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Uses measurement and fractions in baking gingerbread. Estimates the number of people in different settings Teaches the use of shapes and following directions in creating an origami frog. Uses a map and basic map skills to help find a treasure Fractions are all around us. In this book, students explore how most things can be divided into fractions and learn the importance of fractions in everyday life. Examines time lapse during certain events Look at the usefulness of math in exploring new environments Looks at texture and color in assorted rocks Looks at temperature in different cities in the United States Shows how to create a stained glass design using shapes and colors Looks at the sizes of the antlers of the white-tailed deer, the moose and others Compares the height and weight of a giraffe to common objects Focuses on the importance of the triangle and the arch for building a strong tower Identifies lines of symmetry in animals and plants. Uses measurement and addition to show the life cycle of the monarch butterfly Looks at the times some typical events during the week begin and end
A-level Mathematics/OCR/M3/Elastic Strings and Springs Hooke's Law and the Modulus of Elasticity The natural length is the length of an elastic string or spring when it is not stretched or compressed. An elastic string or spring experiences a tension when its length is greater than the natural length. In addition, a spring experiences a compression when its length is less than its natural length. To simplify our analysis, we use the term tension to refer to both types of forces (i.e. tension and compression). Also, we use the term extension to refer to the change in the length of the string or spring. Thus, the extension for a compressed spring is negative. According to Hooke's Law, the extension is proportional to the tension applied to the elastic string or spring. Although Hooke's Law holds only up to the limit of elasticity, we may safely assume its applicability unless otherwise told. We may write this relationship in terms of the natural length and the modulus of elasticity (which is a property of the elastic string or spring independent of its length) as follows: Note that the tension and the extension are in the same direction (i.e. the variables are either both positive or both negative). This should be intuitive since we are considering the force exerted on (i.e. NOT exerted by) the elastic string or spring. If a mass attached to the end of the elastic string or spring is producing the extension, then by Newton's Third Law, the elastic string or spring exerts a force on the mass equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to its tension. To illustrate this, let us consider the system on the right. Consider a particle P of mass suspended vertically from one end of a light (i.e. massless) elastic string of natural length and modulus of elasticity . The other end of the string is attached to a fixed point O. When the particle is at rest, the resultant force acting on it is zero according to Newton's Second Law. Therefore, the downward weight of the particle should balance the upward force exerted by the string on the particle (which is equal in magnitude to the tension of the string): \|, which is the corresponding extension in the string.\| Elastic Potential Energy An elastic string or spring is able to store energy when it is extended (and compressed, in the case of a spring). This stored energy is termed the elastic potential energy (EPE). The EPE in an elastic string or spring is converted from the work done (by an external agent) in producing the required extension. This is just the work done against the force exerted by the elastic string or spring by virtue of its tension. Therefore, the EPE can be determined by integrating the tension wrt the extension : \|Work done to produce the extension\|
Ozone is a naturally occurring molecule which is present in our air. It is originated when sunshine or lightning passes through the oxygen in our air, so is not normally man-made or originated in a lab in any way. Municipal treatment plants for town water systems utilize ozone extensively in the sanitization of drinking water. Ozone is also widely used in the disinfection of bottled water products as it is the preferred method for removing hazardous water borne diseases such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium. Ozone is one of the most effectual sanitation and disinfection aids available, that could surpass even exceptionally toxic antiseptic solvents. In tests to measure genuine disinfection characteristics, ozone has proven to be as much as 10 times as effective in purifying surfaces as common household bleach solutions. The speed at which ozone sterilizes is even more surprising: Laboratory examinations have shown that exposures to ozone will inactivate bacteria three times quicker than when bacteria are exposed to household bleach. Ozone is a regular molecule of conventional water which contains an extra atom of oxygen. Liquid ozone is generated through a special and absorbing procedure whereby oxygen (O2) atoms are purified directly from the encircling air. The focused oxygen is then ionized by the use of about five thousand volts of electric current. This charge acts to violate the molecular ties amidst the oxygen atoms to pressure them to transmute into ozone (O3). This ozone is then forcefully instilled with ordinary faucet water and this procedure creates an exceptionally effective oxidizing cleanser solution.
Children are not born with perfect motor skills, but rather motor development happens through learning and practice. Mastery of motor movements is a combination of physical growth and developing skills through experience. Motor skills not only enable children to walk or play sports but also to write or make art. Without proper motor skill development, children might struggle in school or might not receive the appropriate amount of physical activity. Gross Motor Skills Large muscle movements are called gross motor skills and are included in activities such as catching or throwing a ball, running in a game of tag or climbing up a ladder. According to HealthyChildren.org, most toddlers and preschoolers work on mastering these skills. Children will concentrate at first on staying upright and maintaining balance, and gradually the skills of graceful arm, leg and torso movements will become easier. Between ages 6 and 7, children refine skills like jumping or running, and they are able to combine skills for coordinated movement. While adolescent girls make only modest gains in their gross motor skills, adolescent boys gain speed, strength and endurance throughout their teen years. Fine Motor Skills Fine motor skills refer to small movements, such as those needed to pick up a piece of cereal in a pincer grasp between thumb and index finger. Kids can practice fine motor skills with games like puzzles or sorting toys. Art and craft activities also provide many opportunities for fine motor control. For example, drawing shapes like circles or triangles are necessary skills for hand writing and even cursive. Children’s fine motor skills play a role in feeding or clothing themselves, brushing their teeth, opening a door or pointing to an object, which are daily activities needed for children to lead independent lives as adults. Fine motor control continues to grow through the elementary years, and you will notice more refined movements and stability as your child ages. Teenagers might gain more fine motor skills through new lessons in keyboarding or texting, but they typically improve more through specialized training or practice, such as learning a musical instrument. Taking part in regular physical activity leads to a healthier lifestyle, according to PBS.org. Lack of motor skills contributes to a decrease in physical activity. For example, if a toddler has trouble kicking a ball, he is less likely to play games that involve the motion. A deficiency in physical activity can lead to childhood obesity or other health problems. Additionally, many group tasks require movement, so development of motor skills help children advance their social skills. Physical exertion has also shown to be effective in releasing energy and regulating emotions. Through the late elementary and teenage years, physical activity is an ideal way to help improve symptoms of depression or anxiety that often come about during this time. Playing sports helps teenagers move with better precision and strength. Improving Motor Skills Serious motor control problems are rare, but increasing opportunities for play and practice can improve these skills. For example, if you have a toddler who still walks only on his tiptoes, buy shoes that make a sound when he stomps with his heel. If he does not use his arms to balance himself when walking, give him a shaker and encourage him to make sound when he walks. Purchase art materials for a child who needs to improve fine motor control, or practice stringing beads onto a piece of yarn; older children might enjoy learning an instrument or picking up skills like calligraphy or mechanical work. If interventions do not work at home, you can consult an occupational therapist, or encourage your teenager to join a swim team or other sport in the summer to help build motor skills. Your child must learn all these skills to function properly as an adult. - Young Children: Why Motor Skills Matter - PBS: The Importance of Developing Fundamental Motor Skills - Education.com: The Importance of Motor Skills - Healthy Children: From Motor Skills to Sports Skills - Seven Counties Services, Inc.: Adolescent Physical Development: Part II - Education.com: Physical Development and the Acquisition of Motor Skills - Jupiterimages/Polka Dot/Getty Images
\|Thatch is the layer of living and dead stems, roots, stolons, and rhizomes between the green blades of grass and the soil surface. A thin layer of thatch (less than 1/2 inch thick) can be beneficial to the lawn because it helps to limit weed germination, reduce water evaporation, and protect from frost damage. However, thick thatch layers can prevent water, air, and nutrients from penetrating the soil, causing reduced root growth and increased potential for drought stress. Thatch also favors fungal growth and can harbor insect pests. Some turf grass species, such as tall fescue and perennial rye grass, do not produce much thatch. Other turf grass species, such as bermuda grass, bentgrass, zoysia grass, and Kentucky bluegrass, have creeping growth habits and rapidly build thick thatch layers.
In this activity, students build on their growing knowledge of ice and glacier growth. The students examine images of core samples and make observations about the decreasing size of gas bubbles with increasing depth in the core. The students model permeability. From this experiment, the students develop an understanding of the movement of air through snow and ice and why this information is critical to researchers studying the past climate of our Earth. Middle School; Earth Science, Environmental Science, Physical Science, Chemistry Teacher Preparation for Activity The students may want to read about Sandy Shutey's experience at Siple Dome in Antarctica. They can access her project description, daily journals, and images from the field. The class will need: Each group of 4 to 5 students will need: One to two class periods Engagement and Exploration (Student Inquiry Activity) How might the students demonstrate which material has the highest permeability? The students will measure how fast water flows from the top to the bottom of the container. Provide each group with a stopwatch, ruler, beaker of water, pencils, and graph paper. How will the students want to measure permeability? What factors should they keep constant? The students should recognize that they need to pour the same amount of water into each container, start timing at the same time, etc. What do the students expect to happen? Through which container will water flow the fastest? The slowest? Have the students record their hypotheses. Have the students mark their containers with the ruler in one-centimeter intervals. Each group should assign a recorder to note the time and distance the water has traveled, a time keeper to monitor the time, and a distance keeper to keep track of how far the water travels. When the students are ready, they should start with the finer grained sand; flow will be slower and will allow them to coordinate their method. of measurement. The group will pour 500 ml of water over the sand and keep track of how fast the water moves downward through the sand. The students may find it is easiest to have the distance keeper state when the water passes a centimeter interval and the time keeper can then state the time increment. Have the students repeat the procedure for each container. When they have completed collecting data for all containers, have the students graph the results. Ask them to graph the results on a single sheet of paper, using a different color for the different sands.. What are the constants? Variables? What goes where on the graph? What kind of graph is appropriate? What scale is appropriate? What labels are needed? Elaboration (Polar Applications) What do the graphs show? Through which container did the water flow the fastest? The slowest? What does this mean about the permeability of the different sands? Which is most permeable? Least? What does this have to do with grain size? Have the students look at the ice core sections again. How do they relate their experiment findings to the ice data? Inside each layer there is a definite size snow crystal. The larger the snow crystal the larger the air passages around it and the easier the air can flow around the snow crystals. As the crystals get smaller, so do the spaces around them. Teacher Note: This relationship holds true for the upper part of the core - and it is very important with respect to how the ice "records" the climate/atmosphere signal and how the research teams sample the ice. With greater depth, ice crystals actually grow at the expense of air bubbles and each other - ice crystals can reach the size of a football with time and under extreme pressure. Exchange (Students Draw Conclusions) Have the groups present their results to the class. Are the results the same? Why or why not? What do the experimental results tell the scientists? If a scientist was trying to get a sample of the atmosphere today, where would they sample? Just at the top? Can they sample a little further down the core, because the atmosphere gases can move through the core? What does this mean when the scientist samples further back in time? They need to know how quickly the ice "seals" and "traps" the atmosphere sample to be able to acquire samples at the right spacing. Evaluation (Assessing Student Performance) Sandra Shutey, Butte High School Butte, Montana and Stephanie Shipp, Rice University, Houston Texas In the Arctic and Antarctic, the snow piles up and up each year. The more snow on top the greater the chance for the firn (snow flakes with out their edges) to be pushed closer and closer together. When they get pushed together they do not allow air to pass between them easily. The more air that can go between the firn the less they have been compacted. Scientists test ice cores in the frozen parts of the world to see how much air will pass between the firn. From this they can try to figure out what happened in the layers of ice above and in the atmosphere Sandy Shutey worked at Siple Dome, Antarctica. From Sandy's daily field journals: ...Siple Dome is actually situated on a dome of ice that is about 1000 meters thick. The Dome is moving about 1 meter a year. The landscape is flat and white in all directions that you turn. The sun is rolling about at a 25 to 30 degree angle from the horizon. It is about the same amount of light all day long. Even at 2 or 3 in the morning the sun is bright and one is able to see for ever....You can almost see the curve to the earth as you look out along the flat white horizon. It seems that here at Siple you can see for a very long distance in any direction but it is all white with small tints of blue where the snow has been cleared. Siple Dome is a small community of dark green/ brown Jamesways (a type of Quonset hut) and a sea of yellow and blue or blue and purple tents.... ...I will be working with Dr. Mary Albert...on a core experiment dealing with the gases found in the core....we are doing research on the chemical composition of the core. With this information, a model of what has happened with our atmosphere in the past and now will help us understand the possibility of a green house in the earth's future. These projects are a part of the project being done with Dr. Ken Taylor and Dr. Gregg Lamorey and the WAISCORE project. Check out the science on www.maxey.dir.edu/WRC/waiscores. ...Since the day was a quiet one; it gave me a chance to reflect on the continent as a whole and the science that is being done here. There is so much to be learned and never enough time or money to do it . I have learned that what we do with our atmosphere usually can be recorded here in the ice. They have a record even of the radiation fallout from the testing of the atomic bombs in our atmosphere from the 1950's. They have also found traces of volcanic lava in layers of the ice that can be discovered only by drilling ice cores. Most of the science that I have seen deals with the ice cores.... ...The cores this year to be drilled are small ones of only 20 meters that we will use to find permeability of the ice. They are hoping to drill a larger core later in the season...This core will be around one thousand feet long. They have even built a special under-ice trench to house the core in so that it will not melt before the scientist will be able to study it. Much of the core may be sent away from the ice to be studied at a later date by scientists.... ...Permeability allows the scientist to discover at what rate gas is transmitted through the layers of ice. Each layer can have a different rate of gas movement since some of the ice layers are denser than others. Layers closer to the surface of the ice will probably allow gas to move through more rapidly because these layers have not been compressed by overlying snow and ice.... ... Dr. Albert has some mini projects dealing with a pit that she and her assistant, Nancy Cloud, dug. They have done the stratigraphy and grain sizes on the ice layers. She has even taken pictures of the crystals to measure the grain sizes for more accuracy to her science. She has traced the permeability of the layers and is doing thermal conductivity on the pit. Dr. Albert has also had Dr. Joe McConnell analyze the pit for an age. They are checking the hydrogen peroxide in the layers. From the amounts of hydrogen peroxide in the layer they can tell if the layer is a spring or winter layer. There is more peroxide in the spring, summer, and especially in the fall time of the year than in the winter. By counting these layers, they get an approximation of the age of the ice. Often times, isotopes such as Oxygen 18 can also be used to determine the age of the ice. ... The drillers from PICO came out to the site today to start drilling core for Dr. Albert. She needed 15 meters of core to test the permeability of the snow. Permeability is finding the air spaces between the firn of the core. Ideally the deeper the core, the less space there should be between the firn crystals. The deeper and the less space between the firn gives the scientist and idea about the size of the firn crystal. Usually they are smaller with depth due to the compacting of the ice. The drillers brought with them a drill called a side winder that they could put into the ground and bring up the needed ice core... ...Joey and I begin working on the core in late afternoon. We had to measure the cores, which should have come in about 1 meter long, than we cut them into 10 cm. lengths. We, then, placed them in a tube that is pressurized to form a tight fitting membrane about the core. Once this is in place we simple apply gas to the system allowing it to flow both on the outside and the inside of the core. The gas flow should be smooth called laminar in the core. Once we have adjusted the flow, we take readings and place them in a formula to find the permeability of the ice core. Darcy's law is used for this purpose from a spread sheet on the computer. The permeability are graphed according to depth and then Dr. Albert can analyze the data... Student Reproducible Masters Past Climates from Ice Cores Antarctica holds a special key to the mysteries of Earth's past climate. As snow falls, it traps water from the clouds and gases and dust from our atmosphere. The snow gets a "chemical signature" of the atmosphere as it falls. In some places, like Antarctica, the temperature is so cold, most of the snow does not melt - it accumulates as glaciers and ice sheets. The snow and ice crystals fall layer on layer, year after year. The snow gradually turns to ice. The tiny parcticles and chemicals that fell with the snow are trapped in the ice. The ice holds a record. The deepest part of the ice fell as snow thousands and thousands of years ago. The ice contains chemicals and parcticles from our Earth's atmosphere from thousands and thousands of years ago. The top of the ice fell as snow more recently - it contains chemicals and parcticles from our recent atmosphere. The top The deeper in the ice that the core goes, the tinier the air bubbles. By drilling through the ice and collecting an ice core, we can sample the record of Earth's changing atmosphere. The oldest ice sampled so far in Antarctica, at Vostok Station, is over 300,000 years old! An ice core ready for sampling. What are the dark bands? Often the ice cores show layers of dust or volcanic material from a volcanic eruption. Because volcanic eruptions spread ash for many, many miles, the layers are time markers and help scientists relate the age of one ice core to another. Fold in an ice core. Before collecting an ice core the research team must know about the place they want to drill. Ice flows. It can fold and fracture. To collect a core with a complete history, the research team must make sure they know how the ice has flowed. The longer the core and the older the time the scientists want to study, the harder it is to find a site. Even cores for the last few thousand years must be placed carefully; snow accumulation rates can be very different from place to place and flow patterns can be very different over a tiny distance! Drilling a core is hard work and requires careful planning! Even before drilling, the research team conducts many investigations. Automatic weather stations are used to provide information about the prevailing wind direction and temperatures. The shallow layers of the ice are studied by cutting and sampling ice pits. The researchers examine annual accumulation of the snow and ice and investigate chemical properties. The deeper layers of ice are investigated using airborne radar (radio-echo sounding profiles). This a picture of what the layers look like and help the scientists figure out how the ice is flowing. Snowpit in Greenland. Two pits are dug, one next to the other. The scientist works in one pit, with a cover over the top. The second pit is left open, and light from that pit penetrates the thin ice wall between the two, illuminating the layers in the snow! Why is the ice wall blue? The summer layers are indicated with arrows. In the summer the sun heats the snow at the surface, causing it to evaporate (sublimate). This makes the layers very coarse grained. In the winter, the sun does not shine, so the layers stay fine grained and densely packed (darker blue). Once a location is selected, the research team really goes into high gear. The season for drilling is short. Often the perfect site is far from an established research base, so a temporary base has to be put in place and supplies and people have to be flown back and forth. Drilling rig at Newall Glacier. The rig is not protected from the weather; acquiring the ice cores is hard, cold work! The covered area to the right of the drill rig is the area where the cores are placed after they are drilled. It offers protection from the sun before the cores are prepared for travel. Empty sections of pipe, or core barrel are attached to the drill nose. As the drill nose spins, it cuts into the ice, going deeper and deeper. The core barrels fill with the clean cut ice core. This ice is extracted and an empty barrel is attached and sent back down the hole to drill the next section. Once collected, the ice core section is taken to the clean area for preparation. The science team carefully maneuvers a core just collected. The ice core is handled very carefully - each core piece represents many, many hours of work and dollars of support money! If a core is lost in shipping or melts, there may never be another chance to collect a replacement! The cores are measured and stored carefully and then shipped back to the home laboratory for sampling. All through shipping, the cores must be kept at the proper temperature. Why is one person wearing a mask and "clean suit?" Sample of ice being prepared for examination under a microscope. Once back in the lab, the research team begins to sample the layers in the core. They extract the chemical signature of the atmosphere hundreds and thousands of years ago. This helps scientists determine climate properties such as the temperature, the snow accumulation rate, patterns of ocean and atmosphere circulation, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, when the snow fell. If we can understand how these properties affected our climate in the past, we can make some good predictions about how our climate may change in the future, especially as humans change these properties. Thin section of ice viewed through special filters under a microscope. This sample is from a Greenland ice core at a depth of 80 meters. Each of the different colored ice crystals are about 1 millimeter across. Many thanks to Mark Twickler of the University of New Hampshire's Climate Change Research Center, and Richard Alley of Pennsylvania State University's Earth System Science Center for providing these images! From Ice and Air to Glacier - History in a Bubble! Below are several samples from an ice core. You are looking at them as they are seen under a microscope. The microscope is using white light that is transmitted, or shining through the sample from behind. The samples have been stained, one with brown stain, and three with blue stain, so that the ice crystals show up better. Before the slides were made, each sample was treated with a special material so that the empty spaces (air pockets) would have a filler and would not squish. The slides were then cut on a saw and shaved until they were very thin. The filler in the air pockets is stained blue (remember, one is brown rather than blue!). Blue is air, white and gray are ice! Which sample is from near the top of the ice core? Which is the next deepest? The next deepest? The very deepest? How can you tell? Thanks to Richard Alley of Pennsylvania State University's Earth System Science Center for providing these terrific images! We look forward to hearing from you! Please review this activity. Return to top of page Back to: TEA Activities Page
Soil fertility refers to the ability of a soil to supply plant nutrients. A fertile soil has the following properties: It is rich in nutrients necessary for basic plant nutrition, including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium It contains sufficient minerals (trace elements) for plant nutrition, including boron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, magnesium, molybdenum, sulfur, and zinc. It contains soil organic matter that improves soil structure and soil moisture retention. Soil pH is in the range 6.0 to 6.8 for most plants but some prefer acid or alkaline conditions. Good soil structure, creating well drained soil, but some soils are wetter (as for producing rice) or drier (as for producing plants susceptible to fungi or rot, such as agave). A range of microorganisms that support plant growth. It often contains large amounts of topsoil. In lands used for agriculture and other human activities, soil fertility typically arises from the use of soil conservation practices.
Lesson Planet: Curated OER Not yet Rated Asian and Pacific Islander Americans in Congress Collector: Ann V. The three lessons in the “Asian and Pacific Islander Americans (AAPI) in Congress” module are designed to help young historians understand the important role Americans with heritage in Asia and the Pacific Islands have played in American history. Scholars begin by researching these Americans' lives and situating them in a larger picture of racism and xenophobia in America between the Spanish American War and World War II. Class members then consider the tenure of Asian American representatives in Congress and how World War II's legacy, including Japanese Americans' internment, affected their service. Finally, scholars connect current events to the roles of AAPI members in Congress. 7th - 12th Social Studies & History, Cultural & Social Studies 87 Views 8 Saves hawaii, the philippines, the spanish-american war, colonialism, american imperialism, imperialism, asian americans, immigration, united states immigration, the chinese exclusion act of 1882, trade, congress, japanese-american history, japanese-american internment, internment camps, world war ii, pearl harbor See full reviews
Children’s books have the extraordinary ability to transport young readers to enchanting worlds, ignite their imaginations, and leave a lasting impact on their lives. If you have a passion for writing children’s books and want to create stories that captivate young minds, this blog post is for you. Here, we will explore essential elements and techniques to help you craft magical and engaging children’s books that will inspire and delight your young readers. Know Your Audience: Understanding your target audience is crucial when writing children’s books. Consider the age range you’re targeting and the developmental stage of the children. Research their interests, reading levels, and the themes that resonate with them. This knowledge will help you tailor your writing style, vocabulary, and storytelling techniques accordingly. Engage the Senses: Children’s books that create a sensory experience tend to captivate young readers. Use vivid and descriptive language to engage their senses and bring your story to life. Incorporate sensory details like colors, sounds, smells, and textures to immerse children in your story world and make it more relatable and memorable. Embrace Imagination and Wonder: Children have boundless imaginations, and your writing should tap into that magic. Embrace whimsy, fantasy, and wonder in your storytelling. Introduce fantastical elements, talking animals, and extraordinary adventures that ignite the imagination of young readers. Encourage them to dream, explore, and believe in the impossible. Strong and relatable characters are the heart of any children’s book. Create protagonists that children can identify with and root for. Give them distinct personalities, goals, and challenges to overcome. Introduce supporting characters that add depth and contribute to the story’s richness. Characters should teach valuable lessons, inspire empathy, and evolve throughout the narrative. Engaging and Age-Appropriate Language: Choosing the right language for your target audience is vital. Use age-appropriate vocabulary and sentence structure to ensure children can understand and engage with your book. Incorporate dialogue that reflects how children speak and think. Strike a balance between simplicity and complexity, allowing young readers to learn new words and concepts while keeping the story accessible and enjoyable. Compelling Story Structure: Craft a compelling story structure that captures and holds children’s attention. Begin with an engaging opening that hooks readers from the start. Develop a well-paced plot that balances action, suspense, and moments of reflection. Incorporate conflict and resolution, creating opportunities for characters to grow and learn valuable life lessons. Children love interactive elements in their books. Consider incorporating interactive features like lift-the-flap, touch-and-feel, or seek-and-find elements to enhance their reading experience. Interactive elements encourage active engagement, stimulate curiosity, and make the reading process more enjoyable and memorable. Themes and Moral Lessons: Children’s books often convey important themes and moral lessons. Choose themes that resonate with children’s experiences and emotions. Address topics like friendship, resilience, kindness, empathy, and diversity. Integrate these lessons subtly into your story, allowing children to learn and reflect while enjoying the narrative. Writing children’s books that captivate young minds is an art form that requires a deep understanding of your audience, imaginative storytelling, relatable characters, and engaging language. Embrace the magic of children’s literature and create stories that transport young readers to captivating worlds, ignite their imaginations, and leave a lasting impression. With passion, creativity, and an understanding of the unique needs of your audience, you can create children’s books that inspire, entertain, and spark a love of reading in young minds.
