated outdoor food storage units, so the air within them is less humid. The Best Desiccant Dehumidification System The best system depends on your needs, the type of cold storage unit and its location. If you simply need a desiccant dehumidification system, one that uses a desiccant wheel may be appropriate for your needs. A liquid desiccant system is better if you need tighter controls over the environmental conditions within a cold storage unit. Such systems are generally more energy efficient, provide humidity control, improve indoor air quality, are more compact and are simpler to maintain. Polygon offers desiccant dehumidification solutions that aid with document recovery, water damage restoration and creating the ideal climate for organizations in the food processing, manufacturing, storage and retail industries. Talk to a Polygon specialist to learn more about the custom desiccant technologies available for your precise needs.
Researchers are feverishly working to understand the global die off of the world’s bee species, and have linked colony collapse disorder to the use of neonicotinoid pesticides along with other common agrichemicals. As it turns out, the impact of modern industrial agriculture and widespread chemical contamination of our environment is not just affecting bees, but also contributing to the loss of all insects, and some scientists believe we are moving in the direction of mass extinction. Several studies by entomologists in recent years support this notion and raise the flag for greater concern. German researchers with the Krefeld Entomological Association have since 1989 been conducting an annual experiment measuring the volume of summer insects in the western German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Trapping migratory and mating insects in the wild has proven there is indeed a significant reduction in populations of many species of invertebrates. “The average biomass of insects caught between May and October has steadily decreased from 1.6 kilograms (3.5 pounds) per trap in 1989 to just 300 grams (10.6 ounces) in 2014.” [Source] A decline this noteworthy should be of great concern for anyone interested in the future of food production and the survival of the ecosystem as a whole, as insects are not only needed for pollination of many staple food crops, they also provide food for many animals and birds, who would follow bugs into extinction. “The decline is dramatic and depressing and it affects all kinds of insects, including butterflies, wild bees, and hoverflies.” – Martin Sorg, an entomologist from the Krefeld Entomological Association Additionally, another recent study conducted by researchers from theTechnical University of Munich and the Senckenberg Natural History Museum in Frankfurt supports and substantiates previous research. Observing a nature reserve in the Bavarian city of Regensburg scientists found that, “the number of recorded butterfly and Burnet moth species has declined from 117 in 1840 to 71 in 2013,” a large enough decrease to at least suggest that conservation efforts thus far have failed to contribute to the preservation of insect species. The Frankfurt study also indicated, as a cause for such decline, the harmful, ongoing effects of the overuse of nitrogen based fertilizers and chemical pesticides which are being used in ever greater quantities around the world, produced and promoted by chemical giants like Cargill, DuPont and the globally despised Monsanto. “These data on species composition changes and the general trends of modifications may reflect effects from climate change and atmospheric nitrogen loads, as indicated by the ecological characteristics of host plant species and local changes in habitat configuration with increasing fragmentation.” [Source] Furthermore, another study conducted in 2014 documented a worldwide decline in insect and invertebrate populations, reinforcing concern that this issue is not limited to any specific geographical region. “By combining data from the few comprehensive studies that exist, lead author Rodolfo Dirzo, an ecologist at Stanford University, developed a global index for invertebrate abundance that showed a 45 percent decline over the last four decades. Dirzo points out that out of 3,623 terrestrial invertebrate species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN] Red List, 42 percent are classified as threatened with extinction.” [Source] Seeking to identify the cause for such rapid declines in insect populations, a survey conducted in 2012 by the Zoological Society of London shows a staggering 45% decline in invertebrate abundance in the last four decades. “Rodolfo Dirzo, an ecologist at Stanford University, developed a global index for invertebrate abundance that showed a 45 percent decline over the last four decades. Dirzo points out that out of 3,623 terrestrial invertebrate species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN] Red List, 42 percent are classified as threatened with extinction.” [Source] The importance of the role of insects in the global ecosystem can not be understated, as ecological collapse starts form the bottom up. Geoff Boxshall, Secretary of Zoological Society of London sums it up well here: “Invertebrates are one of the essential foundations of healthy ecosystems that we depend on: almost every marine fi sh that forms part of the human food chain will have fed on invertebrates at some time during its development, for example. We directly consume invertebrates, such as shellfish, or their products, such as honey, but our awareness of the importance of invertebrates has generally been low, even though we rely on invertebrates to pollinate our crops, to reprocess our waste, and to deliver a multitude of other services. This situation is now changing and research has also highlighted the importance of invertebrates as regulators of ecosystem processes.” [Source] Sadly, the burden of changing this falls squarely on the shoulders of global industry leaders, however, as individuals we can help to affect change by altering our buying habits, choosing to support organic food producers, and by creating healthy habitats for bees and other insects in our neighborhoods and communities.
Read to Your Toddler In the last decade, researchers have made important discoveries in children's development during the first five years of life. We now know a lot about how young children grow and develop early language and literacy skills. Here's why reading aloud to your toddler is so important: - Nearly 50% of a child's learning occurs in the first five years of life. - Toddlers learn nine new words a day! Children who are spoken to and read to frequently have larger vocabularies and develop into better readers. - Reading with your toddler is the best way to prepare your child to learn to read. Illustrations from READ IT, DON'T EAT IT! copyright © 2009 by Ian Schoenherr. Reproduced by permission of Greenwillow Books, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers.
FHSST Biology/How Units Can Help You How Units Can Help You We conclude each section of this book with a discussion of the units most relevant to that particular section. It is important to try to understand what the units mean. That is why thinking about the examples and explanations of the units is essential. If we are careful with our units then the numbers we get in our calculations can be checked in a 'sanity test'. What is a 'sanity test'? This isn't a special or secret test. All we do is stop, take a deep breath, and look at our answer. Sure we always look at our answers—or do we? This time we mean stop and really look—does our answer make sense? Imagine you were calculating the number of people in a classroom. If the answer you got was 1 000 000 people you would know it was wrong—that's just an insane number of people to have in a classroom. That's all a sanity check is—is your answer insane or not? But what units were we using? We were using people as our unit. This helped us to make sense of the answer. If we had used some other unit (or no unit) the number would have lacked meaning and a sanity test would have been much harder (or even impossible). It is useful to have an idea of some numbers before we start. For example, let's consider masses. An average person has mass 70 kg, while the heaviest person in medical history had a mass of 635 kg. If you ever have to calculate a person's mass and you get 7000 kg, this should fail your sanity check—your answer is insane and you must have made a mistake somewhere. In the same way an answer of 0.000 01 kg should fail your sanity test. The only problem with a sanity check is that you must know what typical values for things are. In the example of people in a classroom you need to know that there are usually 20–50 people in a classroom. Only then do you know that your answer of 1 000 000 must be wrong. Here is a table of typical values of various things (big and small, fast and slow, light and heavy—you get the idea): Now you don't have to memorise this table but you should read it. The best thing to do is to refer to it every time you do a calculation. >> Next: Temperature
Astronomers have discovered a distant planet with an abundance of helium in its atmosphere, which has swollen to resemble an inflated balloon. An international team of researchers, including Jessica Spake and Dr David Sing from the University of Exeter, have detected the inert gas escaping from the atmosphere of the exoplanet HAT-P-11b - found 124 light years from Earth and in the Cygnus constellation. The remarkable breakthrough was led by researchers from the University of Geneva, who observed the exoplanet using the spectrograph called Carmenes, installed on the 4-metre telescope at Calar Alto, Spain. For the first time, the data revealed the speed of helium atoms in the upper atmosphere of the exoplanet, which is equivalent in size to Neptune. The helium is in an extended cloud that is escaping from the planet, just as a helium balloon might escape from a person's hand. The research team believe that the ground-breaking study could open up new understandings of the extreme atmospheric conditions found around the hottest exoplanets. The research is published in the leading journal, Science, on December 6 2018. Jessica Spake, part of Exeter's Physics and Astronomy department said: "This is a really exciting discovery, particularly as helium was only detected in exoplanet atmospheres for the first time earlier this year. The observations show helium being blasted away from the planet by radiation from its host star. Hopefully we can use this new study to learn what types of planets have large envelopes of hydrogen and helium, and how long they can hold the gases in their atmospheres." Helium was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight in 1868. Devon-based astronomer Norman Lockyer was the first to propose this line was due to a new element, and named it after the Greek Titan of the Sun, Helios. It has since been discovered to be one of the main constituents of the planets Jupiter and Saturn in our Solar System. It is also the second most common element in the universe and was long- predicted to be one of the most readily-detectable gases on giant exoplanets. However, it was only successfully found in an exoplanet atmosphere earlier this year, in a pioneering study also led by Jessica Spake. For this new study, the research team used the spectrograph, Carmenes, to pull apart the star's light into its component colours, like a rainbow, to reveal the presence of helium. The 'rainbow' data, called a spectrum, also tells us the position and speed of helium atoms in the upper atmosphere of HAT-P-11b, which is 20 times closer to its star than the Earth is from the Sun. Romain Allart, PhD student at the University of Geneva and first author of the study said: "We suspected that this proximity with the star could impact the atmosphere of this exoplanet. The new observations are so precise that the exoplanet atmosphere is undoubtly inflated by the stellar radiation and escapes to space." These new observations are supported by a state-of-the-art computer simulation, led by Vincent Bourrier, co-author of the study and member of the European project FOUR ACES, used to track the trajectory of helium atoms. Vincent Bourrier explained: "Helium is blown away from the day side of the planet to its night side at over 10,000 km an hour. Because it is such a light gas, it escapes easily from the attraction of the planet and forms an extended cloud all around it." It is this phenomenon that makes HAT-P-11b so inflated, like a helium balloon. The first detection of helium earlier this year, led by University of Exeter researchers, opened a new window to observe the extreme atmospheric conditions reigning in the hottest exoplanets. These new observations from Carmenes demonstrate that such studies, long thought feasible only from space, can be achieved with greater precision from ground-based telescopes equipped with the right kind of instruments.
Fur seal / kekeno The fur seal / kekeno is a mammal and hunts it prey at night when the fish and squid move closer to the surface. The fur seal's eyes are well suited for seeing underwater and in low light conditions. 1. Why were fur seals hunted ? A: The Maori hunted kekeno for meat, skins for clothing and for their teeth. 2.How did the maori catch the fur seal ? A: The maori caught the fur seals while they were lying on the beach when they were asleep and threw a net over them. 3.How would the fur seal hunt and catch their food ? A: Fur Seal hunting, or sealing, is the personal or commercial hunting of fur Seals . 4.What did the maori use the fur seal for? A: The maori used the fur seal for the fur. 5.Why did the Maori hunt the fur seal when there were other animals for them to hunt? A: The Maori hunted the fur seal for its fur to make clothing Meat for food and teeth for fishing hooks. The fur seal is a majestic marine animal and overall they should not have been hunted. Thanks for listening By Jack & Liam. 😃 😀
Pests and diseases often infiltrate even healthy gardens. It is important to regularly check your plants for spreading diseases or signs of pest damage. Here are some helpful general links: Steps for Pest Management - Identify bugs. - Determine the severity of the problem (inspect undersides of leaves and new leaves; check for disease spreading). - Make a plan (monitor plants for a few days and try to implement a cultural tactic such as composting). - Consider what controls to choose (use an organic pesticide only after all other options are tried). - Keep notes (mark down when you spray and take note of pest problems). - Consider increasing the diversity of your garden (including flowers in a vegetable garden help to attract beneficial insects). Common Garden Pests and Controls Aphid: Apply a strong spray of water or insecticidal soap. Encourage beneficial insects such as lady bugs or lace wings. Flea Beetle: Use agricultural row cover to protect young crops. Sticky traps help to monitor the presence of the beetles. Cucumber Beetle: Use agricultural row cover when crops sprout and remove the cover when flowers appear so they can be pollinated. Imported Cabbage Worm: Spray Bt (Bacillus thurengiensis) at the first sign of cabbage worms Leaf Hopper: Row covers, sticky yellow traps, insecticidal soap. Stink Bugs and Harlequin Beetles: Hand pick, especially eggs. Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) provides guidance about materials to use for pest and disease control while maintaining an organic garden. The number one disease management strategy is to prevent it in the first place. Make sure you provide your plants with optimal conditions for growth, focusing on the right season, temperature, spacing, nutrients, water, and disease-resistant varieties. Crop rotation (planting different crop families in a space each year) and weed management helps to ward off diseases.
It is a well-known fact that well-designed assessments play a key role in the making of a good eLearning course. They help the learner evaluate his comprehension of the subject-matter. They also help the trainer to determine whether the learning objectives of the eLearning course have been met or not. There are essentially two kinds of assessments in eLearning courses – formative and summative. Formative assessments are conducted at the end of each unit of an eLearning course. They are mainly diagnostic in nature and help the learner identify the gaps and review the relevant segment immediately. These assessments also facilitate effective recall as they provide an opportunity to the learner to practice in a fun-filled manner and reinforce the learning. On the other hand, summative assessments are conducted at the end of the elearning course. They help measure the learner’s knowledge, skills and/or abilities after completing the course. By completing the summative assessments successfully, the learner can prove that he has acquired the required knowledge and/or skills to accept responsibilities at a higher level. In most online courses, the learner has to select an option and click the ‘Submit’ button. These are effective, but can be made better using gamified elements. This eBook shares 25 examples of how top-notch assessments can be created using gamification. Download the eBook NOW!
Teaching your Child to Ride a Bicycle - More than wearing a helmet, - More than just balance, - Teaching your child survival rules! Here are the steps: Many parents begin and end with teaching balance. But step one is the most important: teaching your child how to avoid the situations that produce hundreds of dead children every year. And you probably are aware already that a helmet is essential when they make a mistake. Teaching them to balance is the easiest part for most kids. Then you have to practice the five basic safety rules in actual riding. It can take you an extra couple of hours, but the result is well worth the effort! - First, teach them the five rules to avoid fatal crashes! - Then, teach them to wear a helmet, - Then, help them learn to balance and ride according to the five rules. The Safety Rules Can Protect Your Child 1. Never ride out into a street without stopping first. Nearly a third of car-bike crashes involving a young child occur when the child rides down a driveway or from a sidewalk into the street and in front of a car. Kids must learn to stop, look left, look right, look left again and listen to be sure no cars are coming before entering a street. Look left that second time because cars coming from the left are on the child's side of the street and are closer. Use your driveway or sidewalk to demonstrate this way to enter a street. Have the child practice the entry, looking left, looking right and looking left again. Make sure that they understand that because they see a car does not mean the driver sees them. They must always assume that the driver has not. 2. Obey stop signs. Nearly a third of the car-bike crashes with a young child occur when the child rides through a stop sign or red light into crossing traffic. Kids must learn to stop, look left, look right, then look left again at all stop signs, stop lights and intersections before crossing. Make sure they know the basics about stop signs and stop lights, and that they must always ride on the right, with traffic. Then take your child to a controlled intersection and practice crossing safely. Explain that when riding in a group, each bicyclist must stop and make sure it is clear before crossing. Teach young children to walk their bikes through busy intersections. Remind them to obey traffic signals even if no one appears to be coming. While you are at it, explain one-way streets to them too. 3. Check behind before turning, swerving, or changing lanes. Nearly a third of the car-bike crashes involving children occur when a child turns suddenly into the path of a car. Kids must learn to look behind them before swerving, turning or changing lanes. The best place to practice this is in a quiet parking lot or playground. Stand behind them while they ride along a straight painted line. Hold up numbered cards and have them practice looking back over their shoulder and telling you the number on the card without swerving off the painted line. Children should not ride their bikes on the street alone until they can master this skill. If they can handle it, teach them signaling too, but signaling is too complicated a skill for younger kids. 4. Always ride on the right. Wrong-way riding is another cause of bike crashes on one-way or two-way streets. Car drivers do not look for bicycles coming down the wrong side of the street at intersections or driveways. The closing speed of car and bike is higher if the bike is riding at the car. Riding with traffic is the safer way. 5. Never follow another rider without applying the rules. Many fatalities occur when one rider blindly follows another. Running stop signs or red lights, riding out of driveways or zipping across lanes all seem natural to the second child in line because they are more focused on following the first rider than on the traffic or the rules. This will not be an easy lesson to absorb! Every year about 700 people die in the U.S. from bicycle crashes. Most of them die from head injuries. Many more have their brains scrambled and live for a long time or even for the rest of their lives with some-thing that doesn't function right up there. Brain damage can cause learning disabilities or personality changes and rob your child of the ability to think clearly. Hospital emergency room studies show that a helmet can prevent that most of the time. So you don't want your child riding a bike without one, even on your block, the sidewalk or a bike trail. The fall is always from the same distance above the pavement. Before you get on your bike, wear a helmet! Gear: Start with a helmet, gloves to protect the skin on their hands and perhaps even skaters' knee and elbow pads for the first rides. Adjust the bicycle for your child and be sure they can reach pedals, bars and brakes comfortably. Now The Fun Part: Time to Ride and Practice the Rules Brakes first! Show your kid how to stop the bike. Hold them up and gently move them forward as they use the brakes to stop until you are sure they know how. Balance: Run alongside the bike, holding it up by the seat with one hand on the handlebars to show how you turn them to keep the bike upright. Riding: Nobody learns without practice. Riding with your child is probably the best way to practice the rules. Go over the rules, then ride, stopping occasionally to review what they have just done and praise their good performance. Notice that if they are behind you, your rule about not following automatically will be severely challenged, even if you ride through a red light or directly into the path of a car! As with almost any other skill, practice is required to ingrain techniques. More than one session will be needed. But the result is worth your time. In February, 1999, the first strangulation incident in the US involving a bike helmet on playground equipment occurred. Be sure to teach your child to remove their helmet before using playground equipment or climbing trees! Here is a page of information on that problem. We need to add: Warning! No Helmets on Playgrounds! Here is the US Government's advice on age guidelines for ride-on toys: when is your child ready to ride? And the little bitty type at the end: Bicycle Helmet Safety Institute 4611 Seventh Street South Arlington, VA 22204-1419 USA (703) 486-0100 - - email - - http://www.helmets.org All volunteers, all consumer funded. (hint) (c)BHSI 2015. OK to reproduce for non-profit use. This pamphlet is also available as a Word file or a .pdf format file. You can save it to disk, print it out in Word, another word processor or any Acrobat reader and photocopy it for non-profit use. The Word file name is GUIDE.DOC It was originally formatted for our HP Laserjet 4000 at 1200x1200 dpi. If it refuses to format correctly for your printer contact us by the address above and give us the postal mailing address where we can send you a paper copy to reproduce. We can't mail it on paper to your email address! This page was updated or partially revised on: March 7, 2015.
Posted: September 16, 2008 The young star, 1RXS J160929.1-210524, which has about 85 percent the mass of our Sun, lies about 500 light years from Earth with a companion body bearing a mass about eight times that of Jupiter. The candidate planet lies 330 times the Earth-Sun distance away from its star, over ten times the distance that Neptune orbits the Sun in our Solar System. "This is the first time we have directly seen a planetary mass object in a likely orbit around a star like our Sun," says David Lafrenicre, lead author of the paper that describes the findings in Astrophysical Journal Letters. "If we confirm that this object is indeed gravitationally tied to the star, it will be a major step forward." Gemini near infrared adaptive optics image of 1RSX J160929.1-210524 (centre) and its likely ~8 Jupiter-mass companion (within red circle, top left). All images were obtained with the Gemini Altair adaptive optics system and the Near-Infrared Imager on the Gemini North telescope. Image: Gemini Observatory Until now, the only planet-like bodies that have been directly imaged outside of the Solar System are either brown dwarfs, which are dim and make it easier to detect planetary-mass companions, or are not found orbiting a star at all. The near-infrared images and spectra of the suspected planetary object indicate that it is too cool to be a star or a brown dwarf, and that it is young. But the existence of a planetary-mass companion at such great distance from its parent star comes as a surprise, and poses a challenge to theoretical models of star and planet formation. "This discovery is yet another reminder of the truly remarkable diversity of worlds out there, and it's a strong hint that nature may have more than one mechanism for producing planetary mass companions to normal stars," says team member Ray Jayawardhana. The traditional formation mechanism for giant planets is known as core accretion, in which a small planet seed gradually grows by accreting solid particles from the circumstellar disc until this core becomes massive enough to capture large amounts of gas from the disc, at which point it becomes a giant planet. At hundreds of astronomical units from the star, as is the case for the newly discovered system, the density of material in the disc is so low that any small seed of planet would not be able to grow enough before the disc vanishes, which generally occurs after a few million years. “So if this planet formed through this mechanism, it would have had to form at a small distance and then migrate outward to its current position,” explains Lafrenicre. “Outward migration can result from gravitational interaction between multiple planets, that is, the gravitational effects of the planets on each other modify their orbits, gradually sending one planet on a larger orbit, or from interaction of the planet with the circumstellar disc.” Another possibility is that the planet formed directly at its current location but through a different mechanism. “Maybe it formed as binary stars do, by the direct collapse and fragmentation of a molecular cloud core, or maybe it formed by the rapid gravitational collapse of a part of the circumstellar disc,” suggests Lafrenicre. “All possibilities present their share of difficulties though, and it is hard to determine which one is more likely.” Even though the likelihood of a chance alignment between such an object and a similarly young star is rather small, it will take up to two years to verify that the star and its likely planet are moving through space together. “We need to obtain more images of the two objects to measure their relative positions as a function of time, and see if both objects are traveling through space together,” Lafrenicre tells Astronomy Now. “If the candidate companion is indeed 'tied' to the primary by gravity, then its position relative to the primary should be constant with time. If on the other hand it is not, then both objects would be moving through space at different speeds and in different directions, and their relative positions would thus change with time. Of course it would be premature to say that the object is definitely orbiting this star, but the evidence is extremely compelling.” The work that led to this discovery is part of a survey of more than 85 stars in the Upper Scorpius association, a group of young stars formed about five million years ago. It uses the Gemini telescope's high-resolution adaptive optics capabilities to determine the different types of companions that can form around young stars: stars, brown dwarfs, or planetary mass objects. Young stars are good subjects since any planetary mass object they host would not have had time to cool and thus would still be relatively bright, allowing astronomers to more readily discover such objects. Indeed, the Jupiter-sized body has an estimated temperature of about 1500 degrees Celsius, much hotter than our own Jupiter, which has a temperature of about -110 deg C. "This discovery certainly has us looking forward to what other surprises nature has in stock for us," says team member Professor Marten Van Kerkwijk. This special publication features the photography of British astro-imager Nik Szymanek and covers a range of photographic methods from basic to advanced. Beautiful pictures of the night sky can be obtained with a simple camera and tripod before tackling more difficult projects, such as guided astrophotography through the telescope and CCD imaging. U.S. & WORLDWIDE STORE Mars rover poster This new poster features some of the best pictures from NASA's amazing Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity. U.S. & WORLDWIDE STORE HOME \| NEWS ARCHIVE \| MAGAZINE \| SOLAR SYSTEM \| SKY CHART \| RESOURCES \| STORES \| SPACEFLIGHT NOW © 2013 Pole Star Publications Ltd.
