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While exploring the southbank of the River Thames, we were delighted to come upon a reconstruction of Sir Francis Drake’s ship, The Golden Hinde, nestled in the tight alleys near London Bridge and Borough Market. The kids had fun playing hide-and-seek from the main deck to the gun deck to the hold, among thick cannons and wooden barrels, steep ladders and rigging. We identified the fo’c’sle and poop deck, and poked our heads into the captain’s quarters and great cabin where the officers would play chess, dice and cards. This reconstruction of the original ship (England’s first to circumnavigate the world) is a fantastic way to imagine life at sea in the 16th century and leads to great discussion about history and science of the time. - What kinds of challenges did the crew face on their three year voyage to circumnavigate the globe? - Which countries in Europe lead maritime exploration and how did this link to colonization? - What were the most important items traded at this time (1600s) between the different continents?
ISBN : 9780198778752 What is responsible for the differences between the sexes in so many animals, from the brilliant plumage of birds of paradise to the antlers on deer? And why are the traits that distinguish the sexes sometimes apparently detrimental to survival? Even when they look more or less alike, why do males and females sometimes behave differently? Questions like these have intrigued scientists and the public alike for many years, and new discoveries are showing us both how wildly variable the natural world is, and how some basic principles can help explain much of that variation. Like natural selection, sexual selection is a process that results from differential representation of genes in successive generations. Under sexual selection, however, the crucial characteristics that determine whether an individual reproduces depend on sexual competition, rather than survival ability. This Very Short Introduction considers the history of our understanding of sexual selection, from Darwin's key insights to the modern day. Considering the investment animals place on reproduction, variation in mating systems, sexual conflict, and the origin of sexual dimorphism, Marlene Zuk and Leigh Simmons discuss questions such as whether females can really choose between males on aesthetic grounds, and how sexual conflict is resolved in different species. They conclude with a consideration of the thorny question of how, and even if, sexual selection theory applies to humans. 1: Darwin's Other Big Idea 2: Choosing from the field of competitors 3: Sex roles and stereotypes 4: Sexual selection after mating 5: Sexual conflict 6: Mating systems, or who goes with whom, and for how long 7: How Sex Makes Species Survive "An excellent, fascinating introduction to the recent discoveries that have revolutionized our understanding of competition over mates, mate choice and differences between the sexes. Darwin would have been both pleased and amazed." - Malte Andersson, Professor emeritus, Animal Ecology, University of Gothenburg
If chemists built cars, they’d fill a factory with car parts, set it on fire, and sift from the ashes pieces that now looked vaguely car-like. When you’re dealing with car-parts the size of atoms, this is a perfectly reasonable process. Yet chemists yearn for ways to reduce the waste and make reactions far more precise. Chemical engineering has taken a step forward, with researchers from the University of Santiago de Compostela in Spain, the University of Regensburg in Germany, and IBM Research Europe forcing a single molecule to undergo a series of transformations with a tiny nudge of voltage. Ordinarily, chemists gain precision over reactions by tweaking parameters such as the pH, adding or removing available proton donors to manage the way molecules might share or swap electrons to form their bonds. “By these means, however, the reaction conditions are altered to such a degree that the basic mechanisms governing selectivity often remain elusive,” the researchers note in their report, published in the journal Science. In other words, the complexity of forces at work pushing and pulling across a large organic molecule can make it hard to get a precise measure on what’s occurring at each and every bond. The team started with a substance called 5,6,11,12-tetrachlorotetracene (with the formula C18H8Cl4) – a carbon-based molecule that looks like a row of four honeycomb cells flanked by four chlorine atoms hovering around like hungry bees. Sticking a thin layer of the material to a cold, salt-crusted piece of copper, the researchers drove the chlorine-bees away, leaving a handful of excitable carbon atoms holding onto unpaired electrons in a range of related structures. Two of those electrons in some of the structures happily reconnected with each other, reconfiguring the molecule’s general honeycomb shape. The second pair were also keen to pair up not just with each other, but with any other available electron that might buzz their way. Ordinarily, this wobbly structure would be short-lived as the remaining electrons married up with each other as well. But the researchers found this particular system wasn’t an ordinary one. With a gentle push of voltage from an atom-sized cattle prod, they showed they could force a single molecule to connect that second pair of electrons in such a fashion that the four cells were pulled out of alignment in what’s known as a bent alkyne. Shaken a little less vigorously, those electrons paired up differently, distorting the structure in a completely different fashion into what’s known as a cyclobutadiene ring. Each product was then reformed back into the original state with a pulse of electrons, ready to flip again at a moment’s prompting. By forcing a single molecule to contort into different shapes, or isomers, using precise voltages and currents, the researchers could gain insight into the behaviors of its electrons and the stability and preferable configurations of organic compounds. From there it could be possible to whittle down the search for catalysts that could push a large-scale reaction of countless molecules in one direction, making the reaction more specific. Previous studies have used similar methods to visualize the reconfigurations of individual molecules, and even manipulate individual steps of a chemical reaction. Now we are building new methods for tweaking the very bonds of molecules to form isomers that ordinarily wouldn’t be so simple to swap around. Not only does research like this help make chemistry more precise, it provides engineers with sharp new tools to manufacture machines on a nanoscale, warping carbon-frameworks into exotic shapes that wouldn’t be possible with ordinary chemistry. This research was published in Science. #Chemists #Rearranged #Atomic #Bonds #Single #Molecule #Time
The English used in this article or section may not be easy for everybody to understand. (February 2012) \|Region\|\|Cologne and environs\| The Colognian dialect, or Kölsch is a variety of the German languages. People in and around the city of Cologne in the West of Germany use Kölsch. Nowadays most of them have High German as their primary language or secondary language. Usage[change \| change source] About 250,000 people actively speak Kölsch. More than 2,500,000 people understand Kölsch well and use some Kölsch, or a variant, somehow. An estimated 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 people understand it partially. Pronunciation[change \| change source] How to say "Kölsch"? Take the beginning from "kernel" or "colonel"; next take a real dark, long "l" as in "bold", or "ball"; then append a "sh" as in "shrimps", or "ti" as in "nation". That's the sound "Kölsch". However, the German "ö" is not exactly the same as an English "o", but a sound between "o" and "e". Etymology[change \| change source] The word 'Kölsch' comes from the Name of the City of Cologne. It is 'Köln' in native tongue, yet 'Kölle' in Kölsch. Now by ordinary German word building rules, 'kölnisch' means 'belonging to Cologne', 'related to Cologne', 'in Cologne', 'from Cologne'—as in 'kölnisch Wasser' (Eau de Cologne). The word 'kölnisch', or 'köllesch', shortened to 'kölsch' in local tongue, became a shorthand noun for the local beer and the local language, or dialect. Today's name of the city stems from ancient times of the Roman occupation of Northern Germany 100 years before Christ, and later. In the place of a longer existing German tribal settlement, the Romans built a fort or castle — then, approximately under the reign of Julius Caesar, enhanced it to a colony (Latin: colonia) with religious and city rights. Part of its Roman name stuck, 'Colonia Clavdia Ara Agrippinensivm Oppidvm Vbiorum' became 'Köln' over the centuries. History[change \| change source] Although Kölsch speakers occasionally claim that it is rooted in pre-Roman times, Kölsch's ripuarian base developed from a mix of Lower German and Middle High German in medieval times. It learned from other languages through political and trade connections during the times of the Hanse, and from various waves of immigration. In modern times, there were: - Remarkable French influences since Napoleon's occupation of the city (1794-1815) - Prussian influences as Prussian kings took over from the French army - Dutch influences by immigration, trade, and neighborhood - Some English influences through the British and American armies, European integration and worldwide globalization since 1945 - Recently minor influences by migrants from Southern Europe and Turkey start evolving Special properties[change \| change source] Kölsch has outstanding or unique properties. Here are some: - Richness. There is only one language in Europe that has as many different vowels as Kölsch. There are a huge number of different sounds that sound like 'sh', but if someone gets them wrong, he will be understood as a foreigner. - Tolerance paired with individuality. Kölsch is not so outstanding among the many dialects around it. These are both similar and different. Kölsch integrates new variants and deviations easily and quickly. There is no concept of right or wrong, only of difference. It is all right to be different, as every individual is different somehow all the time. - Kölsch is unusually well documented. Some linguists of the local universities have shown great interest in Kölsch and the ripuarian dialects, and research on them. Outside the world of science, the Akademie för uns Kölsche Sproch (Academy in favour of our Kölsch language) offers regular courses, classes, excursions for everybody. They publish a dictionary, a grammar, and phrase books. It is probably the only institute of its kind worldwide. Socio-cultural[change \| change source] After the Second World War, Cologne took up and integrated a huge number of former inhabitants from the former East German regions, which now are part of Poland. That has not had a remarkable impact on the Kölsch language; but on the immigrants. They soon began to integrate into the social life and otherwise, they began to learn Kölsch. Naturally they initially were not perfect speakers. The Kölsch language recognized that, and quickly created a word for them: "imi" ('imitating' or 'imitated' Kölsch). As they lerned Kölsch well over the years, you could hear the word 'imi' less often. It came back recently, when the wall that separated East and West Germany was taken down. People who speak Kölsch[change \| change source] - Jacques Offenbach, (1819–1880), cellist, composer, initiator of the genre 'operetta' - Konrad Adenauer, (1876-1967), Cologne's mayor for long, later the first German prime minister (chancellor) after the second world war - Karl Blömer, body builder, awarded "Mister Universum" - Heinrich Böll, (1917-1985), writer and novelist, president of the German and the international Pen Club, received the nobel prize for literature in the year 1972 - Peter Müller 'Dä Aap', (1927-1992), middle-weight boxing champion - Peter Ludwig, (1925-1996), industry leader, patron and collector of modern art, founder of six important museums spread over Western Germany - Willy Millowitsch, (1909-1999), actor, TV-star, entertainer, proprietor of his own theatre in Cologne - Mario Adorf, (born 1930), actor and writer - Michael Schumacher, (born in 1969), formula-one car-racing world champion Kölsch music[change \| change source] - Willi Ostermann, (1876-1936) was a parodist, poet, composer, singer, songwriter, editor and publisher. He is extremely popular in the Kölsch Region. He created a treasure of Kölsch songs. Many of Ostermann's songs are in everybody's active memory in Cologne and about. People sing them on various occasions and music groups ubiquitously performed them all the time until today. - Can is a Kölsch rock group that reveived much international acclamation from insiders in the late 1960s, when they started a new style of electronic music. General public became aware of them only about 20 years later. Then other musicians had successfully adopted their style. Most of their music is instrumental. If there is voice in their compositions, it is mostly used similar to any other instrument. - de Bläck Fööss (the Naked Feet) were the first publicly recognized beat band to sing in Kölsch language. The professional musicians, successful in other projects, just for fun recorded a nice Kölsch song together, in 1969. The record became a little local success, they decided to follow that path and started a huge success. Over the years, they had a series of local top hits, occasionally well received even outside the area where people understand Kölsch. Today they regularly draw audiences of 20,000 or 30,000 people several times a year. Their repertoire covers most styles of modern popular music, and various language variants of Kölsch. - BAP is a Kölsch rock group. They always have been a tour band and successfully perform throughout Germany. - de Höhner (the Cocks and Hens) is a group playing popular, rock, beat, dancing, and drinking songs, almost all of them use an easy Kölsch. They have had a top hit in Germany and Number One at the Oktoberfest in Munich. Munich is far away from Cologne; people in Munich have a completely different language, they usually do not comprehend Kölsch. References[change \| change source] - "Ripuarian". Ethnologue. Other websites[change \| change source] - Moselfränkisches Wörterbuch (Mosel-Frankian Dictionary, in German) - WiKoelsch Test Wiki in Ripuarian languages, including Kölsch.
Albert Nava 9-23-10 Art Appreciation The Banjo Lesson, by Henry Tanner, is an example of 19th century realism. As we can see realism is the attitude of accepting the situation you are in and preparing yourself mentally to deal with that situation. Henry tanner was a famous painter that liked to make simple but controversial paintings. Personally I think the man is a genius. So what does Henry Tanner and 19th century realism have in common? They collide when he makes his most famous painting, The Banjo Lesson. This painting shows an elderly black man teaching what is assumed to be his grandson how to play the banjo. ) This painting is truly amazing because it is simple, yet some many questions and possibilities to what the painting is trying to tell us. Africans American were stereotyped, they were known for knowing how to play musical instruments. In this painting yes he is teaching the boy how to play the banjo, but it goes much further than that. The focus of this picture is not the general stereotype instead the painting portrays a specific moment of human interaction. The man and the child seem to be oblivious to everything around them. They are so concentrated on what they are doing and cooperating with each other. These are not stereotypes these are real people with real human qualities. Tanner takes on the challenge of making it as realistic as possible. He has two separate and light sources. A natural white, blue glow from outside enters from the left while the warm light from a fireplace on the right. The figures are illuminated where the two light sources meet. Like we have learned the picture is balanced and we immediately look at the middle where the man and the boy are. I think the lights are a transition between two worlds where tanner leaves his U. S past and moves into his new home in France. My response to the painting is that I liked it and probably is one of my favorites after looking at the details and analyzing it. The way I see it is that no matter what we are going through we can always be happy with the power of teaching your grandson to play an instrument. When people look at the picture they don’t get sad and say look at the poor conditions they are living in. they say aww look at the man teaching to boy how to play the banjo. it brings joy and a warm feeling when you see the picture and that is my personal response to the painting. I think it does have historical worth because it portrays how they use to live at that time.
History of Field View Cameras Field Cameras Origins When you think of photography, you may think of it as a fairly modern invention. On the contrary, photography began with the camera obscura as early as the 10th century AD, and some evidence seems to indicate that Aristotle was familiar with this technique as early as the 4th century BC. The camera obscura was a darkened room with a tiny hole in one wall with a white screen on the opposite wall. In the middle of the 16th century, lenses were added to the hole of the camera obscura to produce a brighter, sharper image. Over time, the camera obscura became more compact, and the image was projected onto thin paper on glass so it could be traced. This was used as a sketching aid by artists. Sketching the images on the camera obscura took extra time, but in 1725 Johann Heinrich Schultz learned that exposing certain silver salts to light could capture the image without tracing. Over the next 75 years, scientists investigated these properties of the silver salts, but none could practically use the discovery to produce permanent images. In the early 1800s, the camera obscura had become a portable, light-tight box that contained materials and chemicals that would momentarily record the image through the lens. Cameras created in the 1800s were often crafted for looks as well as functionality. For instance, fine woods were used with brass fixtures to showcase the equipment. Wood had the advantage over metal as it was lighter and the camera could be made larger, which would give the photographer more movement and extension. The wood was also exceptional for dampening vibration, which could affect a metal camera and blur the picture. On the other hand, the metal cameras had the advantage of less flexibility for long extensions. The metal cameras could be knocked over with little damage, while the wooden cameras could be shattered if they hit the floor. In 1816, Joseph Niépce and his Brother Clyde successfully produced a paper negative from the image. When they sandwiched this negative with another piece of sensitized paper, a positive image would appear. Unfortunately, there still was no way of making these images permanent. Niépce decided to use pewter plates coated with bitumen of Judea, which was an asphaltic varnish that hardened when exposed to light. He originally exposed these plates to some light through an oiled etching on a piece of paper, and washed the plates with a solvent after exposure to remove the hardened parts of the image. This created a positive representation of the etching on a metal plate, which was called a heliograph. The plate was then etched with acid, inked, and printed. Niépce decided to place the light-sensitive plates within a camera and expose them, which produced the first permanent photographs around 1826. The camera needed about eight hours for proper exposure. These positive images were too faint for repeated printing, so the photographs were one-of-a-kind. This process did not use the light sensitive silver salt and could reproduce the image in light and dark tones with no color. He continued to attempt to improve his process. Another Frenchman, Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre used the camera for his sketches and experimenting with the light-sensitive silver salts at around the same time as Niépce's experiments. Eventually, Niépce and Daguerre worked together to further their research. Daguerre finally used a copper sheet plated with silver that had been polished and fumed with a vapor of iodine to produce the light sensitive silver iodide on the plate's surface. This plate was then placed into the camera and exposed to the image. The plate was treated after exposure with the fumes from heated mercury to produce a stronger, more visible image, which was then fixed with salt water. This produced a silvery, delicate, monochromatic image that was unique. Daguerre called his invention the daguerreotype. Giroux Alphonse Daguerreotype Camera Daguerre's invention was brought into the public eye at the Academy of Sciences in 1839, and the French government began to provide pensions to Daguerre and Niépce in exchange to the rights for the invention. People were entranced with the camera and the images it produced, and it even caused French painter Paul Taylor Roche to declare that painting was dead for all time. Daguerre designed the first commercially manufactured camera in 1839, which was made by Alfonse Giroux in Paris. It consisted of a double box camera based on the experimental work conducted by Daguerre. This view camera featured an achromatic 15-inch F/15 landscape lens that was manufactured by a Parisian instrument and optician maker named Chevalier. In 1839, William Henry Fox Talbot of England learned of the new photographic technology. He had begun to experiment with these processes in 1834, and learning about Niépce and Daguerre's invention, brought his own to the Royal Institution and the World Society by the end of that January. He used paper that had been sensitized with silver chloride, upon which he placed objects. These were exposed to light in what are now called photograms. Later, he exposed the paper to an image in the camera to produce a negative image that he fixed by bathing the paper in salt water. He would then create a positive image by placing it against a second sheet of sensitized paper and exposing both to light using the contact printing method. Talbot continued to work with his camera to invent the calotype, and during this time he sensitized paper with silver iodide. Exposure to light would produce a latent image; however, he learned this negative image could become visible with a chemical development in a second wash of gallo-nitrate of silver. The print was then fixed with a solution of potassium bromide. The development of this latent image resulted in less exposure time. The negative image was then contact printed to another sensitized paper sheet to produce a positive image. Over the next several years, other inventors attempted to improve the photographic process. One English man, Sir John Herschel, discovered sodium thiosulfate provided a true fixative for the images. He originally misidentified the substance as sodium hyposulfite, and nicknamed the substance hypo. This term is still used today for photography fixative. Two Americans, W.H.E. and H.J. Lewis patented a new daguerreotype camera in 1841. The Lewis model was the first to use internal bellows from its lens to the glass plate. This allowed the cameras to collapse for easier transport, as many photographers were travelling with their rigs. The new design also allowed them to focus and change the perspective of their pictures. The swing lens and balance system is still used in modern view cameras, and allow the photographer to control the convergence of parallel lines and focus. By moving the rear or front standards, the perspective and focus can be altered. The front and rear standards may not always have movement, but some have mechanisms that allow the photographer to make intricate movement combinations. The rising and falling movements of the front or rear standard were along the vertical plane of the film. The rise is used for architectural photography and tall shots to alter the proportions of the object on the film. For instance, a photographer would use rise to shoot a building and ensure the top would remain in perspective to the bottom, rather than growing thinner as the eye travels to the top of the building. When the photographer shifted the front or back standard to the right or left, the shift moved the image horizontally. This was used, for instance, to remove the camera's image from the shot if the photographer was shooting reflective surfaces. Tilting the lens backwards or forwards was called lens tilt and was used for landscape photography, as well. This allowed the shooter to move the plane of focus to select the area in front of the lens that would be clear. Again, these methods are still used by photographers with modern view cameras. Most of the earliest cameras were made of wood, leather, and brass (some metal cameras were introduced as well) with no mechanical parts, and were sized according to the sheet film they utilized. They were available in 5x12, 7x 17, and 8x20 inches. The material of the camera's body depended on the price and quality of the camera. The more expensive cameras used leather or cloth for the bellows, while later, less expensive models used treated paper. The continuous movements of the bellows wore out the paper faster, and leather was seen as the superior material. As the cameras were often used outside, the photographers needed to take extra care of the leather to keep it from drying, crumbling, or rotting. The cloth bellows were superior, as they did not rip like the paper or dry out like the leather. Today, many current collectors of these view cameras still face the problem of dulling and deterioration to the leather in antique cameras. In order to use the view camera, the photographer was required to set the camera up in the most suitable position to photograph the subject. When ready to take the picture, the photographer would open the shutter of the lens to project the image on a ground glass placed on the rear standard plate in order to focus. The ground glass was fixed in the same vertical plane to frame and focus as the film would be, before the film was added. As this image was dim and difficult to view in daylight, the photographer used a dark cloth over his or her head to keep the light out of the viewing area to see the picture more clearly. Some photographers used magnifying lenses to perfect their focusing process. Although the taking lens was dropped down to gauge depth of field, the image on the ground glass was opened wide to allow proper focusing. The ground glass was pulled back, and the glass sheet slid into place. The shutter was then closed, the dark paper was removed from the glass to reveal the chemicals, the shutter was triggered to make the exposure, and the dark slide was replaced in the film holder to protect the latent image until it could be developed. In 1843, an Austrian chemist named Joseph Puchberger patented his swing lens panoramic camera that featured a bellows and hand crank. This camera produced a view image that showed 150 degrees of landscape with an 8 inch focal lens. Others invented further specialized cameras, including more panoramic models. The negative-positive system discovered by the earlier researchers encouraged photographers and scientists to search for a process that would provide the detail and sharpness of a daguerreotype with the reproducibility of the negative-positive system. Several inventors decided to use glass plates coated with silver halide rather than paper. Edward Anthony created an improved box camera in 1847 called Edward Anthony's Improved, Rosewood and Champered daguerreotype camera. This half plate model used ground glass and a holder with a double trap door, top loaded for field use, and featured expandable rear focusing. In 1847, Niépce de Saint Victor, a cousin of Joseph Niépce, invented one of the first successful glass plate techniques. He used albumen, or egg whites, as a clear substance to carry the silver salts and stick to the glass. However, albumen plates were not as sensitive as the calotype or daguerreotype, and required extremely long exposure time. This caused photographers to look elsewhere, although the albumen and silver salt mixture was found to provide a smoother finish with better detail when applied to paper than a silver salt mixture that had been used previously. Albumen papers became very popular. Later, in 1851, an English sculptor named Frederick Scott Archer discovered collodion in 1851. This was a carrier for silver salts made by dissolving gun cotton, or nitrocellulose, in alcohol or ether to create a clear liquid that would stick to glass and dry to a transparent finish. The collodion was mixed with potassium iodide and then applied to the glass plate, which was sensitized by dipping it in potassium iodide solution to form silver iodide. The plate needed to be exposed and developed before the collodion dried, or the developing chemicals would be unable to penetrate. This became known as a wet plate process. The results were superior, and the glass negative could be printed over and over, while providing the sharpness and detail similar to the daguerreotype. The majority of studios were using the wet plate process by the end of the 1850 rather than the daguerreotype process. There were some major disadvantages to the wet plate process. The coating, exposure, and development had to be done while the chemicals were wet on the plate, so the photographers needed to carry complete darkroom setups with them whenever they wished to take a picture. The glass plates were also fragile and very heavy. Because the photographic papers had a slow development time, printing and enlargement were impractical so the photographers relied on contact printing. The plates needed to be the same size as the photographic prints, and the cameras that would fit these plates were very large as well. Since many photographers were shooting the American west and war scenes, all the equipment needed called for a mule or wagon for transport. Thomas Ottewill approached the issue of the large cameras by creating a compact folding model intended for use by the military during the Civil War. Other companies began producing cameras with the new leather bellows that could be folded for travel. In 1856, C.G.H. Kinnar designed a camera that featured a tapered bellows in which the parallel-sided bellows could be folded into itself. These inventions were the actual beginning of photojournalism, as photographers traveled across the country between battlegrounds to take pictures of the Civil War encampments and battles. During the first years of the war, the wet plate photographic process was still used, which made the photographers camera and equipment bulky and hard to maneuver. They also needed to move quickly, as the collodion had to be mixed from dangerous chemicals that included sulfuric or acetic acid and ethel ether. This mixture had to be added to the plate, inserted into the camera in total darkness, and the shot taken before the chemicals dried. The images they captured allowed them to accurately communicate the state of the soldiers and wars to civilians who did not experience the fighting firsthand. They were shocked by the actual carnage of warfare, and the pictures stripped the Victorian-era romance many had concerning battle. Although this technology may seem primitive, many wartime photographers were producing three dimensional images which were called stereoviews. Two pictures from slightly difference angles were shot, then placed side by side onto the stereoview card, which would be placed into a stereo viewer to create a 3-D image. The view cameras' used relatively simple designs. The wooden boxes contained the bellows, which could be retracted and folded up to make the camera smaller and more portable. Some cameras used a monorail system, while others had two sliding rails. The double rails kept the camera from folding as small as the monorail design, and the rear standard may have been fixed and so it could not move. The shot was composed and focused on the rear ground glass plate. The frame assembly and ground glass were held in place to hold the glass firmly for the plane of focus during composition and focusing. When the picture was focused, a flexible mechanism clamped the film holder to the same focus plane of the ground glass. The shutter was then closed, and the photographer placed the chemical-coated plate inside the camera in total darkness. The shutter was triggered to make the exposure, and the camera was taken into a dark room to remove the exposed plate for development. Adolph Bertsch, Chambre Automatique Camera Adolph Bertsch created a subminiature camera in 1861 so photographers had a smaller option when using the wet collodion plate process in the field. The Bertsch automatic camera had a view of less than an inch with a fixed focus lens, and used a 1 ½ to 1 1/8 inch wet collodion plate. Researchers continued to look for new processes to eliminate the wet plate process, which required large cameras, plates, and dark room setups. They began to research dry plate methods that had the sensitivity of the wet plate. This was finally created by Richard L. Maddox in 1871, when he discovered that gelatin worked as an excellent carrier for the silver salts. These dry plates allowed the manufacturer to carry the glass to the site, expose it, and then put the plate away to be developed at the photographer's leisure. The gelatin plates were made in a factory, which standardized the materials in the photography world. Next, photographers and inventors worked to replace the fragile, heavy glass plates with a lightweight, more flexible material. Although this idea was conceived earlier, George Eastman invented the first practical way of manufacturing this flexible rolled film on a cellulose base in 1884. American Optical, a company that specialized in treating spectacles and lenses, decided to enter the camera manufacturing business and acquired the Scovill Company in 1867. Scovill functioned as the company's primary camera maker. The pieces offered by the two companies were very similar, although the Scovill cameras were less expensive and geared towards the amateur market. American Optical's cameras were more expensive and were constructed of finer woods and high quality finishes. Both companies offered cameras with front focusing, cone bellows design, hinges, and swing backs. E. & H.T. Anthony & Company was known as an American manufacturer of large, professional cameras in the mid-1880s. However, they offered a smaller apparatus called the patent Bijou that featured 3 ¼ by 4 inch lantern slides, which were quickly becoming the preferred format. These plates were the same size as plates used for magic lanterns, and slides were made from the plates by contact printing using ordinary frames. Magic lanterns were early image projectors from the 17th century that used a concave mirror and light source to project an image through the lens on to the screen or wall opposite the mechanism. Bausch and Lomb began to manufacture photographic lenses in 1883. This company had created eyeglasses and frames for several decades, but Edward Bausch, the son of the founder John Jacob, used knowledge of the human eyes workings to invent the diaphragm shutter. In 1888, the company began to produce diaphragm shutters and dominated the photography market by signing an exclusive agreement with Zeiss Company for their lenses. They were the only company allowed to use Zeiss lenses in the United States. During the same year, the first dry plate detective camera was patented by William Schmid. The Kodak (original) George Eastman also introduced a camera, called the Kodak, in 1888 that included a roll of the flexible cellulose film. This first flexible base was not transparent, and the film needed to be stripped from the backing and transferred to a glass plate before development and printing. Since this was a difficult procedure, Eastman required his customers to return the entire box camera so the film could be removed, processed, and printed. The camera itself was a wooden box covered with grained leather and included a role holder and an exposure indicator. The camera would then be reloaded with fresh film and returned to the customer with their photographs. His motto was, “You push the button, we do the rest!” This was the beginning of popular photography. A transparent film base made from nature cellulose was invented by Hannibal Goodwin, but he was not able to patent it before Eastman began to manufacture transparent films and Kodak cameras in 1898. The Eastman Company was later sued and lost a patent infringement case because of the use of the transparent film. Transparent based films became popular because they were a convenient and easy way for all users to shoot pictures while giving them the opportunity to take many exposures with one roll of film, change film rolls when needed, and develop and print with only a few pieces of equipment and without the difficulties of the previous years' procedures. The public responded by making photography a popular hobby and profession. The E.L. Horsmen Company in New York took advantage of this growing market to produce camera outfits suited for beginners and students in the late 1880's. Although they did not boast many features or refined construction, these were inexpensive, simple box plate cameras. The No. 2 Eclipse and No. 3 Eclipse were constructed of polished cherry wood and brass barrel, meniscus lenses. The cameras' bellows were made of a fragile leatherette that resembled paper, and the washer inserts were made from cardboard. As these seemed to be “beginner” cameras, they did not have movement and consisted of the most inexpensive materials. In 1900, Eastman Kodak introduced a small camera called the Brownie, which was an inexpensive box camera that introduced snapshots. The original model was made of cardboard and contained a simple meniscus lands that shot a 2 ¼ inch square picture onto 117 roll film. It cost only $1.00 and had a very simple controls. The line of Brownie's cameras was very popular, and was sold for over 70 years. The Rochester Optical Company was opened by William H. Walker and eventually joined with the four other companies to become the Rochester Optical and Camera Company. Originally, the company made dry plates and built cameras. When the five companies joined forces, they continued to make cameras even after they were bought by the Eastman Kodak Company. Other companies, such as the Rochester Optical Company in New York, continued to produce more expensive models with varying features. The Rochester Optical Co. produced the beautifully wood-finished Commodore from 1891-1902, which featured a maroon cloth bellows and a solid wood bed. Less expensive models were offered that did not feature a swinging mechanism. Flammang's Patent Revolving Back Camera American Optical Co. introduced the Flammang's Patent Revolving Back Camera, which was manufactured from 1886 to 1898, and featured a mahogany body, cherry base, rotating ground glass assembly, black fabric balance, brass trim, a Morrison D lens, and the inter-lens drop shutter which was a popular feature of cameras in the 1880s was the drop shutter. The majority of these shutters are operated by gravity, although some modern view cameras use rubber bands for a faster speed. Drop shutters were actually invented in the 1850's, but were most commonly used in the 1880s. The inter-lens drop shutter was dropped through slots cut into the lens barrel and mounted with a pneumatic release underneath. An air-powered piston was attached to a curved brass rod, which fit into a notch in the brass guillotine blade to prevent it from dropping. With a squeeze of an air ball, the piston and brass rod were forced outwards from the lens, which allowed the blade to drop through the barrel. A collar was placed at the top of the blade so the shutter would not fall completely through its lens. In 1882, E. & H. T. Anthony designed a camera that was light and reversible. This design held the rear of the camera in place by using key bolts. To reverse the camera, the user disengaged the key bolts, which revolved the bellows and camera back into a new position. Cameras such as the Novel, the Klauber, the Fairy, the Phantom Views, and some types of Novelettes used this new technology. Seemingly in response, Skovill Manufacturing Company designed a camera that revolved along a circular brass track, yet the back stayed in place. Spring loaded stops were used to mark the horizontal and vertical. However, the rotating mechanism added considerable size, and the camera was very large. Several American manufacturers began making the English-style compact cameras in the late 1880s. This style could sometimes fold to less than 3 inches deep. Many lenses could not fit into such a small camera, so many makers only created one model of compact styles for their brand. The Rochester Optical company, however, produced a series of these cameras, including the Monitor, Carlton, Universal, and Kentwood. These models had better features and finishes than those offered by other manufacturers. The unstable, inflammable cellulose film base was replaced with long-lived, safe acetate by Eastman Kodak in 1885. Sensitive photographic papers allowed photographers to use enlargers, making it possible to use smaller camera formats while still printing large photographs. There were improvements in lens optics and the discovery of new glasses, designs, and grinding techniques. Cameras became smaller and more sophisticated. Simon Wing took out a patent in 1887 for a “multiplying camera”, which allowed the photographer to produce many images on a single plate. This camera involved panels to shift the lens vertically and horizontally, as well as a ball and socket mount that allowed the lens tube to tilt universally. The camera also had the rigid back which allowed the camera to work as a multiplying apparatus. There were clusters of lenses to take the several pictures, and the plate's parts were required to be equidistant from the lens so they could properly focus. This model also had a fixed ground glass frame, ¼” thick plateholders, and a rail lock for mounting. The shifting option cost consumers an additional $2. Anthony's Phantom Camera E. & H.T. Anthony Company of New York created the Anthony's Phantom camera in 1888. This model accepted lenses ranging from 3 inches to 23 inches for mounting onto its 8x10 model. It featured a reversible back and bellows that were rotated together for portrait and landscape formats. This allowed the photographer to rotate the bellows and rear of the camera up to 90° while the front lines remained fixed. The drawback of this type of camera was that the bellows were quickly worn due to the stress of bending the pleats. Camera makers began to offer models with convertible formats in the 1890s. One example is the Blair reverse pullback camera, which featured the traditional rise/fall front stand, folding bellows, tilting rear standard, and reverse back for landscapes and portraits without the need to rotate the whole apparatus. This model also provided an extended grill system and extension back that allowed the user to upgrade the camera to a larger format when needed. Also during the 1890's, Hurter and Driffield devised an independent system to provide speed numbers for varying key motions, which led to the ISO numbers currently on film boxes. Another invention of this decade was half-toned photographic reproductions, which were produced in daily papers. These are created with the use of a camera that contained a ground glass screen printed with a grid pattern so the image could be broken into different sized dots. This helped add clarity to the newspapers' images, which were using black and white printing with in-between tones before this time. In 1892, a company owned by S.N. Turner introduced a bull's eye camera. Previous to this invention, photographers were required to load film into their cameras in the dark. However, Turner's invention introduced film that was backed with black paper so it could be safely loaded in daylight. The photographer could see the exposure number through a small red window on the back of the camera. The Eastman Kodak Company bought Turner's patents and company in 1895. In total, there were fewer than 30 companies making field few cameras in the 19th century. They included: - American Optical Company - E. & H.T. Anthony - Blair Camera Company - G. Gennert Company - E. I. Horsmen - Franklin Tourograph and Dry Plate - E. Gordon - Quta Camera and Plate Company - Rochester Optical Company - Skovill & Manufacturing Company - Jas. H. Smith & Company - Nathan Stockwell - Bausch and Lomb - The Monroe Camera Company - Eastman Kodak Company Many American camera manufacturers had employees who left one company to begin another, were bought by other companies, and had other traits in common. For instance, Ernst Gundlach left Bausch and Lomb and started Gundlach Optical Company. His son Karl helped him run the company for several years, then Ernst left to establish a rival company called Gundlach Photo-Optical Company. Another B&L employee, Andrew Wollensack, started at Bausch and Lomb just to leave and start Wollensack Company, which manufactured lenses, shutters, and more until 1958. Two more Bausch and Lomb employees named Klein and Brueck left their jobs as shutter designers to create the shutter delay mechanism, which involved a rocking plate and rotating gear. Their new company was called XL Manufacturing Company, and it manufactured their new shutter. They eventually changed their name to Ilex, and the company still exists today. Field viewer cameras went through an astonishing evolutionary process throughout the 1800s. This may be partially because there were so many new inventions being created, then taken and used by new companies. Camera manufacturers were constantly competing against other companies who had inside knowledge of their own business, products, and inventions because of job-hopping employees. Cameras evolved from wooden boxes with a tiny hole to models that are very similar to view cameras used today. By the beginning of the 20th century, they were made of wood and featured rear and front standard monorail or sliding rails that were fixed to the flatbed, which attached to the camera support. When the bellows was folded, the flatbed could be folded to reduce the camera to a light, small, portable box. The experiments of the preceding century brought about exciting new changes as they led to handheld cameras. Before 1888, the glass plate cameras were very large and limited to the perspectives that could be shot from the tripod. Because they were able to pick up the cameras and shoot pictures in the early 20th century, practitioners of other disciplines and amateurs could experiment with photographic perspective to explore their own ideas and creativity. Modern photographers still work with perspective in order to give pictures a dynamic, unique appearance and attitude. Glass plate view cameras' were quickly phased out during the early 1900s, and leather-covered cameras that could fold and use sheet film were manufactured by the score. Companies like the Rochester Optical Company and Century Camera Company created dozens of new models with slightly differing lenses and accoutrements. Amateurs started using the smaller models, and view cameras were once again used by the professional for panoramas, cityscapes, and events. The Century camera company was founded in 1900, and their first camera model had many improvements to former models, such as utilizing the same rack and pinion gears for the back and front focus. The front and back standards were placed in their own respective grooves within the rails. This caused the extinction of many view camera designs that had been made previously. Older models like the Rochester View and Empire State were altered by the company to match the new Century's design. Amusingly enough, the invention of air conditioning in 1902 was a big benefit to photography, as photographic materials could be better stored in a cool, dry environment during inclement weather, humidity, and heat. The 20th century brought more improvements to the photographic processes with some revolutionary inventions. Films were created to work with increasing speed in a broad and color sensitivity. Although early photographic emulsions were sensitive to blue, Autochrome, Kodachrome, and other panchromatics for full color were gradually developed. Several color processes were invented during the 19th century, Autochrome was the first commercially available color process and was introduced in 1907 and eventually discontinued in 1932. These produced positive color transparencies with glass plates in gave fantastic results. Kodachrome was the first affordable and practical cellulose transparency process, and was introduced by Eastman Company in 1935. Kodak Eastman, Cirkut No.8 A panoramic view camera called the Cirkut camera used a large format film and was patented in 1904. The film ranged from 5 inches to 16 inches and could produce a 360° photograph that potentially measured up to 20 feet in length. The film and camera were rotated on a specialized tripod during the exposure process in order to achieve an even, clear picture. The Ernemann Ermanox-Camera, introduced in 1924, had a lens boasting an F/2.0 next on aperture, which was fast enough to allow photography without bright light. The first electric flashbulbs were introduced to the market in 1930, although electrically ignited magnesium had been used previously for artificial illumination. Photographic electronic light meters were brought to the market in 1931. Prior to this date, the exposures were determined by the experienced photographer or with crudely constructed comparison devices. This allowed the photographers to properly set their aperture and shutter speed with the light readings provided by the light meters. The Polaroid process was introduced by Edwin Land in 1947. This produced a finished monochrome print one minute after the film was exposed. Instant photography allows you to see color images Within moments. More recent advances include metering, shutter speed setting, aperture setting and focusing that were performed by the cameras' automated systems. Film is continuously improving, with smaller grain and more sensitive the motions. Of course, most people today use digital cameras, which do not use film at all. A sensor within the camera records the scene when the shutter opens and records the picture to a memory card. Many folks do not bother getting most of the pictures printed At all, as they can see them on their computer screen or other digital device. They have instantaneous access to their photographs on the camera's screen, and can retake the picture if it is not to their liking. Photographers do still use the field view cameras, however. The wooden boxes are now sometimes made of carbon fiber or other strong, light composites. The bellows can still be retracted and folded up to make the camera smaller and more portable. The cameras with two sliding rails keep the camera from folding as small as the monorail design, and the rear standard may be fixed and will not move. These field cameras are often used for landscape and portrait photography use 11x14 film or larger. They can also shoot panoramic film up 24x10 or 8x20. In addition, they are used to occasionally shoot posed, large groups and other special events. The modern view camera works much as the original. The shot is composed and focused on the rear ground glass plate. The frame assembly and ground glass are known as the spring back, and are held in place by springs that pull to hold the glass firmly for the plane of focus during composition and focusing. When the picture is focused, the springs act as a flexible mechanism to clamp the film holder to the same focus plane of the ground glass. The shutter is then closed, the aperture and shutter speed set, the dark paper is removed from the film to reveal the film sheet, the shutter is triggered to make the exposure, and the dark film slide is replaced in the film holder to protect the image. The large negative size allows the photographer enhanced detail and small grain for the printing process. The ability to tilt and shift the image without the digital photo manipulation is a plus to landscape and portrait photographers, although many still utilize programs such as Adobe Photoshop to correct perspective and other issues with the finished print. Today, there are over 40 companies that manufacture large format cameras all over the world. Bender photographic produces a wooden model field camera kit that the photographer assembles on site. Calumet, Cambo, and Sinar produce monorail cameras and other accessories. Gandolfi has been producing wood field cameras since 1885. Wood view cameras are also produced by Wisner and Ebony, while Canham, Toyo, and Wista offer wood and metal field cameras. Toho and Tachihara Professional Camera Works offer ultralight monorails for shipment around the world. Companies such as Nikon, Fujinon, Cooke, Sinar, and Schneider Kreuznach offer high quality lenses for the view cameras, while companies such as Caltar and Linhof offer rebranded professional lenses. Modern cameras can use sheet film or roll film. Roll film can range in size up to 26x17 inches. Roll film backs can be found for the back of the smaller view cameras, which allows you to use this less expensive option rather than the sheet film. Films 8x10 and larger provide excellent contact prints, although it can be considerably more expensive than the roll film for smaller sizes. As you can see, there are plenty of view camera enthusiasts who choose to build or buy their own cameras in the modern day. There are many articles and resources online that can help you with advice, instruction, and tips if you would like to jump into view camera photography, or if you're just interested in its fascinating history. Here are some of them: Field Cameras of the United States: 1879-1930 Large Format Photography Antique Cameras Price Guide Antique Wood Cameras
Definition - What does Salinity Log mean? A Salinity Log is a record that contains detailed logged information on the salinity level in a hydrocarbon formation in a reservoir. The primary purpose of salinity logs is to give the information on salinity amount with respect to the amount of oil, gas and water in the reservoir. Such types of logs fall in the category of nuclear well logs. Petropedia explains Salinity Log In order to estimate the levels of salinity in a hydrocarbon formation, a nuclear well log is electronically adjusted in a way that enables gamma rays to be emitted and captured when the neutrons are displaced into the ground from the logging tools. When the neutrons in the gamma rays collide, they reflect back on to the surface and are captured and thus, a salinity log is drafted. The neutrons in the gamma radiations can be detected by three types of detectors used during nuclear logging process. They are: Geiger-Mueller tubes; Proportional counters and Scintillation crystals. The statistical nature of the radioactive decay is considered when interpreting or running the nuclear logs.
Don't have an account? Sign up In its ongoing effort to gather evidence of life-friendly conditions on Mars, NASA says new data indicates an ancient ocean once existed on the red planet. The work, published in the journal Science, is based on anomalies found in water isotopes in the Martian atmosphere and suggests that early Mars, circa 4.5 billion years ago, had an ocean covering more surface area on Mars (19 percent) than the Atlantic does on Earth (17 percent). It held more water than Earth’s Arctic Ocean and reached at least 137 meets deep (about 450 feet). The Martian ocean, located in the plains of the planet’s northern hemisphere, may have persisted for millions of years. Eventually, 87 percent of its water was lost to space. The findings need to be confirmed with subsequent research, of course, but if they hold up, they’ll add to a growing body of evidence that says conditions on Mars were once ripe for life.