Visit the Small Sea of Lake Baikal in Russia during the winter and you’ll likely see an unusual phenomenon: a flat rock balanced on a thin pedestal of ice, akin to stacking Zen stones common to Japanese gardens. The phenomenon is sometimes called a Baikal Zen formation. The typical explanation for how these formations occur is that the rock catches light (and heat) from the Sun and this melts the ice underneath until just a thin pedestal remains to support it. The water under the rock refreezes at night, and it’s been suggested that wind may also be a factor. Now, two French physicists believe they have solved the mystery of how these structures form, according to a new paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—and their solution has nothing to do with the thermal conduction of the stone. Rather, they attribute the formation to a phenomenon known as sublimation, whereby snow or ice evaporates directly into vapor without passing through a water phase. Specifically, the shade provided by the stone hinders the sublimation rates of the surrounding ice in its vicinity, while the ice further away sublimates at a faster rate. Many similar formations occur naturally in nature, such as hoodoos (tall, spindly structures that form over millions of years within sedimentary rock), mushroom rocks or rock pedestals (the base has been eroded by strong dusty winds), and glacier tables (a large stone sitting precariously on top of a narrow pedestal of ice). But the underlying mechanisms by which they form can be very different. For instance, as we reported last year, a team of applied mathematicians from New York University studied the so-called “stone forests” common in certain regions of China and Madagascar. These pointed rock formations, like the famed Stone Forest in China’s Yunnan Province, are the result of solids dissolving into liquids in the presence of gravity, which produces natural convective flows. On the surface, these stone forests look rather similar to “penitentes“: snowy pillars of ice that form in very dry air found high in the Andean glaciers. Charles Darwin described penitentes in 1839 during a March 1835 excursion in which he squeezed his way through snowfields covered in penitentes on the way from Santiago, Chile, to the Argentine city of Mendoza. Physicists have been able to recreate artificial versions of penitentes in the lab. But penitentes and stone forests are actually quite different in terms of the mechanisms involved in their formation. The spikes of a stone forest are carved by flows, which don’t play a big role in the formation of penitentes. Some physicists have suggested that penitentes form when sunlight evaporates the snow directly into vapor (sublimation). Tiny crests and troughs form, and sunlight gets trapped within them, creating extra heat that carves out even deeper troughs, and those curved surfaces in turn act as a lens, speeding up the sublimation process even more. An alternative proposal adds an additional mechanism to account for the oddly periodic fixed spacing of penitentes: a combination of vapor diffusion and heat transport that produces a steep temperature gradient and, hence, a higher sublimation rate. In the case of the Baikal Zen stone formations, the process seems similar to the sublimation hypothesis for penitentes, according to co-authors Nicolas Taberlet and Nicolas Plihon of CNRS in Lyon, France. Earlier this month, they published a somewhat related study in Physical Review Letters on the natural formation of glacier tables (a rock supported by a slender column of ice). They were able to produce small-scale artificial glacier tables in a controlled environment, and found two competing effects that control the onset of glacier table formation. With smaller stone caps with higher thermal conductivity, geometrical amplification of the heat flux causes the cap to sink into the ice. For a larger cap with less thermal conductivity, a reduction in heat flux arises from the fact that the cap has a higher temperature than the surrounding ice, forming a table. For this latest study, Taberlet and Plihon wanted to explore the underlying mechanisms behind the natural formation of Baikal Zen structures. “The scarcity of the phenomenon stems from the rarity of thick, flat, snow-free layers of ice, which require long-standing cold and dry weather conditions,” the authors wrote. “Weather records show that melting of the ice is virtually impossible and that, instead, the weather conditions (wind, temperature, and relative humidity) favor sublimation, which has long been known to be characteristic of the Lake Baikal area.” So the researchers set about trying to reproduce the phenomenon in the laboratory to test their hypothesis. They used metal disks as experimental analogs of the stones, placing the disks on the surface of blocks of ice in a commercial lyophilizer. The instrument freezes material, then reduces the pressure and adds heat, such that the frozen water sublimates. The higher reflectivity of the metal disks compared to stones kept the disks from overheating in the lyophilizer’s chambers. Both aluminum and copper disks produced the Baikal Zen formations, even though copper has almost twice the thermal conductivity of aluminum. The authors concluded that, therefore, the thermal properties of stone were not a crucial factor in the process. “Far from the stone, the sublimation rate is governed by the diffuse sunlight, while in its vicinity the shade it creates inhibits the sublimation process,” the authors wrote. “We show that the stone only acts as can umbrella whose shade hinders the sublimation, hence protecting the ice underneath, which leads to the formation of the pedestal.” This was subsequently confirmed by numerical modeling simulations. Taberlet and Plihon also found that the dip, or depression, surrounding the pedestal is the result of far infrared radiation emitted by the stone (or disk) itself, which enhances the overall sublimation rate in its vicinity. It’s quite different from the process that leads to glacier tables, despite the similar shape of the two formations. In the case of glacier tables, the umbrella effect is only a secondary factor in the underlying mechanism. “Glacier tables appear on low-altitude glaciers when the weather conditions cause the ice to melt instead of to sublimate,” the authors wrote. “They form in warm air while the ice remains at 0 degrees Celsius, whereas Zen stones form in air that is colder than the ice.” Understanding how these formations occur naturally could help us learn more about other objects in the universe, since ice sublimation has produced penitentes on Pluto and have influenced landscape formation on Mars, Pluto, Ceres, the moons of Jupiter, the moons of Saturn, and several comets. “Indeed, NASA’s Europa Lander project aims to seek biosignatures on Jupiter’s ice-covered moon, on the surface of which differential sublimation may threaten lander stability, and this needs to be fully understood,” the authors concluded. DOI: PNAS, 2021. 10.1073/pnas.2109107118 (About DOIs). This map of Venus shows every volcano we know about on its surface NASA delays flight of Boeing’s Starliner again, this time for parachutes Why space scientists need science fiction
\|Text on Button\|\|REPUBLICAN\| Blue text on a white stripe with blue above and red and white stripes below The Republican Party was founded in 1854 and it’s primary issue centered around the abolition of Slavery. This was accomplished when the first Republican President, Abraham Lincoln, won the presidency. The Civil War of the United States that followed helped to abolish slavery in the United States for good. The Republican Party continued to enjoy years of prosperity and promoted improving the life of the working class. During the Great Depression, many citizens blamed the Republicans in power, leading to a Democrat resurgence. The Republican Party greatly changed after the presidency of Franklin Roosevelt and it became much more conservative. Several Republicans opposed the spending of Democrats and wanted the government to stay limited. This conservatism ramped up over several culture wars issues such as abortion, due to the high Christian membership in the party. This led to the modern Republican Party seen today.
The 19th century was a period of industrialisation, scientific discovery and the adoption of modern values. Despite this, it produced a resurgence in anti-Jewish prejudice. This 19th century anti-Semitism was particularly intense in Russia, where it triggered waves of violence against the country’s five million Jews. During the 1700s, several European rulers imposed restrictions on Jews, their culture and language. In some parts of 18th century Europe, Jews were still subject to discriminatory laws and regulations. The Prussian king Frederick II, for example, passed laws restricting the number of Jews and banning them from marrying. In Austria, Jewish families were only permitted to have one son. In other states, Jews were obligated to pay additional taxes or face expulsion, while they were banned from holding political office or entering certain professions. A few leaders were more enlightened. French dictator Napoleon Bonaparte, for instance, ordered the emancipation of the Jews in all French territories. At the start of the 19th century, anti-Semitism seemed another regressive idea that was quickly fading into history. The 1800s was a century of industrial growth, political modernisation and social reform across western Europe. It delivered legal reforms and emancipation that improved the rights and status of Jews in many parts of Europe. In France and Germany, two traditional crucibles of ‘Jew-hating’, there were optimistic changes for the better. An 1830 motion by the French government recognised Judaism as an official religion, alongside Catholic and Protestant Christianity. Jews in the German-speaking states were granted economic and legal rights that exceeded those of their compatriots elsewhere. They were permitted to enter into legal contracts and purchase land and businesses. These reforms allowed German-speaking Jews to flourish. They became involved in banking and finance, law, medicine, higher education, theatre and the arts. Despite these progressive reforms, anti-Jewish prejudices survived. There was a resurgence in anti-Semitism during the 1880s, driven partly by two significant political movements: Zionism and German unification. Zionism was a political and cultural movement that sought the restoration of a Jewish homeland by creating a nation-state in Palestine. As Zionist leaders, groups and texts emerged, they called for greater Jewish unity and co-operation to achieve their goals. The growth of Zionism in the 19th century, culminating the First Zionist Congress in 1897, fuelled fanciful conspiracy theories that Jews were formulating a plot to take over Europe or the world. The push for German unification was another fertile ground for 19th-century anti-Semitism. Until 1871, there was no single German nation but a cluster of two dozen German-speaking kingdoms. Many nationalists wanted these kingdoms to unite to form a greater Germany, a nation that would rival the economic and military power of Britain, France and Russia. The road to German unification was a difficult one, however, and was often blocked by political obstacles and regional self-interest. Many who supported unification became frustrated by the lack of progress – which, of course, some blamed this on the region’s Jews. Anti-Semitic writers claimed the Jews feared a united Germany. They much preferred the status quo of small, bickering kingdoms. In 1868, a German writer, Hermann Goedsche, wrote of a secret coven of rabbis who met at midnight in a Jewish cemetery in Prague to devise plans for world domination. Goedsche was a known forger and an agent of the Prussian government, and his ‘revelation’ about a Jewish plot was actually plagiarised from an earlier text. Rising anti-Semitism in France Anti-Semitism also increased in France during the 19th century, fed by political division, instability and scapegoatism. French Jews were attacked from both sides of the political divide – by socialists who opposed Jewish ownership of businesses and capital, and Catholic nationalists who condemned Jews on racial and religious grounds, while claiming they undermined national unity. In some parts of France, anti-Jewish hatred had reached fever pitch by the late 1800s. The Ligue Nationale Antisemitique de France (‘French Anti-Semitic League’) was formed in 1889 and organised propaganda, riots and violent pogroms against local Jews. The group’s founder, Edouard Drumont, was a nationalist politician fond of invoking anti-Jewish conspiracy theories, including claims of corruption and bribery against other politicians and the prominent Jewish banking mogul Rothschild. The Dreyfus affair French anti-Semitism was brought to a head by the notorious ‘Dreyfus affair’ of the 1890s. Alfred Dreyfus was a French artillery officer of Jewish heritage who was accused of leaking military secrets to the Germans. He was sent to court martial and found guilty, more because of the intensity of French anti-Semitism than any evidence. Dreyfus spent two years in a notorious colonial prison before Emile Zola published his famous essay, J’accuse, which condemned the French government of running a cover-up and playing host to institutional anti-Semitism. Dreyfus was subsequently acquitted and returned to military service. The worst anti-Semitism of the late 1800s could be in the Russian Empire, which had one of the world’s largest Jewish populations (around five million by 1890). As in Germany, Russian Jews benefited from new freedoms granted in the mid-1800s. They moved into middle-class occupations like business ownership, banking, teaching and manufacturing. This created resentment among non-Jewish Russians, though not enough to provoke much violence. The situation for Russian Jews worsened considerably after the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881. Alexander had been something of a reformist. He had abolished serfdom (bonded feudalism) in 1861 and some of his reforms had improved conditions for Russia’s Jews – but his ‘reward’ was to be blown to pieces by a bomb in the streets of St Petersburg. Though Alexander was murdered by socialist revolutionaries, many Russians considered socialism and anarchism to be Jewish inventions – so Russia’s Jews, directly or indirectly, were held responsible. Waves of pogroms The backlash against Russian Jews was immediate. In 1882, the new tsar, Alexander III, ordered wide-ranging new restrictions for all Jews. They were prohibited from buying land or businesses, excluded from certain professions and expelled from some cities. Quotas restricted the number of Jews in state schools and universities. State-run newspapers printed anti-Jewish propaganda while the ‘Black Hundred’, a group of conservative reactionaries loyal to the tsar, incited rumour and violence against Jewish communities. In the early 1880s, and again between 1903 and 1905, several thousand Russian Jews were killed in pogroms (race riots targeting Jews and their property). Jews continued to serve as a scapegoat for Russia’s woes into the 20th century. Nicholas II, who took the throne as tsar in 1894, was a fervent anti-Semite who blamed almost every significant problem on the Jews and their influence. One of Nicholas’ prime ministers, Sergei Witte, wrote of the tsar: “The Emperor was surrounded by avowed Jew-haters, such as Trepov, Plehve, Ignatiev, and the leaders of the Black Hundreds. As for his personal attitude towards the Jews, I recall that whenever I drew his attention to the fact that anti-Jewish riots could not be tolerated, he either went silent, or remarked “But it is the Jews themselves who are to blame”.” The Protocols of Zion The notorious anti-Semitic forgery The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion was a product of this poisoned environment. The Protocols were written and circulated sometime around 1900, probably by agents of Nicholas’ secret police force, the Okhrana, as a means of strengthening his rule. They first appeared in print in 1903 and their content contributed to another wave of violent pogroms against Russian Jews. In the end, Nicholas’ poor judgement and irrational anti-Semitism cost him both the throne and his life. As revolutionary forces were building in Russia in late 1916 and early 1917, he continued to assert that it was “all Jewish work”. Nicholas was forced to abdicate in March 1917, and he and his family were murdered by communist revolutionaries in July the following year. A historian’s view: “Dramatic change had swept across Europe during the course of the century, and the Jews provided a convenient scapegoat for many of those whose existence was destabilised, as old established social roles were overturned. The political revolutions that furthered democracy across Europe meant a loss of status and power for the old nobility and clergy. In the estimation of some of the losers, the Jews were the most obvious gainers, and anti-Jewish resentment built. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism meant new challenges to agricultural labourers and more intense competition for shopkeepers. To them, too, the Jews seemed the group who most benefited from these painful changes.” Naomi E. Pasachoff 1. Anti-Semitic violence decreased after the Middle Ages, although prejudice against the Jews did not. 2. European Jews enjoyed some emancipation and improved rights from the early to mid-1800s. 3. The emergence of Zionism gave rise to conspiracy theories about the Jews seeking world domination. 4. Anti-Semitism increased in France and Germany, with the Jews as scapegoats for domestic problems. 5. In Russia, Jews were indirectly blamed and subject to recriminations for the assassination of Alexander II.
Bulletin #2257, Food Safety Facts: Facts About Eggs By Mahmoud El-Begearmi, Extension Professor, Nutrition, and Food Safety Table of Contents: - Handle with Care - Maintaining Shell Egg Quality and Wholesomeness - Understanding Shell Egg Quality and Wholesomeness - Table: Egg Sizes: The Six Official U.S. Weight Classes - The Processor’s Role - Additional Information The information in this fact sheet answers many of the questions consumers frequently ask about the quality and wholesomeness of eggs and egg-rich foods (such as quiche and baked custard). Eggs are perishable and must be handled with care. If you handle them properly, you’ll reduce your risk of food-borne illness and ensure good quality eggs. Keeping Eggs Safe and Healthy 1. Buy eggs from a refrigerated display case. If the trip home will take more than 30 minutes or if it is a very hot day, put the eggs in a portable cooler for the trip, if possible. Cold temperatures help maintain quality by slowing the loss of moisture and carbon dioxide from the eggs. The cold also slows the growth of any bacteria that might be present. Retail sales of eggs and the use of refrigerated display cases are governed by state regulations. 2. If the egg carton has an expiration date printed on it, such as “EXP May 1,” be sure it has not passed when you buy the eggs. The expiration date on an egg carton has the same meaning as the “pull” or “sell by” date. It is the last day the store may sell the item as fresh. An expiration date may or may not be required by state regulations or by individual food stores. It is not required by federal regulations. However, if it is used on a carton that also has a federal grade mark, the date cannot be more than 30 days from the date the eggs were packed into the carton. For example, eggs packed on January 1 may be labeled EXP JAN 30; packed January 2, EXP JAN 31; packed January 3, EXP FEB 1; and so forth. 3. Buy eggs that have clean, uncracked shells. Inspect the eggs in the carton before buying them. If bacteria are present on the shell, they could enter the egg through a crack and contaminate the contents. Federal regulations require that eggs with dirty, prominently stained, or cracked shells be kept out of stores. There are small tolerances for slight stains and cracks, however, to allow for normal handling. For example, very small or light-colored specks or stains are allowed if the shell still has the overall appearance of being clean. Also, very fine hairline cracks in the shells of fresh eggs may escape detection during processing because they are very hard to see. 4. Consider using pasteurized egg products when you’re going to serve a large group or take eggs on a trip. When making and serving eggs to a large group, use pasteurized egg products if possible. They eliminate the risk posed by bacteria that may have been present and are easy to use. Pasteurized egg products are sold by food brokers or wholesalers, usually in large-size containers, and are not generally sold in regular food stores. Pasteurized egg products are liquid, frozen and dried forms of eggs that have been separated from the shells and have undergone heat treatment for a short period of time. Commercial pasteurization kills bacteria but does not cook the eggs or affect their color, flavor or nutrients. The egg’s ability to make baked goods rise is one function that might be slightly affected. Federal regulations require that egg products be prepared under inspection to ensure wholesomeness and proper labeling. When taking eggs on a trip where no refrigeration is available, such as camping or boating, take dried egg products. They are lightweight, easy to pack, and can be reconstituted with clean water and used as you would use shell eggs. Small packages are often sold at sporting goods stores. 5. Put eggs in the refrigerator as soon as possible, and keep them refrigerated until used. Then, remove only the number of eggs needed from the carton and return the carton to the refrigerator immediately. Egg quality can decline more for one day at room temperature than during one week in the refrigerator. Refrigerator temperatures (40 degrees or below) not only help maintain quality by slowing the loss of moisture and carbon dioxide from the eggs but also keep bacteria that cause food-borne illness from growing. When cold eggs sit in a warm room, moisture from the air will condense on the shell surface and the eggs will look like they are sweating. This speeds up the loss of quality and can allow bacteria to grow. 6. Do not wash eggs before storing them. Most eggs sold commercially have been washed, sanitized and sprayed with an oil coating to help preserve quality and wholesomeness. Washing eggs at home will remove the coating and, if done improperly, any bacteria present could be drawn into the eggs through pores in the shells. The extra handling also increases the chance of accidentally cracking the shells. 7. Leave eggs in their original carton in the refrigerator. Moving eggs from their carton to a refrigerator storage area increase the chance of accidentally cracking the shells and transferring bacteria from your hands to the shells. 8. Keep eggs away from foods with strong odors, like fish and onions. Strong odors can penetrate eggshells and may give the eggs an unpleasant smell or taste. 9. If an egg accidentally freezes, keep it frozen until needed, then thaw in the refrigerator. If the shell cracked during freezing, discard the egg. When a raw egg freezes, its contents expand and may crack the shell. When thawed, an egg with an uncracked shell may be hard-cooked successfully, but other uses may be limited. Freezing causes the yolk to become thick and syrupy, so it will not flow like an unfrozen yolk and blend very well with the egg white or other ingredients. 10. If you accidentally crack the shell of an egg before you plan to use it, break the egg into a clean container, cover tightly, refrigerate, and use within two days in a recipe that is baked. Do not use an egg if the shell is cracked; if the egg’s contents are leaking through the shell; if the egg is stuck to the carton; or if the eggshell is dirty, very stained, or has foreign material sticking to it. If bacteria are present on the shell, they could enter the egg through a crack and contaminate the contents. 11. Use eggs within a reasonable amount of time. Raw shell eggs will keep in the home refrigerator without much quality loss for up to three weeks. Separated egg whites and yolks should be refrigerated in tightly covered containers and used within four days. Cover the yolks with cold water before storing and pour the water off before using. Hard-cooked eggs, in the shell or peeled, should be stored in the refrigerator and eaten within one week after cooking. Hard-cooked yolks should be used within five days. Eggs held in the refrigerator too long may develop a bad flavor. Over time, they will gradually lose quality and some of their functional properties, such as the ability to thicken sauces and make baked goods rise. If organisms that cause food spoilage are present, eggs will spoil. The rate at which these changes occur depends on many things, including the temperature and how the eggs are handled and stored. 12. Follow good hygienic practices when preparing eggs and egg-rich foods. Wash hands, utensils, equipment and work surfaces with hot, soapy water before and after they come in contact with eggs and egg-rich foods. Protect food, utensils, equipment and the work area from people with infections and respiratory illnesses, pets and household pests. Cleanliness during food preparation helps stop the spread of any harmful bacteria that might be present. Dirty hands, utensils, equipment and work surfaces can contaminate any food they touch and should be cleaned before food is handled. This will prevent cross-contamination of food—transferring harmful bacteria from one food to another, usually from raw food to the same food after it is cooked, or to another raw food, or to another cooked food. 13. Break eggs into a clean container before cooking or mixing with other ingredients. If any shell fragments or blood spots are present, remove them with a clean utensil. Do not add eggshells to beverages or other dishes. If any bacteria are on the surface of the eggshell, they can contaminate the entire dish and increase the risk of illness. Eggshells may also give the dish a gritty texture. Blood spots, while unappetizing to see, are harmless. They do not indicate a fertile egg. Blood spots usually occur when a blood vessel ruptures in the hen when the egg is made. Some breeds lay more blood-spotted eggs than other breeds. Federal regulations require that eggs with large blood spots be kept out of stores. Small blood spots are permitted in Grade B eggs. Small tolerances for blood spots are allowed in Grades AA and A eggs, however, because very small blood spots can be difficult to see during processing, especially in eggs with brown shells. (See Grading Eggs.) 14. When preparing and serving eggs and egg-rich foods, keep them out of the refrigerator no more than two hours total (not including cooking time). If serving time is more than two hours, as for a buffet, serve these foods from small dishes and refill them with hot or cold food from the stove or refrigerator. To serve eggs and egg-rich foods hot, serve immediately after cooking, or hold for serving at 140 degrees F or higher for a short time. To serve them cold, put hot foods into shallow containers and refrigerate immediately after cooking so they will cool quickly. Cold cooked foods can be held for serving at 40 degrees F or below for a short time. Leftovers should be refrigerated in covered containers immediately after serving. Do not mix leftovers from the serving table with other food that is still on the stove or in the refrigerator. Use within four days. If harmful bacteria have enough time at the right temperature, they will grow or form a harmful toxin, either of which could make people sick. Most harmful bacteria survive and grow fast at room temperature, between 40 and 140 degrees F. Most are killed at temperatures of 160 degrees F or higher. Their growth is inhibited at 40 degrees F or below. If food has been held at unsafe temperatures for more than two hours, it may become contaminated with harmful bacteria that are not destroyed by ordinary cooking. Heating this food to 160 degrees F will not make it safe to eat after exposure for more than two hours at an unsafe temperature. 15. Thoroughly cook eggs and egg-rich foods to minimize the risk of harmful bacteria, such as salmonella. Cooking eggs and egg-rich foods to an internal temperature of 160 degrees F will destroy any salmonella bacteria that may be present. Use a cooking thermometer whenever possible to find out when this temperature is reached. Otherwise, follow the rules of proper food handling and cooking directions. The cooking times and temperatures needed for food to reach 160 degrees F, and for bacteria to be killed, are affected by the types and temperatures of the ingredients and their degree of acidity or alkalinity (pH value), as well as the total volume of food cooked, the amount of bacteria that may be present, and the accuracy and efficiency of the cooking appliance used. “Thoroughly cooked eggs” include eggs cooked until the whites and yolks are not runny, hard-cooked eggs, baked eggs, eggs used in recipes that are baked, and other egg-rich foods cooked to an internal temperature of at least 160 degrees F. Stirred (soft) custards, for example, reach serving consistency between 175 and 185 degrees F. Homemade ice cream and eggnog can be made with cooked, custard-type bases. 16. Be aware that there is a risk of becoming ill if you eat raw eggs and foods that contain raw eggs, as well as lightly cooked eggs and egg-rich foods. If you are vulnerable to infections caused by bacteria like salmonella, avoid these foods. Although food-borne illness is not usually a major health problem for most healthy individuals, it can be very serious, even life-threatening, to people who are vulnerable to bacterial infections. These people include the elderly, whose immune systems weaken with age, infants, whose immune systems are not fully developed, chronically ill people with weakened immune systems, and pregnant women because of risk to the fetus. Raw eggs are used in Caesar salad, homemade mayonnaise, uncooked hollandaise and béarnaise sauces, fortified beverages, and homemade ice cream and eggnog made with uncooked bases. Eggs in cookie dough and cake batter are raw until after baking. Raw eggs added to a previously cooked dish are not sufficiently heated unless the entire dish is reheated to 160 degrees F. Lightly cooked eggs are eggs served soft-cooked, soft-poached, soft-scrambled, and sunny-side-up. French toast is also lightly cooked. If you choose to eat raw or lightly cooked eggs, use special care to reduce the risk of illness. 17. Take care with hard-cooked eggs that are hidden for an egg hunt to prevent cracking. Hide them in places that are protected from dirt, pets and other sources of bacteria. The total time for hiding and hunting the eggs must not be more than two hours. Eggs must be refrigerated until they are eaten. Hard-cooked eggs will eventually spoil if not refrigerated and should not be eaten if they are exposed to room temperatures for more than two hours. Since cooking will remove some of the protective oil coating sprayed on the shells, bacteria can enter the egg through the pores or cracks in the shells. The Egg Design Nature designed the egg to fulfill one main purpose — reproduction. This design also helps protect the quality and wholesomeness of the egg on its trip from the hen to the kitchen — if everyone handles the egg properly. The eggshell is nature’s packaging for the egg’s contents. Thousands of tiny pores form passageways through the shell. The cuticle or bloom is a protective coating that covers the shell as the egg is laid and blocks the pores. Two shell membranes are located between the inner surface of the shell and the egg white. An air cell forms between the shell membranes after the egg is laid, usually in the large end of the egg. Twisted, cordlike strands of egg white, called chalazae, are on opposite sides of the yolk and hold the yolk in the center of the white. Most eggs sold today are infertile because there are no roosters housed with the laying hens. Fertile eggs are often found at roadside stands or health foods stores. There are no nutritional differences between fertile and infertile eggs. If fertile eggs are not incubated there will be no development of the embryo and no way to distinguish them from infertile eggs. If fertile eggs are properly incubated for a few days, development of the embryo or a blood ring should be visible when the eggs are candled. Federal regulations prohibit their use as human food. \|Minimum ounces per dozen\| Egg quality is defined by USDA grade standards that are based on factors such as the condition of the white and yolk, the size of the air cell, and the soundness and cleanliness of the shell. The color of the shell and the nutritional value of the egg are not quality factors. When an egg is laid, the white and yolk are at their peak quality. A newly laid egg is warm. It immediately begins to cool, and its contents contract slightly. Some air penetrates the shell through the pores and the two membranes separate to form a small air cell. If broken open, the egg’s contents would cover a small area; the white would be thick and stand high; the yolk would be firm, round and high; and the chalazae (twisted, cord-like strands) would be very prominent. Over time, the white and yolk lose quality. The yolk absorbs water from the white. Moisture and carbon dioxide in the white evaporate through the pores, allowing more air to penetrate the shell, and the air cell becomes larger. If broken open, the egg’s contents would cover a wider area; the white would be thinner, losing some of its thickening and leavening powers; the yolk would be flatter, larger and more easily broken; and the chalazae would be less prominent and weaker, allowing the yolk to move off-center. Eggs sold today are fresh, usually moving from processor to retailer within a few days after being laid. Refrigeration and proper handling help maintain their quality. For eggs to be identified as fresh on the carton, federal regulations require that they have not been held in refrigerated storage for more than 30 days. Freshness affects the cooking quality of eggs. Very fresh, high-quality eggs are best for poaching and frying because they hold their shape and look most attractive. However, when they are hard-cooked, the white may stick to the membranes inside the shell and the eggs may be difficult to peel. When hard cooking, buy eggs a week to 10 days ahead of time for best peeling results. If you choose to eat raw or lightly cooked eggs, follow these tips: - Use only Grade AA or A eggs that have been refrigerated. Grade AA and A eggs must have clean, uncracked shells. (See Grading Eggs.) - Wash hands in hot, soapy water before and after handling the eggs. - Eat immediately. Or refrigerate the dish until served, keep it cold during serving and eat it the same day it is made. - Discard leftovers. Federal regulations define three quality grade levels that apply to all eggs sold to consumers: Grades AA, A and B. Grades AA and A are mostly sold in grocery stores. Grade AA is the highest quality grade level. Processors who pay for USDA’s voluntary shell egg grading service have their facilities and procedures federally approved and monitored and are authorized to use the USDA grade shields on their egg cartons. Other processors operate according to state regulations that conform to the federal regulations. These processors use terms like “Grade A,” without the shield, on their egg cartons. Cartons with the federal grade mark must also have a three-digit lot number printed on them. This number is the consecutive day of the year on which the eggs were packed. For example, a carton with number 031 was packed on January 31; 032, on February 1; 033, on February 2; and so forth. Bacteria occur naturally in the environment. While some are helpful, such as those used to make vinegar from apple juice, others are harmful. Salmonella, for example, is one harmful bacteria that may be found on foods of animal origin — raw meat, poultry, fish, milk, and eggs. These harmful bacteria can be controlled so they do not cause illness. Salmonella bacteria can be killed by cooking raw meat, poultry, fish and eggs, and by pasteurizing raw milk and liquid eggs. Bacteria can adhere to the surface of the eggshell or hide in the pores and can penetrate the egg contents through cracks in the shell or through the pores. Scientists strongly suspect that certain salmonella bacteria can be transmitted from an infected laying hen directly into the interior of an egg before the shell is formed (transovarian transmission). However, the risk of contracting salmonellosis from eggs contaminated with salmonella bacteria is very small, especially if the eggs are handled properly. Processors take steps to be sure that eggs are fit for human consumption. Most eggs are automatically washed, sanitized and dried. Washing removes dirt and bacteria from the surface of the shells. Washing also removes the natural protective cuticle, which many processors replace with a thin film of a colorless, odorless, tasteless, edible mineral oil. The clean eggs then pass over a light in mass-scanning (candling) equipment, which detects unmarketable eggs. These eggs include “checks” (where the shell is cracked, but membranes are intact so contents do not leak), “dirties,” incubator rejects, inedibles, loss, and leakers. Federal regulations prohibit restricted eggs from being sold as raw shell eggs. Automatic scales weigh the clean eggs, packaging equipment puts them into cartons, and the cartons are placed into coolers until they are shipped. The size printed on the carton indicates the required minimum weight for a dozen eggs, not the weight of each egg in the carton. Extra large, large and medium are the sizes most often found in grocery stores. Most recipes are based on large eggs. Safe Egg-Handling Practices Meat and Poultry Hotline 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m., Eastern time Washington, DC area: 202.720.3333 Concerns and Complaints about Store-Bought Eggs Local store that sold the eggs. First the manager, then the company’s consumer affairs officer or president. State Egg Laws Maine Department of Agriculture Division of Quality Assurance and Regulations Retail Egg Sales and Food Service and Food Manufacturing Egg Use State and local health departments. Grading of Shell Eggs and U.S. Standards, Grades and Weight Classes Inspection of Egg Products, Disposition of Restricted Eggs, Importation and Exportation of Egg Products and Restricted Eggs STOP 0259, Room 3944-South 1400 Independence Avenue, SW Washington, D.C. 20250 Importation and Exportation of Shell Eggs Domestic Disease Problems Affecting U.S. Egg-Laying Hens U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service National Center for Import/Export 4700 River Road Riverdale, MD 20737-1231 Nutrition Labeling for Shell Eggs and Egg Products* Requirements for Specific Standardized Egg Products* Model Sanitation Codes for Retail and Food Service Establishments** U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Div. of Regulatory Guidance (HFF-314) *Div. of Cooperative Programs (HFF-340) 5100 Paint Branch Parkway College Park, MD 20740-3835 For more information about food safety, call USDA’s Meat and Poultry Hotline at 1.800.535.4555 or contact your University of Maine Cooperative Extension County Office. Information in this publication is provided purely for educational purposes. No responsibility is assumed for any problems associated with the use of products or services mentioned. No endorsement of products or companies is intended, nor is criticism of unnamed products or companies implied. Call 800.287.0274 (in Maine), or 207.581.3188, for information on publications and program offerings from University of Maine Cooperative Extension, or visit extension.umaine.edu. The University of Maine is an EEO/AA employer, and does not discriminate on the grounds of race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, transgender status, gender expression, national origin, citizenship status, age, disability, genetic information or veteran’s status in employment, education, and all other programs and activities. The following person has been designated to handle inquiries regarding non-discrimination policies: Sarah E. Harebo, Director of Equal Opportunity, 101 North Stevens Hall, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469-5754, 207.581.1226, TTY 711 (Maine Relay System).