Amoebiasis is when your intestines (gut) become infected with the parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Entamoeba histolytica lives in the intestines of infected people. It can be passed out in their stools (faeces). Infection often occurs after drinking water contaminated by infected faeces, or eating food prepared or washed using contaminated water. 9 out of 10 people with amoebiasis do not develop any symptoms. In those who do develop symptoms, diarrhoea which can be bloody is the most common. Those most at risk of amoebiasis include travellers to areas where amoebiasis is common (mostly countries with poor sanitation). Treatment includes medication to kill the parasite and drinking plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration. If you develop diarrhoea after travelling abroad to places where Entamoeba histolytica is common, you should see your doctor so that amoebiasis or other infections can be excluded. What is a parasite? A parasite is a general term for any living thing that lives in, or on, another living organism. It may feed of its host, or obtain shelter using its host, but it contributes nothing to its host's well-being or welfare. Human parasites include fungi, bacteria, viruses, protozoa and worms. What is amoebiasis? Amoebiasis is when your intestines (gut) become infected with the parasite Entamoeba histolytica (often abbreviated to E. histolytica). Entamoebae are a group of single-celled parasites that can infect both humans and some animals. There are at least six species of Entamoeba that can infect the human gut but only E. histolytica causes disease. E. histolytica is an amoeba. An amoeba is the name given to any single-celled microscopic animal with a jelly-like consistency and an irregular, constantly changing shape. Amoebae are found in water, soil and other damp environments. They move and feed by means of flowing extensions of their body, called pseudopodia. Amoebae are a type of protozoa. Protozoa is a more general name for microscopic, single-celled organisms. Some protozoa, including E. histolytica, are important parasites of humans. How do you get amoebiasis? E. histolytica lives in the intestines (gut) of infected people. It can be passed out in their stools (faeces). The parasite can actually survive for weeks, or even months, in soil, fertiliser, or water that is contaminated with infected faeces. If another person then drinks the contaminated water or eats contaminated food, they too can become infected. E. histolytica can also be present on the hands of an infected person if they follow poor hygiene practices (eg not washing and drying their hands properly after going to the toilet). If they are then in contact with another person, or prepare food for others, the parasite can enter another person's mouth, start to multiply in their gut, and therefore amoebiasis can be passed on. Sexual transmission of E. histolytica is also possible, usually in men who have sex with men. E. histolytica is more likely to infect people who live in developing countries where sanitation and hygiene is poor. In the UK, most people with E. histolytica infection have caught it whilst travelling abroad. Most people who become infected with E. histolytica do not develop any symptoms. However, symptoms may develop if the parasite causes inflammation of the lining of your gut. In some people, E. histolytica can also get into the bloodstream from the gut and spread around the body to the liver, lungs and sometimes other organs. Note: the parasites can still be present in the stools of infected people who have no symptoms. How common is amoebiasis? It is estimated that around 1 in 10 people in the world is infected with E. histolytica. As mentioned above, not everyone develops symptoms. It is thought that, worldwide, about 40 to 50 million people infected with E. histolytica develop amoebic colitis or abscesses causing up to 100,000 deaths per year. E. histolytica infection is particularly common in areas of Central and South America, Africa, and Asia. If you travel to such areas you may be at risk of infection. Ways to prevent infection are described below. What are the symptoms of amoebiasis? About 9 out of 10 people who are infected with E. histolytica have no symptoms. If infection does cause symptoms, they may be due to: This is when the E. histolytica parasite causes inflammation of the lining of your intestine. 'Colitis' is a general term used for inflammation of the lining of the colon (the large intestine). 'Amoebic' refers to the fact that the colitis is caused by the amoeba E. histolytica. The disease is often mild and can just lead to abdominal pain and diarrhoea. However, more severe inflammation with ulceration of the intestinal lining can occur in some people and so-called 'amoebic dysentery' can develop. (Dysentery is any infection of the intestines, causing severe diarrhoea with blood and mucus.) So, symptoms of amoebic dysentery include severe abdominal pain and diarrhoea which can contain blood and mucus. Fever may be another symptom but this is not common. You may also experience loss of appetite and weight loss. Symptoms can last for several weeks. Some people with amoebic colitis may just develop rectal bleeding (bleeding from their back passage) with no diarrhoea. Severe amoebic colitis is known as 'fulminant' or 'necrotising' colitis. The person is very unwell with very severe bloody diarrhoea, very severe abdominal pain and a distended abdomen with tenderness when their abdomen is examined by a doctor. Fever is also present. Occasionally, perforation of the intestine (a hole in the intestine) may occur. This severe infection seems to be more common in certain groups of people, including the very young, pregnant women and those with underlying poor nutrition. In a few people with amoebic colitis, an 'amoeboma' can develop. This is essentially a mass (or lump) of tissue that builds up or forms in the wall of the intestine due to the inflammation. It may cause a blockage of the intestine. Anaemia is another complication of amoebic colitis (due to blood loss in the bloody diarrhoea). Note: if you develop diarrhoea after travelling abroad to places where E. histolytica is common, you should see your doctor so that amoebiasis or other infections can be excluded. Amoebic liver abscess This is when the E. histolytica parasite invades right through your gut wall, gets into your bloodstream, and passes in your bloodstream to your liver. Once in your liver, it can cause an amoebic liver abscess to form. (An abscess is any localised collection of pus in the body that is surrounded and walled off by damaged and inflamed tissues.) An amoebic liver abscess contains pus and liquified, dying liver tissue. Symptoms include fever and right upper abdominal pain with tenderness in this area when a doctor examines you. You may become jaundiced and your liver may also become enlarged (again, a doctor may be able to tell this when they examine your abdomen). Only 3-4 out of 10 people with an amoebic liver abscess have symptoms of amoebic colitis at the same time. However, many people with a liver abscess may recall an episode of bloody diarrhoea within the previous year. So, an amoebic liver abscess can develop some time after initial infection with E. histolytica. It can be many years in some people. Spread from an amoebic liver abscess Rarely, an amoebic liver abscess can rupture (burst) and lead to damage to your diaphragm (the thin muscle that separates your chest cavity from your abdominal cavity). This can allow spread of the abscess into your chest cavity, affecting your lungs and your pleura (the membrane that covers your lungs). Symptoms of such a complication include cough, difficulty breathing and pain in your chest when you breathe in. Also, very rarely, in someone with an amoebic liver abscess, infection can spread to their brain and central nervous system. This can be very serious and needs quick treatment. Symptoms include headache, nausea, vomiting and confusion. How is amoebiasis diagnosed? Amoebiasis may be diagnosed when the E. histolytica parasite is seen in your stools after a stool sample is sent to the laboratory and examined under a microscope. Ideally, three stool specimens from different days should be examined. However, in many people with an amoebic liver abscess, E. histolytica may not be seen in their stools. Sometimes the parasite can be seen when fluid is drawn out of a liver abscess and examined under a microscope. A needle is passed through your skin into the abscess, usually using an ultrasound scan to guide the person performing the procedure. Other methods to detect E. histolytica in your stools have also been developed, including stool antigen detection (looking for E. histolytica proteins in your stools). The infection may also be diagnosed using a blood test that looks for evidence of E. histolytica infection in your blood. (If you have infection, antibodies to E. histolytica are usually found in your blood. These are another type of protein that are made in response to E. histolytica antigen.) Sometimes a colonoscopy is performed if you have bloody diarrhoea and other tests have been negative. A colonoscopy is when a thin, flexible telescope is passed through your anus into your colon to allow examination of your colon. A biopsy (tissue sample) taken at colonoscopy and examined under the microscope can show the parasites in your intestinal lining. A liver ultrasound scan or a CT scan of your liver can show a liver abscess. Other tests may also be carried out if you have amoebic colitis or an amoebic liver abscess; for example, blood tests to look at your liver function, blood tests to look for anaemia, etc. What is the treatment of amoebiasis? If you have no symptoms but are found to have E. histolytica in a stool specimen, it is usually advised that you should be treated with medication to kill the parasite. The drug diloxanide furoate is commonly used. Treatment is advised because you can still pass on the infection to others even if you have no symptoms. The amoebae will still pass out in your stools. Also, you may still develop symptoms at a later stage. The treatment of symptomatic amoebiasis then depends on your symptoms. Antibiotics are needed to treat amoebic colitis. Metronidazole is the usual antibiotic that is used but tinidazole may be a good alternative. A second drug, usually diloxanide furoate, is then used to get rid of any parasites that may still be living in your gut. After treatment is completed, testing of a follow-up stool sample is advised to ensure that the parasites have been cleared. If you have amoebic colitis, you are at risk of becoming dehydrated. Dehydration is when there is a lack of fluid in your body. It can occur if the water and salts that are lost in your stools are not replaced by your drinking adequate fluids. Therefore, drinking plenty of fluids is very important if you have amoebic colitis. Your doctor will advise you about how much fluid and what type of fluids you should drink. You may be given special rehydration drinks. They are made from sachets that you can buy from pharmacies. (The sachets are also available on prescription.) You add the contents of the sachet to water. Rehydration drinks provide a good balance of water, salts, and sugar. The small amount of sugar and salt helps the water to be absorbed better from the gut into the body. They do not stop or reduce diarrhoea. Do not use home-made salt/sugar drinks, as the quantity of salt and sugar has to be exact. If you do become severely dehydrated, you may need admission to hospital so that you can be given fluids intravenously (through a vein). Occasionally, someone who develops fulminant colitis or bowel perforation may need surgery to remove part of their intestine. Amoebic liver abscess Antibiotics are also needed to treat an amoebic liver abscess. The same antibiotics are used and are usually very effective, clearing the abscess in most people. Again, a second drug, usually diloxanide furoate is then used to get rid of any parasites that may still be living in your gut. If you also have colitis symptoms, drinking plenty of fluids is essential, as described above. If a very large amoebic liver abscess develops, or antibiotic treatment is not successful, surgery may be needed to drain the abscess. Surgery may also be needed if the liver abscess ruptures. Preventing the spread of amoebiasis to others If you or your child has amoebiasis, the following are recommended to prevent the spread of infection to others: - Wash your hands thoroughly after going to the toilet. Ideally, use liquid soap in warm running water, but any soap is better than none. Dry your hands properly after washing. If your child wears nappies, be especially careful to wash your hands after changing nappies and before preparing, serving, or eating food. - If a potty has to be used, wear gloves when you handle it, dispose of the contents into a toilet, then wash the potty with hot water and detergent and leave it to dry. - Don't share towels and flannels. - Don't prepare or serve food for others. - If clothing or bedding is soiled, first remove any faeces into the toilet. Then wash in a separate wash at as high a temperature as possible. - Regularly clean with disinfectant the toilets that you use. With hot water and detergent, wipe the flush handle, toilet seat, bathroom taps, surfaces and door handles at least once a day. Keep a cloth just for cleaning the toilet (or use a disposable one each time). - You should stay off work, school, college, etc, while you have amoebiasis. Your doctor will advise you when it is safe to return. Avoid contact with other people as far as possible during this time. - Food handlers: if you work with food and develop diarrhoea or vomiting, you must inform your employer and immediately leave the food-handling area. If amoebiasis is confirmed, you should inform your employer and stay away from work until your doctor advises it is safe to return. If you have amoebiasis infection and you work with vulnerable groups of people such as the elderly, the unwell or the young, you should inform your employer. What is the prognosis (outlook) for amoebiasis? Most people who develop amoebic colitis or an amoebic liver abscess can be successfully treated with drugs to kill the parasite and eliminate it from the intestine. Occasionally, drug treatment does not get rid of the parasite completely and symptoms can recur. In rare cases, fulminant colitis can develop and this causes severe illness and carries a worse outlook. If an amoebic abscess ruptures, or infection spreads to the central nervous system, again this has a worse prognosis. If strict hygiene measures are not undertaken and precautions are not used when travelling to 'at-risk' areas, re-infection can occur. Can amoebiasis be prevented? In general, good hygiene is essential to prevent the spread of many infections to others and to reduce your chance of picking up infections from others. Handwashing is the most important thing that you can do. In particular, always wash your hands and dry them thoroughly, and teach children to wash and dry theirs: - After going to the toilet (and after changing nappies or helping an older child to go to the toilet). - Before preparing or touching food or drinks. - Before eating. If you smoke, you should also wash your hands before smoking. The simple measure of washing and drying hands regularly and properly is known to make a big difference to the chance of developing many infections. In addition to this, when travelling to areas with poor sanitation, you should avoid eating or drinking the following to help reduce your chance of getting amoebiasis. This is because amoebiasis is often passed on by drinking contaminated water or eating contaminated food. Avoid: - Tap water - Watered down fruit juices (for example, fruit juices that may be sold in the street) - Ice cream - Ice cubes - Raw or undercooked meat - Fruit that has already been peeled - Mayonnaise or sauces Sealed bottled water, tea, coffee and alcohol are thought to be safe to drink. Further reading & references - Gastroenteritis, Clinical Knowledge Summaries (September 2009) - Gonzales ML, Dans LF, Martinez EG; Antiamoebic drugs for treating amoebic colitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Apr 15;(2):CD006085. - Lacasse A, Cleveland KO; Amebiasis. eMedicine. Updated: Feb 9, 2009. - Entamoeba histolytica. Accessed December 2009, Health Protection Agency - Krige JE, Beckingham IJ; ABC of diseases of liver, pancreas, and biliary system. BMJ. 2001 Mar 3;322(7285):537-40. \|Original Author: Dr Tim Kenny\|\|Current Version: Dr Michelle Wright\| \|Last Checked: 24/02/2010\|\|Document ID: 12503 Version: 2\|\|© EMIS\| Disclaimer: This article is for information only and should not be used for the diagnosis or treatment of medical conditions. EMIS has used all reasonable care in compiling the information but make no warranty as to its accuracy. Consult a doctor or other health care professional for diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. For details see our conditions.
Toggle: English / Spanish Premature placental separation; Placental separation What Is Placenta Abruptio? The placenta connects the fetus (unborn baby) to the mother’s uterus. It allows the baby to get nutrients, blood, and oxygen from the mother. It also helps the baby get rid of waste. Placenta abruptio (abruption) is when the placenta separates from the inner wall of the uterus before the baby is born. More about This Condition In most pregnancies, the placenta stays attached to the upper part of the uterine wall. In a small number of pregnancies, the placenta detaches (pulls itself from the wall of the uterus) too early. Most of the time, only part of the placenta pulls away. Other times it pulls away completely. This usually happens in the third trimester. The placenta is the lifeline of a fetus. Serious problems occur if it detaches. The baby gets less oxygen and fewer nutrients. Most babies survive it, but it is fatal for some. It is rarely fatal for the mother. What Causes It? No one knows what causes placental abruption. But these factors raise a woman’s risk for it: - Chronic (long-term) high blood pressure - Sudden onset of high blood pressure in previously normal mother - Heart disease - Alcohol or cocaine use - Placenta abruption in an earlier pregnancy - An injury to the mother (such as a car crash or fall with hitting the abdomen) - Being African-American - Being older than 40 Signs of Placental Abruption The most common symptoms are vaginal bleeding and painful contractions. The amount of bleeding depends on how much of the placenta has detached. Sometimes the blood that collects when the placenta detaches stays between the placenta and uterine wall, so you may not have bleeding from your vagina. - If the separation is slight, you may have only light bleeding. You may also have cramps or feel tender in your belly. - If the separation is moderate, you may have heavier bleeding. Cramps and belly pain will be more severe. - If more than half the placenta detaches, you may have belly pain and heavy bleeding. You may also have contractions. The baby may move more or less than normal. If you have any of these symptoms during your pregnancy, tell your health care provider right away. How Is Placental Abruption Treated? Your health care provider will: - Do a physical exam - Observe your contractions and how your baby responds to them - Sometimes do an ultrasound to check your placenta (but ultrasound does not always show a placental abruption) - Check your baby’s heart rate and rhythm If your placental abruption is small, your health care provider may put you on bed rest to stop your bleeding. After a few days, most women can usually go back to their normal activities. For a moderate separation, you will likely need to stay in the hospital. In the hospital: - Your baby’s heart rate will be monitored. - You might need a blood transfusion. - If your baby shows any signs of distress, your health care provider may induce your labor early. If you cannot give birth vaginally, you will need a cesarean section (C-section). Severe placental abruption is an emergency. You will need to deliver right away, usually by C-section. It is very rare, but a baby can be stillborn if there is a severe abruption. Can I Prevent Placental Abruption? You cannot prevent placental abruptio, but you can control the risk factors related to it. - Keep high blood pressure, heart disease, and diabetes under control. - Do not use tobacco, alcohol, cocaine, or amphetamines. - If you had an abruption in a past pregnancy, talk with your health care provider about ways to lower your risk. Francois KE, Foley MR. Antepartum and postpartum hemorrhage. In: Gabbe SG, Niebyl JR, Simpson JL, et al, eds. Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies. 6th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2012:chap 19. - Last reviewed on 8/23/2012 - Susan Storck, MD, FACOG, Chief, Eastside Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound, Bellevue, Washington; Clinical Teaching Faculty, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington School of Medicine. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- 2013 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
Chameleons are very unusual creatures, and in these pages we hope to explore and discover all there is to know about them. Chameleons are a type of lizard and therefore they are part of the reptile family of the animal kingdom. When you think about what you might already know about chameleons, it is probably something to do with the changing colour of it's skin. This is perhaps the most widely known fact about the chameleon; but when you look at the reasons why it changes colour, you might actually be surprised! Reptiles are not able to regulate their own body temperature as they are 'cold blooded' and therefore have to rely on the ambient temperature, which is the temperature outside of their bodies (i.e. the air temperature), or the temperature of what they are laying on - like rocks that have warmed in the sun. There are many different species of chameleon, whose natural habitat is originally in Eastern Africa and Madagascar, which lie between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer. Today chameleons are found in many other areas as they have been exported as pets and some have escaped forming local populations of chameleons. Chameleons can live for as long as 10 years, and they can have between 8 - 50 young at a time. They are sufficiently developed at one year old to enter the reproductive cycle (Lifecycles). The micro habitat of chameleons is mainly in trees or bushes and they only go down to ground level to move from tree to tree when branches are not touching, or for some species, when laying eggs. Chameleons are usually solitary animals and prefer to live on their own. The only time they come together by choice is for mating. If two chameleons meet on a branch unexpectedly, they will usually 'fight', but they do not have defenses that can injure the other reptile and once the 'fight' is over, will go their separate ways.
Carbon sequestration in plants and soils can be vulnerable but has additional benefits Biosequestration offsets reduce atmospheric CO2 concentration by growing vegetation that will store carbon in plants and soils equivalent to the amount of carbon to be offset. Biological sinks on land through forestry and agriculture are the most common forms of biosequestration for carbon emissions collectively under the name of land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) projects. The most widely available carbon offsets are reforestation projects, although there is an increasing interest in ‘avoidance deforestation’ carbon credits and in projects that promote agricultural best practices that conserve or increase soil carbon. Biosequestration carbon offsets have the potential to bring multiple secondary environmental and social benefits, including the establishment of long-term sustainable forestry industries, reduced erosion, the preservation and increase in biological diversity, and improved hydrological regulation. For the same reasons, it may have unintended negative consequences, such as the use of limited water resources and biodiversity degradation if exotic species are planted in monocultures. Biosequestration carbon offset projects need to demonstrate a well integrated plan with other environmental resource uses and a framework for sustainable development. Unintended negative effects Experiments into the limiting factors of ocean productivity have shown the potential for ocean carbon sequestration by fertilising with iron, one of the most limiting nutrients. Because the likely large and unintended negative changes that iron fertilization produces in marine biodiversity and trophic interactions (Le Quéré et al. 2004), the GCP does not support this type of projects for C offsets.
There's good reason why elephants never forget. New research shows that the lifetime experience of the oldest female in an elephant group helps them discriminate friend from foe. Ultimately, groups with wise females produce more offspring. The results may extend to other animals as well, the researchers speculate, and may even explain why some populations of sperm whales have relatively few young. For the new study, reported in the 20 April issue of Science, animal communication researcher Karen McComb of the University of Sussex in Brighton, United Kingdom, and Sarah Durant of the Institute of Zoology in London studied 20 small family groups of elephants, each typically containing several females and their calves, in Kenya. Each group moves independently, often encountering other clans or individuals while foraging for food. To test the animals' knowledge of their social environment, McComb, Durant, and their colleagues played recordings of elephant calls and watched the elephants' responses. Typically, calls from complete strangers prompted the mothers to cluster around their young, whereas familiar calls were ignored. But some groups were better than others at picking out the strangers. McComb's analysis showed the older the eldest female was, the better the group's ability to judge calls appropriately. Further analysis showed that the matriarch's storehouse of knowledge helped her clan produce more relatively more calves, McComb's team reports, perhaps because they wasted less time clustering and were less stressed than other clans. The research sends a strong message to conservationists that elder group members need to be protected, says Hal Whitehead, a marine biologist at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Canada. He wonders whether the low birthrates recorded in sperm whales off the coasts of Peru, Chile, Japan, and northwestern Europe--compared to whales in the Caribbean--are a vestige of whaling practiced until some 18 years ago. If whalers consistently took the larger, older individuals, he suggests, the groups may have "lost their social knowledge and may be less successful."
Science Centered Language The FOSS active investigations, science notebooks, FOSS Science Resources articles, and formative assessments provide rich contexts in which students develop and exercise thinking and communication. These elements are essential for effective instruction in both science and language arts—students experience the natural world in real and authentic ways and use language to inquire, process information, and communicate their thinking about scientific phenomena. FOSS refers to this development of language process and skills within the context of science as science-centered language development. There are many ways to integrate language into science investigations. The most effective integration depends on the type of investigation, the experience of students, the language skills and needs of students, and the language objectives that you deem important at the time. The Science-Centered Language Development chapter is a library of resources and strategies for you to use. The chapter describes how literacy strategies are integrated purposefully into the FOSS investigations, gives suggestions for additional literacy strategies that both enhance students’ learning in science and develop or exercise English-language literacy skills, and develops science vocabulary with scaffolding strategies for supporting all learners. The chapter is available in print in Teacher Resources and as a PDF for elementary and for middle school. Each FOSS module and course includes a resources database, called Recommended Books and Websites, found on FOSSweb. The resources database includes annotated listings for nonfiction and fiction books for students, resource books for teachers, and web resources that extend the hands-on science activities in each FOSS module. Students and families can view similar versions of the database through the student and family pages on FOSSweb. Students and families can visit as a guest or login using the username and password provided by the student's teacher to access the list of recommended books and websites. This database will be updated twice a year. We would love to hear about any books or other resources you are using with your students to enhance the FOSS modules. You can send your ideas and suggestions for this database to the FOSS staff at the Lawrence Hall of Science. Email us at [email protected].
- Genre: Special Interest-Educational - Release Date: 9/2/2008 This award-winning series helps students to build confidence in their ability to "do math" and develop the knowledge and skills required to become mathematically literate. This lesson shows that multiplication of fractions is related to the multiplication of whole numbers. A rationale for the canceling process is developed. A logical, step-by-step process for multiplying mixed numbers is then developed. Various types of fractional multiplication problems are shown as well as multiplication problems involving more than two numbers. Students will learn to explain why the canceling process works in multiplication and how to multiply fractions and mixed numbers. \|This product is a special order\| \|Run Time:\|\|30 minutes\|
Rhetoric and Composition/Active and Passive Voice Disclaimer: In everyday writing, the active voice is used to concisely and forcibly describe people's actions. The passive voice also has important rhetoric uses in everyday writing. It is more common in formal writing that tries to be less personal. The terms "active" and "passive voice" and their significance to good writing are explained in the article below. Voice in English Writing Languages have different levels of formality that vary with the purpose, the audience, and the situation. Generally, written English is more formal than spoken English because the person has more time to think about what to say. Formal writing uses fewer personal pronouns and less colloquial language, or slang. Another important difference is the use of grammatical voice. "Voice" has two meanings in writing. "Voice" can be defined as "how the writer's personality and attitude toward the topic are revealed to the audience." Voice, in this definition, is what makes one writer sound different from another. "Voice" is also a grammatical term; for clarity, it may be referred to as "grammatical voice." There are two voices discussed in this section: the active voice and the passive voice. Active and Passive Voice Sentences Most English sentences are written with active, passive, or neuter verbs, such as "to be" verbs. The active and passive voices are the two main voices in English, but some sentences may also be considered to be in the middle or mediopassive voice. Voice is the relationship between the subject and the verb in a clause or the transfer of action. - In the active voice, the subject performs the action. The subject of an active-voice construction is known as an agent. A clause with an active, transitive verb will be in the form of subject-verb-object. Example: The student finished the exercise. - In the passive voice, the subject receives the action. The subject of a passive-voice construction is known as a patient. An active voice clause can be passivized, or recast in the passive voice (for example, to increase formality), by making the object of the active clause the subject of the passive clause. "The exercise" is the object in the sentence above. The verb will be "was finished." For a passive verb, the tense and subject-verb agreement are always shown through the auxiliary verb "to be." The main verb is always the past participle. The subject of the active voice sentence can be included in a prepositional phrase with "by." Example: The exercise was finished by the student. \|Active Voice\|\|Passive Voice\| \|The teacher referred to "voice" as a grammatical term.\|\|"Voice" was referred to as a grammatical term by the teacher.\| \|The man yelled at the waiter.\|\|The waiter was yelled at by the man.\| \|Millions of people lived in the houses.\|\|The houses were lived in by millions of people.\| Intransitive verbs can be used in the passive voice when a prepositional phrase is included. Intransitive verbs without prepositional phrases cannot be passivized. There is no word to become the subject of the sentence. Active voice: Millions of people lived. Passive voice: ? was lived. Linking verbs (such as being verbs) are intransitive verbs that can never be used in the passive voice. They do not show action and are thus neither active nor passive. They are called neuter verbs. Use of the Passive Voice Converting an active-voice clause to a passive-voice clause may not change technical meaning, but can be done for altered formality or emphasis as well as change the connotation of the text. Linguistic studies have found high percentages of passive verbs in formal writing. The passive voice can emphasize an agent, a patient, or an adverb. It can be used for narrative flow and continuity in conversations. Emphasizing the agent: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. The passive voice emphasizes Shakespeare by putting his name at the end, the most emphatic part of a sentence. Emphasizing the patient: Jamey was fascinated by Language Arts. The passive-voice construction emphasizes Jamey more effectively than the active-voice equivalent "Language Arts fascinated Jamey." Emphasizing the adverb: That is strictly prohibited. Because a passive verb consists of two words, an adverb becomes emphatic when placed between "to be" and the past participle. The passive voice can be used to eliminate first- and second-pronouns in formal writing. Active voice: I hope that.... Passive voice: It is hoped that.... In formal writing, the writer may want to alternate between sentences in the first person and passive sentences in which the pronoun is implied to prevent the monotony caused by starting too many sentences with "I." Research studies are described in the passive voice. Research is intended to be objective, without the biases of the researchers conducting the experiments. An experiment should be the same no matter who performs it. Active voice: I collected samples from the subjects. Passive voice: Samples were collected from the subjects. A sentence in the imperative mood can be rewritten in the passive voice to make it more formal or less harsh. Active voice: Do not smoke. Passive voice: Smoking is prohibited. Active voice: Avoid contractions in formal writing. Passive voice: Contractions should be avoided in formal writing. The examples above for first- and second-person pronouns make use of the institutional passive, which omits the agent. In writing and speech, almost eighty-five percent of passive sentences are in the institutional passive. The Structural Difference The difference between active and passive is in how many noun phrases in the sentence that are not introduced with the use of a preposition. Compare the following sentences: I dropped the ball. The ball was dropped by me. The man offered the butler a reward. The Butler was offered a reward by the man. - In the active voice, the sentence has between two and three noun phrases that do not require a prepositional phrase. These are called the subject, the direct object and the indirect object. - I dropped the ball. ("I" is the subject. "The ball" is the direct object.) - The man offered the butler a reward. ("The man" is the subject. "The butler" is the indirect object and "a reward" is the direct object.) - The man offered a reward to the butler. ("The man" is still the subject. "A reward" is still the direct object, but "the butler" is now part of a prepositional phrase and is no longer an indirect object.) - In the passive voice, the sentence has one fewer noun phrase than the corresponding active. The subject is removed and can appear only in an optional prepositional phrase. The object is promoted to subject. For ditransitive verbs, the direct or indirect object can become the subject. - The ball was dropped by me. ("The ball" is now the subject. "Me" shows up in an optional "by"-phrase.) - The Butler was offered a reward by the man. ("The butler" is now the subject. There is only one object: "a reward." "The man" shows up in an optional "by"-phrase.) - A reward was offered to the butler by the man. ("A reward" is now the subject. "The butler" is not considered an indirect object because it is part of a prepositional phrase. "The man" shows up in an optional "by"-phrase.) Without a change in meaning, using the active or passive voice can emphasize different noun phrases in the examples above. By using the passive voice, the writer can take away emphasis from the perpetrator of the action and place it instead on the receiver of the action. In this way, focus is placed mostly on the action.