Have Hummingbirds Visit Your Home! A Planet of Pollinators Due to the recent climb in interest regarding environmental conservation, it is more important than ever that we know how we can help right from our own homes. For most of us, that can start with providing pollinators like hummingbirds, bees, and butterflies with an area in which they can thrive! Many gardening beginners may think that just planting a few flowers that pollinators enjoy is suffice. For Hummingbirds in particular, there is so much more than meets the eye! With a better understanding on how Hummingbirds behave and what they do for the environment, your garden will be a haven for these tiny birds. However, pollinators as a whole warrant their own discussion, so let’s begin by touching on some main points. The Role of Pollinators First, pollinators like Hummingbirds do so much for the well-being of our planet. Take a look at some key facts about their roles in our ecosystems: - Pollinators act as facilitators for plant reproduction, aiding roughly 95% of the world’s flowering plants in the pollinating process. - Butterflies, Bees, Hummingbirds, and even Beetles, Dragonflies, Bats, Moths and Small Mammals make up this group that help pollen travel between plants. - Pollen grains attach to these creatures as they drink nectar or feed on pollen from a plant. These grains then get transferred to each new plant that they visit. The grains carry essential nutrients that flowers, fruits, and veggies need to reproduce. You may not realize it, but that fruit in your lunch or veggie side you had for dinner is probably thanks to a pollinator! These helpful workers also clean the air, stabilize soils, protect the planet from extreme weather conditions, and support other wildlife. Hummingbirds themselves love to drink nectar using their long, thin beaks. Their size allows them to squeeze into tiny spaces to get every last drop of nectar! If you want to attract these pollinators to your garden, next dive into learning a little bit more about their behavior. The hummingbird exhibits very distinct behavioral patterns to observe and prepare for in order to attract them. While an excellent step in doing so includes planting pollinator-friendly plants, following the right feeding practices is key. First, every Hummingbird garden needs a feeder! These birds perch to rest often, so make sure your feeder has one for their comfort. Our stores carry several styles of feeders from Audubon to consider, including: - Apple 40 ounce Poly Feeder with a bright red color to help lure them - Glass 24 ounce Feeder – opacity allows them to better see their food - Embossed 14 ounce Embossed Glass & Metal Feeders - We also carry quality feeders from More Birds, Perky Pet, and Heritage Farms. Hummingbirds do not fall into the category of cavity-nesters, therefore rule out choosing birdhouses and other enclosed fixtures. They will occasionally visit birdbaths, but keeping them well-fed with the proper feeder is the goal. To keep your birds coming back year after year, get your feeders out by April 1st. It may seem early, however they migrate from the South and pass through our area anywhere between April 1st and April 20th. If they pass through and there are no feeders that catch their eye, they surely move to the next food source. Position and Maintenance Hummingbirds tend to assert their dominance over their territory and compete for feeders. Consider keeping two separate feeders placed yards apart from one another so that you can enjoy multiple birds visiting your planters without fear of competition! Choose a partly shady spot to hang your feeders. Food in feeders placed in the sun will spoil much faster than those in the shade. Though cover from the sun is important, avoid hiding the feeder too far from view that the hummingbirds miss it. Try a spot under a medium-sized tree, tall shrub, or overhang from your house situated near your pollinator garden. - Ensure that you have easy access to your feeder as well. Steer clear of hanging it too high or too far back into your landscape where you cannot reach it. Try not to place the feeder in a location where you might eventually plan to expand your garden and need to move it. Consistency is key, as hummingbirds grow familiar to their favorite spot to feed. They will revisit a feeder they previously patronized, so do your best to not to drastically manipulate their environment over time. Remember those, “distinct behavioral patterns” we mentioned? Well, these birds can be quite picky. They prefer very clean feeders and will skip over ones that do not meet their standards. Make it a point to clean and refill your feeders roughly twice per week, or as needed. We offer a Stokes Hummingbird Feeder Cleaning Sponge that works with both plastic and glass feeders. If you keep them clean and well-stocked, expect an awesome Summer of bird-watching. Speaking of keeping your feeders filled, always follow the correct guidelines when placing food out for your hummingbirds. As previously mentioned, hummingbirds enjoy drinking nectar from plants. To emulate this recipe, try dissolving sugar in water for a sweet solution that they will love. Our stores carry red dyed hummingbird food that attracts them down from their perches high up in the tree. While, some red dyes can be harmful, our dyed food contains red dye #40, approved by the FDA for human and animal consumption. We also carry a 64 ounce Ready to Use Hummingbird Nectar that appeals to many varieties. Take note, the sugary nectar attracts ants and even bees and wasps. Try using an Ant Guard to keep them spoiling the food by drowning in it. Hummingbirds may also avoid the feeder if they notice ants and other insects invading, despite the fact that they eat hundreds of bugs per day. This goes back to their clean-freak personalities. Hummingbirds actually quite enjoy fruit flies and other small insects, as they provide them with essential protein and vitamins. They feed their young a combination of bugs and nectar roughly every 20-30 minutes. Replace hummingbird feed often for both cleanliness and to satisfy their appetite! Though common practice is to include the color red around your feeder, the food itself does not always need to be red to attract them. You can use clear food and accent your garden or area around your feeder with brightly colored flowers, especially ones with deep red centers. Planting the Right Flowers Now that you know more about positioning and maintaining feeders, as well as choosing the right feed, its time to plant! Pollinator gardening is always one of the most rewarding ways to garden. There exist endless combinations of perennials, annuals, trees, and shrubs that you can implement to attract these helpful creatures. Brightly-colored flowers acts as powerful attractants. Hummingbirds also enjoy tubular or trumpet-shaped blossoms. Offer an abundance of these favorite nectar-bearing flowers: - Bee Balm - Digitalis [Foxglove] - Echinacea [Purple Coneflower] - Heuchera Sanguinea [Coral Bells] - Lobelia Cardinalis [Cardinal Flower] - Rudbeckia [Black Eyed Susan] - Salvia [Sage] - Scabiosa [Pincushion] - Flowering Vinca - Sweet Pea Vines, Trees, and Shrubs - Butterfly Bush - Cypress Vine - Malus [Crabapple Tree] - Morning Glory - Prunus [Cherry Tree] - Trumpet Vine Miscellaneous Tips and Facts: - You might also see Woodpeckers, Tanagers, and Orioles visit your feeders for a quick snack! - Consider getting a bird-specific feeder for any of these species if they become too invasive to your hummingbird feeder. - Cats, squirrels, opossum, and raccoons might mess with your feeders if they are in reach. - One solution to this is to bring your feeder in after dusk. - Window feeders also help keep other mammals away. - With patience and careful movements, once accustomed to your presence hummingbirds might feed from your hand, or from a feeder you are holding! Slow and steady wins the race. - When Winter comes around, most hummingbirds will start to migrate south, even as far as outside the United States. Leave your feeders out until the first frost hits, or if you notice that next to no birds are visiting them. It does not hurt to leave the feeder up, as hummingbirds instinctively know when to migrate. Start Your Hummingbird Garden Today! Hummingbird watching is an excellent stress reliever and planting pollinator-friendly flowers adds wonderful value to your landscape. The more that we protect and provide hummingbirds with their necessary resources, the more good that they do for our planet. Visit any of our Home & Garden locations to speak with our team members for tips on hummingbird watching, and shop our Birding selection for feed, feeders, and more! See What’s On Sale for Birding Now!
The primary source of muscle energy production is Adenosine Triphosphate ->ATP). To produce ATP, living cells draw glucose from glycogen, a long-chain complex carbohydrate stored nearby in the muscles or liver. Each muscle store of glycogen has a chemical structure nearly identical to common starch and similar to long-chain maltodextrin. Glycogen is an endogenous Glucans Polysaccharide, very complex carbohydrate consisting of long-chains of glucose linked together. During exercise, the body's first choice is reducing glycogen to individual glucose molecules, which are shuttled into tiny mitochondria cells, which convert glucose to ATP for energy metabolism. Complimentary fat and amino acids ->from lean muscle tissue) are mobilized to postpone rapid depletion of glycogen and makeup any glycogen glucose shortfalls. ATP synthesis from muscle glycogen is the most efficient energy source, regenerating over double the rate energy from fat and lean muscle protein combined. Glycogen, ->or "animal starch"), has a structure identical to plant starch Amylopectin. Starchy foods with the highest % of Amylopectin are structurally most like human muscle glycogen. Spirulina is the only known food source that contains pure glycogen ->24% of its calories from complex carbohydrates are "pure"glycogen.) Potato starch is the 2nd food-like glycogen and a close 3rd is grain maltodextrins. Starch is a white, granular or powdery, odorless, tasteless, complex carbohydrate, ->C6H10O5)x, abundant in the seeds of cereal plants and in bulbs and tubers. Molecules of starch are made of hundreds or thousands of atoms, corresponding to values of x, as given in the formula above, that range from about 50 to many thousands. Native starch denotes untreated starch. Starch molecules present two structures. In the first kind, Amylose ->figure 1), which constitutes about 20-25 per cent of ordinary starch, the C6H10O5 groups are arranged in a continuous but "curled chain" somewhat like a coil of rope. In the second kind, Amylopectin ->figure 2), a considerable amount of side-branching in this molecule occurs. amylose ->figure 1) Amylopectin ->figure 2) Green plants manufacture starch during the process of photosynthesis. It forms part of the cell walls in plants, constitutes part of rigid plant fibers, and serves as a kind of energy storage for plants, because its oxidation to carbon dioxide and water releases energy. The granules of starch present in any plant have size, shape, and markings characteristic of the species of plant in which the starch is made. Starch is almost insoluble in cold water and in alcohol, but with boiling water it gives a colloidal suspension that may form a jelly on cooling. Hot water changes starch slowly into smaller molecules. This reaction, an example of hydrolysis, is catalyzed by acids and by some enzymes giving still simpler molecules, the ultimate products being maltose, C12H22O11, a disaccharide, and glucose, C6H12O6, a monosaccharide. The digestion of starch in the human body takes the following course: the hydrolysis begins in the mouth under the action of salivary ptyalin, but is completed in the small intestine. The body does not immediately use all the glucose absorbed from the digestion of starch, but converts much of it to glycogen, which is stored in the liver. ->Glycogen, called animal starch, has a structure nearly identical with that of amylopectin.) As the body requires glucose, hydrolysis of glycogen releases it into the bloodstream. Glycogen provides an energy reserve for animals in the same way that ordinary starch does for plants. Amylose Content and Granule Size of Various Starches Granule Size Range ->m) High Amylose Corn Complex carbohydrate consists of branched chains of glucose units linked together. Plant starch is the human glycogen's counterpart with a chemical structure described simply as high Amylopectin:none-to-low-Amylose. Spirulina's carbohydrate fraction is the only known dietary source of glycogen ->58% protein, 24% carbohydrate, 18% fat). Glutamine is the one protein recruited by the body to manufacture glycogen. Other substrates are reported to improve the rate of the glycogen storage of including its production or conversion to glucose for energy: Sunflower Seeds, Magnesium, Potassium, alpha-Lipoic Acid, L-Carnitine, Vitamin K, Dimethyl or Trimethyl Glycine, and Vitamin B6. Hydroxycitric Acid ->HCA) increases the body's production of glycogen ->by diverting carbohydrates away from lipogenesis into glycogen production). This effect is achieved by inhibiting the ATP-Citrate Lyase enzyme. Starch is the plant form of stored glycogen/carbohydrate ->for energy metabolism) nearly identical in structure and function to human glycogen, except for a much lower degree of branching ->about every 20-30 residues). Unbranched starch is called amylose; branched starch is called amylopectin. Maltodextrin are typically structured as a 7:3 Amylopectin:a-Amylose ratio compared to pure Glycogen 10:0 or Potato Starch's 8:2 Amylopectin:a-Amylose ratio. Corn and wheat starches are 7:2-3, while tapioca and rice varieties are close to the potato's 8:2 Amylopectin:a-Amylose ratio. CARBOHYDRATE ENERGY BEGINS WITH DIGESTION Dietary carbohydrate from which humans gain energy enter the body in simple or complex forms: ->1) Mono-/Di-Saccharides/Simple Short-chain Sugars ->2) Long Chain Polymers Starch/Maltodextrins ->Amylose + Amylopectin) The polymer cellulose is also consumed but not digested. The first step in the metabolism of digestible carbohydrate is the conversion of the higher polymers to simpler, soluble forms that can be transported across the intestinal wall and delivered to the tissues. The breakdown of polymeric sugars begins in the mouth. Saliva has a slightly acidic pH of 6.8 and contains lingual amylase that begins the digestion of carbohydrates. The action of lingual amylase is limited to the area of the mouth and the esophagus; it is virtually inactivated by the much stronger acid pH of the stomach. Once the food has arrived in the stomach, acid hydrolysis contributes to its degradation; specific gastric proteases and lipases aid this process for proteins and fats, respectively. The mixture of gastric secretions, saliva, and food, known collectively as chyme, moves to the small intestine. The main polymeric-carbohydrate digesting enzyme of the small intestine is alpha-amylase. This enzyme is secreted by the pancreas and has the same activity as salivary amylase, producing disaccharides and trisaccharides. The latter are converted to monosaccharides by intestinal saccharidases, including maltases that hydrolyze di- and tri- saccharides, and the more specific disaccharidases, sucrase, lactase, and trehalase. The net result is the almost complete conversion of digestible carbohydrate to its constituent monosaccharides. The resultant glucose and other simple carbohydrates are transported across the intestinal wall to the hepatic portal vein and then to liver parenchymal cells and other tissues. There they are converted to fatty acids, amino acids, and glycogen, or else oxidized by the various catabolic pathways of cells. Oxidation of glucose is known as "glycolysis." Glucose is oxidized to either lactate or pyruvate. Under aerobic conditions, the dominant product in most tissues is pyruvate and the pathway is known as "aerobic glycolysis." When oxygen is depleted, as for instance during prolonged vigorous exercise, the dominant glycolytic product in many tissues is "lactate" and the process is known as "anaerobic glycolysis." Stores of readily available glucose to supply the tissues with an oxidizable energy source are found principally in the liver, as glycogen. A second major source of stored glucose is the glycogen of skeletal muscle. However, muscle glycogen is not generally available to other tissues, because muscle lacks the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase. The major site of daily glucose consumption ->75%) is the brain by way of aerobic pathways. Most of the remainder of is utilized by erythrocytes, skeletal muscle, and heart muscle. The body obtains glucose either directly from the diet or from amino acids and lactate via gluconeogenesis. Glucose obtained from these two primary sources either remains soluble in the body fluids or is stored in a polymeric form, glycogen. GLYCOGEN is considered the principal storage form of glucose and is found mainly in liver and muscle, with kidney and intestines adding minor storage sites. With up to 10% of its weight as glycogen, the liver has the highest specific content of any body tissue. Muscle has a much lower amount of glycogen per unit mass of tissue, but since the total mass of muscle is so much greater than that of liver, total glycogen stored in muscle is about twice that of liver. Stores of glycogen in the liver are considered the main buffer of blood glucose levels. DEGRADATION OF STORED GLYCOGEN ->glycogenolysis) occurs through the action of glycogen phosphorylase. The action of phosphorylase is to phosphorolytically remove single glucose residues from a-->1,4)-linkages within the glycogen molecules. The product of this reaction is glucose-1-phosphate. The advantage of the reaction proceeding through a phosphorolytic step is that: 1. The glucose is removed from glycogen is an activated state, i.e. phosphorylated and this occurs without ATP hydrolysis. 2. The concentration of Pi in the cell is high enough to drive the equilibrium of the reaction the favorable direction since the free energy change of the standard state reaction is positive. The glucose-1-phosphate produced by the action of phosphorylase is converted to glucose-6-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase: this enzyme, like phosphoglycerate mutase ->of glycolysis), contains a phosphorylated amino acid in the active site ->in the case of phosphoglucomutase it is a Ser residue). The enzyme phosphate is transferred to C-6 of glucose-1-phosphate generating glucose-1,6-phosphate as an intermediate. The phosphate on C-1 is then transferred to the enzyme regenerating it and glucose-6-phospahte is the released product. As mentioned above the phosphorylase mediated release of glucose from glycogen yields a charged glucose residue without the need for hydrolysis of ATP. An additional necessity of releasing phosphorylated glucose from glycogen ensures that the glucose residues do not freely diffuse from the cell. In the case of muscle cells this is acutely apparent since the purpose in glycogenolysis in muscle cells is to generate substrate for glycolysis. The conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose, which occurs in the liver, kidney and intestine, by the action of glucose-6-phosphatase does not occur in skeletal muscle as these cells lack this enzyme. Therefore, any glucose released from glycogen stores of muscle will be oxidized in the glycolytic pathway. In the liver the action of glucose-6-phosphatase allows glycogenolysis to generate free glucose for maintaining blood glucose levels. Glycogen phosphorylase cannot remove glucose residues from the branch points ->a-1,6 linkages) in glycogen. The activity of phosphorylase ceases 4 glucose residues from the branch point. The removal of this branch point glucose residues requires the action of debranching enzyme ->also called glucan transferase) which contains 2 activities: glucotransferase and glucosidase. The transferase activity removes the terminal 3 glucose residues of one branch and attaches them to a free C-4 end of a second branch. The glucose in a-->1,6)-linkage at the branch is then removed by the action of glucosidase. This glucose residue is uncharged since the glucosidase-catalyzed reaction is not phosphorylytic. This means that theoretically glycogenolysis occurring in skeletal muscle could generate free glucose, which could enter the blood stream. However, the activity of hexokinase in muscle is so high that any free glucose is immediately phosphorylated and enters the glycolytic pathway. Indeed, the precise reason for the temporary appearance of the free glucose from glycogen is the need of the skeletal muscle cell to generate energy from glucose oxidation, thereby, precluding any chance of the glucose entering the blood. ENERGY DERIVED FROM GLUCOSE OXIDATION Aerobic glycolysis of glucose to pyruvate requires two equivalents of ATP to activate the process, with the subsequent production of four equivalents of ATP and two equivalents of NADH. Thus, conversion of one mole of glucose to two moles of pyruvate is accompanied by the net production of two moles each of ATP and NADH. Glucose + 2 ADP + 2 NAD+ + 2 Pi -----> 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ The NADH generated during glycolysis is used to fuel mitochondrial ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation, producing either two or three equivalents of ATP depending upon whether the glycerol phosphate shuttle or the malate-aspartate shuttle is used to transport the electrons from cytoplasmic NADH into the mitochondria. The net yield from the oxidation of 1 mole of glucose to 2 moles of pyruvate is, therefore, either 6 or 8 moles of ATP. Complete oxidation of the 2 moles of pyruvate, through the TCA cycle, yields an additional 30 moles of ATP; the total yield, therefore being either 36 or 38 moles of ATP from the complete oxidation of 1 mole of glucose to CO2 and H2O. HOW IS BLOOD GLUCOSE REGULATED? If for no other reason, it is because of the demands of the brain for oxidizable glucose that the human body exquisitely regulates the level of glucose circulating in the blood. This level is maintained in the range of 5mM. Nearly all carbohydrates ingested in the diet are converted to glucose following transport to the liver. Catabolism of dietary or cellular proteins generates carbon atoms that can be utilized for glucose synthesis via gluconeogenesis. Additionally, other tissues besides the liver that incompletely oxidize glucose ->predominantly skeletal muscle and erythrocytes) provide lactate that can be converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis. Maintenance of blood glucose homeostasis is of paramount importance to the survival of the human organism. The predominant tissue responding to signals that indicate reduced or elevated blood glucose levels is the liver. Indeed, one of the most important functions of the liver is to produce glucose for the circulation. Both elevated and reduced levels of blood glucose trigger hormonal responses to initiate pathways designed to restore glucose homeostasis. Low blood glucose triggers release of glucagon from pancreatic a-cells. High blood glucose triggers release of insulin from pancreatic b-cells. Additional signals, ACTH and growth hormone, is released from the pituitary act to increase blood glucose by inhibiting uptake by extrahepatic tissues. Glucocorticoids also act to increase blood glucose levels by inhibiting glucose uptake. Cortisol, the major glucocorticoid released from the adrenal cortex, is secreted in response to the increase in circulating ACTH. The adrenal medullary hormone, epinephrine, stimulates production of glucose by activating glycogenolysis in response to stressful stimuli. Glucagon binding to its' receptors on the surface of liver cells triggers an increase in cAMP production leading to an increased rate of glycogenolysis by activating glycogen phosphorylase via the PKA-mediated cascade. This is the same response hepatocytes have to epinephrine release. The resultant increased levels of G6P in hepatocytes are hydrolyzed to free glucose, by glucose-6-phosphatase, which then diffuses to the blood. The glucose enters extrahepatic cells where it is re-phosphorylated by hexokinase. Since muscle and brain cells lack glucose-6-phosphatase, the glucose-6-phosphate product of hexokinase is retained and oxidized by these tissues. In opposition to the cellular responses to glucagon ->and epinephrine on hepatocytes), insulin stimulates extrahepatic uptake of glucose from the blood and inhibits glycogenolysis in extrahepatic cells and conversely stimulates glycogen synthesis. As the glucose enters hepatocytes it binds to and inhibits glycogen phosphorylase activity. The binding of free glucose stimulates the de-phosphorylation of phosphorylase thereby, inactivating it. Why is it that the glucose that enters hepatocytes is not immediately phosphorylated and oxidized? Liver cells contain an isoform of hexokinase called glucokinase. Glucokinase has a much lower affinity for glucose than does hexokinase. Therefore, it is not fully active at the physiological ranges of blood glucose. Additionally, glucokinase is not inhibited by its product G6P, whereas, hexokinase is inhibited by G6P. One major response of non-hepatic tissues to insulin is the recruitment, to the cell surface, of glucose transporter complexes. Glucose transporters comprise a family of five members, GLUT-1 to GLUT-5. GLUT-1 is ubiquitously distributed in various tissues. GLUT-2 is found primarily in intestine, kidney and liver. GLUT-3 is also found in the intestine and GLUT-5 in the brain and testis. GLUT-5 is also the major glucose transporter present in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum ->ER) and serves the function of transporting glucose to the cytosol following its' dephosphorylation by the ER enzyme glucose 6-phosphatase. Insulin-sensitive tissues such as skeletal muscle and adipose tissue contain GLUT-4. When the concentration of blood glucose increases in response to food intake, pancreatic GLUT-2 molecules mediate an increase in glucose uptake, which leads to increased insulin secretion. Recent evidence has shown that the cell surface receptor for the human T cell leukemia virus ->HTLV) is the ubiquitous GLUT-1. Hepatocytes, unlike most other cells, are freely permeable to glucose and are, therefore, essentially unaffected by the action of insulin at the level of increased glucose uptake. When blood glucose levels are low the liver does not compete with other tissues for glucose since the extrahepatic uptake of glucose is stimulated in response to insulin. Conversely, when blood glucose levels are high extrahepatic needs are satisfied and the liver takes up glucose for conversion into glycogen for future needs. Under conditions of high blood glucose, liver glucose levels will be high and the activity of glucokinase will be elevated. The G6P produced by glucokinase is rapidly converted to G1P by phosphoglucomutase, where it can then be incorporated into glycogen. Energy production is closely tied to consuming the right kind and amount of carbohydrate the performance-limiting nutrient. The process is very complicated and intricate and many of the enzymatic reactions have been omitted. For understanding each of these in depth, please refer to Professor King's Medical Biochemistry page references. 46-47 THE IMPORTANCE TRAINING ENERGY SYSTEMS FOR PERFORMANCE It is important to realize that the body and brain both remember and record pace rate. When the pace slows, the imprint on physiology is recorded for repeating on a future day. Train slow translates to racing slow. When carbohydrate stores are depleted, the quality of the workout is depressed. If an athlete "teaches" the body biochemistry to adapt to a fast or prolonged pace, some of this pace-impression carries over to the next workout, the next, and the next' so on, until on race day, a performance pace imprint is expressed. Daily training with fuels, fluids, and electrolytes is closely related to the quantity and quality of muscle glycogen stores. The point is if the muscle fibers are not trained daily to utilize fuels, fluids, and electrolytes at a variety of paces, especially prolonged race pace sessions, the body will not achieve its optimal potential performance. HOW CARBOHYDRATES TRANSLATE TO ENERGY Dietary Carbohydrates are enzymatically to stored by percents: 1.) Muscle Glycogen ->73%) Glycogen Synthase ->an enzyme released when glycogen stores run low ->70-90 minutes exercise) restores glycogen rapidly the first 2 hours only slowly in small bits 6 hours AFTER exercise. After an exhaustive session, it may take up to 3 days post exercise to top off glycogen stores in the muscle sites. 2.) Liver Glycogen ->25%) stores primarily maintain blood sugar levels of glucose for brain cell life. Liver glycogen is rapidly depleted. Stores of glycogen in the liver are considered the main buffer of blood glucose levels. In the liver the action of glucose-6-phosphatase allows glycogenolysis to generate free glucose for maintaining blood glucose levels. The pre event meal taken 3 hours prior to an AM race tops off liver glycogen spent for life support during sleep. 3.) Blood Glucose ->2%) is enzyme-induced by Hexokinase, which limits body's use of blood sugar directly for exercise metabolism. Rapid turnover of blood glucose during exercise is the only time small frequent doses of high glycemic carbohydrates should be consumed. Athletes are advised against consuming processed fiber-low high glycemic carbohydrates at sedentary meals. Energy expense "withdrawal" changes during exercise from different sources: @ VO2 MAX 30%-65% Not all exercise spends calories at the same rate: TYPICAL CARBOHYDRATE DEPLETION BY ACTIVITY Running 8 mph THE BEST CARBOHYDRATE REPLENISHES GLYCOGEN Glycogen synthesis from carbohydrate intake takes place most rapidly the first 30-120-minutes after exercise, though it may occur for up to 6 hours following depletion, though less rapidly ->trickles slowly). The best glycogen replacement is a complex processed carbohydrate Glucose Polymer fiber-free glucose molecules linked together in long chains. Fiber is good for the colon health and breaking the rate of carbohydrate absorption, but not for consumption immediately after exercise. RATE OF SPECIFIC CARBOHYDRATE ABSORPTION Intestinal absorption rate is most rapid with from glucose polymer ->Maltodextrins) than from simple sugar solutions, permitting a higher total calorie absorption rate due to compatible osmolality levels. Body fluids are absorbed immediately across intestinal linings at an osmolality of 280-303 mOsm with no delay. In a fluid-ounce solution, calorie volume must be mixed at body-fluid osmolality levels in order for immediate absorption. When carbohydrates are mixed with water they are limited to the following body solution osmolality levels, otherwise absorption will be delayed until the stomach dilutes the hypertonic solution by withdrawing serum fluids: @ AVAILABLE BODY FLUID OSMOLALITY 280-303 mOsm Intestinal solution absorption may be predicted immediately at 280-303 mOsm body fluid levels for optimal muscle-energy benefits, especially postponing exercise-induced fatigue. Many substances are added to carbohydrate solutions to improve the efficiency of the energy repletion cycle. However, such substances ->protein calories, fatty acids, and electrolytes) surprisingly raise osmolality. Dr. David Ciaverella, D.O., Neuroradiologist, Portland, Oregon, and elite level Ironman Triathlete was recruited to determine Osmolality of several Hammer Nutrition solutions ->courtesy of Portland Providence Medical Center, laboratory services, Portland, Oregon.) The following table reflects Dr. Ciaverella's results below red color code show solution osmolality measures of 4- or 8-fluid ounce distilled water solutions with 25 gram from the following solids: plain Hammer Gel, HEED, Perpetuem, and Sustained Energy. Solution isotonic osmolality ->mOsm) at body fluids level for immediately are absorbed between 280-303 mOsm. Based on these actual solution mOsm measures, the blue color code reflects body fluids mOsm level recommended version. To simplify these directions, a 10% solids-to-liquid ratio attains near-isotonic range 270-296 mOsm. Each solution osmolality was based on the predetermined hypertonic 4-fluid ounce added 3 Endurolytes then diluted in 8-fluid ounce solutions to which were also added 3 Endurolytes per 25 grams of Hammer Gel, or HEED, or Perpetuem, or Sustained Energy. From these measures, we learned precisely what carbohydrate solutions mixed predicted Osmolality @ body fluids level ->isotonic) if 3 Endurolytes each hour. Endurolytes add 25 mOsm per capsule in a dilute solution or as much as 40 mOsm per viscous solution. The revised solutions account for calories per serving based on 10, 20, or 25 fluid ounce solutions. Water bottles are 20 or 25 fluid ounces/per container. ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS RECOMMENDED: - HAMMER GEL 1 serving per 12 fl oz or 2 servings per 25 fl oz - HEED 1 Scoop per 10 fl oz or 2 Scoops per 25 fl oz - PERPETUEM 1 Scoop per 12 fl oz or 2 Scoops per 25 fl oz - SUSTAINED ENERGY 1 scoop per 10 fl oz or 2 scoops per 25 fl oz Energy solutions recommended at 10% product powder or gel to solution are reasonable close to isotonic body fluids osmolality when an athlete consumes 3 Endurolytes per hour with each 25 fluid ounce solution. Each individual athlete is advised to experiment with powders or gels in a 9-11% solution to determine in the crucible of training what solution best agrees with their performance efficiency. Based on actual osmolality solution lab measures, a 10% solution ->gram-weight powder or gel divided by water fluid ounce gram weight) is recommended. SOLUTIONS OSMOLALITY MEASURE CALORIE PER FLUID RATIO SAMPLE #1 PLAIN HAMMER GEL HG 25 g per 113.4g DW + 3 ENDUROLYTES[i] 65 K/cal per 4 fl oz Current HG directions, 1 of 2: Mix 36 g serving with 4 fl oz = 479 mOsm DILUTED 2 X SAMPLE #1a PLAIN HAMMER GEL HG 25 g per 227 g DW + 3 ENDUROLYTES[ii] per 8 fl oz ISOTONIC SOLUTION ESTIMATE PLAIN HG 2 servings 72 g per 707 g DW + 3 ENDUROLYTES per 25 fl oz NEW Recommended HG directions: Mix 186 k/cal 72 g/25 fl oz HEED 25 g per 113.4 g DW per 4 fl oz Current HEED directions: Mix 1scoop/16 fl oz ->6.4%) = too low @ 174 mOsm 2 scoops 24 fl oz ->8.5%) = 274 mOsm DILUTED 2 X SAMPLE #2a HEED HEED 25 g per 227 g DW per 8 fl oz ISOTONIC SOLUTION ESTIMATE HEED 29 g per 283 g DW or 58 g per 566 g per DW ->1 scoop per 10 fl oz) 100 k/cal per 10 fl oz NEW Recommended HEED directions: Mix 100 k/cal 1 scoop 29 g per each 10 fl oz New Estimated 287 mOsm SAMPLE #3 Perpetuem Perpetuem 25 g per 113 g DW per 4 fl oz Current PERPETUEM directions: Mix 1 scoop per 12 fl oz = 302 mOsm 2 scoops per 24 fl oz = 302 mOsm SAMPLE #3a Perpetuem Perpetuem 25 g per 283 g DW per 10 fl oz ISOTONIC SOLUTION ESTIMATE PERPETUEM 69 g per 25 fl oz ->708 g DW) per 25 fl oz NEW Recommended PERPETUEM directions: Mix 2 scoops 260 k/cal, ->69 g) per each 25 fl oz Estimated 296 mOsm SAMPLE #4 SUSTAINED ENERGY SUSTAINED ENERGY 25 g per 113 g DW +3 ENDUROLYTES[vii] per 4 fl oz SUSTAINED ENERGY directions: Mix 3 scoops /25 fl oz = 329 mOsm 9 scoops/25 fl oz = 658 mOsm DILUTED 2 X SAMPLE #4a SUSTAINED ENERGY SUSTAINED ENERGY 25 g per 227 g DW +3 ENDUROLYTES[viii] per 8 fl oz ISOTONIC SOLUTION ESTIMATE SUSTAINED ENERGY 28.3 g serving as 1 scoop per 283 g DW ->10 fl oz) 114 k/cal scoop serving per 10 fl oz NEW Recommended SUSTAINED ENERGY directions: Mix 1 scoop, 114 k/cal, ->28 g) per each 10 fl oz Estimated 270 mOsm RED = mOsm original 4 fl oz: 25 g solution osmolality measured BLUE = mOsm modified as recommended fl oz per 25 g solution set @ isotonic levels ->ideal) DW = Distilled Water 113.4 g = 4 fl oz As carbohydrates are digested, Jenkinsreports ->below) the type of carbohydrate consumed influences blood glucose: BLOOD GLUCOSE RESPONSE ->Average Change: + or - mg/dl) +1 to +2 10 to -15 +25 or +30 +10 to +15 +25 or +30 +10 to +15 Following exhaustive exercise Colgan advises limiting glucose polymers intake to 225 grams after 2-4 hours post-exercise. Much more than that will only add body fat weight. Other research reports an average of 650 total grams carbohydrate is all the carb-calorie volume that the body can restore to glycogen stores daily. This calculates between 1.0-1.5 grams carbohydrate per hour exercise per pound of body weight. Ivy likewise reported that the maximum human carbohydrate synthesis is 225 grams of glucose polymers 4-hours following exercise. Above 225 grams the body begins to convert excess carbohydrates to dead weight fat. Colgan also suggests that a relationship between body size and the amount of carbohydrate required replacing exercise-induced expense: RECOMMENDATIONS CARBOHYDRATE REPLACEMENT FOR ENDURANCE PRE, DURING & AFTER EXERCISE ->Total grams complex-carbohydrates required/day) PER POUND BODY WEIGHT 2 HOURS EXERCISE 4 HOURS EXERCISE 6 HOURS EXERCISE However, this amount of carbohydrate should not be consumed in large meal portions. Glycogen resynthesis from carbohydrates consumed takes place most rapidly during the first 30 minutes though this rate diminishes lasting up to 2 hours after exercise. Glycogen storage rate may then proceed at low trickling rate for up to 6 hours post exercise. If the athlete consumes too much carbohydrate the excess is efficiently stored as fat. Carbohydrate expense may be calculated by body weight X duration or as a representative event: CARBOHYDRATE TOTAL DAILY INTAKE VS EXPENSE BASED ON BODY SIZE DAILY CARBOHYDRATE REQUIREMENT REPRESENTATIVE EXERCISE EVENT 5-6 hours exercise/event ->Tour de France, Triathlons, RAAM, Ultramarathons, ECO Challenge) 3-4 hours exercise/event ->marathons, sprint triathlons, cycling races) 2 hours or less exercise/events ->Half marathons, 10K runs, sprint cycling events) 1 g/kg/2 hours To enhance recovery after exercise ->include this total within above general totals) Optimum absorption occurs within 30-minutes post exercise. 1 g/kg/during workouts During 1-4 hour exercise/events ->limit to 60-70 grams/hour) PRACTICAL GUIDELINES: HOW TO MAXIMIZE FUEL SELECTION FOR ENDURANCE EXERCISE 1.) During exercise, consume 60-70 grams complex carbohydrates to postpone glycogen depletion during exercise. The recommended ceiling for total carbohydrate intake depends on individual size and activity level; however, most endurance athletes require 600-900 grams per day training. Individual tolerated carbohydrate solutions should be determined in training. What works for one athlete may be performance-inhibiting for another. 2.) The performance-enhancing glycogen-structured carbohydrate-of-choice is the long-chain glucose polymer, Maltodextrin. 3.) Intermittent small carbohydrate-rich meals including up to 100 grams 3-hours prior to a workout, 60-70 grams carbohydrate per hour during workouts, and 200-225 grams long-chain glucose polymers or other complex carbohydrates 30-120 minutes after workouts is recommended to restore liver glycogen and muscle glycogen at maximal levels. 4.) Avoid the use of niacin-rich supplements or foods 3-hours prior to a workout session. Vitamin B-3 inhibits fatty acid mobilization and fatty acids contribution to energy metabolism during exercise. 5.) Avoid simple sugars period & prior to, during, or after exercise. This aids the athlete to avoid gastrointestinal reactions, sharp insulin spiking and the subsequent blood sugar "crash" prevalent among persons who consume high simple sugar foods and drinks. 6.) Avoid energy drinks, bars, and gels that contain these additives: sucrose, fructose, or high fructose corn-syrup solids. 7.) Use energy drinks, bars, or gels that predominantly contain complex carbohydrates ->long-chain glucose polymer base) and/or lean muscle amino acids from soy, whey, or egg whites. When an energy fuel's calories from amino acids ranges from 5-12%, this protein profile spares lean muscle mass loss, advances recovery, and may spare muscle glycogen when consumed during or after a prolonged workout. 8.) CARBOHYDRATE DOSE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MAXIMAL CARBOHYDRATE-TO-MUSCLE-GLYCOGEN STORES: WHEN AND WHAT AND HOW MUCH PRIOR TO EXERCISE Take 100 grams carbohydrates 3-4 scoops Sustained Energy or 4 servings Hammer Gel 3 hours pre-race. Take 60-70 grams carbohydrates per hour Solution of from solutions osmolality table listed ->page 28). This estimate identifies the carbohydrate dose recommended based on weight and product servings per hour during exercise ->-/+10%): CALORIES PER HOUR HAMMER GEL SERVINGS SUSTAINED ENERGY SCOOPS Does this seem like a lot of carbohydrates? No it is not, because too many endurance athletes wait too long after their workouts failing to use the body's sensitive enzyme, glycogen synthase mechanism for replacing depleted glycogen. Current research demonstrates that when 3-4 parts carbohydrate are mixed with 1 part protein and consumed immediately after exercise, the immune system is supplied with the metabolites it requires to advance recovery at its highest rate. There are 2 solutions that fulfill this recommendation ->1) Consume pre-mixed muscle recovery specific, Recoverite, as indicated on label directions. ->2) Consume a calorie-portion mixture of one of the following: 4-parts Hammer Gel, or Sustained Energy, or Perpetuem, or HEED to 1-part Hammer Whey or Hammer Soy. Why is timing carbohydrate dose so important for keeping liver and muscle glycogen stores at their peak levels? CARBOHYDRATE TIMING DOSE EFFECTS GLYCOGEN REPLACEMENT Professor Noakes recommends 600 ml fluid per hour ->20 fl oz) with up to 120 grams maltodextrin energy drink in order to convert 50% complex carbohydrate drink ->60 grams maltodextrin solution) into the energy cycle from exogenous carbohydrate-rich foods processed from the liver and sent to assist muscles with energy expense. There are different dietary interventions known and shown to dramatically effect muscle and liver glycogen ->carbohydrate) stores: TIMING CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE GLYCOGEN STORES MUSCLE ->g/kg) GLYCOGEN STORES LIVER ->g/kg) Low carbohydrate Diet High carbohydrate diet ->3-day low carbohydrate intake during training) 3 day high carbohydrate loading After 3-4 hours intense 70-85% VO2 Max rate 24 hours post-race ->high CHO) 48 hours post-race ->high CHO) 7 days post-race ->high CHO) Short lived is the "Metabolic fate" of carbohydrate meals proportionate to their rapid loss during exercise. By consuming a high percent of long-chain carbohydrate-rich food, endurance athletes predictably maintain much higher energy postponing fatigue. Unforeseen, unexpected, and hidden performance-inhibiting problems are remarkably eliminated proportionate to the athlete using carbohydrate calories for endurance energy expense. This process begins with commitment to a healthy whole food nutrition plan such as the Endurance Diet, and continues with precise timing intake the long-chain carbohydrates, resulting in peaked endurance performance in the event of choice. Research and product development Director for EMG, Whitefish, Montana. By permission, courtesy of the International Starch Institute. Science Park Aarhus, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark. http://www.starch.dk/isi/starch/starch.htm Phone: +45 8620 2000. Telefax: +45 8620 1222. CVR: 17703188 High 80-100 %Amylopectin in potato starch is nearly identical to human glycogen. In-Tele-Health - 2002 (from Hyperhealth Pro CD-ROM) By permission, courtesy of Professor Michael W. King, IU School of Medicine and IU Center for Regenerative Biology and Medicine, THCME at ISU Room 135HH, Terre Haute, IN. 47809, (voice) 812-237-3417. The Medical Biochemistry Page @: By permission, courtesy of Professor Michael W. King, IU School of Medicine and IU Center for Regenerative Biology and Medicine. The Medical Biochemistry Page @ Costill, D.L., Metabolic responses during distance running. JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY 28, 1970:251-255. Ahlborg B., et al., Muscle glycogen and electrolytes during prolonged physical exercise. ACTA PHYSIOL SCAND, 1967;70:129-142. GLUCOSE POLYMERS are long chain carbohydrates commonly called maltodextrins. Jones B.J.M. et al., Glucose Absorption from Maltotriose and Glucose Oligomers in the Human Jejunum, Clinical Science, 1987;72:409-414. Courtesy ofDr. David Ciaverella, D.O., Neuroradiologist, & Portland Providence Medical Center, laboratory services, Portland, Oregon. Special thanks to Dr. David Ciaverella D.O., Columbia Imaging Group, 8614 E. Mill Plain Blvd., Suite 200A, Vancouver, WA 98664, (360) 892-9664 for assistance with lab solution mOsm measures. Simplification: KISS adage is stated: "Keep It Simple Stupid" is appropriate for an across-the-board translation of 10% solids to fluid solution. Courtesy of Dr. David Ciaverella, D.O.& Portland Providence Medical Center, laboratory services; Portland, Oregon. Jenkins, J.A., Glycemic index of a variety of foods, data from normal individuals. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (table). Colgan, M., OPTIMUM SPORTS NUTRITION, Advanced Research Press, New York, 1993:94-110. Ivy JL, Lee MC, Brozinick JT Jr, Reed MJ Muscle glycogen storage after different amounts of carbohydrate ingestion. J Appl Physiol 1988 Nov 65:5 2018-23. Colgan, M., OPTIMUM SPORTS NUTRITION, Advanced Research Press, New York, 1993:94-122. Hawley, J.A., Burke, L.M., Peak performance training and nutritional strategies for sport, Allen and Irwin, Sidney, 1998. Noakes T.D., Rehrer N.J., Maughn R.J., The Importance of Volume in Regulating Gastric Emptying, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23(3)1991. [i] ENDUROLYTE mOsm = 25-40 mOsm/capsule solution calorie mix dependant [ii] ENDUROLYTE mOsm = 25-40 mOsm/capsule solution calorie mix dependant [iii] ENDUROLYTE mOsm = 25-40 mOsm/capsule solution calorie mix dependant [iv] ENDUROLYTE mOsm = 25-40 mOsm/capsule solution calorie mix dependant [v] ENDUROLYTE mOsm = 25-40 mOsm/capsule solution calorie mix dependant [vi] ENDUROLYTE mOsm = 25-40 mOsm/capsule solution calorie mix dependant [vii] ENDUROLYTE mOsm = 25-40 mOsm/capsule solution calorie mix dependant [viii] ENDUROLYTE mOsm = 25-40 mOsm/capsule solution calorie mix dependant
Small Steps to help Preschoolers make Giant Leaps in Learning on the 50th Anniversary of the Moon Landing FAIRFIELD, Conn. (July 16, 2019) — In celebration of the 50th anniversary of Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin taking the first steps on the moon on July 20th, Save the Children offers small moon-themed steps parents can do to help their preschoolers take leaps in learning this summer. “Play is essential to child development. Children learn through fun, engaging and meaningful experiences,” said Romilla Karnati, Advisor, Early Childhood Care and Development for Save the Children. “With all of the buzz around the celebration of this milestone, parents can use this as an opportunity to play with their child all around this theme of the moon.” Education experts at Save the Children offer these easy-to-do activities for parents to help build their child’s foundational skills in early literacy and math: - Read the classic children’s book Goodnight Moon to your child. While reading, ask your child questions that help make the reading experience more meaningful and interactive. Point to things of interest and ask your child to name them or find the red balloon! Have fun counting the bears and kittens and identifying letters in the text. Understanding the difference between the illustrations and print in this book, and every other book, is one of the many critical skills a child gains through early literacy. - Use putty or dough to create the different phases of the moon. Show your child how the moon keeps changing its shape from a full moon circle to a quarter moon to a thin crescent – and back again. Children will develop their fine motor skills while squishing, squashing, flattening the dough to make the shape of the moon. This activity helps develop the small muscles in your child’s hand and fingers that are used for writing. - Trace the shape of the moon in sand or flour. Ask your child to use their index finger to trace the shape of the moon in the sand on the beach or flour spread on your kitchen table. Learning shapes through sensory-based activities makes learning fun and brings it to life. “The moon is universal,” added Karnati. “Parents can use this as teaching moment to show how we are all connected by this common bond that is the moon.” The 50th anniversary of the moon landing isn’t the only major milestone being celebrated this year. Save the Children was founded in 1919, which makes 2019 the organization’s 100th anniversary. Since its founding 100 years ago, Save the Children has changed the lives of more than 1 billion children. Save the Children believes every child deserves a future. Since our founding more than 100 years ago, we’ve changed the lives of more than 1 billion children. In the United States and around the world, we give children a healthy start in life, the opportunity to learn and protection from harm. We do whatever it takes for children – every day and in times of crisis – transforming their lives and the future we share. Follow us on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and YouTube. We’ll be in touch! By signing up to receive emails from Save the Children you will receive a subscription to our monthly eNews, access to breaking emergency alerts and opportunities to get involved. To ensure delivery of Save the Children emails to your inbox, add [email protected] to your contact list.
“The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” Formally ratified as the 19th amendment of the U.S. Constitution on August 18, 1920, these words provided some women the right to vote nationwide. Today marks the anniversary of its passage in Texas, the ninth of 36 states to ratify the amendment after more than 50 years of debate. Next year, for the hundredth anniversary of the 19th Amendment, Dallas has big plans to celebrate. The Communities Foundation of Texas has joined forces with various philanthropic partners to create the 19th Amendment Centennial Fund. The fund will support the creation of a year-long series of events in recognition of the 19th Amendment’s centennial anniversary through grants awarded to Dallas-based organizations working to create conversation, drive positive change, and build strategies to advance gender equity. Partners from across Dallas came together on June 14th at the Communities Foundation of Texas to learn more about what is planned for the recognition of this milestone. To illustrate the voting timeline of suffrage in the United States, community leaders shared pieces of the 19th Amendment’s history and how it affected certain groups. The powerful demonstration highlighted the inequities that existed and still remain today. “I reflected on the magnitude of what we lose when the richness of perspective and voice you represented is missing,” said Sarah Cotton Nelson, Chief Philanthropy Officer for Communities Foundation of Texas. “When even one of us is not at the table to speak, to vote, and to direct where we as a nation go from here, we cannot say that our nation is living out its stated values that we pledge to the flag: with liberty and justice for all.” The 19th Amendment Centennial LOI Application is now open and due on August 29th at 5pm. Click here to learn more. The Voting Timeline The US Constitution created a system exclusively for white males who were property owners who had the right to vote. By the end of the 1820s, under President Jackson, attitudes and state laws had shifted in favor of universal white male suffrage. The Emancipation proclamation issued by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 was a declaration statement that freed enslaved people in the southern states during the civil war. The ability to enforce the proclamation was dependent on the outcome of the war. After 1865, the period called Reconstruction began the repair of the relationship between northern and southern state with concessions to southern plantation owners to pass the 15th Amendment. 1870: The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prevents states from denying the right to vote on grounds of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude". Black males in the Northern states could vote, but the majority of African Americans lived in the South where other barriers to voting existed like violence, poll taxes, literacy tests, and the like. The second term election of President Ulysses S. Grant showed Black males in the South could be a voting bloc. During this period, the first Black males were elected to Congress and Senate from southern states. Sarah Cotton Nelson The 1848 Senaca Falls convention launched the women’s suffrage movement which splintered from the women’s abolitionists movement. Some of those white women had fought vocally against the Fifteenth Amendment, which gave black men the right to vote in 1870, saying that white women deserved to vote instead. By 1917 suffragists began to protest President Woodrow Wilson with signs saying, “Mr. President, you say liberty is the fundamental demand of the human spirit,” and “Mr. President! How long must women wait for liberty?” Some of the protesters were hauled from the sidewalk protests to prison. The idea was “to break us down by inflicting extraordinary humiliation upon us,” Eunice Brannan told The New York Times after her release, in November. Brannan and others described being beaten repeatedly, dragged down stairs, thrown across rooms, kicked, manacled to prison-cell bars, denied toothbrushes, and forced to share a single bar of soap. Some of the social structures built on the assumption that women would be forever excluded from political and professional spheres remain rigidly in place. Over the last 100 years, no woman has been elected president of the United States. 1920: Women are guaranteed the right to vote by the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. In practice, the same restrictions that hindered the ability of non-white men to vote now also applied to non-white women. Yolanda Blue Horse My ancestors have been on this land for centuries and we were not granted citizenship nor voting rights until June 2, 1924, when Congress granted citizenship to all Native Americans born in the U.S. Yet even after the Indian Citizenship Act, some Native Americans weren't allowed to vote because the right to vote was governed by state law. Until 1957, some states barred Native Americans from voting. 1924: All Native Americans are granted citizenship and the right to vote, regardless of tribal affiliation. The first recorded Chinese immigration into San Francisco was in 1848. The Chinese were valued as cheap labor in the building of the railroads and in agriculture. In 1870, 90% of the agricultural labor in California was Chinese. Declining wages and economic ills on the West coast were blamed on the Chinese workers In 1882 the Chinese Exclusion Act signed by President Chester A. Arthur. It was the first significant law that restricted immigration into the United States of an ethnic working group. It was followed by official government policy that excluded or limited by quota immigration by Japanese, Filipinos, Middle Easterners, Hindu and East Indians and the whole range of peoples from Asian nations. The policies expanded to include quota restrictions against European immigrants. Chinese people were banned from American citizenship, voting rights, public school and other rights until 1943 when The Magnuson Act was passed two years after China became an official allied nation of the United States in World War II. During WWII, American citizens of Japanese, German and Italian descent were interned in camps stripped of their rights and assets. In many states, Chinese Americans were denied property-ownership rights either by law or de facto until the Magnuson Act itself was fully repealed in 1965. Black women were finally able to vote when protections under the Voting Rights Act of 1965 banned the use of literacy tests, provided for federal oversight of voter registration in areas where less than 50 percent of the non-white population had not registered to vote, and authorized the U.S. attorney general to investigate the use of poll taxes in state and local elections. 1965: Protection of voter registration and voting for racial minorities is established by the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Juanita Craft was first Black woman in Dallas to vote and she was first Black woman in Texas to be deputized and sell poll taxes. Latinas and other minority populations were able to vote when protections were added in 1975 Amendment to the Voting Rights Act that called for protections from voting discrimination for language minority citizens. The law now requires jurisdictions with significant numbers of voters with limited or no English proficiency to provide voting materials and assistance in relevant languages in addition to English. This is when all people were fully granted the right to vote in America. As you can see the journey to universal suffrage has been long and took another 55 years from the 19th Amendment to truly include all women and men.