Natural hazards are an inherent part of the Earth’s dynamic environment, posing significant threats to human lives and infrastructure. Abelle, a region known for its diverse geography and rich natural resources, is not exempt from such hazards. This informational geography article aims to explore the various natural hazards that can be found in Abelle, shedding light on their causes, impacts, and potential mitigation strategies. To illustrate the significance of these hazards, let us consider a hypothetical scenario: A severe earthquake strikes Abelle with a magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. The tremors rattle buildings, causing them to crumble like fragile sandcastles under the relentless force of nature. Panic ensues as people scramble for safety amidst collapsing structures and falling debris. In this case study, we witness firsthand how natural disasters can quickly turn into devastating events, highlighting the importance of understanding and preparing for potential hazards in Abelle. Types of Natural Hazards in Abelle Abelle, a region known for its diverse landscapes and rich biodiversity, is also prone to various natural hazards. These hazards can have significant impacts on the environment, infrastructure, and the lives of its inhabitants. Understanding the types of natural hazards in Abelle is crucial for effective disaster preparedness and mitigation efforts. One example of a natural hazard that frequently occurs in Abelle is earthquakes. The region sits on several fault lines, making it susceptible to seismic activity. An earthquake case study from 2010 serves as a vivid reminder of the devastating consequences these events can have. In this particular instance, an earthquake measuring 7.2 magnitude struck Abelle, resulting in widespread destruction of buildings and infrastructure, loss of life, and displacement of communities. Natural hazards in Abelle encompass more than just earthquakes; they also include floods, landslides, and droughts. Flooding can occur during heavy rainfall or due to overflowing rivers and streams. It poses threats such as property damage, loss of agricultural crops, contamination of water sources, and health risks associated with stagnant water. Similarly, landslides triggered by steep slopes and excessive rain pose dangers to both human settlements and transportation networks. To provide a visual representation of the impact caused by these natural hazards in Abelle: - Flood Damage: Homes submerged under water leading to displacement. - Landslide Destruction: Roads blocked off due to debris flow. - Earthquake Devastation: Collapsed buildings causing casualties. - Drought Consequences: Crop failure affecting food security. \|Flood\|\|Displacement & Property Damage\|\|Home flooding\| \|Landslide\|\|Road Blockages & Infrastructure Loss\|\|Debris flow\| \|Earthquake\|\|Building Collapse & Casualties\|\|Damaged structures\| \|Drought\|\|Crop Failure & Food Insecurity\|\|Failed harvest\| Recognizing the varied types of natural hazards in Abelle is essential for implementing appropriate strategies to reduce their impacts. By understanding how these hazards manifest and affect the region, policymakers, scientists, and communities can work together to develop effective disaster risk reduction plans. Transitioning into the subsequent section about the causes of natural hazards in Abelle, it becomes imperative to explore the underlying factors that contribute to such events. Understanding these causes will further enhance our ability to predict and mitigate potential risks associated with natural hazards in this region. Causes of Natural Hazards in Abelle Abelle, a region known for its diverse landscape and natural beauty, is unfortunately prone to various types of natural hazards. These hazards pose significant risks to both the environment and the population residing in this area. Understanding these hazards is crucial in order to implement effective mitigation strategies and ensure the safety of those living in Abelle. One prominent example of a natural hazard in Abelle is earthquakes. The region sits on a tectonic plate boundary, making it susceptible to seismic activity. In fact, Abelle experienced a devastating earthquake in 2009, measuring 7.8 on the Richter scale. This event caused widespread destruction and loss of life, highlighting the destructive power of earthquakes. In addition to earthquakes, Abelle also faces other natural hazards such as floods, landslides, and wildfires. Flooding occurs during heavy rainfall or when rivers overflow their banks, leading to property damage and displacement of residents. Landslides can be triggered by torrential rains or unstable slopes due to deforestation and construction activities. Wildfires are another hazard that poses a threat to Abelle’s forests and ecosystems, often resulting from dry weather conditions combined with human activities. To better understand the impact of these natural hazards, consider the following emotional bullet points: - Lives lost: Tragically, numerous lives have been claimed by these hazardous events. - Economic devastation: The aftermath of natural disasters leaves communities struggling financially. - Environmental degradation: Habitats are destroyed, wildlife populations decline, and delicate ecosystems suffer irreversible damage. - Displacement: Many individuals are forced to leave their homes temporarily or permanently due to unsafe conditions. Furthermore, let us examine an emotionally evocative table displaying some statistical data related to natural hazards in Abelle: \|Hazard\|\|Frequency (per year)\|\|Average Casualties\|\|Economic Loss (in millions)\| These figures serve as a reminder of the devastating impact natural hazards have on Abelle’s population and economy. In conclusion to this section, it is evident that Abelle faces a range of natural hazards. These events not only disrupt daily life but also result in significant human, economic, and environmental consequences. In the subsequent section about “Impact of Natural Hazards in Abelle,” we will explore the aftermath of these hazardous events and their long-lasting effects on both individuals and communities alike. Impact of Natural Hazards in Abelle Natural Hazards in Abelle: An Informational Geography Article Causes of Natural Hazards in Abelle: After examining the various causes behind natural hazards in Abelle, it is crucial to understand their significant impacts on the region. These hazardous events can result in devastating consequences for both human life and the environment. One notable case study that exemplifies this is the flash flood that occurred in 2019. The heavy rainfall overwhelmed the local river system, causing it to breach its banks and inundate nearby communities. The impact of natural hazards can be felt across multiple dimensions, affecting not only individuals but also infrastructure and ecosystems. Considerable economic losses are incurred as a direct result of these events, with damages extending to residential buildings, businesses, and agricultural sectors. Furthermore, social implications arise from disruptions to daily life routines such as displacement, loss of livelihoods, and increased vulnerability among affected populations. To comprehend the magnitude of these impacts further, let us reflect upon some key aspects: - Human casualties – Lives lost or injured due to sudden-onset disasters. - Environmental degradation – Long-term harm inflicted on ecosystems and biodiversity. - Psychological ramifications – Emotional distress experienced by survivors. - Socio-economic setbacks – Losses incurred by households and industries alike. \|Infrastructure Damage\|\|Collapsed bridges\| \|Agricultural Disruption\|\|Crop failure\| \|Health Risks\|\|Waterborne diseases\| \|Economic Losses\|\|Decline in tourism revenue\| In light of these repercussions, it becomes evident that mitigating and preventing natural hazards should be a priority for Abelle. By understanding the causes behind these events and acknowledging their far-reaching consequences, steps can be taken towards developing effective strategies that safeguard lives and minimize damage. Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards in Abelle As we delve into exploring prevention measures and strategies to mitigate the impact of natural hazards in Abelle, it becomes clear that a proactive approach is crucial. By implementing comprehensive disaster risk reduction plans, communities can better equip themselves against future events. Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards in Abelle The impact of natural hazards in the region of Abelle cannot be ignored. One example that vividly demonstrates this is the devastating earthquake that struck the city in 2010, leaving behind a trail of destruction and loss. This case study serves as a grim reminder of how vulnerable Abelle is to such events and underscores the urgent need for effective prevention and mitigation strategies. To fully comprehend the magnitude of this issue, it is essential to explore the various consequences that arise from natural hazards in Abelle. These can range from immediate casualties and injuries to long-term economic setbacks and environmental degradation. The following list highlights some key impacts: - Loss of human life and displacement - Destruction of infrastructure (buildings, roads, etc.) - Disruption of basic services (water, electricity) - Environmental damage (landslides, pollution) A quick glance at these points reveals not only physical devastation but also profound emotional distress experienced by individuals affected by these hazards. To further illustrate this point, consider the following table: \|Loss of loved ones\|\|Grief\| \|Destruction of homes\|\|Fear\| \|Lack of access to resources\|\|Frustration\| \|Uncertainty about future\|\|Anxiety\| This table evokes empathy within us and emphasizes how natural hazards have a far-reaching impact beyond mere material losses. In light of these sobering realities, it becomes imperative for authorities and communities alike to develop robust prevention and mitigation measures. These efforts should focus on strengthening infrastructures against potential hazards while also raising awareness among residents regarding emergency preparedness. By implementing comprehensive risk management strategies, Abelle can enhance its resilience towards future disasters. Transition into subsequent section: Understanding the gravity of natural hazards in Abelle necessitates an examination not only of their impact but also the response and recovery processes that follow such events. Response and Recovery to Natural Hazards in Abelle Following the previous section’s discussion on natural hazards in Abelle, it is imperative to explore the prevention and mitigation strategies that have been implemented to address these challenges. By examining real-life scenarios, such as the devastating floods that occurred in 2015, we can gain insights into effective measures for minimizing the impacts of natural hazards. To begin with, one key approach to preventing and mitigating natural hazards is through land-use planning. In the case of Abelle, authorities have identified high-risk areas prone to flooding or landslides and implemented strict regulations limiting construction or development in these regions. This proactive measure has helped reduce potential damage by ensuring communities are not settled in vulnerable zones. Additionally, early warning systems play a critical role in disaster risk reduction efforts. Through robust monitoring networks, meteorological agencies can detect weather patterns indicative of impending natural hazards and issue timely alerts to at-risk populations. By disseminating crucial information via various communication channels, including radio broadcasts and mobile phone notifications, residents can take necessary precautions ahead of time. Furthermore, community engagement initiatives have proven instrumental in enhancing resilience against natural disasters. Local organizations collaborate with government bodies to conduct awareness campaigns focusing on preparedness measures like emergency evacuation plans and stockpiling essential supplies. These educational programs also emphasize the importance of fostering a culture of safety within communities by promoting responsible behavior during hazardous events. - Displacement of families from their homes. - Destruction of livelihoods leading to economic instability. - Loss of personal belongings with sentimental value. - Psychological trauma experienced by survivors. Moreover, let us reflect upon a three-column table showcasing statistics related to some recent natural hazard events in Abelle: \|Event\|\|Date\|\|Number of Affected Individuals\| In conclusion, the prevention and mitigation of natural hazards in Abelle require a multi-faceted approach. By implementing effective land-use planning strategies, developing early warning systems, and fostering community engagement initiatives, the impacts of these disasters can be significantly reduced. However, as we move forward to explore the future outlook on natural hazards in Abelle, it is essential to recognize that challenges persist and new measures must continually evolve. Transitioning into the subsequent section about the “Future Outlook on Natural Hazards in Abelle,” we delve into upcoming advancements aimed at further enhancing disaster management practices within the region. Future Outlook on Natural Hazards in Abelle Response and Recovery to Natural Hazards in Abelle As the impacts of natural hazards continue to pose significant challenges for communities, it is crucial to examine the response and recovery efforts undertaken in Abelle. By analyzing past experiences and implementing proactive measures, authorities can better prepare for future natural disasters. The devastating earthquake that struck Abelle in 2010 provides a case study illustrating the importance of effective emergency response systems. During the aftermath of the earthquake, multiple agencies collaborated to provide immediate relief and support to affected individuals. These collaborative efforts included search and rescue operations conducted by local firefighters, police forces, and international humanitarian organizations. Furthermore, medical assistance was provided through mobile clinics set up near affected areas. This example highlights how coordination among various entities played a vital role in mitigating further damage and facilitating prompt recovery. To enhance preparedness for future hazards, several key strategies have been implemented: - Early warning systems: Installation of advanced seismic monitoring technology enables early detection of earthquakes, allowing residents to receive timely alerts. - Public awareness campaigns: Regular dissemination of information regarding hazard risks and safety procedures equips residents with knowledge on how to respond effectively during emergencies. - Infrastructure resilience: Emphasis has been placed on constructing buildings resilient to seismic activities, ensuring their ability to withstand potential earthquakes or other natural disasters. - Collaboration with neighboring regions: Establishing partnerships with adjacent regions facilitates mutual aid during times of crisis, enabling efficient resource sharing and coordinated disaster management. In order to grasp an overview of the response mechanisms employed during different types of natural hazards in Abelle, consider the following table: \|Hazard Type\|\|Emergency Response Measures\| \|Earthquakes\|\|Search & Rescue Operations\| \|Drought\|\|Water Resource Management\| This table exemplifies some of the measures taken in response to specific natural hazards. It is important to note that these approaches are part of an ongoing effort, as authorities continuously refine their strategies based on the lessons learned from past events. By examining both successful and unsuccessful responses to natural hazards, Abelle has developed a comprehensive understanding of effective disaster management techniques. These experiences have laid the groundwork for future improvements in preparedness and resilience. Through continued collaboration, public awareness campaigns, and investments in infrastructure, Abelle aims to minimize the impact of natural hazards on its communities while fostering a safer environment for all residents.
Sacralization: What You Need To Know? In human spine, there are five lumbar vertebrae located above the pelvis. Below this, there are five sacral vertebrae, which are fused, proceeding to the tailbone. The spinal column is formed during the normal embryonic development and each type of vertebra assumes its character and position. The lumbar region of the spinal column mainly facilitates movement of the back and supports the body weight. The five lumbar vertebrae are designed in a manner that can help its function and are counted from above downwards as L1 to L5. The fifth lumbar vertebra has a peculiar shape and characteristics to suit its normal location and function. In some cases, during the embryonic development, some changes can cause congenital anomalies, leading to deformities of the vertebral bodies. Such congenital defects in fusion or formation of certain parts can affect individuals in different ways. Sacralization is a congenital condition in which the lumbar vertebra fuses completely or partially with the sacrum on either or both sides. What Is Sacralization of L5 or Sacralization of Fifth Lumbar Vertebra? Sacralization of L5 or sacralisation of fifth lumbar vertebra is a congenital anomaly, in which the lumbar vertebra, mainly its transverse process, gets fused or semi-fused with the sacrum or the ilium or to both. This fusion can occur in one or both sides of the body. Sacralization leads to fusion of the L5 (fifth lumbar vertebra) and S1 (first sacral vertebra) and the inter-vertebral disc between them may be narrow. Due to sacralization, the L5 vertebra appears and works more like the sacral components and hence it is termed as sacralized vertebra. As the fifth lumbar vertebra fuses with sacrum, it is considered as a part of sacrum leaving only four lumbar vertebrae. Hence, the condition is also called as ‘one less vertebra’. Sometimes it is observed that the lumbar vertebral bodies are not fused, but only the transverse processes may be fused with the sacrum; completely on one side and incompletely on the other side. When fusion or sacralization occurs with sacrum, it is central sacralization and when fusion occurs with the sides of sacrum, it is transverse sacralization (unilateral for one side and bilateral for both sides). Sacralization of lumbar vertebra may be asymptomatic but is not always clinically insignificant. The sacralized lumbar vertebra, which is normally a non-fused vertebra, may sometimes face challenges in its function after getting fused with the sacrum. As the pattern of sacralization varies from person to person, the associated problems, if any, may also vary in severity and intensity. While sacralization may not affect at all, it can cause problems in some cases. Sacralization may be at times associated with problems in biomechanics and affect the ways of movement and posture control. In sacralization, the L5 vertebra may not be completely fused along the entire way. Being fused on one side and semi-fused or non-fused on the other side can make the working of the spine difficult. The spinal components above the L5 have to work hard to cope with this, which may cause strain on them. Some persons with sacralization may present with complaints of back pain, spinal or radicular pain and related signs. Sometimes due to the abnormal fusing of the lumbar vertebra with the sacrum, the lumbar movements can get affected and conditions like lumbar scoliosis can develop. In some cases, lumbar extradural effects can also be seen. As the inter-vertebral disc between L5 and S1 is narrow or thin, there are higher chances of disc herniation. Problems like disc protrusion or prolapse especially between the fourth and fifth disc, degeneration of disc, etc. Sacralization may also be an important consideration in disc surgeries. Sacralization can affect the centre of gravity at the spinal basis. As the fifth lumbar vertebra gets fused with the sacrum and gets sacralized, the fourth lumbar vertebra becomes the last lumbar vertebra. Hence, the L4 vertebra bears the responsibility of being the seat of spinal movement. However, the L4 vertebra may lack the ability to perform this function like L5 and can cause problems. With a fused L5, it is difficult for L4 to cope with the increased demand, causing over-use and undue strain to the disc between L4 and L5. This can gradually lead to pain and discomfort in the region of low back. What Is The Treatment For Sacralization? Sacralized lumbar vertebra can affect spinal movement and put excess stress on the lumbar vertebrae and in-between disc. Proper diagnosis can be done by using imaging studies. Treatment depends on the nature of the anomaly and associated symptoms. Treatment for Sacralization may include: - Anti-inflammatory drugs, muscle relaxants for back pain, swelling, inflammation. Injections and steroid treatment may be considered. - Manual therapy, muscle or radicular technique if appropriate. - Surgical treatment may be considered for cases requiring correction. - Physiotherapy for low back pain, weakened muscles, sciatic nerve pain, nerve symptoms and spinal traction in certain cases. Use of lumbar belt or corset to reduce pain, inflammation and reduce movement to protect back muscles as advised by physician. - Exercises for strengthening and stretching of back muscles depending on the condition should be followed as advised. Training of proper use of back and abdominal muscles can help in keeping the back muscles strong and flexible. As there are many causes of back pain, further studies are required to determine the link between sacralization and back pain. - What is Lumbarization and How Can it Be Treated? - Lower Back Muscle Spasms: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment - Can Constipation Cause Back Pain?
Counting Stars (Primary) This activity involves students calculating how many stars are visible in the night sky. Students count the number of stars in a small patch of the night sky then multiply their number by how many such patches would make the entire sky. Each pupil will need: - One piece of A4 paper - Sticky tape - A printed copy of the Counting Stars Recording Sheet (see below) - A printed copy of the Counting Stars Activity Sheet (see below) - One pencil
In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency of the United States on a political platform that opposed the expansion of slavery, South Carolina seceded from the Union on December 20, 1860. Six more states would follow in the ensuing months: Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. In February 1861, they formed the Confederate States of America, an entity considered illegal by the United States government. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. This began the first battle of the deadliest conflict in US history, the American Civil War. This primary source set uses documents, illustrations, and maps to explore events and ideas that drove the formation of the Confederate States of America and the United States’ descent into civil war.
Marine ecosystems, in addition of being reservoirs of biodiversity, store more than half of the planet's CO2, even on a larger scale than the large terrestrial forests. Since childhood, we have been taught that preserving forests is important, since trees incorporate CO2 and release O2, vital for life on planet Earth. Likewise, the preservation of forests is also often promoted since they are a large reservoir of CO2, which implies that they are key ecosystems to counteract the greenhouse effect and slow down climate change. However, did you know that the largest carbon pools are not our forests but our marine and coastal ecosystems? They store the so-called blue carbon. What is blue carbon? We call blue carbon to the organic carbon that is captured and stored in oceans and in the marine-coastal ecosystems such as: mangroves, marshes and seagrass meadows. Approximately one third of the total atmospheric CO2 emissions are accumulated as blue carbon through different biological and physicochemical processes. Unlike carbon stored in terrestrial ecosystems such as forests, blue carbon tends to accumulate more and this occurs more efficiently and faster in soil sediments than in plant biomass. Blue carbon in numbers The climate change negative effects are considerably mitigated through the formation of carbon reservoirs in the ocean floors, even on a larger scale than in large land forests. Approximately 83% of the carbon cycle occurs through the oceans, and even though coastal ecosystems only cover 2% of the total area of the oceans, they store 50% of the carbon sequestered in marine sediments. Therefore, the current losses of 2% of these ecosystems per year are highly significant in the fight against climate change, since just as these ecosystems can function as sinks, they can also be sources of carbon emissions when destroyed. In this case, large amounts of blue carbon return to the surface and accumulate as a greenhouse gas. How to promote the conservation of marine-coastal ecosystems and promote the storage of blue carbon? Various governmental and scientific organizations have joined forces to protect marine-coastal ecosystems, encourage the creation of new marine protected areas, and mitigate climate change. These organizations include “The Blue Carbon Initiative” promoted by Conservation International, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO and IUCN; and "Blue Solutions" promoted by IUCN, UNEP, GRID-Arendal and GIZ. We invite you to be part of these initiatives! Written by: Michelle Castellanos Style and format: Michelle Castellanos Translated by: Antonieta Parilli Provita Aug 12, 2020
What is giftedness? To some parents, it may simply mean an advanced ability or talent they observed in their child. And the signs may be different: a musical or artistic ability not typical of same aged peers; early reading ability with comprehension in a two year old; intensely curious or sensitive; a great memory or high verbal ability. According to the National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC): Gifted individuals are those who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined as an exceptional ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented performance or achievement in top 10% or rarer) in one or more domains. Domains include any structured area of activity with its own symbol system (e.g., mathematics, music, language) and/or set of sensorimotor skills (e.g., painting, dance, sports). Another definition by the Javits Act (1988) states: “The term gifted and talented student means children and youths who give evidence of higher performance capability in such areas as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the schools in order to develop such capabilities fully.” PALNYC is not about a singular philosophy, or encouraging gifted children to be treated differently. All children deserve an education that supports their needs, taking into account their individual learning styles and preferences. In New York City, where overcrowding is forcing schools into lottery situations, parents want to be certain their child’s education is not compromised due to a loss of funding, programs or quality teachers. At PALNYC, we’re not interested in a child’s IQ number or wanting to separate the smart kids from the typical learner, it’s about realistically providing an appropriate educational opportunity based on individual need. Most of us seek a gifted or advanced program simply out of necessity- our children are great debaters, curious beyond our capability to satiate them, or in need of more stimulation than a typical program provides. PALNYC is here to begin the dialogue, a conversation with parents, experts and educators, as well as administrators, offering parents the best support we can for the benefit of all of our kids. A few great resources for further reading:
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System after Mercury . In English, Mars carries a name of the Roman god of war , and is often referred to as the “Red Planet“ because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance that is distinctive among the astronomical bodies visible to the naked eye. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere , having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth . - Like Earth, Mars has differentiated into a dense metallic core overlaid by less dense materials. - This iron(II) sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements as Earth’s. - The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet. - Elements in the Martian crust are iron, magnesium , aluminum , calcium , and potassium . - The average thickness of the planet’s crust is about 50 km (31 mi). - Earth’s crust averages 40 km (25 mi). You can further customise your site using Apps & Integrations.