The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) are an effort by states to define a common core of knowledge and skills that students should develop in K-12 education, regardless of the state they live in, so they will graduate high school prepared for college or careers. The standards were released in 2010 and are divided into two categories: K-12 standards, which address expectations for elementary through high school and college and career readiness standards, which address what students are expected to know when they graduate from high school. Why do we need common standards? In the past, states have individually decided what knowledge and skills are necessary for students by the time they graduate from high school. Having common standards across the United States will help ensure that students are receiving a high-quality education consistently, from school to school and state to state. For military families, common standards can be a way to increase consistency of schooling as they relocate to new duty stations. Critics of the common core for students with disabilities believe that no flexibility for individual differences or learning styles exists. Teachers of students with special needs complain that seeing their students so frustrated at the rigidity of this system is difficult. Most of the Common Core goals collectively are one-size-fits all approach that have severely injured the students with special needs. With the addition of Common Core, there is little, if any, room for accommodations, modifications or even acceleration for students with special needs. In the Common Core document there is a one plus page which addresses students with disabilities. It states that special needs students should have support services, individualized instruction and assistive technology they need for “the rigor and high expectations of the Common Core State Standards”. This document does not state what these services are or how they would work. As for curricular materials they may only be altered within the framework of this Common Core. What happens then to the student population with significant cognitive disabilities such as general intellectual disabilities, language impairments, reading impairments, non-verbal learning disabilities or autistic spectrum disorders? Once again, do they become lost in the quagmire of standards which totally ignore their specific learning needs? Since the inception of the Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (and all of its re-authorizations of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) the federal government has mandated to the states laws to accommodate all children in our public school system. With the Common Core State Standards it appears that this concept of recognizing individual learning differences has been lost for some of our students. The Application to Students with Disabilities is available online at:
Changes in the structure of some of the many types of cells that make up the lungs may begin almost immediately upon exposure to carcinogens (cancercausing substances). Some of the thousands of chemicals contained in tobacco smoke—both inhaled directly and released into the air through secondhand smoke—are known respiratory carcinogens. Substances such as radon, asbestos, arsenic, uranium, and certain petroleum products also can cause lung cancer. Regular exposure to any of these substances can damage individual cells in the lungs, causing them to multiply into an abnormal mass of cells called a tumor. The tumor can be benign, which means that it will not spread to other parts of the body and usually will not grow back if it is removed. If the tumor is malignant, however, it can invade and destroy surrounding tissue and may spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream, causing new tumors (called metastases) to form in other tissues. And because all blood flows through the lungs, cancer that begins elsewhere in the body may spread to the lungs. A tumor in one of the bronchi can irritate the lining of the airway and cause a persistent cough, which may cause the tumor to bleed. As it grows, the tumor may block the airway, resulting in repeated bouts of pneumonia or other respiratory infections. A tumor located in the outer part of a lung may not produce any symptoms until it is large enough to press against the chest wall and cause pain. If you experience any of the warning signs of lung cancer (see Post Warning Sings of Lung Cancer), see your doctor as soon as possible. Tests for lung cancer include a chest X ray, a microscopic examination of mucus expelled from your lungs, and a computed tomography (CT) scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of your chest. If something resembling a tumor is seen on an X ray or a scan, your doctor may perform a bronchoscopy and a biopsy (removal of a small piece of tissue from the suspected tumor for examination under a microscope). Depending on the results, other tests and procedures may be performed to identify the type of cancer and the extent to which it has spread. Two major types of cancer begin in the lungs. Non-small cell lung cancer generally grows and spreads slowly. This form of cancer accounts for about three fourths of all cases of lung cancer. The non-small cell cancers include squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and large cell carcinoma. The less common small cell lung cancer (sometimes called oat cell cancer) grows quickly and is more likely to spread to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes, brain, liver, and bones. Treatment of lung cancer depends on the type of cancer cell involved, the size and location of the primary (or first) tumor, and the size and location of any secondary tumors (tumors that have spread from the primary tumor to another part of the body). Treatment options include surgical removal of the lung tumor, use of anticancer drugs (chemotherapy), use of radiation (radiation therapy), use of lasers (photodynamic therapy), or a combination of these treatments. Although treatment is improving, the outlook for lung cancer is generally poor. If you smoke or are exposed to any known carcinogens, you should immediately take steps to prevent lung cancer. Posted in Lungs
NASA, John Hopkins University Advanced PHysics Lab are planning an ambitious new solar probe that will travel closer to the Sun than any other manmade device ever. The probe will be used to study the charged particles of the solar wind directly from the Sun's outer atmosphere, the corona, where the wind is generated. The probe, costing an estimated $750 million, will likley launch in 2015. The expedition to the sun has been planned for almost 30 years, the time it has taken to overcome the serious technical obstacles in approaching so close to our parent star. "At closest approach Solar Probe would zip past the sun at 125 miles per second, protected by a carbon-composite heat shield that must withstand up to 2,600 degrees Fahrenheit and survive blasts of radiation and energized dust at levels not experienced by any previous spacecraft." There are an impressive list of goals for the craft, including: "Solar Probe will employ a combination of in-place and remote measurements to achieve the mission’s primary scientific goals: determine the structure and dynamics of the magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind; trace the flow of energy that heats the corona and accelerates the solar wind; determine what mechanisms accelerate and transport energetic particles; and explore dusty plasma near the sun and its influence on solar wind and energetic particle formation. The probe will weigh in at around 1000 pounds, have a nine foot carbon heat shield, and have two external solar arrays to provide power. Seven flybys of the planet Venus will allow the probe to shrink its orbit to just over 4 million miles from the Sun, over eight times closer than any previous spacecraft has come.
The discovery included six complete skulls of Peking Man, 12 skull fragments, 15 mandibles(1), 157 teeth and some sections of broken femur(2), shinbone(3), and upper arm bones belonging to more than 40 individuals of different ages and sexes. In addition 100,000 fragments of stone tools were found together with sites used for fire and burnt bones and stones. Peking Man created a unique Old Stone Culture which had much influence to the Old Stone Culture of north China. Stone tools are the principal relics of this remote culture. Also discovered in Zhoukoudian are stone points, a new production tool then, and bone articles made and used by Peking Man. Found in the caves were such tools as the larger end of an antler that had been used as a hammer and the sharp end of an antler used as a digging tool. The use of fire was a milestone of the development of civilization and the discovery of Peking Man has pushed back the time that man first used it by tens of thousands of years. The largest ash pile discovered in the caves is six meters thick. Fire allowed people to eat cooked food instead of raw food and promoted the development of the brain and improved health. With his rough tools and simple living conditions Peking man created a unique and very ancient culture. Included in the UNESCO(4) world heritage list in 1987.
Provide students with some pure fun as they explore life in the Middle Ages. Send them on a castle tour or a medieval adventure! Included: Five great interactive sites about the Middle Ages. As they explore the Middle Ages in texts and other more serious research materials, offer your students the chance to play while they learn. The sites below provide fun activities that will help students of all ages gain a better understanding of medieval life. One of the best places to find a virtual medieval tour is at National Geographic's Ghosts in the Castle. This is a site all your students can enjoy because, although the three castle-related activities here appear to be of similar difficulty, they actually provide for a range of abilities and reading levels. The first activity, found on the Ghosts in the Castles home page, invites visitors to tour an English castle built in the 1300s. Students enter a first name and a name for the castle and then click a drawbridge to explore with Marcus the Mouse. Between the gatehouse and the dungeon, visitors meet sentries, archers, jesters, noble girls, pages, and knights. They learn about the foods castle residents ate, the games they played, and the weapons they fought with. The text is personalized with the student's name, making this virtual tour seem almost real! The reading level is accessible to students in grades 3 and above. However, even younger students or poor readers can learn a great deal by simply clicking the hot spots in the pictures. When they complete the castle tour, students in middle school and above can click More About Castles to read The Case of the King Who Was Crazy for Castles. In this activity, students learn about King Ludwig II of Bavaria, a shy and possibly insane king who was fascinated by castles. King Ludwig built several castles during his lifetime -- then died under mysterious circumstances. After reading "Mystery of the Lake," the story of Ludwig's last night, students can cast a vote about what they think happened to cause his death. Kids' Castle is another site that offers a castle tour. Almost any reader can use the site, which includes a number of different activities and provides options for students with a range of abilities. Students enter the castle walls through the drawbridge and see an aerial view of the entire castle. Then they click a room to learn a little more about it. Each section includes an icon that leads to additional information. Many also provide an icon leading to an extension activity. This site is fun to look at, easy to navigate, and full of valuable information. It's a great beginning for elementary school students, and although it might look too easy for middle school students -- it isn't. Journey Through the Middle Ages with James, the Jingling Jester. At this ThinkQuest Junior site, created by students from Pennsylvania's Salford Hills Elementary School, visitors strive for knighthood as they tour the inside and outside of a medieval castle. To become a knight, a student must read the information describing the inside and outside of the castle of Ibral and then answer the jester's questions correctly. The instructions provided for "new squires" can be confusing; however, the icons help clear things up. Players click the castle icon to see the outside of the castle and the map icon to tour inside the castle. The scroll icon leads to critical thinking questions, and the "T" scroll leads to additional information about a variety of medieval topics. If a student clicks the jester icon and answers the jester's question correctly, he or she is rewarded with a clue leading to the end of the quest. Elementary school students will enjoy navigating the castle and acquiring letters for the final word scramble test. The game is fun, and the informational text, written by students for students, is simple and readable. Not all the medieval game sites include castle tours. Despite its name, Castle Quest has virtually nothing to do with castles. In this interactive fantasy game, visitors must save the world from eternal doom by finding and destroying the cause of the growing darkness that threatens the world. But is it to the north, south, east, or west? Click a direction and follow wherever it leads! The game is simple and fun, but the text is very difficult, and the graphics require a great deal of memory. Finally, students who enjoy logic puzzles will relish the challenges presented at Gothic Windows. At this site, students are presented with a puzzle made up of colorful triangular panes. Some of the panes are dimmed, however, and the challenge is to re-light them. Ah, but there's a catch! Try it and see. Solvers here can choose small, medium, or large puzzles, but they cannot choose hard or easy puzzles. The degree of difficulty is random. Although students of any age can work on the puzzles, most elementary students won't be able to solve them. Life in a medieval castle probably wasn't a lot of fun for the people who lived them, but your students can have a ball learning about the Dark Ages with these interactive activities. Article by Linda Starr Copyright © Education World
The Great Barrier Reef is set to be ravaged by the expected El Niño weather phenomenon and scientists warn that similar warming events have significantly impacted upon the reef’s coral. Research by the University of Queensland studied large Porites coral colonies, a type of coral considered more resistant than others to changes in the environment. By analysing and dating coral samples, researchers found there was a significant correlation between mass coral mortality events and spikes in sea surface temperature over the past 150 years. This finding raises “serious concern” for the wellbeing of the Great Barrier Reef, the scientists said, because of the long-term threat of climate change and, more immediately, the arrival of El Niño. El Niño is a climate phenomenon, occurring every few years, when water in the western part of the Pacific Ocean becomes exceptionally warm. It has different impacts in different parts of the world but in Australia it is associated with warmer temperatures and increased risk of droughts. The chances of El Niño hitting this year has been measured at 90%; scientists are concerned it could cause widespread damage to the reef, which is already weakened because of pollution, cyclones and a plague of coral-eating starfish. It has suffered a number of coral bleaches, notably in 1997 and 1998, after an El Niño. Bleaching is where the coral loses life and colour and turns white and brittle. Professor Jian-xin Zhao, who led the University of Queensland project, said there has been a rise in Porites coral deaths in recent decades. “The 1997-98 bleaching followed a strong El Niño event on top of a decline in water quality and a long-term global warming trend, which seems to have pushed the most robust corals past their tolerance limit,” he said. “Considering that a similar El Niño event is predicted to occur this coming summer, we have grave concerns for the reef.” Dr Tara Clark, lead researcher, said the loss of delicate hard corals was a concern because they provided habitat for many fish species. “These Porites corals are meant to be robust, so for them to show a response to warming is significant,” she said. “We may have another bleaching event if there’s another El Niño, which would have dire consequences. “If we start losing types of hard coral we’ll see these environments completely change, which will have implications down the track for a range of fish species. “A stronger than normal El Niño event has been predicted, which is worthy of concern. But we should be focusing on things like pollution and overfishing, things we can control. If we can improve the water quality, it will buy us some time.”
\|This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2011)\| Soundproofing is any means of reducing the sound pressure with respect to a specified sound source and receptor. There are several basic approaches to reducing sound: increasing the distance between source and receiver, using noise barriers to reflect or absorb the energy of the sound waves, using damping structures such as sound baffles, or using active antinoise sound generators. Two distinct soundproofing problems may need to be considered when designing acoustic treatments - to improve the sound within a room (See anechoic chamber), and reduce sound leakage to/from adjacent rooms or outdoors. Acoustic quieting, noise mitigation, and noise control can be used to limit unwanted noise. Soundproofing can suppress unwanted indirect sound waves such as reflections that cause echoes and resonances that cause reverberation. Soundproofing can reduce the transmission of unwanted direct sound waves from the source to an involuntary listener through the use of distance and intervening objects in the sound path. The energy density of sound waves decreases as they spread out, so that increasing the distance between the receiver and source results in a progressively lesser intensity of sound at the receiver. In a normal three-dimensional setting, with a point source and point receptor, the intensity of sound waves will be attenuated according to the inverse square of the distance from the source. Damping means to reduce resonance in the room, by absorption or redirection (reflection or diffusion). Absorption will reduce the overall sound level, whereas redirection makes unwanted sound harmless or even beneficial by reducing coherence. Damping can reduce the acoustic resonance in the air, or mechanical resonance in the structure of the room itself or things in the room. Absorbing sound spontaneously converts part of the sound energy to a very small amount of heat in the intervening object (the absorbing material), rather than sound being transmitted or reflected. There are several ways in which a material can absorb sound. The choice of sound absorbing material will be determined by the frequency distribution of noise to be absorbed and the acoustic absorption profile required. Porous open cell foams are highly effective noise absorbers across a broad range of medium-high frequencies. Performance is less impressive at low frequencies. The exact absorption profile of a porous open cell foam will be determined by a number of factors including the following: - Cell size - Material thickness - Material density Unlike porous absorbers, resonant absorbers are most effective at low-medium frequencies and the absorption of resonant absorbers is always matched to a narrow frequency range. In an outdoor environment such as highway engineering, embankments or panelling are often used to reflect sound upwards into the sky. Room within a room A room within a room (RWAR) is one method of isolating sound and preventing it from transmitting to the outside world where it may be undesirable. Most vibration / sound transfer from a room to the outside occurs through mechanical means. The vibration passes directly through the brick, woodwork and other solid structural elements. When it meets with an element such as a wall, ceiling, floor or window, which acts as a sounding board, the vibration is amplified and heard in the second space. A mechanical transmission is much faster, more efficient and may be more readily amplified than an airborne transmission of the same initial strength. The use of acoustic foam and other absorbent means is less effective against this transmitted vibration. The user is advised to break the connection between the room that contains the noise source and the outside world. This is called acoustic de-coupling. Ideal de-coupling involves eliminating vibration transfer in both solid materials and in the air, so air-flow into the room is often controlled. This has safety implications; for example proper ventilation must be assured and gas heaters cannot be used inside de-coupled space. Noise cancellation generators for active noise control are a relatively modern innovation. A microphone is used to pick up the sound that is then analyzed by a computer; then, sound waves with opposite polarity (180° phase at all frequencies) are output through a speaker, causing destructive interference and cancelling much of the noise. Residential soundproofing aims to decrease or eliminate the effects of exterior noise. The main focus of residential soundproofing in existing structures is the windows. Curtains can be used to damp sound either through use of heavy materials or through the use of air chambers known as honeycombs. Single-, double- and triple-honeycomb designs achieve relatively greater degrees of sound damping. The primary soundproofing limit of curtains is the lack of a seal at the edge of the curtain, although this may be alleviated with the use of sealing features, such as hook and loop fastener, adhesive, magnets, or other materials. Double-pane windows achieve somewhat greater sound damping than single-pane windows. Significant noise reduction can be achieved by installing a second interior window. In this case the exterior window remains in place while a slider or hung window is installed within the same wall openings. Commercial businesses sometimes use soundproofing technology. Restaurants, schools, and health care facilities use architectural acoustics to reduce noise for their customers. Office buildings may try to make cubicle spaces less noisy for workers using the phone. In the US, OSHA has requirements regulating the length of exposure of workers to certain levels of noise. Automotive soundproofing aims to decrease or eliminate the effects of exterior noise, primarily engine, exhaust and tire noise. The automotive environment limits the thickness of materials that can be used, but combinations of dampers, barriers, and absorbers are common. Significant noise reductions of up to 8dB can be achieved by installing a combination of all types of materials. Noise barriers as exterior soundproofing Since the early 1970s, it has become common practice in the United States and other industrialized countries to engineer noise barriers along major highways to protect adjacent residents from intruding roadway noise. The technology exists to predict accurately the optimum geometry for the noise barrier design. Noise barriers may be constructed of wood, masonry, earth or a combination thereof. One of the earliest noise barrier designs was in Arlington, Virginia adjacent to Interstate 66, stemming from interests expressed by the Arlington Coalition on Transportation. Possibly the earliest scientifically designed and published noise barrier construction was in Los Altos, California in 1970. - Acoustic board - Acoustic foam - Acoustic quieting - Acoustic transmission - Anechoic chamber - Hearing test - Noise barrier - Noise control - Noise mitigation - Noise pollution - Noise regulation - Noise, vibration, and harshness - Recording studio - Room modes - Sound masking - Sound transmission class - Cox, Trevor J.; D'Antonio, Peter. Acoustic absorbers and diffusers. - "Low frequency absorption". Studio tips. - "U.S. Standards on Workplace Noise Trail Those of Other Countries". New York Times. - "Introduction to Car Audio: How to Tame That Road Noise". Secrets of Car Audio.