Playing music keeps your brain sharp. Musicians may also be more mentally alert, according to new research. A University of Montreal study, slated to appear in the February issue of the journal Brain and Cognition, shows that musicians have significantly faster reaction times than non-musicians. The findings suggest that learning to play a musical instrument could keep your brain sharp as you age, and may help to prevent certain aspects of cognitive decline in older adults. “As people get older, for example, we know their reaction times get slower,” Simon Landry, the study’s lead author and a Ph.D. student in biomedical ethics, said in a statement. “So if we know that playing a musical instrument increases reaction times, then maybe playing an instrument will be helpful for them.” For the small study, the researchers compared the reaction times of 19 non-musician students and 16 student musicians who had been recruited from the university’s music program and had been playing an instrument for at least seven years. The participants included violinists, percussionists, a viola player and a harpist. “"We're only now starting to better understand the benefits of musical training and they seem to range beyond simply playing music."” Each participant was seated in a quiet room and asked to keep one hand on a computer mouse and the other on a small box that occasionally vibrated silently. The participants were instructed to click on the mouse when the box vibrated, when they heard a sound from the speakers in front of them or when both things happened at once. The stimulations were done 180 times each. As hypothesized, the musicians had significantly faster reaction times to non-musical auditory, tactile and multisensory stimuli than the non-musicians. Landry says this is likely because playing music involves multiple senses. With touch, for instance, a violin player has to feel the string on her finger, but she also needs to listen for the right sound to be produced when she’s pressing on the string. “This long-term training of the sense in the context of producing exactly what is desired musically leads to a strengthening of sensory neural pathways,” Landry told The Huffington Post. “Additionally, using the senses in synchronicity for long periods of time ― musicians practice for years ― enhances how they work together. All this would lead to the faster multisensory reaction time.” Previously, Landry also investigated how musicians’ brains process sensory illusions. Together with their previous findings, the results suggest that musicians are better at integrating input from various senses, the study’s authors noted. More studies are needed, however, to determine whether and how musical training might slow the natural cognitive decline that occurs as we age. “Playing a musical instrument has an effect on abilities beyond music,” Landry concluded. “We’re only now starting to better understand the benefits of musical training and they seem to range beyond simply playing music.” If you needed any more reason to pick up an instrument, check out this TEDEd video on how playing music benefits your brain:
Television relies on the photoelectric effect – the emission of electrons by a substance when struck by photons of light. Light-sensitive photocells in cameras work like this. TV cameras have three sets of tubes with photocells (reacting to red, green and blue light) to convert the picture into electrical signals. The sound signal from microphones is added, and a ‘sync pulse’ is put in to keep both kinds of signal in time. The combined signal is turned into radio waves and broadcast. An aerial picks up the signal and feeds it to your television set. Most TV sets arc based on glass tubes shaped like giant light bulbs, called cathode-ray tubes. The narrow end contains a cathode, which is a negative electrical terminal. The wide end is the TV screen. The cathode fires a nonstop stream of electrons at the inside of the TV screen. TV cameras convert a scene into electrical signals that can be transmitted via radio waves. Wherever electrons hit the screen, the screen glows as its coating of phosphors heats up. To build up the picture the electron beam scans quickly back and forth across the screen, making it glow in certain places. This happens so quickly that it looks as if the whole screen is glowing. Color TVs have three electron guns: one to make red phosphors glow, another for green and a third for blue.
5. Marbury v. Madison was a Supreme Court case that produced a decision which endorsed a tool of the Supreme Court that has since been used in deciding cases. This tool, or authority, of the Supreme Court is known as… 2 words 8. This political party supported a presidential candidate in the election of 1800 that was accused of being a radical like those in France, who he supported in principle. 2 words 9. A wild accusation hurled at the Federalists in the 1800 presidential election was that their candidate wanted to convert the Executive branch into this type of government. 11. Native American woman acting as a guide for the men commissioned by Pres. Jefferson to explore and map the West from 1804 – 1806. 14. Political party that wins the presidency in 1796. 16. Beginning with the election of 1800, the Federalist Party became increasingly weaker. The popularity of Southern presidential candidates in the Democratic-Republican Party was greatly aided by farmers participating in this. 2 words 17. In keeping with Jefferson’s (Democratic-Republican) views on government, he instituted policies that removed heavy government involvement in society. Therefore, regarding commercial activity, Jefferson supported… 2 words 18. “Packing the Court” is a term not uncommon to students of US History. However, the somewhat paranoid actions of the Adams administration stretched this term so far that the judges appointed by Adams in the last minutes of his term of office came to be known as this… 2 words 1. Last names of of the two men commissioned by President Jefferson to explore the West. Setting out from St. Louis, Missouri, in 1804, the expedition traveled overland to the Pacific Ocean. By charting unexplored territory, the expedition helped lay the foundations for western expansion. (2 words) 2. The term representing the 1803 treaty between France and the United States that (more than) doubled the size of the nation for a cash payment. 2 words 3. This government institution encountered problems starting with the third election in 1800. The House of Representatives had to decide who will be president and will be vice-president since both candidates were tied. 2 words 4. The Judiciary Act of 1801greatly expanded this. 2 words 6. The runner-up in an Electoral College vote count becomes this. 2 words 7. Last name of the candidate to win the Presidential election of 1800. 10. Supreme Court (Chief) Justice appointed by Pres. Adams who would be involved in 30+ years of cases that shaped (strengthened) the court and Federal Government. 2 words. 12. The Bank of the United States had it’s authority restricted when the Jefferson administration eliminated this type of tax. 13. This constitutional amendment was the solution to the electoral problem of the 1800 election. 15. Jefferson’s administration reflected his views on government. Therefore, a major goal of his was to reduce the size of this.
Genetics and Immune Disorders Your immune system is made up of a large network of cells, tissues, and organs. They work together to fight off infections and other harmful substances. But the immune system doesn’t always work the way it should. \|The Immune System – Click to Enlarge\| Some disorders make the immune system unable to fight off infections. In other disorders, the immune system actually attacks the body’s cells or organs the same way it would attack an infection. This is what happens in autoimmune disorders like lupus and rheumatoid arthritis. Immune disorders and genes Genes are the building blocks of human growth and development. They determine many characteristics, like hair and eye color. Genes also affect the way the immune system functions or how it responds to threats. Primary immunodeficiency disorders are present at birth. They are inherited, which means they are related to genes passed from one generation to another. Some immune disorders are diagnosed at or shortly after birth. Other immune disorders may not be diagnosed until later in childhood or early adulthood. Researchers continue to learn how genes influence immune disorders. For example, one genetic defect may block certain cells defending the body. Another defect might prevent the removal of toxic chemicals from the body. Some signs and symptoms of immune disorders Symptoms of an immune disorder include: Autoimmune disease symptoms, such as aching joints, tissue destruction, and inflammation Difficulty fighting infections or infections that last a long time. For example: Taking antibiotics for more than one or two months with no success Having infections that other people fight off easily, such as fungal infections of the mouth or skin Frequent, severe infections. For example, someone with a primary immune deficiency may have: Many ear infections in a year More than one lung, sinus, blood, bone, or deep skin infection in a year Trouble growing or gaining weight as an infant Complications of primary immune deficiency and genetic immune disorders include: Long-term or severe infections To diagnose genetic immune disorders, your healthcare providers should do the following: Check your response to certain vaccines, such as pneumonia or pneumococcal vaccine Check your response to skin tests, such as tetanus, bacteria, and the fungus candida Order blood tests, including tests of immunoglobulin (antibody) levels Review your personal and family medical history Treatment may include: Preventing infection. People who have immune disorders must work hard to avoid infection. Basic hygiene, such as hand washing, is very important. But it is also important to limit contact with crowds or people who have colds and illnesses. Children with specific immune disorders should not get live virus vaccines, which can cause sickness. Long-term follow-up. Immune disorders mean an ongoing risk of infection. Work with your medical team to keep you as healthy as possible. Treating existing infections. Antibiotics or antifungal treatments may be needed to treat the current infection. With severe infections, hospitalization may be needed. Treating the immune deficiency. Treatment depends on the immune disorder. Treatments may include bone marrow transplants, enzyme or antibody replacement therapy. 1351Baby shower guest sign in ideas 2533Boy baby shower decorations ideas 1607Girl baby shower favors ideas 1791TOP 10 Girl baby shower themes ideas for 2017 600Baby shower fruit tray ideas 3923Baby shower snack ideas pinterest 1909Purchase The Special Twin Baby Shower Cakes From Your Local Stores 4319Baby shower afternoon tea ideas 4291High tea baby shower ideas – 10 ways to have a High tea baby shower party! 2553TOP 10 Baby girl baby shower food ideas 218710 Useful Triplet baby shower ideas for you! 2463Baby shower ideas pinterest boy 554Welcoming a Baby Angel in Style with the Best Baby shower souvenir ideas 4315Baby shower centerpieces ideas pictures – 10 methods to brighten your baby shower party 2041Planning a Baby shower program ideas – detailed guide 23689It is Safe to Eat Raw Meat – A Guide to Choosing the Right Type 3165Baby shower charades ideas 4327Baby shower onesie ideas – 10 secrets to know 2583Ladybug baby shower cake ideas 1567Fall baby shower ideas themes 2299Free baby shower ideas 2211Ideas para organizar un baby shower 1641Bear baby shower ideas 964Youtube baby shower ideas 614Free baby shower game ideas 892Baby shower giveaways ideas 2891Cute baby shower cupcake ideas 2387Couples baby shower games ideas 1441Ideas for baby shower favors to make yourself 3831Pamper party ideas for baby shower 1068Brunch baby shower menu ideas 3769Baby shower ideas perth 2767Ideas baby shower favors 1585Baby boy shower decorations ideas 2517Fiesta baby shower ideas 308Baby shower gift ideas for girls
Plants are all around us – flowers, trees, moss, shrubs, seaweed, and most anything that is alive and green. They are the reason that we are alive. They produce things that we depend on like food, fiber, wood, energy, and most importantly oxygen. We know about plants because of hard-working botanists. Botanists are scientists who study plants. They become experts on the growth, development, functions, distribution, and origin of over 300,000 species of plants. Most botanists focus on specific plants or geographic regions. A botanist’s love of nature and her appreciation for everything green helps us understand plants and how we interact with them. Botanists study cell structure, anatomy, heredity, reproduction, growth, development, interaction, distribution, climatic effects, rainfall needs, effects from sun, sustainability, and whether or not humans will benefit from them. They spend time in the field and in laboratories to learn new and exciting things that will contribute to mankind. Plants are responsible for the majority of raw materials that we use everyday. Without plants we wouldn’t have cotton for t-shirts, coffee for caffeine boosts, wood for houses, medicines for colds, or paper to write on. As you can imagine, the science of botany results in billions of dollars of industry. Botanists help create stronger, healthier plants through plant breeding, protection of endangered species, reclamation and rebuilding damaged ecosystems, developing new medicines, documenting new species, teaching students, and ensuring conservation. Without botanists our quality of life would be very different. Botanists may spend days, months, or even a lifetime in the depths of the Amazon jungle researching a newly discovered plant, in the forests of Washington testing a rare form of moss, in the Appalachian examining spruce trees, in the New Mexico desert learning about cactus reproduction, in a research laboratory cross breeding seeds, or off the coast of New England protecting endangered seaweed. Wherever there are plants, there are also botanists studying plants. Like any scientist, botanists focus both on academic research and applied research. That means lots of laboratory time peering through microscopes, writing reports, and also time scrutinizing plants and geographic areas. Botanists study and work in agriculture, biology, ecology, horticulture, forestry, plant genetics, medicine, biotechnology, agronomy, and entomology. They attend university and earn a bachelor, master, or doctoral degree in botany, biology, or a botany niche. The amount of education they receive will help determine what they do. At the lower level, a botanist may work as a technical assistant. With experience they may perform research projects, or even work for a pharmaceutical company. The work is hands-on and the results can change the world. Botanists must specialize in a niche. Studying high alpine moss or alternative fuels is very different than studying prairie grass or sending plants to Mars. In fact, botanists have many job titles – forest ecologist, mycologist, toxicologist, plant breeder, interpretive naturalist, wetland conservationist, environmental biologist, agronomist, or enthobotanists. These are some of the niches in the science of botany. Every specialization involves different types of work. Botanists may study field crops, marine plants, forests, herbs, flowers, plants, or mushrooms. They are the world’s experts on tiny, delicate mosses, towering, massive redwood trees, and colorful, aromatic roses – all very different plants. The majority of botanists work for research universities, but there are plenty of jobs with government agencies like the United States Department of Agriculture, Environmental Protection Agency, National Biological Service, and even NASA. Other botanists find work at greenhouses, arboretums, herbariums, botanical gardens, seed and nursery companies, pharmaceutical companies, large corporations, museums, forestry organizations, fruit farms, or organizations like the Nature Conservancy. Depending on where they work and what they research, botanists can make $33,000 to $103,000 per year. Most botanists average $60,000 per year. If you want to explore a scientific career as a botanist, find your botanical niche and go wild. Who knows what your green thumb will discover? Quick Facts About Botanist Work Job Title: Botanist Description: Study plants Employers: Universities, government, nurseries, corporations, conservation agencies Pay: $33,000 to $103,000 per year, average is $60,000 per year
Top 10 Text Functions in Excel What Text Functions Can Excel Offer? Excel has many functions to offer when it comes to manipulating text strings. So, let’s take a look at 10 most frequently used Text functions: PROPER, LOWER and UPPER Excel Text Functions Let’s say in the example below, you’d like to change the text in the cell A2 in a proper way, meaning that the first letters of each word would be upper case, and the rest letters would be lower case. For that purpose, we’d need to use the PROPER function in Excel. Use the LOWER Excel function to make all letters lower case, and UPPER function to make all letters uppercase. LEFT, RIGHT, and MID Excel Text Functions Let’s say you need just part of the next in the cell A2, such as “Hot KEY” instead of “Hot KEY EXCELLENCE”. The best way here to use LEFT Excel function, as “Hot KEY” are the first letters to the left out of the whole text in A2. There are 7 characters in “Hot KEY” as we need to count the space as well. Therefore, when using the LEFT function and after referencing A2, we need to put 7 after a comma in our example (see picture below). Same logic you can use for the RIGHT function, which would take the characters from the text from the right. Similar logic would apply for MID function, which will take the text from the middle: =MID(text, start_num, Num_char). You just need to show from which character you want to start and for how many characters. In our example, it would be =MID(4,3). FIND and LEN Excel Text Functions Use FIND function to return the position of a specific character within a text string. In our example, we want to find the position of “K” in the text string in the cell A2. As we can see, “k” is the 5th character in the whole text string “Hot KEY EXCELLENCE”. With LEN Excel function, you can find the length of the specified text string. For example, there are 18 characters in the cell A2. Use CONCATENATE to join two or more text strings into one text string. In our example, we want to combine the text in cell A2 “Hot KEY” and in the cell A3 “EXCELLENCE” into one string in the cell B2. Notice, we need to add the space in between. You can do that by adding the space in parenthesis in between. Don’t forget to separate it with the commas on both sides. The Excel TEXT function returns a number in a specified number format, as text. You can use the TEXT function to embed formatted numbers inside the text. For example, there is a TEXT function built in the cell C4, it is referencing cell C2. If we change the number in the cell C2 from $100 to $500, it will be automatically changed in the text of C4 as well. Excel has many functions to offer when it comes to manipulating text strings. It’s very useful to know and use them to save your precious time. Learn more Excel functions and tricks in the Hot Key Excellence Game.
Ocular albinism is a genetic and hereditary disease that results in defective eyesight and a partial or total deficit of eye pigmentation. This can be accompanied by depigmentation of the skin (oculocutaneous albinism). It is a genetic disease characterized by a decrease in the synthesis of melanin in the epidermis. Melanin is a pigment that normally colors the iris, retina, skin, and hair, and protects all of these structures from the action of ultraviolet rays. The regulation of melanin production involves specific genes; a mutation in these genes can induce the appearance of albinism.(1) Are There Any Exercises For Ocular Albinism? Is there any specific exercise to help improve the condition? There are some specific exercises to reduce some symptoms of ocular albinism such as the lazy eye or squint. However, it is always advisable to contact an ophthalmologist before deciding on any type of exercise schedule for eyes with ocular albinism. If children are diagnosed with lazy eyes, a patch can be put on healthy eyes to encourage the other affected eye to work harder and benefit them.(4) In order for normal vision development to occur at the start of life, the eye must behave like a camera. It needs: - A dark room (vitreous cavity of the eye or camera body) - At the bottom of which is located the sensory tissue (the retina of the eye or the film of the camera) - This darkroom is opened forward towards the light by a diaphragm (iris of the eye or diaphragm of the camera). To create a real “darkroom”, the internal part of the eyeball is lined with a tissue called the pigmented epithelium, made of pigmented cells that do not allow light to pass through. Anteriorly, the posterior surface of the iris is also lined with pigmented cells. Thus, light only enters the eye through the central orifice of the iris called the pupil. The role of this pupil is to measure the amount of light entering the darkroom. When there is a lot of light (exposure to the sun for example) the pupil tightens (to avoid glare or over-exposure) and when there is little light (a dark room, a closet for example) the pupil expands (to avoid underexposure). In the case of ocular albinism, there is a deficit in pigmented cells. The eye cannot, therefore, behave like a dark room. There is then a permanent glare, an over-exposure preventing the normal stimulation of the retina and therefore its maturity.(2) When you look at an albino eye you will notice a translucent blue iris, which in backlighting appears red with a little pigmented retina. Ocular Albinism: Causes And Symptoms This lack of pigmentation leading to a deficit in the development of the visual system can be accompanied by other signs of poor vision, in particular, nystagmus, strabismus which can be revealing in forms of an incomplete albinism. Ocular albinism is generally quickly noticed at birth. When the diagnosis is suspected, an ophthalmological assessment is required as well as a genetic assessment. It is necessary to determine the type of albinism the patient has. Although there is no treatment for this disorder, special monitoring is necessary on a daily basis. Because of the melanin deficit, albino people are very sensitive to the sun rays, so protection is essential. It is also necessary to correct the visual problems associated with this pathology (astigmatism, hyperopia, myopia, nystagmus, strabismus, etc.). For the symptoms developed in ocular albinism, some of the appropriate treatments are: - Optical defects – myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism – are compensated for by wearing corrective lenses and/or contact lenses. - Photophobia is reduced by wearing tinted glasses. - Nystagmus and strabismus require treatment as early as possible by an ophthalmologist specializing in strabology. - Visually impairment can be addressed with optical aids and suitable support. - Dermatological surveillance and effective sun prevention are necessary throughout life. - More specific treatments to restore the synthesis of good quality melanin and in sufficient quantity are being studied in mice. - There is currently no gene therapy.(3) - Kubasch A, Meurer M. Oculocutaneous and ocular albinism. Der Hautarzt; Zeitschrift fur Dermatologie, Venerologie, und verwandte Gebiete. 2017;68(11):867-875. - Yan N, Liao X, Cai S-p, et al. A novel nonsense mutation of the GPR143 gene identified in a Chinese pedigree with ocular albinism. PLoS One. 2012;7(8). - Hertle RW. Albinism: particular attention to the ocular motor system. Middle East African journal of ophthalmology. 2013;20(3):248. - Sun L, Wang Z, Wu H, et al. Role of ocular albinism type 1 (OA1) GPCR in Asian gypsy moth development and transcriptional expression of heat-shock protein genes. Pesticide biochemistry and physiology. 2016;126:35-41. - Ocular Albinism: Signs, Symptoms, Treatment- Glasses, Contact Lenses, LASIK Surgery - Can Ocular Albinism Go Away On Its Own & What Are Its Natural Remedies? - Is Ocular Albinism A Serious Condition & Can It Be Reversed? - Does Ocular Albinism Cause Red Eyes & What To Do About It? - How Common Is Ocular Albinism In Females & Does It Affect Life Span?
The spaghetti-like internal structure of most plastics makes it hard for them to cast away heat, but a University of Michigan research team has made a plastic blend that does so 10 times better than its conventional counterparts. Plastics are inexpensive, lightweight and flexible, but because they restrict the flow of heat, their use is limited in technologies like computers, smartphones, cars or airplanes--places that could benefit from their properties but where heat dissipation is important. The new U-M work could lead to light, versatile, metal-replacement materials that make possible more powerful electronics or more efficient vehicles, among other applications. The new material, which is actually a blend, results from one of the first attempts to engineer the flow of heat in an amorphous polymer. A polymer is a large molecule made of smaller repeating molecules. Plastics are common synthetic polymers. Previous efforts to boost Heat-Transfer'>heat transfer in polymers have relied on metal or ceramic filler materials or stretching molecule chains into straight lines. Those approaches can be difficult to scale up and can increase a material's weight and cost, make it more opaque, and affect how it conducts electricity and reflects light. The U-M material has none of those drawbacks, and it's easy to manufacture with conventional methods, the researchers say. "Researchers have paid a lot of attention to designing polymers that conduct electricity well for organic LEDs and solar cells, but engineering of thermal properties by molecular design has been largely neglected, even though there are many current and future polymer applications for which Heat-Transfer'>heat transfer is important," said Kevin Pipe, U-M associate professor of mechanical engineering and corresponding author of a paper on the work published in the current issue of Nature Materials. Heat energy travels through substances as molecular vibrations. For heat to efficiently move through a material, it needs continuous pathways of strongly bound atoms and molecules. Otherwise, it gets trapped, meaning the substance stays hot. "The polymer chains in most plastics are like spaghetti," Pipe said. "They're long and don't bind well to each other. When heat is applied to one end of the material, it causes the molecules there to vibrate, but these vibrations, which carry the heat, can't move between the chains well because the chains are so loosely bound together." The Pipe and Kim research groups devised a way to strongly link long polymer chains of a plastic called polyacrylic acid (PAA) with short strands of another called polyacryloyl piperidine (PAP). The new blend relies on hydrogen bonds that are 10-to-100 times stronger than the forces that loosely hold together the long strands in most other plastics. "We improved those connections so the heat energy can find continuous pathways through the material," Kim said. "There's still a long way to go, but this is a very important step we made to understand how to engineer plastics in this way. Ten times better is still a lot lower heat conductivity than metals, but we've opened the door to continue improving." To arrive at these results, the researchers blended PAP plastic strands separately with three other polymers that they knew would form hydrogen bonds in different ways. Then they tested how each conducted heat. "We found that some samples conducted heat exceptionally well," said Gun-Ho Kim, first author of the paper and a postdoctoral fellow in mechanical engineering and materials science and engineering. "By performing numerous measurements of the polymer blend structures and their physical properties, we learned many important material design principles that govern Heat-Transfer'>heat transfer in amorphous polymers." Two other first authors are Dongwook Lee and Apoorv Shanker, graduate students in macromolecular science and engineering. The paper is titled "High thermal conductivity in amorphous polymer blends by engineered interchain interactions." Tell us what you think of Chemistry 2011 -- we welcome both positive and negative comments. Have any problems using the site? Questions?
In early philosophies of psychology and metaphysics, conatus (//; Latin for "effort; endeavor; impulse, inclination, tendency; undertaking; striving") is an innate inclination of a thing to continue to exist and enhance itself. This "thing" may be mind, matter, or a combination of both. Over the millennia, many different definitions and treatments have been formulated. Seventeenth-century philosophers René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, and Thomas Hobbes made important contributions. The conatus may refer to the instinctive "will to live" of living organisms or to various metaphysical theories of motion and inertia. Often the concept is associated with God's will in a pantheist view of Nature. The concept may be broken up into separate definitions for the mind and body and split when discussing centrifugal force and inertia. The history of the term conatus is that of a series of subtle tweaks in meaning and clarifications of scope developed over the course of two and a half millennia. Successive philosophers to adopt the term put their own personal twist on the concept, each developing the term differently. The earliest authors to discuss conatus wrote primarily in Latin, basing their usage on ancient Greek concepts. These thinkers therefore used "conatus" not only as a technical term but as a common word and in a general sense. In archaic texts, the more technical usage is difficult to discern from the more common one, and they are also hard to differentiate in translation. In English translations, the term is italicized when used in the technical sense or translated and followed by conatus in brackets. Today, conatus is rarely used in the technical sense, since modern physics uses concepts such as inertia and conservation of momentum that have superseded it. It has, however, been a notable influence on nineteenth- and twentieth-century thinkers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Louis Dumont. The Latin cōnātus comes from the verb cōnor, which is usually translated into English as, "to endeavor"; but the concept of the conatus was first developed by the Stoics (333–264 BCE) and Peripatetics (c. 335 BCE) before the Common Era. These groups used the word ὁρμή (hormê, translated in Latin by impetus) to describe the movement of the soul towards an object, and from which a physical act results. Classical thinkers, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE) and Diogenes Laërtius (c. 235 BCE), expanded this principle to include an aversion to destruction, but continued to limit its application to the motivations of non-human animals. Diogenes Laërtius, for example, specifically denied the application of the term to plants. Before the Renaissance, Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274 CE), Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308 CE) and Dante Alighieri (1265–1321 CE) expressed similar sentiments using the Latin words vult, velle or appetit as synonyms of conatus; indeed, all four terms may be used to translate the original Greek ὁρμή. Later, Telesius and Campanella extended the ancient Greek notions and applied them to all objects, animate and inanimate. First Aristotle, then Cicero and Laërtius each alluded to a connection between the conatus and other emotions. In their view, the former induces the latter. They maintained that humans do not wish to do something because they think it "good", but rather they think it "good" because they want to do it. In other words, the cause of human desire is the natural inclination of a body to augment itself in accordance with the principles of the conatus. There is a traditional connection between conatus and motion itself. Aquinas and Abravanel (1265–1321) both related the concept directly to that which Augustine (354–430 CE) saw to be the "natural movements upward and downward or with their being balanced in an intermediate position" described in his De Civitate Dei, (c. 520 CE). They called this force that causes objects to rise or fall, "amor naturalis", or "natural love". In the 6th century, John Philoponus (c. 490–c. 570 CE) criticized Aristotle's view of motion, noting the inconsistency between Aristotle's discussion of projectiles, where the medium of aether keeps projectiles going, and his discussion of the void, where there is no such medium and hence a body's motion should be impossible. Philoponus proposed that motion was not maintained by the action of some surrounding medium but by some property, or conatus implanted in the object when it was set in motion. This was not the modern concept of inertia, for there was still the need for an inherent power to keep a body in motion. This view was strongly opposed by Averroës and many scholastic philosophers who supported Aristotle. The Aristotelian view was also challenged in the Islamic world. For example, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) seems to have supported Philoponus' views, while he developed a concept similar to inertia. The concept of inertia was developed more clearly in the work of his contemporary Avicenna, who conceived a permanent force whose effect is dissipated only as a result of external agents such as air resistance, making him "the first to conceive such a permanent type of impressed virtue for non-natural motion." Avicenna's concept of mayl is almost the opposite of the Aristotelian conception of violent motion and is reminiscent of Newton's first law of motion. Avicenna also developed an idea similar to momentum, when he attempted to provide a quantitative relation between the weight and velocity of a moving body. Jean Buridan (1300–1358) also rejected the notion that this motion-generating property, which he named impetus, dissipated spontaneously. Buridan's position was that a moving object would be arrested by the resistance of the air and the weight of the body which would oppose its impetus. He also maintained that impetus increased with speed; thus, his initial idea of impetus was similar in many ways to the modern concept of momentum. Despite the obvious similarities to more modern ideas of inertia, Buridan saw his theory as only a modification to Aristotle's basic philosophy, maintaining many other peripatetic views, including the belief that there was still a fundamental difference between an object in motion and an object at rest. Buridan also maintained that impetus could be not only linear, but also circular in nature, causing objects such as celestial bodies to move in a circle. In the first half of the seventeenth century, René Descartes (1596–1650) began to develop a more modern, materialistic concept of the conatus, describing it as "an active power or tendency of bodies to move, expressing the power of God". Whereas the ancients used the term in a strictly anthropomorphic sense similar to voluntary "endeavoring" or "struggling" to achieve certain ends, and medieval Scholastic philosophers developed a notion of conatus as a mysterious intrinsic property of things, Descartes uses the term in a somewhat more mechanistic sense. More specifically, for Descartes, in contrast to Buridan, movement and stasis are two states of the same thing, not different things. Although there is much ambiguity in Descartes' notion of conatus, one can see here the beginnings of a move away from the attribution of desires and intentions to nature and its workings toward a more scientific and modern view. Descartes rejects the teleological, or purposive, view of the material world that was dominant in the West from the time of Aristotle. The mind is not viewed by Descartes as part of the material world, and hence is not subject to the strictly mechanical laws of nature. Motion and rest, on the other hand, are properties of the interactions of matter according to eternally fixed mechanical laws. God only sets the whole thing in motion at the start, and later does not interfere except to maintain the dynamical regularities of the mechanical behavior of bodies. Hence there is no real teleology in the movements of bodies since the whole thing reduces to the law-governed collisions and their constant reconfigurations. The conatus is just the tendency of bodies to move when they collide with each other. God may set this activity in motion, but thereafter no new motion or rest can be created or destroyed. Descartes specifies two varieties of the conatus: conatus a centro and conatus recedendi. Conatus a centro, or "tendency towards the center", is used by Descartes as a theory of gravity; conatus recendendi, or "tendency away from the center", represents the centrifugal forces. These tendencies are not to be thought of in terms of animate dispositions and intentions, nor as inherent properties or "forces" of things, but rather as a unifying, external characteristic of the physical universe itself which God has bestowed. Descartes, in developing his First Law of Nature, also invokes the idea of a conatus se movendi, or "conatus of self-preservation". This law is a generalization of the principle of inertia, which was developed and experimentally demonstrated earlier by Galileo. The principle was formalized by Isaac Newton and made into the first of his three Laws of Motion fifty years after the death of Descartes. Descartes' version states: "Each thing, insofar as in it lies, always perseveres in the same state, and when once moved, always continues to move." Conatus and the psyche Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), too, worked off of the previous notions of the conatus principle. However, he criticized the previous definitions for failing to explain the origin of motion. Working toward this end became the primary focus of Hobbes' work in this area. Indeed, Hobbes "reduces all the cognitive functions of the mind to variations of its conative functions". Furthermore, Hobbes describes emotion as the beginning of motion and the will as the sum of all emotions. This "will" forms the conatus of a body and its physical manifestation is the perceived "will to survive". In order that living beings may thrive, Hobbes says, "they seek peace and fight anything that threatens this peace". Hobbes also equates this conatus with "imagination", and states that a change in the conatus, or will, is the result of "deliberation". Conatus and physics I define [conatus] to be motion made in less space and time than can be given; that is, less than can be determined or assigned by exposition or number; that is, motion made through the length of a point, and in an instant or point of time. As in his psychological theory, Hobbes's physical conatus is an infinitesimal unit of motion. It is the beginning of motion: an inclination in a specified direction. The concept of impetus, as used by Hobbes, is defined in terms of this physical conatus. It is "a measure of the conatus exercised by a moving body over the course of time". Resistance is caused by a contrary conatus; force is this motion plus "the magnitude of the body". Hobbes also uses the word conatus to refer to the "restorative forces" which may cause springs, for example, to contract or expand. Hobbes claims there is some force inherent in these objects that inclines them to return to their previous state. Today, science attributes this phenomenon to material elasticity. Conatus is a central theme in the philosophy of Benedict de Spinoza (1632–1677). According to Spinoza, "each thing, as far as it lies in itself, strives to persevere in its being" (Ethics, part 3, prop. 6). Spinoza presents a few reasons for believing this. First, particular things are, as he puts it, modes of God, which means that each one expresses the power of God in a particular way (Ethics, part 3, prop. 6, dem.). Moreover, it could never be part of the definition of God that his modes contradict one another (Ethics, part 3, prop. 5); each thing, therefore, "is opposed to everything which can take its existence away" (Ethics, part 3, prop. 6, dem.). This resistance to destruction is formulated by Spinoza in terms of a striving to continue to exist, and conatus is the word he most often uses to describe this force. Striving to persevere is not merely something that a thing does in addition to other activities it might happen to undertake. Rather, striving is "nothing but the actual essence of the thing" (Ethics, part 3, prop. 7). Spinoza also uses the term conatus to refer to rudimentary concepts of inertia, as Descartes had earlier. Since a thing cannot be destroyed without the action of external forces, motion and rest, too, exist indefinitely until disturbed. The concept of the conatus, as used in Baruch Spinoza's psychology, is derived from sources both ancient and medieval. Spinoza reformulates principles that the Stoics, Cicero, Laërtius, and especially Hobbes and Descartes developed. One significant change he makes to Hobbes' theory is his belief that the conatus ad motum, (conatus to motion), is not mental, but material. Spinoza, with his determinism, believes that man and nature must be unified under a consistent set of laws; God and nature are one, and there is no free will. Contrary to most philosophers of his time and in accordance with most of those of the present, Spinoza rejects the dualistic assumption that mind, intentionality, ethics, and freedom are to be treated as things separate from the natural world of physical objects and events. His goal is to provide a unified explanation of all these things within a naturalistic framework, and his notion of conatus is central to this project. For example, an action is "free", for Spinoza, only if it arises from the essence and conatus of an entity. There can be no absolute, unconditioned freedom of the will, since all events in the natural world, including human actions and choices, are determined in accord with the natural laws of the universe, which are inescapable. However, an action can still be free in the sense that it is not constrained or otherwise subject to external forces. Human beings are thus an integral part of nature. Spinoza explains seemingly irregular human behaviour as really "natural" and rational and motivated by this principle of the conatus. In the process, he replaces the notion of free will with the conatus, a principle that can be applied to all of nature and not just man. Spinoza's view of the relationship between the conatus and the human affects is not clear. Firmin DeBrabander, assistant professor of philosophy at the Maryland Institute College of Art, and Antonio Damasio, professor of neuroscience at the University of Southern California, both argue that the human affects arise from the conatus and the perpetual drive toward perfection. Indeed, Spinoza states in his Ethics that happiness, specifically, "consists in the human capacity to preserve itself". This "endeavor" is also characterized by Spinoza as the "foundation of virtue". Conversely, a person is saddened by anything that opposes his conatus. David Bidney (1908–1987), professor at Yale University, disagrees. Bidney closely associates "desire", a primary affect, with the conatus principle of Spinoza. This view is backed by the Scholium of IIIP9 of the Ethics which states, "Between appetite and desire there is no difference, except that desire is generally related to men insofar as they are conscious of the appetite. So desire can be defined as appetite together with consciousness of the appetite." According to Bidney, this desire is controlled by the other affects, pleasure and pain, and thus the conatus strives towards that which causes joy and avoids that which produces pain. Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) was a student of Erhard Weigel (1625–1699) and learned of the conatus principle from him and from Hobbes, though Weigel used the word tendentia (Latin: tendency). Specifically, Leibniz uses the word conatus in his Exposition and Defence of the New System (1695) to describe a notion similar that of Hobbes, but he differentiates between the conatus of the body and soul, the first of which may only travel in a straight line by its own power, and the latter of which may "remember" more complicated motions. For Leibniz, the problem of motion comes to a resolution of the paradox of Zeno. Since motion is continuous, space must be infinitely divisible. In order for anything to begin moving at all, there must be some mind-like, voluntaristic property or force inherent in the basic constituents of the universe that propels them. This conatus is a sort of instantaneous or "virtual" motion that all things possess, even when they are static. Motion, meanwhile, is just the summation of all the conatuses that a thing has, along with the interactions of things. The conatus is to motion as a point is to space. The problem with this view is that an object that collides with another would not be able to bounce back, if the only force in play were the conatus. Hence, Leibniz was forced to postulate the existence of an aether that kept objects moving and allowed for elastic collisions. Leibniz' concept of a mind-like memory-less property of conatus, coupled with his rejection of atoms, eventually led to his theory of monads. Leibniz also uses his concept of a conatus in developing the principles of the integral calculus, adapting the meaning of the term, in this case, to signify a mathematical analog of Newton's accelerative "force". By summing an infinity of such conatuses (i.e., what is now called integration), Leibniz could measure the effect of a continuous force. He defines impetus as the result of a continuous summation of the conatus of a body, just as the vis viva (or "living force") is the sum of the inactive vis mortua. Based on the work of Kepler and probably Descartes, Leibniz develops a model of planetary motion based on the conatus principle, the idea of aether and a fluid vortex. This theory is expounded in the work Tentamen de motuum coelestium causis (1689). According to Leibniz, Kepler's analysis of elliptical orbits into a circular and a radial component can be explained by a "harmonic vortex" for the circular motion combined with a centrifugal force and gravity, both of which are examples of conatus, to account for the radial motion. Leibniz later defines the term monadic conatus, as the "state of change" through which his monads perpetually advance. Related usages and terms Several other uses of the term conatus, apart from the primary ones mentioned above, have been formulated by various philosophers over the centuries. There are also some important related terms and concepts which have, more or less, similar meanings and usages. Giambattista Vico (1668–1744) defined conatus as the essence of human society, and also, in a more traditional, hylozoistic sense, as the generating power of movement which pervades all of nature. Nearly a century after the beginnings of modern science, Vico, inspired by Neoplatonism, explicitly rejected the principle of inertia and the laws of motion of the new physics. For him, nature was composed neither of atoms, as in the dominant view, nor of extension, as in Descartes, but of metaphysical points animated by a conatus principle provoked by God. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) developed a philosophy that contains a principle notably similar to that of Hobbes's conatus. This principle, Wille zum Leben, or "Will to Live", described the specific phenomenon of an organism's self-preservation instinct. Schopenhauer qualified this, however, by suggesting that the Will to Live is not limited in duration. Rather, "the will wills absolutely and for all time", across generations. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), an early disciple of Schopenhauer, developed a separate principle which comes out of a rejection of the primacy of Schopenhauer's Will to Live and other notions of self-preservation. He called his version the Will to Power, or Wille zur Macht. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), greatly depended on Spinoza's formulation of the conatus principle as a system of self-preservation, though he never cited him directly in any of his published works. Around the same time, Henri Bergson (1859–1941), developed the principle of the élan vital, or "vital impulse", which was thought to aid in the evolution of organisms. This concept, which implies a fundamental driving force behind all life, is reminiscent of the conatus principle of Spinoza and others. For Max Scheler, the concept of Drang is the centerpiece of philosophical anthropology and metaphysics. Though his concept has been important throughout his entire philosophical career, it was only developed later in his life when his focus shifted from phenomenology to metaphysics. Like Bergson's élan vital, Drang (drive or impulsion) is the impetus of all life; however, unlike in Bergson's vitalistic metaphysics, the significance of Drang is that it provides the motivation and driving force even of Spirit (Geist). Spirit, which includes all theoretical intentionality, is powerless without the movement of Drang, the material principle, as well as Eros, the psychological principle. The cultural anthropologist Louis Dumont (1911–1988), described a cultural conatus built directly upon Spinoza's seminal definition in IIIP3 of his Ethics. The principle behind this derivative concept states that any given culture, "tends to persevere in its being, whether by dominating other cultures or by struggling against their domination". After the advent of Newtonian physics, the concept of a conatus of all physical bodies was largely superseded by the principle of inertia and conservation of momentum. As Bidney states, "It is true that logically desire or the conatus is merely a principle of inertia ... the fact remains, however, that this is not Spinoza's usage." Likewise, conatus was used by many philosophers to describe other concepts which have slowly been made obsolete. Conatus recendendi, for instance, became the centrifugal force, and gravity is used where conatus a centro had been previously. Today, the topics with which conatus dealt are matters of science and are thus subject to inquiry by the scientific method. The archaic concept of conatus is today being reconciled with modern biology by scientists such as Antonio Damasio. The conatus of today, however, is explained in terms of chemistry and neurology where, before, it was a matter of metaphysics and theurgy. This concept may be "constructed so as to maintain the coherence of a living organism's structures and functions against numerous life-threatening odds". The Spinozistic conception of a conatus was a historical precursor to modern theories of autopoiesis in biological systems. In systems theory and the sciences in general, the concept of a conatus may be related to the phenomenon of emergence, whereby complex systems may spontaneously form from multiple simpler structures. The self-regulating and self-maintaining properties of biological and even social systems may thus be considered modern versions of Spinoza's conatus principle; however, the scope of the idea is definitely narrower today without the religious implications of the earlier variety.
Fundamental to theatre are actions that change characters and relations are built through these actions in theatre. Plays are about characters, who are changed by what they do. Plays have speech, actions and activities. Actions have to be there, because they change people. Activities, like having a cup of tea, are not necessary because they do not reveal the actor’s story. A character getting up to make a cup of tea is inherently uninteresting and that’s an activity, Lavery explains. A character getting up to make a cup of tea because they don’t want to talk about what’s happening or that they want to get away from this person here that they loathe, or this person who they’re secretly in love with. Then, you know, if you know that’s happening, then that’s interesting. And that’s theatre and that’s hard to do. Scenes have objectives. For example in this scene Hamlet discovers his mother is lying to him. It can happen in words or it can happen in actions. There have to be guide rules of character and actions. In a play nothing should be there, that does not have to be in there. In the writing process and eventually in the play, Lavery leaves spaces in how people are talking. Her characters don’t talk in sentences, they have different sizes of space, or long gaps of silence, in which a change of thought can be felt. It implies that something specifically is happening, something mentally or physically is happening between the end of one word and the beginning of the next. Lavery argues that there has to be an in-between space for something physically to happen. For Lavery the body is the instrument that records it all and is affected by it all. Whatever we see or whatever we witness has an effect on our brains, our bodies, our heat, our everything. That’s the relationship between being witness and the body. Even in today’s context, in which we have so much communication without body embodiment, the body still is the instrument that records it all.
The Qin Dynasty The Qin Dynasty is the first and foremost majestic dynasty of China that ruled from 221 BC to 206 BC. It is also well-known as the first multi-national and a powerful unified state in the entire history of China. Earlier it is a small state located in the north western region. Later during the mid-thirty century, Qin dynasty captured all the small states located to its south and west. After conquering about six small states by the Qin state, the Qin Dynasty was established. This conquering was done by the then emperor Qin Shi Huang who became the founding emperor as well as the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty. This Qin dynasty was originated by one of the many small feudal states called the state of Ch’in. The Ch’in was one of the least Sinicized of these small states and one of the most martial. The rulers imposed harsh policies with the intention to maintain and consolidate the power. The name Qin is derived from the heartland of Qin, which in modern day mean Gansu and Shaanxi. During the mid and late third century BC, there was an accomplishment of swift conquests series lead to the eventual conquering of the rest six major states with which the total control over the entire China was gained. This conquering results in the formation of unified China. During 4th century BC, with the rule of Shang Yang there was a rapid and great increase in the strength of the Qin Dynasty. This happened during the period of Warring States. This sort of ruling lasted for about more than 500 years establishing a centralized and unified nation. Shaanxi Province was declared as the capital of the Qin Dynasty. Throughout its reign over China, the Qin Dynasty accomplished advanced trade, improved agriculture, and infantry protection. The local variations in the culture were advised a symbol of the smaller categories. The aristocracy of the Qin Dynasty were mostly similar in their heritage and everyday life. This arose from the Zhou and was grabbed upon by the Qin rulers; as such variations were seen as opposing to the unification that the government strove to achieve. A lot of reforms such as weights, measures and currency were introduced during the rule of the Qin Dynasty. These reforms were standardized along with a better writing system. A try to purge all finds of the old dynasties commanded to the entombing of scholars occurrence and infamous burning of publications, which has been criticized substantially by subsequent scholars. Apart from this, the military during this period was also a revolutionary. A set of effective measures were also taken especially during the rule of Yingzheng. All the latest, upgraded weapons, tactics and transportation techniques were used. The central government now had direct command of the masses, giving it get access to a much bigger workforce. Towards the development of the nation, a lot of effort and contribution was made by him. Besides this, there was a high dissatisfaction towards him among the people as he was tyrannical and cruel to them. Hu Hai followed by Xiang Yu and Liu Bang succeeded the power after the death of Yingzheng. In the year 207 BC, the Qin Army was defeated by the army of Xiang Yu which lead to the end of rule of the Qin Dynasty. There was the abolition of landowning lords, to whom peasants had previously held allegiance which permitted for the building of determined projects, such as a partition on the northern boundary, now renowned Great Wall of China. This occupied the strategic Wei River valley in the extreme north western area of the nation. Qin Dynasty art The Qin Dynasty rulers encouraged in building the unique arts during their short rule. In the year 1974, the excavations started which brought to existence over 6,000 life size terracotta figures from the huge armed detachment defending the tomb of then emperor Qin Shihuangdi. This excavation was considered as one of the most stunning archaeological discoveries in Mainland ceramic. In relation to the Qin dynasty art, there were mainly two facets. The foremost Qin Dynasty Art was the terracotta armed detachment which is very famous and a detachment of the tomb near Xianyang. This terracotta armed detachment is the most adored art products of ceramic, likely of the whole world. In the mid and late 3rd years BC, the Qin carried out a sequence of swift conquests, finally profiting control over the whole of ceramic and creating a unified ceramic. The second facet of Qin Dynasty art is the change in composing and producing a new technology of calligraphy. Qin Shihuang, the first self-proclaimed Emperor was responsible for the initial building of what later a very famous and a part of World wonders the Great Wall of China, which he constructed along the northern border to defend his domain against the Mongols. Whereas the tomb chamber has not yet been unearthed, historical notes recount it as a microcosm of his realm, with constellations decorated on the ceiling and running rivers made of mercury. To protect Qin Shihuang from his death, The Terracotta armed detachment of more than 7,000 life-size tomb terracotta numbers of warriors and equines were formed. As one of his most influential achievements in life, the then Prime minister Li Si normalized the writing system to be of consistent size and form over the entire country. The written dialect of the Qin was like a logographic. For about thousands of years, there is a unification impact on the Chinese culture. They furthermore credited with conceiving the method called the lesser-seal calligraphy. This technique served as a cornerstone for modern Chinese and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising. The normalization of the writing scheme made to be of uniform size and shape across the entire homeland, having a unification effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. The Qin Dynasty rulers also accomplished on increasing trade, military expansion and upgraded agriculture techniques. Qin dynasty achievements Some of the major Qin dynasty achievements were construction of roads and canals connecting the places around the palace. This idea of laying canals and roads made an easier journey and travel experience. This concept mainly helped the armies and military teams. A lot of standardization in terms of weights, measures, language, and money was made. For exchange of communication, resources and labour, the roads and post offices were built. A high level of freedom was permitted for all the individuals of the dynasty which is also one of the top Qin dynasty achievements. Most of the Chinese constructions were completed during 20 years of the Qin Dynasty rule. The first currency to be used across entire China was introduced during this period only. A powerful administration to govern and control currency was introduced to fasten the rise of domestic commerce in China and united China as one economic community. Qin dynasty inventions The major inventions during the period of Qin Dynasty were crossbows. The crossbows were put into use during this rule. These are different from regular long bow and heavy. These are hard to reload but are more powerful. About 10,000 people in almost every battle used these crossbows. These crossbows are designed with a very complicated design and only the most accomplished mechanics could make them. They used the convoluted conceive so the enemy would not be adept to conceive them for themselves. They furthermore strengthened that tactic by making exceptional crossbow bolts. Many new improvements were also added to these crossbows. With all these advancements these were used to fire several projectiles on a single go. Things that were normalized were weight, written dialect, axles and money were also invented during the reign of Qin Dynasty. The things that were created throughout the Qin dynasty are streets, and the famous Great Wall of China. Another invention that was invented in ceramic throughout the Qin dynasty is the long partition it was built with anything components were most gladly at hand. Pebbles and gravel were used in the mountain regions, clay in the open flat lands, and levels of sand, pebbles. The dagger axe was another tool used during wars was one of their major inventions. Although they were made previous than the Qin dynasty they were utilised the most throughout the Qin dynasty. Out of the two heads of the dagger axe, one would be a pointed blade and the second arm would be a spearhead or a bent cutting-edge. Jade dagger axes were utilised as well to act as a source of power and essence. Between the end of 2nd years BC and the midst of the 3 years BC, the emperors of this of Ch’in state began to centralize state power, creating a rigid system of regulations that were applicable throughout the homeland and dividing the state into a series of commanders and prefectures ruled by agents nominated by the central government. With all such alterations and applies the power of the nation has increased.