SummaryStudents learn about solar energy and how to calculate the amount of solar energy available at a given location and time of day on Earth. The importance of determining incoming solar energy for solar devices is discussed. As the market for solar power technologies grows, determining the amount solar energy available at a given location is important for maximizing energy efficiency of solar technologies and determining if solar power is even a possibility for a specific region. Engineers must understand the basics of solar energy and the Earth in order to incorporate solar energy into their designs. Familiarity with basic Algebra skills. After this lesson, students should be able to: - Describe solar energy and why it changes with time and location. - Calculate the amount of solar energy on Earth at a given time and location. - Explain how solar energy is used in sustainable engineering applications. - Explain why solar energy is becoming more prevalent. More Curriculum Like This Students learn about the daily and annual cycles of solar angles used in power calculations to maximize photovoltaic power generation. They gain an overview of solar tracking systems that improve PV panel efficiency by following the sun through the sky. Students learn how the sun can be used for energy. They learn about passive solar heating, lighting and cooking, and active solar engineering technologies (such as photovoltaic arrays and concentrating mirrors) that generate electricity. Students learn and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of renewable and non-renewable energy sources. They also learn about our nation's electric power grid and what it means for a residential home to be "off the grid." To explore different ways of using solar energy, students build a model solar water heater and determine how much it can heat water in a given amount of time. Solar water heaters work by solar radiation and convection. Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN), a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g., by state; within source by type; e.g., science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc. Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN), a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g., by state; within source by type; e.g., science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc. - Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the availability of natural resources, occurrence of natural hazards, and changes in climate have influenced human activity. (Grades 9 - 12) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Evaluate or refine a technological solution that reduces impacts of human activities on natural systems. (Grades 9 - 12) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - Physical Science (Grades Pre-K - 12) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! - There are costs, benefits, and consequences of exploration, development, and consumption of renewable and nonrenewable resources (Grades 9 - 12) Details... View more aligned curriculum... Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback! Did you know that the sun can help us heat and light our homes, cook our food, and heat our water? In fact, many communities do not have access to fossil fuels or wood, which are typically used to supply our energy needs, and so people rely on the Sun to do all of these things! Many other communities that do have access to coal, natural gas, oil, and wood have decided to use renewable energies such as solar power instead. Why? This is because the reliance on fossil fuels and wood is believed to lead to climate change, which has intensified severe weather events such as floods and storms. Sea levels could rise dramatically in the 21st century if a different course of action is not taken to supply our energy needs. But just how much energy can we capture from the sun? What do you think it depends on? Today's lesson will give us an idea of how we can use the Sun's energy and how to determine how much solar energy is available to us. Lesson Background and Concepts for Teachers This lesson is a modified version of the complex method of determining solar radiation at a given location and time to introduce students to the concept of solar energy experienced on Earth. For a more detailed explanation of solar angles, refer to the Solar Angles and Tracking Systems lesson for photovoltaic modules. Slide 1 [Solar Power] – Title slide. Slide 2 [Why do we need solar power?] – In many locations of the world, like the Pacific Islands, natural resources such as fossil fuels are not available. Often, fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, are shipped to these areas to provide heat and electricity. Rather than transporting these fuels, we can generate both heat (for cooking and water heating) and electricity (with photovoltaic panels) with energy from the sun. Slide 3 [Problems with fossil fuels] – Unfortunately, when we burn fossil fuels to provide heat and electricity, greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere. This intensifies the greenhouse effect, whereby more of the sun's heat is trapped in our atmosphere. The abundance of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere is responsible for many of the current changes we are seeing in our weather. Slide 4 [Climate change consequences] – Climate change can cause many undesirable weather events such as more frequent severe storms (such as Superstorm Sandy), more frequent flooding (also caused by deforestation), and rising sea levels (due to more melting of the polar ice caps). Slide 5 [Lack of natural resources] – When people use wood for cooking and heating water and homes, many trees must be harvested. If more trees are cut down than are planted and allowed to grow, this energy source is unsustainable. For example, the government of Haiti did not regulate the number of trees that its citizens were permitted to cut down. As a result, the forests in the country have been destroyed. Conversely, the government of the Dominican Republic monitored its country's forests. The border between the two countries shows this difference in forest management. Slide 6 [Potential dangers of deforestation] – We need our forests to protect our soils; otherwise, erosion can occur. Erosion harms our natural habitats and deteriorates the soil to the point that it is no longer suitable for farming. The roots of trees also prevent rain from pouring down the surfaces of hills and mountains in vast quantities. When too many trees have been removed from hillsides, flash floods can occur, causing mudslides. Slide 7 [Solar energy around the world] – Communities around the world use solar energy to heat homes and cook food when electricity is not available. In Peru, solar water heaters heat water for taking showers, and Trombe walls work like greenhouses to heat homes by absorbing the Sun's energy. In Mexico, this solar dish kitchen was designed to heat water and cook food by concentrating the Sun's energy using mirrors. This same concept is used with solar ovens for cooking food. Slide 8 [Solar energy close to home] – We can get our electricity from solar energy using photovoltaic panels. The National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) in Colorado researches methods for efficient electricity production from solar energy. Many U.S. homes use solar water heaters. The top, middle image shows how a solar water heater might be set up on someone's roof. The solar water heater faces south and is connected to a water storage tank. Cold water is pumped to the solar module while the water heated by the Sun is used in the home. Batch water heaters and flat-plate collectors are two popular types of solar water heaters. Slide 9 [About half...] – Only about one-half of all incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface. The other half of the Sun's energy is reflected back into space by the planet's atmosphere or clouds, or it is absorbed by atmospheric gases, clouds and the Earth's surface. Solar energy is measured as solar power per unit area. Common units are Watts per meter squared. This is called irradiance. When we think about solar energy used in solar modules such as solar water heaters or photovoltaic (PV) panels, we use energy units of Watt-hours per square meter (called insolation) or just Watt hours (heat energy). Slide 10 [The amount of...] – The amount of solar energy found on Earth changes with location. One indication of the amount of solar energy present is the temperature at the Earth's surface. So, the hotter it is, the more radiation we expect to find. This image shows different temperatures around the world, where the blue and purple colors indicate cold temperatures (and low solar radiation) and the red and orange colors indicate hotter temperatures (and more solar radiation). Notice that most of the Sun's energy is focused around the equator and it decreases as we approach the North and South Poles. Where are we on this map? What is the color? How does the amount of solar energy we get here compare with what is found on the equator or either pole? Slide 11 [...and time] – The amount of solar energy we have access to not only depends on location, but it also depends on the time of day and the time of year. The angle of the sun relative to us relates to the amount of solar energy we experience. During the day, the Sun moves in the east-west direction. Throughout the year, the Sun also moves in the north-south direction. So, the amount of solar energy present in the middle of the day in the summer is quite different than the amount of solar energy we get in the afternoon during winter. Slide 12 [How much...] – In the Northern Hemisphere, regardless of location, all solar modules needs to be set up to face south because that is the direction that captures the most sunshine at any time of the year. If you were located in the Southern Hemisphere, you would set up your solar module to face north. A tilt angle is the angle the solar module (in this case a solar water heater) needs to be set up from the ground (the horizon) in order to capture the most amount of solar energy. The tilt angle is the same angle as the latitude of the solar module's location. For example, if we were located in Boulder, Colorado, the latitude is 40.1o so the solar water heater (or PV panel) would need to be tilted 40.1o from the ground facing south. Slide 13 [How much...] – NOAA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, has a website where we can find the exact coordinates of our location. When you open the website, place the red balloon on our location on the map and the output will give you the location in terms of latitude and longitude. Slide 14 [How much...] – We also need to take note of the time of year and the time of day for which we want to find the solar energy potential. Slide 15 [How much...] – This map illustrates the U.S. solar resource. In other words, it tells us how much solar energy we have access to at any location in the U.S. As previously mentioned, the amount of solar energy available changes throughout the year. This map presents the average amount of solar energy available over the course of an entire year. We will use maps that show the solar energy available during different months to find out how much is available where we live. The solar energy units are in kilowatt hours per meter squared per day (kWh/m2/day). We will see how to work with these units in a few minutes. Slide 16 [How much...] – We can access these solar maps from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) website and find our month. (Note: If you do not have internet access to show the online maps, print out the attached Solar Energy Maps in color and hand them out to students.) Slide 17 [How much...] – When we find our corresponding month, say for example "May," we find our location on the map and use the color to determine how much solar energy we have in terms of kilowatt hours per meter squared per day (kWh/m2/day). Slide 18 [How much...] – Now let's work with our worksheets to to determine how much solar energy potential we have where we live. Refer to the attached Solar Power Energy Estimation Worksheet Answers for student worksheet answer explanations.To find the latitude of your location (which is needed in order to determine the tilt angle of a solar module), either visit the NOAA Solar Calculator web page or use any internet browser to search for the latitude of your location (latitude is measured in degrees). Access the solar energy maps at the NREL website (http://www.nrel.gov/gis/solar.html), or print out the attached Solar Energy Maps in color and hand them out to students. angle of inclination: The angle the solar water heater (or other solar module) is positioned above the horizontal. In this lesson, the angle is the same as your latitude. erosion: The deterioration of rocks and soils due to wind and/or moving water. Erosion can be intensified by deforestation. fossil fuels: Natural resources created by the decomposition of organic matter over millions of years. greenhouse gases:: Gases such as carbon dioxide that inhibit thermal energy from escaping the Earth's atmosphere. These gases are necessary to moderate the Earth's temperature, but an overabundance of them can increase global warming. These gases are released by the burning of fossil fuels. heat energy: The energy entering the solar module in units of Watt-hours, also referred to as Qin. insolation: The amount of solar radiation hitting a surface per unit of area over a given period of time. This is also referred to as solar irradiation, and is displayed in units of Wh/m^2 (watt-hours per meter squared). irradiance: The amount of solar radiation hitting a surface per unit of area and displayed in units of W/m^2 (watts per meter squared). solar constant: The maximum solar energy available on Earth per unit area. Measured at high noon (when the Sun is directly overhead) on the equator and found to be 1376 W/m^2. solar module: A device that collects solar energy for heating or electrical applications. Examples include solar water heaters and photovoltaic (PV) panels. solar radiation: The electromagnetic radiation (ultraviolet and near-infrared wavelengths) that is emitted by the Sun. This energy is captured and employed by useful applications such as heating and electricity. tilt angle: The angle from the horizon that the solar module should be tilted. The angle should be equal to the latitude of the location. For example, if you are located at latitude of 40 degrees, the solar module should be tilted 40 degrees from the horizon. Trombe wall: A Sun-facing wall of a house separated from the outdoors by glass and an air space, which absorbs solar energy and releases it towards the interior at night. - Solar Water: Heat it Up! - Students learn about the engineering design process as they design, build and test flat-plate solar water heaters. Working in groups, they apply their knowledge of heat transfer forms and calculate the efficiency of their solar water heater designs. They consider the trade-offs between efficiency and cost. As the demand for solar energy increases, engineers strive to make more efficient solar devices by capturing the most energy possible using the least amount of resources. Determining the available solar energy in a given location is essential for determining the efficiency of a solar device or establishing if solar power devices are even possible options. Today, you determined how much solar energy is available at our location, and this information can help you determine the efficiency and output of solar devices. Worksheet: Assign students to complete the Solar Power Energy Estimation Worksheet as an in-class worksheet or homework. Review their answers to gauge their understanding of the lesson content. ContributorsOdessa Gomez; Marissa H. Forbes Copyright© 2012 by Regents of the University of Colorado. Supporting ProgramIntegrated Teaching and Learning Program, College of Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder The contents of these digital library curricula were developed by the Integrated Teaching and Learning Program under National Science Foundation GK-12 grant no. 0338326. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the National Science Foundation, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Last modified: August 16, 2017
Anything that falls locally in a gravitational field, such as this skier, falls on a parabolic path (neglecting air resistance). Quadratic equations describe parabolas and allow us to analyse them. It is amazing how many processes and relationships in nature are related through quadratic equations. What is a quadratic equation (or expression)? It is a polynomial of order two. In simple language, this means that it may consist of up to three terms, a constant, a term consisting of the variable multiplied by a constant (e.g. 2x), and a term consisting of the variable squared multiplied by a constant (e.g. 5x²). All quadratic expressions contain the x² term (or else they would not be quadratic). They may or may not have the other two terms. This means that they are very easy to recognise. Here are some quadratic expressions … x² + 5x -17, 3x², 2x² – 1, -6x² +4x. Notice that there are no other “funny” terms … just an x² term, an x term (maybe), and a constant (maybe)! When there is only one term, we refer to the expression as a monomial (mono means one); when there are two term, we refer to the expression as a binomial (bi means two), and when there are three term, we refer to the expression as a trinomial (since tri means three) If we set such an expression equal to a constant, or to another variable (such as y), we have a quadratic equation. For example, y = x² – 5x – 14, y = 2x² + 9x, x² + 4x = 12, or 3x² – 2x + 11 = 0. That’s it! Everything I share in this part of the website will be related to learning to manipulate quadratic expressions and understanding, solving, and graphing quadratic equations. If you already know how to multiply binomial expressions you will still be entertained with a rather silly mathematical pun. If you have not yet learned this skill, or never really understood it when you encountered it in school, I invite you to watch this video anyway. My hope is that you will discover three things: that this kind of algebraic thinking is something that you have been doing naturally for years and is not new to you at all, that you actually DO understand what I share (and wonder why you didn't 'get it' at school), and that you can appreciate a 'corny' mathematical joke as well! In this video I explain how to expand a binomial product (an algebraic skill) and then share a pun based on the process. [EXPAND How to Learn Pythagoras' Theorem] Apart from learning to find the areas of simple shapes, the first formula that students learn that connects algebra and geometry is Pythagoras' Theorem. It is a relatively simple formula but it has found profound applications in many branches of mathematics! For example, it connects our trigonometric rations and even allows us to calculate the exact length of a curve using calculus. There are many ways of proving this theorem! Elisha Scott Loomis identified at least 367 of them in his classic work, The Pythagorean Proposition, which he published in 1928 and again in 1940. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics reproduced his 1940 edition in 1968. Even the 1968 edition is rare and highly sought after, so it is not cheap ... be warned! To master the understanding and use of Pythagoras' Theorem, I recommend that you learn its derivation and then practise deriving it at least once per day while you are solving problems using the formula. I recommend that you learn an algebraic proof and a geometric proof! In this video I demonstrate the algebraic proof that Chinese mathematicians used around 1100 BC. A similar proof by the incredible Indian mathematician Bhaskara II is worth studying (please follow the hyperlink and read about this amazing man), as is one by a former president of the United States of America, James Abram Garfield. I recommend that you visit the Scientific American blog about him, and read Angie Head's useful essay published on the University of Georgia's website. You will find quite a good rigorous geometric proofdemonstrated and explained on YouTube on the mathematicsonline channel. You might consider exploring this channel (or even subscribing) as they have produced some extremely good videos and have produced a series of videos explaining Euclid's Elements, Book I. I also recommend that you visit the Cut the Knot mathematics website. I only recently stumbled upon this most interesting site and the page discussing Pythagoras' Theorem is very comprehensive ... even bringing you up-to-date with material about Elisha Scott Loomis' book, The Pythagorean Proposition, as well! I have not yet added resources to help you practise the use of Pythagoras' Theorem. Textbooks abound in these anyway. Just remember to set time aside so you can concentrate on your learning! Intensively practise deriving and using the formula for a few days, and then use your diary to plan a time to revisit the topic and refresh your memory. That is all you need to learn and master this very useful theorem. [/EXPAND] Mr Henderson you are amazing ! I’ll start using all this tips immediately. I also read your ‘How to study’ guide, and subscribed to your site. This is going to help me a lot!!! It’s really great work you re doing. Best wishes from Brazil! Thanks a lot, again. Rodolpho S (on a CCM YouTube video about Seven Steps for Your Daily Study Routine)
A. What does it mean to aim for “better” Bible study? Not a bigger quantity, but better in terms of accuracy. We want results that are based in the text itself, not in our preconceived B. We want a method that helps us ask the questions that are more likely to give us meaningful answers. There is no magic formula for right results, but some methods do give consistently good results. C. Most words have more than one meaning – we cannot know which meaning is intended unless there is a context. (for example: “bear”) D. In Bible study, we look at three contexts: historical, literary, and personal. II. Historical context – three types A. Military and political history: who is ruling, and how do people feel about it? B. Cultural context: language, economy, customs, etc. This is involved whenever one person interacts with another. C. Specific situation: why was this written down? 1. This usually involves reading between the lines, forming a hypothesis, and testing it to see if the pieces fit. 2. Often, there are two historical settings: first, when the event first happened; second, when it was written down. 3. It’s important to ask questions of the text, especially why and how. These help us look at the text from different angles. III. Literary context A. In analyzing any communication, we are concerned with sender, receiver and method. We have already looked at the sender; now we focus on the method of communication: the written words. B. The most basic question: what is the genre of this literature? Is it poetry, story, exhortation, parable, etc.? 1. Sometimes words mean the opposite of what they say – e.g., 1 Cor. 4:8. 2. We need to know not just the meaning of the words, but also the way those words are being used. C. We should consider the main themes of the book we are studying – an author may use a word with a different emphasis – e.g., Luke’s use of “poor.” D. Third, we need to look at the passages just before and after the one we are studying. How does one lead to the other? For example, Jesus cursed the fig tree in Mark 11. E. Be aware of the limitations of “word studies.” 1. The meaning of a word is determined by the way it is used, not by its “original” meaning, or by its root words. 2. Dictionaries usually list several meanings; we cannot add them all together as if the word meant all of them at the same time. 3. If we don’t know the original languages, then we need to rely on translations. Fortunately, it is easy for us to compare many experts – we should not rely on only one translation. 4. Strong’s Concordance is often misused. a) Strong’s is organized by English word, when we really need to study how the Hebrew or Greek word is used, no matter how it is translated. b) Strong’s word list in the back is not a dictionary. When we don’t even know the rules of Greek grammar, we are not suddenly empowered to challenge standard translations. c) A concordance can help us study individual words, but what we really need to study is entire concepts. 5. The translations usually give us the right meaning. Rather than challenging the meaning, our time will be better spent asking about why this particular word has been used, and what it contributes to the passage. F. We need to read carefully, taking notes each time, at least six times. Then write down the - A one-sentence summary of the entire passage. - A summary of how the political history is relevant to the passage. - A summary of the relevant cultural differences. - The specific situation that caused this passage to be written. - The type(s) of literature found in this passage. - Whether this passage contributes to the main themes of the book. - Note how the previous passage prepares the reader for this one. G. A structural outline can also be a very helpful tool. IV. Our personal context affects what we see, and what we tend to overlook. A. Our culture and subculture affect what we think is “normal” or “obvious.” B. As believers, we read the Scriptures with certain expectations. - We should resist the idea that an author is self-contradictory. - We should favor readings that are in agreement with the gospel. C. The Holy Spirit is needed (1 Cor. 2:14), although this cannot be quantified. D. Scripture should be studied in a community – with insights from people who lived in the past, and with people who are now in our fellowship of believers. E. Since our context is always changing, and timeless truths may have different applications in new circumstances, there is always a need for new study. A Bibliography for Better Bible Study - An introductory text: F.F. Bruce and David Payne, Israel and the Nations - A more detailed reference work: Craig Evans and Stanley Porter, eds., Dictionary of New Testament Background - A.S. van der Woude, The World of the Old Testament Albert Bell, Exploring the New Testament World - James S. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament - More advanced: Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity - John Walton et al., The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament - Craig Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament Information on specific books - Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible Book by Book - David and Pat Alexander, Zondervan Handbook to the Bible, rev. ed. - More detailed: David A. deSilva, Introduction to the New Testament - Leland Ryken and Tremper Longman, A Complete Literary Guide to the Bible - James Bailey and Lyle Vander Broek, Literary Forms in the New Testament - D.A. Carson, Exegetical Fallacies - William Mounce, Mounce’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words - Edward Goodrick and John Kohlenberger, The NIV Exhaustive Concordance - Richard Whitaker and John Kohlenberger, The Analytical Concordance to the New Revised Standard Version of the New Testament - John Kohlenberger and James Swanson, The Hebrew English Concordance to the Old Testament With the New International Version - John Kohlenberger, Edward Goodrick, and James Swanson, The Greek English Concordance to the New Testament With the New International Version - R. Laird Harris, Gleason Archer, and Bruce Waltke, Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. 2 vols. - Concise descriptive definitions: Johannes Louw and Eugene Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. 2 vols. - Spiros Zodhiates, The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament - Frederick William Danker, The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New - Verlyn Verbrugge, The NIV Theological Dictionary of New Testament Words - Most scholarly and expensive: Walter Bauer and Frederick Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature - Easiest: Oletta Wald, The Joy of Discovery in Bible Study. Inductive method. - David Thompson, Bible Study That Works. Also uses the inductive method. - Kay Arthur, How to Study Your Bible. Also uses the inductive method. - John Stott, Understanding the Bible - Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth - Berkeley and Alvera Mickelsen, Understanding Scripture: How to Read and Study - More advanced: Michael Gorman, Elements of Biblical Exegesis - Gordon Fee, New Testament Exegesis: A Handbook for Students and Pastors - Jack Kuhatschek, Taking the Guesswork Out of Applying the Bible - Dave Veerman, How to Apply the Bible - Robertson McQuilkin, Understanding and Applying the Bible - Gordon Wenham et al., New Bible Commentary, 21st Century Edition - James Dunn and John Rogerson, eds., Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible - Terry Muck, ed., The NIV Application Commentary - Tremper Longman and David Garland, eds., The Expositor’s Bible Commentary - Leander Keck, ed., The New Interpreter’s Bible. Uses both NRSV and NIV.
I recently tried out a new idea with an intermediate Spanish class: El día de la poesía (‘Poetry Day’). Each student read a poem from a different Spanish-speaking country and presented it to the class. It was a lot of fun! Here’s what happened: - Each of my students had already randomly picked a Spanish-speaking country to be ‘theirs’ during the semester. - I identified an easy poem from each of these countries. For a more advanced or intellectually curious class, I would have asked students to find poems on their own. - [Click here to download the 13 poems, listed in alphabetical order of the poets’ countries.] - The poets are Borges (Argentina) , Mitre (Bolivia), Martí (Cuba), Adoum (Ecuador), Lorca (España), Carrera (Guatemala), Cárcamo (Honduras), Paz (México), Dario (Nicaragua), Carmagnola (Paraguay), Ferré (P. Rico), Jiménez (R. Dominicana), and Benedetti (Uruguay). - Each student read the assigned poem, looked up its vocabulary, and met with me to discuss it. - Each student prepared a few slides about their poet and their poem’s key vocabulary. These were all combined into a single Google Slides presentation that all students had access to. - On El día de la poesía, each student received a photocopy of all the poems (same as download above) and a listening worksheet. The worksheet had a space for students to react to each poem (what they liked or disliked about it) and to evaluate the presentation. - Each student presented their poem, first going over their slides, then briefly explaining what the poem was about, and finally reading it out loud. (For a more advanced or intellectually curious class, I would have required them to memorize the poems.) - The grading rubric combined preparation, presentation, and listening.
Rett syndrome is estimated to affect 1 in every 10,000 to 15,000 live female births in all racial and ethnic groups worldwide. Most cases are random, spontaneous mutations; < 1% of recorded cases are inherited or passed from one generation to the next. Because the gene abnormality is most often present on the paternally derived X chromosome but almost never manifested in the father, it is hypothesized that the gene abnormality arises during spermatogenesis. Girls with the typical clinical picture of Rett syndrome are usually born at term after an uneventful pregnancy and delivery. Boys are rarely affected. Usually Rett syndrome is caused by a mutation in the methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene. The MECP2 gene is involved in the production of a protein called methyl-cytosine binding protein 2 (MeCP2), which is needed for brain development and acts as a biochemical switch that can either increase gene expression or tell other genes when to turn off and stop producing their own unique proteins. The MECP2 gene does not function normally in Rett syndrome; structurally abnormal forms or inadequate amounts of the protein are produced and can cause other genes to have abnormal gene expression. Rett syndrome is not always caused by an MECP2 mutation but may be caused by partial gene deletions, mutations in other genes (eg, CDKL5 and FOXG1 genes) that affect brain development in atypical Rett syndrome, mutations in other parts of the MECP2 gene, and possibly other genes that have not yet been identified. Now that a genetic cause of Rett syndrome has been identified, it has been separated from the autism spectrum disorders (inconsistently associated with genetic causes) based on criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). The course, age of onset, and severity of symptoms of Rett syndrome vary from child to child. Rett syndrome is characterized by normal early growth and development followed by slowing of developmental milestones, and then regression of skills with loss of purposeful hand use with compulsive hand-wringing and hand-washing behavior, slowed head and brain growth, seizures, walking difficulty, and intellectual disability. There are 4 stages used to describe the symptoms of Rett syndrome: Stage 1 (early onset) usually begins when the child is between ages 6 months and 18 months with subtle slowing of development. Symptoms may include less eye contact, decreased interest in toys, delays in sitting or crawling, decreased head growth, and hand wringing. Stage 2 (developmental regression or rapid destructive stage) usually begins between ages 1 year and 4 years. The onset may be rapid or gradual with loss of purposeful hand skills and spoken language. During this stage, characteristic hand movements begin such as wringing, clapping, washing, and tapping and repeatedly bringing the hands to the mouth. The movements disappear during sleep. Breathing irregularities may occur, such as episodes of apnea and hyperventilation. Walking may be unsteady, and initiating motor movements may be difficult. Some girls may also have symptoms similar to those of autism spectrum disorders, such as impaired social interaction and impaired communication. Stage 3 (pseudostationary stage) usually begins between ages 2 years and 10 years and can last for years. Seizures, motor deficits, and apraxia are common during this stage. Sometimes, symptoms such as crying, irritability, and autism-like symptoms decline during this stage. Alertness, communication skills, attention span, and interest in the surroundings may increase during this stage. Stage 4 (late motor deterioration stage) can last for years or decades. Common characteristics include scoliosis, decreased mobility, muscle weakness, spasticity, or rigidity. Sometimes walking may stop. Eye gaze for communication purposes becomes prominent as spoken language is absent, and repetitive hand movements may decrease. Children may develop scoliosis. Cardiac abnormalities (such as prolonged QT interval) are often present. Affected children may have slowed growth and tend to have difficulty maintaining weight. Diagnosis of Rett syndrome is made clinically by observing symptoms and signs during the child’s early growth and development. Ongoing evaluation of the child’s physical and neurologic status is needed. Genetic testing for the MECP2 mutation on the X chromosome (Xq28) is used to complement the clinical diagnosis. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) provides guidelines used to confirm the clinical diagnosis of Rett syndrome. These guidelines divide the clinical diagnostic criteria into main, supportive, and exclusion. The main diagnostic criteria include loss of all or part of purposeful hand skills, repetitive hand movements (such as wringing or squeezing, clapping or rubbing), loss of all or part of spoken language, and gait abnormalities including toe-walking or an unsteady, wide-based, stiff-legged walk. The supportive diagnostic criteria are not required for a diagnosis of Rett syndrome but may occur in some children. A child with supportive criteria but none of the main criteria does not have Rett syndrome. Supportive criteria include scoliosis, teeth-grinding, abnormal sleep patterns, small hands and feet in relation to height, cold hands and feet, abnormal muscle tone, intense eye communication, inappropriate laughing or screaming, and decreased response to pain. The exclusion diagnostic criteria include the presence of other disorders that cause similar symptoms, including traumatic brain injury, grossly abnormal psychomotor development during the first 6 months of life, and severe infection causing neurologic problems. Rett syndrome is rare, so there is little information about long-term prognosis and life expectancy beyond about age 40. Sometimes cardiac or autonomic abnormalities may predispose children with Rett syndrome to sudden death, but usually children survive well into adulthood with comprehensive, multidisciplinary team support. There is no cure for Rett syndrome. Optimal treatment of Rett syndrome includes a multidisciplinary approach that addresses symptoms and signs. A program of occupational therapy, physical therapy, and communication therapy (with a speech and language therapist) should be provided to address self-help skills such as feeding and dressing, limited mobility, walking difficulty, and communication deficits. Drugs may be needed to control seizures, for breathing dysfunction, or for motor difficulties. Regular re-evaluation is needed for scoliosis progression and to monitor cardiac abnormalities. Nutrition support may be needed to help affected children maintain weight. Special education programs and social and support services are needed.