Presentation on theme: "Chapter 11 The Late Middle Ages: Crisis and Disintegration in the Fourteenth Century."— Presentation transcript: Chapter 11 The Late Middle Ages: Crisis and Disintegration in the Fourteenth Century An enigmatic era Medieval crises precipitate the Renaissance Forces driving this change: War Plague “Infidel” Invasion by Mongols and Ottoman Turks Religions Schism This opens door for… Centralized “New Monarchies” Higher living standards Secular culture Religious Reform Medieval Developments to 1340 Feudalism sets stage for larger-scale government, protection of rights and duty to state Agricultural advancements – population thrives! Expansion and bureaucratization of the Church preserves aspects of Classical learning, provides order, and establishes universities/institutions of advanced learning Crusades allow for contact and exchange with Byzantine and Arab worlds The end result was an advanced civilization that fused Greco-Roman traditions with Christian, Germanic, Arabic and Byzantine elements to surpass other regions in the world at the time Threats to the Medieval World Mongol invasions of Russia in 1240 Ottoman Turks overtake Constantinople 1453 Papal scandal Church fragmented by Protestantism Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Plague, War, Famine, Death In the end, the forces that challenged the medieval world were secular ones The Black Death: A Recipe for Plague “Little Ice Age” The Great Famine (1315 – 1317) Inability to sustain growing population with agricultural methods used at the time Upheaval to urban areas The Black Death Most devastating natural disaster in European History Bubonic Plague Rats and Fleas? Perhaps not! Pneumonic causes? Pneumonic causes? Yersinia pestis Arrived in Europe in 1347 Mortality reached 50 – 60 percent in some areas Wiped out between 25 – 50 percent of European population (19 – 38 million dead in four years) Plague returns in 1361 – 1362 and 1369 Life and Death: Reactions to the Plague Plague as a punishment from God The flagellants Attacks against Jews - pogroms Violence “Dance of Death” Whip It! Whip it good! Economic Dislocation and Social Upheaval Labor Shortage + Falling prices for agricultural products = Drop in aristocratic incomes English Statute of Laborers (1351) : Limit Wages Social Mobility Peasant Revolts Jacquerie in France (1358) English Peasants’ Revolt (1381) Revolts in the Cities Ciompi Revolt in Florence (1378) Jacquerie, 1358 War and Political Instability The Hundred Years’ War French Attack on English Gascony (1337) Edward III of England claims French Crown Differences in the armies Battle of Crecy (1346) Henry V (1413 – 1422) Battle of Agincourt (1415) Battle of Agincourt Charles the Dauphin (heir to the French throne) Joan of Arc (1412 – 1431) Siege of Orleans Captured by allies of the English in 1430 Burned at the Stake (1431) Gunpowder War Ends with French victory (1453) Political Instability Breakdown of Feudal Institutions Attempts at political centralization Scutage: “buy out” of military service New Royal Dynasties Problems of succession Challenge of noble families Financial Problems Parliaments gain power Ongoing war creates need to tax Western Europe: England and France England Edward III (1327 – 1377) and the development of parliament House of Lords House of Commons Wars of the Roses (York vs. Lancaster) France Estates General - Marcel Taxation: gabelle, taille Madness of Charles VI (1380 – 1422) Civil War: Burgundy vs. Orleans Henry IV of England Germany & Italy The German Monarchy Breakup of the Holy Roman Empire post-Hohenstaufen Hundreds of States Elective Monarchy The Golden Bull (1356) Weak kings The States of Italy Lack of centralized authority Republicanism to Tyranny Outside control Development of regional states Milan Florence Venice Golden Bull of Charles IV The Decline of the Church Boniface VIII and the Conflict with the State Boniface VIII (1294 – 1303) Conflict with Philip IV (the Fair) of France Unam Sanctam (1302) Captured by French – is eventually released but then dies Clement V, a French pope! The Papacy at Avignon (1305 – 1378) “Babylonian Captivity” Stay at Avignon leads to a decline in papal prestige Captives of the French monarchy New Sources of revenue Catherine of Siena (c. 1347 – 1380) Boo Hiss Please, Greg! Come home! Palace and Bridge at Avignon – The City of the Popes The Great Schism Papacy returns to Rome in 1378 Rival Popes elected Pope Urban VI Pope Clement VII The Great Schism divides Europe Council of Pisa (1409) Deposed both popes and elected a new pope Popes refuse to step down Results in three popes! Council of Constance (1414 – 1418) End of the Schism Condemnation of heretics Jan Hus, John Wyclife Pope Martin V (1417 – 1431) elected Urban VI and Clement VII I’m da Pope! I don’t think so… I win. Changes for the Church End of conciliarism Council of Basel 1449 ends it Paves way for “Renaissance Papacy” Popes behaving badly… Patronage of art/culture Lay Piety and Mysticism Preoccupation with salvation after plague and war Purgatory and indulgences Meister Eckhart, Johannes Tauler, Gerhard Groote Female mystics – Catherine, Hildegard, Beguines Nominalism and the challenge to theology and scholasticism Aquinas vs. Occam Culture and Society in an Age of Adversity The Developments of Vernacular Literature Dante Alighieri (1265 – 1321) The Divine Comedy (1313 – 1321) Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1340 – 1400) The Canterbury Tales Christine de Pizan (c. 1364 – 1400) The Book of the City of Ladies (1404) Boccaccio Decameron Art and the Black Death Giotto (1266 – 1337) Ars Moriendi illustrations Culture and Society in an Age of Adversity Cimabue, Duccio, Giotto: from Byzantine to Renaissance style Change & Invention Changes in Urban Life Greater Regulation – PROSTITUTION! (woohoo!) Marriage Gender Roles Men: Active and Domineering Women: Passive and Submissive Medicine Medical schools---Salerno, Montpellier, Bologna, Oxford, Padua, and Paris. Midwives, barber-surgeons Inventions and New Patterns The Mechanical Clock (Di Dondi) New Conception of Time Gunpowder Temperamental, but utilized (James II’s “Lion”) Bell tower in Siena Mechanical Clock in the Prague Town Hall “One sound rose ceaselessly above the noises of busy life, and lifted all things unto a sphere of order and serenity: the sound of bells“ - John Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages Discussion Questions What impact did the Black Death have on medieval European society? What were the causes of the Hundred Years’ War? Who was Joan of Arc and what role did she play in the Hundred Years’ War? How did the Hundred Years’ War impact the relations between the English King and his Parliament? Why did the stay at Avignon lead to a decline in papal prestige? How was the Great Schism finally ended? How did Dante, Chaucer and Christine de Pisan reflect the values of their respective societies? How did the Black Death affect urban and family life? Web Links ORB – Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies ORB – Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies The End of Europe’s Middle Ages The Black Death, 1347 – 1350 Medieval Dance of Death De Re Militari – Society for Medieval Military History De Re Militari – Society for Medieval Military History The Age of King Charles V The World of Dante Geoffrey Chaucer
\|Part of a series on\| \|Social and cultural anthropology\| Specifically, animism is used in the anthropology of religion as a term for the belief system or cosmology of some indigenous tribal peoples, especially prior to the development and/or infiltration of colonialism and organized religion. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, "animism" is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples' "spiritual" or "supernatural" perspectives. The animistic perspective is so fundamental, mundane, everyday and taken-for-granted that most animistic indigenous people do not even have a word in their languages that corresponds to "animism" (or even "religion"); the term is an anthropological construct rather than one designated by the people themselves. Largely due to such ethnolinguistic and cultural discrepancies, opinion has differed on whether animism refers to a broad religious belief or to a full-fledged religion in its own right. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century by Sir Edward Tylor, who created it as "one of anthropology's earliest concepts, if not the first". Animism encompasses the belief that there is no separation between the spiritual and physical (or material) world, and souls or spirits exist, not only in humans, but also in some other animals, plants, rocks, geographic features such as mountains or rivers, or other entities of the natural environment, including thunder, wind, and shadows. Animism thus rejects Cartesian dualism. Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Examples of animism can be found in forms of Shinto, Serer, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Paganism, and Neopaganism. Some members of the non-tribal world also consider themselves animists (such as author Daniel Quinn, sculptor Lawson Oyekan, and many Neopagans). - 1 Theories of animism - 2 Religion and animism - 3 Other usages - 4 See also - 5 References - 6 Further reading - 7 External links Theories of animism Tylor's definition of animism The term animism appears to have been first developed as Animismus by German scientist Georg Ernst Stahl, circa 1720, to refer to the "doctrine that animal life is produced by an immaterial soul." The actual English language form of animism, however, can only be attested to 1819. The term was taken and redefined by the anthropologist Sir Edward Tylor in his 1871 book Primitive Culture, in which he defined it as "the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings in general." According to Tylor, animism often includes "an idea of pervading life and will in nature"; i.e., a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by Auguste Comte as fetishism. As a self-described "confirmed scientific rationalist", Tylor believed that animistic beliefs were "childish" and typical of "cognitive underdevelopment", and that it was therefore common in "primitive" peoples such as those living in hunter gatherer societies. In fact, Tylor based his theory of animism on his experience of modern seances thereby constructing a model of 'primitive thought' (of which he had no first hand experience) from his first-hand knowledge of spiritualism. Stringer (1999) notes that his reading of Primitive Culture led him to believe that Tylor was far more sympathetic in regard to “primitive” populations than many of his contemporaries, and that Tylor expressed no belief that there was any difference between the intellectual capabilities of “savage” people and westerners. To Tylor, the fundamental distinction between western and “primitive” cultures was education; and education was a social-cultural evolutionary process that produced differing levels of sophistication, or “progress,” in different places. Social evolutionist conceptions of animism Tylor's definition of animism was a part of a growing international debate on the nature of 'primitive society' by lawyers, theologians and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science, Anthropology. By the end of the nineteenth century an orthodoxy on 'primitive society' had emerged although few anthropologists today would accept their definition; the 'nineteenth century armchair anthropologists' argued 'primitive society' (an evolutionary category) was ordered by kinship and was divided into exogamous descent groups related by a series of marriage exchanges. Their religion was 'animism,' the belief that natural species and objects had souls. With the development of private property, these descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of "developed" religions. According to Tylor, the more scientifically advanced a society became, the less members of that society believed in animism; however, any remnant ideologies of souls or spirits, to Tylor, represented "survivals" of the original animism of early humanity. In 1869 (three years after Tylor proposed his definition of animism), the Edinburgh lawyer John Ferguson McLellan argued that the animistic thinking evident in fetishism gave rise to a religion he named Totemism. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended of the same species as their totemic animal. Subsequent debate by the armchair anthropologists (including J. J. Bachofen, Émile Durkheim and Sigmund Freud) remained focused on totemism rather than animism, with few directly challenging Tylor's definition. Indeed, anthropologists "have commonly avoided the issue of animism and even the term itself rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich ethnographies." According to the anthropologist Tim Ingold, animism shares similarities to totemism but differs in its focus on individual spirit beings which help to perpetuate life, whereas totemism more typically holds that there is a primary source, such as the land itself or the ancestors, who provide the basis to life. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the Australian Aboriginals are more typically totemic, whereas others like the Inuit are more typically animistic in their worldview. Animism as a relational ontology After a lengthy period of disinterest, post-modern anthropologists are increasingly engaging with the concept of animism. Modernism is characterized by a Cartesian subject-object dualism that divides the subjective from the objective, and culture from nature; in this view, animism is the inverse of scientism, and hence inherently invalid. Drawing on the work of Bruno Latour, these anthropologists question these modernist assumptions, and theorize that all societies continue to "animate" the world around them, and not just as a Tylorian survival of primitive thought. Rather, the instrumental reason characteristic of modernity is limited to our "professional subcultures," which allows us to treat the world as a detached mechanical object in a delimited sphere of activity. We, like animists, also continue to create personal relationships with elements of the so-called objective world, whether pets, cars or teddy-bears, who we recognize as subjects. As such, these entities are "approached as communicative subjects rather than the inert objects perceived by modernists." These approaches are careful to avoid the modernist assumptions that the environment consists dichotomously of a physical world distinct from humans, and from modernist conceptions of the person as composed dualistically as body and soul. Nurit Bird-David argues that "Positivistic ideas about the meaning of 'nature', 'life' and 'personhood' misdirected these previous attempts to understand the local concepts. Classical theoreticians (it is argued) attributed their own modernist ideas of self to 'primitive peoples' while asserting that the 'primitive peoples' read their idea of self into others!" She argues that animism is a "relational epistemology", and not a Tylorian failure of primitive reasoning. That is, self-identity among animists is based on their relationships with others, rather than some distinctive feature of the self. Instead of focusing on the essentialized, modernist self (the "individual"), persons are viewed as bundles of social relationships ("dividuals"), some of which are with "superpersons" (i.e. non-humans). Tim Ingold, like Bird-David, argues that animists do not see themselves as separate from their environment: "Hunter-gatherers do not, as a rule, approach their environment as an external world of nature that has to be 'grasped' intellectually ... indeed the separation of mind and nature has no place in their thought and practice." Willerslev extends the argument by noting that animists reject this Cartesian dualism, and that the animist self identifies with the world, "feeling at once within and apart from it so that the two glide ceaselessly in and out of each other in a sealed circuit." The animist hunter is thus aware of himself as a human hunter, but, through mimicry is able to assume the viewpoint, senses, and sensibilities of his prey, to be one with it. Shamanism, in this view, is an everyday attempt to influence spirits of ancestors and animals by mirroring their behaviours as the hunter does his prey. Religion and animism There is ongoing disagreement (and no general consensus) as to whether animism is merely a singular, broadly encompassing religious belief or a worldview in and of itself, comprising many diverse mythologies found worldwide in many diverse cultures. This also raises a controversy regarding the ethical claims animism may or may not make: whether animism ignores questions of ethics altogether or, by endowing various non-human elements of nature with spirituality or personhood, in fact promotes a complex ecological ethics. In modern usage, the term is sometimes used improperly as a catch-all classification of "other world religions" alongside major organized religions. Tylor argued that animism consisted of two unformulated propositions; all parts of nature had a soul, and these souls are capable of moving without requiring a physical form. This gives rise to fetishism, the worship of visible objects as powerful, spiritual beings. The second proposition was that souls are independent of their physical forms. It gives rise to 'spiritism', the worship of the souls of the dead and the unseen spirits of the heavens. Others such as Nurit Bird-David, associate animism with various aspects of shamanism. In many animistic world views, the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with other animals, plants, and natural forces. Therefore, it is morally imperative to treat these agents with respect. In this world view, humans are considered a part of nature, rather than superior to, or separate from it. Totemism (or fetishism) includes one or more of several features, such as the mystic association of animal and plant species, natural phenomena, or created objects with unilineally related groups (lineages, clans, tribes, moieties, phratries) or with local groups and families; the hereditary transmission of the totems (patrilineal or matrilineal); group and personal names that are based either directly or indirectly on the totem; the use of totemistic emblems and symbols; taboos and prohibitions that may apply to the species itself or can be limited to parts of animals and plants (partial taboos instead of partial totems); and a connection with a large number of animals and natural objects (multiplex totems) within which a distinction can be made between principal totems and subsidiary ones (linked totems). Many animistic cultures observe some form of ancestor reverence. Whether they see the ancestors as living in an other world, or embodied in the natural features of this world, animists often believe that offerings and prayers to and for the dead are an important facet of maintaining harmony with the world of the spirits. A shaman is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing. Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment. Distinction from pantheism Animism is not the same as pantheism, although the two are sometimes confused. Some religions are both pantheistic and animistic. One of the main differences is that while animists believe everything to be spiritual in nature, they do not necessarily see the spiritual nature of everything in existence as being united (monism), the way pantheists do. As a result, animism puts more emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual soul. In pantheism, everything shares the same spiritual essence, rather than having distinct spirits and/or souls. Additionally, Pantheism posits a source of this "monism". This source may or may not have agency. In contrast, in Animism, the soul or essence or spirit of objects and living things are novel and separate from the whole, while still seen as irrevocably intertwined with one another in a community. Examples of animist traditions - Shinto, the traditional religion of Japan, is highly animistic. In Shinto, spirits of nature, or kami, are believed to exist everywhere, from the major (such as the goddess of the sun), which can be considered polytheistic, to the minor, which are more likely to be seen as a form of animism. - Many traditional beliefs in the Philippines still practised to an extent today are animist and spiritist in origin in that there are rituals aimed at pacifying malevolent spirits or are apotropaic in nature. - There are some Hindu groups which may be considered animist. The coastal Karnataka has a different tradition of praying to spirits (see also Folk Hinduism). Likewise a popular Hindu ritual form of worship of North Malabar in Kerala, India is the Tabuh Rah blood offering to Theyyam gods, despite being forbidden in the Vedic philosophy of sattvic Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, Theyyam deities are propitiated through the cock sacrifice where the religious cockfight is a religious exercise of offering blood to the Theyyam gods. - Mun, (also called Munism or Bongthingism) is the traditional polytheistic, animist, shamanistic, and syncretic religion of the Lepcha people. - Many traditional Native American religions are fundamentally animistic. See, for example, the Lakota Sioux prayer Mitakuye Oyasin. The Haudenausaunee Thanksgiving Address, which can take an hour to recite, directs thanks towards every being - plant, animal and other. - The New Age movement commonly demonstrates animistic traits in asserting the existence of nature spirits. - Some Neopagan groups, including Eco-Pagans, describe themselves as animists, meaning that they respect the diverse community of living beings and spirits with whom humans share the world/cosmos. Psychology and animism Animism in the broadest sense, i.e., thinking of objects as animate, and treating them as if they were animate, is near-universal. Jean Piaget applied the term in reference to an implicit understanding of the world in a child's mind which assumes that all events are the product of intention or consciousness. Piaget explains this with a cognitive inability to distinguish the external world from one's internal world. Science and animism In the early 20th century, William McDougall defended a form of animism in his book Body and Mind: A History and Defence of Animism (1911). Herbert's quantum animism differs from traditional animism in that it avoids assuming a dualistic model of mind and matter. Traditional dualism assumes that some kind of spirit inhabits a body and makes it move, a ghost in the machine. Herbert's quantum animism presents the idea that every natural system has an inner life, a conscious center, from which it directs and observes its action. - Segal, p. 14. - Stringer, Martin D. (1999). "Rethinking Animism: Thoughts from the Infancy of our Discipline". Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5 (4): 541–56. doi:10.2307/2661147. - Hornborg, Alf (2006). "Animism, fetishism, and objectivism as strategies for knowing (or not knowing) the world". Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology 71 (1): 21–32. doi:10.1080/00141840600603129. - Haught, John F. (1990). 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"Animism Revisited: Personhood, environment, and relational epistemology", Current Anthropology 40, pp. 67–91. Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. Readings in Indigenous Religions (London and New York: Continuum) pp. 72–105. - Cunningham, Scott. Living Wicca: A Further Guide for the Solitary Practitioner. Llewellyn, 2002.[unreliable source?] - Dean, Bartholomew 2009 Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia, Gainesville: University Press of Florida ISBN 978-0-8130-3378-5. (Online) - Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe. Ideas that Changed the World. Dorling Kindersley, 2003. - Higginbotham, Joyce (2002). Paganism: An Introduction to Earth- Centered Religions'. Llewellyn.[unreliable source?] - 'Lamphun's Little-Known Animal Shrines' (Animist traditions in Thailand) in: Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, Ancient Chiang Mai Volume 1. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012. - Segal, Robert (2004). Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. - Hallowell, A. Irving. "Ojibwa ontology, behavior, and world view" in Stanley Diamond (ed.) 1960. Culture in History (New York: Columbia University Press). Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. Readings in Indigenous Religions (London and New York: Continuum) pp. 17–49. - Harvey, Graham. 2005. Animism: Respecting the Living World (London: Hurst and co.; New York: Columbia University Press; Adelaide: Wakefield Press). - Ingold, Tim: 'Rethinking the animate, re-animating thought'. Ethnos, 71(1) / 2006: pp. 9–20. - Wundt, W. (1906). Mythus und Religion, Teil II. Leipzig 1906 (Völkerpsychologie, volume II). - Quinn, Daniel. The Story of B - Käser, Lothar: Animismus. Eine Einführung in die begrifflichen Grundlagen des Welt- und Menschenbildes traditionaler (ethnischer) Gesellschaften für Entwicklungshelfer und kirchliche Mitarbeiter in Übersee. Liebenzeller Mission, Bad Liebenzell 2004, ISBN 3-921113-61-X. - mit dem verkürzten Untertitel Einführung in seine begrifflichen Grundlagen auch bei: Erlanger Verlag für Mission und Okumene, Neuendettelsau 2004, ISBN 3-87214-609-2. - Badenberg, Robert: "How about 'Animism'? An Inquiry beyond Label and Legacy". In: Mission als Kommunikation. Festschrift für Ursula Wiesemann zu ihrem 75. Geburtstag, edited by Klaus W. Müller. VTR, Nürnberg 2007; ISBN 978-3-937965-75-8 and VKW, Bonn 2007; ISBN 978-3-938116-33-3. \|Find more about Animism at Wikipedia's sister projects\| \|Definitions and translations from Wiktionary\| \|Media from Commons\| - Animism, Rinri, Modernization; the Base of Japanese Robotics - Urban Legends Reference Pages: Weight of the Soul - Animist Network
Definitions of Terms Related to Electricity Ampere—The unit for measuring intensity of flow of electricity. Its symbol is “I.” Bonding—Applies inert material to metal surfaces to eliminate electrical potential between metal components and prevent components and piping systems from having an elevated voltage potential. Circuit—The flow of electricity through two or more wires from the supply source to one or more outlets and back to the source. Circuit breaker—A safety device used to break the flow of electricity by opening the circuit automatically in the event of overloading or used to open or close the circuit manually. Conductor—Any substance capable of conveying an electric current. In the home, copper wire is usually used. - A bare conductor is one with no insulation or covering. - A covered conductor is one covered with one or more layers of insulation. Conductor gauge—A numeric system used to label electric conductor sizes, given in American Wire Gauge (AWG). The larger the AWG number, the smaller the wire size. Current—The flow of electricity through a circuit. - Alternating current is an electric current that reverses its direction of flow at regular intervals. For example, it would alternate 60 times every second in a 60-cycle system. This type of power is commonly found in homes. - Direct current is an electric current flowing in one direction. This type of current is not commonly found in today’s homes. Electricity—Energy that can be used to run household appliances; it can produce light and heat, shocks, and numerous other effects. Fuse—A safety device that cuts off the flow of electricity when the current flowing through the fuse exceeds its rated capacity. Ground—To connect with the earth, as to ground an electric wire directly to the earth or indirectly through a water pipe or some other conductor. Usually, a green-colored wire is used for grounding the whole electrical system to the earth. A copper wire is usually used to ground individual electrical components of the whole system. (The home inspector should never assume that insulation color wiring codes have been used appropriately.) Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)—A device intended to protect people from electric shock. It de-energizes a circuit or portion of a circuit within an established very brief period of time when a current to ground exceeds some predetermined value (less than that required to operate the over-current protected device of the supply circuit). Hot wires—Those that carry the electric current or power to the load; they are usually black or red. Insulator—A material that will not permit the passage of electricity. Kilowatt-hour (KWH)—The amount of energy supplied y one kilowatt (1,000 watts) for 1 hour (3,600 seconds), equal to 3,600,000 joule. Electric bills are usually figured by the number of KWHs consumed. Neutral wire—The third wire in a three-wire distribution circuit; it is usually white or light gray and is connected to the ground. Resistance—A measure of the difficulty of electric current to pass through a given material; its unit is the ohm. Service—The conductor and equipment for delivering energy from the electricity supply system to the wiring system of the premises. Service drop—The overhead service connectors from the last pole or other aerial support to and including the splices, if any, connecting to the service entrance conductors at the building or other structure. Service panel—Main panel or cabinet through which electricity is brought to the building and distributed. It contains the main disconnect switch and fuses or circuit breakers. Short circuit—A break in the flow of electricity through a circuit due to the load caused by improper connection between hot and neutral wires. Volt—The unit for measuring electrical pressure of force, which is known as electromotive force. Its symbol is E.” Voltage drop—A voltage loss when wires carry current. The longer the cord, the greater the voltage drop. Watt—The unit of electric power. Volts times amperes = watts. Source: National Center for Environmental Health
An underwater glider is a type of autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) that uses small changes in its buoyancy in conjunction with wings to convert vertical motion to horizontal, and thereby propel itself forward with very low power consumption. While not as fast as conventional AUVs, gliders using buoyancy-based propulsion represent a significant increase in range and duration compared to vehicles propelled by electric motor-driven propellers, extending ocean sampling missions from hours to weeks or months, and to thousands of kilometers of range. Gliders follow a sawtooth path though the water, providing data on temporal and spatial scales unavailable to previous AUVs, and much more costly to sample using traditional shipboard techniques. By 2005, not only had a working thermal-powered glider (Slocum Thermal) been demonstrated by Webb Research, but they and other institutions had introduced battery-powered gliders with impressive duration and efficiency, far exceeding that of traditional survey-class AUVs. The University of Washington Seaglider and Scripps Institution of Oceanography Spray vehicles have performed feats such as crossing the Gulf Stream from the mainland USA to Bermuda, and, together with the Webb Slocum, conducting sustained, multi-vehicle collaborative monitoring of oceanographic variables in Monterey Bay. Originally conceived as testbed for the thermal-power gliders before developing into a platform of their own, the Webb Slocum electric gliders have been widely deployed since 2003. As one of its earliest users, Rutgers University has flown its fleet of gliders over 45,000 km (as of June 2008) in three of the five major oceans. In January 2007, Slocum glider RU06 became the first autonomous underwater vehicle to fly across the Antarctic Circle into Antarctica, on its way completing a 22 day, 553 km mission along the western shelf of the Antarctic Peninsula. Gliders vary in the pressure they are able to withstand. The coastal Slocum model is rated for 200 meters depth. Spray can operate to 1500 meters, Seaglider to 1000 meters, and Slocum Thermal to 1200. In December 2006, a Deep Glider variant of the Seaglider achieved a repeated 3300-meter operating depth. As of 2006, the US Navy Office of Naval Research is developing the world's largest glider, the Liberdade XRay, which uses a blended wing body hullform to achieve hydrodynamic efficiency. It is intended to quietly track diesel electric submarines in littoral waters, remaining on station for up to 6 months, with major field testing beginning in August 2006 .
Reduced Air Pollution Leads to Higher Crop Yields Complete the form below to unlock access to ALL audio articles. A new study, led by Stanford University, has revealed how removing a common air pollutant could lead to significant gains in crop yields. Nitrogen oxides impact crop productivity The research, published in Science Advances, is the first to use satellite images to reveal how nitrogen oxides (also referred to as NOx), gases found in industrial emissions and car exhausts, impact crop productivity. The findings could have important implications for increasing agricultural output and analyzing the mitigation costs for combating climate change. “Nitrogen oxides are invisible to humans, but new satellites have been able to map them with incredibly high precision,” Professor David Lobell, the study’s lead author and director of Stanford’s Center on Food Security and the Environment said in an interview with Stanford News” Since we can also measure crop production from space, this opened up the chance to rapidly improve our knowledge of how these gases affect agriculture in different regions.” A widely emitted pollutant Scientists have long understood nitrogen oxides’ potential to damage crop cells directly, as well indirectly impact them through their role as precursors to the formation of ozone, itself an airborne toxin known to reduce crop yields. However, little is known about NOx’ impacts on agricultural productivity. The lack of overlap between air monitoring stations and agricultural areas, coupled with the confounding effects of different pollutants, has limited past research. To overcome these limitations, Lobell and colleagues utilized satellite measures of crop greenness in combination with nitrogen dioxide levels over the period 2018–2020. Although invisible to the human eye, nitrogen dioxide has a distinct interaction with ultraviolet light. This method enabled the team to take satellite measurements of the gas at far higher spatial and temporal resolution compared to any other air pollutant. As nitrogen dioxide is the primary form of NOx, it can be used as a good measure of total NOx concentration. Quoted in a news release, study co-author Jennifer Burney, associate professor of environmental science at the University of California, San Diego, said, “In addition to being more easily measured than other pollutants, nitrogen dioxide has the nice feature of being a primary pollutant, meaning it is directly emitted rather than formed in the atmosphere. That means relating emissions to impacts is much more straightforward than for other pollutants.” What impact will this have on crops? Utilizing this data, the researchers calculated that a reduction in NOx emissions of around 50% in each region would improve yields by approximately 25% for winter crops and 15% for summer crops in China. In Western Europe, yields were estimated to improve nearly 10% for both winter and summer crops. Crop yields in India were calculated to increase by roughly eight percent for summer crops and six percent for winter crops. North and South America were generally shown to have the lowest levels of NOx exposures. Overall, the study highlighted that effects appeared most negative in the seasons and locations where NOx likely drives ozone formation. How to reduce NOx Speaking to Stanford News, Burney said, “The actions you would take to reduce NOx, such as vehicle electrification, overlap closely with the types of energy transformations needed to slow climate change and improve local air quality for human health.” She added that the “main take home” from the study is that the consequences of these actions could be beneficial for agriculture, easing the issues associated with food supply for a growing population. In fact, previous research by Lobell and Burney estimated that reductions in ozone, particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide over the period 1999–2019 contributed to an approximate increase in US corn and soybean yield of around 20%. This equates to approximately $5 billion per year. Future research exploring pollutant impact on crop yieldsLooking to the future, the researchers say that their analysis could utilize other satellite observations to better understand nitrogen dioxide’s effects on crops’ varying degrees of sensitivity to the gas throughout the growing season. This may lead to more detailed examination of other pollutants as well as meteorological variables, such as drought and heat, all of which could help to explain why nitrogen dioxide affects crops differently across different regions, years, and seasons. Reference: Lobell David B., Di Tommaso Stefania, Burney Jennifer A. Globally ubiquitous negative effects of nitrogen dioxide on crop growth. Sci Adv. 8(22):eabm9909. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abm9909.