Homeostasis means keeping a constant internal environment. It is carried out around the whole body. Homeostasis reaches from every cell up to whole organs and systems. If there was not a constant internal environment, our enzymes would not work properly. That would mean that nothing would operate correctly and we would die. All of our cells are bathed in a watery solution, which is formed by some of our blood plasma which is allowed to leak out of our blood. This carries away any waste materials back into the blood. The balance of things in this tissue fluid is critical for the cells and the whole body. There are basically 6 things that are essential for health and that must be controlled: 1. Carbon dioxide Extra carbon dioxide must be removed, otherwise the body becomes too acidic. It is lost mainly in the air we breathe out, but a small amount is lost in the urine. This is the waste chemical produced when we digest amino acids in the liver. It is poisonous and so must be removed. This is done mainly through the urine, although some is lost through our sweat. If the right balance of ions is not kept, our cells can become shrivelled, swollen or even burst! Important ions include sodium, potassium, hydrogen and phosphate. These are controlled through our urine and the amount of water we drink. We also lose some, like sodium ions, through our faeces and our sweat. Having enough glucose for respiration plus adequate storesof glycogen is critical. If the blood glucose level falls too lowwe will die. Seventy percent of our body mass is water. Without keeping the right amount of water we would die. The kidney is the key means of this control (see later). The enzymes that control every chemical reaction in our body work best at their optimum temperature of 37 degrees Centigrade. If our body cells get too hot or too cold they would die. So would we! A cool way to remember these 6 things is by learning this... The following diagram shows the organs that have roles in homeostasis: Through the hypothalamus and pituitary glands the brain has a long-lasting and powerful effect on the body by involving hormones. The hypothalamus monitors water, temperature and carbon dioxide content of blood. The pituitary gland secretes a number of hormones, a key one is ADH which is important in regulating the water content of the body. The liver helps to control glucose content of the body by storing it as glycogen. It is also involved in temperature regulation, acting as the body's furnace by increasing the rate of respiration when we are cold. The lungs are involved by getting rid of carbon dioxide from the body. The pancreas is involved in maintaining a constant amount of glucose in the body through the actions of glucagon and insulin. The muscles of the body can help to maintain a stable body temperature as muscular activity and shivering help to generate heat. The kidney are involved in controlling the amount of water in the body. The skin is the largest organ and has a central role in maintaining a constant temperature.
When a virus encounters an antibody that reacts with antigenic proteins in the viral particle, the virus and antibody clump together. When carried out under appropriate conditions, this clumping reaction will produce a visible product. Using real viruses and real antibodies to demonstrate this phenomenon is prohibitively expensive for most K-12 teachers. Less costly inorganic salts can be used to simulate the reaction. This demonstration is appropriate for life science courses that introduce the concepts of viruses, antigens and antibodies; it is also appropriate as a general demonstration of diffusion. Dr. Les Lane of the Department of Plant Pathology at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, provided my initial exposure to this exercise. Thomas Namey assisted in the preparation of Figures 6 and 7. Schadler, D. L. 2003. Antigen-Antibody Testing: A Visual Simulation or Virtual Reality. The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-K-2003-0224-01 Daniel SchadlerOglethorpe University
Rabies (hydrophobia) is an acute viral disease characterized by inflammation of the central nervous system with fatal results. It is primarily a disease of animals and all warm blooded are susceptible to the infection. The main sources of infection in man are dogs, monkeys, cats and wild animals. The Rabies (hydrophobia) disease is transmitted either by the bite or licking of the freshly abraded surface of the skin by an infected animal. Rabies virus is a neurotropic one which has special affinity for attacking the grey matter of the nervous system. It is a small bullet shaped, enveloped single stranded RNA virus, approximately 200 x 80 nm in diameter belonging to the family RHABDOVIRIDAE. The glycoproteins bind it to acetyl choline receptors and thus contribute to its neuro-virulence. The virus is highly resistant to cold, dryness and decay but is inactivated by Sunlight, formaldehyde, lipid solvents and antiseptics. Rabies occurs world wide and its incidence is approximately 30,000 cases per year. The disease is especially common in South East Asia, Africa, Philippines and Indian subcontinent though the incidence is less in countries like Australia, America, Great Britain, Scandinavian countries and Japan. In India, rabies produces great morbidily and mortality. It is estimated that more than 25,000 persons die of hydrophobia. Every year in India approximately 5,00,000 persons undergo rabies immunization. Dogs remain important vector of rabies virus for humans. There are two epidemiological forms of rabies. 1. Urban which is primarily propagated by UN-imminised domestic or street dogs and cats. 2. Sylvatic (wild). This form is propagated by foxes, skunks, monkey’s jackals, wolves, mongooses, raccoons and vampire bats. Spillover from sylvatic reservoirs of infection results in infection of domestic animals and man can be infected from both these sources. Bite by an infected dog and scratch wounds of the skin allow the virus in the saliva access to the tissues. Human to human transmission is not common though, transplantation of infected tissues like cornea may result in rabies in the recipient. After entering the human body, the live virus replicates within the striated muscle cells and neuro muscular and or neuroendothelial spindles. It penetrates the nerve endings and via peripheral nerves, spreads to the central nervous system where it again proliferates before invading the salivary glands, lungs, kidneys, heart, adrenals and other organs via peripheral nerves. The incubation period of rabies is variable ranging from 10 days to over 1 year. It is shorter in case the bite site is closer to the brain. Occasionally the incubation period may be as late as 2-5 years. The time period depends on viral load, distance it has to travel from the site of inoculation to the central nervous system, and hosts immune responses. Histo-pathologically, the white and grey matter of the brain show severe degree of congestion, perivascular and perineuronal infiltration with lymphocytes and plasma cells. Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies (Negri bodies) are characteristic of rabies. Negri body is an eosinophilic mass of fibrillar matrix and virus particles about 10 nm is size are present in 80 percent of cases. Negri bodies are seen in large numbers in the cerebral cortex, the brain stem, purkinje cells of the cerebellum, Pyramidal tracts, basal ganglia and spinal cord. Absence of negri bodies does not rule out the diagnosis of rabies. These are primarily divided into three phases: (a) Prodromal phase (b) Acute encephalitic phase (c) Paralytic phase and rarely recovery phase. It lasts for up to 4 days and is characterized by fever, malaise, headache, increased fatiguability, restlessness insomnia, anorexia, nausea and vomiting. There is often complaint of parasthesias and tingling sensation round about the site of bite. Acute encephalitic phase It comes about 10 days after the prodromal phase and is characterized by marked restlessness, anxiety and agitation as well as hallucinations, bizarre behavior and sudden spasmodic spasm of the mouth, larynx and respiratory muscles. A typical attack maybe induced by offering the patient water. Once the spastic form sets in, sensory stimuli which may be tactile, auditory or photic provoke an attack. The synaptic resistance in the reflex arc becomes so lowered that a variety of sensory stimuli such as sudden noise, cold air, bright light, strange smell and even the suggestion of water may induce an attack. Body temperature rises, frothy saliva collects in the throat and mouth. Disturbances of autonomic nervous system like increased lacrimation, salivation, postural hypo tension and excessive perspiration are present. Involvement of pyramidal tracts results in increased deep tendon reflexes and plantar response. Paralysis of the vocal cord occurs. This phase where swallowing of liquid and later on a spray of water or its site produces distressing symptoms like oropharyngeal spasm and respiratory distress is called Hydrophobia and is diagnostic of the condition. This phase lasts not more than 4-5 days and sometimes death may occur due to respiratory paralysis. Paralytic phase (DUMB Rabies) If patient survives long, there is development of various forms of paralysis like ascending paralysis (Guillain Barre type), paraplegia, Hemiplegia. Patient lies exhausted and may die in coma. This type of rabies is commonly seen after bites by rabid bats. Rabies in the dog Earliest sign is change in behavior followed by irritation, vicious fury and animal runs like a mad dog biting anybody coming in its path. As disease develops, there is change in the bark, swallowing becomes difficult, jaw drops and paralysis develops. This period lasts for 2 to 4 days after appearing of first symptoms and is followed by death. Laboratory investigations – Specific diagnosis of rabies depends on (1) Isolation of virus from infected secretions (Saliva, cerebrospinal fluid) (2) Fluorescent antibody (FA) staining for viral antigen and (3) Histologic demonstration of Negri bodies in Brain. A case of rabies is mainly diagnosed on clinical history of dog bite and specific physical signs and symptoms (Mental Excitement, Hydrophobia, spasms or Paralysis). It has to be differentiated from Hysteria, Mania and encephalitis. Confirmation is done by laboratory investigations. Once rabies has developed treatment is symptomatic. Patient should be nursed in a dark room protected from external stimuli, bright light and noise. Attention should be paid to nutrition, Hydration and electrolyte disturbances. Diazepam and chlorpromazine are employed intravenously every 4-6 hrly to sedate and relax the patient. Cardio-respiratory support should be given and regular monitoring done. Persons attending on hydrophobia patient should take all precautions to see that they do not accidentally come in touch with the saliva of the patient on any fresh cut or abrasion. Prevention of rabies in Man It consists of the following steps: 1. Management of the wound 2. Post exposure immunization 3. Pre-exposue immunization. Local treatment of wounds, scratches and licks It is important to thoroughly clean the wound with soap and water. Appropriate cleaning measures reduces the risk of rabies by lowering the infective virus load on the injury site. Cauterization is not recommended. Apply either alcohal (40-70%) or CETAVLON on the wound. Bites should not be sutured. If patient has not been actively immunized against tetanus, tetanus toxiod be administered. To prevent sepsis in the wound a course of antibiotics is recommended. If it is severe, Local injection of antirabies serum of hyperimmune globulin at the site of wound is recommended. It shall reduce the risk further. Post exposuit immunization It is important to assess the risk to the person who has been bitten or licked by an animal (Cat, Dog). The risk is maximum if the scratches or bites are near the face, neck or head. The animal shows odd behavior and presents with clinical signs of rabies. This is even true for those where laboratory tests fail to confirm the diagnosis. This is achieved by anti- rabies vaccination which affords protection lasting for 6 months. The various vaccines are: This vaccine is prepared from sheep brains that are infected with modified rabies. It is inactivated by phenol (SEMPLE) or beta propiolactone (BPL). It is injected subcutaneously on the abdominal wall muscles. Dosage and duration of treatment depends on the degree of risk. Classification of exposure Class 1: Slight or negligible exposure. Minimal risk. All cases of licks. Class 2: Moderate exposure. All bites except those on the head, neck, face. Licks, fresh cuts and scratches drawing blood. Class 3: Severe exposure. All bites on the neck or above. Palms and fingers, lacerated wounds. Bites by wild animals Complications following this are of two types. Local at the site of injection like pain, tenderness and itching. Systemic reactions such as fever, headache, insomnia and palpitation. But the most serious complication is neuroparalytic reactions which generally occur by the 6th or 7th injection. It is often preceded by prodromal symptoms. Neurological involvement includes temporary paralysis of one or more cranial nerves, laundry type of paralysis of limbs, encephalitis and ascending paralysis. Attenuated viral vaccines These are produced in human diploid cell strain (HDCS) purified chick embryo cells (PCEC) and purified vero cells (PURV). Purified chick embryo cell rabies vaccine is prepared from FLURY strain of rabies virus which after growth is inactivated by beta propiolactone (BPL). It is a potent one and is virtually free of side effects. Six-seven dose schedule spread over a period of three months is recommended. A person bitten by a rabid animal is given six doses of lml each on days 0, 1, 3, 7, 14, 30 another injection after 90 days may be given. The dose is 1 nfl irrespective of age and weight. Human diploid cell vaccine (HDCV) and Duck Embryo vaccines (DEV) are other alternatives available. Reactions to these are uncommon. This is given to persons with high risk of contracting rabies like veterinary surgeons, animal trainers and laboratory workers. Generally three injection of vaccine are given at 0, 7 and 21 days. Protection lasts for up to 3 years. Immediate protection after bite is provided by Human Rabies immune globulin (HRIG) in a total dose of 20 units per kg body weight. Half of the total dose is infiltrated locally at the wound site and rest given by intramuscular injection. The passive immunity persists for 2 weeks. Check the below video on Rabies:
This animation illustrates the orbit of 2010 TK7 (green dots), the first known Earth Trojan asteroid, discovered by NEOWISE, the asteroid-hunting portion of NASA's WISE mission. Trojans are asteroids that share an orbit with a planet, circling around the sun in front of or behind the planet. They circle around stable gravity wells, called Lagrange points, which circle the sun like Earth does. The movie follows Earth as it travels along its orbit (blue dots) around the sun, so Earth remains at the front of our view. The various objects are not drawn to scale. Asteroid 2010 TK7 has an extreme orbit that takes the asteroid far above and below the plane of Earth's orbit. The motion above and below the plane is referred to as an epicycle. In addition, the asteroid moves within the plane of Earth's orbit in what is called libration, circling horizontally around its stable point every 395 years. Typically, Trojan asteroids, for example those that orbit with Jupiter, don't travel so far from the Lagrange points. They stay mostly near these points, located where the angle between the sun and Earth is 60 degrees. Asteroids near a comparable position with respect to Earth would be very difficult to see, because they would appear near the sun from our point of view. WISE was able to spot 2010 TK7 because of its eccentric orbit, which takes it as far as 90 degrees away from the sun. WISE surveyed the whole sky from a polar orbit, so it had the perfect seat to find 2010 TK7. Follow-up observations with the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii, helped confirm the object's Trojan nature. The clock at upper left shows how the orbit changes over time. The asteroid's orbit is well defined and for at least the next 100 years, it will not come closer to Earth than 15 million miles (24 million kilometers). Movie credit: Paul Wiegert, University of Western Ontario, Canada
Welcome to the October 2006 issue of the American Academy of Pediatrics Health and Safety E-News for caregivers and teachers. Click here to view previous issues of E-News or to sign up to receive this newsletter. This issue includes information and action steps for you on the following topics: Young Children Need to Be Ready for Most of us think that getting children ready for school means helping them learn to tie their shoes, count, write, and read. While these skills are important, teachers tell us that it is easier for them to teach children who can: - Talk to and play with others - Follow directions (listen, ask questions, and finish tasks) - Identify and talk about feelings - Handle a problem with others - Ask for help when they need it Learning is a social process, and children who have trouble with social skills might act out or use undesirable behaviors. These children may receive fewer compliments, have trouble developing friendships, and cannot always focus on schoolwork. This makes school harder for everyone. When parents and child care providers help young children learn how to make friends, follow directions, and complete schoolwork, everyone benefits! Warmth and Affection, Helping Children Build Expressing warmth and affection to children is important for many reasons. It's also crucial for young children to be appropriately touched and hugged by adults. Touching and holding infants and toddlers helps them feel secure and learn to trust their caregivers. A good relationship (that is positive and supportive) promotes brain development. By remaining calm and responsive to the child's needs, adults can reassure and calm an anxious child. Finally, these activities will help you develop a good relationship with the children, and this will help you feel good, enjoy your work, and have fun. Here are some things you can do: - Greet each child warmly. Smile, make eye contact, and use a positive tone of voice that says you are happy to see the child. Use the child's name. Help the child to say good-bye to the person who brought them and then to decide what to do as their first activity of the day. This approach is especially important when a child has been absent or is new to a program. - Be friendly and affectionate with each child. Warmth and affection can be shown through your expression, laughter, voice, and words (e.g., "little one", "I am glad you are here"). It can also be expressed through touch. Leaning against a child, giving a quick gentle touch on the head, arm or shoulder, and hugging are appropriate ways to show affection through touch. Snuggling with several children while reading together is a natural and enjoyable way to do this. Show each child you care by responding individually and being sensitive to their needs. Remember to: - Provide regular positive attention to each child every day - Get on the child's level for face-to-face interactions - Use a pleasant, calm voice, and simple language while making eye contact - Provide warm, responsive physical contact - Listen carefully to children and encourage them to use words to express their feelings - Praise children when they do what you ask them to do or are playing well with other children - Think about whether your joy and your good feelings about children are easy for them to see. Remember that children who act out are often those who need the most warmth and affection. - Make sure that your words and interactions with children are more positive than negative. Avoid criticism, nagging, yelling, and scolding. Look for each child's strengths. Enjoy each child's individuality and sense of humor; smile, laugh, be playful, and have fun. - Show children how to talk to other children and build friendships. Use group activities such as circle time or story time as well as role-playing to help children learn how to say nice things, share, and help each other. Model these positive behaviors and praise children who follow directions. If needed, use incentive charts or stickers to encourage desired behaviors. to Do if Children Act Out or Hurt Others Knowing how to respond when children act out or hurt others can be very difficult. Many caregivers/teachers report that having even one child in their care who acts out can lead to exhaustion and decreased job satisfaction. Caregivers play a key role in identifying the positive behaviors and skills they want for children and actively teaching and strengthening these behaviors. By teaching children positive behaviors, caregivers/teachers will spend less time correcting negative behaviors and will have more time to interact with children and enjoy program activities. Here are some things you can do to help children learn positive behaviors: - Reinforce desirable behaviors by ignoring things that are trivial, providing frequent praise when you see positive behaviors start to emerge, and modeling respectful communication. - Respond to children's negative behaviors by redirecting them. For example, when a child throws sand from the sandbox, do not take away his favorite toy. Talk to the child about their behavior calmly and with empathy. Tell the child that he may not throw sand (because it is dangerous). Explain that because he did this, he cannot play in the sandbox and needs to play somewhere else. - Provide children with opportunities to make choices when possible and help them to learn to understand the consequences of their actions. Watch children who act out and consider why they might be behaving that way. For example, many children have trouble during transitions (when they need to finish one activity and start another). If problems tend to occur during transition times, you can recognize that this child will always need help during these times. - Try role-modeling and having children practice the behaviors that you want to see. Determine what the negative behavior is and identify the desired behavior. Talk to the children about the desired behaviors and show them what you expect. Anticipate when a child is likely to engage in a negative behavior and offer them help and/or encourage the child to ask for help. Ask children as a group to show you what it means to "use inside voices", "keep hands and legs to ourselves", or "ask for help when you need it". - Provide clear messages that hurtful behaviors are not allowed, and give the child acceptable alternatives. For example, tell the child to express his anger but not to hurt his friends. Time-outs should be used when all other interventions have failed and should be used as a "cooling off" period for the child. Time-outs should not be used with infants or toddlers. Children should always be told why they are receiving a time-out. A time-out should be supervised by an adult and last only a few minutes. - Talk to a child's parents early on if you observe problem behaviors. If the problems last several weeks to months or are getting worse, you may want to refer a child for further evaluation. Start with the child's medical home (a doctor or health professional who makes sure the child receives comprehensive primary care). This individual can provide additional support and refer the family appropriately, depending on the child's condition and available community resources. For resources on Social and Emotional Competence, visit the Resource Library.
Image credit: Rob Boudon Let's explore brain waves, their differences and what each accomplishes for your mind and health. What Brain Waves Are Brain waves are defined as neural oscillations – back-and-forth motions that happen within the central nervous system. Generally, they occur in rhythmic patterns, somewhat like music. They are caused by communication between neurons. These communications collect into larger groups and create the form of brain waves we're familiar with: alpha, beta, theta, delta and gamma. On a macroscopic (large and measurable) level, the communications synchronize so that different parts of the brain are communicating with one another. These macroscopic brain waves are what are measurable on an electroencephalogram, or EEG. They show up as spikes and “valleys” on the graph that records them. The Five Macroscopic Brain Wave Patterns Each of these five major forms of brain waves performs a different function and creates a different state of consciousness. Here's what they do: Gamma waves – Gamma waves have only recently been discovered. They are the fastest of the brain wave patterns, above 40 Hz. They are associated with “quick bursts” of insight, with so-termed epiphanies and high-level information processing. Beta waves – Beta waves are quite fast, oscillating at approximately 14-40 Hz. These are the waves associated with full consciousness. They are necessary to maintain an alert state, logic and critical thinking. Beta waves “get you through your day.” They allow you to fully know what's going on and to respond to events in your day in a logical and safe manner. Alpha waves – Alpha is known as the “deep relaxation” state. Alpha operates more slowly than beta, at 7.5-14 Hz. Most people slip temporarily into alpha during the day without realizing it. When we daydream, that's an example of the alpha state. We are also in alpha when we're in a light state of meditation. Alpha is necessary to access the subconsciousness, while still maintaining a degree of alert consciousness. Theta waves – We reach theta when in a state of very deep meditation or during the very first stages of light sleep. Theta waves operate at 4-7.5 Hz. Not many people are able to reach theta during meditation, but those who are say they access amazing parts of the subconsciousness this way. Delta waves – Delta (0.5-4 Hz) is associated with deep sleep. It is the slowest of the brain wave patterns. The deepest subconsciousness is accessed during delta. This brain wave pattern is necessary for the ultimate relaxation we need in order to achieve healing and regeneration of the mind. It may also be associated with overall healing of the body. With the possible exception of gamma, each of these brain wave patterns is necessary in order to “exercise” your brain. Studies show that individuals deprived of the deepest of them (theta and delta) suffer in any variety of ways, particularly the emotions, concentration during the day, and overall organization of thoughts while awake. Not only are these states natural, they're necessary for your overall health and wellbeing. Altered states aren't anything new-agey or strange. They're normal, and can deliver amazing insights as well as deep relaxation to rejuvenate you...inside and out.
Contaminated sediments are a significant environmental health issue in the Great Lakes basin. While there has been remarkable progress in the past 20 years reducing active discharges of toxic chemicals to the Great Lakes, many chemicals continue to persist in lake sediments, sometimes in high concentrations. Contaminants in buried sediments, present from decades of industrial, municipal, and non-point source pollution, can be resuspended by storms, ship propellers, and bottom-dwelling organisms. They then re-enter food webs and can cause serious human and ecological health concerns. Multiple lines of evidence point to the impact of chemicals on the Great Lakes. - Widespread fish consumption advisories for pregnant women and at risk populations - Sediment contamination leading to beneficial use impairments - Fish and wildlife effects - Concerns for the safety of drinking water We identified five categories of chemicals that often exceed ambient water quality and sediment guidelines and then selected a representative substance as a surrogate from which to map the spatial distribution in the Great Lakes. The representative chemicals were chosen based on their common identification as a chemical of concern (COC) in risk assessments or because they may serve as a surrogate for other contaminants that have similar properties and sources. - Biomagnifying toxic metals: Mercury - Non-biomagnifying toxic metals: Copper - Biomagnifying toxic organics: PCBs - Non-biomagnifying toxic organics: PAHs - Agricultural pesticides: Atrazine The non-biomagnifying toxic organics and agricultural pesticides categories could not be mapped due to insufficient data at the basin scale. This category of stressors also includes Great Lakes Areas of Concern.
This course is an introduction to foreign language classroom teaching for instructors who wish to teach exclusively in the target language; want a student-centered rather than teacher-centered classroom; believe that purposeful and meaningful interaction is essential for learning/acquisition to occur; want their students to cognitively engage with the material; and want to create a learning environment in which students feel comfortable interacting with the instructor and their peers. The first half of the course focuses on background knowledge: - Fundamental theories, concepts and frameworks in SLA. - A brief overview of a selection of FL teaching methodologies. - Profiles of learners and instructors. - Lesson planning. - Classroom management (Common problems and sound advice). - Instructional guidelines (ACTFL and The Common European Framework). The second half of the course focuses on teaching in the classroom: - Teaching vocabulary in the classroom: A purposeful, interactive approach. - Teaching grammar in the classroom: A purposeful, interactive approach. - Creating grammar practice activities: From input to output. - Developing reading and listening skills. Target Audience: foreign language teachers. Course is offered by The Ohio State University.
Messier 50 is an open cluster in the constellation Monoceros. An open cluster is a group of up to a few thousand stars that formed from the same molecular cloud.This star formation occurs when the giant molecular cloud thousands of times the mass of the Sun collapses and fragments into bunches and thousands of stars are formed. Open clusters are found only in irregular and spiral galaxies in which star formation is actively occurring. M50 may have been discovered in 1711 by G.D. Cassini but it is named after Charles Messier who independently discovered it again in 1772. The angular size of M50 is roughly 655 ArcSeconds and the linear diameter is 10.162 AU. Open clusters are by nature randomly organized with no central gravitational pull. The bright blue color reveals the high temperatures of the stars in the cluster. Slightly over 3000 light years away and roughly 20 in diameter, this open cluster is believed to be 78 million years old (Earth is 4600 million), old enough to lose the gas around from which it formed, but still young as evidenced by the bright blue at which the stars burn. The energy necessary to burn at these temperature causes the stars to die relatively quickly with a life of hundreds of millions to a few billion years. By comparison, the red stars in the background and interloping with the cluster could continue burning for well over a few billion years and were around long before the cluster and will be around long after the cluster has burned out. The Essential Cosmic Perspective, 6th Edition, Pearson The Nine Planets Students for the Exploration and Development of Space \|Right Ascension (J2000)\|\|07:02:42.00\| \|Filters used\|\|B (Blue), C (Clear), R (Red), V (Green)\| \|Exposure time per filter\|\|B, V, and R (30s); C (60s x 5)\| \|Date observed\|\|March 30, 2011\|
Population Distribution and Survivorship Questions and Answers Worksheet for AP Environmental Science. - Compare the survivorship curves for males against those for females. Does the data support the trend that women tend to live longer than men? Support your statement with explanations of why or why not? It appears that women live longer than men, according to the data. The graph supports this by showing that there is a later loss in women compared to men. - Analyze and compare the mortality rates for the older age groups. In general, why should these rates be higher than average? These rates should be higher because of the fact that as someone gets older; they get more frail and weaker. Their immune system is weaker and they generally start deteriorating. - How would current survivorship curves differ from those from the 1800’s? Currently there have been many advances in medicine that helps make lives longer and help more people reach older age. - How would the survivorship curves of a developed country differ from those of a less developed one? A less developed country will have a survivorship curve closer to early loss as compared to a developed country. This is due to higher poverty rates, higher infant death rates and lack of medical care. - How could survivorship curves be used to make judgments about environmental and health conditions in each of the countries? Survivorship curves can help countries see how long people live and helps make assumptions about how the economic situation is in that country. - Humans are generally classified as forming a Type I survivorship curve. What does that imply for humans? This implies that humans generally have a late loss curve as compared with other animals. - Name some other organisms that are generally Type I. What are the distinguishing characteristics of Type I organisms? Mammals are usually Type I organisms, such as whales and elephants. Type 1 organisms have less children, take care of them more, and reproduce later in life. - What does it mean to have a Type II survivorship curve? Give two examples of organisms that are generally Type II. Having a Type II survivorship curve means there is a constant loss throughout life. Some birds have this kind of curve. - What does it mean to have a Type III survivorship curve? Give two examples of organisms that are generally Type III. Having a survivorship curve means early loss. This means that most of the organisms die in the beginning of their lives with few surviving to adulthood. - Review the meanings of the terms r-strategist and K-strategist. How are the life cycles of these strategies different? K-strategists tend to have late loss while r-strategists usually have early loss curves. K-strategists organisms are large, have late reproduction and few children, and care for their children. R-strategists have high reproductivity rates and early loss and short generation time. - Describe what type of survivorship curve the two should have. Why? Why do we use the symbols “r” and “K” for these strategies? K-strategists should have a late loss curve (Type I) while r-strategists should have an early loss curve or Type III. K-strategists are called that due to the fact that K-strategists are close to carrying capacity (K) and r-strategists are close to intrinsic rate of growth (r).
Though he never wore a uniform, Alan Turing, a young British patriot, was clearly a hero of World War II. Turing was the scientist and mathematician who invented the Bombe, a machine that was able to successfully decipher messages which had been encoded by the Germans' highly sophisticated (and thought to be impenetrable) Enigma code machine His invention ultimately saved thousands of lives. He later created the Turing machine which was the forerunner of the modern computer. But in the middle of the 20th century the country of Great Britain was dealing with a social issue, one that completely overrode Alan Turing's brilliant achievements. Mr. Turing was gay, or in the parlance of the times a "homosexual," something that was illegal in that country and remained outside of the law until the late 1960's. As a further irritant to the government, Alan Turing was nearly forty when it was revealed that he had a nineteen-year-old boyfriend. (Turing's case closely parallels that of famed British playwright and novelist, Oscar Wilde, from half-a century earlier. Wilde, who also scandalized Britain with his relationship to a much younger man, was ultimately been found guilty of sodomy and sentenced to two years of hard labor in prison - a sentence that effectively ended the writing career of one of Great Britain's greatest wordsmiths.) When Alan Turing was confronted by the government regarding his unacceptable proclivities, he did not deny his true nature. Turing was convicted of homosexual activity in 1952 and ultimately offered a choice - a prison sentence (like the one that had wrecked Oscar Wilde's health and career) or chemical castration. The war hero chose the latter. Two years later he made another decision - and ended his life by consuming a cyanide-laced apple. Now, almost sixty years later after a great mind snuffed himself, Queen Elizabeth II has issued a royal pardon to Alan Turing, effectively securing his place as one of the greatest minds ever produced on that little island. Former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown referred to Turing's sentence as "appalling." Current Prime Minister David Cameron said: "Alan Turing was a remarkable man who played a key role in saving the country in World War II by cracking the German enigma code. His action saved countless lives. He also left a remarkable national legacy through his substantial scientific achievements, often being referred to as the 'father of modern computing.'" With the Queen's pardon and the important words of the country's political leaders, it would appear as though Britain is finally focusing on exiting the Dark Ages. Good work, Liz.
2 Answers \| Add Yours There were at least two major factors that motivated US policy towards Latin America during this time. First, there was a desire for economic gain. The US wanted to use Latin America as its own economic "hinterland." Therefore, it tried to keep close control over such countries as Cuba. Second, there was a desire to keep Latin America as the United States' own strategic sphere of influence. This involved being sure that European countries could not come in and have a great deal of influence in the region. This was manifested in the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine and in actions that were taken as a result of that policy. Latin americas immigration into unitedstates in the 1920s vs now We’ve answered 319,199 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
Post a copy of a sample plate format on your refrigerator. Refer to it until you know how much space different foods should take up on your plate. Make sure that you are using a 9-inch plate. Picture the food on your plate. Learn how much space each food needs on your plate, and try to picture that amount when you are in different situations, such as eating out or attending an event. a copy of the sample plate format to plan a day's meals and snacks. If you need help, talk with your certified diabetes educator or a registered Keep a record. Use a plate format for a week, and keep track of your meals and snacks. You can make copies of the sample for each day. If you have questions about using a plate format, talk with your diabetes educator or If you have diabetes, check your blood sugar before and 1 to 2 hours after you eat. Then write the results on your food record. Doing this will help you see how foods affect your body. Use a plate that measures 9 inches across. Draw an imaginary line through the center of your plate, and then divide one of the halves into quarters. You can use your hand to judge portion sizes. Follow these guidelines for lunch and dinner: Half the plate is non-starchy vegetables. This is about the size of your closed fist, although you can go back for seconds on these foods. Examples are broccoli, green beans, carrots, mushrooms, tomatoes, cauliflower, spinach, peppers, and salad greens. One-fourth of the plate is a bread, starch, or grain. This is about the size of half a closed fist. Examples are bread, rolls, rice, crackers, cooked grains, cereal, tortillas, and starchy vegetables like potatoes, corn, winter squash, beans, peas, and lentils. One-fourth is lean protein. This is about the size of the palm of your hand. Examples are beef, chicken, turkey, pork, fish, tofu, and eggs. (For the plate format, beans should be counted as a starch, not as a protein.) Add a small piece of fruit. A small piece of fresh fruit is about the size of a tennis ball. Or choose ½ cup of frozen, cooked, or canned fruit. You could also have a small handful of dried fruit or ½ cup (4 ounces) of 100% fruit juice. Enjoy a cup (8 ounces) of low-fat or fat-free milk. If you don't drink milk, you could substitute with 6 ounces of no-sugar-added yogurt, another serving of fruit, or a small dinner roll. For breakfast, the concept is similar. One-fourth of the plate is a bread, starch, or grain. One-fourth of the plate is protein. The breakfast plate also includes a cup (8 ounces) of low-fat or fat-free milk and one small piece of fruit. A plate format is easy to learn. It also can be used along with other methods, such as carbohydrate counting for people who have diabetes. ByHealthwise Staff Primary Medical ReviewerKathleen Romito, MD - Family Medicine Specialist Medical ReviewerRhonda O'Brien, MS, RD, CDE - Certified Diabetes Educator Colleen O'Connor, PhD, RD - Registered Dietitian PeaceHealth endeavors to provide comprehensive health care information, however some topics in this database describe services and procedures not offered by our providers or within our facilities because they do not comply with, nor are they condoned by, the ethics policies of our organization.
More Italians have migrated to the United States than any other European nationality. Although relative latecomers, with the largest wave of immigration in the early 20th century, Italians more than made up for their lateness in sheer numbers. In the first decade of the 20th century alone, almost one-quarter of the 8,795,386 European immigrants came from Italy. Other People Are Reading After 1880, during the height of Italian immigration to the United States, the majority of Italians came from the Southern region of Italy, or mezzogiorno. Factors that pushed these hardworking peasants to leave their homes included poor crop yields from primitive production methods, oppressive taxes, generalised poverty and overpopulation. In addition, two volcano eruptions and a major earthquake rocked southern Italy in the early 20th century. The United States provided employment opportunities to Italian immigrants. As a politically-stable democratic nation with no initial restrictions on immigration, the U.S. seemed an attractive option for poverty-stricken Italian farmers. The growing industrial centres provided employment for these largely uneducated immigrants seeking to improve their circumstances. Early Italian Immigrants Very early Italian immigrants came from Italy's northern provinces. These immigrants became prominent wine producers and fruit merchants in New York and California. Later immigrants, still prior to 1900, were mainly young men from southern Italy who intended to one day return. Pushed from their native country by poverty and overcrowding, they were pulled to America by the work opportunities found in large cities such as New York. Although many Italian "birds of passage" came to the U.S. intending to return home at a later date, the majority remained. These immigrants and their families generally settled in neighbourhoods dubbed "Little Italy" within large urban centres. Finding the Catholic church in America dominated by the Irish, they tightened their family and regional ties, creating their own social and charitable organisations. - 20 of the funniest online reviews ever - 14 Biggest lies people tell in online dating sites - Hilarious things Google thinks you're trying to search for
Linguistic signs are mostly arbitrary in the sense that their form is not directly related to the concept they express. For example, there is nothing in the phonetic shape of the Malay word ikan to suggest its meaning – ‘fish’, or, by extension, any ‘marine animal’ (turtle, whale, oyster, etc.). The sound of the word is not intended to evoke swimming or splashing. It is just a regular historical reflex of Proto-Austronesian *Sikan (with the same meaning and also an arbitrary phonetic shape). It has cognates in other Austronesian languages, for example Hawaiian i‘a [ˈiʔa]. None of them makes you say to yourself, “Methinks it is like a fish.” Indeed, even if a word starts out as onomatopoeic, sound changes will in the long run alter its pronunciation beyond recognition, eventually reducing or destroying its imitative value (see the etymology of English pigeon). Affixes and auxiliary words are usually not iconic either. English regularly indicates the plural number of nouns with the suffix -(e)s (pronounced [s, z, ᵻz], depending on the context); some nouns (including fish) form endingless plurals. Neither the suffix nor its absence “portrays” plurality, whether by resemblance or by analogy. The same can be said of irregular plurals like goose : geese or child : children. Is it possible at all to express plurality iconically – that is, to make a linguistic sign sound plural? Yes, it can be achieved by amplifying the sign itself to indicate “more of something”; and one simple way to amplify it is to repeat it. Malay nouns are not inflected for number. Plurality, if it matters in a given situation, may be signalled by the use of numerals or quantifiers, or just inferred from the context. But the speaker may also choose to emphasise the multiplicity of referents by doubling the noun: ikan-ikan ‘fish’ (plural). This is similar to emphatic repetition occasionally encountered in all languages, including English, as in: We rode for miles and miles. What do you read, my lord? ― Words, words, words. In English, word repetition is a syntactic phenomenon; in Malay, it is used as a word-formation mechanism. Note, by the way, that many Malay nouns obligatorily consist of a double occurrence of the same sequence and have no simplex counterpart, e.g. biri-biri ‘sheep’ (singular and plural), while others change their meaning if doubled (mata ‘eye’ : mata-mata ‘spy, detective, police officer’). Root-doubling can also be used with adjectives to indicate intensity (her wild, wild eyes could serve as an English analogue), and with verbs to indicate repetitive or prolonged action. In those cases the doubling is definitely iconic. But duplicated verbs may also refer to a sloppy or leisurely execution of an action, e.g. makan ‘eat’ : makan-makan ‘peck at the food’ (showing lack of interest or appetite). Here the iconicity is less self-evident. The technical term for such morphological doubling is reduplication. In the Malay examples above the entire root is faithfully repeated, but numerous languages also employ partial reduplication in which the repetition is just hinted at rather than applied in full. Typically, a fixed pattern of consonants (C) and vowels (V) is used as a simplified copy of the morphological base – most often a CV or CVC template. Sometimes only the consonants are copied from the base, while the V position is filled by a fixed default vowel (e.g. [ə]). Depending on the language, the copy may be attached before the base (as a prefix) or after it (as a suffix), or even inserted inside it (as an infix). The copy is usually called reduplicant, but I prefer the handier and less esoteric term echo. We shall be mostly concerned with reduplicative prefixes, that is cases when the echo is placed before the base. For example, in Yucatec Maya CV reduplication is employed to form intensive adjectives and intensive or iterative verbs: k’aas ‘bad’ : k’a’-k’aas ‘evil’ p’iik ‘break (something hard)’ : p’i’-p’iik ‘break into many fragments’ Partial reduplication of this kind is not unlike stammering, which may also involve incomplete syllable repetition: b—b—black [bəbəˈblæk]. Of course there is an important difference: reduplication is controlled by the speaker, while stammering is involuntary and has no grammatical function. Expressing plurality, intensity, repetition or, more generally, “greater degree” is the most natural use of reduplication, with a clear cognitive motivation. However, once adopted as a derivational or inflectional device, reduplication easily acquires secondary functions, gradually dropping its iconic character and evolving into another “arbitrary” morphological tool. Reduplication, in its numerous variants, has a global distribution. It’s only in a circumpolar belt of the northern hemisphere, including Europe, Northern Asia and the northernmost part of North America that reduplication plays little role in derivational and inflectional morphology. From a Eurocentric perspective grammatical reduplication may look exotic; we shall see, however, that it had important functions in Proto-Indo-European and some of the languages descended from it. See also: WALS Online: Reduplication
- Venous thromboembolism (VTE) refers to two serious conditions: deep-vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). - Two million Americans each year develop deep-vein thrombosis (DVT). - Deep-vein thrombosis involves the formation of a blood clot in one of the large veins of the upper or lower limbs or pelvis. Blood clots form when circulation to particular parts of the body is abnormally sluggish and/or damage to the blood vessel has occurred. If the blood clot breaks free and travels through the veins, it can reach the lungs, obstructing the pulmonary artery, or its branches, which supply the lungs with blood. If the clot is large and completely blocks a vessel, it can cause sudden death. - It is estimated that 600,000 patients with deep-vein thrombosis develop pulmonary embolism each year, with PE responsible for up to 200,000 deaths. - According to the American College of Chest Physicians, fatal pulmonary embolism may be the most preventable cause of hospital death. - Blood clots in the lungs (pulmonary emboli) kill 200,000 people each year, more than AIDS, breast cancer and highway accidents combined. - Risk factors for developing blood clots include pregnancy, obesity, recent surgery, chemotherapy treatment, estrogen use and prolonged immobilization. - Risk factors for developing DVT include: acute medical illness; orthopedic, lower extremities, or pelvic surgery; cancer or chemotherapy; chronic heart or respiratory failure; inherited or acquired predisposition to clotting; varicose veins; obesity; pregnancy; birth control pills; postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy; advanced age; prolonged immobilization; and long-distance - DVT commonly occurs in one leg. Symptoms may include tenderness, pain, swelling and discoloration or redness. The pain caused by DVT may be a dull ache or cramp in the leg that is severe or mild and is often aggravated by putting weight on the leg. About half the time, though, the problem causes no symptoms. - The signs of PE can range from a little shortness of breath to severe cardiopulmonary - Anyone who experiences these symptoms (or any unusual symptoms) should immediately seek medical attention. Fortunately, the medications that physicians use to treat DVT may help to resolve the symptoms while preventing serious complications. - Traditional treatments for DVT include bed rest, elevation of the affected limb, use of compression stockings and drugs to prevent blood clotting. - Anticoagulants, or blood-thinning drugs, work by altering the body's normal blood-clotting process and may help to prevent PE. The most commonly used anticoagulants are unfractionated heparin, low-molecular-weight heparin, and warfarin sodium. Dalen JE, Paraskos JA, Ockene IS, Alpert JF, Hirsh J. Venous thromboembolism: scope of the problem. Chest 1986; 89 (suppl):370S-373S. Clagett PG, Anderson FA, Heit J, Levine MN, Wheeler HB. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. Fourth ACCP Consensus Conference on Antithrombotic Therapy. Chest 1995; 108 (suppl 4):312S-334S. Created: 3/18/2002 - Donnica Moore, M.D.