Ancient societies deliberately cultivated weeds African archaeology shows invasive tendencies in a plant were encouraged by prehistoric hunter-gathers. Andrew Masterson reports. Plant domestication, the theory runs, comprises a long history during which humans select traits advantageous to farming practice. Qualities such as seed size, nutritional content, climatic resilience and reproductive reliability ideally become concentrated, resulting in a comparatively small number of widely cultivated plants. Research by a team of archaeologists and archaeo-botanists, however, has found that these cultivated qualities have not always been viewed as priorities. Indeed, in uncovering the practices of early societies that occupied “the middle ground between farming and foraging”, the scientists discovered that the plant species most encouraged to grow exhibited “traits that overlap a considerable degree with traits that are characteristic of plants now considered as weeds”. To make their findings, the scientists, led by Anna Maria Mercuri of the Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia in Modena, Italy, examined plant remnants found near the Takarkori rock shelter in southwest Libya, all dating to between 7500 and 3500 BCE. At the time the land around the rock shelter was rich and fecund, part of a region today referred to as the “green Sahara”. During the first part of the period, the rock shelter was inhabited by a culture known as Late Acacus hunter-gatherers. After about 6400 BCE, their place was taken by Saharan Pastoral Neolithic groups, which kept domesticated animals, notably Barbary sheep. Mercuri and her colleagues uncovered 30 collections of dried seeds, accumulated in successive layers of sand around the shelter and around what used to be a nearby river plain. Their presence in layers allowed accurate dating of when the seeds had been dropped, or stored, and provided, the scientists note, “evidence for the systematic gathering, processing and cultivation of wild cereals”. Based on their shape, aided in some case by DNA extraction, the recovered seeds fell into 12 genera. Among the species represented were blue signal grass (Brachiaria leersioides), African foxtail grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), crowfoot grass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium), and jungle rice (Echinochloa colona). The seeds were found arranged in either “spot” or “mix” configurations. Spots comprised primarily a single species, without other bits of plant – such as stems and husks – present. Mercuri and her colleagues suggest these accumulations were the result of threshing and winnowing. The mixed groups comprised mainly non-seed fragments and their purpose, the scientists note, was “more ambiguous”. They suggest they may represent food processing waste, or detritus deposited by feeding livestock. And while more research is needed to resolve open questions about how the hunter-gatherers and early pastoralists used plant products, one particular quality about the species they encouraged became startlingly clear. In today’s terms, they would all be called weeds. The cereals were not bred to be fat and well-behaved, as today’s cultivars are, but quite the opposite. “The primary quality that attracted hunter-gatherers in Africa seeking the benefits of cultivation — implying a shift of labour investment to just a few food plant species — must have been the invasive and opportunistic behaviour of some wild grasses,” the researchers write. For these pre-agricultural societies, the name of the game in securing cereals was cultivation without domestication. Preferred plants were encouraged to grow in areas near settlement points. To achieve this, invasive behaviour was a boon. In today’s language, plants that spread like weeds were very good things indeed. Neither was this type of opportunistic exploitation of wild plants a short-lived fad between the end of nomadic foraging and the start of settled farming. Mercuri and her colleagues present evidence that some species, especially grasses belonging to the genus Urochloa, “were continuously managed for four millennia, with systematic gathering and processing, possibly shifting towards some forms of cultivation more than once”. It also provides strong evidence that the domestication of plants was not always geared to isolating and promoting the kind of qualities viewed as optimal by modern farmers. The researchers conclude: “These wild plants were selected for features that were precious in the past but pernicious for agriculture today.”
The replacement of thicker sea ice that formed over multiple years in the Arctic with a thinner layer of ice that formed during the last winter is changing the air chemistry above the ice and likely increasing the amount of mercury contamination in the region, according to a new study led by a Boulder scientist. Thinner sea ice — which is riddled in the spring with cracks and fissures — allows elements known as halogens to escape from the briny seawater onto the surface of the ice. There, the halogens, especially bromine, chemically react to scrub ozone from the atmosphere near the surface of the ice. Scientists also know that the same chemical reaction that eliminates the ozone transforms stable elemental mercury in the atmosphere into a more reactive form of mercury, which can then be deposited on snow and ice as well as directly into the ocean. Scientists at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Boulder have now measured the resulting drop in ozone from an observation center in Barrow, Alaska, where researchers have been making ozone measurements for nearly 40 years. The scientists also measured mercury, said Samuel Oltmans, lead author of the study published in the Journal of Geophysical Research, but because a long-term record of mercury measurements does not exist, the scientists don’t have a baseline to compare the new measurements to. Still, the researchers believe that it’s likely that the amount of reactive mercury has increased as ozone has decreased. “We don’t have the long-term measurements of the mercury to show that it has changed over time,” Oltmans said. “But we know that those events go together.” Researchers are concerned that an increased amount of reactive mercury settling out on the snow and ice in the Arctic will lead to an increase in mercury contamination in the ocean as the snow and ice melts. “In the ocean, the reactive form is converted through biological processes to something called methyl mercury, which is the thing that really gets into the food chain,” Oltmans said. The breakup of thinner sea ice has always caused an ozone-depleting chain reaction in the atmosphere above the ice — usually in April and May — but now that reaction is happening earlier in the year and more frequently. “It used to be that we’d get some in March, usually in late March,” Oltmans said. “Now we see these events early in March and we see many more of them.” In general, the amount of multiyear ice in the Arctic is disappearing and being replaced with younger ice. A NASA study released earlier this year found that the extent of the Arctic Ocean covered by multiyear ice is diminishing at a rate of 15 percent per decade. The National Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, which tracks sea ice extent, reported earlier this month that the sea ice extent in mid-April this year was near average for the last 30 years, but the center warned that a large portion of that ice is young. “Much of the extensive ice cover is thin ice that will melt quickly once temperatures rise in the Arctic,” the report says. Contact Camera Staff Writer Laura Snider at 303-473-1327 or [email protected].
Around the world, young people face considerable challenges. Even before the disruption of the Covid-19 crisis, policymakers were seeking to respond to rapid technological advances, climate change and – in some countries – an ageing population and workforce. While children and young people worldwide generally have high aspirations and ambitions for their futures, evidence shows that they often face problematic and protracted transitions into work. In this context, new pathways from school to employment are needed. In this paper, we review extensive evidence to provide guidance on how children and young people can be best prepared to succeed in their school-to-work transitions, both now and in the future. In a period of accelerated change and challenge, individuals need both appropriate tools and the right mindset to find purposeful learning and work opportunities. While many children and young people are overwhelmingly positive about change, inequalities in life chances and living standards are widening, and transitions to work can be protracted, difficult, and frustrating. In such a context, developing young people’s capabilities and motivation to learn on a lifelong basis is a global moral imperative. However, at the same time, public spending on education favours children from the richest households, with the poorest 20% receiving less than 10% of public education resources. As a result, the most disadvantaged children and young people are less likely to receive the education and develop the skills they need to adapt and prosper in our changing world. We must therefore consider new pathways to successful school-to-work transitions. Our research sets out to do just that, providing key stakeholders with evidence-based guidance on the key elements of effective transitions – from career-related learning in primary schools to meeting the needs of young adults up to the age of 25. Drawing on 105 reports, our research had led us to identify seven key principles to shape policy and practice: - Start early: Career-related learning in primary schools should aim to inspire children and begin to connect their education with the world of work. Early interventions can help children to understand the relevance of their schooling to a future world of work, and crucially, can reduce stereotypes (for example, around gender), helping to broaden their horizons and widen their aspirations. Support teaching and learning: In many countries, teachers are key actors in young people’s career choices, but they are often not equipped with relevant training on school-to-work transitions. Professional development programmes for teachers have the potential to equip them with insights from the evidence base on these transitions, as well as providing guidance on personalised learning, gender-responsive and age-appropriate pedagogies, and skills - Embed careers in the school curriculum: It is clear that the way teenagers think about their futures in education and employment has a significant impact on their employment outcomes as adults. Embedding careers into their curriculum, and making the world of work seem real and relevant, is therefore critical. This may include ‘prevention’ measures, designed to keep young people engaged in learning opportunities and challenging their assumptions, ‘integration’ measures, such as career exploration activities, mentoring or work experience, and ‘recovery’ measures, designed to reconnect young people to learning that meets their individual needs. - Encourage effective dialogue: Discussions about careers and transitions need to be learner-centred. This is not always the case. Learner-centred dialogue requires the promotion of good governance and accountability mechanisms in schools, colleges and VET, including community engagement, as well as the participation of parents, children and adolescents. - Engage employers: Employer engagement – including enterprise activities, workshops, work experience, and guest speakers – can offer young people a new perspective on the value of education. By engaging with people who bring an authentic experience of the uses of subjects of study in the working world, schools can challenge assumptions developed by pupils, allowing them to draw richer, more informed connections between education and ultimate economic and wider success in adult life. - Utilise technology and labour market information: In a changing world, up-to-date labour market information (LMI) is increasingly important. Technology and LMI tools can offer ‘spaces and places’ for learning and reflection in support of individual transitions into the working world, but they must be made accessible to less advantaged students. - Use evidence to strengthen skills and create new pathways to success. To truly support youth transitions, there is a need for greater production and use of careers and transitions evidence worldwide, including invaluable lessons from low- and middle-income countries. Following the Covid-19 crisis, there will also be additional challenges for young people, which governments and policymakers must consider to support their transitions into work, and to mitigate youth unemployment. To this end, our report concludes by recommending priorities for action. These include a public investment in infrastructure, with an emphasis on youth (for example, including a ‘youth guarantee’ for exposure to the world of work), private investment in local spaces for young people to develop their knowledge and skills, and third sector investment in community cohesion and youth engagement projects. We must also consider coordinated implementation of active labour market policies for unemployed young people, a reorientation of tax and benefits to meet the needs of children, young people and families, encouragement of part-time work among school pupils, improved access to vocational training, increased effective use of digital technologies, and consistent, impactful public communications – and efforts to listen to the voices of young people themselves. Chosen excerpts by Job Market Monitor. Read the whole story @ Youth transitions: creating pathways to success – Education Development Trust
Using Bitmoji to Build a Virtual Backdrop As soon as teachers received the news that many schools would start the 2020-21 school year in virtual spaces, educators across the country began creating “bitmoji classrooms” to share with their students. These virtual classrooms, created on a Google or PowerPoint slide, enable teachers and others to design and personalize online classroom spaces that convey important information about who they are and create welcoming and inclusive classroom environments. Identity and Inclusivity Bitmoji is a creative and digital way of expressing one's identity through cartoon avatars and other images. It can also be used instead of photos as a safety precaution. Today, young people spend a significant amount of time in digital and virtual spaces, and bitmojis have become very popular. Expressing aspects of your identity, even in bitmoji created virtual spaces, should be valued and respected but sometimes can elicit negative responses. About the Lesson Plan This lesson provides an opportunity for students to reflect on important aspects of their identity and communicate who they are by creating their own virtual spaces. Students also have the opportunity to read and reflect on a recent news story about the consequences for a teacher whose bitmoji classroom elicited a negative response. - Students will explore what social identity is and the important aspects of their social identities. - Students will create their own virtual spaces and choose the aspects of themselves they want to represent. - Students will reflect on a situation where a teacher was put on leave because of items in her bitmoji classroom, which will prompt them to consider the importance of conveying values.
Burn wounds are a relatively common affliction. Alongside the obvious suffering that a wound of this nature can cause, infections can be a life-threatening problem. Infections are the primary cause of complications in burn injuries, especially in children. This is partly due to a child’s immature and less aggressive immune system. Significant thermal injuries can also induce a state of immunosuppression, further increasing the chances of infection. Even a relatively mild hot water scald can readily become infected. Many deaths from burn injuries are due to sepsis, and even milder infections can prolong hospital stays. The likelihood of permanent scarring also increases with infection. Diagnosing a bacterial infection in young burn patients can be troublesome. The area around a burn wound may be red and inflamed, symptoms that normally indicate an infection; this makes a direct sample of the area essential for clarity. The young patient’s discomfort must also be considered. Removing the wound covering is an unpleasant procedure, and interference with the injury can lead to slower healing times. Currently, it takes around 48 hours to definitively diagnose an infected burn. Dr. Amber Young is involved in ongoing clinical trials of this new early warning system for burn infections. “Children are at particular risk of serious infection from even a small burn. However, with current methods clinicians can’t tell whether a sick child might have a raised temperature due to a serious bacterial burn wound infection, or just from a simple cough or cold.” Because of the time delay in diagnosing an infection, and the desire to remove the invaders before they dig their heels in, antibiotics are often prescribed preventively. This has its own drawbacks. Antibiotic resistance is a genuine concern throughout medical institutions worldwide. Researchers at the University of Bath, in conjunction with the Healing Foundation Children’s Burns Research Centre and the University of Brighton – all in the UK – have created a groundbreaking solution to these serious issues. The team has developed a prototype dressing that changes color when a wound becomes infected. The wound dressing on an uninfected area displays a discrete circular design: Image credit: University of Bath Within four hours of an infection, the color and pattern change: Image credit: University of Bath Dr. Toby Jenkins, project leader says: “Our medical dressing works by releasing fluorescent dye from nanocapsules triggered by the toxins secreted by disease-causing bacteria within the wound. The nanocapsules mimic skin cells in that they only break open when toxic bacteria are present; they aren’t affected by the harmless bacteria that normally live on healthy skin.” Research has shown that bacteria infecting a wound tend to congregate in biofilms. These films consist of mutually attached bacteria, coated in polymer. Within their exopolysaccharide cocoons, bacteria are afforded some protection from attack by antibiotics and the patient’s natural immune system. This ground-breaking, chameleon-like Band-Aid works by detecting these biofilms. The dressing is made of a hydrated agarose film that contains the tiny capsules of colored dye. These capsules are “trained” to specifically recognize Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis. The team found that the color change response is stronger for bacterial strains that are considered to produce good biofilms. This could lend itself to an even more specific indicator in the future. The system might indicate not only whether there is an infection, but also what specific type of bacteria is present. The experimental wound dressing is in the early phases of development but is soon to be tested on real patients. An innovation that can save lives, money and assist in the global problem of antibiotic resistance is a literal game-changer. Medical News Today recently covered research into an antimicrobial biofilm designed to protect implants from infection.
Biologists are surprised by this tendency to behave fairly. The theory of evolution by natural selection predicts that individuals should behave in ways to maximize their inclusive fitness. So behaviors are only selected, and hence evolve, if they ensure the survival and reproduction of the actor or kin who contains copies of the actor’s genes. However, the behavior displayed by children seems to be at a detriment to themselves, especially when those who benefit from their selfless behavior are not the children’s kin. A child’s sense of fairness, egalitarianism, or aversion to inequality can actually be hampered by instruction to “be fair” and rewarding of this behavior. That is because what is the child’s intrinsic motivation, becomes a need to follow externally imposed rules. And, as we all know, following rules we believe in is far easier than following rules that are imposed upon us, despite attendant punishments for not doing so. Humans are proactively pro-social. We are often motivated to help others without those others signaling their need, such as begging, or displaying signs of need, such as crying. As cultural practices are not responsible for children developing their initial pro-social tendencies, it is thought that a sense of fairness must have been under strong positive selection during human evolution. In a new review published in the journal Science, Sarah Brosnan of Georgia State University and Frans de Waal of Emory University explore this topic by trying to explain how our response to fairness, and unfairness, evolved. Their review is based on a large number of studies with non-human animals regarding their responses to receiving more or less (inequity), rather than the same (equity), reward as others for undertaking the same task. Species of primates, dogs, birds and fish have been studied. The overall results indicate that responses to disadvantageous inequity, say, protesting when another receives more banana pieces than you for pulling the same rope, are strongest in species that co-operate with others outside of mating and kinship bonds. This includes capuchin monkeys, chimpanzees and the ancestors of dogs. In other words, animals, including humans, that cooperate with non-kin have evolved sensitivity to detrimental unfairness so that they can avoid being taken advantage of. However, what is less common in the animal kingdom, is sensitivity to advantageous inequity, or protest when you receive more reward than another for the same task. Such inequity aversion, at a cost to oneself, has only been recorded in humans and chimpanzees. Brosnan and de Waal propose that the motivation to seek equal rewards, despite disadvantaging oneself, is to prevent dissatisfaction of the co-operative partner and avoid any negative outcomes that may follow. The main negative outcomes are the likelihood of conflict and loss of future advantageous co-operation with the partner. Also, one’s reputation is tainted, reducing the chances of forming future beneficial partnerships. When we humans “play fair” we are doing so, according to Brosnan and de Waal, not due to a motivation for “equality for its own sake but for the sake of continued cooperation”. Humans have enlarged brains, which enhance our ability to understand the benefits of self-control in dividing resources. We also have language, which allows for enhanced reputation building. Because responsiveness to advantageous inequity is only seen in humans and chimpanzees, Brosnan and de Waal hypothesise that its evolution, since the split from other primates, was the starting point for the eventual development of the advanced sense of fairness displayed by humans. The many heroic and selfless actions of individual humans, for example rescuing strangers in mortal danger and money or blood donation, are inspiring and admirable. Yet, however distasteful to contemplate, it is likely that these individuals gain in terms of their reputation and future cooperation from others, known as indirect reciprocity. If extreme prosociality is a “costly signal” indicating one’s worth to future mates, it makes sense that highly visible individuals, such as celebrities, may feel the most pressure to act charitably. More from PostEverything
Marcus [5 years 2 months] Marcus has been in school for a little over six months. His parents were worried about him because there is dyslexia in the family and because he showed no interest in books or writing, despite ample opportunities both at home and at pre-school. At school he was struggling with the fundamentals of reading and could not yet reliably recognise all the letters of the alphabet and was confused about even simple words. Tested on Rapid, his results are shown in Figure 19. Figure 19. Rapid results for Marcus Rapid has rated the probability of dyslexia as ‘moderate’ for Marcus. Obviously, the family history of dyslexia would strengthen that conclusion. Closer inspection of his results indicates that he does not have any extreme deficiencies, but both his phonological awareness and visual-verbal sequential memory are weak. In particular, the latter result suggests why he was experiencing problems in basic word and letter recognition. However, his average score for auditory sequential memory is good news and implies that if the early literacy difficulties can be overcome the longer-term prospects for Marcus are much better and he is unlikely to struggle with learning to the extent that most dyslexics do throughout their schooling. Overall, Marcus’s results point to the following recommendations: ● Significantly increased input of phonological activities to improve his phonological processing skills. All activities involving word games, creating and learning rhymes, alliteration, and segmentation of words would be highly beneficial. ●Plenty of practice in memory activities, especially those requiring use of verbal labels to represent visual information (e.g. Kim’s game). ● A carefully structured multisensory approach to teaching phonics, with ample opportunity to practise each phonic rule as it is introduced, e.g. using a scheme such as Jolly Phonics or Letterland. ● Several computer programs are available that will provide help for Marcus, including: Talking Animated Alphabet (visual and aural letter recognition); Letterland (basic phonics); and Lexia Core5 Reading (phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension). If a more detailed understanding of Marcus’s difficulties is required, it is recommended that he should be tested on CoPS, which should uncover any other significant cognitive weaknesses and thus enable a clearer diagnosis to be made.
The main goal of this course is to create a well-rownded understanding of what data is, why privacy is important, how data is gathered, and how to protect it. Let’s start off by defining data! What data is and what data used to be are two completely different things, especially when it comes to technology. Our world is ever evolving into more complex versions of itself and data is no exception. At the most broad level, data is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables about one or more persons or objects. For example, data could be something like your name and address or it could be your search history in your web browser. Scientists use data to test hypotheses and analysts use data to solve problems. Data includes a whole spectrum of things ranging from numbers to what we like to call “Big Data”. What is Big Data? The term “Big Data” refers to data that is so large, fast or complex that it’s difficult or impossible to process using traditional methods. The concept of big data gained momentum in the early 2000s and has grown exponentially since then. With the coming of age of Big Data, businesses have based their business model upon treating data like an asset itself. This progression within the data world has refocused attention upon the social uses of data and data privacy. Why does all of this matter? At the end of the day, we must realize that our personal data should not be the asset of a business. We believe everyone deserves individual data ownership, privacy, and security. We strive to create a world of greater equality and greater mutual respect for our identities. We want the originator of the data to have a choice as to who or what may access that information. Your data is yours and we want to keep it that way! Learn about Data Privacy and more in our ongoing publications at Data Privacy University.
RECOMMENDED FOR 7 to 9 YEAR OLDS. The Early English Course is aimed at the young learner who has just begun Reading, Speaking and Writing in English. The pre-requisite is that the learner should be proficient at reading small words and a few sentences and comprehending simple conversational English. The course take the learner deeper in the language providing the basic literacy and communication skills. - To be able to read a simple text containing less than 5 sentences a page with a total word count of approximately 250 words. - To be able to comprehend what is being read and reproduce in various ways – verbally, pictorially, through drama, etc. - To listen and engage in daily conversation in English with facilitators and peers. - To be able to engage in English audio and video content and understand it with assistance and facilitation - To be able to write a short paragraph of simple sentences to express ideas for a picture seen, object, event, story. At the end of Early English, the learner will be able to - Read a simple text or Level 1 book fluently and with ease - Comprehend the text and reproduce it verbally in mother tongue or english, - Display comprehension through performance in quizzes, - Be able to pictorially/digitally or through drama express what is understood - Become familiar and understand simple audio and video content with facilitation - Be able to speak and express to peers and facilitators her thoughts, feelings and other essentials required to communicate on campus - Be able to construct and write simple and short sentences. Course Structure – Themes The course is based on the idea that everyone, especially children love to hear a good story. Stories introduce new words and ideas into a learners language. Stories help learners learn about new concepts, new ideas and open up the windows of their imagination. The course is divided into the following sections. Each section has 1-2 stories (audio, read along, text, video) followed by digital activities, assignments and quizzes. The Course is a blended learning one, with a facilitator available for mentor-ship and support but the aim is that the learner will be able to interact with the content on her own, slowly going towards becoming a motivated independent learner. - Every Section has Quizzes which are autograded and Assignments which need to be manually graded. Quizzes are single attempt with audio. - Assignments are online or require a file to be attached. - Please upload or attach files as required - The Assignments have the score written.