Narrative is not an artificial construct imposed upon fiction, but a model of the way we organize information in our efforts to extract meaning and project likely scenarios. More and more corporations organizations, and government entities are employing narrative to analyze the motivations of individuals and groups and to determine their future behavior. Of the models available for such analysis, the Dramatica model of narrative structure has proven to be most accurate and most specific. Introduction to Dramatica Theory and Applications The Dramatica Theory of Story is a model of the mind’s problem solving processes which has been successfully employed for seventeen years in the analysis and construction of fictional stories ranging from major Hollywood productions to novels, stage plays and television programs. Software based on the Dramatica Theory is built around an interactive Story Engine which implements the problem-solving model as a method of determining the meaning and impact of data sets and of predicting motivations and actions based on potentials inherent in the data. This is achieved by creating a Storyform – essentially, a schematic of the problem solving processes at work, their interactions, their outcomes, and the future course they will take. The Dramatica system and its problem-solving algorithms can be applied with equal success to the analysis of real-world situations as well, specifically in determining the motivations behind the actions of a target group and in the prediction of their future actions and potentials for action. Scalability and the Story Mind To illustrate this methodology we let us consider a generic target group. This might be a clique, club, movement, political faction, tribe or nation. Which brings us to the first benefit of this system: Dramatica is scalable. That is to say that it works equally well on individuals or groups of any size. This kind of scalability is described by a Dramatica concept referred to as the Story Mind. In fiction, characters are not only individuals but come to interact in stories as if they are aspects of a larger, overall mind set belonging to the structure of the story itself. So, for example, one character may emerge in group actions and discussions as the voice of reason while another becomes defined as the heart of the group and is driven primarily by passion. Stories reflect the way people react and behave in the real world, and so we find that when individuals band together as a larger unit, they fall into roles so that the unit itself takes on an identity with its own personality and its own psychology, almost as if it were an individual itself, in essence, a Story Mind. Fractal Storyforms in the Real World Similarly, if several groups become bound as when a number of factions join as members of a larger movement, the movement begins to take on an identity and the factions fall into roles representing aspects of our own problem solving processes. Like nested dolls, Dramatica can move up and down the scale of magnitude from the individual to the national or even international level and its ability to analyze and predict based on its underlying model is equally effective. This phenomenon is referred to the Fractal Storyform. In actual practice, many groups of interest are ill-defined, have blurry edges and indistinct leadership. Still, the core motivations of the target group can be determined, and from this the edges of the group can be refined sufficiently to create a storyform of the appropriate magnitude to the task at hand. Memes and Story Points Dramatica makes a key distinction between the underlying structure of a story and the subject matter that is explored by that structure. For example, every story has a goal but the specific nature of the goal is different from story to story. Elements such as a goal which are common to every story and, hence, every problem solving process, are referred to as Story Points. Similarly any culture, ethnic group, religion, political movement, or faction will employ the same underlying story points but will clothe them in unique subject matter in order to define the organization as being distinct and to provide a sense of identity to its members. Once a story point has been generally accepted in a specific subject matter form it becomes a cultural meme. Efforts to analyze and predict a culture based on memes alone have largely been unsuccessful. Dramatica’s system of analysis is able to strip away the subject matter from cultural memes to reveal the underlying story points and thereby determine the specific storyform that describes that group’s story mind. Essentially, Dramatica is able to distill critical story points from raw data and assemble them into map of the target group’s motivations and intentions. Passive and Active Modes One of Dramatica’s greatest strengths is that it works equally well in constructing stories as in analyzing them. We refer to analysis as the Passive mode and construction as the Active mode. When dealing with a target group of interest, this translates into the ability to not only passively understand and anticipate the group, but also to actively create courses of action by which to intervene in and/or influence the group’s future activities and attitudes. To understand, we determine motivations and purposes. To anticipate, we project actions and intent. To intervene, we define leverage points for targeted action. To influence, we determine nexus points for focused pressure. Let us look more deeply into the methods employed in the Passive mode, then return to do the same for the Active mode. The passive mode is comprised of Analysis and Prediction. Analysis is achieved by first identifying independent story points and then determining which ones belong together in a single storyform. Identifying Story Points As described earlier, story points can be derived from cultural memes, but are also evident in the target group’s communications (both for internal and external consumption), in new publications and vehicles of propaganda, in works of art (both authorized and spontaneous), in popular music and entertainment, in the allocation of resources, in the movements and gatherings of individuals – in short, any data can directly or indirectly provide valid story points. Identifying a Storyform Once a collection of story points has been assembled, it must be determined which ones belong together in the same storyform. Each storyform represents a different state of mind, but there may be many states of mind in a single target group. These are not different mind sets of individuals, but different mind sets of the group itself or, put in a different way, just as stories often have subplots or multiple stories in the same novel, for example, target groups may have a number of different agendas, each with its own personality traits and outlook. This can be illustrated with an example from everyday life where a single individual may respond as a banker at his job, a father and husband at home, a teammate in a league and a son when he visits his own parents. So too, a target group may have one storyform that best describes its relationship to its allies and another that describes its relationship to its enemies. Crucial to this aspect of the process is to determine which storyform is to be analyzed so that the proper story points can be selected as a subset of all those that were derived. Results from Limited Data The Story Engine at the heart of the Dramatica software cross references the impact and influence of different kinds of story points upon one another, both individually and in groups. As a result, once the scope of the storyform is outlined, the software can actually determine additional story points within that closed system that had not been directly observed as part of the original data set. Some story points are more influential than others, but the bottom line is that Dramatica is able to create a far more detailed and complete picture of the situation under study than is evident from sparse data by itself. Spatial Data vs. Temporal Data Unique to Dramatica’s software, the Story Engine is able to determine the kinds of events that must transpire and the order in which they will likely occur, based on the static picture of the situation provided by the complete storyform. In stories, the order in which events occur determines their meaning. For example, a slap followed by a scream would have a different meaning that a scream followed by a slap. Similarly, if one understands the potentials at work in a storyform derived from story points pertaining to the target group, the Story Engine is capable of predicting what kinds of events will likely follow and in what order they will likely occur. Conversely, if the originally observed data set includes sequential information, such as a timeline of a person’s travels or of the evolution of a sponsored program, the Story Engine can convert that temporal data into a fixed storyform that will indicate the motivations and purposes of the group that led them to engage in that sequence of events. As described, the Dramatica theory and Story Engine (when properly used by experts) is able to translate the spatial layout of a situation into a temporal prediction of how things will unfold from that point forward. Signposts and Journeys In Dramatica storyforms, events are broken into Signposts and Journeys, just as one might look at a road and consider both the milestones and the progress being made along the path. In stories, this data is represented in Acts, Sequences, and Scenes. Each of these is a different magnitude of time. Acts are the largest segments of a story, sequences one magnitude smaller, and scenes are even smaller dramatic movements. Wheels within Wheels As a loose visualization, one might think of story events as not being driven by simple cause and effect, but rather being wheels within wheels, in which sometimes a character may act in ways against it’s own best interest (for example) because of larger forces that have been brought to bear and carry greater weight. In fact, it is the outside pressures that are brought to bear on the target group that build up these potentials as if one were winding a clock. In stories, this creates potentials that make each wheel (such as an act of a scene) operate as if it were a dramatic circuit. In fact, each story point within a given dramatic circuit is assigned a function as a Potential, Resistence, Current, or Power. Determining which of these functions is associated with each story point is essential to accurately predicting the nature and order of a target group’s future activities based on an understanding of the different magnitudes of motivation at work. Closed Systems and Chaos Storyforms are closed systems. As such, they are flash photographs of a moment in time – a snap shot of the mindset of a target group. But every group, just as an individual or a character in a story, is constantly influenced by outside events, new information, and the impact of others. To the ordered world of a storyform, such outside interference is chaotic. The accuracy of a storyform analysis and its predictions, therefore, has a short shelf-life. The more volatile the environment in which the target group operates, the more quickly the accuracy of the storyform degrades. Fortunately, storyforms can quickly incorporate new data and changes in older data and update literally in real time to give a constantly refreshed accuracy to the analysis. In addition, just because a target group’s motivations and agenda is continually being altered by outside events does not mean the effects upon it are completely chaotic. While some influences, such as an earthquake or an unexpected death or a surprise attack are truly chaotic, other influences only appear to be chaotic because they are not part of the closed storyform. Rather, they are part of a larger story. Applying the concept of the fractal storyform, it is possible to create additional storyforms of both larger and smaller magnitudes to surround the target group so that it is seen not only in and of itself, but as a player in a larger story and also in terms of individual players within it. In this manner many events which previously appeared chaotic can be predicted and the accuracy of the target group storyform is enhanced. Another method for minimizing inaccuracy in prediction is to create a series of storyforms of the target group over a given period. These are then assembled in sequence like frames in a movie to determine the arc of change over time. Truly chaotic events will largely cancel out, but ongoing influence from larger and smaller storyforms with their own individual agendas will create a predictable curve to the manner in which the target group’s storyform is changing, thereby allowing us to anticipate not only what the target group might do on its own, but what it is likely to do as the situation in which it operates continues to evolve. Again, this method allows for real-time updates so that the most accurate prediction of the likely motivations and actions of the target group can be both anticipated and acted upon. Turning our attention from Passive methods to Active methods, we consider altering the actions and attitudes of a target group by either direct intervention or indirect influence. Identifying a Problem Once a storyform has been created and analysis and prediction have been employed, an assessment must be made to determine if the target group is currently of a mindset contrary to our interests and/or if it will be in the future. Before a response can be developed, the specific nature of the problem must be fully defined. Again, the storyform and its component story points offer an accurate mechanism for determining the specific nature of the problem – the story point or story point arrangements that are in conflict with our interests. Identifying a Solution Some solutions simply require the alteration of a single story point to a different orientation within the storyform (corresponding to a slight shift in attitude, motivation, or actions by the target group). Often, once the specific nature of the problem is understood, a direct surgical impact on that point may alter it by direct force alone. Still, this is not certain and (especially in more complex problems that require replacing the current storyform with a completely different one) a single small ill-advised move can do far more damage that the original problem and perhaps in ways not anticipated. “What If” Scenarios Fortunately, Dramatica’s Story Engine allows for altering one or more story points in a storyform to see what kind of new storyform will be created as a result. In fact, a large number of alternatives exist by simply altering a few story points. This results in the ability to game out “what if” scenarios in real time to determine a wide variety of alternatives that would accomplish the same end. By comparing the effectiveness, ramifications, and altered projected timelines of each alternative storyform solution, it is possible to create an effective risk analysis of each available option to ensure maximum impact at minimum risk. In fact, alternative storyforms can indicate not only the kinds of risks involved in each potential response to the problem, but also their extent, their magnitude, and their likelihoods. Often, direction intervention is inadvisable for any number of reasons. Further, if the problem with the target group is its overall attitude, the strength of its motivation, or its unity of purpose, any overt action might prove ineffective or even counter-productive, resulting in a response opposite to that intended. In such cases, it may be more prudent to exert a gradual influence or series of influences all at once or, alternatively, put into play over and extended time for a less obviously directly influence. Here again, Dramatica is able to provide tools to know when, and for how long to apply specific kinds of visible and/or unobserved influence to ultimately obtain the desired changes in the target group’s mind set. Identifying Problem Qualities and Directions Again, the first step is to create a storyform from available data and then determine the qualities of the target group’s story mind that are contrary to desired attributes. At times, there may currently be no problem, but the storyform may reveal that, if left unaltered, the course of events will lead the target group into an undesired orientation. This allows for the allocation of our own resources in advance so that we might prevent the Target group from taking that particular course and opting instead for one more consistent with our interests. Determining Desired Qualities and Directions Once the problem qualities and/or directions have been defined, alternative storyforms can be created using “what if” scenarios and risk analysis to determine the best choice for a new storyform we would like to see in place. This may simply be a new state of mind for the target group as a unit and/or a different path that will take it through an alternative series of actions than it would otherwise instigated. Context and the Larger Story One method of manipulating a target group into a new outlook or attitude is through the subtle placement of the psychological equivalent of shaped charges. Rather that the direct impact of intervention, a number of small, seemingly unconnected exposures to information or manipulated environments can combine to create a single and powerful influence that will provide an immediate course correction to the undesired qualities and directions of the target group. To affect such a subtle and undetectable influence is possible due to the depth and detail of the Story Engine’s ability to calculate the collective influence of many small magnitude story points on the overall storyform. Returning to the “movie frame” concept in a proactive, rather than analytical manner, it is possible to create a series of storyforms, each of which is slightly different that the previous one. As with individuals, the mind of a target group is more open to accepting small changes and establishing a new normal that to larger immediate changes which raise resistance. Over time, subtle influences can follow a planned arc of change that leads the target to a new mindset, perhaps even diametrically opposed to its original viewpoint, that would be impossible to achieve immediately, even with the most powerful influences brought to bear. It is important to recognize that due to the effects of chaotic influences (as described earlier) any long-term arc must be constantly updated and adjusted so that new influences are brought to bear to limit or leverage the impact of chaos on the chosen alternative course toward a more desirable storyform for the target group. Currently, the story engine requires manual operators versed in the Dramatica theory for processing and creating storyforms for purposes of Analysis, Prediction, Intervention, and Influence. In the future, natural language processing can be coupled with the story engine’s operations to bring a degree of automation to the identification of story points using hub theory to locate them in large quantities of raw data. Influence networks can be employed to determine which story points are likely to belong to the same storyform and to assemble them into alternative storyforms which may co-exist in the same raw data. Employing Dramatica’s real-time Story Engine (in operation since 1991, but not included in the commercially available version of the software) can allow for real time analysis of ongoing data flow and indicate new storyforms as soon as they manifest in the mindsets of target groups and alert operators when existing storyforms have dissolved or altered due to ongoing influences. Natural language output can provide continuously updated options in time-crucial situations with a series of live “what if” scenario suggestions. The Dramatica Theory of Story and the software that implements the theory in an interactive story engine has, for the last seventeen years, successfully enabled accurate analysis and creation of story structures in motion pictures, novels, stage plays, and all forms of narrative communication. By identifying the crucial story points in the mind sets of target groups of any size, the story engine is equally effective in analyzing and altering the target groups’ current and future attitudes and behavior in the real world. Contact the author, Melanie Anne Phillips, about narrative consulting services
Ticket reservations are required. Facial coverings are strongly recommended. See Health and Safety. Part of the Dinosaurs: Activities and Lesson Plans Curriculum Collection. In the Roosevelt Memorial Hall at the American Museum of Natural History, a Barosaurus rears up to a height of 50 feet as it protects its offspring from an Allosaurus attack. Some dinosaurs, such as the Barosaurus, were quite large and may have weighed as much as 35 tons. But other dinosaurs, such as Compsognathus, were about the size of a chicken and weighed only eight pounds. In this activity, students will begin to explore the size of the large dinosaurs by comparing their feet to the foot of a large Apatosaur.
In Python, usually we use class-specific methods called instance methods that are connected to instance variables. Within the same class, instance methods have access to instance variables. You must first build a class instance in order to call instance methods. The Person class is described as follows: Three instance methods, including __init__(), get full name(), and introduce, are available for the Person class (). Consider adding a function to the Individual class that produces an anonymous person. To do this, you would create the following code: An anonymous person is returned by the instance function create_anonymous(). However, creating an instance is required in order to use the create anonymous() function, which is unnecessary in this situation. Python class methods are useful in this situation. A class method has no instance-specific restrictions. It is restricted to the class alone. Definition of a class method - Prior to the method declaration, insert the @classmethod decorator. For the time being, all you need to know is that an instance method will become a class method when the @classmethod decorator is used. - The self parameter should then be renamed to cls. The cls means class. Class, however, cannot be used as a parameter because it is a keyword. The updated Person class is displayed in the following way: The create anonymous() method does not have access to instance attributes. However, it can access class attributes thanks to the cls variable. Calling Python class methods You must use the class name, a dot, and the method name as shown in the example below to call a class method: The create anonymous() class function of the Person class is demonstrated by the following example: Class methods vs Instance methods The distinctions between instance methods and class methods are shown in the table below: When to use Python class methods Any methods that aren't tied to a single instance but rather the class can be implemented using class methods. For methods that produce a class instance in real life, you frequently utilize class methods. A method is referred to be a factory method when it makes an instance of a class and returns it. For instance, the create anonymous() function, which creates a new instance of the Person class and returns it, is a factory method. - Python class methods are connected to classes rather than any particular instance. - To convert an instance method to a class method, use the @classmethod decorator. - Additionally, give the class method the cls as its first parameter. For factory methods, use class methods.
Controlling Pocket Gophers Pocket gophers are stocky, short-legged, medium-sized rodents with bodies well-adapted for digging. They have broad heads with small eyes and ears; exposed yellowish, chisel-like, incisor teeth; a short, sparsley-haired tail; and front toes with long, stout claws used in digging. They get their name from the deep, fur-lined external cheek pouches, in which food, mostly tubers and roots, is carried. Coloration varies in individuals and in species from yellowish-tan to browns and blacks. Spotted and albino individuals are fairly common. Two species of pocket gophers are found in Oklahoma. They are the plains pocket gopher (Geomys bursarius), which ranges over most of Oklahoma, and the Mexican pocket gopher (Cratogeomys castanops), which is found in the Oklahoma Panhandle. Gophers should not be confused with moles although they sometimes construct similar tunnels. Moles have no external cheek pouches or external ears. They have a slender conical snout, tiny ears that are covered with skin, small needle-like teeth, and broad front feet with heavy claws. Pocket gophers usually live in rangeland, alfalfa fields, roadsides, introduced pastures, railroad rights-of-way, and they often invade lawns and flowerbeds. They feed mostly on roots of trees, grasses, alfalfa, and dandelions. They also eat seeds, leaves, tender stems, tubers, and bulbs. The gopher’s home is an extensive system of underground tunnels, which are excavated four to 18 inches below the ground. A series of these tunnels made by one gopher may extend several hundred feet and cover an acre of ground. Areas of gopher activity are marked on the surface by numerous mounds of excavated soil. The characteristic fan-shaped mounds, which may be 18 to 24 inches in diameter and about six inches high are at the ends of short lateral tunnels branching off the main runway. The surface opening, through which soil is pushed from the tunnel, is finally plugged by soil pushed into it from below, leaving a small circular depression on one side of the mound. Generally, the entire lateral is then filled to the main tunnel. The placement of these mounds often gives a clue to the position of the main tunnel, which usually does not lie directly under any mound. One pocket gopher may make as many as 200 soil mounds per year. The most active mound building time is during the spring. Pocket gophers do not hibernate. Pocket gophers are active throughout the day with activity periods interspersed with rest. They seldom come above ground, though they may come out of their runnels at night and on cloudy days. Many gophers may have individual burrows in the same field, forming colonies. However, they are mostly solitary animals and except during the breeding season or when young are present, one gopher per tunnel is the rule. Pocket gophers can be valuable because they contribute to the formation and conditioning of soil, and they provide food for some of our large predators. In areas where these rodents are not of economic significance, they should not be destroyed. Their control may be necessary when they become pests by eating garden crops, clover, roots of fruit trees, shrubs, alfalfa, or if their digging activities interfere with harvesting hay or grain. Pocket gophers are currently not protected by federal or state law. Gopher populations can be reduced or eliminated over a considerable area with persistent control efforts. Control is best conducted when gophers are most active near the surface, usually in the spring or fall. New activity is usually indicated by fresh mounds of soil. At other times, labor and material may be wasted in treating unoccupied runways. Control methods include poisoning, trapping, flooding, gassing, encouraging natural enemies, and exclusion. The two most practical and efficient methods are using toxic baits and trapping. Over large and heavily infested areas, poisoning is the most economical control method. Gophers not killed by poisoning will throw up fresh mounds and these individuals can be trapped. On small areas, such as lawns or where only a few animals are involved, trapping is the most practical method. Pocket gophers can be killed in large numbers with poisoned bait. Strychnine, either alkaloid or sulfate, is quite effective. Root vegetables, such as carrots or sweet potatoes, cut to conveniently small sizes and dusted with strychnine are excellent baits. Grain baits, such as corn, oats, wheat, and grain sorghum are readily eaten in some localities and often give better results in fall when pocket gophers are storing much of their food. These prepared baits can often be obtained from local garden supply stores or from pest control operators. Two baiting methods are effective. The first involves dropping baits by hand into underground runways. This procedure is easier if a probe is used to find the tunnel and to make a hole through which bait can be inserted. Probes can be bluntly pointed brooms, shovel handles, or pipes. A good probe (Figure 1) can be made of three-fourths inch gas pipe welded to a blunt point and cut 34 inches long. A “T” joint which slips over the main probe makes a movable foot-rest. To locate the main runway, probe into the soil four to ten inches from the base of the mound, usually on the side nearest the circular depression, or probe between two fresh mounds (Figure 3). Enlarge the opening by rotating the probe so that poisoned baits may be dropped into the burrow. Use two to three pieces of vegetable bait or one level tablespoon of grain bait. Close the opening with grass and cover with dirt to keep out light and air. Make one application for every four to six fresh mounds. Place the baits in the main runways with as little disturbance as possible. Toxic baits left on the surface will not be found by gophers, but they may endanger other wild or domestic animals. If the mounds are leveled as you work the area, gophers that escape treatment will make new mounds you can easily detect. Additional baits or traps may then be placed where needed. The second baiting method uses a tractor-drawn machine called a “burrow-builder.” This machine make artificial burrows and automatically drops toxic baits into them. The “burrow builder,” developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, is especially useful for large areas. It is recommended for use when soil moisture permits good compaction so burrows will not collapse. In most areas, soil conditions are best in the spring or fall. The effectiveness of the machine depends upon the gophers finding the artificial runways and the poisoned bait. Hence, the machine must be set so artificial burrows will intercept the greatest possible number of natural gopher tunnels. Under average conditions, ten acres of land can be treated per hour using one and a half to three pounds of treated grain. Strychnine-treated grain baits consisting of mixtures of whole oats and cracked corn, cracked corn and grain sorghum (maize), or 100 percent grain sorghum have been used with excellent results. Materials used for poisoning gophers are dangerous to man and other animals. So, extreme caution should be used when handling, storing, or applying these toxic substances. All labels on toxicants should be read and followed closely. Figure 1. Home made probe. Special traps are required for trapping pocket gophers. Small spring traps of varying sizes, similar to the one shown in Figure 2, are widely used. Another popular type is a box trap with a choker loop. Two traps of appropriate size should be placed in the main runway, one set in each direction. This makes a trap-set (Figure 2). Using a stout garden trowel or a lightweight shovel, find the freshest mound and follow a lateral from the mound to the main runway. Clear a place in the main runway large enough for two traps, disturbing the surrounding area as little as possible. Set the pan or treadle so that traps can be easily sprung. Insert the traps, jaws forward, into the hole facing in opposite directions and press them down firmly. Cover the opening in the burrow with a clod or a handful of grass to cut off most of the light. Gophers instinctively cover open burrows to keep out enemies. Each trap should be fastened to a stake with a light wire. After traps are set, tramp down the tops of all mounds so that mounds made by the gophers you miss will be evident on your next visit. For efficient use of traps and for best results, visit trap-sets morning and evening. Figure 2. Macabre spring trap. Excluding pocket gophers from an area is logistically difficult and often not particle because of the expense. Fencing valuable ornamental shrubs and landscape trees may be cost effective. Fencing should be buried at least 18 inches below ground. The mesh should be buried at least enough to exclude gophers (0.25 or 0.50 inch). Plastic netting placed around the entire seedling, including the root, can reduce damage to newly planted seedlings. Cultural Methods and Habitat Modification These methods take advantage of knowledge of the habitat requirements of pocket gophers or their feeding behavior to reduce or maybe even eliminate damage. Crop varieties. In alfalfa, large taprooted plants may be killed or the vigor of the plant greatly reduced by pocket gophers feeding on the roots. Varieties with several large roots rather than a single taproot suffer less when gophers feed on them. Crop rotation. There are many good reasons for using a crop rotation scheme, not the least of which is minimizing problems with pocket gophers. When alfalfa is rotated with grain crops, the habitat is incapable of supporting pocket gophers. The annual grains do not establish large underground storage structures and thus there is insufficient food for pocket gophers to survive year round. Grain buffer strips. Planting buffer strips of grains around hay fields provides unsuitable habitat around the fields and can minimize immigration of gophers. Flood irrigation. This can affect gophers in a least two ways. The soil may be so damp that it becomes sticky. This will foul the pocket gopher’s fur and accumulate on its claws and generally be undesirable habitat. Secondly, as the soil becomes saturated with water it can effectively stop the diffusion of gases into and out of the gopher’s burrow and form an inhospitable environment. The efficiency of this method can be enhanced by removing high spots in fields that may serve as refuges during irrigation. Buried utility cables and irrigation lines can be protected by enclosing them in various materials, as long as the outside diameter exceeds 2.1 inches. The cables can be protected in this manner whether they are armored or not. Soft metals such as lead and aluminum used for armoring cables are readily damaged by pocket gophers if the diameters are less than the suggested size. Economics of Damage and Control It is relatively easy to determine the value of lost forage due to the presence of pocket gophers. Southern pocket gophers at a density of 32 per acre decreased the forage yield by 25 percent on foothill rangelands in California, where the plant composition was nearly all annual plants. Plains pocket gophers reduced forage yield on rangeland in western Nebraska by 21 to 49 percent on different range sites, and reduced alfalfa yield in eastern Nebraska by 35 percent. It is only slightly more complicated to calculate the cost of control operations. However, the benefit-cost analysis of control is still not straightforward. More research data is needed on how to manage for forage recovery. For example, should rangeland be rested or lightly grazed? Should gopher mounds on alfalfa fields be lightly harrowed? A study on northern pocket gopher control on range in southern Alberta indicated that forage yield increased 16 percent three months after treatment. Other problems with the economic analysis are: determining the cost of control, the speed of pocket gopher reinfestation, and the costs associated with dulled or plugged mowing machinery or mechanical breakdowns caused by the mounds. An economic analysis could be made for damages to buried cable, irrigation pipe, trees, and so on. Another factor complicating economical analysis is the pocket gopher’s benefits. Some of these are: - increased soil fertility by adding organic matter such as buried vegetation and fecal wastes - increased soil aeration and decreased soil compaction - increased water infiltration and thus decreased run-off - increased rate of soil formation by bringing sub-soil material to the surface of the ground, subjecting it to weathering Decisions on whether or not to control gophers may be influenced by the animal’s long-term benefits, which are not always readily recognized and obvious, and sometimes substantially damaging in the short-term. Finally, a desirable approach to the control of pocket gophers is to manage populations without threatening the species. Management is preferred because it recognizes the values of gophers and the impossibility of eradication. Trying to eradicate any species upsets the integrity of ecosystems in a manner that we cannot possibly predict from our current knowledge of the structure and function of those ecosystems. This fact sheet was originated by R.W. Altman and has been revised to reflect new information. Additional information was adapted from the manual “Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage” published by the Great Plains Agricultural Council, Wildlife Resources Committee; and the Cooperative Extension Service, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Terrence G. Bidwell Extension Range Management Specialist
On the northwest Iberian peninsula, in Galicia, local communities manage more than 2,800 mountains. The Spanish coastline includes 230 cofradías: ancient, locally run governance systems that provide 83 percent of the country’s fishing employment and 95 percent of all Spanish ships. Iniciativa Communales estimates that roughly 60 percent of Spain falls under what international organizations call ICCAs: Indigenous Peoples and Community Conserved Territories and Areas. In Spain, these community-managed sites include forests, pastoral lands, Sociedades de Caza (hunting associations) and marine and coastal areas. ICCAs are defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), an international organization composed of civil society groups and governments with observer and consultative status at the United Nations. Founded in 1948, it is the world’s largest and most diverse environmental network and receives counsel from about 16,000 experts. In 1961, it set up the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). ICCAs must meet three criteria: Indigenous Peoples or a community share a “close and profound” relationship with the area, territory or habitat; the people or community participate meaningfully in the decisions related to the site and havede facto or de jure authority to initiate and implement such decisions; and those decisions and efforts result in “conservation of biodiversity, ecological functions and associated cultural values regardless of original or primary motives.” Although “indigenous” may be a confusing term in the European context, community managed land areas have a rich history in Europe, despite the lack of recognition by national governments or the European Union. This lack of recognition is worldwide, regardless of the type of ICCA, and means that Indigenous and community managed areas of land or water are not fully included in national and international conversations about conservation. As a result, conservation efforts are falling far short of what they could achieve. Many areas of the world are insufficiently protected, community and Indigenous rights and livelihoods are at risk and opportunities to combat climate change may be lost. The reason for this gap is that there is a difference between a protected area and a conserved area. Therefore, IUCN distinguishes between ICCAs, protected areas and conserved areas. Conserved areas are sites that achieve conservation de facto, regardless of recognition and dedication, and even at times without regard to intentional management. Conserved areas are also considered likely to maintain such conservation over the long term. Conserved areas always include ICCAs but not always protected areas. In other words: just because a site is designated as a protected area does not mean it is conserved. Yet, nationally designated protected areas are the sites that are most frequently documented and make their way into national and international policy decision-making. In Canada, the Tla-o-qui-aht have established tribal parks throughout the country. These parks are another example of ICCAs that, although legitimately conserved areas, are not recognized by the Canadian provincial or federal governments. In these parks, the First Nation people’s interaction with the environment is based on the laws of nature and with the goal of ensuring sustainability for future generations. Their tribal parks are better known in Canada as Teechmis Okin. When viewed in the global context of other areas managed by Indigenous Peoples and communities, these parks can help to provide a better picture of what ICCAs can achieve around the world. According to IUCN, three to four hundred million hectares around the world are under community management, the majority of which achieve some degree of conservation. However, as in Spain, many ICCAs are not nationally or internationally recognized either because Indigenous Peoples or communities do not want this recognition (to avoid an influx of tourists, for example), or because national governments choose not to recognize them. Rather, “protected areas” receive international recognition and documentation, in many instances because international organizations defer to those areas that national governments have chosen to recognize. Such is the case with Protected Planet, which shares data from the World Database on Protected Areas, a project managed by UN Environment Programme and IUCN. IUCN defines a protected area as a “clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.” In practice, this recognition requirement almost always means an area that has been recognized by a national government. This leaves many conserved areas, particularly ICCAs, vulnerable. As Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend of the ICCA Consortium explains, “Being an internationally recognized ICCA can provide more security. It provides an extra layer of protection against exploitation against national governments.” The ICCA Consortium is an international organization that supports and promotes recognition of ICCAs. They also help manage the ICCA Registry, an online database that tracks ICCAs around the world. Ms. Borrini-Feyerabend was the one to propose the simplified term “conserved areas” instead of OECM (other effective area-based conservation measures), a term that came out of the Convention on Biological Diversity to identify conservation targets for the current decade. She is leading an effort among conservationists and environmentalists to move away from the preoccupation with protected areas and focus instead on conserved areas. This shift would not only give ICCAs a much stronger political standing, but would also place the emphasis on the effectiveness of conservation. Currently, conservation debates center on those areas that have been dedicated to conservation regardless of whether or not conservation is successful on the ground. According to Ms. Borrini-Feyerabend, the effort to convince international stakeholders to favor the term “conserved areas” in lieu of protected areas has been a struggle. Canada in particular has been staunchly opposed to the idea, insisting on “science-based definitions” and citing a concern that the new phrasing would create a loophole for private Canadian companies to temporarily claim that an area is conserved only to later exploit the area. But as she says, “we cannot transport a Canadian definition to Cambodia.” Conservationists must find a definition that can meet global contexts, and in recent months, some Canadian representatives are starting to see that the “protected areas” terminology is hampering conservation efforts around the world. Recently, countries and organizations have been warming up to the shift to conserved areas. The UNFCCC is paying more attention to conserved areas, and there is a chance that a draft of the revised 2014 list of protected areas by the UN may include some reference to conserved areas. The current list, which is the basis for Protected Planet’s data, states: “Protected areas catalogued in the lists that are part of this report are protected areas officially designated by countries. The potential exclusion of conservation areas not yet recognised by national governments is in no way a judgment on the efficacy of these areas for conservation.” Thus, the current database does not necessarily include ICCAs or other conserved areas that are not yet recognized by national governments. A quick comparison of Protected Planet and the ICCA Registry reveals this gap through a lack of shared data. Other challenges persist. As Ms. Borrini-Feyerabend points out, “we need to look at results, which is not easy. The difficulty [with that approach] is how do we know that something is conserved given that there are so many ways of defining conservation de facto? How do we monitor that? Who identifies the indicators to identify whether something is conserved?” Moreover, registering ICCAs is a difficult task. The ICCA Registry, though it provides thorough data, contains very few ICCAs. The reason for this (other than the registry still being relatively new), as Ms. Borrini-Feyerabend explains, is that the ICCA Consortium works with regional and national networks to ensure that ICCA registry happens at the local level, rather than via a top-down approach. The ICCA Consortium believes that registry should be in the hands of the communities themselves and that each network should be able to devise their own framework for registration. These networks serve as peer review mechanisms, as they understand cultural contexts and are therefore best situated to determine which areas should count as ICCAs and what the process should be for registration. In Spain, for example, the local network has spent the past two years developing a process for registration. We should expect to see many new registered ICCAs in the coming year to reflect the roughly 60 percent of Spain that is estimated fall within the ICCA definition. Regional ICCA networks exist elsewhere around the world, including in Iran, Indonesia, Bolivia, Nepal, Kenya and other countries. In the Philippines, there is a major UN Development Programme effort to register ICCAs. While local efforts are important to secure ICCAs and other conserved areas, international recognition and progress will depend on IUCN and other UN agencies. IUCN’s “Governance of Protected Areas: from understanding to action” places special emphasis on the importance of ICCAs and particularly on Indigenous Peoples’ roles not in governance. It also values their rights via the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as well as biocultural rights that are tied to international and local conservation policies. This document will serve as the basis for IUCN to advise five to six countries in the coming months on how to improve their conservation through a more diverse and impactful approach to governance. Those countries have yet to be finalized, but the Philippines and Iran will likely make the list. 2016 stands to be an important year for international conservation. In the wake of COP21 in Paris last year, expectations for combatting climate change are high. The World Conservation Congress, which is held every four years, will take place in Hawaii in September, bringing together thousands of world leaders to coordinate on worldwide conservation efforts. Among the planned sessions are those that will tackle the question of moving from the protected areas terminology to a focus onde facto conservation as well as a session dedicated to assessing the various methods of governance and their effectiveness. Ultimately, in order for ICCAs to gain greater recognition, countries, NGOs and international organizations would have to embrace a more diverse set of governance systems and prioritize effective conservation. According to IUCN, ICCAs far outnumber protected areas. While there is no official estimate of their percentage of the earth’s land area, we do know that protected areas account for 13 percent of the earth’s terrestrial surface, which means that ICCAs make up an even more substantial portion. Any serious effort to combat climate change would have to take these conserved areas into account. Likewise, policy making at all levels around the world could benefit from wider recognition of ICCAs.