Corn Lab Instructions: characters under investigation will be kernel color, which can be either purple or yellow in some lines or red and white in others, and kernel shape, which can be either round or wrinkled. Purple/red are due to coloration of the aleurone, a thin skin that covers the kernel. Yellow is due to a colorless (clear) aleurone, which exposes the endosperm below. Round is due to a starchy endosperm, which retains a round shape as it dries. Wrinkled is due to a sugary endosperm, which is more condensed and causes the kernel to shrink and acquire a wrinkled shape when it dries. This exercise will involve a lot of counting (Mendelian genetics always involves a lot of counting). You will need to work in groups, with one member calling out the phenotypes of the kernels and the other keeping a running tabulation of the counts. If there are more than two in the group, alternate so that all group members gain experience in this exercise. There will be two types of corn - boxed and bagged. The boxed corn shows the parents, first generation and second generation of a Mendelian cross. It also shows the genotypes of each. The bagged corn shows only the second Start with the boxed corn. There are two types of crosses: monohybrid, which is a cross involving only one characteristic (kernel color), and dihybrid, which involves two characteristics (kernel color and kernel shape). For each type of cross, examine the parents and the first generation to determine dominance relationships between the phenotypes. There is no need to count individuals in the parental or first generation because all kernels on one ear will be the same genotype, and there will be little phenotypic variation, if any. However, you do need to keep a record of the parental and first generation phenotypes for your report. Then examine the second generation. In the monohybrid cross there will be two phenotypes, in the dihybrid there will be four. For each type of cross, determine what these phenotypes look like. When you have established the appearance of each phenotype or combination of phenotypes, it is time to start counting. To count, choose a spot at random on the sample ear, then include all kernels after that, counting right to left and moving down a row when you reach the end. As you count, use some object, such as a toothpick, as a pointer to keep track of where you are. Do NOT use any object that will leave a mark. You should count about 75 kernels in the monohybrid cross and 100 in the dihybrid cross, keeping a record of how many of each phenotype there are. For kernel color, you may see some that are light purple. Is this a genetic effect, perhaps due to intermediate inheritance? For a hint, look at the phenotypes of the first generation, or look to see what the phenotypes of other ears are. Did other groups make the same observation? A monohybrid cross is expected to produce a 3:1 ratio and the dihybrid cross a 9:3:3:1 ratio. For an explanation of this, see Introduction to Mendelian Genetics. Analyze your data with a chi-square test to determine whether they fall within the range of normal variation for these expected ratios (see "The Chi-Square Test" below for instrucion on how to calculate and interpret a chi-square). Are your results consistent with the expected ratios? How would this outcome be explained according to Mendelian When you have completed the boxed corn, go to the bagged corn. There should be seven different ears in each bag. Some ears have reddish and white kernels, others yellow and purple. Some are all yellow. You will need to make counts for all seven phenotypically different ears in the bag you receive. For each of your ears, determine whether it is a monohybrid or dihybrid cross and be able to explain why you think so. Then count about 75 kernels if your ear is a monohybrid cross and 100 for dihybrid, tallying them by phenotype as you did with the boxed corn. Test the results for consistency with Mendelian principles with a chi-square. A few of your ears will have an unexpected result. Look closely and you will see some kernels that are spotted. If your cross is a monohybrid, keep a record of the number of spotted kernels - for this data set you will have three phenotypic categories. You will have to decide whether to count the spotted kernels as purple, yellow or a separate category altogether, perhaps an intermediate category. A series of chi-square tests on data from the two ears will allow you to determine the best hypothesis. Do an internet search for spotted corn kernels and find out what causes the spotting. Keep this because you will need to explain the spotting in your written report. If you obtain a chi-square that requires you to reject your null hypothesis for any of the boxed or bagged corn, try to derive another null hypothesis to test. For example, a different phenotype may be dominant than the one you expected, or both parents may not have been heterozygous. Some of your monohybrid bagged ears may have a ratio that appears to be closer to 1:1 than to 3:1, or a dihybrid might have a ratio that appears to be 1:1:1:1. What would account for a 1:1 or a 1:1:1:1 ratio? If you have an unexpected result, you should talk to members of another group and find out if they have the same result. Compare your results to determine whether the two results are similar, and if not, which is more likely to be representative of all samples. Keep your results - you will need them for a written report on this lab. In addition to your results, obtain class results or a large sample of results presented during the class discussion of these crosses. You will need all of this data for your report. Format for Written Report on the Corn Lab: Start your report with the title, followed by the group members' names. Then begin the body of the report. Do not include a cover sheet.. Introduction: This section provides the background and purpose for your project. For this report, you should briefly describe Mendel's results and his principles or laws that were derived from them, for both mono and dihybrid crosses and the respective test crosses. Specifically, for each type of cross you should include a description of Mendel's cross, his results (the phenotypic ratio) , his conclusions and the Mendelian law that resulted. Do not include biographical information on Mendel. Then state the purpose: the purpose of this exercise is to demonstrate the inheritance patterns that result from monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. This section should be about three quarters to one page long, and not longer than Methods: Here, you report the methods you used in sufficient detail that someone else could repeat your work. Describe the types of corn you examined (boxed and bagged), the phenotypes of the corn, and the method you used for counting. You should also describe the method of statistical analysis (chi-square) and the formula you used to calculate a chi-square in this section. Describe what you did, rather than what someone else should do. In other words, use a narrative format instead of a recipe format. This section should be about half to three quarters of a page. You may use the information in the instructions given above, but rephrase it in your own words. Results: This section should start with the boxed corn first, then the bagged corn, and should contain a general written summary of your results as well as tables showing your actual data sets. The written summary should not give specific data (that will be in the tables) but should provide enough detail that a reader would know what your general qualitative results were without referring to tables. Some points to include in the written summary of the boxed corn results are the phenotypes of parents and F 1, how this result is interpreted and a brief summary of the data analysis for the F 2. Include a verbal description of why you would accept or reject the null hypothesis for each cross and what this means. For the bagged corn, describe whether the cross is monohybrid or dihybrid and whether it is a testcross, and how you know. Determine what the original parents and the first generation could have been. Then give the phenotypic ratio that you tested, the results of the chi-square and what this ratio means. Refer to data tables in your summary. The tables provide the specific quantitative details of your results. Arrange tables for the boxed corn to have four columns with the following headings: Phenotype, Observed, Expected and (E-O) 2/E. The number of rows will vary depending on the type of cross, but the last row should give the totals. At the bottom of the last column, show the total chi-square. Directly below the chi-square table, give the chi-square, degrees of freedom (df) and state whether the null hypothesis will be accepted or rejected (for chi-square calculation and interpretation see below). For the corn in bags, you may use tables with three columns: phenotype, observed counts and expected. The chi-square information (chi-square value, df, accept or reject) should be placed in a merged cell below the columns. There should be one table for each of the crosses you have analyzed (boxed monohybrid, boxed dihybrid, different kinds of bagged corn). In monohybrid bagged corn with some spotted kernels, you will need to evaluate the basis for spotting by using different chi-square tests on each of the data sets with spotted kernels. The spots could be due to intermediate inheritance (incomplete dominance). In that case, the ratio of purple : spotted : yellow should be 1:2:1. Alternately, the spots could result from modification of kernels that should be purple or modification of kernels that should be yellow. For both monohybrid crosses, test for 3:1 and 1:1 ratios when spotted kernels are pooled with purple, then do the same when spotted kernels are pooled with yellow. If the chi-square tests are consistent with 3:1 and 1:1 ratios when spotted is pooled with purple, that will indicate that spotted is a modified form of purple. The opposite result will indicate spotted is a modified form of yellow. Check the link to Barbara McClintock's corn research to establish the basis for formation of spotted kernels. Discussion: This should contain a brief summary of your general result, along with your conclusions and interpretations. Were all the results what you expected? If not, explain what could have caused the differences. How do you explain the light colored kernels in the monohybrid crosses? What caused the spotting on some of the kernels? Any unexpected or surprising results can be points for your discussion. This should between half a page and a page. The Chi-Square Test: Once data are collected, it is important to be able to determine whether they fall within the range of normal variation for the expected Mendelian ratios. To do this, a chi-square test is used. It will provide a guide as to whether to accept your null hypothesis (which will happen if the observed data fall within the normal variation for the expected ratios) or reject your null hypothesis (if the observed data do not fall within the range of normal variation). The chi-square value gives a measure of the extent to which your results differ from the expected - the larger the chi-square, the bigger the difference, and the less likely that the difference was due to random chance. The Chi-square Formula: Χ 2 = Σ(observed outcome - expected outcome) 2 ÷ expected outcome Translated, this means that the chi-square (Χ 2) is the sum over all phenotypic groups (Σ), of the expected outcome minus the observed outcome (to measure how great the difference is) squared to make the difference positive, then divided by the expected outcome to adjust for sample size. For a particular dihybrid data set, the chi-square would be calculated as follows: Data Table for a Dihybrid Cross For this data set, Χ 2 = ((315-312.75) 2 ÷ 312.75) + ((108-104.25) 2 ÷ 104.25) + ((101-104.25) 2 ÷ 104.25) + ((32-34.75) 2 ÷ 34.75) = 0.47 The Chi-Square Table: To evaluate the chi-square calculation, you will also have to know the degrees of freedom the data set, which is the number of groups minus 1, which is: 4 - 1 = 3 df in this example. You then use a chi-square table (below, in your lecture textbook or on the internet) to interpret the meaning of your chi-square value. If your value is less than or equal to the critical value for P=0.05, your result falls within the range of normal variation and should be accepted as consistent with the expected ratio. If your chi-square is larger than the critical value, your result falls outside the range of normal variation. In this case there is not a good enough fit between the expected and the observed, and another explanation for the observed outcome must be sought. Critical values of the chi-square distribution P = 0.05 P = 0.01 The probability (P) for a particular critical value is the probability that a difference that large or larger between the expected and observed is due to random variation alone. P=0.05 is the normal cutoff for acceptance of a match between the expected and observed outcomes. P=0.05 means that there is a 5% probability that the difference between expected and observed is due to chance. For a chi-square value less than or equal to the critical value at P=0.05, the difference between observed and expected values is within the normal range of variation and the null hypothesis is accepted. The null hypothesis is that the observed outcome is consistent with the expected outcome and any difference is likely due to random variation. A chi-square value greater than the critical value means that the difference falls outside the range of normal variation (is not likely due to random chance) and the null hypothesis
Literal translation is the translation of text from one language to another "word-for-word", rather than giving the sense of the original. For this reason, literal translations usually mis-translate idioms. For example, a literal English translation of the German word "Kindergarten" would be "garden of children," but in English the expression refers to the school year between pre-school and first grade. - Literal translation - Example of a literal translation of bible text compared with normal translation (at the right) (pdf)
Wild Animals Suffer on 'Junk Food' Diets In the Baltic Sea, birds called common guillemots raise their young on herringlike fish called sprat. In the 1990s, local sprat became unusually abundant after populations of their main predator, cod, plunged because of overfishing and climatic changes. Yet during that time, guillemot chicks grew poorly. Why? The answer may lie in the "junk food hypothesis," which holds that poor-quality food can hamper the reproductive success of marine predators just as badly as low-quantity food. Henrik Österblom, the biologist from the Baltic Nest Institute at the University of Stockholm who studied the guillemots, noted that sprat were leaner when they were abundant and had to compete for limited supplies of zooplankton. The lean sprat made less-nutritious meals for the guillemot chicks. The chicks' parents tried to compensate by bringing home more sprats, but because they catch and carry just a single fish at a time, it was hard to keep up.
+44 1803 865913 By: Committe on Hyrdrologic Impacts of Forest Management Of all the outputs of forests, water may be the most important streamflow from forests provides two-thirds of the United States' clean water supply. Removing forest cover accelerates the rate that precipitation becomes streamflow; therefore, in some areas, cutting trees causes a temporary increase in the volume of water flowing downstream. This effect has spurred political pressure to cut trees to increase water supply, especially in western states where population is rising. However, cutting trees for water gains is not sustainable: increases in flow rate and volume are typically short-lived, and the practice can ultimately degrade water quality and increase vulnerability to flooding. Forest hydrology, the study of how water flows through forests, can help illuminate the connections between forests and water, but it must advance if it is to deal with today's complexities, including climate change, wildfires, and changing patterns of development and ownership. This book identifies actions that scientists, forest and water managers, and citizens can take to help sustain water resources from forests. There are currently no reviews for this product. Be the first to review this product! Your orders support book donation projects NHBS has enriched my life with knowledge for many years now Search and browse over 110,000 wildlife and science products Multi-currency. Secure worldwide shipping Wildlife, science and conservation since 1985
Introduce parents to the flipped class concept. Counting 121-150 for concept mastery. Count backwards from 120-101. Students should understand the proper way to count hundreds family numbers (i.e. one hundred fifteen) Student review of subtraction equations for seven family using objects. Introduce the concept of a standard ruler. Introduce 12" in a foot. Students should be able to measure a simple line by the end of the lesson. Flipped class intro for parents. Math review counting and 7 subtraction family. Introduce ruler.
Notice boards liven a classroom and enhance lessons by simple designs using new supplies or created crafts. They serve as visual reminders of expectations and reinforce lessons. Additionally, notice boards can motivate students in their behaviour, learning and attitude. No matter the grade level, class or unit, a motivational notice board benefits students. A simple way to encourage proper classroom behaviour is through a notice board devoted to this. Begin the year by posting classroom rules. As the year continues, change the board by praising students' efforts at good behaviour. Also post reminders of changes in school rules. Provide guidance for acceptable behaviour through a notice board. According to Utah State University, one way to encourage correct behaviour is to make sure all students know "what is unacceptable about behaviour." Make a fact section for behaviour. Print part of the fact on one side and the rest of the fact on the inside. To find out the rest of the information, students will be forced to interact with the board. If time permits, put the paper on craft thick tape to give a multidimensional look. Students need motivation to learn. When students fail to see the correlation between learning a subject matter and their lives, they often rebel against the subject matter. Motivate students to learn with a notice board. USU emphasises that teachers "establish an environment in which achieving specified learning goals takes priority over other concerns." A visual reminder of this with a notice board will help meet learning goals. For instance, if the class is working on a larger unit, say William Shakespeare, hang the goals for the unit, major points that will be on the final test or important facts about Shakespeare on a notice board. To encourage further learning, post interesting websites or books about Shakespeare. Another idea is to make an interactive board. Make questions and answers on separate pieces of card stock and then attach Velcro to the back of the card stock and the corresponding piece on the notice board. Encourage students to practice by correctly matching the papers. Begin class by reviewing their answers. On a larger scale, motivate students to learn by applying the class' contents to the students' futures. In a math class, perhaps post how much of the ACT is math and the breakdown of specific topics. Include what math classes are required by colleges or what jobs require math skills. As the school year continues, students' attitudes may wane. A simple way to encourage positive attitudes is through a motivational notice board as a simple reminder. For formats and design, use different coloured paper and borders to gain and maintain students' attention. For a middle school notice board, take advantage that role models easily influence this age group. Seek quotes and interviews by athletes or celebrities about success in life. Find those who have overcome aversion or struggles with a positive attitude. Remind students that most people struggle in life, but succeed with the right attitude. For additional designs, include pictures or posters of people who exude positive attitudes. Magazines provide bright and inexpensive pictures.
In 1204 crusaders from Western Europe abandoned their quest to recapture the Holy Land and sacked Constantinople. They installed a Frankish knight, Count Baldwin of Flanders, on the imperial throne and partitioned the empire among themselves. The Byzantine aristocracy fled and established successor states centered on Nicaea in Asia Minor, Trebizond on the Black Sea, and Epirus in northwestern Greece. The period known as the Latin Conquest ended in 1261 when the army of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos of Nicaea recaptured Constantinople and restored the Byzantine state. The empire never fully recovered, but Byzantium experienced a final artistic flowering during the reign of the Palaiologan dynasty, which lasted until succumbing to the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II in 1453. Latin- and Greek-speaking populations intermingled during the Latin Conquest and afterward in territories that the Palaiologans never regained. One result was the creation of hybrid works of art combining Gothic and Byzantine styles and imagery. The island of Crete, a Venetian possession from 1211 to 1669, attracted artists from Constantinople and became a major artistic center serving both Orthodox and Catholic clients. Merchants there exported hundreds, probably thousands, of icons to Italy and Northern Europe, influencing religious painting in Western Europe. Renaissance patrons such as the Medici in Florence also collected Byzantine mosaics and manuscripts, which they prized for their preciousness, rarity, and as relics of a lost Christian empire.
Imagine a food basket filled with cereals from a Saharan oasis, potatoes from 4 000 metres up the Peruvian Andes or from a remote Chilean archipelago, and rice from steep terraced hillsides in China or the Philippines. All these foods come from Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS). These are food systems that have evolved over millennia in harsh and remote landscapes – and in extreme climates – thanks to the knowledge of indigenous people. FAO has identified some 200 of these systems around the world, hailing them for their contributions over the millennia and supporting them to make sure this knowledge is passed on to future generations. These special food systems contribute to local food security, natural resource management and the conservation of genetic diversity. Unfortunately, their survival is at risk as a result of modernization. By designating them as GIAHS, FAO raises their visibility, confers greater respect and helps ensure their survival. It has been some 12 000 years since humans gave up their huntergatherer ways. They grasped the idea of saving and planting seeds from season to season, which meant that instead of constantly foraging for food, they could stay in one place. They were able to concentrate on building their communities and, at the same time, develop agricultural systems adapted to local climates that allowed them to survive and even flourish in the lands where they settled. With each generation improving upon the previous, these ingenious systems have brought with them the indigenous knowledge of the centuries. Today, ingenious agricultural systems that hark back to earlier centuries can be found across all the world’s continents. Far from being trapped in the past, though, these Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) have contributions to make to today’s agricultural world. Although similar to UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the difference is that such sites are monuments meant to be preserved, while GIAHS are living systems that will continue to evolve to meet the needs and demands of those who maintain them – the smallholders, family farmers and indigenous peoples who are often the poorest of the poor. A legacy for the future FAO estimates that about 500 million hectares around the world are dedicated to agricultural heritage systems that still maintain their unique traditions with a combination of social, cultural, ecological and economic services that benefit humanity. Philippine farmers developed hillside irrigation systems that allow them to share water from field to field. Peruvian Andean potato farmers learned to dig trenches around their fields, then fill them with water that is warmed by sunlight during the day and then gives off warm steam that protects crops from frost at night. Farmers in the desert oases of Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Morocco and Tunisia developed sophisticated irrigation architectures and multilayer gardens that capture the shade of date palms to grow the fruits, vegetables and cereals that feed their populations. These traditional systems, found in both developed and developing countries, are both efficient and ingenious. Otherwise, they would not have survived and supported so many generations with only the most rudimentary of tools. Yet often today they are not recognized for what they have to offer. As with many agricultural systems, they are up against rapid development, globalization, urbanization, natural disasters and the effects of climate change. They also must fight the concept that traditional is not compatible with efficient FAO has recognized 19 GIAHS sites in 14 countries since the partnership began in 2004, under a process through which the countries themselves request such status. Requests are evaluated by a scientific committee and endorsed through an international steering committee established by FAO. GIAHS offer dynamic conservation and sustainable livelihoods GIAHS designation goes beyond merely identifying interesting agricultural systems and turning them into attractive snapshots. It also celebrates heritage, and local people take pride when the system they inherited from their ancestors and that they continue to nurture is singled out as a GIAHS. In China’s rice-fish site, with GIAHS recognition, farmers increased income from marketing their products, and tourism increased from 2 000 visitors in 2004 to 25 000 in 2010. The local government is so appreciative of its GIAHS designation that it built a marble fish monument at a village entrance. In Algeria, work opportunities created by the project have brought young farmers back to the oases systems. Youth working and investing in the oases increased from 2 to 23 percent. But in addition to boosting income, the farmers who maintain GIAHS can leverage this increased recognition to safeguard their way of life, their landscapes, agricultural biodiversity and knowledge systems. FAO provides additional support at government level by promoting policies and incentives that support conservation. Work with GIAHS is referred to as “dynamic conservation”. Rather than preserving the sites as museums honouring the past, their evolution and change continue, encompassing a holistic vision of “agri-culture”. Local communities and institutions can capitalize on GIAHS’ ancient traditions and uniqueness by promoting, marketing and adding value to the goods and services they produce. But at the same time, the people who inherited these systems can continue to nurture them, improve them and pass them on to future generations.
"We would like to live as we once lived, but history will not permit it" - John F. Kennedy A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood-based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system. Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one allele (or very closely linked genes) and collectively form a blood group system. Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 32 human blood group systems is now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen; they determine someone’s blood type (A, B, AB and O, with + and - denoting RhD status). Many pregnant women carry a fetus with a blood type different from their own, and the mother can form antibodies against fetal RBCs. Sometimes these maternal antibodies are IgG, a small immunoglobulin, which can cross the placenta and cause hemolysis of fetal RBCs, which in turn can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn called erythroblastosis fetalis; an illness of low fetal blood counts that ranges from mild to severe. Sometimes this is lethal for the fetus; in these cases, it is called hydrops fetalis. One of the Greatest Mysteries in Anthropology is how the A Rh neg blood groups originated in North America. Blood groups are a good method to detect population migration in conjunction with modern DNA Haplogroups, as the former has been identified for over 100 years, unlike the modern method. An individual either has or does not have, the “Rhesus factor” on the surface of their red blood cells. This term refers only to the most immunogenic D antigen of the Rh blood group system, or the Rh- blood group system. The status is usually indicated by Rh positive (Rh+ does have the D antigen), or Rh negative (Rh- does not have the D antigen) suffix to the ABO blood type. Our History books tell us… That according to the New World migration model, a migration of humans from Eurasia to the Americas took place via Beringia, a land bridge that connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. The most recent point at which this migration could have taken place, where the first Americans set foot on Alaska, is 40,000 - 12,000 years ago; a hotly disputed topic. Traditional Distribution of ‘Walking’ humans in time The early ‘stone age’ Paleo-Indians spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis, described by a wide range of traditional creation accounts. While some indigenous peoples of the Americas were historically hunter-gatherers, many practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Some societies depended heavily on agriculture while others practiced a mix of farming, hunting and gathering. In some regions, the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous Americans; some countries have sizable populations, especially Bolivia, Peru, Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, and Ecuador. At least, a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as Quechua languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in millions. Many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization and subsistence practices. Some indigenous peoples still lived in relative isolation from Western society, and a few are still uncontacted peoples. So, according to wiki: About 40,000 years ago Homo Sapiens walked across the land bridge of Alaska and entered America, finally going south to the reached South America all sharing the same blood type ‘O’, but then a second wave came across in 12,000 BP and brought the Blood type A, B and AB with them and settled only in North America. But there is a huge problem with this theory - apart from whom in their right mind would walk across a foot bridge over a thousand years, to a cold and inhospitable place (Alaska)? The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA); however, they are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations. This suggests that the peoples who first settled the northern extremes of North America, and Greenland derived from later migrant populations than those who penetrated further South in the Americas. Linguists and biologists have reached a similar conclusion based on analysis of Amerindian language groups and ABO blood group system distributions. On the East Coast of Asia (at the start of the footbridge) there is less than 4% Rh Neg blood, 90% of the Blood is ‘O’ type Rh-positive - 6% A,B or AB Rh-positive. So, if there were travellers that took the ‘land bridge across’ their descendants disappeared into extinction and never left a trace of interbreeding with the local peoples, even though they walked this pathway for thousands of years - not one stop to settle or cohabitate with a local resident. However, the Haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) shows clear migration from America to Asia and not vice-versa. Moreover, the indigenous American Blackfoot Indians of North America are 82% A blood group RH Negative- the other 18% has probably a case of interbreeding since they were conquered by modern Europeans and their footprint stretches from the lakes of the east coast but falls short of the American West Coast or Alaska. So where did these people come from? If we look at a map of the northern hemisphere, we will see a high frequency of the Rh neg blood line is in Spain, Ireland, Scotland, Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland and Eastern Canada moving West down the East Coast of North America to Central America. In 10,000BCE the sea levels were much lower and The Northern Atlantic looked a lot different than today, as the Sea Levels were 160m Lower and the land masses such as Faroe, Iceland and Greenland much larger than present allowing easy passage across the Atlantic to America, for any society who had the possession of sea boats. There is substantial evidence that reed boats were constructed in the shorelines of the Caspian Sea since about 40,000 BP, which are depicted on the caves that would have overlooked the Post Glacial Flooded waters - which is nowadays about a mile from the present Caspian Sea shoreline. These types of reed boats would have been able to achieve sea travel as shown in the 1970’s by Thor Heyerdahl. Thor Heyerdahl (October 6, 1914 – April 18, 2002) was a Norwegian ethnographer and adventurer with a background in biology, zoology, botany, and geography. He became notable for his Kon-Tiki expedition in 1947, in which he sailed 8,000 km (5,000 mi) across the Pacific Ocean in hand- built raft from South America to the Tuamotu Islands. The expedition was designed to demonstrate that ancient people could have made long sea voyages, creating contacts between apparently separate cultures. This was linked to a diffusion model of cultural development. Heyerdahl subsequently made other voyages designed to demonstrate the possibility of contact between widely separated ancient peoples. In 1969 and 1970, Heyerdahl built two boats from papyrus and attempted to cross the Atlantic Ocean from Morocco in Africa. Based on drawings and models from ancient Egypt, the first boat, named Ra (after the Egyptian Sun God), was constructed by boat builders from Lake Chad using papyrus reed obtained from Lake Tana in Ethiopia and launched into the Atlantic Ocean from the coast of Morocco. The Ra crew included Thor Heyerdahl (Norway), Norman Baker (USA), Carlo Mauri (Italy), Yuri Senkevich (USSR), Santiago Genoves (Mexico), Georges Sourial (Egypt) and Abdullah Djibrine (Chad). Only Heyerdahl and Baker had sailing and navigation experiences. After a number of weeks, Ra took on water after its crew made modifications to the vessel that caused it to sag and break apart after sailing more than 4000 miles. The crew was forced to abandon Ra some hundred miles before Caribbean islands and was saved by a yacht. The following year, 1970, another similar vessel, Ra II, was built of totora by Demetrio, Juan and Jose Limachi from Lake Titicaca in Bolivia and likewise, set sail across the Atlantic from Morocco, this time with great success. The voyage around the northern islands is simple but is made difficult due to extensive cloud cover. However, with the use of a device called a Sunstone, this difficulty can easily be overcome. A Sunstone is a device that allows navigators to follow the sun (indicating the direction of the sun) when it is daytime but cloudy. This device was known to be used as far back as the Viking societies, and as it was a ‘natural’ discovery, there is no reason that the use of the stone could not go further back in history. So who were the first Europeans to find America? It was formerly thought by palaeontologists that Neanderthal morphed into Cro-Magnon and that Cro-Magnon was the progenitor of human beings as we know them today. However, aside from the problems of the Eve Hypothesis, there are serious problems with the assumptions about when modern human types appeared on Earth. Even if we take the evolving scientific view of the present day, we find that Cro-Magnon man was something altogether different from other anatomically Over and over again we read in scientific studies that Cro-Magnon man was just an “anatomically modern human.” The experts will say: “The Cro-Magnons lived in Europe between 35,000 and 10,000 years ago. They are virtually identical to modern man, being tall and muscular and slightly more robust than most modern humans.” Notice how they slip in that “slightly more robust” bit. The fact is, the Cro-Magnon man was, compared to the other “anatomically modern humans” around him, practically a Superman. They were skilled hunters, toolmakers and artists famous for the cave art at places such as Lascaux, Chauvet, and Altamira. They had a high cranium, a broad and upright face, and cranial capacity “about the same as modern humans” (can we say larger?), but less than that of Neanderthals. The males were as tall as 6 feet. They appeared in Europe in the upper Pleistocene, about 40,000 years ago and “their geographic origin is still unknown.” However, the DNA and colouring of Neanderthals indicate that they were Red Haired and Blue-eyed, unlike their Homo Sapien Cousins who were dark-haired and brown eyed. Their skeletal remains show a “few small differences from modern humans.” Of course, the “out of Africa” theory advocates suggest that Cro-Magnon came from Sub-Saharan Africa and a temperate climate and that, “they would eventually adapt to all extremes of heat and cold.” In this way, the “slight differences” between Cro-Magnon and other forms of anatomically modern humans can be explained away as an adaptation to the cold. Moreover, Cro-Magnon’s have been found with Rh-Negative blood (Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Alberto, Piazza (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes) A skeleton estimated as being 10,000 years old was found in the ‘tomb of Palli Aike’ in Tierra del Fuego in 1969-70 and has been identified as Cro-Magnon, which indicates that this race also spread to South America. It is now believed that Neanderthal man as the proto-European, and Cro- Magnon (a hybrid mutation) a later arrival, probably from the west. It is also believed that Cro-Magnons as bearing many similarities to the North American Indians, being tall, muscular, athletic and agile. Dr. James C. Chatters, a University of Washington’s specialist in human osteology, while investigating what was originally thought to be a modern homicide, found himself analyzing the bones of a 9,000-year-old skeleton. Upon examination, the 5 feet 9 inches tall specimen had “characteristics that are similar to those of Europeans” (Chatters, 2000). According to Chatters, the skull is dolichocranic (long-headed) rather than brachycranic (round-headed), and exhibits “fairly prominent brow ridges.” Now known as Kennewick Man, this skeleton possesses many of the characteristics of our typical Atlantean Cro-Magnons. Poverty Point culture 8000 - 7000 BP is not well understood in terms of social organisation, it was involved in the transportation of non-local raw materials (for example, shell, stone, and copper) from throughout the eastern United States into the lower Mississippi River Valley to selected sites where the materials were worked into finished products and then traded. While specific information on Poverty Point subsistence, trade mechanisms, and other cultural aspects is still speculative, the sites, nevertheless, exhibit specific material cultures, such as baked clay objects, magnetite plummets, steatite bowls, red-jasper lapidary work, fiber-tempered pottery, and microlithic stone tools – which is a clear indication of European Cro-Magnon influence. Dr. Dennis Stanford of the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History in Washington, states: “We now know that human beings learned to sail 50,000 years before the present. Humanity settled in Australia then, and it was not linked by any land bridge to Asia. It could only have been reached by boat. Clearly, we had mastered sailing tens of thousands of years before America was colonized, so we should not be surprised by the idea that people took boat trips across the Atlantic 18,000 years ago” (Stanford & Bradley, 2004) Dr. Tom D. Dillehay (1999) of the University of Kentucky, writes: “It is likely that people arrived in the Southern Hemisphere no later than 15,000 to 14,000 years ago.” One such site has been excavated at Monte Verde, Chile, 500 miles south of Santiago. Evidence was gathered and carefully analyzed over the last two decades by a team of American and Chilean archaeologists led by Dillehay. Early in 2006 a group of archaeologists, including several of Monte Verde’s most rigorous critics, visited the site and inspected the artefacts, coming away totally convinced. Thirty years ago, experts in the field of American Archeology would not admit to the presence of man anywhere on the continents of North and South America earlier than 12,000 years ago as it would have changed the known history of the world. During a class in European, Prehistoric Archaeology at the University of Oklahoma under Dr. Robert Bell, let slip to his class that he participated in an important dig at Sandia Cave near Albuquerque, N.M. Although the lower level of occupation was clearly dated at 27,000 B.C. (Hibben, 1941). However, the experts refused to recognize it (Haynes & Agonino, 1986; Preston, 1995, et al.). In his report of the site visit, Dr. Alex W. Barker, chief curator of the Dallas Museum of Natural History, said: “While there were very strongly voiced disagreements about different points, it rapidly became clear that everyone was in fundamental agreement about the most important question of all. Monte Verde is real. It’s old. And it’s a whole new ball game.” And according to Michael B. Collins of the University of Texas at Austin, Monte Verde is “a bona fide archaeological assemblage, it is very old, and it has profound implications for American prehistory” (Collins, 1999). But now things have changed somewhat. Site after site have now been discovered in the Americas accumulating reliable dates back to roughly 40,000 years ago. Reports of the existence of numerous cave paintings began surfacing in 1963, a survey was taken in 1970 of the Säo Raimundo Nonato region of Brazil. Follow-up surveys in 1973 and 1975 turned up more than 100 decorated rock-shelters. Done mostly in red, yellow, black and white (with some gray), figures of deer, jaguars, armadillos, lizards, rheas, crabs, humans, trees, and various abstract signs have all been catalogued. Excavation of the sites was first initiated in 1978 by Brazilian archeologists from the Paulista Museum, lead by Niede Guidon of the University of Säo Paulo. Over 300 archaeological sites have been discovered (most with rock art), dating from 30,000-50,000 years B.P. captivating the interest of no less than 35 specialists in the fields of archaeology, geology, ecology, as well as other related disciplines. Säo Raimundo Nonato is described as lying “in one of the most beautiful and wild regions of South America.” (Guidon, 1987) The natives call the region caatinga, or “White Forest.” The region is littered with charcoal-containing hearths. “Charcoal samples from the hearths yielded a consistently ordered series of twelve carbon 14 dates that ranged from 32,000 to 17,000 years ago” (Ibid.). The most ancient dates were obtained from red marks found on chunks that fell from the rock walls, becoming embedded within layers dating from 32,000 to be 27,000 years old. At another nearby cave, Toca do Sitio do Meio; artifacts dated from 15,000 to 12,000 years B.P. These discoveries alone illustrate that humans had been occupying South America at least as long as 32,000 years. As in Europe, these people didn’t live in caves, but in “frame houses.” Excavations turned up wooden planks of which the houses were built; also logs with attached pieces of hide that probably helped to insulate these domiciles. Pieces of wooden poles were also unearthed. Bi-facial stone projectile points were found, along with other artifacts, such as choppers, scrapers, etc. Amazingly; some meat survived in the peat bog, which DNA tests proved to be a mastodon. (Dillehay, 1999) In 1991 Prof. Baffa from the Physics Department of the University of Säo Paulo at Ribeirao Preto, dated a layer of calcite that was covering two red anthropomorphic figures at the site of Toca da Bastiana. The calcite dated to 17,000 years old. (Guidon & Delibrias, 1986) The once prevalent idea that earliest human’s populated North America only from a point of origin in the Arctic North, moving southward along an “ice-free corridor” between the continental glaciers, is no longer supported by the known distribution of sites. Pre-Clovis most probably entered the western hemisphere from the direction of the Caribbean, before dispersing into North and South America. Since massive land areas exposed during the ice age are now submerged, much archaeological material remains underwater making the exact time of entry into the Americas difficult to ascertain. (Stanford & Bradley, 2004). \|Grave Creek Mound - Round Barrow/Mound?\| Sometime earlier Dennis Stanford and Bruce Bradley had realized it was necessary to find artifacts in the Americas to bridge the gap in chronology between the Solutrean and Clovis cultures. So they scoured Clovis’s sites across the continent, places where other archaeologists had been digging for years. Their first success came from a site called Cactus Hill, in Virginia, a point that resembled the Solutrean style—and it dated far earlier than the Clovis points. (Stanford & Bradley, 2004) During the PBS interview, Dr. Stanford stated: “Here we have a projectile point from a feature that dates right at 15,900 years or 16,000 years ago, which is clearly right in the middle between Clovis and Solutrean. And what’s exciting about it is that the technology here is very similar to Solutrean. In fact, it’s closer to Solutrean than Clovis where you can see that it’s a progression between Solutrean and Clovis, so you have Solutrean, Cactus Hill and Clovis.” According to an interview by A. J. Hostetler, Newspaper Journalist (published in the Richmond Times-Dispatch, May 11, 2006), Stanford stated that his “testable model” rested at least in part on recent findings of early human settlements along the East Coast, including one possibly 17,000 years old along Virginia’s Nottoway River called Cactus Hill. Dr. Eske Willerslev, director of the Centre for GeoGenetics at the Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, has reported to Science Daily (20 Oct 2011) that a pre-Clovis, man-made spear point had been discovered by archaeologists 30 years ago embedded in the remains of a mastodon dating at least a thousand years before the arrival of the Clovis culture in North America. The original discovery took place at the Manis site in Washington’s state. Professor Willerslev’s team, in collaboration with Michael Waters’ team at the Center for the Study of the First Americans, University of Texas A&M, has finally established a firm date of 13,800 B.P. for the kill by the convergence of no less than five separate dating methods. (Waters, Stafford, et al., 2008) Included in Willerslev’s report was the following significant statement: “Our research now shows that other hunters were present at least 1,000 years before the Clovis culture. Therefore, it was not a sudden war or a quick slaughtering of the mastodons by the Clovis culture, which made the species disappear. We can now conclude that the hunt for the animals stretched out over a much longer period. . . Maybe the reason was something completely different, for instance, the climate.” The Gault Site, located in central Texas about 40 miles north of Austin, is considered one of the premier archaeological discoveries in North America. James E. Pearce, known as the Father of Texas Archaeology, excavated the site in 1929. It has been more recently excavated by Drs. Michael B. Collins and Thomas R. Hester of the Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory at the University of Texas at Austin. The Gault materials tend to push “Clovis” back at least another 1000 years—back to 13,500 B.P. and beyond—and so far represents 65% of all known “Clovis” artifacts. (Collins & Hester, 2001) Recent excavations have brought to light incised stones, a true rarity in North America. Some archaeologists see a “link” with the Upper Paleolithic cultures of Europe (Collins, n.d.; Wisner, 2000, et al.). Sandia Cave (Hibben, 1941), The Lewisville site (Krieger, 1957), The Gault site (Collins & Hester, 2001), Meadowcroft Rockshelter (Adovasio, et al., 1990), Cactus Hill (Dillehay, 1989), Monte Verde (Adovasio & Pedler, 1997), Pedra Furada (Collins, 1999), the Manis site (1978), and numerous other more recent archaeological discoveries, are beginning to fill in the chronological “void” between the time of the Solutreans in Europe and Clovis in America, leaving little doubt that human populations have been living in the Americas for at least 40,000 years. (Dillehay, 1999, et al.) The skull of the 15-year-old girl known as Minnesota Woman. Her remains were found beneath the layers laid down much later in the area by glacial Lake Pelican in Minnesota, which had formed near the end of the ice age. (Blegen, 1975) Notice the “European-like” features of this specimen. She has been tentatively dated at 15,000-20,000 B.P. Another similar find has been christened Eva de Naharon, a 13,600-year-old skeleton found in an underwater cave near Tulum, Mexico. The skull of another young woman, nicknamed Luzia, has been dated at 11,500 years ago. After two decades in storage at the National Museum in Brazil, Brazilian scientists identified the fossilized cranium to be “the oldest human remains ever recovered in the Western Hemisphere.” It is now only one of the several such as fossils. When first unearthed, the skull was separated from the skeleton but was in good condition. Surprisingly, this particular fossil exhibited Negroid characteristics (Williams, 2003). British scientists have analyzed an American skeleton of a 26-year-old woman who died during the last ice age on the edge of prehistoric Lake Texcoco, which once existed in the Valley of Mexico. The remains were dated to ca. 13,000 B.P. by Liverpool’s John Moores University and Oxford’s Research Laboratory of Archaeology. She has been christened Peñon Woman by her discoverers. The most intriguing aspect of the skull is that it is very European in appearance (Conner, 2002). Upon examining the bones, Dr. Silvia Gonzalez, an archaeologist working at John Moores University and the leader of the research team, found the skull to be “dolichocephalic”; that is, long and narrow, like those of western Europeans of today, not short and wide like the Mongols of Asia. However, the origin of the people represented here remains in debate. So do these findings correlate? Cro-Magnon’s tools are described as the Aurignacian technology, characterized by bone and antler tools, such as spear tips (the first) and harpoons. They also used animal traps and bow and arrow. They invented shafts and handles for their knives, securing their blades with bitumen, a kind of tar, as long as 40 thousand years ago. Other improvements included the invention of the atlatl, a large bone or piece of wood with a hooked groove used for adding distance and speed to spears. They also invented more sophisticated spear points, such as those that detach after striking and cause greater damage to prey. The Cro-Magnon type man was also the “originator” of such abstract concepts as “time.” They marked time by lunar phases, recording them with marks on a piece of bone, antler or stone. Some of these “calendars” contained a record of as many as 24 lunations. In the relatively recent past, tool industries diversified. The Gravettian industry (25 to 15 thousand years ago), characterized by ivory tools such as backed blades, is associated with mammoth hunters. One type of brief industry was Solutrean, occurring from 18 to 15 thousand years ago and limited to Southwest France and Spain. It is characterized by unique and finely crafted “laurel leaf” blades, made with a pressure technique requiring great skill. The industry is associated with horse hunters. The tool industry of the Clovis Culture in North America (11 to 8 thousand years ago) is notable for its remarkable similarity to Solutrean. Some suggest that the Solutrean culture migrated to North America around 12,000 thousand years ago. Cro-Magnon people lived in tents and boats in groups of several families. They were nomadic hunter-gatherers and fishermen with elaborate rituals for hunting, birth and death. Multiple burials are common in the areas where they were found. What is most interesting is that from 35 to 10 thousand years ago, there was no differentiation by sex or age in burials. They included special grave goods, in contrast to everyday, utilitarian objects, suggesting a very increased ritualisation of death and burial. They were also the first confirmed to have domesticated animals, starting by about 15 thousand years ago. They were the first to leave extensive works of art, such as cave paintings and carved figures of animals and pregnant women. Huge caves lavishly decorated with murals depicting animals of the time were at first rejected as fake for being too sophisticated. Then they were dismissed as being primitive, categorized as hunting, fertility or other types of sympathetic magic. Re-evaluations have put these great works of art in a more prominent place in art history - as suggested by Picasso, who declared on seeing the paintings “…. They show evidence of motifs, of following their stylistic tradition, of “impressionist” like style, perspective, and innovative use of the natural relief in the caves. Also possible, considering the new concepts of time reckoning practiced by Cro-Magnon, are abstract representations of the passage of time, such as spring plants in bloom, or pregnant bison that might represent summer. Aside from pregnant women and other Goddess worship iconography, representations of people, “anthropomorphic,” are very few, and never show the accuracy or detail of the other animals. Humans are represented in simple outlines without features, sometimes with “masks,” often without regard to proportion, being distorted and isolated. At the Grottes des, Enfants in France is found four burials with red ocher and associated with Aurignacian tools. At Lascaux, France, are the famous caves of Upper Paleolithic cave art, dated to 17 thousand years ago, and even older, in some cases, by many thousands of years! The modern human types that appeared in the Levant were, however, somewhat different from Cro-Magnon. They were the sub-Saharan type, less “robust” individuals than the Cro-Magnon “homo superior” of Europe. But then, how to explain what happened in any reasonable terms? What the archaeological record seems to show is that in Europe, after millennia of almost no progress at all, even in the few areas where modern man has been found, suddenly human culture seems to take off like an explosion with the appearance of Cro-Magnon man. Not only does culture explode, but also new ways of doing things, new styles and innovations that were utterly unknown in the period immediately preceding them, suddenly appear, only to disappear again like an outdated fad. From Spain to the Urals, sites list the developments of sewing needles, barbed projectiles, fishhooks, ropes, meat drying racks, temperature-controlled hearths, and complex dwellings. The most amazing part of all of it is the art. Art suddenly springs onto the landscape, fully formed, with no period of gradual development; no signs of childish attempts are preceding it. A piece of ivory carved 32,000 years ago is as realistic as anything turned out by the most accomplished carver of the present day. The Upper Palaeolithic signals the most fundamental change in human behaviour that the archaeological record may ever reveal. The only explanation for this tremendous change is that a new kind of human appeared on the earth’s stage. When we consider the difficulties of such an event, regarding “evolution,” we find that this presents a huge difficulty in our understanding. First of all, we still have the problem of a 60, 000-year time lag between the appearance of the sub-Saharan modern type man who was on the scene with no “improvements” in his technology for that length of time. If Cro-Magnon evolved in Africa, why isn’t there a continuous record of incremental developments? By the same reasoning, if he evolved only after crossing the Mediterranean to Europe, why isn’t there a continuous record of incremental developments? The most effective and popular way that science deals with this crisis is to ignore it, to deny it, or to seek to twist the facts to fit the theory. Many archaeologists continue to account for the cultural events of the Upper Paleolithic by tying them to the emergence of a more modern, intellectually superior form of human being from Africa. They propose a “second biological event” to explain this, never mind that it left no tracks in any skeletal shape. Nowadays, the idea is to suggest that the other “modern men” of sub-Saharan Africa were not fully modern. They were “near-modern”. Thus, Africa is preserved as the origin of all humanity, and the only thing necessary was a breakthrough in the African lineage, a “neurological event” that allowed this “new man” to develop all these new cultural behaviors overnight, so to say. What this amounts to is saying that the explosion of culture in the Upper Paleolithic times did not happen earlier because other modern men didn’t have the brains to make it happen. Unfortunately, the support for this idea amounts only to circular logic. What’s more, it seems that if it were a “neurological event,” it would start in a small place and spread outward. We ought to note that the Neanderthals did not have art. What’s more, there was essentially no change in their stone tools for 100,000 years. \|Haplogroup_R_(Y-DNA) - Cro-Magnon Blood Type and its distribution\| Some people suggest that the impetus for culture was the sudden development of speech. But that idea doesn't hold much water either. If we were to look at some of the aboriginal societies of Australia and New Guinea, they are certainly Neanderthal-like in their stone tools. However, they think and communicate in languages that are as rich as ours, and they construct myths, stories and cosmologies with these languages. They just don’t seem to be much interested in technology. We have already noted the pottery making of the Jomon. Even more startling is the fact that twenty-six thousand years ago the residents of Dolni Vestonice were firing ceramics in kilns. However, you don’t read that in archaeology textbooks. In the standard teachings, the emergence of ceramics is linked to the functional use of pottery, which supposedly did not appear until the agricultural revolution in the Neolithic period some 12,000 years after the kilns at Dolni were last used. This brings us to another curious thing about the Neanderthal: he never seemed to go anywhere. He always made his tools out of what was locally available, and he never seemed to travel at all. What was made where it was made, stayed there. Nobody traded or shared among the Neanderthal groups. But it seems that right from the beginning, Cro-Magnon man was travelling and sharing and exchanging not only goods but technology. This degree of travelling could only have been achieved by boats and ships. If there was a better form of stone somewhere else, the word seemed to get around, and everybody had some of it. Distinctive flints from southern Poland are found at Dolni Vestonice, a hundred miles to the south. Slovakian radiolarite of red, yellow and olive is found a hundred miles to the east. Later in the Upper Paleolithic period, the famous “chocolate flint” of southern Poland is found over a radius of two hundred and fifty miles. Naturally, these rocks didn’t walk around on their own. Human legs carried them. And that leads us to our next little problem with Cro-Magnon man: You see; his legs were too long. \|We know that the Cro-Magnon cousins THE VIKINGS continued to visit AMERICA upto a thousand years ago\| One of the sacred laws of evolutionary biology is called “Allen’s Rule.” This rule posits that legs, arms, ears, and other body extremities should be shorter in mammals that live in cold climates, and longer in mammals of the same period who live where it is hot. This is because having short arms and legs conserves heat. This is supposed to explain why Eskimos and Laplanders have short legs. It also is supposed to explain why Bantu people are leaner, and the Maasai is extremely long and lean in their open tropical country. The only people who seem to be mocking Allen’s rule are the Cro-Magnons. They just refused to adapt or did they travel so widely the rule did not affect them like us today? They all have much longer legs than they ought to. Of course, this is pounced upon as proof that they came from Africa. The only problem with this is that it is hard to imagine people from a warm climate migrating to a cold one by choice. Then, on top of that, to remain long-limbed for over a thousand generations? Keep in mind that, during that time, the thermometer kept going down and, at the glacial maximum, 18,000 years ago; it was like the North Pole in northern Europe! By whatever means they arrived in Europe, we ought to take note of the fact that their presence, there may be related to the fact that Europe and other nearby locations are literally blanketed with megaliths. Indeed, it may be so that the megaliths came long after the appearance of Cro-Magnon man, but the connection ought not to be discarded without some consideration. We have still another problem here, and it has to do with dating. Analyzing mitochondrial DNA data to reconstruct the demographic prehistory of Homo Sapiens reveals statistical evidence of explosive growth around 50,000 years ago. Is there a connection between this DNA evidence and the appearance of Cro-Magnon man? If so, it would mean that the DNA is dated to twice the age that archaeology confirms. Instead of assuming that the archaeological dates are correct, perhaps we ought to ask the question: could something be wrong with the dating? From a morphological point of view as well as judging by their industry and art, these highly evolved humans who coexisted with Neanderthal man represent a mutation so enormous and sudden as to be absurd in the context of evolutionary theory. The above admission opens up several other problems. Archaeology is beginning to demonstrate clearly that ice-age humanity was getting to the shores of the Americas. However, to cross a 3,000 mile-Wide Ocean requires some technology and logistics that are not being faced. It takes months to cross a body of water as large as the Atlantic, which necessitates food, water and other supplies, which in turn require a sufficient amount of onboard storage space. Therefore, we are not talking about small flimsy boats made of animal skins, and a crew of two. A crew of at least a dozen is far more likely. We are, therefore, postulating a ship at least as large as the average Viking vessel, or possibly as large as ancient Phoenician warships. Such would need to be propelled by sails or other means, which would necessitate a sizeable crew. Navigational knowledge and techniques (with the necessary instrumentation) must be assumed. The alternative to this is to admit the presence of a reasonably large land mass (and maybe some islands) in the mid-Atlantic during the ice age to shorten the trip. And we shouldn’t forget the archaeological and anthropological evidence that several ice age “invasions” of Western Europe and Northwest Africa were originating from some unknown location to the west of those land masses (i.e., in the North Atlantic Ocean) during this same time-frame. It seems more reasonable to postulate the presence of a mid-Atlantic land mass with shorter ocean voyages to the east and the west than to theorize about long ocean voyages from starting points on the opposite side of the globe when the origin of these well-documented Upper Palaeolithic cultures points to such a source. The fact that blood was once ALL ‘O’ RH positive as shown in the existing indigenous tribes of South America, Africa and Australia, shows us that the fact we have AB blood types proves beyond any doubt that the human species ‘mutated’ at some point in its journey ‘Out of Africa’. Darwin’s observations of nature and its species show us that this ‘mutation’ is commonplace in history and therefore, should be no surprise to anthropologists. Blood cannot mutate naturally in homo sapiens; the result of this genetically modified mutation has to be a new form of ‘Homo Sapien’. Fifty thousand years ago Homo Sapiens moved out of Africa to the Caspian Sea - the Haplogroups DNA record bear testament to this fact, as it too mutated into two new Haplogroups (A, B and G) this was at the point of ‘first contact’ with the Homo Sapiens cousins the Homo Neanderthal. It was also at this point that the blood groups AB were established. This ‘mutation’ is now accepted as 3% of most Homo Sapiens contain Neanderthal DNA showing cross breading, and it was also at this point of history that ‘Cro-Magnon’s’ evolved. This species of humanity had superior powers (Homo Superior?) to both its Neanderthal and Homo Sapien Cousins. This was proved during last Ice Age where the Cro-magnon survived and took the green pastures of their ‘brave new world’ at the expense of the Neanderthals that were doomed to an extension - proving once again Darwin’s ‘survival of the fittest’ on the planet earth.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence exhibited by machines. In computer science, the field of AI research defines itself as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of success at some goal. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving" (known as machine learning). As machines become increasingly capable, mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition. For instance, optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an example of "artificial intelligence", having become a routine technology. Capabilities currently classified as AI include successfully understanding human speech, competing at a high level in strategic game systems (such as chess and Go), self-driving cars, intelligent routing in content delivery networks, and interpreting complex data. The central problems (or goals) of AI research include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, natural language processing (communication), perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.General intelligence is among the field's long-term goals. Approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence, and traditional symbolic AI. Many tools are used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics. The AI field draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience and artificial psychology. The field was founded on the claim that human intelligence "can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it". This raises philosophical arguments about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings endowed with human-like intelligence, issues which have been explored by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Some people also consider AI a danger to humanity if it progresses unabatedly. Attempts to create artificial intelligence have experienced many setbacks, including the ALPAC report of 1966, the abandonment of perceptrons in 1970, the Lighthill Report of 1973, the second AI winter 1987–1993 and the collapse of the Lisp machine market in 1987. In the twenty-first century, AI techniques, both hard (using a symbolic approach) and soft (sub-symbolic), have experienced a resurgence following concurrent advances in computer power, sizes of training sets, and theoretical understanding, and AI techniques have become an essential part of the technology industry, helping to solve many challenging problems in computer science.. Recent advancements in AI, and specifically in machine learning, have contributed to the growth of Autonomous Things such as drones and self-driving cars, becoming the main driver of innovation in the automotive industry.