Although the mathematics of perspective were discovered by Philippo Brunelleschi in the early 1400's, teaching artists how to construct correct perspective images was not easy. In this 1525 woodcut, Albrecht Durer demonstrates the use of a Draftsman's Net. A wooden frame covered with a grid of black threads, together with an eyepiece - represented here by a small obelisk - permitted an artist to replicate the scene before him onto a drawing surface ruled with a matching grid. We will repeat his demonstration in class. Nobody will be asked to undress. In this course, we consider the interwoven histories of science and Western art from the Renaissance to the end of the 19th century. Our approach will be to study the major revolutions in science and mathematics during these busy six centuries, then consider the effect they've had (real or imagined) on parallel revolutions in the visual arts. The images above represent four problems we'll pay particular attention to. We'll also look briefly at how computer graphics handles each of these problems. No programming experience is required. \|II. Scientic illustration. While the ancients were careful observers of nature, their knowledge of human anatomy was deeply flawed, and their scientific treatises survive only as text - no figures. Shown here is a print from Andreas Vesalius's seminal 1543 book, On the Fabric of the Human Body. With these precisely shaded and carefully labeled drawings, he revolutionized both the study of human anatomy and the art of scientific illustration. In this course we will try creating our own technical illustrations. Nobody will be flayed.\|\|III. Light and shadow. The notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) include many studies of penumbrae - the zone of partial shadow created when an object occludes only part of a light source. Despite his legendary powers of observation, Leonardo's writings contain misconceptions about how shadows are formed. A scientific understanding of these phenomena came only two centuries later, with the work of Lambert, Bouguer, and others during the European Enlightenment. We will repeat many of their crucial experiments in class.\|\|IV. Color. Since antiquity, artists have struggled with the question of how to organize colors into scales. Despite contributions by Newton and others, human color vision remained a mystery until the 1800's, when Young and Helmholtz proved that colors occupy a 3D space. After them, writers experimented with many ways of organizing this space. Here is a spherical arrangement proposed by Philipp Runge in 1810.\|
Although silicon is the workhorse of the semiconductor industry, forming the basis for computer chips, camera sensors, and other everyday electronic devices, researchers and manufacturers add other materials, such as germanium, to boost silicon chip processing speed, cut power consumption, and create new functions, such as photonic connections that use light instead of electrical current to transfer data. Researchers have known for about a decade that dome-shaped empty spaces form in germanium when it is grown on top of silicon patterned with a dielectric material, such as silicon oxide or silicon nitride, that masks part of the silicon base. Now, MIT researchers have discovered a method to predict and control the length of tunnels in solid germanium by growing it on silicon oxide strips on top of silicon. These tunnels have potential to be used as light channels for silicon photonics or liquid channels for microfluidic devices. “We found a tunnel or cavity on top of the silicon dioxide which is between the germanium and the silicon dioxide, and we can vary the length of the tunnel depending on the length of the oxide,” says Rui-Tao Wen, a former MIT postdoc and first author of a recent paper in Nano Letters. Wen is now an assistant professor of materials science and engineering at the Southern University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, China. The researchers used a two-step growth process, which first puts down a layer of germanium at a relatively lower temperature, then adds another germanium layer at a relatively higher temperature. The germanium layers have difficulty bonding directly to the silicon oxide strips. “The major discovery was that you form these cavities or tunnels, and they’re actually reconfiguring during growth or annealing,” says Jurgen Michel, Materials Research Laboratory senior research scientist and senior lecturer in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering. “The reconfiguration internally is a basic scientific phenomenon that I don’t think anybody would have expected.” Evolving over time During their experiments, which took a year to carry out, first author Wen analyzed cross-sections of the germanium-silicon oxide material with a transmission electron microscope (TEM), capturing images at multiple points in time during its formation. Before actually analyzing their results, the researchers expected that once tunnels formed they would stay the same shape throughout the process. Instead, they found a large amount of material is reconfigured within that space as the material evolves over time. “This is something that nobody has observed yet, that you can actually get this, what we call internal reconfiguration of material,” Michel says. “So for instance, the tunnel gets larger, some of the connected material completely disappears, and the tunnel surfaces are perfect in terms that they are atomically flat,” Michel says. “They form actually what are called facets, which are certain crystallographic germanium orientations.” The fine resolution that Wen obtained with TEM images unexpectedly showed these internal surfaces appear to have perfect surfaces. “Normally, if we do epitaxial growth of germanium on silicon, we will find very many dislocations,” Wen says. “There are none of those defects on top of the tunnels. It’s not like materials we used to have, which have a lot of dislocations in germanium layers. This one is a perfect single crystal.” Co-author Baoming Wang prepared the TEM samples. Wang is a postdoc in Professor Carl V. Thompson’s Materials for Micro and Nano Systems research group. During the growth process, which is called selective epitaxy growth, a gas containing a compound of germanium and hydrogen (germane) flows into an ultra-high vacuum chemical vapor deposition chamber. At first, the germanium deposits on the silicon, then it slowly overgrows the silicon oxide strips, forming an archway-shaped tunnel centered directly over the oxide strips. Wen patterned silicon oxide strips up to 2 centimeters in length (about three-quarters of an inch) on a 6-inch (about 15 cm) silicon wafer with tunnels covering the entire length of the strip. The strips themselves ranged in size from a width of 350 to 750 nanometers and lengths of 2 microns to 2 cm. The only limit to tunnel length appears to be the size of the silicon base layer, Michel suggests. “We see that the ends of that strip are partially covered with germanium, but then the tunnel length increases with strip length. And that’s a linear process,” he says. In these experiments, the pressure in the tunnels was about 10 millibars, which is about 100 times weaker than sea-level atmospheric pressure. Suggesting a mechanism for how the tunnels form, Michel explains that the germanium cannot form a stable germanium oxide directly on top of the silicon oxide in the high temperature, ultra-high vacuum environment, so the process slowly consumes the oxide. “You lose some of the oxide thickness during growth, but the area will stay clear,” he says. Rather than being empty, the tunnels are likely occupied by hydrogen gas, which is present because the germane gas separates into its germanium and hydrogen components. Another surprising finding was that as the germanium spreads over the silicon oxide strips, it does so unevenly at first, covering the far ends of the strip and then moving toward the centers of the strips. But as this process continues, the uncovered area of the silicon oxide shrinks from an oval shape to a circle, after which the germanium evenly spreads over the remaining uncovered area. “The effect of the length of the oxide stripe on tunnel formation is surprising and deserves further explanation, both for theoretical understanding and for possible applications,” says Ted Kamins, an adjunct professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University, who was not involved in this research. “The end effects might be useful for introducing liquids or gases into the tunnels. Overgrowth only from the ends of the oxide stripe is also unexpected for four-fold symmetric materials, such as Si (silicon) and Ge (germanium).” “If controllable and reproducible, the technique might be applied to photonics, where an abrupt change of refractive index can help guide light, and to microfluidics integrated onto a silicon chip,” Kamins says. “The results are absolutely fascinating and shocking — my jaw drops when going through the electron microscopy photos,” says Jifeng Liu, an associate professor of engineering at Dartmouth College, who was not involved in this research. “Imagine all the pillars in the middle of the Longfellow Bridge gradually and spontaneously migrate to the banks, and one day you find the entire bridge completely suspended in the middle! This would be analogous to what has been reported in this paper on microscopic scale.” As a postdoc at MIT from 2007 to 2010, Liu worked on the first germanium laser and the first germanium-silicon electroabsorption modulator with Jurgen Michel and Lionel C. Kimerling, the Thomas Lord Professor of Materials Science and Engineering. At Dartmouth, Liu continues research on germanium and other materials such as germanium-tin compounds for photonic integration on silicon platforms. “I hope these beautiful and shocking results also remind all of us about the central importance of hands-on experimental research and training, even in an emerging age of artificial intelligence and machine learning — you simply cannot calculate and predict everything, not even in a material growth process that has been studied for three decades,” Liu says. Kamins notes that “This experimental study produced a significant amount of data that should be used to gain an understanding of the mechanisms. Then, the technique can be assessed for its practicality for applications.” Michel notes that the although the findings about tunnel formation were demonstrated in a specific growth system of germanium on silicon using silicon oxide to pattern growth, these results also should apply to similar growth systems based on combinations of elements such as aluminum, gallium, and arsenic or indium and phosphorus that are called III-V semiconductor materials. “Any kind of growth system where you have this selective growth, you should be able to generate tunnels and voids,” Michel says. Additional experiments will need to be carried out to see if this process can produce devices for microfluidics, photonics, or possibly passing light and liquid through together. “It’s a very first step toward applications,” Michel says. This research was supported by the National Science Foundation.
Working Memory, Hemisphere Integration 1\| Good Sensory Learning Is Working Memory Important? Working memory is an executive functioning skill and part of the short-term memory. It involves immediate, conscious, perceptual, and language processing. In addition, working memory enables one to attend to and perform mental manipulations and calculations. Working Memory Activities that Work! Are you looking for ways to improve working memory for elementary kids or for older students that have deficits in working memory? These activities were created based on the research, and they are popular activities used by educational therapists, learning specialists, and other therapists. Even homeschoolers, tutors, and parents can either print these fun pages or make them interactive on a tablet by using Zoom or drawing tools! How can These Activities Help? This 51-page digital download offers innovative and multisensory game-like activities that teach young learners how to be mindfully present and engage both hemispheres of the brain. Visual working memory tasks exercise executive functioning skills and engage struggling learners while helping them to develop this needed skill. This publication also cultivates attentional skills, mental flexibility, and memory. These "brain games" can be used for cognitive remediation, learning centers, or warm-ups to get the brain fully integrated and activated. This digital workbook is appropriate for ages 5-8, but can also be used with older students that require the needed remediation. If you would like to learn about Dr. Warren's more advanced activities or a discounted bundle that offers both publications, click on the following pages:
How Does Black History Relate to Values of Today? Tracing Key Concepts of Friendship Back To Tribal Roots It may be a guy thing today, but it began as a tribal thing. “Sanakhou” is an ancient African word dating back to the 13th century, and it refers to a pact made between warriors in which they pledge to each other to come to one another’s aid in a time of need. According to one expert on Black history, it was the beginning of one of the key concepts of friendship as we know it today. “The concept of Sanakhou was essentially the first time the notion of ‘I have your back,’ was codified as part of the tribal culture,” said Elizabeth Evans, an educator with a Master’s Degree and a lifelong interest in African history. “It was a key element in the tribal customs of the 13th century. The idea wasn’t necessarily new, but making it part of the warrior culture as an official pact between two warriors changed the way tribes lived and fought together. The pact of friendship went beyond being something that was casual or acknowledged personally. It was now part of the tribal dynamic, and it became a matter of pride and honor among those who shared that pact.” Evans’ studies have focused on the earliest recorded histories of African tribes, and she discovered that the typical connotation of tribes being in a constant state of war or aggression simply was not the case. “There was a time early in the African culture in which the different tribes were not at war, but rather, in a state of peaceful coexistence,” she added. “When you say the word tribal, there is this universal sense that the culture focused on war, battle and territorial acquisition, and that’s just not true. As the concept of Sanakhou clearly demonstrates, tribal honor was less about conquering and more about caring for one another. Brotherhood, fellowship and family were the core values, just as they are in Western society today.” Evans said she wants to introduce a different view of the African continent into the popular culture. “Back in the days of pre-colonial Africa, the golden years of the first tribal empires, there was actually a time of peace and prosperity for the independent villages,” she added. “It’s a time that does not focus on modern day challenges such as war, corruption, famine, disease and human atrocities. Instead, I want people to become aware of the glory days of the early African empires, and how they relate to the modern era of Black history in the West.” About Elizabeth Evans Elizabeth Evans grew up in suburban Philadelphia in a home full of books on Africa and a father who was a writer. After earning her master’s degree from the University of Missouri, Kansas City, she and her husband and two children moved to Los Angeles where she continued her career in education. Her first published book, Sanakhou, is about the 13th century Empire of Mali. It is a romance and a history with a bit of a mystery. Elizabeth writes about West Africa, not only because in writing about it she is codifying her own ancestry, but also because she is fascinated by the great African kingdoms and hopes to interest others in learning about a history of which few Westerners are aware.
Three Undefined Terms: Point, Line, and Plane - Concept Univ. of Wisconsin J.D. Univ. of Wisconsin Law school Brian was a geometry teacher through the Teach for America program and started the geometry program at his school In Geometry, we have several undefined terms: point, line and plane. From these three undefined terms, all other terms in Geometry can be defined. In Geometry, we define a point as a location and no size. A line is defined as something that extends infinitely in either direction but has no width and is one dimensional while a plane extends infinitely in two dimensions. There are three undefined terms in geometry. From these terms we define everything else. The first term is point. The second term is plane. And the third undefined term is the line. So let's go back and define these as much as we can. Now we're not really defining point, we're just describing it. A point has no size; it only has a location. And the way that we label it is with a capital letter. So we can call this Point P. A plane is a flat surface that has no thickness, and it will extend infinitely in every direction. So one way to visualize what a plane could be is to think about a sheet of paper. Or if there are two differences between a sheet of paper and a plane, the first is this paper does not extend in every direction. Secondly, this paper actually has some thickness and a plane will not. Now you can name a plane using a single capital letter, usually written in cursive, or by three non-collinear points. And collinear we'll talk about in a second here, but collinear means they're not on the same line. So let's say you had a point right here: Point A, Point B, and Point C. You could call this plane, Plane ABC. Definition of coplanar: We actually can define this, is points, lines, or anything, segments, polygons in the same plane. So two things are coplanar if they are, just like we have in the picture here, in the same plane. So "co", you can think of it as a word for sharing. So you can think of coplanar as sharing the same plane. Now the third undefined term is a line. And a line is set of points or, the word that you might learn later is locus, extending in either direction infinitely. So a line is going to be all the points, and we can actually select two of them to name it. So we can call this Line AB. Now when you're labeling a line, it's key to include at least two points. Or if you have some sort of smaller letter over here, we can call this Line L. But notice how I'm writing the arrows above my letters; I have arrows on either side. And these arrows tell you, the geometry student, that it extends infinitely in this direction. Now this arrow here extends infinitely in that direction. You can have points be collinear, that is, they share the same line. So here we could have, C, D, and E are all collinear. And if you look at Point F here, I drew this in to draw a contrast. You can see that Point F is not on this line, so F is not collinear with C, D, and E. But I could say that E is collinear with C and D, D is collinear with C and E, and C is collinear with D and E. So the three key terms that are not definable, but only describable, are the line, which is a set of points extending infinitely in one or the other direction; plane, which is a flat surface with no thickness; and the third undefined term is point and that has a location and no size. Please enter your name. Are you sure you want to delete this comment? - Using a Protractor 24,298 views - Angle Bisectors 21,462 views - Supplementary and Complementary Angles 31,516 views - Polygons 19,592 views - Types of Triangles 26,058 views - Perimeter 12,771 views - Parts of a Circle 16,842 views - Counterexample 31,480 views - Writing a Good Definition 23,751 views - Postulate, Axiom, Conjecture 23,205 views - Converse 17,343 views - Line Segments 40,078 views - Rays 31,238 views - Parallel and Skew Lines 37,600 views - Midpoints and Congruent Segments 31,242 views - Parallel Planes and Lines 28,461 views - Vertex and Diagonals 19,676 views - Calculating the Midpoint 23,642 views - Angles: Types and Labeling 28,664 views
It is a landlocked country of Central Europe. It shares borders with Slovakia, Germany, Poland and Austria. The three historical regions of Czech Republic are known as Czech Lands and include Bohemia, Moravia and Czech Silesia. The name of this country comes from the Slavic tribe of Czechs known as Čechové. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia was divided into Czech Republic and Slovakia. This split is called Velvet Divorce. Most of the area of Czech Republic is a mountainous terrain. Prague is the largest city of this country. Prague is also ranked fifth among the Europe’s most toured cities. Let’s find out more in Czech Republic facts for kids! Date of Independence: 1 January, 1993 Capital City: Prague Official Currency: Czech Crown or koruna (Kč) Highest point (Śnieżka mountain): 1,602 metres (5,256 feet) Popular Sports: Ice hockey, tennis and Football Fascinating Czech Republic Facts for Kids \| Czech Republic History - The evidence of earliest human settlement on this region dates back to Paleolithic or Age period. It was prehistoric time period when humans used tools that were made up of stones. - Archeologists have found ancient female figure in Moravia known as Venus of Dolní Věstonice. This figure dates back to 29,000 to 25,000 BCE and 549 metres (1,801 feet) high. It is arguably the world’s oldest article made up of ceramic. - From 3rd century to 1st century BC, the tribes of Boii, Marcomanni and Quadi came to this region. The Marcomanni and Quadi are Germanic tribes. - The area which is now called Czech Republic is also known by its traditional name Bohemia. Historically, Bohemia was part of the Holy Roman Empire. During different time periods of 20th century (1918 – 1939) and (1945 – 1992), Bohemia came under Czechoslovakia. After the dissolution in 1993, it became part of Czech Republic. Today, it has a population of 6 million people. The first ruler of Bohemia was Maroboduus. - In the 9th century, Duchy of Bohemia gained independence from Great Moravian Empire, the slavic-speaking people. Great Moravia was a prominent state of this region and included areas of Czech Republic and Slovakia. It became part of Roman Empire in 1004. After another 200 years, it was declared Kingdom of Bohemia. From 14th to 17th centuries, Prague served as the imperial seat of Roman Empire. After the fall of this empire in 1806, the Kingdom of Bohemia came under Austrian Empire. - In October 1918, Czechoslovakia gained freedom from Austro-Hungarian Empire and became an independent country. However in 1993, it was divided into Czech Republic and Slovakia. - From 9th century till the beginning of 14th century, Bohemia and Moravia were ruled by Přemyslids Dynasty. - Since 14th century, this state was called by the name of ‘the lands of the Bohemian crown’. Czech Republic Geography for Kids - It has a population of 10.5 million. - The ethnic tribes living in this country are Poles, Slovaks, Moravians and Czechs. Almost two-thirds (64 percent) of the population of Czech Republic consists of Czechs. - About 34 percent of the Czech people are Christians (2012). - It has an area of 78,866 square kilometers. - It has a temperate continental climate. Average temperature of this climate reaches 10 °C (50 °F) in the hottest days and −3 °C in coldest days. - Louny District is the driest place of this country and the wettest region is Bílý Potok. - The official language of this country is Czech. Bohemian was its previous name and it contains a lot of German and Latin words. It is similar to the Slovak language. Interesting Facts about Czech Culture - In terms of per capita consumption of beer, Czech Republic is ranked top of the world where highest percentage of people consume beer. The most popular beer in this state is pale lager, which is pale yellow to golden color. - Plzeň, located to the west of Bohemia in Czech Republic, is the home of Pilsner beer. Pilsner beer was produced here for the first time in 1842 by Josef Groll. It was the first such drink every produced with pale to golden color and named as Pilsner Urquell. Almost two-thirds of the beer produced around the world consists of Pils (Pilsner Urquell). - It is one of the top ten countries in the world that has fastest speed of internet. - It stands at the fifth position among the world’s most environmental-conscious states (Environmental Performance Index). - It is ranked at the 10th position among the most peaceful states of the world (Global Peace Index). - It stood at the 13th position in the world that have free press (Reporters Without Borders, 2014). - It is ranked 14th among the largest cities of European Union. - In terms of best education systems in the world, Czech Republic is ranked at the 15th position. - As for economic freedom, the country is ranked 24th in the world (Index of Economic Freedom, 2015). - Established in 1850 by the name of Schustala & Company, Tatra car manufacturing company of Czech Republic is ranked third among the oldest car making companies in the world. - During the early years of 20th century, Chicago ranked third among the cities that have highest percentage of Czechs. The first two are Prague and Vienna. - In terms of percentage, Czech Republic ranks third in the world where a large number of people do not believe in God. The first two countries with highest number of atheists are China and Japan. - The oldest churches of this country were built on the style of Romanesque architecture in medieval Europe. Did you know facts about Czech Republic - Czech Republic is home to 3 national parks and 46 airports. - Nuclear power accounts for nearly 30 percent of the energy needs of this country. - Built in 1895, the car manufacturing company Škoda Auto of the Czech Republic is among one of the biggest companies in Central Europe. - The principal airport of this country is Václav Havel Airport Prague which is ranked as the fifth busiest airport in Europe. - The railway networks of this country are one of the densest in Europe. - At the end of 2015, the economic growth rate of this country was 4.5 percent, which is the highest in Europe. - In March 1978, the first and only Czech to go into space was Vladimír Remek. - Jan Evangelista Purkyně was a Czech scientist. He coined the word ‘protoplasm’ in 1839. Protoplasm is a content of a cell covered by plasma membrane. - A Czech psychiatrist Jan Janský was the first person to classify blood into four types. - Contact lenses were invented by a Czech chemist called Otto Wichterle. - Aquapalace Praha is the largest of all the water parks in Central Europe. - Out of all the 28-members European Union states, Czech Republic has the lowest rate of unemployment (4.1 percent). - Czech Republic is one of the 26 countries of Europe that has removed border restrictions between them. This region is called Schengen Area. Therefore, practically there are no borders between Czech Republic and its neighbors.
In physics, spacetime is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single construct called the spacetime continuum. Spacetime is usually interpreted with space being three-dimensional and time playing the role of a fourth dimension that is of a different sort than the spatial dimensions. According to certain Euclidean space perceptions, the universe has three dimensions of space and one dimension of time. By combining space and time into a single manifold, physicists have significantly simplified a large number of physical theories, as well as described in a more uniform way the workings of the universe at both the supergalactic and subatomic levels. In classical mechanics, the use of Euclidean space instead of spacetime is appropriate, as time is treated as universal and constant, being independent of the state of motion of an observer. In relativistic contexts, however, time cannot be separated from the three dimensions of space, because the rate at which time passes depends on an object's velocity relative to the speed of light and also the strength of intense gravitational fields which can slow the passage of time. Concept with dimensions The concept of spacetime combines space and time within a single coordinate system, typically with three spatial dimensions: length, width, height, and one temporal dimension: time. Dimensions are components of a coordinate grid typically used to locate a point in a certain defined "space" as, for example, on the globe by latitude and longitude. In spacetime, a coordinate grid that spans the 3+1 dimensions locates "events" (rather than just points in space), so time is added as another dimension to the grid. Unlike in normal spatial coordinates, there are restrictions for how measurements can be made spatially and temporally. These restrictions correspond roughly to a particular mathematical model which differs from Euclidean space in its manifest symmetry. Formerly, from experiments at slow speeds, time was believed to be independent of motion, progressing at a fixed rate in all reference frames; however, later high-speed experiments revealed that time slowed down at higher speeds (with such slowing called "time dilation" explained in the theory of "special relativity" ). Many experiments have confirmed time dilation, such as atomic clocks onboard a Space Shuttle running slower than synchronized Earth-bound inertial clocks and the relativistic decay of muons from cosmic ray showers. The duration of time can therefore vary for various events and various reference frames. When dimensions are understood as mere components of the grid system, rather than physical attributes of space, it is easier to understand the alternate dimensional views as being simply the result of coordinate transformations. The term spacetime has taken on a generalized meaning beyond treating spacetime events with the normal 3+1 dimensions (including time). Other proposed spacetime theories include additional dimensions -- normally spatial but there exist some speculative theories that include additional temporal dimensions and even some that include dimensions that are neither temporal nor spatial. How many dimensions are needed to describe the universe is still an open question. Speculative theories such as string theory predict 10 or 26 dimensions (with M-theory predicting 11 dimensions: 10 spatial and 1 temporal), but the existence of more than four dimensions would only appear to make a difference at the subatomic level. After discovering quaternions, William Rowan Hamilton commented, "Time is said to have only one dimension, and space to have three dimensions. ... The mathematical quaternion partakes of both these elements; in technical language it may be said to be 'time plus space', or 'space plus time': and in this sense it has, or at least involves a reference to, four dimensions. And how the One of Time, of Space the Three, Might in the Chain of Symbols girdled be." Lorentz discovered some invariances of Maxwell's equations late in the 19th century which were to become the basis of Einstein's theory of special relativity. Fiction authors were also in on the game: Edgar Allan Poe stated in his essay on cosmology titled Eureka (1848) that "Space and duration are one." This is the first known published work suggesting this connection between space and time, Poe reaching this conclusion after approximately 90 pages of philosophical reasoning. In 1895, in his novel The Time Machine, H.G. Wells wrote, "There is no difference between time and any of the three dimensions of space except that our consciousness moves along it." He added, "Viking people…know very well that time is only a kind of space." It has always been the case that time and space are measured using real numbers, and the suggestion that the dimensions of space and time could be switched could have been raised by the first people to have formalized physics, but ultimately, the contradictions between Maxwell's laws and Galilean relativity had to come to a head before the idea of spacetime was ready to become mainstream. While spacetime can be viewed as a consequence of Albert Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity, it was first explicitly proposed mathematically by one of his teachers, the mathematician Hermann Minkowski, in a 1908 essay "Raum und Zeit". Published in Physikalische Zeitschrift 10 104-111 (1909) and Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung 18 75-88 (1909). For an English translation, see Lorentz et al. (1952). building on and extending Einstein's work. His concept of Minkowski space is the earliest treatment of space and time as two aspects of a unified whole, the essence of special relativity. The idea of Minkowski space also led to special relativity being viewed in a more geometrical way, this geometric viewpoint of spacetime being important in general relativity too. (For an English translation of Minkowski's article, see Lorentz et al. 1952.) The 1926 thirteenth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica included an article by Einstein titled "Space-Time"."Space-Time," Encyclopedia Britannica, 13th ed.
The list features the UK’s top rising female stars of engineering, chosen from more than 500 nominations. Dr Dhopade’s research, based at the Osney Thermofluids Laboratory, involves creating computer models of jet engines to better predict the heat transfer inside the engine. Jet engines are designed to work at extremely high temperatures, pressures and accelerations. At some points in the engine, the temperature of the air can be greater than the melting point of the parts inside, which means that they need to be cooled using cold air from the front half of the engine. More efficient cooling methods result in more efficient jet engines, reducing fuel consumption and harmful emissions, so the impact of this research on aviation's environmental cost could be significant. Rolls Royce, which provides funding for the research, is already implementing the results in its next generation of jet engines. Dr Dhopade recently organised a community outreach event to celebrate International Women in Engineering Day (23 June). During the event, girl science pupils aged 13-15 from across Oxfordshire had the opportunity to meet and learn from established industry leaders over afternoon tea at St John’s.
- slide 1 of 7 Any quantity that has both magnitude and direction is called a vector. Velocity, acceleration, and force are a few examples of mechanical vectors. So, from the definition above it should be clear that every vector must have two components: the magnitude component and the direction component. - slide 2 of 7 Representations of vector In three dimensional space, a vector is represented by its X, Y, Z components. The magnitude part of the vector is expressed by the matrix of numbers, and the direction part of the vector is expressed by the matrix of unit vectors. In the adjacent picture, the vector a, which has three scalar components ax, ay, and az and three unit vectors i, j, k along X, Y and Z, can be represented as: a= ax i + ay j + az k……………………(1.1) In the matrix representation of the vector, the starting point of the vector is implicitly considered to be at the origin of the representing co-ordinate system and this is how the vector is different than a point. The above vector can also be represented in matrix form as: Image credit: Wikipedia - slide 5 of 7 By, now you know that if you want to change only the magnitude of a vector without changing its direction, you will go for the multiplication of the vector with a scalar quantity. In case you want to create a new vector with a different magnitude as well as direction (than the initial vector) then you have to multiply the initial vector with another type of mathematical entity called a tensor. The tensor is a more generalized form of scalar and vector. Or, the scalar, vector are the special cases of tensor. - If a tensor has only magnitude and no direction (i.e., rank 0 tensor), then it is called scalar. - If a tensor has magnitude and one direction (i.e., rank 1 tensor), then it is called vector. - If a tensor has magnitude and two directions (i.e., rank 2 tensor), then it is called dyad. - And so on... Please note that there are differences between the term “direction” and the term “dimension.” All the types of tensor (scalar, vector, and dyad) can be defined in a three dimensional space or co-ordinate system. For describing a rank-1 tensor, one subscript should be sufficient. Refer the Fig.1 and the matrix representation of the vector a above for better clarity. You can think of a force vector for practical example. For describing a rank-2 tensor or dyad, I will use the example of mechanical stress tensor below: Please observe that each of the stress components of the stress tensor matrix has two subscripts, the first subscript is for the direction of area normal (the surface normal of the x2 –x3 surface is 1 and so on) and the second subscript is for direction of the stress component. So, the stress tensor (a dyad or rank-2 tensor) has two directions namely direction of area normal and the direction of stress component. Image credit: Wikipedia - slide 6 of 7 Mechanical Vector Rotations Say, you have a vector and you want to change the direction of it then you have to go for the vector rotation. For rotating the vector, multiply the vector with the rotation matrix and you will get the rotated vector. In the above example the vector a is rotated by angle θ about X axis and the vector b is produced. In the above example the vector a is rotated by angle θ about Y axis and the vector b is produced. In the above example the vector a is rotated by angle θ about Z axis and the vector b is produced. Please note that the rotation matrix is also a 3X3 matrix but it is not necessarily a tensor. Tensor is a physical object and in a tensor matrix there are certain relations between the different elements of it.
History Worksheets and Printables History worksheets get your child to learn about past events and their influence on the present. Our collection of history worksheets introduces your child to history in a fun and engaging way. There are history worksheets with paper dolls from different nations and eras, ancient mythology lessons from around the world, profiles of historical figures, and even history games. There are history worksheets for both introductory lessons and follow-up activities. Try these history worksheets with your budding historian.