1 Ch. 3 LECTURE NOTES I. Markets A. A market, as introduced in Chapter 2, is an institution or mechanism that brings together buyers (demanders) and sellers (suppliers) of particular goods and services. B. This chapter focuses on competitive markets with: 1. a large number of independent buyers and sellers. 2. standardized goods. 3. prices that are discovered through the interaction of buyers and sellers. No individual can dictate the market price. C. The goal of the chapter is to explain the way in which markets adjust to changes and the role of prices in bringing the markets toward equilibrium. II. Demand A. Demand is a schedule that shows the various amounts of a product that consumers are willing and able to buy at each specific price in a series of possible prices during a specified time period. 1. Example of demand schedule for corn is Figure The schedule shows how much buyers are willing and able to purchase at five possible prices. 3. The market price depends on demand and supply. 4. To be meaningful, the demand schedule must have a period of time associated with it. B. Law of demand is a fundamental characteristic of demand behavior. 1. Other things being equal, as price increases, the corresponding quantity demanded falls. 2. Restated, there is an inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded. 3. Note the other-things-equal assumption refers to consumer income and tastes, prices of related goods, and other things besides the price of the product being discussed. 4. Explanation of the law of demand: a. Diminishing marginal utility: The decrease in added satisfaction that results as one consumes additional units of a good or service, i.e., the second Big Mac yields less extra satisfaction (or utility) than the first. b. Income effect: A lower price increases the purchasing power of money income enabling the consumer to buy more at lower price (or less at a higher price) without having to reduce consumption of other goods. c. Substitution effect: A lower price gives an incentive to substitute the lowerpriced good for now relatively higher-priced goods. C. The demand curve: 1. Illustrates the inverse relationship between price and quantity (see corn example, Figure 3.1). 2. The downward slope indicates lower quantity (horizontal axis) at higher price (vertical axis), higher quantity at lower price, reflecting the Law of Demand. D. Individual vs. market demand: 2 1. Transition from an individual to a market demand schedule is accomplished by summing individual quantities at various price levels. 2. Market curve is horizontal sum of individual curves (see corn example, Figure 3.2). E. Class example: This is a good place to involve the class if your classroom setting allows. Select an item that students typically buy, such as a can of soft drink or donuts. It works especially well if one student already has the item, and you can use that student for your individual demand schedule. Select five to ten representative prices for the item and create a demand schedule based on this student s responses. It is usually interesting to include the zero price to see how many the student would want if the item were free. You can then construct an individual demand schedule on board or overhead transparency. Don t worry if it isn t a straight line, it will undoubtedly still represent the law of demand. If your class isn t too large, you could then construct a class market schedule using a show of fingers to indicate amounts students would purchase at each price level. F. There are several determinants of demand or the other things, besides price, which affect demand. Changes in determinants cause changes in demand. 1. Table 3.1 provides additional examples. (Key Question 3) a. Tastes -favorable change leads to increase in demand; unfavorable change to decrease. b. Number of buyers more buyers lead to an increase in demand; fewer buyers lead to a decrease. c. Income more leads to an increase in demand; less leads to decrease in demand for normal goods. (The rare case of goods whose demand varies inversely with income is called inferior goods). d. Prices of related goods also affect demand. i. Substitute goods (those that can be used in place of each other): The price of the substitute good and demand for the other good are directly related. If the price of Coke rises (because of a supply decrease), demand for Pepsi should increase. ii. Complementary goods (those that are used together like tennis balls and rackets): When goods are complements, there is an inverse relationship between the price of one and the demand for the other. e. Consumer expectations consumer views about future prices and income can shift demand. 2. A summary of what can cause an increase in demand: a. Favorable change in consumer tastes. b. Increase in the number of buyers. c. Rising income if product is a normal good. d. Falling incomes if product is an inferior good. e. Increase in the price of a substitute good. f. Decrease in the price of a complementary good. g. Consumers expect higher prices or incomes in the future. 3 III. 3. A summary of what can cause a decrease in demand: a. Unfavorable change in consumer tastes, b. Decrease in number of buyers, c. Falling income if product is a normal good, d. Rising income if product is an inferior good, e. Decrease in price of a substitute good, f. Increase in price of a complementary good, g. Consumers expectations of lower prices or incomes in the future. G. Review the distinction between a change in quantity demanded caused by price change and a change in demand caused by change in determinants. Supply A. Supply is a schedule that shows amounts of a product a producer is willing and able to produce and sell at each specific price in a series of possible prices during a specified time period. 1. A supply schedule portrays this such as the corn example in Figure Schedule shows what quantities will be offered at various prices or what price will be required to induce various quantities to be offered. B. Law of supply: 1. Producers will produce and sell more of their product at a high price than at a low price. 2. Restated: There is a direct relationship between price and quantity supplied. 3. Explanation: Given product costs, a higher price means greater profits and thus an incentive to increase the quantity supplied. 4. Beyond some production quantity producers usually encounter increasing costs per added unit of output. Note: A detailed explanation of diminishing returns is probably not necessary at this point and can be delayed until a later consideration of the costs of production. C. The supply curve: 1. The graph of supply schedule appears in Figure 3.5, which graphs data from table on the right. 2. It shows a direct relationship in an upward sloping curve. D. Determinants of supply: 1. A change in any of the supply determinants causes a change in supply and a shift in the supply curve. An increase in supply involves a rightward shift, and a decrease in supply involves a leftward shift. 2. Six basic determinants of supply, other than price. (See examples of curve shifts in Figure 3.5, the summary Table 3.2, and Key Question 6.) 4 IV. a. Resource prices a rise in resource prices will cause a decrease in supply or leftward shift in supply curve; a decrease in resource prices will cause an increase in supply or rightward shift in the supply curve. b. Technology a technological improvement means more efficient production and lower costs, so an increase in supply, or rightward shift in the curve results. c. Taxes and subsidies a business tax is treated as a cost, so decreases supply; a subsidy lowers cost of production, so increases supply. d. Prices of related goods if price of substitute production good rises, producers might shift production toward the higher priced good, causing a decrease in supply of the original good. e. Producer expectations expectations about the future price of a product can cause producers to increase or decrease current supply. f. Number of sellers generally, the larger the number of sellers the greater the supply. E. Review the distinction between a change in quantity supplied due to price changes and a change or shift in supply due to change in determinants of supply. Supply and Demand: Market Equilibrium A. Review the text example, key graph figure 3.6, which combines data from supply and demand schedules for corn. B. Have students find the point where quantity supplied equals the quantity demanded, and note this equilibrium price and quantity. Emphasize the correct terminology! 1. At prices above this equilibrium, note that there is an excess quantity or surplus. 2. At prices below this equilibrium, note that there is an excess quantity demanded or shortage. C. Market clearing or market price is another name for equilibrium price. D. Graphically, note that the equilibrium price and quantity are where the supply and demand curves intersect (See Figure 3.6). This is an IMPORTANT point for students to recognize and remember. Note that it is NOT correct to say supply equals demand! E. Rationing function of prices is the ability of competitive forces of supply and demand to establish a price where buying and selling decisions are coordinated. (Key Question 8) F. CONSIDER THIS Ticket Scalping: A Bum Rap! 1. Scalping refers to the practice of reselling tickets at a higher-than-original price, which happens often with athletic and artistic events. Is this ripping off justified? 2. Ticket re-sales are voluntary both buyer and seller must feel that they gain or they would not agree to the transaction. 3. Scalping market simply redistributes assets (tickets) from those who value them less than money to those who value them more than the money they re willing to pay. 4. Sponsors may be injured, but if that is the case, they should have priced the tickets higher. 5 5. Spectators are not damaged, according to economic theory, because those who want to go the most are getting the tickets. 6. Conclusion: Both seller and buyer benefit and event sponsors are the only ones who may lose, but that is due to their own error in pricing and they would have lost from this error whether or not the scalping took place. G. Efficient allocation productive and allocative efficiency 1. Competitive markets generate productive efficiency the production of any particular good in the least costly way. Sellers that don t achieve the least-cost combination of inputs will be unprofitable and have difficulty competing in the market. 2. The competitive process also generates allocative efficiency producing the combination of goods and services most valued by society. 3. Allocative efficiency requires that there be productive efficiency. Productive efficiency can occur without allocative efficiency. Goods can be produced in the least costly method without being the most wanted by society. 4. Allocative and productive efficiency occur at the equilibrium price and quantity in a competitive market. Resources are neither over- nor underallocated based on society s wants. V. Changes in Supply and Demand, and Equilibrium A. Changing demand with supply held constant: 1. Increase in demand will have effect of increasing equilibrium price and quantity (Figure 3.7a). 2. Decrease in demand will have effect of decreasing equilibrium price and quantity (Figure 3.7b). B. Changing supply with demand held constant: 1. Increase in supply will have effect of decreasing equilibrium price and increasing quantity (Fig 3.7c). 2. Decrease in supply will have effect of increasing equilibrium price and decreasing quantity (Fig 3.7d). C. Complex cases when both supply and demand shift (see Table 3.3): 1. If supply increases and demand decreases, price declines, but new equilibrium quantity depends on relative sizes of shifts in demand and supply. 2. If supply decreases and demand increases, price rises, but new equilibrium quantity depends again on relative sizes of shifts in demand and supply. 3. If supply and demand change in the same direction (both increase or both decrease), the change in equilibrium quantity will be in the direction of the shift but the change in equilibrium price now depends on the relative shifts in demand and supply. 6 VII. Application: Government-Set Prices (Ceilings and Floors) A. Government-set prices prevent the market from reaching the equilibrium price and quantity. B. Price ceilings (gasoline). 1. The maximum legal price a seller may charge, typically placed below equilibrium. 2. Shortages result as quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied (Figure 3.8). 3. Alternative methods of rationing must emerge to take the places of the price mechanism. These may be formal (rationing coupons) or informal (lines at the pump). 4. Black markets may emerge to satisfy the unmet consumer demand. 5. Another example: Rent controls in large cities intended to keep housing affordable but resulting in housing shortages. C. Price floors (wheat) 1. The minimum legal price a seller may charge, typically placed above equilibrium. 2. Surpluses result as quantity supplied exceeds quantity demanded (Figure 3.9). 3. Resources are overallocated to the production of wheat and consumers pay higher than efficient prices for wheat-based goods. 4. Another example: Minimum wage
The Hutterites are a German speaking religious sect. They live communally, holding “all things common.” This characteristic separates them from the Mennonites and the Amish, with whom they share a common Anabaptist tradition. The Hutterites have resisted assimilation and have maintained their language and culture. The three original colonies, established along the James River in Dakota Territory in 1874, have grown to number some five hundred colonies distributed across five states and four Canadian provinces. This article describes and evaluates the contribution of Hutterite colonies to agriculture in Alberta, Canada. They own about 4 percent of Alberta’s farmland but produce 80 percent of the province’s eggs, 33 percent of its hogs, and more than 10 percent of its milk. This productivity is based on the Brethren’s ability to deploy their relatively large labor force to carry out diversified mixed farming. Their willingness to embrace modern science and technology is matched by the links they have been able to establish with marketing chains in agribusiness.
Beyond the Physical: Exploring the Mental and Emotional Benefits of Martial Arts Martial arts, such as karate, judo, taekwondo, and kung fu, have gained popularity worldwide as physically demanding activities that promote self-defense skills and physical fitness. While the physical benefits of martial arts are well-documented, there is increasing recognition of the positive impact they can have on mental and emotional well-being. Research and anecdotal evidence suggest that practicing martial arts can enhance mental discipline, emotional regulation, self-confidence, and stress management. In this article, we will explore these mental and emotional benefits in-depth, with supporting examples, case studies, and statistics. The Mental Discipline of Martial Arts One of the core pillars of martial arts is mental discipline. Traditional martial arts training involves rigorous routines, repetition, and a strong emphasis on focus and concentration. This disciplined approach helps students develop mental resilience, improved attention, and heightened self-awareness. For instance, a study published in the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology found that martial arts training significantly improved attention and concentration among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This was attributed to the structured and repetitive nature of martial arts movements, which require concentration and focus. In addition, martial arts often incorporate meditation and mindfulness practices, which further enhance mental discipline. By practicing controlled breathing techniques and cultivating a calm state of mind, martial artists can develop mental clarity and the ability to remain calm under pressure. Emotional Regulation and Stress Management Martial arts training provides an avenue for individuals to improve their emotional regulation skills and manage stress effectively. Through regular training, practitioners develop emotional resilience and learn to channel their emotions in a positive and constructive manner. In a study published in the Journal of Sports and Exercise Psychology, it was found that martial arts training reduced levels of anger and hostility in both young adults and adolescents. The structured nature of martial arts classes, coupled with the emphasis on respect and self-control, helps individuals manage their emotions in a controlled and disciplined way. Martial arts also provide a healthy outlet for stress relief. Engaging in physical activity releases endorphins, which elevate mood and reduce stress levels. Moreover, the practice of martial arts encourages individuals to focus their energy and attention on the present moment, helping them de-stress and attain a sense of calm. Building Self-Confidence and Self-Esteem Martial arts can have a transformative effect on an individual’s self-confidence and self-esteem. Through consistent training, individuals develop a sense of accomplishment as they progress through belt levels and master new techniques. This progress fosters a sense of self-efficacy, leading to increased self-confidence. Moreover, martial arts training instills a belief in one’s abilities to overcome challenges and adversity. By facing and conquering physical and mental obstacles during training, individuals develop resilience and a positive mindset. Case studies have shown the profound impact of martial arts in building self-confidence. For example, a study conducted at the University of California, Berkeley, evaluated the effects of martial arts training on individuals with social anxiety disorder. The results demonstrated a significant reduction in social anxiety symptoms and an improvement in overall self-esteem among the participants. Martial Arts for Psychological Well-being Martial arts have also shown promising benefits for individuals suffering from mental health conditions. Studies have indicated that martial arts training can be an effective complementary therapy for conditions such as depression and anxiety. Research published in the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology found that individuals with depressive symptoms who engaged in martial arts training experienced a reduction in symptoms and an improved sense of well-being. The physical activity, social interaction, and structured routine of martial arts classes contribute to an improved mood and overall mental well-being. In another study published in the Journal of Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, researchers found that martial arts training significantly reduced anxiety levels in individuals diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder. The repetitive nature of martial arts movements, combined with the focus on breath control and mindfulness, were attributed to reducing anxiety symptoms and providing individuals with a sense of control. While the physical benefits of martial arts are widely recognized, it is essential not to overlook the profound impact martial arts can have on mental and emotional well-being. The mental discipline cultivated through martial arts training enhances focus, concentration, and self-awareness. Additionally, martial arts provide a platform for individuals to regulate their emotions effectively and manage stress. The confidence and self-esteem instilled through martial arts training empower individuals to overcome challenges and foster psychological well-being. As individuals seek holistic approaches to achieve optimal health and well-being, martial arts offer a unique avenue to nurture the mind, body, and spirit. By engaging in these ancient practices, individuals can empower themselves mentally and emotionally, developing skills that extend beyond the physical realm.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks immune cells – CD4 cells, which are a type of T cell. Immune cells or white blood cells exist within the bloodstream. They detect abnormalities, infections and viruses within the body. It helps the individual combat against some deadly diseases. Thereby, HIV targets these cells, increasing an individuals risk against more deadly diseases. HIV is a lifelong infection. However, receiving treatment and managing the disease can prevent HIV from becoming severe and reduce the risk of a person passing on the virus. A severe form of HIV is AIDS. What is AIDS? AIDS is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. Once HIV develops into AIDS, infections and cancer become a much greater risk. Thankfully, with advances in ART and Viral Load, the number of people to advance into the complex stages of HIV has reduced by more than half. By the close of 2015, around 1,122,900 people were HIV-positive. To compare, figures from 2016 show that medical professionals diagnosed AIDS in an estimated 18,160 people. What is Viral Load? Viral load refers to how many copies of HIV are present in a millilitre sample of blood. Viral load tests show how much HIV is in a sample of blood. These tests are used to check how well HIV medications are working. Viral load refers to the number of copies of HIV that are present in a millilitre sample of blood. When you do a viral load test, it shows how much HIV is in the blood. This determines how well your HIV medications are working. The most common HIV medications are ART or Antiretroviral therapy. It reduces the amount of virus in a person’s blood and other bodily fluids. It brings it down to undetectable levels. What is an undetectable level? An individual can live a long and healthy life even after being HIV positive. This can be done by keeping yourself in an undetectable viral load. This means that your HIV is very less, thus making you less prone to the virus. Thus, meaning you will have much less damage done to your immune system. Undetectable = Untransmittable. People who are undetectable and have the bare minimum of HIV, they cannot transmit to others through sex. A shorter version of this is U=U, a message that was created by Prevention Access Campaign. They hope to spread the word about what it means to be undetectable and strip away the stigma attached. Things to remember: - Undetectable does not mean you are cured. An undetectable viral load means that there are a few copies of the virus. This means that the virus is still present in your body. Once HIV positive, an individual shall always be HIV positive. That is why it is important for people living with HIV to continue to take their HIV medications even when they are undetectable. - You will still test positive for HIV if you are undetectable. HIV tests are like regular blood tests and will detect the antibodies in you. This holds regardless of if you are undetectable or not. You need to check if you are undetectable with a viral load test. Frequent checkings need to be done for the same. - U=U is empowering. The undetectable equals untransmittable message empowers people living with HIV to care for their health by getting to and remaining undetectable, and reduces HIV stigma by challenging the assumption that people living with HIV pose a “risk” to others. This message empowers people with HIV to care for themselves; making sure their health is good and remaining undetectable. This overall movement reduces the stigma HIV has. It challenges the assumption that people living with HIV pose a “risk” to others. HIV and AIDS though deadly, is an exceptionally misunderstood illness. Such misconceptions cause a lot of stigma which is attached to the people affected. Here are some ways that you cannot transfer HIV: - shaking hands, hugging and sharing food - kissing or bathing - sneezing or touching unbroken skin or sweat - using the same toilet. sharing towels or sharing cutlery - mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or other forms of “casual contact” - the saliva, tears, faeces, and urine of a person with HIV
Transmission of nerve impulses Messages are transmitted from one neurone (nerve cell) to another by the generation of electrical and chemical signals. At one end of the neurone, structures called dendrites pick up the stimulus from the connecting neurone and this generates an electrical signal that travels down the body of the cell called the axon and stimulates the release of chemical signals or neurotransmitters from the other end. These neurotransmitters travel across the gap or synapse between the axon terminal of one neurone (pre-synaptic) and the dendrites at the top of the next neurone (post-synaptic). They bind to specific receptors and trigger the generation of another electrical signal in the next neurone. This transmission of electrical and chemical messages takes just milliseconds to complete. An electrical signal is generated by the exchange of charged particles or ions across voltage-dependant ion channels in the cell membrane controlled by ion pumps. When a neurone is not transmitting messages it is resting and its membrane is polarised which means that the electrical charge on the outside of the membrane is positive due to an excess of sodium ions, while the charge on the inside is negative and there is an excess of potassium ions. When the neurone is stimulated, the gated channels on the membrane open and sodium ions flood into the cell and the membrane becomes depolarised generating an action potential and an electrical signal is propagated along the axon. The ions return to their original levels and the cell becomes repolarised, ready to receive another signal. At the other end of the neurone, the electrical signal triggers the membrane to depolarise allowing calcium ions to enter the cell and this stimulates the release of neurotransmitters. Some neurotransmitters trigger an action potential in the next neurone and are is stimulatory, others are inhibitory and prevent the generation of an action potential. Once it has done its job the neurotransmitter is degraded or reabsorbed back into the pre-synaptic neurone that released it, so that the stimulus stops once transmission to the next neurone is complete. What is epilepsy? Epilepsy is characterised by recurring spontaneous seizures, which is uncontrolled muscular spasm, due to episodes of abnormal electrical activity in the brain. A chemical imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain results in a malfunction in the transmission of electrical signals and causes repetitive firing and transmission of excitatory nerve messages. These bursts of abnormal electrical activity in the brain send nerve signals to the motor neurones in the central nervous system and trigger seizures. Epileptic seizures vary from mild convulsions to violent muscle spasms with loss of consciousness, depending on the part of the brain affected. The trigger for epileptic seizures can be due to anything that disturbs normal activity of neurones, including head injury, stroke, brain tumour, brain infection, drug abuse, but in many cases the cause is unknown (idiopathic) and epilepsy can start at any age. Medications for epilepsy Drugs used to prevent epileptic seizures are anticonvulsants that control the bursts of electrical activity in the brain that cause seizures. They work by preventing the repetitive firing of nerve messages acting through different mechanisms, including: - Blocking sodium channels that are involved in triggering the action potential and setting up the nerve signal - Blocking calcium channels that respond to the nerve signal and trigger the release of neurotransmitters - Adjusting the balance between inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters Some medications work by more that one mechanism and act by a combination of these mechanisms. Sodium/calcium channel blockers Some anticonvulsants control neurotransmission and act directly on nerve cells to stabilise nerve cell membranes by blocking sodium or calcium channels. This reduces electrical activity and helps to “calm down” nerves that have become hyperexcited, thereby inhibiting the repetitive firing and transmission of excitatory nerve messages, in areas of the brain where hyperactivity causes seizures. Medications that act as membrane stabilisers include the following: - Carbamazepine blocks voltage-dependent sodium channels in nerve cell membranes that control the flow of sodium ions into the nerve cell and triggers an electrical transmission, which in hyperexcited nerve cells can trigger a seizure. This action is also thought to suppress the release of the neurotransmitters dopamine and noradrenaline. - Phenytoin acts directly on a specific area in the brain called the motor cortex, which controls movement and works by promoting the release of sodium ions out of the nerve cell through voltage-gated sodium channels in the membrane. This prevents the spread of electrical activity that sends nerve signals from the brain to the central nervous system to trigger a seizure. - Topiramate blocks sodium channels and thereby reduces the neurone’s ability to send out continuous signals which cause seizures. - Gabapentin is an analogue of Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain and is thought to control neurotransmission via voltage-gated calcium channels. - Sodium valproate acts as a nerve cell membrane stabiliser by blocking voltage-dependent sodium channels. Inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters For the brain to function normally it is important to have a balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter and interacts with receptors that have excitatory effects, which means that they increase the probability that the target cell will set up an action potential and trigger a nerve signal. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter and interacts with receptors that have inhibitory effects by failing to trigger a nerve signal and this has a calming effect on nerve cells. Medications that regulate the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters include the following: - Sodium valproate increases the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. It works by inhibiting GABA degradative enzymes like GABA transaminase and/or succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase thereby preventing its degradation; also by preventing the reuptake of GABA by the pre-synaptic nerve cell. - Topiramate stimulates the activity of GABA by enhancing the frequency that it activates its receptor; also by enhancing the ability of GABA to increase the flow of calcium ions into the end of the nerve cell that stimulates release of neurotransmitters. Topiramate also inhibits the activity of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, which adds to the calming effect on brain electrical activity. - Gabapentin is an analogue of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA but does not work through the same receptors as GABA. It does however, bind to a receptor in brain neurones and is thought to control neurotransmission by blocking voltage-gated calcium channels, which reduces the propagation of excitatory nerve transmissions and calms excitatory nerve cells. Acetazolamide inhibits the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which catalyzes the rapid conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate ions in many cells including nerve cells. Reducing the amount of bicarbonate ions helps control abnormal, paroxysmal (short frequent), excessive discharge (transmission of signal between nerve cells) from neurons that can cause convulsions such as in epilepsy.