Environmental conditions affect plant growth in many ways. Conditions that are too dry or too wet, too cold or too hot can all affect wheat production and survival. Determining whether wheat plants are alive in the spring due to adverse growing conditions should be done before spending production dollars on those acres. 1. Dig 10 wheat plants from the worst spots in the field (hilltops, driest areas, etc.). 2. Cut plants diagonally and examine inside the root/shoot areas, especially inside the crown area. 3. Healthy plants will exhibit cream or light colored internal "plumbing" (plant tissue). 4. Discolored or brown colored internal plant tissue indicated dead plants. Fields should be abandoned if more than 50 percent of plants are dead and dead plants are uniformly distributed. In addition, if large areas are found not viable, then those areas should be considered not productive and also be considered for abandonment. In addition, small wheat plants can be transplanted into a soil medium and brought into the house. Water and warm wheat plants. If new growth isn't observed in 10 days, wheat plants are not alive. Source: Crop Watch
The Kingdom Monera consists of all prokaryotes, that is, unicellular organisms that lack nuclear membranes. This taxonomic kingdom consists of two phylogenetically distinct groups: eubacteria and archaebacteria. As seen in part b of figure A.1 eubacteria and archaebacteria are as genetically different from each other as they are from the eukaryotes (organisms with nuclear membranes: protists, plants, animals (invertebrate and vertebrates) and fungi). Morphologically, archaebacteria and eubacteria differ in some key aspects. While most members of both groups have cell walls, their cell membranes are chemically different, as are their overall chemical makeups. Though there is no hard and fast distinction between the roles filled by the two types of bacteria, most archaebacteria live in extremely hostile environments, such as extremely saline waters or hot sulfur springs. Some eubacteria also live in these harsh environments, but others inhabit locations ranging from surface soils to the intestinal tracks of termites. Though extremely small (most bacteria are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells), bacteria fill several important roles in the natural world. We are most familiar with bacteria as the cause of diseases from strep throat to bubonic plague. However, comparatively few bacteria cause diseases. Most are beneficial to other organisms. Some basteria are photoautotrophs, producing food from inorganic material and light. In some cases, particular photoautotrophs have the ecologically important ability to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, making it available to the roots of plants. Other bacteria are saprophytes, breaking down dead organic material. Still others live symbiotically in the digestive tracks of other organisms and aid in the digestion of diverse food materials. The structure and reproductive cycles of the Monerans are relatively simple compared to those of the eukaryotes. They lack distinct nuclei and complex organelles. Specialized structures, such as photosynthetic machinery, take the form of internal membranes. Moneran genetic material is also relatively simple. They have small prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids rather than the complex chromosomes found in eukaryotes. Most Monerans reproduce by binary fission.
For most of us, one memory we always have is the whirring sound of a dental drill working on a tooth cavity. Typically, it is not the greatest experience, but it is important. Taking care of our teeth at an early age helps to ensure we age with a full set of teeth. Have you ever wondered exactly what a cavity is and how it can be prevented? Inside this article, we will explain exactly what cavities are, how they happen, and what you can do to prevent them. What Are They? It is important to know what a cavity is to understand how to prevent and treat it. Technically speaking, a cavity is ‘a permanently damaged area in the hard enamel of your tooth that eventually develops into tiny openings or holes.’ Cavities are also known as tooth decay and eventually require a dentist visit. Cavities can become extremely painful or eventually lead to removal if not treated. So, it is important to understand some steps we can take to help prevent cavities. In addition, cavities are most likely to form in the back teeth, the molars, and the premolars due to the many uneven surfaces ideal for bacteria to grow, feeding on trapped food particles. Rinse Mouth After Acidic Food One of the first steps to understanding what exactly is a cavity while understanding cavity prevention is to always rinse the mouth after eating acidic food. When ingesting acidic food, we may sense pain in our teeth or eventually, if left on our teeth, begin to decay the enamel. Rinsing after acidic food, we help prevent cavities from forming or visiting the family dental office. Some of the benefits of rinsing the mouth after eating acidic foods are: - Rinsing will dilute the acids collecting in your mouth - Bring the acids left on the teeth back to a more normal pH level - Washes away residual food from the teeth to lessen a source for bacteria to attack - Helps to begin the rebuilding of tooth enamel - Rinses away residual food or beverage acids that eventually can soften tooth enamel What is the big deal with flossing, and what exactly is flossing? Flossing is one of the best actions to keep teeth in good condition. Flossing is critical in cavity prevention by removing plaque and debris from areas around teeth a toothbrush can’t reach. Keeping the teeth clean helps prevent tooth decay and understand what a cavity is. By flossing regularly, you will be removing bacteria and acids from your teeth, which eventually can cause tooth decay, leading to cavities. Removing food from your teeth helps to eliminate the food bacteria feed on that leads to cavities and visits to dentist offices. Avoid Too Much Sugar Sugar should be an important topic in the conversation When thinking about what a cavity is and how it forms. Sugar is a bad bacteria magnet that will zero in on the residual sugar from food on the teeth. When bad bacteria attack, the sugar is broken down to acid, which begins attacking tooth enamel and may eventually cause a cavity. When ingesting sugar, the mouth’s pH level is lowered and becomes too inviting for bacteria not to attack. Sugar has other methods entering your mouth besides eating sugary foods. These sources include sugary soft drinks, sports drinks, energy drinks, and other liquids with a high sugar concentration. In addition to containing high sugar levels, they also contain acids, which become a bad combination for your teeth and will immediately begin to work on breaking the tooth down. After consuming any of these products, rinse well, at least, because we don’t want to wear adult braces for our teeth. You can think of somebody with darkened tobacco stains on their teeth. The stain is a sticky mixture of tar and nicotine residue from tobacco smoke or chewing tobacco juice sticking to the teeth. The residue is absorbed into the small pores in the enamel to create a stained appearance that immediately stands out when the mouth is opened. Smoking contributes to many other health issues besides stained teeth. Among the more impactful are causing gum recession due to infections and bacteria, ultimately leading to gum disease and tooth decay. Additionally, smoking dulls the senses of taste and smell, discolors the tongue, and leads to halitosis. Ultimately, the immune system may be affected, causing more damage to the mouth and teeth, and we now understand what exactly is a cavity. Receding gums may cause the teeth to be misaligned, requiring solutions like Invisalign for teeth alignment. Dehydration is an enemy of the mouth and teeth, and tobacco is a huge contributor to dehydration. The toxins found in smoking tobacco affect and restrict saliva output. If you smoke, brushing, flossing, and drinking plenty of water are recommended. Drinking fluoridated water is one of the easiest and most natural methods to fight cavities. Water that has fluoride added helps fight tooth decay, and studies have indicated that added fluoride to water has reduced tooth decay by 25%. This is sure to help you fight against cavities and keep your teeth healthy. Flossing and brushing teeth should be conducted twice daily, and drinking 3.7 liters a day for men and 2.7 liters for women to flush the mouth and improve your oral health care. Drinking pure residential well water has never tasted so good, but don’t forget the fluoride. Practice Good Hygiene Practicing good dental hygiene prevents oral disease that can lead to other health problems. Dental problems can lead to pain, tooth loss, and massive infection. When cruising the internet, we often discover a web design for a healthy living website. This website may extol the benefit of good oral health and its role in maintaining a healthy lifestyle by practicing preventative dental care. Typically, some good dental hygiene practices for preventing what exactly is a cavity are: - Brush your teeth twice a day with fluoride using a soft bristle brush - Remove plaque between your teeth by flossing twice a day - Rinse away food particles and bacteria with an anti-cavity fluoride mouthwash - Follow a healthy diet and limit or eliminate sugary drinks and food - Visit your dentist regularly for cleaning and checkup Sugar Free Gum Often, when we finish a meal and have no access to a toothbrush, chewing sugar-free gum may provide some protection for the teeth. If the toothbrush is unavailable, saliva production can be increased to help clean the teeth by chewing sugar-free gum. Although most sugar-free gum is harmless in producing saliva, be aware some sugar-free gums are acidic and may have preservatives that can eventually cause dental decay, leading to a cavity. Sugar-free gums are as healthy for your teeth as drinking pure water via residential well drilling. Once we understand what exactly a cavity is and how to prevent it, our health is greatly improved. Once we understand what exactly a cavity is, then it is easier to understand the benefits of brushing our teeth. Brushing our teeth removes plaque, eventually leading to tooth decay, cavities, and gum disease. In addition, brushing the teeth helps to prevent gingivitis, gum disease, and cavities. If you are connected to residential water plumbed by water well drilling, it will be important to have the number of a good plumber. For proper prevention of dental decay and cavities, it is important to have clean, fresh water for our daily dental hygiene activities. Lesser Known Remedies These preventative measures for combating tooth decay are less well-known than other treatments. - Drinking green or black teas instead of coffee to fight plaque since they are less acidic than coffee. - After drinking alcohol, rinse or brush your teeth, as alcohol typically has a high sugar content. - Drinking through a straw will help minimize damage to teeth - Discontinue drinking soda or other sugary drinks to protect the tooth enamel - Saliva is your friend fighting plaque acids due to containing calcium, phosphate, and bicarbonate to neutralize plaque acids. - Chew sugar-free gum, especially gum containing xylitol, to stimulate saliva production and kill bacteria. Sugar-free gum has proven to reduce tooth decay by 40%, so always have gum with you. Common Risk Factors for Cavities There are several ways tooth decay and cavities can happen. Among the most prominent influencers for tooth decay are: - Plaque – Dental plaque is a sticky film that coats your teeth due to eating a lot of starches and sugars. Bacteria quickly attack the food remnants to begin geeing formin plaque, and if not removed quickly, they can harden at the gum line and become tartar. If the plaque is not taken care of and left alone to harden, it becomes much more difficult to remove and acts as a protective shield for bacteria. - Not brushing often with fluoride – Immediately after eating, brush your teeth before plaque can grow, and use fluoride toothpaste. Also, remember drinking water from the city water system typically contains fluoride, but most bottled water does not. - Dry mouth – A condition with a lack of saliva production necessary to remove food particles and plaque from your teeth. In addition, saliva has some substances that help to counteract the acid created by bacteria for breaking down a tooth’s enamel. Certain medical procedures, medications, or radiation or chemotherapy drugs can increase the possibility of dry mouth. - Acid reflux or heartburn – This condition allows stomach acid to flow into your mouth (acid reflux), which eventually can wear away teeth enamel, ultimately causing major damage to your teeth. The reflux wears away the tooth’s dentin layer, inviting bacteria to attack it and feed on the exposed areas with a loss of enamel. - Acid created by heartburn and acid reflux begins to eat away the enamel on the back teeth and the inside of the tooth first. The hard enamel that protects the softer inner tissue is eroded, allowing bacteria to destroy the tooth. - Eating disorders – If you have an issue with bulimia or anorexia and repeatedly vomit or purge your stomach, it can cause damage to your teeth. The repeated washing of stomach acids over your teeth will eventually wear the tooth enamel down, exposing it to cavities. Also, this condition can affect the production of salvia. - Infant feeding – When babies are given bottles filled with juice, milk, formula, or other sugary mixtures, the liquid contents stay on their teeth for hours while sleeping. The tooth decay bacteria remain on the teeth and ultimately can cause a condition called ‘baby bottle tooth decay.’ This condition can also be caused by babies carrying sippy cups with the same sugary liquids. Five Stages of Tooth Decay Typically, tooth decay progresses through the following five stages. - Demineralization – Tooth enamel minerals, mostly calcium, begin to diminish due to acid attack and plaque buildup. - Enamel decay – Damaged tooth enamel begins with white spots or a cavity forming. - Dentin decay – Decay extends down to the dentin, the tissue beneath the hard enamel, which can cause sharp pain and sensitivity. - Pulp damage – The decay begins to affect the pulp, the soft tissue found in the tooth, which ultimately leads to infection and inflammation. - Dental abscess – A puss-filled pocket forms when the infection travels to the tooth’s root. New Dental Techniques These are some more promising techniques and solutions for fighting tooth decay. - Protective membrane – Inserting a new, thin membrane between the inflamed tooth and gum to promote healing. - Self-repairing tooth gel – A new calcium and phosphate gel that promotes self-repairing teeth. - Laser light regeneration – Using low-power laser light to encourage tooth regeneration. - New dental technology – New dental technology includes intraoral cameras, TRIOS scanners, and SCHICK Dental Sensors. - Although tooth decay resulting in cavities still threatens our health, new techniques, treatments, and awareness are slowly turning the fight for healthy teeth in our favor. If we follow the suggestions within this article, our teeth will be in better shape, and consequently, our entire body’s health will improve. Proper dental care of our teeth improves our lifestyle and enjoyment of life
International SEL Day March 26th ~ Mark Your Calendars & Get Ready! Week Two: Mindfulness as a tool for Social Emotional skill buildling How SEL and Mindfulness Can Work Together. To start, SEL uses an outside-in approach with a focus on teaching skills: a teacher introduces a skill such as recognizing an emotion or using “I” messages, the students practice it for a set amount of time, and then the teacher moves on to the next skill. SEL assumes that this process is enough to enable students to use the skill in all relevant, real-life situations. Mindfulness, on the other hand, works from the inside out, drawing on the premise that each person has the innate capacity for relationship-building qualities such as empathy and kindness—a premise that research now supports. Powerful Synergy: SEL and Mindfulness Working Together Both SEL and mindful practices are pathways to individual empowerment and collective advancement. Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) is a lifelong process by which youth and adults learn and integrate the intra- and interpersonal skills necessary for success in school and life. Mindfulness involves specific practices that help youth and adults in calming themselves, focusing their attention, and growing compassion thus creating the conditions for high-caliber academic learning and amplifying the effects of existing social-emotional programs and strategies. Trauma Informed Mindfulness Meditation Do you savor life or let everyday stresses control you? In other words, how mindful are you? Take this quiz from the Greater Good Science Center. A study has found evidence to show that there is actually a direct link between nasal breathing and our cognitive functions.
At Magruder, Social Studies classes are active learning centers for exploring, researching and building an understanding of the lives of people who have come before us. Students will get a fuller understanding and multi perspective insight of historic times. Emphasis is placed not just with names and dates but on economics, environment, culture, geography, situational conflicts analyzing causes and effects, and government or ruling policies. These classes are more intensive than what was learned in elementary school. Magruder students are taught and asked to use their reasoning, research, analyzing and communication skills. When reading text and communicating (in written or oral formats) students will adhere to the same standards that are used in their ELA classes. Time periods covered by each grade level are as follows: 6th Grade: Early Man to Ancient Rome 7th Grade: Medieval to Early Modern Times 8th Grade: United States History through the Civil War All TUSD middle schools use the same Social Studies textbook series: TCI: History Alive. Our teachers have a class set in their rooms. Students are able to take home a hard copy or use the online version at home. Our teachers strongly encourage the use of the online textbook because of the many extra features it has such as: audio reading of text, Spanish translation, additional support materials like videos and interactive exercises.
Effective differentiation in teaching requires you to consider your students’ a) characteristics, b) voice and autonomy, and c) attention and learning profiles. It also requires consideration to a) build meaningful peer relationships, b) scaffold students’ learning, and c) create routine, repetition, and structure in your classroom. This simple and practical downloadable resource is designed to prompt you to think critically about the way you implement differentiation in your teaching, providing ideas to help you develop an inclusive learning environment. Several evidence-based strategies are outlined under each heading to help you reflect on your approach to differentiation in teaching. You can complete this individually, or with your teaching team.
The Fourth Military District existed in the American South during the Reconstruction era that followed the American Civil War. It included the occupation troops in the states of Arkansas and Mississippi. At various times, the district was commanded by generals Edward Ord, Alvan Cullem Gillem, and Adelbert Ames. Following the completion of the Civil War, the Federal government under President of the United States Andrew Johnson sought to restore order within the states that had composed the defeated Confederate States of America. Johnson, a loyal Tennesseean, advocated a lenient strategy to remove all commercial and social restrictions between the states, with the intention for the South to return to its former position in the Union. He believed that former Confederates should receive amnesty for their actions during the war and regain full rights of citizenship. However, the Radical Republicans in Congress vehemently disagreed, and passed the 1866 Reconstruction Acts, which divided the former Confederacy into military districts, in which a military commander controlled all social, economic, and political activity in the region. The Fourth Military District comprised the states of Mississippi and Arkansas, with its headquarters in Vicksburg. Edward Ord served as the district's first commander, with Alvan C. Gillem, like Johnson a loyal Tennessean, in charge of the sub-district of Mississippi. Gillem was later appointed as the district's commander. He favored the policy of leniency towards the former Confederates, invoking the displeasure of the Radicals in Congress. When Ulysses S. Grant became president, he removed Gillem from command and reassigned him to Texas, replacing him again with Ord, a personal friend who had served under Grant during the Civil War. When Ord was later assigned command of the District of California, another former Civil War general, Adelbert Ames, assumed command in 1868, and was also named as Governor of Mississippi, replacing former Confederate general Benjamin G. Humphreys. When Mississippi was readmitted to the Union in 1870, the Fourth Military District was abolished and control of the state reverted to the newly elected state government. \|22x20px\|\|This article relating to the history of the United States is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|
This game is called Pictures to Words. It is meant to help kids learn skills associated with reading. Reading games help your child learn to read, recognize words, understand stories, and practice letters and sounds.Skill games help children understand patterns and sounds. These games are meant to be fun and interactive, but also help children develop critical learning skills. They are free for unlimited use, so these games are meant to be educational resources for all kids, regardless of age and income. Playing games helps kids learn. Studies show that kids who play games to learn get boost to their reading skills. They also learn problem solving, imaginative play, and creativity. Finally, kids who have trouble focusing in traditional educational contexts may respond better to interactive, play-based games. This game is designed for kids in grade Preschool through grade 2. However, it can be played at any grade level. You're currently viewing this game as a child in grade 1. Students in your grade have 30 seconds to complete this challenge. You can change the time limit by signing in and letting us know your grade. If you've already signed in and you think the game is too hard, feel free to pause the timer to give yourself enough time to work your way through the challenge. Be a Dinosaur contains 50+ free educational games for Pre-School and Elementary School students. Learn reading, math, and problem using fun, interactive games that help kids learn in a safe, challenging virtual learning experience. Instructions: Choose the button that best answers the question above.
Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The trees and plants release the oxygen and store the carbon, sometimes for hundreds of years. Any reduction of carbon dioxide, a powerful greenhouse gas, in the atmosphere can moderate global warming. Global Warming = Large amount of C02 gas. Photosynthesis needs C02. Photosynthesis results in Oxygen gas. As the plants use photosynthesis they released Oxygen into the air. The role of photosynthesis against global warming is that plants take in carbon dioxide which is the main cause of global warming. They use this to make glucose. well it is said that plants can help stop global warming. So, they have photosynthesis and do cellular respiration to take in carbon dioxide and make it oxygen. global warming has to do with carbon dioxide. there you go! :) Because in photosynthesis CO2 and Water vapor is utilized.It decreases the amount of CO2 and Water vapor in air which increases global warming photosynthesis is the motion of a plant asorbing CO2 and releasing Oxygen so this is a great thing during global warming. No, in fact it's the opposite.The more photosynthesis there is, the more plants, trees and other vegetation remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and global warming is decreased. Photosynthesis means plants converting carbon dioxide to oxygen, most global warming is cause by carbon dioxide, people only breath oxygen (and water vapor) and carbon dioxide can't get to our lungs. That's why Photosynthesis helps prevent global warming. Global Warming actually hinders the complete and healthy process of photosynthesis. It can actually make plants release more CO2 then they absorb causing all sorts of chaos in the ecosystem. They reflect sunlight into the upper atmosphere to counteract global warming. It would however delay the recovery of the ozone by decades. The warming caused by Global Warming. Deforestation has become a global problem because forest destruction is one of the main causes of global warming. Through photosynthesis, trees and plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, slowing global warming. Global warming is not important.Global warming isn't happening.Global warming is happening but it's not our fault.Global warming is happening but we can't do anything about it.Scientists are not sure about global warming. Global warming is usually caused by the large amount of Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) released in the atmosphere. Trees absorbs CO2 in order to perform Photosynthesis. during photosynthesis, plants use co2 as one of their reactant and produce oxygen. with less plants/trees, more co2 are being trapped within the atmosphere which makes global warming and influences the climate. Photosynthesis helps reduce Global Warming by taking in carbon dioxide. If there is too much of it, then carbon dioxide keeps the sunlight inside earth's atmosphere making the earth warmer. This leads on to global warming, but photosynthesis helps reduce parts of the effect. A recent Scientific Article stated that CO2 reclamation could be Adequately Accomplished by the Revisioning of all of Our land use and Agricultural practices. A tree takes in Carbon Dioxide for use in photosynthesis. Carbon Dioxide is a greenhouse gas which causes global warming. The tree stores the carbon and releases oxygen. One of the raw materials used in photosynthesis is carbon dioxide. The overproduction of this molecule due to the burning of fossil fuels among other human activities has been linked to global warming effects. It is near impossible to give an exact estimate, but the farther "left" you go, the stronger the belief is for "Global Warming". When looking at Liberal Democrats vs Moderate Democrats, Liberals have a very strong belief in Global Warming, while Moderates have a more relaxed belief on the subject.
Studies have identified a direct correlation between the amount of trees and grass in community common spaces and the use of those common spaces by residents. This leads to more opportunities for informal social interaction and greater relationships between neighbors. Research suggests trees provide a place for neighbors to meet and get to know each other, and this leads to fewer incidences of crime. When you think about a place that is important, consider nature and the trees that surround the area. Trees help build a sense of community character and place. - People prefer natural over hardscape settings, and preferences are predictors of the use of environments. A study found that urban residents dislike and fear treeless, empty common spaces. The addition of trees and grass dramatically changed their perceptions of those spaces. - Trees also make streets more livable and safer for pedestrians and cyclists. - Older adults who have more exposure to green common spaces report a stronger sense of unity among residents within their local neighborhood, and experience a stronger sense of belonging to the neighborhood. - Among minor crimes, there is less graffiti, vandalism, and littering in outdoor spaces with natural landscapes than in comparable plant-less spaces. - Individuals and groups within communities with strong social cohesion and social capital experience many positive benefits. Review studies, reports and more to learn more about the benefits of trees. \|Cleaning our Air Fact Sheet\| Did you know that Georgia’s 22 million acres of working forests provide clean air for you to breathe every day? Download fact sheet to learn more. \|Conserving Habitat for Georgia’s Wildlife Fact Sheet\| Georgia is one of the most biologically diverse states in the nation, and working forests play a big role ensuring healthy wildlife habitats. Download fact sheet to learn more. \|Green Cities: Active Living\| Recent research indicates that quality outdoor environments affect activity attitudes and behaviors. Urban greening contributes to more walkable places. \|Green Cities: Crime & Public Safety\| This briefing summarizes the research findings on the relationship between urban vegetation and crimes, aggressive behavior, and safety. \|Green Cities: Good Health\| Metro nature – including trees, parks, gardens, and natural areas – enhance quality of life in cities and towns. The experience of nature improves human health and well-being in many ways. review these scientific studies that tell us how. \|Green Cities: Mental Health & Function\| Both visual access and being within green space helps to restore the mind’s ability to focus. This can improve job and school performance, and help alleviate mental stress and illness. \|Green Cities: Place Attachment & Meaning\| Place attachment and meaning are particularly relevant when considering issues of urban development and community-building. Attachment and meaning emerge from a variety of experiences and situations, and are often related to parks, green spaces, and natural areas. Learn more with this brief summary. \|Green Cities: Reduced Risk\| Trees and vegetation can dampen ambient noise, improve air quality, cool over-heated urban centers, and be a food security solution. \|Green Cities: Safe Streets\| his article surveys the research on roadside vegetation benefits, and the scientific evidence concerning city trees, and transportation safety. \|Green Cities: Social & Cultural Strengths\| Urban green spaces can provide a neutral space within which people come together, social interactions occur (that include people from different backgrounds), and relationships or partnerships take form. Read this briefing for research studies. \|Green Cities: Work & Learning\| Places that incorporate or are located near nature can help remedy mental fatigue and restore one’s ability to focus on tasks. The result can be better performance in the work place and classroom. \|Green Local Economies\| Rad this article to learn about economic benefits of trees in cities. \|Healthy Trees, Healthy Lives Research\| Take care of the forest, and it will take care of you. As research is being conducted and becoming available, findings reinforce what much of the urban forestry community already knows — that trees have a positive impact on human health. Check out research on why Healthy Trees make Healthy Lives. Within the i-Tree software suite, street tree populations are assessed using i-Tree Streets, which is an analysis tool for urban forest managers that uses tree inventory data to quantify the dollar value of annual environmental and aesthetic benefits. \|Nature’s Water Filter Fact Sheet\| Did you know working forests are the most significant factor affecting water quality and quantity in Georgia? Download fact sheet to learn more. \|Tree Benefits Calculator\| The Tree Benefit Calculator allows anyone to make a simple estimation of the benefits individual street-side trees provide. \|Vibrant Cities Lab\| Case Studies, Research Guides and Tools to help cultivate thriving urban forests that boost public health, safety, sustainability and economic growth.
The Big Idea – Organisms require a supply of energy and materials for which they are often dependent on or in competition with each other. This topic is about how the survival of one organism (including Humans) depends upon other organisms and how they are all linked together. If one organism disasters from a habitat it can have big effects on everything else in that habitat. You must be able to use and understand the following key words Producer – The first thing in a food chain. It gets its energy from the sun by Photosynthesis Primary consumer – eats the producer to gain energy Secondary consumer – eats the primary consumer to gain energy Herbivore – eats plants Omnivore – eats plants and animals Carnivore – eats animals Eating plants and animals is the only way we cancan energy for growth, repair, movement and general living. However we have to eat every day because we lose energy through movement, excretion, growth etc. Pyramids of numbers show us how many of each species there are at each level of the food chain. They usually look like this because energy is always lost between steps and predators eat more than one prey But BE CAREFUL. If a tree is in the chain then only 1 tree can be food for many insects and so it will look like this. It is important to carefully think about changes in food webs. If one organism suddenly disappears from a food web it can have complicated effects on every organism in the web, not just those directly linked. If one animals food disappears it may eat another animals food and cause it to decrease in number. It is important for a habitat to have a wide diversity or organisms in it. This is called BIODIVERSITY. This helps animals have a wide range of food and so they will not be affected as much if there are changes to the habitat. Man is the main cause of decreasing biodiversity through farming, hunting and destroying habitats, Review and Rate your Understanding Have you learnt all the facts on the 100% sheet? Have you completed the BBC Bitesize tutorial? Have you been able to complete all the questions on the 100% sheet? Do you know all of the key words? Can you explain how energy is lost in each step of a food chain? Can you explain the 2 different shapes of food pyramid? Let us know how you feel about this topic in the comments section below. Any questions you have, just ask.
Guinea worm disease also known as Dracunculiasis is a rare type of parasitic infection caused by drinking stagnated water. This disease is a rare type of infection occurring in some underdeveloped countries like Ethiopia, Sudan and Mali and remote parts of Africa. The worm gets into the person in the form of larvae when he/she drinks the contaminated stagnant water from the pond and resides inside the body. After about a year the larvae grows into an adult worm and emerges out of the body. It can cause symptoms of fever and swelling. There is no treatment for guinea worm disease and the only way to prevent this infection is to drink clean water. In the underdeveloped countries and in some remote regions potable water will not be available to drink and hence poor people may drink stagnated water from the ponds. This can cause infection. Only few cases of GWD have been reported so far. Mode of Transmission : When a person drinks pond water or any kind of stagnated water that contains the larval stage of guinea worm, it enters into his body. After a year or so, the adult worm would emerge from his body mostly from the skin on his feet. As the person continues to ignore the worm and when he enters any source of water bodies the worm would emit larvae into the water. This water again gets contaminated and infects other person when he/she drinks it accidentally. The larval form of guinea worm remains in the body of copepods (small organism present in water) and enters into the body of another person when he/she drinks the water. The larvae of the worm would enter into the small intestine and remains inside the wall of the intestine for about a year. When it grows into complete adult worm measuring 2-3 feet long it would migrate within the body and finally emerge out of the body from the skin. At the site where the worm emerges out of the body, the skin would develop painful blisters with burning sensation. The worm is capable of discharging several millions of larvae into the water whenever the person comes into contact with water. The cycle would start again to infect another person. For about a year the infected person will not have any visible signs. Once the worm gets ready to emerge from the body symptoms begin to appear. The person may develop fever and swelling of skin at the point where the worm would emerge. Often the worm would emerge from the body from the legs or feet portion. That area develops painful blisters and only a part of the worm would emerge out of the body. It would cause burning sensation when it peers out the skin to come out. Skin lesions are formed and for some people the joints may get infected causing temporary immobility in feet. There is no test to detect GWD. The infected person will get to know about it when he sees the worm emerging from his body causing painful lesions on the skin. No vaccine is available to prevent guinea worm disease. Once the worm comes out of the wound, it can be gently pulled out for few centimeters every day and kept in a piece of gauze. The entire worm can be pulled out by surgery by an expert doctor. For many people it may take weeks or even months for the worm to be removed completely. To manage pain and discomfort caused by painful ulcers on the skin, the person can take aspirin or brufen. Antibiotic creams can be applied on the skin where the worm emerges from the body to prevent further growth of bacteria on it. Guinea worm disease has been reported only in some countries of Saharan Africa. Often people of remote villages where proper water source is not available are affected. Countries of Ethiopia, Chad, Mali and Sudan have few cases of GWD. At present, World Health Organization has declared many countries free from GWD and even some of the endemic countries are not transmission free. Worm emergence can take several weeks or months making the person disabled from attending his routine work. There are farmers who may stop going to their field during planting or harvesting season due to heavy pain when the worm comes out of the body. - Drinking pure and safe water is the only way to prevent GWD infection. - People of remote villages should be educated about the threat of drinking pond water. - Government should come forward to provide good water source in all remote villages. - Any person having worm emergence should not be allowed to enter ponds or wells or any water bodies used for drinking so that the disease would not get transmitted to others.
Most countries in the world have a Constitution. The Constitution serves several purposes. First, it lays out certain ideals that form the basis of the kind of country that we as citizens aspire to live in. A Constitution tells us what the fundamental nature of our society is. A country is usually made up of different communities of people who share certain beliefs but may not necessarily agree on all issues. A Constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all persons in a country can agree upon as the basis of the way in which they want the country to be governed. This includes not only the type of government but also an agreement on certain ideals that they all believe the country should uphold. The second important purpose of a Constitution is to define the nature of a country’s political system. For example, Nepal’s earlier Constitution stated that the country was to be ruled by the King and his council of ministers. In countries that have adopted a democratic form of government or polity, the Constitution plays a crucial role in laying out certain important guidelines that govern decision-making within these societies. The long experience of authoritarian rule under the colonial state convinced Indians that free India should be a democracy in which everyone should be treated equally and be allowed to participate in government. Below are the key features of the Indian Constitution. Federalism: This refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country. In India, we have governments at the state level and at the centre. Panchayati Raj is the third tier of government. While each state in India enjoys autonomy in exercising powers on certain issues, subjects of national concern require that all of these states follow the laws of the central government. Under federalism, the states are not merely agents of the federal government but draw their authority from the Constitution as well. All persons in India are governed by laws and policies made by each of these levels of government. Parliamentary Form of Government: The different tiers of government consist of representatives who are elected by the people. Constitution of India guarantees universal adult suffrage for all citizens. The people of India have a direct role in electing their representatives. Also, every citizen of the country, irrespective of his/her social background, can also contest in elections. Separation of Powers: According to the Constitution, there are three organs of the State. These are the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. The legislature refers to our elected representatives. The executive is a smaller group of people who are responsible for implementing laws and running the government. The judiciary, refers to the system of courts in this country. In order to prevent the misuse of power by any one branch of the State, the Constitution says that each of these organs should exercise different powers. Through this, each organ acts as a check on the other organs of the State and this ensures the balance of power between all three. Fundamental Rights: The section on Fundamental Rights has often been referred to as the ‘conscience’ of the Indian Constitution. Fundamental Rights, protect citizens against the arbitrary and absolute exercise of power by the State. The Constitution, thus, guarantees the rights of individuals against the State as well as against other individuals. The Constitution, also guarantees the rights of minorities against the majority. In addition to Fundamental Rights, the Constitution also has a section called Directive Principles of State Policy. This section was designed by the members of the Constituent Assembly to ensure greater social and economic reform, and to serve as a guide to the independent Indian State to institute laws and policies that help reduce the poverty of the masses. The Constitution plays a crucial role in laying out the ideals that we would like all citizens of the country to adhere to, including the representatives that we elect to rule us. Copyright © excellup 2014
learning and teaching resources This section is filled with online activities as well as printable materials to use for working with kids learning English. Our holiday resources are organised by topic and by type. Resources by topic There are four holiday units. Each comes with reading activities, word games and printable materials such as crafts, board and card games, and worksheets. • Christmas » • Easter » • Halloween » • Valentine's Day » Resources by type There are three types of resources in this section. You can browse them by visiting the following pages: • rhymes, riddles, songs » • word games » • printables » More holiday resources You may also be interested in our vocabulary topics related to English holidays. Choose the topic, study the picture dictionary first, then practise new English words with the help of our interactive games. Take the tests and quizzes to check what you have learnt. Have more fun with our printables, choose from flashcards, word games, tests and quizzes.
Conjunctivitis, also called pink eye, is one of the most frequently seen eye diseases, especially in kids. It can be caused by viruses, bacteria or even allergies to pollen, chlorine in swimming pools, and ingredients in cosmetics, or other irritants, which touch the eyes. Some forms of conjunctivitis might be quite transmittable and quickly spread in school and at the office. Conjunctivitis is seen when the conjunctiva, or thin transparent layer of tissue covering the white part of the eye, becomes inflamed. You can identify conjunctivitis if you notice eye redness, discharge, itching or swollen eyelids and a crusty discharge surrounding the eyes early in the day. Pink eye infections can be divided into three main types: viral, allergic and bacterial conjunctivitis. The viral type is usually a result of a similar virus to that which produces the recognizable red, watery eyes, sore throat and runny nose of the common cold. The red, itchy, watery eyes caused by viral pink eye are likely to last from a week to two and then will clear up on their own. You may however, be able to reduce some of the discomfort by using soothing drops or compresses. Viral pink eye is transmittable until it is completely cleared up, so in the meantime maintain excellent hygiene, remove eye discharge and try to avoid using communal pillowcases or towels. If your son or daughter has viral conjunctivitis, he or she will have to be kept home from school for three days to a week until symptoms disappear. A bacterial infection such as Staphylococcus or Streptococcus is usually treated with antibiotic eye drops or cream. One should notice an improvement within just a few days of antibiotic drops, but be sure to adhere to the full prescription dosage to prevent pink eye from recurring. Allergic pink eye is not contagious. It is usually a result of a known allergy such as hay fever or pet allergies that sets off an allergic reaction in their eyes. First of all, to treat allergic pink eye, you should eliminate the irritant. Use cool compresses and artificial tears to relieve discomfort in mild cases. When the infection is more severe, your eye doctor might prescribe a medication such as an anti-inflammatory or antihistamine. In cases of chronic allergic pink eye, topical steroid eye drops could be used. Pink eye should always be diagnosed by a qualified eye doctor in order to identify the type and best course of treatment. Never treat yourself! Keep in mind the sooner you begin treatment, the lower chance you have of giving pink eye to loved ones or prolonging your discomfort.
What are Children's Ear Infections ? A middle ear infection is an infection that fills the middle ear with fluid and pus. The children’s ear infection often causes pain and fever. The middle ear pressure can build up so much that the ear drum bursts and the pus and blood from the middle ear leaks out of the ear canal. The bursting of the ear drum often settles the pain and fever. Middle ear infections are common with 90% of children suffering at least one infection in their childhood. The peak age for infections is between 2 to 4 with the incidence declining after the age of 7 as the Eustachian tube matures and the adenoid tissue shrinks. What is Glue Ear? Glue ear is a form of chronic middle ear infection that fills with thick glue like fluid. Children with this problem may have had ear infections in the past or alternatively present with hearing loss. \|Normal ear\|\|Acute ear infection\|\|Glue ear\| Videos relating to Children’s Ear Infections Most typically children with ear infections will have fevers, pain in their ears and hearing loss. Other signs include uncontrollable crying, difficulty sleeping, irritability, ear rubbing/ pulling and restlessness in the infant or toddler age group. Children with glue ear often have no pain and present simply with hearing loss. Most middle ear infections can be initially managed with pain relief (Panadol and Nurofen) and observation. Children under the age of 2 require antibiotics (usually in the form of Amoxil) and typically for a week long course. If the child is over the age of 2 years, more than half the infections will start to settle down in within two days and any further treatment can be avoided. If your child’s ear infection has been progressing for more than 2 days your general practitioner may prescribe antibiotics (usually starting with Amoxil, if no allergies) to settle the infection. Other measures that may help include avoiding daycare or preschool, avoiding smoking around your child, trying low allergen milk (such as A2), avoiding bottle feeding your child whilst they are lying flat, avoiding dummies (pacifiers) and keeping your child’s nose clear with saline irrigation. The most common surgery is the placement of grommet tubes. Grommets are plastic tubes that are surgically placed into the ear drum to allow pus to drain from the middle ear, and also to allow air to flow back into the middle ear. Depending on the shape of the grommet they can stay in for as short as a few weeks up to a few years. As the child grows the skin of the ear drum grows underneath the tube and painlessly lifts the tube out of the ear drum and in time the tubes fall out in the wax. \|Short term tube\|\|Medium term tube\|\|Long term tube\| Still have a question? Our team will be happy to answer any questions you may have about Children’s Ear Infections.
- 3 Challenges Completed - 14 Challenges not completed A Green-Powered Canada We looked at the links to the websites that were easy for Grade 1/2 to understand and watched YouTube videos and held a classroom discussion on Green Ways to get around. They talked about their connections and the impact on the environment by using Green Transportation (including animals WWF). How Big Are Your Carbon Feet? We watched all the videos and some from last year and talked about the earth and our impact. We held a classroom discussion and they made connections to our Arctic unit and animal habitats. We looked at re-usable energy and how to recycle things. They linked it back to their Green Powered and using smart mobility. The Phantom of the Classroom We watched the videos and discussed what phantom power/standby we have in the classroom and at home. They ranked which devices in our classroom use the most. We then made maps of our classroom and walked around to identify where we are using or wasting power and what can be done to turn it off. Power bars, unplugging were ideas that they shared. We also watched the video from last year which the children loved about the phantom power.
[4 Steps] Create User Defined Exception in Python with Example Want to create your own defined custom exception in Python? At the end of this tutorial, you will be able to define your own exception in Python. Before that, you should know the basic exception handling. Example for simple exception handing in Python: When you divide any number by zero, it raises ‘division by zero’ exception. Python Program for Exception Handling: try: 1/0 except Exception as err: # perform any action on Exception instance print("Error:", err) Error: division by zero Note: You can also use assert to raise the exception in Python. If you understand this simple example, creating a user-defined exception is not much difficult. Let’s begin with creating your own custom exception. Create User Defined Exception in Python Follow the steps below. Step 1: Create User Defined Exception Class - Write a new class (says YourException) for custom exception and inherit it from an in-build Exception class. - Define function __init__()to initialize the object of the new class. You can add as many instance variables as you want, to support your exception. For simplicity, we are creating one instance variable called This is how it looks like. class YourException(Exception): def __init__(self, message): self.message = message You have created a simple user-defined exception class. Step 2: Raising Exception Now you can write a try-except block to catch the user-defined exception in Python. For testing, inside the try block we are raising exception using raise YourException("Something is fishy") It creates the instance of the exception class YourException. You can pass any message to your exception class instance. Step 3: Catching Exception Now you have to catch the user-defined exception using except YourException as err: print(err.message) We are catching user defined exception called Step 4: Write a Program for User-Defined Exception in Python Let’s club all these steps. Here is how the complete program looks like. class YourException(Exception): def __init__(self, message): self.message = message try: raise YourException("Something is fishy") except YourException as err: # perform any action on YourException instance print("Message:", err.message) Message: Something is fishy Congrats you have defined your own exception in Python! Python makes things very simple, isn’t it? Here is one more thing you can try for handling user defined exception. You can define multiple instance variable for newly created exception class. With this you can pass multiple values while raising exception. In below example, along with the error message we are also defining the level of difficulty for exception. class YourException(Exception): def __init__(self, message, level): self.message = message self.level = level try: raise YourException("Something is fishy", "Level 5") except YourException as err: # perform any action on YourException instance print("Message:", err.message) print("Difficulty Level: ", err.level) Message: Something is fishy Difficulty Level: Level 5 This is the simple way of creating user defined exception in Python. If you have any question, let me know in the comment.