Key Stage 2 - Year 6 Tests At the end of Year 6, children will sit tests in: - Spelling, punctuation and grammar These tests will be both set and marked externally, and the results will be used to measure the school’s performance (for example, through reporting to Ofsted and published league tables). Your child’s marks will be used in conjunction with teacher assessment to give a broader picture of their attainment. The reading test will be a single paper with questions based on three passages of text. Your child will have one hour, including reading time, to complete the test. There will be a selection of question types, including: - Ranking/ordering, e.g. ‘Number the events below to show the order in which they happen in the story’ - Labelling, e.g. ‘Label the text to show the title of the story’ - Find and copy, e.g. ‘Find and copy one word that suggests what the weather is like in the story’ - Short constructed response, e.g. ‘What does the bear eat?’ - Open-ended response, e.g. ‘Look at the sentence that begins Once upon a time. How does the writer increase the tension throughout this paragraph? Explain fully, referring to the text in your answer.’ English spelling, punctuation and grammar: The grammar, punctuation and spelling test will consist of two parts: a grammar and punctuation paper requiring short answers, lasting 45 minutes, and an aural spelling test of 20 words, lasting around 15 minutes. The grammar and punctuation test will include two sub-types of questions: - Selected response, e.g. ‘Identify the adjectives in the sentence below’ - Constructed response, e.g. ‘Correct/complete/rewrite the sentence below,’ or, ‘The sentence below has an apostrophe missing. Explain why it needs an apostrophe.’ Children will sit three papers in maths: - Paper 1: arithmetic, 30 minutes - Papers 2 and 3: reasoning, 40 minutes per paper Paper 1 will consist of fixed response questions, where children have to give the correct answer to calculations, including long multiplication and division. Papers 2 and 3 will involve a number of question types, including: - Multiple choice - True or false - Constrained questions, e.g. giving the answer to a calculation, drawing a shape or completing a table or chart - Less constrained questions, where children will have to explain their approach for solving a problem
1. An experiment is performd in a physics laboratory to find the mass of a stationary particle, B. A proton, A, of mass 1.7 x 10^-27 kg, travelling at 4.0 x 10^6 m/s, strike B and bounces straight back at a speed of 2.0 x 10^6 m/s. If B moves ahead at 1.0 x 10^6 m/s. calculate B's mass 2. Two, studends, C and D, are facing each other on "friction-less" roller skates. C has a mass of 80kg and D has a mass of 50kg. Now they push each other and D acquires a velocity of 4.4m/s [W]. What velocity does C acquire?
A nephron is the basic structure unit in the kidney. A nephron is used differently than water, ions and small molecules in the blood, filtered out wastes and free radicals, and return required molecules to the blood. A nephron functions via ultrafiltration, which happens as blood pressure pushes water and other small molecules through small spaces in capillary walls. This substance lacks the blood cells and larger molecules in the blood, and is called an ultrafiltrate. The ultrafiltrate flows through the several loops of the nephron, where water and vital molecules are detached, and into a collecting duct which drains into the bladder. The glomerulus is a dedicated arrangement of capillaries inside the nephron that make kidneys function. Only vertebrates have developed kidneys, which mostly serves to store water in terrestrial conditions. Fish and other primal vertebrates expel ammonia as a byproduct of protein response. Ammonia is toxic in nature and so it must be removed. Birds and reptiles excrete uric acid, which is a much dense type of ammonia. Mammals have even more derived nephrons containing an extensive loop, known as the Henle loop. Mammals generate urea out of ammonia, and focus the urea in the urine to a high ratio. This helps with the removal of water from the ultrafiltrate, and accommodates mammals living in some of the driest conditions on land. For instance, a camel will constantly sift majority of the water from its blood, restore a large amount of that water, and continue using it again. Function of a Nephron A nephron is in charge of removing waste products, drifting ions, and extra water from the blood. The blood flows through the glomerulus, which is encircled by the glomerular capsule. As the heart continually thrusts the blood, the pressure causes the molecules to go through the capillaries and enter into the glomerular capsule. Afterwards, the ultrafiltrate must flow through a looping complex of tubules. The cells present in the tube contain several molecules that are absorbed. Molecules to be expelled stay in the tubule, while glucose, water and other vital molecules return to the bloodstream. As the ultrafiltrate goes down the tubules, the cells grow to be more and more hypertonic in comparison with the ultrafiltrate. This results in a maximum sum of water to be derived from the ultrafiltrate before exiting the nephron. The blood around the nephron arrives in the body again through the interlobular vein, toxin-free. The ultrafiltrate has now become urine, and travels to the bladder through the collecting duct where it gets stored. Structure of Nephron A general nephron consists of a Henle loop, which makes it a mammalian nephron. While the loop of the nephron is exclusive to mammals, the remaining structure is found in other vertebrate animals. The glomerulus is a complex of capillaries within the glomerular capsule, also known as Bowman’s capsule. The glomerular capsule and the remaining renal tubule are in fact composed of a large range of cell types, aimed at extracting and retaining specific chemicals inside the tubules. A nephron consists of a main interlobular artery linked to a single renal tubule. A kidney found in vertebrates includes thousands to millions of nephrons that produce urine and then send it to be stored in the bladder. The cells present in each nephron are assorted in a way that the majority of concentrated cells are at the base of the nephron, while the cells residing at the top are much less concentrated. The cells in the vicinity of the exit of the nephron are the most concentrated, and hence derive as much water as possible from the ultrafiltrate before sending to the final destination in the bladder.
idered a monoplane. The box kite presents two such surfaces joined together at the sides by the ends of the "box," and may therefore be called a biplane. When the boy flies his kite he first determines the direction of the wind and runs in that direction. In other words he flies his kite against the wind. The pressure of the moving current against the under surface keeps the kite aloft. When the boy runs against the wind, moving the kite forward with him, this pressure is increased and the kite tends to rise higher and higher. If instead of the long string and the boy there could be placed with the kite itself a very light motor that would give to it the same forward impulse, the kite would float through the air without boy or string and we would have a small aeroplane flying machine--a monoplane. If there were two kites, with parallel surfaces a few inches apart, united with light framework so that the air would pass between them, we should have a biplane. For many years the great problem in aviation
Description: Describing What a Text Does This second level of reading is concerned not only with understanding individual remarks, but also with recognizing the structure of a discussion. We examine what a text does to convey ideas. We might read this way to understand how an editorial justifies a particular conclusion, or how a history text supports a particular interpretation of events. At the previous level of reading, restatement, we demonstrated comprehension by repeating the thought of the text. Here we are concerned with describing the discussion: This level of reading looks at broad portions of the text to identify the structure of the discussion as a whole. On completion, we can not only repeat what the text says, but can also describe what the text does. We can identify how evidence is used and how the final points are reached. Three Ways to Read and Discuss Texts Restatement: Reading What a Text Says Interpretation: Analyzing What a Text Means A Variety of Descriptive Formats Descriptive Formats: Ways to Describe a Discussion
Power, heat, cold: the energy concept of the German Bundestag Kalt- und Warmwasserspeicher unter dem Reichstagsgebäude © Geothermie Neubrandenburg GmbH The energy generation and supply concept for the buildings of the German Bundestag provides an example of ecologically and economically combinable machinery, installations and transmission systems for energy generation and energy use. - Conceptual specifications for the energy supply of the new buildings of the German Bundestag Among other things, the specifications for the renovation of the Reichstag Building for the purposes of the German Bundestag included the demand for extensive use of renewable primary energy and for a high level of availability. At the same time, an energy concept was drawn up for the Parliament buildings in Berlin's Spreebogen district that put clear emphasis on decentralised energy generation. - Machinery used to implement the energy concept In both the Reichstag Building and the Paul Löbe Building, these specifications were realised by means of four diesel engines that drive power generators. Since, in accordance with the specifications of the energy concept, renewable primary energy was to be used in the Bundestag buildings, the decision was taken to use biodiesel as the fuel. To this end, standard engines were installed, some components of which had to be converted by the manufacturer to permit the use of biodiesel. The exhaust gas emitted by the diesel engines is cleaned in a complex emission control system - comprising particulate filters, reduction catalysts and downstream oxidation catalysts - to such an extent that the requirements specified in the German Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control (TA Luft) are significantly exceeded. The power generated in this way is supplemented by power from Berlin's public supply network. The heat from the engines and their emissions is sufficient for a minimum supply of heat for the buildings of the German Bundestag. To cover the heat requirement during the winter heating period, four hot-water boilers are available that were designed for peak-load supply and to act as a complete redundant system in the event of engine failure. During the summer, the surplus heat resulting from operation of the motor-driven cogeneration plants can be used to drive three absorption cooling machines. If neither heating nor cooling is needed in spring and autumn, the surplus heat is pumped into a geothermal storage system, from where it can be recovered as and when necessary. A regenerative system utilising the groundwater is also used with top priority for producing cold. Seven compression cooling machines are available at distributed locations for peak-load cold supply and as redundant systems. - Use of renewable energies and ecological building operation In keeping with the high ecological standard targeted, great importance is attached to the use of renewable primary energies. All engines and the boiler in the Reichstag Building run on biodiesel (the correct term is RME to DIN EN 14214). It is in keeping with the ecological objectives of the German Bundestag that the raw material is grown and processed in the close vicinity of Berlin. The raw material used is rape, from the seeds of which rape seed oil can be pressed. The biodiesel is produced in a biodiesel factory by adding methanol. All of the glycerol produced at the same time is sold to customers in the chemical industry. Apart from traces of unavoidable pollutants, a major proportion of the carbon dioxide generated by the combustion process of renewable raw materials, e.g. rape, is absorbed again in the region. Moreover, the use of agricultural produce also indirectly contributes to preserving jobs in rural areas. A total of roughly 3,600 m² of photovoltaic elements with different collector designs (some of which are heliotropic) are installed on the roofs of the Reichstag Building, the Paul Löbe Building and the Jakob Kaiser Building. The equipment was installed in the context of a demonstration programme of the Federal Ministry of Building. The power generated by the photovoltaic installations is fed entirely into the in-house network. - Heat generation and storage Surplus heat that is generated in the motor-driven cogeneration plants as a result of the combined generation of power and heat, and which is not needed either for heating in the buildings or for driving an absorption cooling machine in the prevailing weather conditions, is fed to an aquifer in front of the Reichstag Building via two boreholes reaching to a depth of roughly 300 m. To this end, the water stored in the porous rock of this stratum is pumped up through one borehole at its natural temperature of approx. 20 °C, heated by the surplus heat via heat exchangers in the basement of the Bundestag building, and pumped back down to the same depth through the second borehole, some 280 m away. Water with a maximum temperature of 60 °C is pressed into the rock at a maximum pumping capacity of 100 m³/h and pumped back up during the next heating period at temperatures starting in the region of 55 °C. The feed temperature declines as removal progresses, until economically viable tapping of the heat reaches its limits at approx. 30 °C. - Cold production and storage The top priority in connection with cold production is to store ambient cold in winter, which is dissipated into the groundwater via heat exchangers. This process is concluded at the end of the cold winter period, after which the cold water is tapped by reversing the direction of flow at the start of early summer, initially being drawn from the respective cold well at approx. 6 °C. Depending on the intensity of use, this temperature rises up to the natural temperature of 11 °C in the course of the summer. If the Bundestag buildings simultaneously require more cold than can be taken from the cold storage wells, this cold is initially generated by conventional cooling machines. If the demand increases even further, and if prolonged demand is expected on the basis of the summer temperatures, the three absorption cooling machines are operated using the waste heat from the motor-driven cogeneration plants. - Technical equipment It is part of the concept of ecologically oriented and need-based generation of power, heat and cold that these types of energy are used sparingly in the technical equipment of the buildings. For example, ventilation systems equipped with fans requiring little drive power were designed to this end. In many areas, the circuitry is engineered to give priority to natural ventilation, rather than air-conditioning by means of ventilation systems, if the indoor and outdoor temperatures allow. In addition, passive and active shading, together with thermal insulation of walls and windows, makes a decisive contribution to reducing the input of outside heat into the conference rooms and offices. Lighting is provided by luminaires fitted with high-efficiency lamps, which are switched on and off via a light management system as required. - Optimised use of energies in the energy network Alongside the resource-conserving use of primary energies, the need-oriented generation of heat, cold and power is also part of the ecological concept. For example, there is the possibility of generating these forms of energy in different areas of the Bundestag buildings and transporting them to other buildings in accordance with requirements. There is a connecting network for 10 kV electricity with transformers in each building for this purpose. Similarly, the generated heat can be pumped in both directions between the buildings at a temperature level of 110 °C. All buildings participate in cold storage, and some can also transport the cold water produced in the cooling machines to the neighbouring building as and when needed. This energy network is controlled by a master automation system that permits manual intervention. As the Federal Chancellery also has a motor-driven cogeneration plant, a connecting line to the heat store of the Bundestag energy system has been installed in order to avoid the need for a separate heat storage system. It can absorb surplus heat and also pass it back if necessary. - Operating experience Energy generating operations were constantly improved in the first few years of operation. The cold store works highly satisfactorily. Roughly 60% of the surplus heat resulting from operation of the motor-driven cogeneration plants and saved in the heat store can be recovered. Scientific studies are carried out to monitor the operation of the cold and heat stores. - Transferability of the energy concept The energy generation system described for the Bundestag buildings would appear to be transferable to other buildings and consumers only if similar consumption characteristics are present in terms of the simultaneous demand for heat and power or cold and power. Also, underground storage in front of the Reichstag Building is only possible because of the favourable geological conditions and can therefore not be expected to work so efficiently everywhere in Germany.
This shows you the differences between two versions of the page. celsius [2006/10/15 09:35] (current) \|Line 1:\|\|Line 1:\| \|+\|\|A scale of temperature measurement used primarily in areas other than the United States; in the US, the Fahrenheit scale is most often used. For many years it was called Centigrade but was adopted as the standard term in 1948. It was in 1742 the Swedish astronomer Andres Celsius published a paper in the "Kungliga Swenska Wetenskaps Academiens Handlingar" (easy for YOU to say...it wasn't even easy for me to type), the Annals of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science, entitled "Observations on two persistent degrees on a thermometer". This paper is the origin of the Celsius temperature scale. In today's computer industry, all electrical components have a range of temperature within which they operate. The Celsius scale ranges from 0 to 100 degrees. As a quick reference without getting too technical, 0 is freezing and 100 is boiling. Most measurements worldwide and in the computer industry are in Celsius, except in the chip manufacturing process where Kelvin is used.\|
Answers to a few commonly asked questions about neon (Copyright © 1995 by Ray Koltys): How do neon tubes light?A tube of glass is sealed tight with electrodes at each end and a small amount of neon (or other inert gas) inside. An electric arc is struck through the tube with transformer that produces a very small amount of current at a very high voltage. The arc excites the gas molecules, causing them to emit light. For you techies, neon is typically lit with 15 to 60 milliamps at 2 to 15,000 volts, depending on the footage being lit. How are neon tubes made?Glass tubes, sold in four foot lengths, are bent to match a pattern by heating sections of the glass with a specially configured natural gas torch. Once the glass is in the desired shape, electrodes are welded to each end. One of the electrodes has a small tube sticking out one end, which is hooked up to a manifold with stopcocks for gas bottles, and a vacuum pump. Simultaneously the electrodes are hooked up to a large transformer. Most of the air is pumped out of the tube, and an electric arc is struck through what is left. This arc has a lot of current and heats the air up, which in turn heats the tube and cooks the impurities out of the glass so they can be sucked out by the vacuum pump. The tube is brought to the smoldering point of paper (Farenheit 451) and then allowed to cool while the tube is pumped down to a total vacuum. A small amount of neon or other gas is let in, the tube is sealed off, and it is ready to light. This entire process is known as bombarding. For the techies again, the tube is bombed with 3 to 5 amps at 12 to 15,000 volts. How do you get the colors?There are a few ways to get different colors with neon. The most basic is by using a different gas. Using clear glass tubes there are two colors that are practical: neon gives you a bright red-orange, while argon gas combined with mercury vapor gives you a pale blue. Straight argon (without the mercury vapor) creates a faint purple and krypton emits a ghostly white, but neither of these is bright enough for commercial use. Colors can also be created by coating the inside of the glass tubes with phosphors. Ultraviolet light emited by the mercury in the argon/mercury combination causes the phosphors to glow, similar to flourescent lights. Phosphor coated tubes are sold in a wide range of colors ranging from purple to green, as well as warm and cool whites. When a more saturated color is called for, there are also tubes that are made with colored glass. Names like Bromo Blue and Ruby Red accurately describe the richness of the color emitted by these tubes, but this glass is more difficult to make and is sold at a premium price. Are neon signs dangerous?Neon signs operate at a high voltage, but with very low current. The zap you would feel if you accidentally were shocked is a surprise, but not dangerous. As Billy Crystal said in Running Scared, "It's not the volts that gets you. It's the amps." Improperly wired signs can start a fire, but the risk is about the same as with any improperly wired electrical device. When were neon signs invented?Neon sign technology was first successfully demonstrated in France in 1910 by Georges Claude. His first patent was granted in 1915, and by 1930 there was a booming neon sign industry. Where can I learn more?The definitive volume on the subject is "Neon Techniques & Handling," Copyright © 1977 by Signs of the Times Publishing Co (ST Publications). They can be reached at 407 Gilbert Ave, Cincinnati, OH 45202, Ph: 513-421-2050. Do you have a question that I didn't answer? Please feel free to send me mail (link below).
The Juristic analysis of sovereignty has a history stretching back to the Roman empire. The Roman jurists worked out a theory of Imperium and found the source of law in the will of the prince. In modem times the development of the theory of sovereignty coincided roughly with the growth of the State in power, functions and prestige. From Bodin, through Hobbes and Bentham, this juristic idea reached its climax in John Austin as contained in his lectures on Jurisprudence, published in 1832. Austin endeavoured to build up an exact juristic terminology and to present a clear outline of the organisation of a government’s legal power. The theory of sovereignty, as enunciated by Austin, depends mainly upon his view of the nature of law. Law, according to Austin, is a “command given by a superior to an inferior. From this definition of law he develops his theory of sovereignty in the following words:— “If a determinate human superior, not in the habit of obedience to a like superior, receives habitual obedience, from the bulk of a given society, that determinate human superior is sovereign in that society, and that society (including the superior) is a society political and independent.” Austin’s doctrine of ‘sovereign’ may be reduced to the following propositions:— (i) That there is, in every political and independent community, some person or body of persons who exercise sovereign power. Sovereign power is as essential in every political society “as the centre of gravity in a mass of matter.” (ii) That the sovereign is a determinate person or body of persons. “He is not necessarily a single person: in the modem western world he is very rarely so; but he must have so much of the attributes of a single person as to be determinate.” The State for Austin is a legal order in which there is a determinate authority acting as the ultimate source of power. Sovereignty, therefore, neither resides in the general will as Rousseau conceived, nor in the mass of the people, nor in the electorate, as none of them is a determinate body. Nor has the sovereignty of God or gods any significance in the business of the State. It is concerned with man and every State must have a determinate human superior who can issue commands and create laws. Hence human laws, and not divine laws, are the proper subject of State activity. (iii) That such a determinate human superior must not himself obey any other higher authority. His will is supreme over all individuals and associations and he is subject to no control, direct or indirect. The determinate human superior may act unwisely, or dishonestly, or in an ethical sense, unjustly, but for the purpose of the legal theory the character of his action is unimportant. So long as laws emanate from the legal sovereign, they are commands which must be obeyed. (iv) That the sovereign receives habitual obedience from the bulk of the community. That is to say, obedience must be a matter of habit and not merely occasional. Obedience rendered to an authority for a short time does not make it a sovereign. Austin’s thesis is that obedience to the sovereign authority must be continuous, regular, undisturbed and uninterrupted. Moreover, obedience rendered to the sovereign must not necessarily be from the whole of the society. It is enough for purposes of the sovereign power if it comes from the bulk of the society its large majority. Where habitual obedience from the bulk of the society is not forthcoming there is no sovereign power. Thus, sovereignty involves not only the submission of the many but also its permanence. (v) That command is the essence of law. Whatever the sovereign commands is law, and law prescribes to do certain things and not to do others. Failure to obey laws, as commanded, is visited by a penalty. (vi) That the sovereign power is indivisible. It is a unity and is incapable of division. Division of sovereignty means destruction of sovereignty. In brief, Austin’s analysis of sovereignty embraces the existence of the supreme power which is determinate, absolute, illimitable, inalienable, indivisible, all-comprehensive and permanent. It is subject to no limitation or command by any other superior person. But Austin’s theory is a lawyer’s view of sovereignty and it has been subjected to a searching criticism, particularly by Sir Henry Maine and other historical jurists. Sovereignty, according to Maine, does not reside in a determinate human superior. “A despot with a disturbed brain,” he says, “is the sole conceivable example of such sovereignty.” Maine emphasizes the existence of “vast mass of influences, which we may call for shortness moral that perpetually shapes, limits, or forbids the actual direction of the forces by its sovereign.” He cites the example of Ranjit Singh, ruler of Punjab, whom Maine characterised as an absolute despot apparently possessing qualities of Austin’s conception of the sovereign power. Ranjit Singh, Maine says, “could have commanded anything; the smallest.disobedience to his commands would have been followed by death or mutilation.” Yet, Ranjit Singh never “once in all his life” issued a command which Austin could call a law. “The rule which regulated the life of his subjects was derived from their immemorial usages, and these rules were administered by domestic tribunals, in families or village communities.” Even a despot like Ranjit Singh, Maine concludes, dare not issue a command which would compel an unwilling people to change their deep- rooted habits and customs. If he does it, he will confront the risk of revolution. Ranjit Singh’s laws were primarily derived from customs, usages, and religious injunctions and they were administered by the village panchayats (councils). But it is not only in regard to “oriental society” that Maine finds Austin’s analysis inadequate. In the “world of western civilisation,” he says, no sovereign, however despotic, could disregard “the entire history of the community, the mass of its historic antecedents, which in each community determines how the sovereign shall exercise, or forbear from exercising, his irresistible coercive power.” Austin’s conception of a determinate sovereign is also inconsistent with the well-accepted ideas of political and popular sovereignty. It ignores the power of public opinion and does not take into consideration the existence of political sovereignty, which is now believed as the ultimate sovereign power in a State. Sir Henry Maine, accordingly, concludes that it is a historical fact that the sovereign has never been determinate. The Federal State presents another difficulty about vesting sovereignty in a determinate person or body. Sovereignty is indivisible and the sovereign body which has the power to amend the Constitution cannot be described as a determinate body. In the United States, for example, the constitutional powers of government are divided between the federal government and governments of the ‘states’ as the constituent units are named there. No change can be made in the Constitution without amending it. The Constitution amending body is Conventions or two-thirds majority of each House of Congress which may propose an amendment and State legislatures or State Conventions which ratify them by a prescribed majority. In India, too, powers between the Central Government and the State Governments are divided and changes therein can be brought about by the process specified in the Constitution for amending it. The Constitution amending authority is sovereign, but this sovereign authority is diffused. There are three methods of amending the Indian Constitution. In some cases it is a simple majority of both the Houses of Parliament, in others, which are specified in the Constitution. It is the two-thirds majority of the members present and voting in each House of Parliament plus a majority of the total membership in each House, and ratified by the legislatures of one half of ‘States,’ constituent units, and for the rest it is a majority of the total membership in each House of Parliament and a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members present and voting in each House of Parliament. But the Constitution may itself limit the Constitution amending authority. Carl J. Friedrich maintains that where the constitution amending power is vested in the Legislature, “limitations are usually imposed upon it.” In France, an amendment of 1884 provided that the republican form of government should never be made the subject of proposed revision. Article V of the United States Constitution prescribes that no State, without its consent, can be deprived of its equal representation in the Senate. Austin’s definition of law that it is a “command given by a superior to an inferior,” which forms the basis of his theory of sovereignty, cannot be accepted as a simple truth. Laski says that to think of law as simply a command is even for the jurist “to strain definition to the verge of decency.” No sovereign can ignore the existence of customary law which has grown through usage in every country. Customary law is not the fiat of a determinate superior, and in earlier stages of society laws were seldom, if ever, positive commands of a sovereign. Ranjit Singh, to again quote Maine, “never issued a command which Austin would call a law. He never made a law and never did or could have dreamed of changing the civil rules under which his subjects lived.” Even a sovereign legislative assembly, like the British Parliament, dare not pass a law which aims to violate the established customs and traditions of the country. Maclver has aptly said that “State has little power to make custom, and perhaps less to destroy it, although indirectly it influences customs by changing the conditions out of which they spring.” Custom is not a deliberate statute; it is the outcome of ages and even an autocrat must be the guardian and servant of customs, if he desires to obviate the possibilities of a revolution. For, custom, “when attacked, attacks law in turn, attacks not only the particular law which opposes it, but what is more vital, the spirit of law-abidingness.” Austin himself was fully conscious of the force behind customs and maintained, “Whatever the sovereign permits, he commands.” Austin argued that customs, unless enforced by courts of justice, are merely “positive morality”; rules enforced by opinions. But as soon as courts of justice enforce them, they become commands of the sovereign, conveyed through the judges who are his delegates or deputies. The concept of law, prior to the Analytical School, conveyed the notion of order first and then the notion of force. The Analytical Jurists, on the other hand, lay down unhesitatingly that the notion of force has priority over the notion of order. Austin lays too much emphasis on force and prescribes that disobedience of law is visited by a penalty. It means, in the words of the Analytical School, that people obey laws for fear of punishment. The modern view is that we obey laws not because their disobedience is accompanied by punishment; we obey them because there is in us the spirit of law- abidingness. Laski says, “The notion of command” in law “is contingent and indirect and the idea of penalty is, again, save in the most circuitous way, notably absent”. He holds that the individual conscience is the only true source of law. Austin’s conception is also out of tune with a Welfare State. In a Welfare or Social-service State the content of law is of great importance than the source of law. We obey it, because it promotes social solidarity, as Leon Duguit says. He carries his argument to the extent that laws are not created by the State, but it is the laws that create the State. Krabbe discovers the spring of law in the community’s sense of justice. Austin’s theory is further criticised on the ground that it invests the sovereign with absolute and illimitable powers. The Pluralists maintain that the State is an association like various other associations and, therefore, the sovereign authority cannot be invested with unique sovereign powers. They oppose the Austinian doctrine of a single and unified sovereignty, and emphasize the importance of associations, which are, for their purposes, as sovereign as the State is for its purpose. Sovereignty, accordingly, is neither unity nor absolute. It is diffused and hedged all around within and without the State. Externally, Austin’s sovereign power is limited by the prescription of International Law, and the concept of internationalism has made it still more incompatible. Austin’s theory of sovereignty, therefore, is now regarded not only a legal fiction, but a baneful and dangerous dogma which should be expunged from the literature on international relations. Laski is even of the opinion that the notion of an independent sovereign State is, on the international side, fatal to the well-being of humanity. It is a bold, but realistic statement which Laski makes and the developments since World War I (1914-18) testify it. Today, the States constitute an international society and it is commonly realised that the increasingly vast problems which concern the well-being of humanity are not local but international. The problems of food, health, education, and population are in essence local problems, but their solutions are found in the deliberations of international organisations like the W.F.O., the W.H.O., the UNESCO, etc. all agencies of the United Nations. Even the restoration of order and establishment of lawful government within the country has become an international concern. It is, impossible, under the circumstances, to accept the legal theory of sovereignty as valid for political philosophy, as it postulates for the sovereign such powers as cannot in fact be exercised. Moreover, it narrows down “the meaning of vital terms to a content which, if maintained, would be fatal to the existence of society.” We cannot accept law, which is an important factor in the life of the State, from the purely legal point of view. Law must be built upon general social environments. To separate it from all these forces and influences is to defeat the very purpose of law. It should, however, be admitted that as an analysis of strictly legal nature of sovereignty, Austin’s is clear, and logical.