MATH LESSON: KINDERGARTEN Counting & Cardinality: "Counting Figures" ABOUT THIS LESSON: Kindergarten Math, CC, Week 1, Day 2 Students will count similar objects from within a mixed group. The worksheets include one problems page and one answers page. * ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Jamie Carols has taught grades 3-5 since 2003. Her awards include County Teacher of the Year (2015). When she’s not busy teaching 4th grade in the American public school system, she enjoys baking, reading, knitting and exploring nature.
In 2016 China launched “QUESS” (Quantum Experiments at Space Scale), a new type of satellite that it hopes will be capable of “quantum communications” which is supposed to be hack-proof, through the use of “quantum entanglement”. This allows the operator to ensure that no one else is listening to your communications by reliably distributing keys that are then used for encryption in order to be absolutely sure that there is no one in the middle intercepting that information. According the Chinese scientists involved in the project, quantum encryption is secure against any kind of computing power because information encoded in a quantum particle is destroyed as soon as it is measured. (According to Tibor Molnar a scientist at the University of Sydney), the only way to ‘observe’ a photon is to have it interact with (a) an electron, or (b) an electromagnetic field. Either of these interactions will cause the photon to “decohere” – i.e., interfere with it in a way that will be apparent to the intended recipient. Gregoir Ribordy, co-founder of Geneva-based quantum cryptography firm ID Quantique, likened it to sending a message written on a soap bubble. “If someone tries to intercept it when it’s being transmitted, by touching it, they make it burst.” Quantum physicists have recently advanced the use of photons to communicate securely over short distances – 50-150 km – on earth. The satellite, if successful, would vastly expand the range of unhackable communication. To test whether quantum communications can take place at a global scale, the Chinese team will attempt to beam a quantum cryptographic key through space from Beijing to Vienna. This topic was also discussed by a group of my international colleagues (USA, UK, Netherlands) and this is a summary of that discussion. Two of them assisted in explaining what this is all about, one worked on the first quantum key distribution network and one of the world’s best quantum computing teams is situated close to where he works. The two explained the differences between the various quantum technologies. - Quantum communications – sending information encoded in single photons (or equivalent) such that one can determine eavesdropping. Most useful for key exchange though has other uses. Sometimes called quantum key distribution networks. - Quantum cryptography – work to devise cryptographic algorithms that are not affected by the creation of quantum computers. (Generally “quantum cryptography” has tended to mean what is now called – in the context of the Chinese satellite – “quantum communications”). Post-quantum cryptography is the search for algorithms not rendered useless by quantum computation. - Quantum computing – a computer that harnesses quantum physics such that certain types of computation can be done more efficiently. There are still some doubts as to whether this is feasible. (Less so then before, but some say that it might be like nuclear fusion, not forbidden by physical laws, but hard to implement.) And, like fusion, if it could be made practical, certain types of cryptosystems (in particular, the RSA cryptosystem, but also the elliptic curve systems that have become widespread) would have to be abandoned. RSA encryption relies on the practical difficulty of factorising very large numbers, a task which is imagined to be very much easier (or at least faster) with quantum computers. But we do have substitute classical crypto systems that could be used that, as far as we know, are hard to break. A few other colleagues discussed the concept of “quantum entanglement”. As he explained intuitively you’d think this would work and provide a means of faster-than-light communication. However, it turns out that though the two particles are quantum entangled, you can’t actually convey any information between the two measurement points. Tibor added to this that even Quantum Key Distribution requires two-channel communication: one of “entangled photons” (which may be described as super-luminal), and another classical channel (which is definitely sub-luminal) advising which measurements of those photons are significant. To take a example, if you measure two quantum entangled photons and find the first photon is “spin up”, the second photon will always be “spin down” and vice-versa. Some clever statistics – the so-called “Bell Inequality” and its further elaboration, the “CHSH Inequality” – tells you they weren’t in this state to start with, it’s only the act of measuring that forces the first photon into this state, then instantly the second photon will be in the opposite state. Or so it seems: there are other interpretations, e.g., Quantum Bayesianism, but the effect is the same. I won’t go into details here, it’s a fairly long and difficult to get your head around the explanation as to how we know they weren’t in a particular state to start with. The mathematics (and in this example, intuition) also tell you that no information is conveyed from one location to the other by the measurement alone. The discussion also addressed the implications of this development. One of the experts commented: “This has zero practical significance”. Classical crypto is occasionally attacked, but the progress against the basic mathematical algorithms is seldom dramatic. Tibor added that it will become much more significant/dramatic when/if quantum computing becomes a reality, for then the most commonly used ‘classical’ cryptography techniques will no longer be secure. Practically all of the zillions of attacks that we hear about are at higher levels, implementation, protocols, … and, of course, human users (phishing, whaling). So the question could indeed be: why struggle to intercept/decrypt a message when you can just read the Post-It Note stuck on the sender’s screen? Paul Budde (standing on the shoulders of giants)
Of all the safety mechanisms in automobiles, the most basic one, and the most crucial one is the braking system. The ability to stop a vehicle is as important as any other critical component in the automobile, if not more. The braking system in a vehicle includes either slowing down or entirely halting a vehicle. Brakes can be classified into three categories. Let’s see what they are: When two things rub against each other, there is a resistance caused in between them. This is caused by the imperfections on both the surfaces. This resistance offered by the surfaces against movement is called friction. This property is what is used in the frictional braking system. There are two kinds of friction, static and kinetic. Static friction is what results when a static body is prevented from movement. A good example is the parking brake. Kinetic friction is caused when a body moving with some kinetic energy and momentum is stopped by another body touching its surface. What happens is that kinetic energy is converted to heat energy and thus the moving object gets stopped. But in static friction, since there is no momentum, no heat energy is produced. Pumping brakes or compression release engine braking Unlike frictional brakes, which deal with slowing down the wheel, the working of this brake involves slowing down the engine. When the driver stops accelerating, the pistons in the cylinders would continue to move up and down due to the momentum of the vehicle. In diesel engines, while the piston goes up, it compresses the air above, and since there is no fuel coming in, it would be forced downward, just by air pressure. Because of this, the slowing of the vehicle is delayed. In pumping brakes, when the brakes are engaged, the compressed air is released through a valve just before the valve starts backing down. With the combination of air resistance while going upward and no force while coming down, the piston is slowed considerably, thus causing braking of the vehicle. This type of brakes uses electromotive force to stop the vehicle. There are two kinds of electromagnetic brakes, the spring type and permanent magnetic type. In the spring type, when no electricity is applied to the brakes, the springs push against the plate generating friction, not allowing the wheel to move. When the brake is disengaged, electricity flows through the brakes and pulls the contact with the plate away. Since it uses friction as a means to slow down the wheel, it can also be considered to the frictional braking category.
Editor Ani Talwar looks at the significance of whales and their significance in managing the future of ecosystems as well as the threats facing this beautiful species. Each animal holds a unique role on Earth. From recycling waste, to providing food for predators or regulating population growth of prey. The interactions between each animal plays a part in regulating and maintaining the delicate homeostasis on our planet that life relies on. However, as a species enriched in tradition, culture and history, another animal is now providing a different benefit; a reflection in culture and society that we are so used to: whales. There are 90 odd species of ‘cetaceans’ or whales as we know them as. Other than the obvious difference of being…not humans, whales aren’t all too different from us at times. They care for their young, just as we do; they teach them, just as we do; and feed them with their own milk and communicate using whale songs. Whales even have their own languages, with separate populations using different signals, akin to the different languages we speak as humans. It seems now the similarities aren’t simply in the way whales survive, but also in their society, because whales, like us, seem to have entire cultures. Did you know that sperm whales have the largest brains on the planet? Or that they communicate using sonar systems? These are intricate songs of clicks and rhythms that can represent a language of which there are hundreds. The idea that whales have a culture or even simply emotions is widely debated. For a long time it was believed that humans were the only animals with emotion but whale songs are thought of as a fashion of communication, and of emotions no less. Whales are especially valuable to us, not only in the cultural similarities they can teach us, but in their vital role in the ecosystem. Even after death, whales continue to help the ecosystems and life in the oceans. ‘Whale fall’ is the term given to a whale once it dies and sinks to the ocean floor. The immense size of the animals means that once its body sinks, it can serve to help around 400 species of marine life with sufficient nutrients and shelter. It was even said ‘without whales, entire marine communities would likely be affected as balance in the ecosystem fluctuates in the absence of these great mammals,’ (Jessica Perelman, NatGeo) Whales not only support life like this, but they regulate it too. A blue whale can consume 40 million krill in one day, ensuring the overpopulation of this species doesn’t occur. Sperm whale faeces also provide atmospheric benefit, promoting growth of phytoplankton that act as a carbon sink. In this way, whales actually help mix the water and spread nutrients like iron and nitrogen through the water. Furthermore, the amount of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere annually due to sperm whales totals at about 400,000 tonnes. Whales have a clear importance in the ecosystem, as we can see, but overfishing, dam construction, whaling and pollution are threatening the life of this important animal. Whales have been hunted for oil and meat they produce which is used in soap, perfume, candles, cosmetics, and even margarine! Thankfully, alternate sources to whale oil are taking precedence, allowing for a reduction in whale hunting, but small-scale killing for meat is still an issue in some places. Whales are captured under the pretence of educational research and then sold for meat as a guise of reducing waste once research is done. Despite this, the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling in 1946 gave the animals hope. It was signed by countries to enforce a reduction in whale killings to allow the prevention of death of an endangered species. This was supported by the International Whaling Commission in 1986 which aimed to stop whale death for commercial purposes. Today, you can be part of appreciating the whales through whale watching, an activity that grew in popularity in the 1950’s. In fact, scientists at National Geographic have spent so much time listening to whales and their songs that they’ve even turned the music of the animal into playable/listenable music which you can listen to here. So, whales have a larger impact on our life than we may have anticipated. From atmospheric regulation to mixing of elements, regulating population size and supporting life! Though endangered, hopefully our realisations into how important whales are to our life will keep them safe for years to come. About the Author: Ani Talwar is the Deputy Wildlife and Environment Editor at WILD Magazine. Ani can be found at @Mischief.weavers, she wrote the book ‘ATRO- CITY THE FLOOD’ and cares passionately about sustainability.
Nano Bubbles are incredibly small, stable cavities of gas in liquid. Nano bubbles are 400 times smaller than the human hair. Hence, not visible to the human eye or with a standard microscope. Pictured above, the image represents the size and visibility of nano bubbles illuminated by a green laser using a macro lens and long camera exposure on a black back ground. The micro bubble shows you the size and density difference. Unlike a macro or a micro bubble, nano bubbles stay submerged in liquids for extended periods of time, hence, the gases remain effective longer. Nanobubbles are negatively charged which means that they repel from each other keeping them evenly distributed in the water with low coalescence. Unlike regular bubbles, a single nano bubble will move around instead of moving up, in a process called Brownian motion as shown in picture. Nano bubble technology, (patent pending) involves the infusion of specific gases into various liquids for targeted results. The Nano Bubble Injector can create 100+ Million Nano Bubbles per milliliter.
Cations and anions are the two types of ions. Ions have an imbalance of electrical charge, meaning they contain different numbers of protons and electrons. Cation have a positive electrical charge and have more protons than electrons. Anions have a negative electrical charge and have more electrons than protons. Neutrons are electrically neutral, so their number determines the isotope, but has no effect on whether a chemical species is an ion. A Closer Look at Cations Cations are ions that have a positive charge. The word “cation” comes from the Greek word ánō, which means “up.” Examples of cations include: - Silver: Ag+ - Hydronium: H3O+ - Ammonium: NH4+ Because an electron is removed to form a cation, the cation of an atom can be smaller than the neutral atom. This is because removing one or more electrons might involve removing an entire electron shell. A Closer Look at Anions Anions are ions with a negative charge. The word “anion” comes from the Greek word káto, meaning “down.” Examples of anions include: - Hydroxide anion: OH– - Oxide anion: O2- - Sulfate anion: SO42- Electrons are added to form anions, so they may be larger than neutral atoms if another electron shell forms. Remember Cation and Anion There are a couple of simple mnemonics used to remember a cation is positive and an anion is negative. First, you can use the letters of the words. The “t” in “cation” is like a plus symbol. The letters in the word “anion” can stand for “A Negative Ion.” A pun to remember the difference is “CATions are PAWSitive.” Writing Chemical Formulas The chemical formula of a compound is always written with the cation first, followed by the anion. For example, Na is the cation and Cl is the anion in NaCl (table salt). The same convention applies to chemical names. The chemical name of table salt is sodium chloride. This works for polyatomic ions, too. Ammonium hydroxide is NH4OH, where NH4+ is the cation and OH– is the anion. Cations and Anions on the Periodic Table Technically, any atom or molecule can form both cations and anions. For example, a hydrogen atom usually has a +1 oxidation state, but sometimes it gains an electron and has a -1 charge! That being said, metals usually form cations, while nonmetals usually form anions. To put it another way, elements on the left side of the periodic table tend to form cations, while those on the right side form anions. Noble gases are the exception. They are sufficiently stable that they don’t form either anions or cations easily. Certain groups of the periodic table form characteristic ions: - Alkali metals (Group 1): +1 cations - Alkaline earth metals (Group 2): +2 cations - Transition metals (Groups 3-12): Two or more oxidation states, usually differing by one. For example, copper forms +1 and +2 cations. - Boron family (Group 13): +1 or +3 cations - Carbon family (Group 14): -4 for carbon, but +2 going down the group - Nitrogen family (Group 15): +3 or +5 - Oxygen family (Group 16): -2 for oxygen, but -2, +4, +6 going down the group - Halogens (Group 17): -1 - Noble gases (Group 8): 0 (uncharged) Dianions, Dications, and Zwitterions There are special names for certain types of ions. An ion with a -2 charge is an anion that is also called a dianion. An ion with a +2 charge is a cation that is also called a dication. A neutral molecule that has an area of positive charge and an area of negative charge is called a zwitterion. - Scerri, E. R. (2007). The periodic table, its story and its significance. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530573-9.
Earlier this year, NASA launched its long-awaited InSight Mission to Mars. InSight stands for Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport. This means that NASA has equipped the InSight lander with technology that will allow us to study the planet’s history in geological evolution, as well as its internal structure and composition. InSight will deploy a seismometer, burrow a heat probe into the surface of the planet, and preform radio science experiments to learn more about the planet’s core. This could bring us new understanding about many of the planets in our galaxy, including our own. The excitement over the educational possibilities of this mission is apparent. However, the success of this mission is still not guaranteed. The last successful touchdown on the Red Planet took place on August 5th, 2012 when the Curiosity Mars rover made its initial contact. Since then, the InSight lander was scheduled to follow Curiosity in 2016. Due to complications, the initial timeline has been expanded and finally, one week from now, the InSight landing is scheduled to take place. After two years of improvements and alterations by Lockheed Martin, the mission costs have reached 830 million US Dollars making the stakes pretty high for this mission to succeed. In order for the lander to make it through Mars’ atmosphere and arrive safely on the surface, there are several steps that have to take place in a narrow window of time. This window was known as the “7minutes of terror” during the Curiosity Rover landing. First, the InSight will disconnect from its “cruise stage” which has propelled and guided it safely through space until this moment. Minutes later, InSight will hit the Martian atmosphere. It must enter at a precise twelve-degree angle. If it is too steep it will melt and burn up in the atmosphere. If it is too shallow, InSight will bounce off and be unable to penetrate it. While passing through, it must withstand 1,800 degrees Fahrenheit for two minutes and once it is 10 miles from the surface, it will deploy a parachute. Shortly after, six pyrotechnic devices will deploy in order to remove the lander’s heat shield. Three more explosions later, the legs will deploy. Then it will send radar pulses to gauge altitude and speed. When InSight is finally one miles from the surface of the planet, decent engines will deploy, and the parachute will be disconnected. In order to avoid being caught in the parachute, the lander will rotate quickly at this stage and then right itself in order to make contact on the Red Planet surface. When the legs touch the ground, the engine will immediately shut off and NASA scientists will breath a collective sigh of relief. This entire process will take about 6 minutes. If you want to stay up to date with the progress of the landing, follow along online! You can also watch in person at locations listed on NASA’s website listed below! On November 26th, around 3pm you can watch history in the making and watch the nail-biting touch down of the InSight landing on the surface of Mars! Comments will be approved before showing up.
Closer scrutiny by NGO Centre for Science and Environment, however, shows the process is not quite as CO2 emission-free as claimed Early in May, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) announced the discovery of a new method of producing steel that is free of CO2 emissions. The process, known as molten oxide electrolysis (MOE), was initially employed to generate oxygen. The product generated was oxygen and, astonishingly, steel. Given the emission-intensive nature of conventional steel production, this announcement by material chemist Donald Sadoway and fellow researchers at MIT brought some hope to the industry. The report on the study details the working of MOE, a process which uses electricity as a means of breaking down iron oxide (key raw material) into its metal form and releasing oxygen. Very pure steel was produced as an unintentional by-product of the process, without any CO2 generation. Conventional steel-making route involves heating iron oxide in a furnace along with coke at temperatures ranging from 900°C to 1,300°C and producing hot metal with impurities such as carbon and trace amounts of sulphur, and huge amounts of CO2. MOE (see 'Molten oxide electrolysis' process), however, works at 1,600°C, produces pure carbon-free steel and zero CO2 emission. Like any other electrolysis process, MOE consists of two oppositely charged plates—electrodes—immersed in a solution containing iron oxide along with other metal oxides—electrolyte. Electricity is passed through these electrodes into the electrolyte and the end product is molten iron, which collects on the negatively charged electrode and oxygen is released from the positive electrode. Since the purpose of the study, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), was to generate oxygen using lunar soil to be used in possible future human bases on the moon, the process was performed on lunar-like soil, rich in iron oxide, extracted from the Meteor Crater in Arizona.
This 2017 video is called Ferocious Shrews Fight For Mating Rights \| Life Of Mammals \| BBC Earth. From Louisiana State University in the USA: The naming of the shrew Researchers discover the Sulawesi hairy-tailed shrew March 11, 2020 “There was no doubt that this was a new species,” said LSU Museum of Natural Science Mammal Curator Jake Esselstyn whose work on Sulawesi Island in Indonesia led to the discovery published in the Journal of Mammalogy. “There isn’t another species on the island that has as much hair on its tail, in terms of shrews.” The newly discovered shrew is slender with gray-brown fur on its back and silver-gray fur on its belly. Its tail is slightly longer than the combined length of its head and body and is covered with long bristles and hair, which make the distinctive tail very hirsute. In fact, no other shrew species in Indonesia, Malaysia or the Philippines is known to have such thick, long hair on its tail; however, some shrew species in Africa have very hairy tails. The scientists were also surprised to discover that this shrew climbs trees whereas most shrews live primarily on the ground, as far as anyone knows. The Sulawesi hairy-tailed shrew was found on nine mountains across Sulawesi at various elevations from 1,500 feet to 4,800 feet. “Tropical diversity is still not well documented even for mammals with a wide distribution on this island. This discovery shows how little we still know about mammal diversity,” Esselstyn said. The real challenge was figuring out which shrew is its closest relative and how this new species fits into the shrew family tree. Shrews‘ features do not change very much over time, which means closely related species tend to look very similar and are hard to distinguish from each other. This has posed a challenge for mammalogists in the past to discover new shrew species. “Genetic data have revolutionized what we can distinguish between shrews. A lot of species are first recognized as being genetically distinct, then we look at its morphology, or physical features,” Esselstyn said. Deforestation and degradation of natural habitats have also posed a challenge for discovering new species. For example, a few shrew specimens were collected in the early 20th century, but when scientists return to the same location where the early specimens were collected, the habitat is no longer a forest. It is a farm. Despite these challenges, Esselstyn and his colleagues and students have also discovered several new mammals in Indonesia including the hog-nosed rat, the Sulawesi water rat and the slender root rat as well as the sky island moss shrew in the Philippines. Meanwhile, at the LSU Museum of Natural Science, they continue to search and analyze specimens for more new species and to help put the pieces of the large tree of life puzzle together.