Graphite is an allotrope of the chemical element carbon and is denoted with the aid of the image ‘C’. Natural graphite happens in 3 distinct paperwork in nature – crystalline, amorphous, and lump graphite. The international locations exporting this detail are China, India, Brazil, North Korea, and Canada. Lump graphite, also called vein, is discovered all around the world, however commercially mined handiest in Sri Lanka. This element is grayish black to metal gray in color and can mark impressions on the substrate. Because of these marking belongings possessed via graphite, it’s miles used in the manufacture of pencils and gets its call from the Greek phrase ‘graphene’, which means ‘to jot down’. Its bodily and chemical residences make it a unique chemical substance. Following are a number of the properties of this compound based totally on its shape and prevalence in nature. The mineral graphite is metallic gray to black in coloration and is odorless. It is opaque and has a sub-steel luster. It is thought to have a totally tender and greasy texture. It may be broken without difficulty and leaves a black streak on the hand while touched. Although graphite is smooth and flexible, it isn’t elastic in nature. This element is crystalline in nature; however, best crystals of graphite are not often discovered. The carbon atoms in its shape are organized in a hexagonal manner in a planar, condensed ring system. This gives the graphite crystals a hexagonal form. Different layers of this detail are stacked together and held by means of susceptible covalent forces to form a giant covalent shape. Graphite has a high melting factor above 3000ºF, similar to that of diamond―the alternative allotrope of carbon. Hence, it’s miles stable over a wide variety of temperatures. As there is lots of vacant space between the graphite sheets held by using the weak covalent bonds, and the density of graphite is 2.09 to two.33 g/cc, which is lower than that of the diamond. The measured specific gravity of this element is about 2.26 g/cc. However, it depends upon the purity of graphite. Graphite with a higher ash content material suggests a particular gravity better than 2.26, even as its herbal shape has a lower specific gravity or density due to the trapped porosity. Graphite is insoluble in water in addition to other organic solvents. There are not any attractive forces that occur among the solvent molecules and the carbons atoms in its shape, and consequently, it fails to dissolve in any of the organic solvents. There is a considerable delocalization of electrons inside the carbon layers of graphite. The delocalized electrons are loose to move and are capable of conduct strength, hence, making graphite a terrific conductor of strength. ➤ Graphite is chemically inert to nearly all chemical compounds. ➤ It burns absolutely whilst heated in oxygen to form carbon dioxide. However, it fails to burn in air, although it is heated to high temperatures. ➤ When heated in the presence of focused sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate, graphite gets oxidized to carbon dioxide. ➤ Due to its chemical inertness and balance at excessive temperatures, it’s miles widely used as a refractory cloth. READ MORE : - Physical and Chemical Properties of KryptonPhysical - All You Wanted to Know About the Amazing Properties of Polystyrene - A Detailed Summary About the Shelf Life of Eggs - Property Manager Resume - The Life Span of the Amazing Oscar Fish Will Surely Shock You Originally posted 2017-06-16 05:54:51.
The first Muslim adaptation and modification of the design of the arch occurred in the invention of the horseshoe type. Further development came in the 8th century when Muslims used, for the first time, the transverse arch in the Palace of Ukhaidir. These arches are found in many mosques throughout the Muslim world. The horseshoe arch is mainly decoration. Whilst the transverse arch has a structural function. They are also a common feature in numerous buildings in Europe. Where did the come from and how? The Horseshoe Arch The first Muslim adaptation and modification of the design of the arch occurred in the invention of the horseshoe type. This was first employed in the Umayyads Great Mosque of Damascus (706-715, figure 1) (Briggs, 1924). There is a suggestion that the horseshoe form was derived from the symbolic use of primitive ages where it represented a superstitious emblem for many societies (Jairazbhoy, 1973). \|Figure 1. Horseshoe arches, Ummayad Mosque in Damascus. The use of the horseshoe as a protector against the evil eye in North Africa is still maintained to the present day. They are often mounted onto front of doors of houses. However, this conflicts with orthodox islamic beliefs. Similar symbolic use is manifest in India and many parts of the world. A symbol of sainthood and holiness, the horseshoe arch provided a better advantage allowing more height then the classical (semi-circular) arch as well as better aesthetic and decorative use. Muslims used this curve form to develop their famous ultra-semicircular arch around which the whole of Muslim architecture evolved . The ultra-semicircular arch is an improved version of the Roman semicircular arch in that it is much more circular in shape. The introduction of the horseshoe into Cordoba (Great Mosque 756-796, figure 2) set the path for its transmission to Europe through the northern Christian regions of Andalusia. This process started with the Mozarabs (Christian Spanish living in Andalusia) moving between Andalusia and Northern Christian parts of Spain. Among these were artists, scholars and builders and architects who brought with them Muslim methods of building, forms and motifs including the horseshoe arch (Trend, 1931). The result was the appearance, in northern Spanish regions, of a large number of religious edifices in a Moorish style with horseshoe arches. For instance, St Miguel de Escalada, near Leon, was built by monks arriving from Cordoba in 913. \|Figure 2. Horseshoe and cinqfoil arches on main facade Cordoba Mosque. Among the features it had were the melon shaped domes and the horseshoe arches (Dodds, 1994). The horseshoe arch had also been illustrated by Mozarabs in their illuminated manuscripts such as the one of Beatus of Lebana. Historic sources indicate that the illuminator of this manuscript, named Magins, worked at the monastery of St Miguel de Esacalda. The church of St Cebrian de Mazote, also founded by Mozarab Cordoban monks in 921, reveals similar planning, structural and decorative elements of that of St Miguel de Escalada with a basilica plan, horseshoe arches, tripartite choir and horseshoe shaped apses (Dodds, 1994). The Transverse Arch Further development came in the 8th century when Muslims used, for the first time, the transverse arch in the Palace of Ukhaidir – Iraq (720-800) setting precedent for its universal use. \|Figure 3. Arcade of tranverse arches in Mahdia Mosque (Tunisia, 11th century) After the adoption of the pier as a replacement of the classical column, Europe embraced this arch in the 11th century. Here, the arch was thrown from each pier of the arcade to the wall of the aisle (figure 3). There is no clear evidence on how and when this arch was transmitted to Europe where it is considered to be the first step revolutionising the way churches were built. The use of the transverse arch over the nave not only provided greater safety and durability but also gave the final shape of the nave especially in terms of height and roof. This feature represents a fundamental structural step in the process of development of Gothic. It led to the adoption of ribbed vaulting which progressively enabled the vaulting of the nave and evolving the compound. . The Romans were the first to use it but Muslims improved its form.
What is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of the mind. Observing, experimenting, and analyzing human and animal minds is our focus. How we do this varies greatly. We can, of course, look at the brain itself to understand the mind - and we increasingly do so, as new technologies allow. But the measure of behavior is our primary method to understand the mind. These are just some of the many questions psychologists attempt to answer, and which Psychology undergraduate students consider in our many courses and research opportunities: - How do we perceive the physical world? - Is our view of the physical world consistent with reality? - How do we make sense of the social world? - Can we really understand the minds of others? - Do the groups others belong to matter? - How do memories form and how do we forget? - What are the rules by which we reason and think? - Are we rational beings, or only boundedly so? - How much of our behavior is influenced by conscious mental processes, and how can we study our own consciousness? - What is the role of emotion as expressed in the joy, surprise, sadness, anger, and fear of everyday life, as well as in depression, schizophrenia, and other disorders? - What are the causes of these kinds of disorders, and how can they be treated? - How do all these processes develop from infancy to adulthood, including the ability for language? To answer these and other questions about the mind, psychologists observe evolutionary factors, biological bases of behavior, cultural and social inputs, and the day to-day situations in which individuals find themselves. Most of the research conducted in Harvard’s Department of Psychology concerns basic psychological processes such as attention, perception, memory, categorization, reasoning, decision-making, language, cognitive and social development, social cognition, intergroup relations, and morality. In addition, some members of the department conduct research on the etiology, development, and treatment of psychopathology. All members of the department share the common goal of understanding mind, brain, and behavior through empirical investigation, and our teaching reflects this goal.
Influenza: How to prevent and treat a serious infection This fall is different than any other before it. Back-to-school is different, professional and college sports are different, and many of the seasonal rituals are upended thanks to COVID-19. But what isn’t different is the return of influenza or the flu. The flu is more than a bad cold. Although many people who get the flu recover with rest and fluids, thousands of Americans die from this illness each year, and millions are sick enough to miss work or school. Influenza is serious — but it can be prevented and treated. This flu season is complicated by worries about COVID-19. The same measures that help prevent the spread of the coronavirus — frequent and thorough handwashing, wearing a mask, not touching your face, coughing and sneezing into a tissue or your elbow, avoiding people who are sick, and staying away from others if you’re sick — also help to protect against spread of the flu. Meet the flu bug There are many influenza viruses. Nearly all cases of the flu are caused by human strains of the influenza A or B virus. Influenza A is the more serious strain. Because flu viruses change from year to year, having had the flu — or a flu shot — in a previous year won’t protect you this year. That’s why you need to get a new flu shot each year. It is important to note that flu viruses are distinct from the coronaviruses that cause illnesses like COVID-19. In the U.S., the flu season runs roughly from Thanksgiving to Easter, with most cases occurring in the dead of winter. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that during the 2018–2019 flu season an estimated 35.5 million people came down with the flu. Of these people over 16 million had to see their doctors, and over 30,000 people died from the flu. Influenza is highly contagious As a respiratory virus, influenza spreads on tiny droplets that spew into the air when you cough, sneeze, or simply exhale. People close at hand are the most likely to catch the flu, which is why the infection spreads so quickly through families, health care facilities, and other places where people live or work close to each other. The influenza virus can also be spread by hand-to-hand contact. The flu loves winter. In the northern hemisphere, it comes around between November and March, but in the southern hemisphere, it hits from May to September, the coldest months. In the tropics, however, there is no true flu season — and very little flu. Many respiratory infections peak in winter, when people cluster together indoors. But scientists found that the virus is transmitted much more efficiently in a cool environment. Low humidity provided another boost for the bug; in one study the virus spread much more readily at 20% humidity than at 80%. Influenza hits fast. After an incubation period of just one to two days, the influenza symptoms start abruptly. Most people run a fever, and high temperatures in the 103 F to 104 F range are common. Nearly everyone has a runny nose and sore throat, but unlike ordinary colds, the flu also produces a hacking, dry cough. Muscle and joint aches can be severe. Headache, burning eyes, weakness, and extreme fatigue add to the misery. In most cases, the high fever and severe distress settle down in two to five days, but the cough can linger for a week or two and the fatigue even longer. The most serious — and deadly — complication is pneumonia. Young children, senior citizens, and people with chronic illnesses are at greatest risk. That’s why they have the greatest need for preventive vaccinations and medical treatments. In some cases, pneumonia is caused by the flu virus itself. It’s a particularly deadly problem that begins early in the infection and progresses rapidly, with a severe dry cough and shortness of breath. Bacterial pneumonia is more common but more easily treated. It starts later, after a person seems to be on the mend. The fever returns and the cough increases, this time with thick, pus-laden sputum (phlegm). Other flu complications can include asthma attacks, ear infections, bronchitis, sinusitis, inflammation of the heart or other muscles, and inflammation of the nervous system.
What is Composting? Composting is the process of decomposition of grass clippings, leaves, and other organic matter that occurs continuously in nature and results in an organic nutrient rich, soil like material. As tress drop leaves, grasses, plants and trees die, they decompose over time and return their nutrients to the soil as compost. Composting reduces yard waste entering landfills. Each year hundreds of millions of tons of grass clippings, leaves, weeds, organic debris, and other yard waste enters landfills. This makes up about 20% of the total volume of all material entering landfills. The cost to collect and dispose of this waste is nearly 1 billion dollars a year. Composting saves you money by reducing the need for store bought fertilizer. Compost is free. Adding compost to soil helps reduce your watering needs by helping the soil retain water. I. Green Material (Nitrogen) Fruit & vegetable scraps and trimmings Used tea bags Cow, horse, or poultry manure II. Brown Material (Carbon) Dry brown leaves Compost forms best when it is kept at a constant moisture level, similar to a damp sponge, not soaking wet. Air allows aerobic composting to occur rapidly, and with little or no foul odors. About 30% of the total initial volume of your compost pile should be air space. Mix it Up A 50:50 ratio of green to brown material by volume will provide the best results. By mixing, or turning, your compost pile regularly, the proper blend of the four components of compost will be maintained. To speed up the composting process, mix your compost pile more often. Mixing your compost allows air to enter into the pile. If the pile has become too dry, add more water and mix it in. Be sure to NEVER place anything containing fats or oils in your compost. (ex. meat scraps, baked goods). Do not place dog or cat waste in your compost pile. Do not place diseased plants or weeds in your compost pile. Microorganisms that contribute to the composting process will generate a substantial amount of heat in a compost pile that has the proper mix of ingredients and that is large enough, at least 1 cubic yard. The optimum internal temperature is right around 150°F. These temperatures are critical for the destruction of pathogens and weed seeds. Patty Hoenigman, author and Texas Master Composter, describes six ways to compost, ranging from easy but slow to produce, to more involved but producing compost more quickly. 1. Use a mulching lawn mower. 2. Dig a hole and bury kitchen scraps 3. Make a trough, bury kitchen scraps and cover them up as you go. 4. Passive Composting – this can be used to produce a small amount of compost that will be done in 4-6 months. Add leaves to a bin, add food scraps, and cover with more leaves. Add water and mix once a week. 5. Heap or Pile – make a compost pile, away from the house. Add brown and green material as they become available and just let the pile sit. It will take about a year before usable compost will be available at the bottom of the pile. 6. Active Composting – This method requires a minimum of 1 cubic yard of material to start with ideally in a 3’x3’x3’ bin. Soak leaves overnight and then alternate 2” deep layers of brown and green material in the bin. Let it sit for 3 days to allow the internal temperature to peek. Next, turn the pile completely, being sure to add water to any dry areas, every day for 11 days. Let the pile sit undisturbed for two more weeks to cure. You will then have a complete batch of compost ready to use in just four weeks. The final volume of compost will be about 1/3 of the starting volume of the pile. Start composting today! It doesn’t matter if it’s 105°F outside or 35°F. You can build a compost bin out of wood, cinder blocks, or chicken wire, or just make a pile or small hole. Once you see the rich results of composting on your garden, you’ll be glad you did.
Lynn Hankinson Nelson Study of how scientific theories are justified and why they are accepted, using selected examples from the history of science. As the sub-title of the course suggests ("Why do we believe in quarks, evolution, and other crazy things?"), a central focus of research in philosophy of science concerns /science and evidence/: What is the nature, and what are the strengths and/or weaknesses, of the evidence that supports scientific hypotheses, theories, methods, and research? Is certainty possible? Is it possible that many or all of the theories currently accepted in the sciences will be replaced in the future by theories thought to be better? What is the evidence for unobservable objects (sub-atomic particles) and unobservable events (e.g., geological or evolutionary or cosmological events that occurred in the past)? How we answer these and related questions shape our understanding of scientific objectivity, scientific methods, what (if anything) distinguishes science from other sets of practices or institutions (e.g., literary theory, classics, politics, religion and so forth), and the way we view science's cognitive authority. To explore them, this course uses examples from historical and contemporary science, and accounts offered by scientists and philosophers of what science is, in what respects it is successful, the limits of its success, and related topics. [Optional writing credit & linked with ENGL 198K.] TEXT: "Why Do We Believe in Quarks?", McGraw-Hill. Student learning goals General method of instruction Lectures and discussion sections. Lectures include content that extends and further develops course readings, films, current science news relevant to course topics, examples to illustrate positions advocated in course readings... and, when appropriate, laughter. Material covered in lectures and discussion sections (which often overlap but are not the same as one another and extend the material covered in the readings) is required and will be reflected in tests and formal paper assignments. No formal background in philosophy or a science is required for this course but good study habits are a must. Students should be prepared to read assignments before lecture (as lectures will presuppose this), to look up words they don't recognize, to ask questions, to pose challenges to positions considered (offered by anyone, including the professor), and to have an open mind to positions that are unfamiliar or with which they disagree. For many readings, you will need to plan on a second reading after lecture and discussion section. Class assignments and grading Three short answer/multiple choice tests. Two short essays. On-line worksheets (for extra credit but highly recommended as an aid). Pop quizzes. On-line quizzes for selected lectures. There will NOT be a final test. All of the assignments, plus attendance and participation (both are required and you will lose points for missed lectures or discussion sections).
Irony is a commonly used as a literary, rhetorical and comedic device, dating back to the works of Plato. Oftentimes, irony is understood as the difference between what one says or does in relation to how these words and actions are understood. Evident in works of literature ranging from Shakespeare to comic books, irony comes in many different forms. There are actually more than three types. Dramatic irony occurs when there is an apparent contrast between what a character believes to be true and what you, as the reader or audience member, knows to be true. In this case, you become part of the use of irony. Words and actions have an additional, ironic meaning due to the reader's knowledge. Oftentimes, readers know more than a character knows. The irony heightens when the character eventually reacts and discovers the truth. Tragic irony, a kind of dramatic irony, occurs when a character who is unaware of their being a victim of disaster uses words that have more weight to the reader, who is aware of their doomed fate. An example might be a character killing someone in battle, not realizing it is his son, which the audience knows. With situational irony, expectations raised by a situation are reversed, making the consequences and reality of the situation surprising and unexpected. The reader's expectations and what is deemed appropriate create tension in the story. Situational irony is one of the most common forms of irony in literature and arguably a more subtle kind of irony since it builds upon the events in a story rather than offer an ironic sentence. This type of irony is named after Socrates' infamous teaching method. Here, Socrates pretends to be ignorant and open to opposing views and questions other characters. As these characters speak and are questioned on their intentions and ideas, they are revealed as foolish and idiotic. Coupled with feigned ignorance, Socratic irony eventually exposes the weakness and ignorance of a character's position in a humorous way. A kind of device that is also closely connected to sarcasm, verbal irony occurs when a character says something but means something entirely different. What is said or done is oftentimes meant to convey the literal opposite. For instance, verbal irony can happen when praising something that is actually meant as an insult. Verbal irony is also a common, everyday rhetorical device.
When astronauts launch into space, a microbial entourage follows. And the sheer number of these followers would give celebrities on Twitter a run for their money. The estimate is that normal, healthy adults have ten times as many microbial cells as human cells within their bodies; countless more populate the environment around us. Although invisible to the naked eye, microorganisms – some friend, some foe – are found practically everywhere. Microorganisms like bacteria often are found attached to surfaces living in communities known as biofilms. Bacteria within biofilms are protected by a slimy matrix that they secrete. Skip brushing your teeth tomorrow morning and you may personally experience what a biofilm feels like. One of NASA’s goals is to minimize the health risks associated with extended spaceflight, so it is critical that methods for preventing and treating spaceflight-induced illnesses be developed before astronauts embark upon long-duration space missions. It is important for NASA to learn how bacterial communities that play roles in human health and disease are affected by spaceflight. Click "source" to read more.
Researchers from North Carolina State University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill have for the first time created and used a nanoscale vehicle made of DNA to deliver a CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing tool into cells in both cell culture and an animal model. The CRISPR-Cas system, which is found in bacteria and archaea, protects bacteria from invaders such as viruses. It does this by creating small strands of RNA called CRISPR RNAs, which match DNA sequences specific to a given invader. When those CRISPR RNAs find a match, they unleash Cas9 proteins that cut the DNA. In recent years, the CRISPR-Cas system has garnered a great deal of attention in the research community for its potential use as a gene editing tool – with the CRISPR RNA identifying the targeted portion of the relevant DNA, and the Cas protein cleaving it. But for Cas9 to do its work, it must first find its way into the cell. This work focused on demonstrating the potential of a new vehicle for directly introducing the CRISPR-Cas9 complex – the entire gene-editing tool – into a cell. “Traditionally, researchers deliver DNA into a targeted cell to make the CRISPR RNA and Cas9 inside the cell itself – but that limits control over its dosage,” says Chase Beisel, co-senior author of the paper and an assistant professor in the department of chemical and biomolecular engineering at NC State. “By directly delivering the Cas9 protein itself, instead of turning the cell into a Cas9 factory, we can ensure that the cell receives the active editing system and can reduce problems with unintended editing.” “Our delivery mechanism resembles a ball of yarn, or clew, so we call it a nanoclew,” says Zhen Gu, co-senior author of the paper and an assistant professor in the joint biomedical engineering program at NC State and UNC-CH. “Because the nanoclew is made of a DNA-based material, it is highly biocompatible. It also self-assembles, which makes it easy to customize.” The nanoclews are made of a single, tightly-wound strand of DNA. The DNA is engineered to partially complement the relevant CRISPR RNA it will carry, allowing the CRISPR-Cas9 complex – a CRISPR RNA bound to a Cas9 protein — to loosely attach itself to the nanoclew. “Multiple CRISPR-Cas complexes can be attached to a single nanoclew,” says Wujin Sun, lead author of the study and Ph.D. student in Gu’s lab. When the nanoclew comes into contact with a cell, the cell absorbs the nanoclew completely – swallowing it and wrapping it in a protective sheath called an endosome. But the nanoclews are coated with a positively-charged polymer that breaks down the endosome, setting the nanoclew free inside the cell. The CRISPR-Cas9 complexes can then free themselves from the nanoclew to make their way to the nucleus. And once a CRISPR-Cas9 complex reaches the nucleus, gene editing begins. To test the nanoclew CRISPR-Cas delivery system, the researchers treated cancer cell cultures and tumors in mice. The relevant cancer cells had been modified to express a fluorescent protein. In short, they glowed. The CRISPR RNAs on the nanoclews were designed to target the DNA in the cancer cell that was responsible for making the fluorescent proteins. If the glowing stopped, the nanoclews worked. “And they did work. More than a third of cancer cells stopped expressing the fluorescent protein,” Beisel says. “This study is a proof of concept, and additional work needs to be done – but it’s very promising,” Gu says. The paper, “Self-Assembled DNA Nanoclews for the Efficient Delivery of CRISPR–Cas9 for Genome Editing,” is published in the journal Angewandte Chemie.
Keywords: Microraptor gui, biplane, feathered dinosaurs, fossils, flight, feathers, protofeathers Once again, the media is abuzz with feathered dinosaurs busily “experimenting” with flight. This time the presumed dinosaur, Microraptor gui, is claimed to be a double-winger just like the biplane the Wright brothers flew at Kitty Hawk! This is an exciting turn of events for evolutionists who have often attempted to make evolution more plausible to the layman by likening the process of evolution to the progressive development of air travel from the Wright brothers to the space shuttle. Never mind that the process of evolution is without goal or purpose, while the progressive development of aircraft involved a vast amount of intelligent design. Evolution can employ “strategy” and “figuring”—but not intelligent design Playing on the same theme as the rest of the popular media, the Cincinnati Enquirer (page four, January 2007) reported that “flying dinosaurs employed the same strategy that the Wright brothers used 125 million years later” and that “like the Wright brothers, prehistoric animals had to figure out how to glide before they were capable of powered flight.” But are we to conclude that evolution actually “employed strategy” in its effort to “figure out” how to fly? Isn’t it interesting that biology teachers are forbidden to use the expression “intelligent design” when referring to the integrated complexity of biological systems but they apparently can use words like “invent,” “experiment,” “strategy” and “figure out” when referring to the chance evolution of these same systems. Did Microraptor gui have a second pair of wings? M. gui is not a new find. Six specimens of M. gui were discovered four years ago by Xu et al.1in the famous Cretaceous fossil beds of Liaoning Province in northeastern China. These creatures were about the size of a small hawk and had a long tail (with several vertebrae) that was covered with feathers much like the extinct bird Archaeopteryx. The most distinctive feature of M. gui is the presence of six-inch-long pennaceous feathers on its legs and feet (metatarsals). When first reported, the feathered legs were pictured as being spread out laterally just behind the wings, similar to the fore and aft arrangement of the four wings of a dragonfly. But a reconsideration of the fossil evidence by Chatterjee and Templin2 now views the wings as arranged in an over-and-under configuration, like that of a biplane. Chatterjee and Templin insist that having one set of wings behind another would be aerodynamically inefficient (though the dragonfly seems unaware of this). More importantly they show that the hip of M. gui is anatomically unsuited to hold the legs out laterally in the manner suggested by Xu. They propose instead that M. gui held its legs under its body in flight much like the pouncing position of a modern raptor such as an eagle or hawk, and that it was only the feathers that jutted out to the side. They imagine that the long feathers of the legs and metatarsals were oriented in life in a transverse horizontal plane, effectively producing a second pair of “wings” (consisting only of feathers) under the upper wings. It is difficult to imagine that six-inch-long feathers could stand out perpendicular to the skin and yet help support the weight of the bird in flight. In fact, the fossil evidence does not directly support such an unusual feather orientation. In the six fossils of M. gui discovered so far, the leg and metatarsal feathers do not jut out to the side but rather project backwards from the leg, much as do the relatively long leg feathers of many living raptors. To support their interpretation, the authors speculate that the leg feathers collapsed backward during fossilization. M. gui and the origin of flight Evolutionists are particularly keen to explain the origin of flight in birds or dinosaurs. Historically, there have been two theories: the cursorial theory, which claims that flight evolved from the ground up and the arboreal theory, which claims flight evolved from the trees down. Since most evolutionists prefer to believe that dinosaurs/birds first learned to glide before they engaged in more complex powered flight, the arboreal theory is currently the prevailing view. Most evolutionists prefer to think of M. gui as a glider that was incapable of powered flight. Chatterjee and Templin speculate that M. gui’s biplane arrangement of wings resulted in an undulating glide between trees. Presumably when this creature finally reached the ground it would have to climb back up into the trees again—a task not made easy by the six-inch-long trailing feathers on its feet and legs. In the interest of evolution, the authors downplay any possibility that it could fly without gliding. Feathers may provide evidence for powered flight If one looks at birds today, it is possible to distinguish flying birds from non-flying birds by the shape of the primary feathers in the wing. The large wing feathers of flying birds have asymmetric feather vanes. That is, the vane on the leading edge of the feather is slender while that on the trailing edge is broad. This produces an airfoil and stability essential for flight. Nonflying birds, or even birds that do not fly well, such as chickens, have symmetric feather vanes. What kind of feathers did M. gui have? All six specimens of M. gui fossils now known to exist have beautifully preserved feathers. In all specimens the large feathers of the wing are highly asymmetrical as one might expect of a good flyer. We should recall that evolutionists were once reluctant to view Archaeopteryx (also bearing asymmetrical wing feathers) as being either a bird or capable of powered flight. At least most ornithologists now agree that Archaeopteryx was both a bird and a capable flyer. But was M. gui a dinosaur? The most interesting question about M. gui is not if it had wings like a biplane or even if it were a glider or powerful flyer. The real question is, was M. gui really a flying/gliding feathered dinosaur? There is no question that M. gui had true pennaceous feathers essentially identical to those of modern birds. There is no question that M. gui had true pennaceous feathers essentially identical to those of modern birds. These feathers are not to be confused with the so-called “protofeathers” reported on early Cretaceous theropods of China such as Sinosauropteryx3 or the herring bone patterns found in the skin of other theropod dinosaurs such as Sinornithosaurus.4 These structures bear no real resemblance to feathers and may be better interpreted as interwoven collagen fibers in the dermis of these animals.5 Feduccia and coworkers have presented a substantial body of evidence to support their view that there are, in fact, no known dinosaurs with feathers.5 They further point out that the three digits of the theropod hand are 1, 2, and 3 (digits 4 and 5 being reduced during embryonic development), while the three digits of the bird hand are 2, 3, and 4 (digits 1 and 5 being reduced or resorbed during embryonic development). Perhaps the biggest problem is that Archaeopteryx, a true bird with true feathers, is believed by evolutionists to occur in the fossil record 60–80 million years earlier than the Chinese theropod dinosaurs that are presumed to be the ancestors of birds.6 Finally, several unquestioned birds with unquestioned feathers have been found in the early Cretaceous in China including the modern looking aquatic bird Gansus yumenensis.7 The microraptors themselves, including M. gui, are more like birds than theropod dinosaurs. If we compare the hands of Microraptor to Archaeopteryx, for example, we find the same bird-like phalangeal formula for their digits (2-3-4).8 Feduccia et al.5 have concluded that “the microraptors of China are birds, regardless of their ancestry” (page 162). The story that emerges then is not as charming as that presented in the popular media of feathered dinosaurs “experimenting” with flight using the same biplane “strategy” as the Wright brothers used, in an effort to “figure out” how to fly. A critical assessment of the data by evolutionists themselves reveals that, regardless of how it flew, M. gui was a bird, not a dinosaur. The evidence supports the conclusion that birds give rise to birds, and that they reproduce after their kind. But this is a story unlikely to be embraced by evolutionists or the popular media.
The genesis of the motet is, like the biblical birth of Eve, a matter of appendage. In the case of Eve, a rib was removed from Adam and fashioned into a women; the motet was a rib added to pre-existing clausulae. James C. Thomson describes this development as follows: In the thirteenth century, perhaps sooner, it became the practice to add a new text to the upper voice of a clausula. The newly worded, was then called motetus. (Thomson, 56) Despite its somewhat haphazard birth, the form was widely accepted. Grout describes its popularity as: Thousands of motets were written in the thirteenth century; the style spread from Paris throughout France and to all parts of western Europe. (Grout, 99) Originality was not a hallmark of the thirteenth century motet. In fact, of the two essential characteristics of the motet, one was that it was constructed on a cantus firmus, some pre-existent melody (Thomson, 57) The other was that it had at least two different texts. As Grout points out, the stock of motet melodies, both tenors and upper parts, lay in the public domain; composers and performers freely helped themselves to the music of their predecessors without acknowledgment and altered it without notice. (Grout, 99) A unique characteristic of the motet of this period is the mixing of melodies and rhythms. Alfred Einstein described this technique as: This may be called polymelody, the compulsory combination of the two or more distinct melodies with different rhythms (Einstein, 26) With the acceptance of such combinations came the development of stranger mixtures. Side by side with a sacred liturgical text appeared secular texts of sometimes outrageous contrast. The mixture of sacred and secular text was a result of the fact that less and less notice was taken of the connection between the texts of the tenor and duplum. Einstein theorized this development was arbitrary, however most belief the music is premised on an, internal perception (Bukofzer, 28) and to the musician, to them a detail was a value in itself. (Mathiassen, 70) The motet blended the different planes of music. An additional development in the technique of mixing and adding is that not only was it polyphonic, polyrythmic, and polytextual, but music was now polyglot: one or more vernacular (French) texts might be substituted for Latin ones. (Thomson, 57) During this time, composers of the Notre Dame School concerned themselves with the development of clausulae in rhythmically identical patterns. (Harman, 53) Harman writes: This was not only the culmination of the Notre Dame preoccupation with rhythm, but was also a very important innovation, because it eventually developed into the chief structural device of the fourteenth century motet. (Harman, 53) The structural device alluded to above, goes under name of isorhythm, (same rhythm). At first, this concept of single rhythm was applied solely to the tenor part, but gradually the principle was applied to the other parts. Creating a greater unity and sense of whole to the listener. Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361) was a master of the isorythmic motet. (Thomson, 59) It was he who pioneered the application of the principle to the other parts. He and Guillaume de Machaut (c.1300-c.1377), whose claim that the ear should be used to check a completed composition was the first indication that the combination of the given melodies was beginning to yield to a freer, more individual attitude towards creative art. (Einstein, 34) Machaut was the most prominent practitioner of the strophic motet and preferred the use of French text. (Saide, 625) The fourteenth century also witnessed a change in attitude toward text. The polytextual thirteenth-century motet was replaced by the fourteenth-century forms, which typically had a single text, treated either as a solo (the French ballad) or distributed between the voices in such a way as to keep the words always clearly understandable. (Grout, 157) The development of the motet from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries can be characterized as a gradual turning away from the abstract, nonsensuous principles of construction toward pleasure of sounds for their own sake, and toward a clarity of structure immediately apparent from the music itself, without reference to esoteric meanings. (Grout, 157) Many of the motets written during the fourteenth century were constructed in a fashion that has come to be called isoperiodic. In these the phrases were normally kept at the same length but were laid out so as to produce overlaps between the various voices. (Saide, 625) Up until the fifteenth century, the principle of cantus firmus, or pre-existent melody use, was rigidly adhered to. The fifteenth century ushers in major changes to the motet. The first half of the fifteenth century was a period of transition and transformation in the history of the motet. While, in conservative France, the style of the motet is still based on a cantus firmus and still polytextual. (Thomson, 87) In Italian motets of the same period, although there are some with isorhythm, new features are discernible. Many were freely composed, not being based on any pre-existent melody. In England, liturgical motets were written in which all the parts were newly composed (Harman, 189) John Dunstables Quam pulchra es, demonstrates a more freely composed polyphony, totally independent of any pre-existing melody. (Thomson, 88) In general, the motets of the fifteenth were less subjective and more popular in character than that of the fourteenth century.(Einstein 39) The late fifteenth century, with the next generation of composers, the motet built on a tenor cantus firmus once again became an important stylistic type. Of Johannes Regis eight motets written in this period, all but one is of this style. Regis increased the potential sonority of his works by adding four additional voices around the tenor. All five voices usually simultaneously engaged only at the culmination of a section. (Saide, 630) With the sixteenth century came a new style, epitomized by the works of Josqin Des Perez. His Ave Maria, illustrates his style and characteristics contained in his music. Each phrase of text has its own musical motive, which is first presented in imitation by each voice in turn; the musical sentence thus indicated comes eventually to a cadence, and a similar sentence, on the next phrase of the text and with its own musical motive, begins.(Grout, 199) Josquins greatest contribution to the development of the motet was his use of pervading imitation as a unifying device..(Harman, 202) This he accomplished primarily through the contrasting of pairs of voices. In addition, he divided his work into large sections, set off by simultaneous cadencing of all voices and by the introduction of changes in meter and tempo.(Grout, 199) Motets composed by Josquin were his most significant contributions to the style we call Netherlandish(Thomson, 105) In addition to this style, the sixteenth century motet is noted for many settings for Psalms, rare until the early sixteenth century, and motets in this generation were often much longer than previously, so they were divided into partes, or sections, frequently contrasting with each other.(Thomson, 105) Finally, associated with the Netherlanders is the so-called drive to the cadence, a thickening of the texture of the piece by employing all of the voices during the final measures. This created an exciting finish. In Germany, with the Lutheran split, came a gradual development of the so-called choral motet. This was an idea to use the traditional melodies as the basic material for free artistic creation, to which they added individual interpretation and pictorial details.(Grout, 257) In Italy, specifically in Venice, the motet form was applied to divided choirs. Divided choirs have long since been used as the parallel structure of Psalm verses and also to vary the presentation of the plain chant. To fully appreciate the application of divided choirs at St. Marks in Venice, a description of the site was described as: St. Marks isextremely rich in material and decoration partly because by law every merchant who traded in the East was required to bring back some material adornment to add to its treasure the services at St. Marks mirrored the glory of the state and were resplendent with ornate, elaborate processions and ritual pageantry.(Thomson, 129) Under the direction of Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612), choirs were employed at St. Marks on a grand scale. Gabrieli composed motets for four choirs of four voices each, together with dissimilar groups of instruments in connection with the choirs. Contrast was the hallmark of the sixteenth century St. Marks motet. Einstein described this effect as; Instead of voices, a work was built upon the question and answer, the timbre, the echo, the tonal combination of differently constituted choirs of voices and instruments. (Einstein, 54) Giovanni Pierluiga da Palestrina is the archetype composer of the Counter Reformation. For Einstein, Palestrina is the composer of the ideal type of church music, pure, purged of all subjectivity, marvelously harmonious(Einstein, 53) Palestrina studied and understood the newest developments of the motet, yet his motets embody the Counter Reformations ideals of conservatism, inwardness, purification, and concentration(Grout, 272) Palestrinas compositional style provided the matrix for the artistic culmination of the Spanish tradition, as embodied in the motets of Victoria. Tomas Luis de Victoria, a contemporary of Palestrina, was a more subjective composer of the motet. Though his style is like that of Palestrina, Victoria infuses his music with a mystical intensity, a quality which makes it both thoroughly personal and typically Spanish.(Grout, 273) Orlando di Lasso, another great contemporary of Palestrina, composed in a deeply personal tone. In his motets both the over-all form and the details are generated from a pictorial, dramatic approach to the text.(Grout, 274) Lassos In Hora Ultima demonstrates this approach in the abrupt musical depictions of those worldly vanities(Grout, 274) William Byrd, an English contemporary of Palestrina, is noted for his perfection of the imitative techniques of the Continent and, in contrast to Palestrina, his more intimate, subjective language.(Grout, 276) With the end of the sixteenth century, music history ushers in the baroque period. The three hundred year development of the all important motet has laid the foundation of music for the great composers which would follow. The motet is called one of the most important music styles in history and its contributions have been limitless to our music history. Bukofzer, Manfred F., Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music, W.W. Norton & Co. Inc., New York, NY. 1950. Einstein, Alfred., A Short History of Music, Vintage Books, New York, NY. 1954. Grout, Donald J., A History of Western Music, W.W. Norton & Co. Inc., New York, NY. 1973. Harman, Alec, Man and His Music, Part One: Medieval and Early Renaissance Music, Schocken Books, New York, NY. 1972. Mathiassen, Finn, The Style of the Early Motet, Dan Fog Musikforlag, Copenhagen, Denmark 1966. Saide, Stanley, The New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. 12, Macmillan Publishing Ltd., London, England 1980. Thomson, James C., Music Through the Renaissance, Wm. C. Brown Co. Dubuque, Iowa 1968.
A Guide for Preschool Teachers and Child Care and Family Providers \|PDF (162 KB)\| Reading Aloud to Children In the landmark 1986 review Becoming a Nation of Readers, the Commission on Reading, called reading aloud to children "the single most important activity for building the knowledge required for success in reading." The best time to begin reading books with children is when they are infantsbabies as young as six weeks old enjoy being read to and looking at pictures. By age two or three, children begin to develop an awareness of printed letters and words. They see adults around them reading, writing, and using printed words for many purposes. Toddlers and preschoolers are especially ready to learn from adults reading to and with them. Reading aloud to young children is important because it helps them acquire the information and skills they need to succeed in school and life, such as: - Knowledge of printed letters and words and the relationship between sound and print. - The meaning of many words. - How books work and a variety of writing styles. - The world in which they live. - The difference between written language and everyday conversation. - The pleasure of reading. Here are some suggestions for reading aloud to children. Make reading books an enjoyable experience. Choose a comfortable place where the children can sit near you. Help them feel safe and secure. Be enthusiastic about reading. Show the children that reading is an interesting and rewarding activity. When children enjoy being read to, they will grow to love books and be eager to learn to read. Read to children frequently. Read to the children in your care several times a day. Establish regular times for reading during the day, and find other opportunities to read: - Start or end the day with a book. - Read to children after a morning play period which also helps settle them down. - Read to them during snack time or before nap time. Help children to learn as you read. Offer explanations, make observations, and help the children to notice new information. Explain words that they may not know. Point out how the pictures in a book relate to the story. If the story takes place in an historic era or in an unfamiliar place, give children some background information so that they will better understand and enjoy the story. Talk about the characters' actions and feelings. Find ways to compare the book that you are reading with what the children have been doing in the classroom. Ask children questions as you read. Ask questions that help children connect the story with their own lives or that help them to compare the book with other books that they have read. Ask questions that help the children to notice what is in the book and ask them to predict what happens next. Encourage children to talk about the book. Have a conversation with the children about the book you are reading. Answer their questions. Welcome their observations, and add to what they say. Continue to talk about the book after you have read it. Invite the children to comment on the story. Ask them to talk about their favorite parts and encourage them to tell the story in their own words. Reading Aloud with Children In this example, a teacher reads Eric Hill's "lift-the-flap" book Spot's First Walk. Notice how the experience is like a conversation. The teacher invites the children's comments and answers their questions. She builds on what they say and encourages them to make sense of what is happening in the story. She tells the children new information that will help them to understand and enjoy the book more. \|Book\|\|Teacher and Children\| \|Not in there, Spot.\|\|T: Where's Spot going? C: Out there. T: Yes, he's going through a hole in the fence. C: What's he going to do? T: I don't know. Let's read and find out. (lifts flap) \|Hello!\|\|T: Who's saying "hello"? Do you know what that is? T: It's a snail. . .a little animal that you might find in a garden. See the shell on its back? (points to shell) \|Watch out!\|\|T: Who's saying, "watch out!"? C: That bird (points to bird). T: That's right! The blue bird that's sitting on the shovel is telling Spot to watch out. T: Maybe Spot could get into trouble if he goes in that little blue house. Let's see what happens. (lifts flap) \|(Picture of angry-looking cat with "!!!" in speech cat balloon)\|\|C: Oh, it's a cat! T: Yes, a cat that looks as big as Spot. Does that cat look happy to see Spot? C: He looks like a mean cat. T: Yes, he looks mean to me, too. I don't think he's happy to see Spot. That's probably why the bird told Spot to watch out. C: I'd be scared. T: Me, too! C: What's this? (points to exclamation marks in speech balloon) T: These are called exclamation marks. Cats can't talk, but they make a hissing sound when they get angry (makes a hissing sound). I think that's the writer's way of showing us that the cat is hissing at Spot and telling him to get away. Read many kinds of books. Children need to be read different kinds of books. Storybooks can help children to learn about times, cultures, and peoples other than their own; stories can help them understand how others think, act, and feel. Informational books can help children learn facts about the world around them. These books also introduce children to important concepts and vocabulary that they will need for success in school. Read books that relate to the children's backgrounds: their experiences, cultures, languages and interests. Read books with characters and situations both similar and dissimilar to those in the children's lives so they can learn about the world. Choose books to help you teach. Use alphabet books to help you teach the names of the letters and the sounds that each letter represents and use counting books to teach children how to count and to recognize numbers. Use poetry or rhyming books to support your teaching of phonological awareness. Use big books (oversized books that your children can easily see) to point out letters, words, and other features of print and to teach book handling. Choose stories that help children learn about social behavior, for example books about friendship to help children learn to share and cooperate. Also choose stories that show children how the world around them works for example, what is happening with the eggs that are hatching in your science area. Reread favorite books. Children love to hear their favorite books over and over again. Hearing books read several times helps children understand and notice new things. For example, they may figure out what an unfamiliar word means when they have heard the story several times. They may notice repeated sound patterns. If you point out some letters and words as you read the book repeatedly, children also may pick up specific words that are easily recognized and specific letter-sound relationships. Types of Books for Reading Aloud Alphabet books. Alphabet books usually feature the capital and lowercase forms of a letter on each page and one or more pictures of something that begins with the most common sound that the letter represents. Counting (or number) books. In these books, each page usually presents one number and shows a corresponding number of items (two monkeys, five dinosaurs, and so forth). Concept books. These books are designed to teach particular concepts that children need to know in order to succeed in school. Concept books may teach about colors, shapes, sizes (big, little), or opposites (up, down). They may focus on concepts (farm or zoo animals, families around the world, trucks, or places to live). Nursery rhymes. These books often contain rhymes and repeated verses, which is why they are easy to remember and recite and why they appeal to children. Repetitious stories and pattern books. In these predictable books, a word or phrase is repeated throughout the story, forming a pattern. After the first few pages, your children may be able to "read along" because they know the pattern. This ability will let them experience the pleasure of reading. Traditional literature. Traditional literature includes fairy tales, folktales, fables, myths, and legends from around the world and across the ages of time. Through these beloved stories, children become familiar with many different times, cultures, and traditions. Some stories, such as Cinderella, vary slightly from culture to culture and it is interesting to compare their differences. Wordless picture books. These books tell stories through pictures, without using words. Wordless picture books give children the opportunity to tell stories themselves as they "read," an activity that most children enjoy. In telling their stories, children develop language skills; they also get a sense of the sequence of events in stories.
Surface Area Of Cone As shown in the figure below, a right cone is a cone where the axis is also the altitude. That means the height from the point on top to the base on the bottom hits the circle center at a 90° angle. when we look at this cone's net, we can understand about its lateral area and surface areas. The lateral area of the cone is really a sector of a circle with radius l. The arc length of the sector is the same as the circumference of the base circle. The lateral area is the area of the sector. If we compare that to the area of what would be the whole circle, we can compare the arc length to what would have been the circumference. We are trying to find the area of the sector. The area of the circle with radius l is πl^2. The measure of the arc is the circumference of the smaller circle, 2πr, and the circumference of the bigger circle is 2πl. Area of sector = πrl That means the lateral area of a cone is equal to πrl. To get the total surface area of a cone, let us add the area of the base: SA = πrl + πr2 An Ice Cream Company is making its own conical waffle cones. The Ice Cream Scooper is a scoop of ice cream that's 6 inches in diameter in a waffle cone. The cone itself has an altitude of 10 inches. How much waffle do they need to make the cone in square inches? The diameter of the scoop is the diameter of the circular base of the cone. We're interested in the radius, not the diameter. That means our radius r is 3 inches. What about l, the slant height? The radius and the altitude form two legs of a right triangle with the slant height as the hypotenuse. Pythagorize it up. a2 + b2 = c2 (3)^2 + (10)^2 = c2 109 = c2 c ≈ 10.44 inches Now that we've found our slant height, we can find the waffle area using the lateral area formula for a cone. L = πrl L = π(3 inches)(10.44 inches) L ≈ 98.4 square inches Like a pyramid, the surface area of an entire cone (base included), is just the lateral area plus the area of the base. SA = L + B We know the lateral area of a cone is πrl. The base of the cone is a circle with area πr2. So we arrive the surface area formula as, SA = πrl + πr2 SA = (3.14) (3) (98.4) + (3.14)(3)(3) = 926.93+28.26 = 955.19 inches
Gamma radiation consists of photons, like visible light or X-rays, but much more energetic. Visible light has an energy of the order of an electron volt (1 eV), a unit used by physicists. X-rays have energies from a thousand to millions of eV. The High Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) detects very high energy gamma rays, reaching a million eV (teraelectronvolts). There are few of these very high energy gamma rays: even for a relatively intense astrophysical source, the flux of gamma photons penetrating into the atmosphere is about one per month per square metre.
Molecules or ions which can either donate or accept a protonThe positively charged particle in an atomic nucleus; its mass is similar to the mass of a hydrogen atom., depending on their circumstances, are called amphiprotic species. The most important amphiprotic species is water itself. When an acid donates a proton to water, the water molecule is a proton acceptor, and hence a base. Conversely, when a base reacts with water, a water molecule donates a proton, and hence acts as an acid. Another important groupThose elements that comprise a single column of the periodic table. Also called family. of amphiprotic species is the amino acids. Each amino acid molecule contains an acidic carboxyl group and a basic amino group. In fact the amino acids usually exist in zwitterion (German for “double ion”) form, where the proton has transferred from the carboxyl to the amino group. In the case of glycine, for example, the zwitterion is The zwitterion can donate one of the protons from the N, just as an NH4+ ion can donate a proton. On the other hand, its COO– end can accept a proton, just as a CH3COO– ion can. Other common amphiprotic species are HCO3–, H2PO4–, HPO42–, and other anions derived from diproticDescribes an acid that can donate two hydrogen ions (protons) to a base. or triprotic acids. EXAMPLE 1 Write equations to show the amphiprotic behavior of (a) H2PO4–; (b) H2O. Solution To make an amphiprotic species behave as an acid requires a fairly good proton acceptor. Conversely, to make it behave as a base requires a proton donor. Acid: H2PO4– + OH– → HPO4– + H2O Base: H2PO4– + H3O+ → H3PO4 + H2O Acid: H2O + S2– → OH– + HS– Base: H2O + H2SO4 → H3O+ + HSO4–
Definition of Jaundice Jaundice: Yellow staining of the skin and sclerae (the whites of the eyes) by abnormally high blood levels of the bile pigment bilirubin. The yellowing extends to other tissues and body fluids. Jaundice was once called the "morbus regius" (the regal disease) in the belief that only the touch of a king could cure it. When red blood cells are removed from the bloodstream, hemoglobin, the molecule in red cells that carries oxygen, is broken down into bilirubin. The bilirubin is carried to the liver and excreted into the intestine as a component of bile. Jaundice can indicate liver or gallbladder disease. When the excretion of bilirubin is hindered, excess bilirubin passes into the blood, resulting in jaundice. Inflammation or other abnormalities of liver cells hinder the excretion of bilirubin into bile. Or the bile ducts outside the liver may be blocked by a gallstone or a tumor. Jaundice can also result from the excessive breakdown of red blood cells (a process called hemolysis) and too much bilirubin is released into the bloodstream. This occurs typically in the hemolytic anemias (as opposed to the aplastic anemias in which not enough red cells are produced). Jaundice is common in newborns because there is some hemolysis during labor and delivery and the newborn's liver is immature and may not be fully up to the task of handling the bilirubin for a few days. In Gilbert syndrome, the blood bilirubin levels are slightly increased, enough to cause mild jaundice. This genetic condition is usually discovered serendipitously during routine screening tests of liver function. It causes no symptoms and no problems. The figurative use of "jaundice" in "to view things with a jaundiced eye" refers to an attitude of distaste. This may reflect the distaste with which a jaundiced person views food, since severe jaundice typically brings loss of appetite and feelings nausea. "Jaundice" is often said to have come from the French "jaune" for yellow. This is incorrect. The word "jaundice" stemmed from the Latin "galbinus" which described a light greenish-yellow color. In Old French this became "jaunisse" and, in crossing the English Channel, it became "jaundice." In French "jaundice" is still "jaunisse." The term icterus is synonymous with jaundice. A person who is icteric is jaundiced. Abnormally high blood bilirubin is termed hyperbilirubinemia.Source: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary Last Editorial Review: 5/13/2016 Find out what women really need.
Scientific Name: Caracara cheriway These birds of prey prefer low and open countryside, such as savannas, pastures, river edges and ranches. The crested caracara can be found in the southwestern United States and Florida, Central America and South America. Refuges where the crested Caracara can be found: The Florida population–an isolated, relict group–is listed as a threatened species. The caracara’s habitat is under siege both from development and from increasing temperatures. In contrast to its fast-flying relatives in the falcon family, the crested caracara is slow-moving and often forages on the ground. Its common name comes from South America and probably imitates the sound of its call. Adults have black feathers on their body, wings and crown, with patches of white on their neck and tail. Caracaras prefer carrion (animal carcasses), but they will also feed on small mammals, reptiles, fish, crab, insects and young birds–or steal food from other birds. Caracaras usually build large stick nests in cacti or trees, but, if necessary, they will nest on the ground. What NWRA is doing: Beyond the Boundaries: Everglades Help us protect important habitat in Florida for the crested caracara and other animals. NWRA’s Beyond the Boundaries: Everglades program is working closely with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other partners to conserve land, water and wildlife in the Greater Everglades. Stretching from the Kissimmee Chain of Lakes in the north to Big Cypress National Preserve in the south, the Greater Everglades contains dry prairies, longleaf pine savannas, expansive working ranchlands and seasonally wet grasslands. This relatively intact landscape provides both a home and a corridor for the rare, isolated population of caracaras in Florida.
The Delaware Indians are often called the Lenni-Lenape Indians. “Lenni-Lenape” means “real people”.The Lenni Lenape inhabited southeastern New York state, eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and northern Maryland. Most of their villages were located near the Delaware or Susquehanna Rivers. Like many of the Eastern Woodland peoples, the Lenni-Lenape were an agricultural people who grew corn, beans, and squash. They also hunted for deer, elk, and turkeys using bows and arrows. The Lenni-Lenape built villages of round houses called wigwams. Some Lenape Indians, however, built Iroquois-style longhouses in which entire families could live together. Lenape Indians were divided into clans (family groups). Clan membership was matrilineal (children inherited clan membership from their mother). Clans lived in stationary villages and used the surrounding land until the resources were exhausted. Lenape men were typically in charge of hunting and protecting their families. Women were in charge of farming, cooking, and taking care of the children. Lenape mothers often carried their babies in cradleboards – boards in which the baby was strapped to and positioned on the mother’s back. Children often accompanied their fathers on hunting trips and had their own toys such as miniature dolls and bows and arrows. Older children participated in games similar to modern-day lacrosse and kickball. Lenape men typically wore a breechcloth, a long rectangular piece of cloth tucked between the leg and tucked over the belt, forming flaps in front and in back. Women wore knee-length skirts. Men and women wore earrings and deerskin moccasins. They also painted their faces for different celebrations, and men often had tattoos honoring different animals. Males sometimes had a mohawk hairstyle, or, completely shaved their heads. The Lenni Lenape Indians held many ceremonies. The most important ceremony was known as The Big House. The Big House lasted 12 days and involved a log structure representing the universe, the lighting of a sacred fire, and offerings to a God known as the Guardian of the Game. The purpose of the ceremony was to promote tribal unity, hope for good fortune, and for personal renewal. The modern history of the Lenni Lenape people is closely connected with the history and development of the United States. In 1626, members of the Lenni Lenape tribe sold Manhattan Island to Peter Minuet and Dutch settlers for various trinkets, tools, and beads. Manhattan Island would later become the center of America’s largest city – New York City. The Lenni Lenape, however, did not believe they were selling the land forever and believed that no one person could “own” land. They thought they were simply selling the rights to use the land. In 1682, the Lenni Lenape signed a treaty of friendship with William Penn and the Quakers in Pennsylvania. The treaty became the first of its kind signed between Europeans and Indians. Negotiation of the treaty is historically credited to Tamanend, a legendary Lenni-Lenape chief known for his peaceful ways. Today, several societies and festivals in Philadelphia and elsewhere are named in his honor. Tammany Hall, a famous political organization in New York City in the 1800’s and 1900’s, was named for him. In 1778, the Lenni Lenape became the first group of native peoples to sign a treaty with the U.S. government pledging their support in the American Revolution. Eventually, however, the rapid rate of colonization forced the Lenni Lenape from their lands. Furthermore, the Lenni Lenapes gradually became dependent on European goods. When local resources such as beaver pelts became exhausted, the Lenni Lenape were left with little to offer in trade and quickly declined in population because of disease and alcoholism. In 1766, they were forced to sign the Treaty of Easton, which forced them to move from their ancestral lands to western Pennsylvania and Ohio. Today, some Lenni Lenape descendents live on reservations in Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and Ontario, Canada.
A silver swath of sunglint surrounds half of the Hawaiian islands in this true-color Terra MODIS image acquired on May 27, 2003. Sunglint reveals turbulence in the surface waters of the Pacific Ocean. If the surface of the water was as smooth as a perfect mirror, we would see the circle of the Sun as a perfect reflection. But because the surface of the water is ruffled with waves, each wave acts like a mirror and the Sun’s reflection gets softened into a broader silver swath, called the sunglint region. In this scene, the winds ruffling the water surface around the Hawaiian Islands create varying patterns, leaving some areas calmer than others. Southwest of Hawaii and Maui, on their leeward sides, calmer waters are indicated by brighter silver coloration. Conversely, notice how most of the vegetation on the Hawaiian Islands grows on their northeastern, or windward, sides. From lower right to upper left, the “Big Island” (Hawaii), Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau islands all make up the state of Hawaii, which lies more than 2,000 miles from any other part of the United States. The small red dot on the Big Island’s southeastern side marks a hot spot on Kilauea Volcano’s southern flank. Kilauea has been erupting almost continuously since January 1983, and is one of the world’s best studied volcanoes. Winds ruffling the water surface around the Hawaiian Islands create varying patterns, leaving some areas calmer than others. On the leeward sides of the islands, calmer waters show up as brighter silver coloration. Conversely, most vegetation grows on the windward sides.
All animals communicate in their own way. For some, it’s through body language. For others, it’s through vocalization, behavior, or social interaction. Rats are particularly interesting in that they have various ways of communicating. Rats that live in the same community have different methods of identifying each other as opposed to those they are not familiar with. It’s truly fascinating behavior that shows a level of intelligence that researchers are just beginning to understand. Rats live in complex communities and have various methods of communication with other members of their community. The most common is body language. Rats mature at around five weeks, and males at this age tend to become more aggressive towards each other. Rats live in a hierarchical community, the more dominant of which achieve alpha status. These physical confrontations are natural behavior for rats and are used to communicate and establish their place within their community. When meeting strangers, the first communication is usually through body language. They will puff up their fur, fight with one another, and pin each other down. Unless this escalates, rats generally will become friends after this initial confrontation. In fact, rats are social animals. They will nest, eat, play, fight, groom, and sleep together. Rats can make sounds that are outside of the range of human hearing. Of the sounds they make that we can hear, almost all are related to frustration or distress. Another common sound is known as “bruxing.” Bruxing is the sound that results when rats grind their teeth. This is a standard rodent behavior and is generally a sign that they are relaxed. Much like dogs, rats will urinate to establish territory. Urination communicates a lot of information to other rats and other animals in their environment. One rat’s urine can transmit information such as their place in the social hierarchy, reproductive status, age, and gender. By following these trails, rats can determine where they are in the environment and the path to get back to their colony. Signs of Rat Infestation Because they are community animals, if you see a rat, or other signs like rat droppings, trails, or notice the smell of urine in your home, you may have a problem. Rat infestation is a serious issue that is best handled by a professional exterminator. If you live in the greater Seattle area, and you suspect you may have a rat problem, give the professionals at Whitworth Pest Solutions a call. They are experts at the extermination and removal of unwanted pests, like rats, from your home. Feature image: 279photo Studio/Shutterstock
In this blog post I want to share an activity to make authentic songs comprehensible. The idea is not mine– it comes by way of Kara Jacobs. She has created examples of the technique in Spanish and I am hoping I can bring the community of French teachers on board. Kara writes a script to tell the story of a music video. Well, actually she writes all kinds of stories and one type of story that she writes is from music videos. I find this idea to be ingenious because it is another way to give comprehensible input to your students while sharing a song with them. Songs grab students’ attention and are as such a way to get students to engage with material. Here are the steps following Kara’s format with the French resources linked to start you out while using the song Rien à vous dire by Jérôme Minière. - Give students a sheet with six boxes. Read the story out loud, stopping at the end of each paragraph. Students draw what they hear on the handout. - Show the video. - Have students read the story. Collect back the story. - Have students unscramble the story. - Play Quizlet live with blanks for the verbs in the sentences. - For homework, students rewrite the story and change three things, including the end of the story. Have them use their pictures to remember what happens in the story. - Students read their stories to their group and the other group members need to identify the changes. Group votes on the best story. Teacher reads out loud the best stories and the group members become the actors for the mother, father, boy / Jérôme, teacher and a couple students. Maybe do three stories. - Teacher has students underline the verbs in their stories and does a class workshop to correct the verbs. Students hand in stories for teacher to read and respond to content and humor only, not verb tense. I think that stories from music videos work well with Intermediate Low learners. There is yet another great way to deliver comprehensible input for songs that I think works better for Novice Mid learners and I learned from posts by Elizabeth Barron on Musique Mercredi. Elizabeth write stories about penguins to preview vocabulary from current songs. I wrote a penguin story in the same style. You can see the original Penguin Stories on the Musique Mercredi Music Facebook page. Join the group and search on Elizabeth Barron’s name.
The Rock Pillars of Stonehenge Fun Facts About Stonehenge - Stonehenge is located on the Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England – about 137 kilometers Southwest of London. - The origins of the name Stonehenge is taken from the combination of ‘stone’ and ‘henge’, a tribute to the biggest henge in Britain. - Though there is no specific evidence about who built the Stonehenge. It is believed that Druids, Greeks, or Atlanteans might have built the Stonehenge. - Stonehenge was constructed somewhere between 3100 – 1100 BCE. - On September 21st, 1915, C.H. Chubb purchased Stonehenge for 6,600 pounds - Stonehenge and its surroundings were added to the UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites in 1986 and is also legally protected by the Scheduled Ancient Monument. - Stonehenge is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage while the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust. - The circle was aligned with the midsummer sunrise, the midwinter sunset, and the most southerly rising and northerly setting of the moon. - The builders of Stonehenge have featured it in a way that it encompasses sophisticated mathematical and geometrical understandings of the framework and the structural engineering of the construction. - Stonehenge has a henge, or a ditch and bank, which surround the large stone circle. - The stones of Stonehenge were placed in such a way that they increase in size towards the centre and alternate in shape between tall, thin pillar-like stones and stones of a tapering obelisk shape. - Two types of stone were used for the construction of Stonehenge- the ‘bluestones’ which weighed almost four tons and were brought from 240 miles away. The other type of stone used was the ‘Sarsen’ stones which had a height of about eighteen feet and weighed twenty-five tons. - It is anticipated that more than thirty million hours of labor was required for the construction of Stonehenge. - Stonehenge is the most well known among the nine hundred stone rings which exists in the British Isles. - Most archaeologists believed that Stonehenge’s use had been limited to the ritual activities of different Neolithic chiefdoms before 1950. However, its use as an astronomical observatory was an equally important function of the Stonehenge. The Brooklyn Bridge - an iconic landmark in human ingenuity Fun Facts About the Brooklyn Bridge - In 1802, NY State Legislature received petition to construct a bridge over the East River as an alternative to the many ferry services that operated at the time, including the Nassau, part of the Fulton Ferry Line (named after Robert Fulton). - The construction of the Brooklyn Bridge started in 1869 and took 14 years to complete. - In 1869, President Ulysses S. Grant, signed the bill to approve the Brooklyn Bridge Plan. - The Organization chartered to build the Brooklyn Bridge was named The New York Bridge Company. - At the time many saw the construction of such a large bridge as a folly. Wilhelm Hildenbrand and John Augustus Roebling - The driving force behind the whole project, John Augustus Roebling, was a German immigrant who had worked for the Prussian government as a bridge and road builder. He launched the idea of building a bridge across the East River after he had taken a ferry across the river that ended up stuck in the ice. - Assisting Roebling with the bridge design was architect Wilhelm Hildenbrand. - Roebling would never get to see the bridge he had designed: on July 6th, 1869, at the Brooklyn Fulton Ferry Slip, his foot was crushed while determining the exact location of the Brooklyn-side bridge tower. Although his toes were amputated, he would die 16 days later from Lockjaw (an infection) at the age of 63. - Roebling wasn’t the only one to lose his life during the construction: 20 of the in total 600 workers died while working on the bridge. - The son of John Roebling, Washington Roebling, took over the leadership of the project but he suffered from the caisson-disease as a result of the works on the pillars of the bridge and was on his deathbed during the inauguration. - On opening day, May 24, 1883, about 150,000 people crossed the bridge. - The opening day ceremony was presided over by President Chester A. Arthur and Governor Grover Cleveland. - Roebling had not just made a bridge that looked incredibly strong, it also turned out to be just as strong in reality. A mesh of cables of which the four strongest have a diameter of 11 inches are anchored in the ground and keep the bridge from collapsing. But even if the four strongest cables would snap, the other cables would still be sufficient to support the bridge. Roebling even claimed that the bridge wouldn’t collapse without any cables, it would merely sag. - But even after the inauguration, many New Yorkers were not convinced the bridge was safe. So as to prove the doubters wrong, P.T. Barnum led a caravan of circus animals – including a herd of 21 elephants – across the bridge in 1884. - Initial Bridge Toll – 1 cent on Opening Day; 3 cents thereafter - The Brooklyn Bridge ranks as one of the greatest engineering feats of the 19th century and remains one of New York’s most popular and well known landmarks. - The impressive bridge spans the East river between Brooklyn and Manhattan and stretches for a length of 5989 ft, about 1.8 km. The length between the large towers is 1595.5 ft (486 meter). This made the Brooklyn bridge the world’s largest suspension bridge at the time. - The most noticeable feature of the Brooklyn Bridge are the two masonry towers to which the many cables are attached. The towers with large gothic arches are 276 ft tall (84 meter), at the time making them some of the tallest landmarks in New York. - Roebling claimed that the monumental towers would make the bridge a historic monument. He was proven right when the bridge officially became a national monument in 1964. - An elevated pedestrian path not only gives you the opportunity to cross the river without being bothered by the traffic that rushes past a level below, but it also offers a great view of the bridge’s towers as well as downtown Manhattan’s skyline. The views alone attract millions of visitors to this bridge each year. - Brooklyn, founded by Dutch settlers in 1636, was an independent city until 1898 when Brooklyn decided in a close vote to become a borough of New York. At that time the Brooklyn bridge had connected the two cities for 15 years.
Discipline is how Parents Teach their Children Praise success and good tries. Be clear and consistent about what you expect. Listening is important; let your child finish the story before helping to solve the problem. Praising your child for good behavior works most of the time, but you will still need to set limits. Sometimes a time-out is needed for either you or your child. All children want to be good and please their parents, but they need to learn how. Young children view the world as “good and bad” or “right and wrong”—nothing in between. Teach your child right from wrong with words and actions. Children need to know when they do something bad and when they do something good. Praising your child will encourage good behavior and reduce bad behavior, but part of a parent's job is to correct bad behavior. Teach all the Steps What seems simple, like getting dressed in the morning, has many steps for children. If your child “can’t” or “won’t” do something, it may be that your child still needs to learn the steps. Explain the steps one at a time and then offer praise. “Please get your clothes. They are on the bed.” “OK, now take off your pajamas.” “Now, put on your shirt.” “You look very nice today. You did a good job getting dressed.” Take time to remind your child about each step rather than doing it yourself or getting upset. It will take longer at first, but it is well worth it! Learning new skills makes your child more confident. Catch your Child Being Good Watch for good behavior like listening to you, being polite, and helping others. Praise good behavior as often as possible. You can even praise a good try! Your love and attention are what your child needs and wants. But sometimes children learn that the way to get attention is to misbehave. Teach your child that being good is the best way to get your attention. Praise with words, but remember that a hug or a smile is often just right! Children love to help. A good way for your child to get your attention is by helping with chores like folding laundry, setting the table, or assisting with simple repairs. Smile and say, “Thanks for your help!” Children think they are special, and they are! Self-respect is the first step toward learning how to respect others. Children who are loved feel that they are special and learn that other people are special too. It's okay to say, “You’re a great helper!” Children Need Limits Nobody is perfect; that's why patience is needed. When your child needs to be corrected, While children respond best to praise for good behavior, sometimes other types of discipline are needed. TIME-OUT—Setting limits for 2- to 5-year-olds When saying “no” is not enough, try using a time-out. It teaches your child that misbehaving is not a good way to get your attention and it stops the bad behavior. When the time-out is over, you and your child can start all over again. Steps for giving a time-out are: Warn your child: “If you don't stop, you’ll have a time-out.” If your child misbehaves again, briefly explain the reason. For a 2-year-old, simply say, “No hitting.” Have your child go to a quiet place, like the corner of a room. Start the timer—1 minute for each year of age. 2 years old = 2 minutes 3 years old = 3 minutes 4 years old = 4 minutes 5 years old = 5 minutes If your child leaves the time-out area, Other adults caring for your child (grandparents, baby-sitters, aunts, and uncles) also need to know how a time-out works. Time-outs can be used too much. Other ways to correct your child's behavior include: Ignoring. When your child is doing something that is not dangerous to get your attention, try ignoring the behavior. Redirecting. Sometimes children misbehave because they are bored or don't know any better. Find something else for your child to do. Correcting a child's behavior can be hard. Talk with your pediatrician for more ideas. Set Clear Rules Help your child learn the rules by making them plain. “It's time for bed sweetheart. Please get in your bed now. Then we can read a story. I'm glad you got ready for bed so quickly. I love reading to you at night.” Children will almost always test a new rule for the first few days. Hold fast; say it again and again and your child will learn the new rule. Be consistent, even when it seems like a lot of trouble! Listen to your Child Children are learning and experiencing many new things every day, and they want to share them. Spend time every day playing and talking with your child. Talk about the good and fun parts of the day as well as any bad or tough times. If your child had a hard time, Listen to the whole story. Without judging or talking about how to behave, let your child finish telling the entire story. Find positive parts of the story to praise. Teach better ways of behaving and responding. Questions you can ask at dinner or bedtime include: “Tell me about what you did today.” “What was your favorite thing that happened today?” “Was there anything that was hard or that you needed help with today?” When your Child Makes you Angry Sooner or later, all parents get frustrated. Remember that no matter how difficult your child can be, you are the most important person in your child's life. If you feel out of control, first make sure your child is in a safe place, like a playpen, crib, or bedroom. Then take a “time-out” for yourself. Do something that you find relaxing to help you calm down. Feeling stressed out is natural and it will pass. When you are feeling better, go back to your child, hug each other, and start over again. If your child is old enough, you can simply say, “I got really mad when you wouldn't listen. I'm feeling better now. I love you.” When you raise your child with praise, you will both be happier. But it takes a lot of patience and time!
Navigation Using Source Links Source Links connect two locations in two different text files. They connect a line of text in a “link source” file to a location in a “link target” file. Links are associated with individual lines. Source Links are part of the current workspace. Links are traversed by using the Jump To Link command, which takes you to the other end of the source link at the current line. A link can be traversed as long as the link source file is open. If the link target file is not open, the Jump To Link command will open the file automatically. Figure 4.15 The Search Results window, and a source file window that shows the source link destination. Source Links are bi-directional, so you can use the Jump To Link command to go from the link source to the target, or from the target back to the source. In addition, the link information is maintained as you edit your files, just as bookmarks are. A link is only removed if you delete its link source line, or close the link source file. In this section:
Arrhythmia: An abnormal heart rhythm. In an arrhythmia the heartbeats may be too slow, too rapid, too irregular, or too early. Rapid arrhythmias (greater than 100 beats per minute) are called tachycardias. Slow arrhythmias (slower than 60 beats per minute) are called bradycardias. Irregular heart rhythms are called fibrillations (as in atrial fibrillation and ventricular fibrillation). When a single heartbeat occurs earlier than normal, it is called a premature contraction. The term arrhythmia comes from the Greek a-, loss + rhythmos, rhythm = loss of rhythm. Common Misspellings: erythremia, arythmia (2) An arrhythmia is an abnormality in the heart's rhythm, or heartbeat pattern. The heartbeat can be too slow, too fast, have extra beats, skip a beat, or otherwise beat irregularly. Arrhythmias are deviations from the normal cadence of the heartbeat, which cause the heart to pump improperly. The normal heartbeat starts in the right atrium, where the heart's natural pacemaker (the sinus node) sends an electrical signal to the center of the heart to the atrioventricular node. The atrioventricular node then sends signals into the main pumping chamber to make the ventricle contract. Arrhythmias occur when the heartbeat starts in a part of the heart other than the sinus node, an abnormal rate or rhythm develops in the sinus node, or a heart conduction “block” prevents the electrical signal from traveling down the normal pathway. (3) Sinus arrhythmia: The normal increase in heart rate that occurs during inspiration (when you breathe in). This is a natural response and is more accentuated in children than adults. The “sinus” refers to the natural pacemaker of the heart which is called the sinoatrial (or sinus) node. It is located in the wall of the right atrium (the right upper chamber of the heart). Normal cardiac impulses start there and are transmitted to the atria and down to the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart). Sinus tachycardia refers to a fast heartbeat (tachycardia) because of rapid firing of the sinoatrial (sinus) node. This occurs in response to exercise, exertion, excitement, pain, fever, excessive thyroid hormone, low blood oxygen (hypoxia), stimulant drugs (such as caffeine), etc. The lack of normal sinus rhythm is an arrhythmia, an abnormal heart rhythm. Common Misspellings: sinus erythremia, sinus arythmia, sinius arrhythmia, sinius erythremia, sinius arythmia
Soil sealing - the covering of the ground by an impermeable material – is one of the main causes of soil degradation in the EU. Soil sealing often affects fertile agricultural land, puts biodiversity at risk, increases the risk of flooding and water scarcity and contributes to global warming. According to the European Environment Agency, since the mid 1950s the total surface area of cities in the EU has increased by 78 %, whereas the population has grown by only 33 %. In the context of the Soil Thematic Strategy (COM(2006) 231), the European Commission points out the need to develop best practices to mitigate the negative effects of sealing on soil functions. Furthermore, the Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe (COM(2011) 571) proposes that by 2020, EU policies take into account their impacts on land use with the aim to achieve no net land take by 2050. In line with this, in 2011 the European Commission published the report Overview of best practices for limiting soil sealing or mitigating its effects in EU-27 presenting land take and soil sealing trends in the EU. The report contains an exhaustive overview of existing Member State policies and technical measures used to reduce and mitigate soil sealing. On the basis of this report and with the help of national soil sealing experts, European Commission departments have prepared Guidelines on best practice to limit, mitigate or compensate soil sealing (SWD(2012) 101 final/2). The guidelines collect examples of policies, legislation, funding schemes, local planning tools, information campaigns and many other best practices implemented throughout the EU. They are mainly addressed to competent authorities in Member States (at national, regional and local levels), professionals dealing with land planning and soil management, and stakeholders in general, but it may also be of interest to individual citizens. The best practice examples collected in the guidelines show that smarter spatial planning can limit urban sprawl. In fact, limiting soil sealing should have a priority over mitigation or compensation measures, since soil sealing is an almost irreversible process. Development potential inside urban areas can be used instead, through the regeneration of abandoned industrial areas (brownfields), for example. Mitigating measures include using permeable materials , supporting ‘green infrastructure’, and making wider use of natural water harvesting systems. Only where on-site mitigation measures are insufficient, compensation measures that enhance soil functions elsewhere should be considered.
3: Logic Circuits, Boolean Algebra, and Truth Tables TOPIC 1: Logic Representation There are three common ways in which to represent logic. 1. Truth Tables 2. Logic Circuit Diagram 3. Boolean Expression We will discuss each herein and demonstrate ways to convert between them. TOPIC 2: Truth Tables A truth table is a chart of 1s and 0s arranged to indicate the results (or outputs) of all possible inputs. The list of all possible inputs are arranged in columns on the left and the resulting outputs are listed in columns on the right. There are 2 to the power n possible states (or combination of inputs). For example with three inputs there are 2^3=8 possible combination of inputs. (Audio) TOPIC 3: Logic Diagram A logic diagram uses the pictoral description of logic gates in combination to represent a logic expression. An example below shows a logic diagram with three inputs (A, B, and C) and one output (Y). The interpretation of this will become clear in the following sections. Boolean Algebra can be used to write a logic expression in equation form. There are a few symbols that you’ll recognize but need to redefine. Below is an example boolean expression. In fact, it represents the same logic as the example logic circuit diagram above. This concept will also become clearer when we cover converting from and to the boolean expression below. This conversion is accomplished by selecting each state (or combination of inputs) one at a time, replacing the inputs with their respective values and figuring the value of each point through the circuit until the output is reached. The final output value for each state is then listed in the truth table next to the value of each input. Below is a logic circuit diagram with the input values. Study it carefully for an extended period of time, it is an animated image and the inputs and output will change every few seconds. (Click the image if it isn’t changing)Below are the results of the conversion in truth table form. TOPIC 6: Converting Logic Circuit Diagrams to Boolean Expressions To convert from a logic circuit diagram to a boolean expression we start by listing our inputs at the correct place and process the inputs through the gates, one gate at a time, writing the result at each gate’s output. The following is the resulting boolean expression of each of the gates. And here is an example of the process being carried out. The fact that the result simplifies to the XOR is merely coincidental. (Audio) There are two methods for converting truth tables to boolean expressions. The Sum of Products (Audio) The Product of Sums (Audio) TOPIC 8: Converting Boolean Expressions to Logic Diagrams Converting boolean expressions to logic diagrams is the most challenging conversion on this page because it requires a very good understanding of order of operation. Below is the order of operations used in this conversion. (Audio) In order to complete this conversion we will progress through the order of operations. We will first look for bracketed quantities or something in parentheses. Inside any parentheses we will look for more parentheses and then NOTs, then ANDs, then ORs. It’s best to begin with an example. The easiest way to accomplish this is to first convert the truth table to a boolean expression and then to a logic diagram. You should now be prepared to answer the following questions. Click here for Webct. 1. A logic system has 5 inputs. How many possible states exist in this system? 2. What symbol is used to represent the NOT gate when the line over the letter is not convenient to use? 3. A logic system has 3 inputs and therefore 8 possible states. The logic diagram representation is shown below. Complete the truth table and convert the output column to hexadecimal if the state 0 is the least significant bit and the state 7 is the most significant bit. 5. A truth table has the same states as in number 3 above. However, the output column from top to bottom reads 00110101. Give the result of the sum of products method. 6. Give the result of the product of sums method in number 5 above. 7. A boolean expression is given Y = (A+B)C+!BA+!C(A+B)+!(AC). Just as in 3 above, produce a truth table and convert the output column to hexadecimal.
Give your child practice with identifying the letter H with this printable worksheet. Looking for a worksheet to help your child with uppercase and lowercase letters? This printable will help him with the letter R. Not many common things start with X. Can your child spot the things that start with X on this page? Looking for a worksheet to help your child with upper and lowercase letters? This printable will help him with the letter I Looking for a worksheet to help your child learn vowels? This printable worksheet will improve his skills with letters as he learns what things start with E. Help your child practice the alphabet with this printable worksheet, which asks him identify the letter J in uppercase and lowercase. Give your child practice with the letter I. This printable worksheet will improve his reading as he identifies things that start with I and what sound it makes. How many grapes are there in the bunch? To find out, your child will need to practice writing the letter G! Help your child learn vowels and improve his spelling skills with this printable worksheet that's all about the vowel O. How many olives are in this jar? To find out, your child will need to practice learning the letter O!
- heat is a type of energy, measured in joules - tempreature is a measure of kinetic energy in the particles, measured in degrees celcius(°C) ,degrees fahrenheit (°F) or kelvin (K) - 0 kelvin is absulute 0, when the particles stop moving - -273 °C is the same as 0K - a kelvin is the same size as a °C - when converting kelvin into °C you + 273 - when converting °C into kelvin you - 273 - you cant have negative Kelvin tempreatures Heat Conduction and Kinetic Theory Kinetic theory uses the idea of induvidual particles moving to explain the properties of a substance. heat conduction is where heat energy is passed directly from one particle to another. when the bonds between particles are strong, if one particle heats up and starts to vibrate, the particles that are bonded to this particle will start to vibrate and heat up, this then spreads as the energy is passed on. in solids there are stronger bonds between the particles than in liquids so the heat passes on more quickly, solids are better conductors. gas is an even worse conductor because none of the particles are bonded and the particles only conduct when they colide. metals are very good conductors because they have 'free electrons'. the atoms release an electron and become posotively charged ions and the elctrons that are released are 'free' allowing them to conduct heat very quickly. heat can move by travelling as infa red waves. these are electromagnetic waves, like light waves, but with a longer wavelength this means that infa red waves act like light waves. - they can travel through a vacuum - they can travel at 300,000,000 m/s - they can be reflected - they cant travel through opaque materials black objects are the best radiators 1. plastic cap, 2. plastic container, 3. double walled glass container, 4. vacuum, 5. silvered surface, 6. plastic support, plastic is used because it is a bad conductor, silver colour is used because its a bad radiator, a vacuum is used because nothing can conduct or convect through it, heat cannot conduct well through two seperate surfaces Insulation at Home - roof insulation, the insulation material has air gaps that dont conduct the air well - a reflective suface in the roof radiates heat back into the house - cavity walls, the air in the gap is a poor conductor - double glazed windows have an air gap to reduce heat conduction - insulation in the gap in the walls, stop the warm air from convecting upwards and conducting out of the roof - insulation around the boiler to keep the heat energy in - carpeted floors top the heat conducting throught the floor because carpet has air gaps - draft excluders stop the warm air convecting out through the gap under the door by creating air gaps - curtains stop the air convecting out throught the windows because the thick curtains are poor conductors Convection and Heat sinks - convection currents can form when liquids and gases are heated. the cold fluid sinks and the hot fluid rises because the cold fluid has a higher density than the hot fluid. - flames go upwards because hot air is less dense than cold air, so it rises. in a smoke filled room, you should lie on the floor because the cold clean air sinks below the hot smoke. - the element in a kettle is always at the bottom because the hot water at the bottom rises and its place is filled by cold water to be heated. - in a fridge, the freezer compartment is always at the top because the air at the top gets cooled by the freezer and sinks, this means that the fridge needs very little cooling a heat sink is made of very dense metal and is designed to keep electrical components cool. because the metal is dense, all of the molecules are tightly packed and because it is a metal, it is a very good conductor. any heat from the electrical component will be conducted into the heat sink because the molecules heat will then be convected into the air around it and the component will be kept cool how particle size effects heat loss liquids with smaller particle size loose heat quicker because, the smaller particles can vibrate faster when they are warm, but they disperse the heat energy more quickly. this is because when the liquid is warm, the particles vibrate and some of the particles evaporate, this takes lots of energy. the smaller particles can evaporate more quickly so the energy is lost from the liquid more quickly. ethanol, water propanol and octanol. the ethanol lost its heat the quickest, next water, then propanol, last octanol. this is because octanol has very large particles and ethanol has very small factors that effect evaporation: wind, the wind carries evaporated particles away so the other particles are less likely to be knocked back into the liquid. tempreature, the particles have more energy to evaporate when they are warmer. humidity, if there are lots of evaporated particles in the air already then there is more chance that the particles will be knocked back into the liquid. surface area, if more of the liquid is in contact with the air, more of the liquid is likely to evaporate Specific Heat Capacity the SHC of a substance is the amount of energy it takes to raise the tempreature of one kg of the substance by one °C. SHC = energy/mass x change in tempreature. the units are J/Kg/°C the SHC of aluminium is 1200 J/Kg/°C the SHC of Copper is 670 J/Kg/°C the SHC of water is 8200 J/Kg/°C u-values are W/m²/°C the W stands for Watts or J/s the engergy lost through a window could change because of: the tempreature outside compared to the tempreature inside and the thickness of the glass. the U-Value of a double glased window is less than half of a standard window, this shows how much more efficient it is at keeping heat energy inside the house.
August 30, 1871, Brightwater, New Zealand October 19, 1937, Cambridge, UK Ernest Rutherford's family emigrated from England to New Zealand before he was born. They ran a successful farm near Nelson, where Ernest was born. One of 12 children, he liked the hard work and open air of farming, but was a good student and won a university scholarship. After college, he won another scholarship to study at Cambridge University in England -- a turning point in his life. There he met J.J. Thomson (who would soon discover the electron), and Thomson encouraged him to study recently-discovered x-rays. This was the start of a long, productive, and influential career in atomic physics. Rutherford eventually coined the terms for some of the most basic principles in the field: alpha, beta, and gamma rays, the proton, the neutron, half-life, and daughter atoms. Several of the century's giants in physics studied under him, including Niels Bohr, James Chadwick, and Robert Oppenheimer. Early on he found that all known radioactive elements emit two kinds of radiation: positively and negatively charged, or alpha and beta. He showed that every radioactive element decreases in radioactivity over a unique and regular time, or half-life, ultimately becoming stable. In 1901 and 1902 he worked with Frederick Soddy to prove that atoms of one radioactive element would spontaneously turn into another, by expelling a piece of the atom at high velocity. Many scientists of the day scorned the idea as alchemy. They stuck with the age-old belief that the atom is indivisible and unchangeable. But by 1904 Rutherford's publications and achievements gained recognition. He was an extremely energetic researcher: in the span of seven years, he published 80 papers. In 1907 he went to the University of Manchester and with Hans Geiger (of the Geiger counter) set up a center to study radiation. In 1909 he began experiments that were to change the face of physics. He discovered the atomic nucleus and developed a model of the atom that was similar to the solar system. Like planets, electrons orbited a central, sun-like nucleus. Acceptance of this model grew after it was modified with quantum theory by Niels Bohr. For his work with radiation and the atomic nucleus, Rutherford received the 1908 Nobel Prize in chemistry. He was slightly put out, since he was a physicist and felt a bit superior to chemistry! In 1914 Rutherford was knighted. During World War I, he left his research to help the British Admiralty with problems of submarine detection, but was soon back in the lab. He managed to produce the disintegration of a non-radioactive atom, dislodging a single particle. The particle had a positive charge, so it must have come from nucleus: he called this new particle a proton. With this experiment, he was the first human to create a "nuclear reaction," though a weak one. In 1919 he took over as director of the Cavendish Laboratory. His warm, outgoing personality made him an outstanding mentor to researchers attracted there by his scientific achievements. He took on more supervision and less direct research as years went by. In 1931 he was made the first Baron Rutherford of Nelson, allowing him to join the House of Lords. He was fiercely anti-Nazi, and in 1933 he served as president of the Academic Assistance Council, established to help German refugees. He would not personally help chemist Fritz Haber, however, who had been instrumental in creating chemical weapons in World War I. Rutherford died two years before the discovery of atomic fission. "All science is either physics or stamp collecting." Honors and awards 1935 Awarded the Nobelprice for physics \|Updated on October 25, 2007\|\|For suggestions please mail the editors\| Footnotes & References \|1\|\|courtesy ScienCentral Inc and the American Institute of Physics 1999.\| \|2\|\|thanks to Dr. J for her reference: http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/AtomicStructure/Proton.pdf\|
Topiaries are shrubs or trees trimmed into specific shapes. You can also form a topiary by training a plant to fill in or cover a wire frame. Common topiary forms include geometric and animal shapes. You can make topiaries from flowering plants, although it is important to pay attention to the flowering times and growth habits to avoid trimming off flower buds. Experts at the Chicago Botanic Garden recommend pruning flowering plants into mounds or cloud-like forms. Japanese holly (Ilex crenata) is a popular topiary plant. It grows best in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 6 through 8 and prefers full sun or partial shade. During May and June, the plant produces white flowers. It makes an appropriate topiary plant because of its year-round green leaves and ability to tolerate pruning. The "Sky Pencil" cultivar of this plant has a naturally columnar shape, but other varieties have a wider spread. Winter jasmine (Jasminum polyanthum) is a flowering plant that makes an excellent indoor topiary. It is also known as "pink jasmine" or "white jasmine," and it produces fragrant flowers and pink buds. This plant is hardy outdoors in zones 8 through 11, so works as an outdoor topiary in temperate areas. It grows best in full sunlight or partial shade. Because of its vine growth pattern, you can train it to grow as a topiary covering a metal frame. Podocarpus (Podocarpus macrophyllus) grows best in zones 8b through 11. It produces small yellow flowers followed by purple fleshy fruits that attract birds. This tree tolerates pruning well, making it a useful choice for a topiary. It has very dense green foliage, which lends itself well to formal hedges. Podocarpus has the best growth when placed in an area with full sunlight. It can tolerate poor soils and urban environments. Azaleas (Rhododendron spp.) tolerate pruning into mounded, dome, stone or cloud-shaped topiaries. They produce brightly colored flowers and can grow indoors in pots as well as in the ground. Different varieties of azaleas tolerate different zones. For example, "Hershey Red" grows in zones 6b to 8b, while "Hardy Gardenia" grows in 7a to 9a. They also come in a wide range of colors, including white, red, pink and purple. Azaleas prefer acidic soils with excellent drainage and plenty of moisture. They grow best in areas with partial sunlight and partial shade throughout the day. - Cornell University: Topiary - University of Georgia: Pruning Ornamental Plants in the Landscape - Missouri Botanical Garden: Ilex Crenata "Sky Pencil" - Floridata: Jasminum Polyanthum - University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences: Podocarpus Macrophyllus: Podocarpus - Chicago Botanic Garden: Topiary and Training Plants - National Gardening Association: Rhododendron (Subgenus Azalea) "Hershey Red" - National Gardening Association: Rhododendron (Subgenus Azalea) "Hardy Gardenia" - Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images
Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. 2014 July 25 Explanation: The Crab Pulsar, a city-sized, magnetized neutron star spinning 30 times a second, lies at the center of this tantalizing wide-field image of the Crab Nebula. A spectacular picture of one of our Milky Way's supernova remnants, it combines optical survey data with X-ray data from the orbiting Chandra Observatory. The composite was created as part of a celebration of Chandra's 15 year long exploration of the high energy cosmos. Like a cosmic dynamo the pulsar powers the X-ray and optical emission from the nebula, accelerating charged particles to extreme energies to produce the jets and rings glowing in X-rays. The innermost ring structure is about a light-year across. With more mass than the Sun and the density of an atomic nucleus, the spinning pulsar is the collapsed core of the massive star that exploded, while the nebula is the expanding remnant of the star's outer layers. The supernova explosion was witnessed in the year 1054. Authors & editors: Jerry Bonnell (UMCP) NASA Official: Phillip Newman Specific rights apply. A service of: ASD at NASA / GSFC & Michigan Tech. U.
- Microsoft Windows Server Training - 2276 - Implementing a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Network Infrastructure: Network Hosts Upon completion, students will: Describe the TCP/IP protocol architecture, Convert IP addresses between decimal & binary, Create subnets using VLSM & CIDR, Configure a host to use a static IP address, Describe the IP routing process & more - Course Outline After completing this course, students will be able to: - Describe the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol architecture. - Convert Internet Protocol (IP) addresses between decimal and binary. - Calculate a subnet mask. - Create subnets using Variable-Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) and Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). - Configure a host to use a static IP address. - Assign IP addresses in a multiple subnet network. - Describe the IP routing process. - Configure a host to obtain an IP address automatically. - Configure a host so that automatic private IP address configuration is disabled. - Configure a host to use name servers. - Isolate common connectivity issues. Guaranteed to Run! Course Outline Module 1: Reviewing the Suite of TCP/IP Protocols This module reviews the suite of TCP/IP protocols. By understanding the function of each of the protocols and how the protocols relate to each other, you have the context for understanding network administration tasks and network troubleshooting. - Overview of the OSI Model - Overview of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite - Viewing Frames Using Network Monitor - Describe the architecture of the OSI reference model and the function of each layer. - Describe the four layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite. - Capture and view frames by using Network Monitor. - Configuring IP Addressing for Simple Networks - Configuring IP Addressing for Complex Networks - Using IP Routing Tables - Overcoming Limitations of the IP Addressing Scheme - Defining the Subnet Mask for a WAN - Defining the Subnet Mask for Supernetting Four Class C Networks - Explain how to configure IP addressing for simple TCP/IP networks. - Explain how to configure IP addressing for complex TCP/IP networks. - Describe routing protocols and how they are used. - Overcome limitations that are caused by class-based routing. - Configuring a Client to Use a Static IP Address - Configuring a Client to Obtain an IP Address Automatically - Using Alternate Configuration - Viewing DHCP Packets - Configure a client to use a static IP address. - Configure a client to obtain an IP address automatically by using DHCP. - Configure a client to obtain an IP address automatically by using Alternate Configuration - Overview of Name Resolution - Resolving Host Names - Resolving NetBIOS Names - Viewing DNS Packets - Describe how name resolution occurs. - Describe how host names are used and resolved. - Describe how NetBIOS names are used and resolved. - Analyzing Client Startup Communication - Determining the Causes of Connectivity Issues - Using Network Utilities and Tools to Isolate Connectivity Issues - Documenting Your Current Environment - Resolving Connectivity Issues - Determine the causes of connectivity issues. - Describe utilities and tools to resolve connectivity issues. - Describe the client startup communication process. With (R)Evolution, TekSource is transforming the way IT professionals receive training. Our courses are led by Certified Instructors and supported by online course mentors. Course content is delivered through expert video modules and interactive features, in tandem with virtual lab exercises and progress quizzes. When you take training with TekSource, you get a comprehensive training solution that incorporates the following value add components into one “revolutionary” offering: We start the learning process well before you arrive at our door with lots of communication and information. Our instructors, coordinators and facilitators will ensure that when course participants arrive, they will have all the tools they need to be successful and students will have already started to learn In our Facility with Certified instructors With (R)Evolution, each course is supported by a certified instructor who facilitates, coaches and mentors the students through the learning process - their only job is to ensure our students’ success. Students attend class in one day increments (which can be non-consecutive days for multi-day courses). * Since the course content is provided by the expert video modules, the in-class instructor can devote 100% of their time to individual instruction and guidance. * Our exclusive consultative learning approach ensures that the needs of each student are assessed and support during and subsequent to the course is tailored to them. Expert Video Modules (R)Evolution guarantees consistent, high quality instruction, and uniform delivery of the course material mapped to official vendor course curriculum with no missed topics. * Content is delivered by World Class Experts and Certified Trainers and it has been edited and produced so that students are presented the best possible delivery of the course material. * Self Scheduled progress matches the learning speed of each student – it allows for instant review, and results in improved retention. Throughout the Learning experience, instruction is reinforced with practical exercises, lab exercises completed in live lab environments and progress checks that give immediate feedback to the student regarding their progress. * Keeps students engaged, on track and in line with their objectives * Provides instant feedback, real time results and acts as a measure for the instructor to provide further mentorship Online Mentoring and Support The online mentoring support that is included with (R)Evolution starts when the student enters the classroom and continues for 6 months. As both a 3rd training resource in the classroom and as a valuable support service that is available 24/7, students have yet another mechanism to support their learning. * Reinforces learning and acts as a support during the classroom session * Assistance applying course concepts * Access to our facility and ability to re-take some or all of the training is absolute assurance that required learning is received. - Prerequisites & Certificates Before attending this course, students must have: A+ certification or equivalent knowledge and skills. Course 2274, Managing a Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Environment, or equivalent knowledge and skills. Certificate of completion - Cancellation Policy Cancellations or postponements received more than ten business days prior to the first day of the course, will be subject to a 15% administration fee, and course ware fees where applicable. The cost of the course is payable, in full, for any cancellations or postponements received within ten business days, or less, prior to the first day of the course. - Map & Reviews TekSource Corporate Learning [ View Provider's Profile ] ReviewsHere are some reviews of the training vendor. This course has not yet been rated by one of our members. If you have taken a course through this vendor please log into your account and leave feedback for this vendor. You will be helping ensure our members get directed to the best training facilities. This course currently does not have any dates scheduled. Please call 1-877-313-8881 to enquire about future dates or scheduling a private, in house course for your team. This page has been viewed 597 times.

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