Crushing – Once at a recycling facility, the glass is crushed. Crushed glass is called cullet. Cleaning – Cullet goes through several processes to remove items that are not glass. To remove ferrous (magnetic) metal, the cullet passes under a strong magnet which removes ferrous metals like tin cans, steel or iron. To remove non-ferrous (non-magnetic) metal, the cullet passes by powerful air jets which separate the metal pieces from the glass. Lightweight items, like paper, are removed by a vacuum. Other, non-glass, items are removed by hand. Separating – Containers must be sorted to separate the clear glass from the colored glass. Only clear glass can be used to make new clear glass. Some glass is sorted by hand while other cullet is sorted with optical sorting systems which separate flint (clear glass), green glass, and amber (brown) glass. Making new glass – To make new glass, cullet goes into a furnace where it melted at a temperature of 1500ºC. Recycled glass is melted at a lower temperature then virgin materials, which saves 30% of the energy used. The high temperature turns the cullet into molten glass. This molten glass is then shaped into new bottles and jars.
History is made by men and women. Many of those who experience power bend to its hidden rules and get blinded by the privileges that come with it. But for some others, power is more thirst for justice and the quest for empowering other human beings. These are the ones who had to become victims before becoming leaders, who managed to keep their strength during the worst treatments, and finally became a ray of light for oppressed people and the whole of humankind. Nelson Mandela: ‘Madiba’, as he’s often referred to -his traditional Xhosa clan name – was the first black man to become president of South Africa, but before that he had to spend 27 long years in prison. Mandela devoted most of his life fighting against the apartheid political system. He was considered a revolutionary, but he left humankind a powerful message of peace, not only because he supported human rights and contributed to shaping human rights movements and thinking, but also for the forgiveness he granted his enemies when he became president. He created reconciliation commissions and numerous projects to end the brutalities of Apartheid. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf: known as ‘The African Iron Lady’, she was the first woman to become a head of state in Africa. A Harvard graduate in economics, she was imprisoned twice during Samuel K. Doe’s military dictatorship in Liberia. She ran for president in the 1997 elections, but finished second after Charles Taylor and was forced into exile. Even during these hard times, she continued to fight to end Liberia’s corrupted political system and became an influential economist for the World Bank. In 2005, she ran again for president, vowing to establish unity in a country that had been devastated by civil war and rebuild its infrastructure. She became president from 2006 to 2018 and was a source of inspiration for many women and men who hope to see things improving in their countries. Haile Selassie was the Ethiopian ruler and emperor from 1916 to 1974. He was chosen by the previous emperor – his father-in-law- for his brightness and intellectual capacity. Even if it might sound as if Haile started from a privileged position, he was not immune to tragedy: when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, Haile Selassie was forced into exile in Sudan, and from there he had to recreate an Ethiopian army through which he later regained power, aided by British forces. Selassie worked hard to lower social injustice, boost education by creating new schools and shape political and social reforms that could benefit the country. Patrice Lumumba was a young Congolese politician who helped Congo in its struggle for independence from Belgium. Lumumba’s high moral values and excellent communication skills gathered consent around him and he became the first Prime Minister of the Republic of Congo in 1960. Unfortunately, his office didn’t last long as he was assassinated after Colonel Mobutu removed him from power. He was only 35 when he was killed, but his heritage lasted beyond his short life, as he powerfully used Pan-African ideologies to support his country’s independence and share a message of freedom. Kofi Annan will always be remembered as a man who dedicated his activity to global peace. Born in Ghana, although he was not a mainstream politician, he was the UN Secretary-General from 1997 to 2006. During these years, he endeavored to limit the impact of HIV/AIDS and solve many conflicts in the world. He was an African leader who spoke for Africa and the whole of humankind from the authority of the largest international organization.
For many students, a lesson on compound words marks the first time they become aware of the component parts of words. This kicks off the process of learning about word roots, suffixes and prefixes. This Compound Words Bundle has been designed to offer a variety of methods and resources to teach compound words. Hopefully you will find the right combination/differentiation to suit your students’ needs. FILE 1: Compound Words Visual Cards Station These cards are ideal to help students understand that a compound word is formed when two smaller words are pushed together to form a new word with its own meaning. The cards also illustrate that the smaller words have to be real words with actual meanings, such as flower-pot, cow-boy, and rain-bow. The pack contains 135 picture word cards that show a compound word and the two words that make it - 45 compound words in total. FILE 2: Compound Words Stations These Compound Word Stations are ideal to help students understand that a compound word is formed when two smaller words are pushed together to form a new word with its own meaning. STATION 1: Compound Words Sort STATION 2: Spin a Compound Word STATION 3: Compound Words Match Up FILE 3: Compound Words Puzzles This simple Compound Words Puzzle Pack illustrates the concept of compound words for young learners. The puzzle cards are ideal to help students understand that a compound word is formed when two smaller words are pushed together to form a new word with its own meaning. The pack contains: - Puzzles for 45 compound words - STYLE 1: 2 puzzle pieces to match - STYLE 2: 3 puzzle pieces to match - Picture Identification Sheet FILE 4: Compound Words Printables These Compound Words Printables will help students understand what a compound word is. They will be able to identify, divide and make compound words. - Compound Words Cut and Match - Fill in the Blank Spaces - Compound Words Sort - Compound Words Cut and Glue - Write a Compound Word - Circle the Compound Word - Parts of a Compound Word - Compound or Not Compound - Compound Word Equations - Wordsearch x 5 - Wordsearch Keys - Workbook 1: Cut and Glue (colour/ink-saving) - Workbook 2: Write & Draw (colour/ink-saving) Compound Words Bundle PAGE COUNT: 249 AGE RANGE: 6-8 YEARS FILE TYPE: ZIP
3rd Grade Language Arts Online-Full Year 3rd Grade Language Arts provides a well-balanced approach to literacy that connects reading, writing, grammar, vocabulary, and spelling into one integrated program. Dedicated time for keyboarding practice is also included. The course comprises 14 units, including 2 assessment units. Each unit contains workshops that have one major focus (reading, writing, or word study) for instruction and reinforcement of big ideas. In reading workshops, students read independently both classic and contemporary works in different genres and formats—fiction, poetry, drama, nonfiction, and magazines—before exploring each text through various activities. In writing workshops, students study writing models and then use the writing process to write a variety of compositions. They learn about grammar, usage, and mechanics and apply those skills as they revise and proofread their work. In word study workshops, students grow their vocabulary by learning the meanings of groups of conceptually related words. Students also learn to focus on spelling patterns that are necessary to be fluent, proficient readers, writers, and spellers. \|NOTE: List subject to change.\| - Unit 1: Author Study - Unit 2: Fables - Unit 3: Folktales and Legends - Unit 4: Snowy Days - Unit 5: Ancient Greece - Unit 6: Myths - Unit 7: Mid-Year Test - Unit 8: What Do You Think? - Unit 9: The Tale of Despereaux - Unit 10: Weather, Weather Everywhere - Unit 11: Choice Reading Project - Unit 12: We the People - Unit 13: Lessons Learned - Unit 14: End-of-Year Test
Bioenergy research studies how to use crops and other agricultural materials to make biofuels and other bioproducts. Biomass energy would improve energy security. It would reduce the use of toxic chemicals. It would bring jobs to rural areas and improve our trade balance. To achieve these benefits, bioenergy research integrates many disciplines that include agronomy, biology, chemistry, engineering, and economics. These disciplines work together to advance research on the sustainable production, collection, and conversion of biomass. Scientists use insights from studies of plants and microorganisms as the basis for bioenergy development. These studies are based on genomics, which studies the structure, function, evolution, and mapping of the genes in organisms. Scientists use this knowledge to develop plant species with modified traits, such as altered cell walls that make them easier to break down, making them useful as raw material for bioenergy production. Scientists can also modify the chemical reactions in a microorganism. These alterations allow microorganisms to convert compounds derived from plants into fuels and chemicals. DOE Office of Science & Bioenergy Research DOE’s Office of Science seeks a basic understanding of plant and microbial biology to unlock Nature’s potential to produce renewable fuels and chemicals. Scientists must identify promising plant and microbial species as well as study how to promote the sustainable growth of bioenergy crops. They need to research modifying plants and microorganisms to support beneficial traits. In addition, they need to integrate these efforts to produce biofuel and bioproducts. These efforts are in progress in the DOE Bioenergy Research Centers. These four centers are working to lay the scientific groundwork for a new bio-based economy. Their goal is to coordinate with applied researchers to help develop a range of new products and fuels derived directly from renewable, nonfood biomass. Bioenergy Research Facts - Sustainability research conducts long-term studies of bioenergy crop production systems and analyses for biomass supply. - Feedstock development research designs dedicated bioenergy crops and engineers plants for efficient conversion into fuels and products. - Plant deconstruction research covers processes that help degrade and separate biomass to facilitate conversion to bioproducts. - Conversion research focuses on developing new microorganisms that convert biomass materials into fuels, biomass fuels that easily integrate with existing gasoline and other conventional fuel infrastructure, and high-throughput biology tools to scale up biomass conversion. Resources & Related Terms - U.S. DOE Bioenergy Research Centers - Bioenergy Research Centers 2020 Program Update - US Department of Energy, Bioenergy Research Centers: 2017 - present - US Department of Energy, Bioenergy Research Centers: Research 2007-2017 - Big Help from Small Microbes: Electron Transfers to Produce Fuels and Fertilizer - Oxygen: The Jekyll and Hyde of Biofuels - Driving to Great: Science and the Journey to Waste-Free Biodiesel - Behind the Scenes: How Fungi Make Nutrients Available to the World Scientific terms can be confusing. DOE Explains offers straightforward explanations of key words and concepts in fundamental science. It also describes how these concepts apply to the work that the Department of Energy’s Office of Science conducts as it helps the United States excel in research across the scientific spectrum.
Recently I was revising y = mx + c with my Year 10s. I was using an app that demonstrated the gradient calculation for different lines. The line started with a vertical change of 2 units and a horizontal of 1 giving a gradient of 2 ÷ 1 = 2. I could then drag the ends of the line to demonstrate different gradient calculations such as 8 ÷ 4 = 2. What was interesting was that before I reached 8 and 4 the app was showing 8.1 ÷ 4.1 = 2. Obviously 8.1 ÷ 4.1 is not equal to 2, but this gave me a chance to look at errors in measurement in a ‘real life’ context. The app was obviously giving its measurements correct to one decimal place so we looked at what the ‘real’ length of the lines might be. It could be anything from 4.05 through to 4.14999999999… Ask your students to suggest what the two exact lengths may have been that gave exactly 2 when divided? It could have been 8.12 and 4.06 or maybe 8.122 and 4.061. How many different possible such answers could there be? Another context where this can crop up is when using geometry software to measure angles. For example, when studying circle theorems you may find that opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 179.8° or that the angle at the centre is apparently not exactly twice the angle at the circumference. The new GCSE requires that students can express rounded values using inequality notation and these errors in measurement provide a good stimulus for discussion. All the best, Steve Cavill BSc(Hons) PGCE FCIEA has taught maths in both state and independent schools. He spent a few years as an Associate Lecturer for the OU and has written a number of GCSE maths books, workbooks and revision guides as well as being a senior examiner and moderator for GCSE and IGCSE.
NASA's Kepler Space Telescope is an observatory in space dedicated to finding planets outside our solar system, particularly alien planets that are around the same size as Earth in the "habitable" regions of their parent star. Since the launch of the observatory in 2009, astronomers have discovered hundreds of extra-solar planets, or exoplanets, through this telescope alone. Most of them are planets that are ranging between the size of Earth and Neptune (which itself is four times the size of Earth). In the early years of exoplanet hunting, astronomers were best able to find huge gas giants — Jupiter's size and larger — that were lurking close to their parent star. The addition of Kepler (as well as more sophisticated planet-hunting from the ground) means that more "super-Earths" have been found, or planets that are just slightly larger than Earth but have a rocky surface. The $600-million Kepler was originally launched in 2009 with the expectation that it would last a year. Gazing at a fixed spot in the constellation Cygnus, the telescope continually monitored 100,000 main-sequence stars for planets. The telescope detected these exoplanets through watching for stars dimming as planets pass in front of them. Because star dimming can also take place through other means (for example, another star slightly grazing the surface), in the early days these planets were confirmed through other telescopes, generally by measuring the gravitational "wobble" the planet has on the star. In February 2014, however, astronomers pioneered a new technique called "verification by multiplicity," which works in multiple-planet systems. A star with multiple planets around it is gravitationally stable, according to the theory, while a star that is part of a close-knit system of stars would have a more unstable system because of each star's massive gravity. Through this technique, the team unveiled 715 confirmed planets in one release, which was then the largest single announcement. [Gallery: A World of Kepler Planets] Kepler was approved far beyond its original mission length and was operating well until May 2013, when a second of its four reaction wheels or gyroscopes failed. The telescope needs at least three of these devices to stay pointed in the right direction. At the time, NASA said the telescope was still in perfect health otherwise, and investigated alternate mission ideas for the hardware. Within a few months, the agency came up with a mission that it dubbed "K2." The mission would essentially use the sun's solar wind to stabilize the telescope's pointing for several months at a time. Then, about four times a year, the telescope would move to a different field of view when the sun got too close to its sensors. Kepler's major achievement is showing the sheer variety of planetary systems that are available. Planet systems can exist in compact arrangements within the confines of the equivalent of Mercury's orbit. They can orbit around two stars, much like Tatooine in the Star Wars universe. And in an exciting find for those seeking life beyond Earth, the telescope has revealed that small, rocky planets similar to Earth are more common than larger gas giants such as Jupiter. Kepler's largest discovery in sheer volume occurred in February 2014, when astronomers unveiled 715 new worlds confirmed in one go. The single release of information nearly doubled the number of known planets to that point to almost 1,700. Astronomers noted this find, using the verification by multiplicity technique, came out of the first two years of Kepler data. Two years of data remain to be studied, and investigators expect hundreds more could come out of examining that information. Kepler was the first telescope to find a planet approximately the size of Earth in the habitable region of a star. Dubbed Kepler-69c, the exoplanet is about 2,700 light-years away and has a diameter about 1.5 times that of Earth. The telescope also has the capability to find planets that are much smaller than Earth, such as Kepler-37b. The planet is considered to be close to Mercury's size and is likely rocky and airless, much like the planet in our own solar system. Other weird worlds discovered by the telescope include Kepler-62e and Kepler-62f, two water worlds that likely have a global ocean — as opposed to Earth, which has a significant fraction of dry land. The planets are about 1,200 light-years away in the constellation Lyra and are close to the size of Earth.
Updated: Feb 20, 2020 When Bloom published the two-sigma problem in 1984, he shared two fundamental findings. The first one is that “everyone can achieve” and the second one is “a student taught 1-1 using mastery learning methods performed above 98% (2 standard deviations) better than a student taught in a conventional class setting. These results are not very surprising since the lower teacher to student ratio always leads to better results in learning. On the other hand, providing a private tutor for every student is too expensive and well there is not enough teachers to do that .. So, the question becomes; Is there a way to achieve the 1-1 teaching? Educators all over the world research to find an answer to this 30-year-old problem. Everyone is thinking about if the use of technology in the classroom can solve this problem. Despite all the efforts and progress, technology still has not reach to the level of 1-1 tutoring. What about Artificial Intelligence? Can AI respond the unique needs of each individual by using learning theories, predictive analysis, cognitive science and machine learning? Adaptive Learning is defined as “The field—which uses artificial intelligence to actively tailor content to each individual’s needs—draws upon knowledge domains as diverse as machine learning, cognitive science, predictive analytics, and educational theory—to make this learner-centered vision of education a reality.” Adaptive courses are personalized to each learner. Individuals’ learning paths are determined by learner inputs, such as performance, prior knowledge, and engagement, that drive an adaptive algorithm. Bite-size modules with granular learning objectives are very important for adaptive learning. Granular LOs allow the algorithm to pin-point specific concepts a learner may be struggling with, and then provide immediate remediation to target their specific knowledge gaps. Adaptive Learning uses the mastery-based” learning idea. Learners must achieve proficiency in order to progress and complete the course; learners can spend however long they need to master concepts. Adapting Learning also requires adapting testing. Different types of assessments engage different types of learners. Providing assessments in a variety of formats leverages the available diversity in order to better assess a learner’s mastery of the content. Adaptive testing is figuring out each learner’s proficiency or skill-level in as few questions as possible. Item Response Theory” and “Knowledge Space Theory” are used in both adaptive learning and adaptive testing. HOW IT WORKS? Adaptive learning provides “Individualized mastery-based” learning by using four theories. >> Metacognitive theory (The learners learn best when they know what they don’t know.) >> . Theory of Game Design ( where the idea of levels of the games must be engaging as well as challenging enough so that you continue to work on it but it has to be still archivable so that you cannot loose all the time which means you lose your motivation to continue) >> . Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve (AI simply decides the number of repetitions you need to put a skill or a knowledge to your long-term memory and it provides that repetition just before you forget something) >> Theory of Deliberate (Deep) Practice. Practice and practice until it become a part of the automaticity. Remember, Erickson claims that it takes 10 000 hours of practice to become an expert on something so it rephrases the belief of “experts are always made, not born”. Intentional focus (practice has to have a specific target) Challenge exceeds skills Repetition to Automaticity Since modules of the adaptive learning are bite-size, It gives the insight down to the granular level of the each learning objective and how the learner interacts with it. AI can use this data to find out what’s working, what's not, what the patterns are across the group and most importantly, use to optimize each learners path to mastery. Since time is the most valuable asset of us, adaptive learning achieves efficiency in time by showing to each learner only what they need to see at only when they need to see it. Mc Graw Hill is one of the leading publishers becomes a pioneer in adaptive learning with ALEKS. Assessment and LEarning in Knowledge Spaces is a Web-based, artificially intelligent assessment and learning system. ALEKS uses adaptive questioning to quickly and accurately determine exactly what a student knows and doesn't know in a course. You can try ALEKS by checking the Mc Graw Hills website Overall, I really liked the idea of AI provides individualized mastery-based learning, I have tried to sample adaptive learning module as well, I particularly liked the way it asks the confidence level of the learner at each question. Being able to collect data about accuracy, time spend, and confidence of the learners can give you a great insight to revise your instruction as well. On the other hand, creating bite-size modules by using granular LO's requires a very detailed work and very long time, and I wonder what happens if the task or the problem involves or requires using more than one objective or higher-level objectives. I wonder how you think?
Violence against Children Surveys: Our Methods Violence Against Children Surveys (VACS) are nationally representative household surveys of children and young adults ages 13 to 24 years. They are designed to measure the prevalence (number and percentage) and circumstances surrounding emotional, physical, and sexual violence against males and females in childhood (before age 18). VACS also measure the prevalence of violence in the last 12 months for girls and boys ages 13 to 17 years. The survey identifies risk and protective factors as well as consequences of violence. Experts from the U.S. Government and United Nations agencies, as part of the Together for Girls partnership, have consulted on the development of the survey, the VACS implementation process, and the plans for data analysis and reports. Definitions of Key Terms in Surveys For the purpose of VACS, the following definitions are used: Critical Elements of Interviewer Training for Engaging Children and Adolescents in Global Violence Research - Sexual violence includes all forms of sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children. This encompasses a range of acts, including completed non-consensual sex acts (such as rape), attempted non-consensual sex acts, abusive sexual contact (such as unwanted touching), and non-contact sexual abuse (such as threatened sexual violence, exhibitionism, verbal sexual harassment). - Physical violence is defined as the intentional use of physical force with the potential to cause death, disability, injury or harm. Indicators of physical violence typically include punching, kicking, whipping, beating with an object, choking, suffocating, attempted drowning, intentional burning, using or threatening with a knife, gun or other weapon. Physical violence includes acts of violence perpetrated by four types of potential perpetrators: - Intimate partners, including a romantic partner, boyfriend or girlfriend, or spouse. - Peers, including people the same age as the respondent not including an intimate partner. These include siblings, schoolmates, neighbors, and strangers. - Parents, adult caregivers, and other adult relatives. - Adults in the neighborhood such as teachers, police, employers, religious or neighborhood leaders, neighbors, or adult strangers. - Emotional violence is defined as a pattern of verbal behavior over time or an isolated incident that is not developmentally appropriate and supportive and that has a high probability of damaging a child’s mental health, or his or her physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development. The survey includes questions about emotional violence perpetrated by parents, adult caregivers, or other adult relatives. The VACS is a cross-sectional household survey of 13 to 24 year old females and males, designed to produce national-level estimates of experiences of physical, sexual, and emotional violence in childhood. The surveys include a randomly selected, representative subset of the population, at one specific point in time, providing estimates of violence indicators by age group, sex, and other demographic factors. All data are collected through an in-person interview with trained interviewers. All respondents are asked about lifetime and past 12 months experiences with sexual, physical, and emotional violence. For analysis purposes, lifetime prevalence estimates of childhood violence are based on responses from participants ages 18 to 24 reporting on their experiences prior to age 18. Estimates of current childhood violence are based on responses from participants ages 13 to 17 reporting on experiences occurring in the past 12 months before the survey. \|Lifetime prevalence of childhood violence\|\|Participants ages 18 to 24 reporting on experiences before age 18.\| \|12-month incidence of childhood violence\|\|Participants ages 13 to 17 reporting on experiences in the past 12 months.\| CDC scientists together with UNICEF and the Together for Girls Secretariat and many external consultants developed a standardized global VACS core questionnaire. The questionnaire draws questions and definitions from a number of existing and well-respected survey tools, so that data on various measures can be compared with other studies as a useful validation. This approach also means that the questionnaire uses measures that have already been field tested in other studies. Questionnaire and survey protocols for each country are adapted through a consultation process with key stakeholders in each country who are familiar with the problem of violence against children, child protection, and the cultural context. The questionnaire includes questions on the following survey topics: - Background (e.g. demographics, socioeconomic status, and education) - Gender Attitudes - Witnessing Violence - Violence Victimization including: Sexual Violence (i.e. Abuse, Non-Contact Violence, and Exploitation), Physical Violence, and Emotional Violence - Violence Perpetration - Health Risk Behaviors - Health Outcomes - Service Seeking and Utilization Due to the sensitive nature of the questions in the survey, some respondents may recall frightening, humiliating, or painful experiences, which may cause a strong emotional response. Respondents could also be currently experiencing violence and want immediate assistance with the situation, or counseling. In order to respond to these needs, all countries develop a response plan with resources for interviewers to link respondents to support. During the survey, all respondents are provided with a list of services, reflecting free programs, services, and amenities currently offered in the country, including but not limited to services for victims of violence. Free direct referrals are often offered to individuals based on the country response plan. In all countries, interviewers conduct a pilot (test run) of the questionnaire. The pilot usually consists of two or three days in the field interviewing respondents and one day for debriefing, discussion, and feedback. Communities that are not involved in the final data collection fieldwork are involved in the pilot. The pilot follows normal VACS survey protocols including a split sample approach, so that surveys for girls are conducted in different geographic areas than surveys for boys. This split sample helps to protect the confidentiality of the respondents and eliminates the chance that a male perpetrator of sexual violence and the female victim in the same community would both be interviewed. The primary purpose of the pilot is to test the questionnaire and survey protocols including activation of the response plan. The pilot helps interviewers assess willingness to participate, length of the questionnaire, and the cultural appropriateness of the questions. Information and feedback from the pilot is used to inform survey implementation. Adjustments are made to the protocol or to the survey as a result of the pilot feedback. This helps to make sure that the questions being asked accurately reflect the data the questionnaire is seeking. The VACS adheres to World Health Organization recommendations on ethics and safety in studies of violence against women. The U.S. CDC Institutional Review Board and the in-country ethics committees or other entities which protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects independently review and approve each survey. Fieldwork Data Collection Data collection for the VACS takes approximately 4–6 weeks in each country. Male interviewers conduct interviews with male respondents, and female interviewers conduct interview with female respondents. Criteria for implementing a Violence Against Children Survey, from Together for Girls VACS is designed by CDC and implemented under the leadership of country governments with participation from in-country partners and support from partner organizations (such as UNICEF and PEPFAR). In order for the VACS to be successful in collecting good-quality information and mobilizing national, multi-sector policies and programs to prevent and respond to violence against children, a number of factors need to be in place. - Governments fully commit to the process by requesting a VACS. - Presence of more than one Together for Girls partner on the ground and capacity of in-country Together for Girls partners to support implementation of the survey. - Availability of funding to both implement the VACS and support CDC technical assistance for implementation. - National and partner expression of support for action in response to survey findings, such as the ability to mobilize resources and having funding in place for programs and services. - In-country capacity for ethical standards, including confidentiality, and provision of appropriate referral and counseling services to respondents requiring support. Access to VACS data Many of the data sets from the VACS are available for public use, as consistent with the agreements with country partners. The data are available through public use datasets prepared by CDC and made available with permission from the respective country governments. The VACS data provide opportunities to enrich our understanding of the frequency, impact, and circumstances that lead to violence against children. Public access to the data can provide an opportunity to researchers to expand on the use and application of the data. Access to the public use datasets is coordinated through Together for Girls. Key Principles to Consider when Undertaking the VACS: - The success of the VACS is based on and built around strong engagement of in-country partners under the leadership of the government with participation from key civil society and development stakeholders. - The data from the VACS are intended to inform policy and a comprehensive multi-sector programmatic response. - Protecting and supporting children and young adults who have experienced or are experiencing violence and request help must be a central consideration in the design of the study protocol and the implementation of VACS. The highest possible ethical standards must also be upheld during the preparation and implementation of the VACS. - Building the capacity of national institutions needs to be an inherent part of the process to ensure ownership and sustainability of the processes.

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