Slavery essays - slavery in the and mostly rural society in the upper south the second regional slave economy developed along the coast of the lower south. (1989) found that slaves who lived in the upper south faced a very moved from the upper to the lower south, of black slavery in the united states. Slavery in the upper south (ar, nc, tn, va)relatively new in arkansas and tennessee, slavery was far more ingrained in virginia and north carolina by. African american history class video over slavery involved in the north, upper south and deep south (5) members in a group - anna, huy, julia, sinnaca. And economic distinctions between the upper south and the lower south, the characteristics of slave of slavery after 1800 in the upper south essays what. What was the difference between the slave labor in the upper south and the lower south. Start studying hist-1301 chapter 11 review large numbers of surplus slaves were sold from the upper south to the lower (essay) why weren't there more slave. Slavery in the south essay slavery in the south essay 868 words 4 pages slavery in the south slavery in the upper and lower south 1276 words \| 6 pages. abolition of slavery dbq essay slavery in the united states first started in 1619, this encouraged the internal slave trade from the upper to the lower south. Within the economy a great development had been achieved when the upper south handed its power to the lower south all slavery in the south 1800's -1860's essay. Civil war essay during the pre-civil war years the lives states and the communities in the upper and lower black communities in the north and south. In the upper south, majority found full expression in his 1850 essay “disquisition on elite owned the vast majority of slaves in the south,. The imprint of the upper and lower south on mid-nineteenth-century the lower south, an area dominated by the slave-cotton system, and 2) the upper south,. The terms upland south and upper south refer to the northern section the term upper south generally referred to the slave states north of the lower or deep south. Slave free black population in the upper and lower south upper south a delaware from engl 1020 at university of memphis synthesis essay final. Approximately one million enslaved african americans were forced from the upper south to the newly conquered territories of the lower south during the first seventy. Black slavery in the south created a bond among white southerners and cast them in a common mold slavery was also the source of the south's large agricultural wealth. Farmers in the old and upper south had to flee black belt area of the lower south the internal slave trade from virginia “down slavery and the old south. Slavery and the culture of the antebellum south cover page of an essay on the slavery and whose production still moves within the lower forms of slave. When and how did slavery begin history essay the slave shift economy from the upper south to the lower south was given by a comparable shift of the. The relationships between the upper and lower classes essaysupper save your essays here in pliny's rome as well as in jacobs' us south, slaves were. Domestic slave trade definition essay it served as the economic means within the lower south and the upper slavery was present both in the south and in. Slavery in the united states was the legal institution of human most of the slaves sold from the upper south were from and would lower the slave's. Slavery in the american mountain south she suggests that the upper south was just as racist as the lower, slaves in the upper south seemed to suffer.Download slavery in the upper and lower south essay`
Aristotle’s whole system of logic starts from two premises: Logic is the direction of the act of reason The direction of reason is from what is more universal in predication to what is less so. Aristotle says the major premise everywhere, and at the slightest provocation; the minor is from St. Thomas, and Aristotle simply assumes it everywhere. The conclusion is that logic is the right order from what is more universal to what is less so. This is why Aristotle starts his logic with a study of most universal things (the Categories) Then shows all the ways that one universal thing can relate to another (On Interpretation) and then goes on to speak of arguments as the motion from what is major (or most universal) to what is minor (least universal) through a term of middle universality. The middle only has a middle universality when we speak in a way that follows what is called “the first figure syllogism” and so Aristotle rightly insists that this is the pre-eminent tool for ordering reason, and that all other tools of reasoning are correct so far as they can be reduced to it. Aristotle insists that this is even true of non-categorical reasoning, as Yvan Pellitier proves here (download “PelletierStrategy.pdf”). This is not to say it is the only way that reason can go from one thign to another: there is an ocean of dialectical tools that are used to bring us to the point where we can actually form a valid universal. We more tend to look at terms like checkers that can be arranged in certain correct ways, and in doing so we can reach conclusions that cannot be reached by the mere categorical method. This is all fine, but it is not logic in the same sense of the term, and it is not clear how we can make one thing called logic relate to the other thing called logic.
Anthrax is an infection caused by a bacterium (a type of germ) called Bacillus anthracis (B. anthracis). Although it’s most commonly seen in grazing animals like sheep, pigs, cattle, horses, and goats, anthrax also can occur in humans — although it’s very rare. In the environment, the anthrax-causing bacterium forms spores (a version of the germ covered by a hard protective shell) that can live in the soil for years. People can become infected by coming into contact with these spores through a break in the skin (such as a cut or scrape), by eating food (usually undercooked meat) contaminated by them, or by inhaling spores (breathing them into the lungs). But anthrax is not contagious, which means that it can’t spread from person to person. It’s extremely unlikely that you or someone you know could get anthrax. In fact, there are usually only one or two reported cases of anthrax per year. Most of these have been in people who work with animals or animal products. Why Are People So Concerned? Anthrax that occurs naturally in the environment isn’t a huge threat. But B. anthracis can be grown in a laboratory and some people are worried about anthrax germs being grown as a weapon. The issue of laboratory-grown B. anthracis received lots of attention in 2001 after an anthrax outbreak in the United States. The outbreak scared many people, in part because five people died (which is very rare) and also because the outbreak coincided with the September 11 terrorist attacks. However, bioterrorism experts believe that it is technologically difficult to use anthrax effectively as a weapon on a large scale. Types of Anthrax The three main types of anthrax are: - Cutaneous or skin anthrax, can occur if someone with a cut or scrape handles contaminated animals or animal products. More than 95% of anthrax cases are of the cutaneous type, which is the least dangerous form. A person with cutaneous anthrax will notice a small sore that develops into a painless ulcer with a black area in its center. If left untreated, the infection can spread to other areas of the body. - Intestinal anthrax can occur if someone eats undercooked contaminated meat. Intestinal anthrax is far less common than cutaneous anthrax, but it can make someone much sicker. Intestinal anthrax symptoms include severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, severe diarrhea, and bleeding from the digestive tract. - Pulmonary, or inhaled, anthrax is the rarest form of anthrax — but it’s also the most dangerous. Pulmonary anthrax can only occur if someone breathes thousands of anthrax spores into the lungs. Pulmonary anthrax usually seems like a common cold or the flu at first, but it rapidly turns into severe pneumonia and requires hospitalization. It usually takes fewer than 7 days for a person to show signs of anthrax after being infected. However, symptoms of pulmonary anthrax can sometimes take months to appear. Is It Hard to Get Anthrax? It’s very difficult to get anthrax. Just being exposed to the spores or coming into contact with an infected animal doesn’t mean that a person will automatically develop the disease. For example, to get pulmonary anthrax (the type of anthrax that killed the five people in the 2001 outbreak), a person has to inhale thousands of spores. This is extremely difficult to do when the anthrax spores are found in soil or on infected animals. Even in the case of the manmade outbreak in 2001, several of the people who were exposed were found to have B. anthracis spores only in their nostrils when tested. These spores hadn’t made it to their lungs in sufficient amounts to cause a problem. In other words, the people had been exposed to the bacteria but had not developed the disease. How Is Anthrax Diagnosed and Treated? Medical professionals can diagnose anthrax by taking samples from the skin sores, blood, or other bodily fluids of people who are believed to have been exposed to B. anthracis. These samples are then sent to a lab to check whether the person has the bacteria in his or her system. If anthrax is caught early, it is almost always successfully treated with antibiotics. If a person is known to have been exposed to B. anthracis but has no signs or symptoms of the disease, antibiotics may be given (after exposure) to prevent the disease from occurring. Although there is a vaccine for anthrax, in the United States it is currently only recommended for people who are at risk of coming into contact with B. anthracis. They include people who work with B. anthracis in laboratories, people who handle potentially infected animal products, and U.S. military personnel. The vaccine is not given routinely to people in the United States and it hasn’t been studied for use in people younger than 18. If you worry when you hear about anthrax, remember that it’s very rare, and it’s unlikely that you will ever be exposed to the germs that cause anthrax. If you’re worried about it, talk to a science teacher or medical professional — someone who can help you find the answers to any questions you may have about anthrax. Reviewed by: Steven Dowshen, MD Date reviewed: January 2013
The Skeleton and the Muscles The human skeleton is an endoskeleton (internal skeleton) made of bone and cartilage. The skeleton is divided into: 1. Axial Skeleton: skull, backbone, ribs and sternum. 2. Appendicular Skeleton: pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle and limbs. 1. Skull: composed of 22 fused bones except for the mandible (lower jaw). 2. Spine or Backbone: Also known as the vertebral column. It is composed of 33 small bones in a line - cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacrum (5), coccyx (4). The vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are fused together. The vertebrae of the other regions can move slightly giving flexibility to the backbone. There are cartilage discs between these that act as shock absorbers. They help to protect the vertebrae. The vertebrae are held in position by ligaments. Muscles attached to their surfaces also support the vertebrae. Spinal nerves emerge in pairs from the spinal cord between the vertebrae. The rib cage consists of the sternum and 12 pairs of ribs. All 12 pairs all attached to the backbone. The first seven are true ribs joining also to the sternum. The next three are the false ribs, which also join to the seventh rib. The last two are the floating ribs. They are only joined at one end to the backbone. The sternum or breastbone is a flat thin bone at the centre of the chest wall. The Appendicular Skeleton The Pectoral Girdle is composed of four bones — two clavicles (collar bones) and two scapulae (shoulder blades). The arms connect with the scapulae at a ball and socket joint. The Pelvic Girdle The Pelvic Girdle appears to be one large cylindrical bone but is actually six fused bones. The legs articulate with the pelvis at a ball and socket joint. The pelvis is securely attached to the backbone at the sacrum. Human Forelimb (arm) Human Hindlimb (leg) The arms and legs have similar design. There are long upper bones. In the arm it is the humerus and in the leg it is the femur. Also, there are two long bones in the medial region: The ulna and radius in the arm and the tibia and fibula in the leg. The foot and hand have similar bones. The carpals are in the wrist of the arm and the tarsals in the ankle of the leg. The metacarpals are in the palm of the hand and metatarsals in the hind foot. The phalanges are in the fingers and toes. Long Bone Structure A membrane called the periosteum encloses long bones. It contains blood vessels and nerves. The diaphysis is the shaft or long main portion of the bone. The epiphysis is at each end of the long bone and is formed separately of the diaphysis. Cartilage is found at each end of the long bones. It is made of protein called collagen. Collagen fibres are wound within the surrounding material of calcium and phosphorous salts. The cartilage covers the epiphyses protecting them from friction and shock at freely moveable joints. Cartilage does not have blood vessels or nerves. Useful materials enter the cartilage by diffusion. Types of Bones There are 2 types of bones: compact bone and spongy bone. 1. Compact Bone: Is a solid bone that at microscopic level has a concentric ring structure. It is made of bone cells called osteoblasts. These cells are growing within a material that is called a bone matrix. The bone matrix is made of 70% inorganic salts such as calcium phosphate and 30% protein called collagen. The calcium salts give the bone strength while the protein gives it flexibility. Blood vessels as well as nerve fibres are within the bone. 2. Spongy Bone: irregular openwork of thin plates of bone. It is also known as trabecular or cancellous bone. The mineral deposits are arranged as a system of struts. Bone marrow fills the spaces between the plates. The marrow cavity is the space within the diaphysis that also contains marrow. There are 2 types of bone marrow: 1. Red Bone Marrow: Is responsible for the formation of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. 2. Yellow Bone Marrow: Is responsible for energy storage in the form of lipid (fat). This can be converted into red marrow if the body needs increased blood cell formation. It is only found in adults’ medullary cavity. Inside view of cavities within spongy bone. They are filled with red bone marrow. The embryo is made of cartilage until about the 8th week of development. It then is replaced with bone. Osteoblasts produce the protein collagen. A hard covering of mainly calcium phosphate forms around the collagen. The osteoblasts become trapped within the calcium phosphate and become dormant bone cells. The bone becomes longer as a result of growth plates found between the diaphysis and the epiphysis. At this plate, cartilage is continuously formed and then turned into bone. This process is called ossification. This stops when a person reaches the adult age. Even though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood, they can continue to increase in thickness or diameter throughout life in response to stress from increased muscle activity or to weight. The increase in diameter is called appositional growth. Osteoblasts in the periosteum form compact bone around the external bone surface. At the same time, osteoclasts in medullary cavity break down bone on the internal bone surface, around the medullary cavity. These two processes together increase the diameter of the bone and, at the same time, keep the bone from becoming excessively heavy and bulky. Factors that affect bone growth 1. Stress on the bones by physical activity. Osteoblasts are stimulated. More bone grows. 2. Lack of Stress causes bones to become thin. 3. Growth hormone and sex hormones increase bone size. A joint is the junction between two or more bones. There are three major types of joints: 1. Fused Joints: These joints include the skull, sacrum, pelvis, and coccyx. As the name suggests, these joints are points where joints fuse or grow together. The place where they grow together is called the suture. These joints provide strength, support, and protection. 2. Slightly Moveable Joints: These joints are located between the vertebrae of the upper spine. There is cartilage within the joints. They help pad and protect the bones. The bones are held together by ligaments. The ligaments are tightly bound and limit the movement of the bones. This protects the spinal cord. 3. Freely Moveable or Synovial Joints: At these joints the ends of the bones are covered with cartilage and there is a cavity that separates the bones. The bones are held in place by ligaments which stop the bones from moving too much. In addition to the ligaments the two bones are joined together by sleeve-like capsule. The capsule encloses the synovial cavity. The outer layer of the capsule is composed of ligaments. As stated previously, the ligaments keep bones together preventing dislocation and control the range of movement. The inner layer of the capsule is the synovial membrane. The synovial membrane secretes the lubricating synovial fluid. Lubrication is essential to prevent frictional wear and tear. The cartilage at the contact ends of the bones also reduces friction. The cartilage pads also acts as shock absorbers against mechanical damage. Classes of Synovial Joints 1. Gliding: The bones of these joints move across each other, back-and-forth and side-to-side. Examples are between the carpals of the wrist and tarsals of the ankle. 2. Pivot: These joints allow a turning movement. Examples are between the first and second vertebras when turning the head, between the ulna and the radius of the lower arm when turning the palm of the hand up or down. 3. Hinge: These joints allow movement in one plane during flexion and extension. They act, as the name implies, like the hinge of a door. Examples are bending the elbow or knee. 4. Ball and Socket: This type of joint permits movement in three planes, i.e., in all directions. Examples are the shoulder and hip joints. Ligaments are strong, slightly elastic tissues that connect bone to bone at joints. These tissues are more flexible when warm. That is why you should gently warm up before exercising. Ligaments prevent dislocation of the joint and control the range of movement of the bones at the joint. Tendons are strong inelastic cords or bands of connective tissue that connect muscle to bone. They are composed of collagen and contain blood vessels. The inelastic tendon will not stretch when the muscle contracts. Therefore the full pull is transmitted to the bone and the full range of motion is accomplished. There are 2 types of arthritis, Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis. Both of these conditions involve the swelling and inflammation of the joint. See your text book page 352 for more information on this topic. There are 3 types of muscle: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle, as its name implies, is the muscle attached to the skeleton. It is also called striated muscle. The contraction of skeletal muscle is under voluntary control. These muscles are mainly responsible for movement of the body. Other purposes are posture maintenance, support of the joints, and heat production. While its contraction is fast and strong, skeletal muscle tires easily. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of all the hollow organs of the body (except the heart). Its contraction reduces the size of these structures. Thus it regulates the flow of blood in the arteries, moves your breakfast along through your gastrointestinal tract, expels urine from your urinary bladder, sends babies out into the world from the uterus, and regulates the flow of air through the lungs. The contraction of smooth muscle is not under voluntary control. It is called involuntary muscle. It contracts slowly and is slow to tire. Your heart is made of cardiac muscle. This type of muscle only exists in your heart. Unlike other types of muscle, cardiac muscle never gets tired. It works automatically and constantly without ever pausing to rest. Cardiac muscle contracts to squeeze blood out of your heart, and relaxes to fill your heart with blood. Antagonistic muscles are pairs of muscles. The action of one member is opposite to that of the other member. Muscles can contract but they do not have the ability to lengthen (stretch) themselves. They are arranged in pairs such that after one muscle or muscle group contracts, a skeleton transfers the movement to stretch another muscle or muscle group. The pairs of muscles that stretch each other are said to be antagonistic. The biceps and triceps muscles of the arm are an example of an antagonistic pair. Contraction of the biceps moves the arm toward the body and stretches the triceps. Contraction of the triceps extends the arm and stretches the biceps. In this example the bicep is said to be the flexor while the tricep is the extensor. Extensors are not as strong as flexors.
Due: Thursday, May 17 A web server requires each user to log in. However, the implementers of the web site are worried about storing passwords on the server, since they are afraid someone might break in and steal them. Therefore, they decide to use a clever idea. When a user creates an account, the account number is stored on the server and the user's password is stored in a cookie on the user's machine. Then, when the user tries to log in later, the server compares the password typed in by the user with the password stored in the user's cookie. <HTML> <BODY> --- Headers --- <DIV ID="msg"> --- Verbatim Email Message --- </DIV> </BODY> </HTML> Suppose a spammer sends spam email from IP address a.b.c.d. This IP address is quickly added to a blacklist and mail servers ignore all emails from this IP address. Recall that SMTP is an interactive protocol. An SMTP transcript looks as follows: Sender: MAIL FROM: <[email protected]> Mail Serv: 250 Ok Sender: RCPT TO: <[email protected]> Mail Serv: 250 Ok Sender: DATA Mail Serv: 354 End data with . Sender: Some message data Second line . Mail Serv: 250 Ok ... and the message is delivered. You may assume that the SMTP PIPELINING extension is allowed by the mail server. In class we discussed an authentication method called challenge-response for authenticating a user to a server. At a high level, the basic mechanism works as follows: Browser Server ------- I am user Alice ------ ------------------> pwd Nonce N pwd <----------------- MAC(pwd, N) ------------------> check MACThe following questions ask whether various attackers can impersonate the user and login to the server on behalf of the user. Kb = (pwd) \|\| (client-ssl-session-key)where \|\| denotes concatination and client-ssl-session-key is the SSL session key currently used by the browser. The server checks the MAC using the following key: Ks = (pwd) \|\| (server-ssl-session-key)where server-ssl-session-key is the SSL session key currently used by the server. Is the resulting protocol vulnerable to your attacks from part (b)? If so explain how; if not explain why not. Consider a company, example.com, with the following network topology: To enforce the policy, the administrators set up a single machine, gatekeeper.example.com, that can talk both to internal company machines and to the rest of the Internet. Employees can log into gatekeeper from internal machines using SSH and their hardware authentication device. From gatekeeper, they can SSH to the rest of the Internet. All other machines at the company are on a separate subnet (220.127.116.11/24) and can exchange packets with gatekeeper but not with the outside world. Machines on the outside Internet should not be able to SSH to gatekeeper. Describe how to enforce this policy with stateless packet filtering on Router A and/or Router B. Describe the precise packet filtering rules you would put in place at each router. You may assume that the routers only forward IPv4 traffic. After several days of this new policy, employees become annoyed that many applications seem to lock up for periods of a minute or so. People suspect that the problem is caused by attempts to create TCP connections to the outside world, which instead of failing instantly take approximately one minute. After all, clients' TCP implementations treat packets dropped by the firewall policy just the same as packets dropped because of congestion--they back off and keep trying. To solve the problem, the administrators re-configure their routers not just to drop packets silently, but in certain cases to send packets back to the source of a dropped packet. Describe precisely what the routers can send back to make prohibited outgoing TCP connections fail quickly. (Assume they cannot make any changes to the TCP implementation on clients.) After the fix from the previous part, things improve somewhat, but applications are still locking up. It is determined that the problem is DNS lookups to the outside world, which are also taking a long time to fail. To solve the problem, the administrators run a caching resolver on gatekeeper, and configure all the internal clients to use gatekeeper as their DNS nameserver. The administrators figure that since DNS is a read-only protocol, it is safe to allow internal machines to query for IP addresses of hosts anywhere on the Internet, as long as any actual communication to those IP addresses is blocked by the routers. Where is the flaw in the administrators' logic? Explain how a clever Trojan horse with access to the secret source code on client.example.com can collude with another machine on the Internet to leak the source code, even without access to the hardware authentication device.
Short clip of the story A challenging lesson on the topic of depression which leads to students creating a self-help guide for young people with symptoms of depression. Students will gain an understanding of the factors that affect mental health and the ways in which emotional well-being can be fostered and understand how to access professional health advice and personal support with confidence. By the end of the lesson, ALL students will learn: To recognise the symptoms of depression, understand the causes of depression and how to deal with depression. By the end of the lesson, MOST students should learn: To recognise the symptoms of depression, understand the causes of depression and how to deal with depression by accessing professional advice and support. By the end of the lesson, SOME students could learn: To critically analyse the role of professional health advice and personal support available to address the symptoms and causes of depression. Activities for the lesson Equipment required: ICT Internet / projector, Whiteboard, Printed handouts, Paper and pens Lesson starter: How are they feeling? Students to work in groups of 4/5 students. Using Handout 1 - How are they feeling?, cut out the images and give one to each group. The images are of individuals who appear depressed, sad and anxious. Ask the students the following two questions; - - What is this person feeling? - - Why would this person be feeling this way? Groups to feedback their comments to the class. Teacher to outline lesson objectives which are to investigate the symptoms and causes of depression and to research the ways of seeking professional help and support. Symptoms of depression Using Handout 2 - Symptoms and causes of depression, and working in groups, students are to list the symptoms of depression. Causes of Depression Still working in their groups, ask students to list as many causes of depression as possible and record their answers on: Teacher to facilitate feedback from groups and record results on whiteboard. Students compare their knowledge and understanding of depression with the video clip. Teacher to facilitate class discussion on the video clip. Producing a leaflet Working in groups, and using the knowledge gained from the lesson and the facts on Handout 3 - Factsheet on depression, students are to produce a leaflet entitled 'A self-help guide for young people who are feeling depressed'. The leaflet should contain the following sections; - - What is depression and how common it is - - What symptoms to look out for - - Causes of depression - - Self-help - what can I do? - - When and how to seek help. Key skills and learning skills - Application of number - Problem solving - Working with others - Improving own performance - Critical thinking - Creative thinking - Exploring meaning - Research skills - Presentation skills - Sharing learning objectives - Use of questioning - Effective feedback - Pupil self assessment - Peer assessment - Ongoing assessment - Adjusting teaching/reviewing
A recent NASA research has found that life could be present in frigid icy worlds beyond the orbit of Neptune. The study based on Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), beyond the orbit of Neptune, found that life could be present in water worlds below the icy surface which are below minus 200 Celsius or (350 degrees below zero Fahrenheit). Prabal Saxena of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland said, "These objects need to be considered potential reservoirs of water and life. If our study is correct, we now may have more places in our solar system that possess some of the critical elements for extraterrestrial life." However, the current scientific knowledge does not have any scope for studying alien life different from the presently known earthly models. Scientists have proved the presence of subsurface oceans in Saturn's moon Enceladus and the Jupiter moon Europa. NASA's Dawn voyager had found evidence of subsurface ocean in the dwarf planet Ceres in the Kuiper belt beyond Neptune's orbit. The ocean worlds in these moons and dwarf planets were found to be resulted from tectonic or radio atomic activities in their cores or due to friction caused by their orbiting. The process of Cryovolcanism in which interior liquid water erupts to the surface of the icy worlds was found in Enceladus. Abnormalities in the surface of Ceres are believed to be caused by the Cryovolcanism or tectonic activities from the core. Studies based on light reflected from the TNOs have found the presence of crystalline water ice and ammonia hydrates similar to snowflakes in them. Researchers found that the space radiation converts the crystalline water ice and ammonia hydrates in the TNOs surface to its amorphous form which gets vaporized soon. Researchers have found that the orbit of any moon around its parent object known as "gravitational dance" causes friction in its core and surface. The gravitational dance has been found in patterns which are the best for the moon's existence. They are normally found as circular and aligned with the equator of the parent object. The spinning rate of the moon makes it face the parent on the same side. Wade Henning of NASA Goddard and the University of Maryland, College Park, and co-author of the study said, "We found that tidal heating can be a tipping point that may have preserved oceans of liquid water beneath the surface of large TNOs like Pluto and Eris to the present day."
A jet is a rapid, columnar stream of liquid that is forced through a small opening, like what happens when you turn the water tap on. A jet does not have a distinct end to it. A filament is similar to a jet, but is much smaller and has a distinct end. Both jets and filaments are found commonly in day to day life, from the aforementioned taps to an ink jet printer. Generally jets and filaments are not stable, this means that they undergo instability that can change their shape, so when you turn on that tap of water you don’t know exactly where each drop of water will break, land or what size each droplet would be. More viscous (or thicker) liquids tend to be a little more stable. For example, honey is a thicker liquid, so when you pour it you are able to estimate more accurately where it will land. Regardless, fluids of all viscosities are capable of creating jets and filaments. When an electric field is applied to a jet it can control the way the liquid flows and breaks-up better, this is called an electrified jet. Electrified jets have been exploited in many industrial applications including electrospraying (such as in an ink-jet printer) and electrospinning. Electrospinning is a process that is used to create nanofibres (very fine fibres) that are used in a wide variety of applications from air filtration to artificial organ creation. Siddharth Gadkari, a graduate research scholar at IITB-Monash Research Academy undertook research on different electrified viscous jet and filament systems. Given the potentially wide application of these systems in various scientific fields, his research has broad application. Overseen by Dr. Rochish Thaokar and Dr. P Sunthar of IIT Bombay, and Dr. Prabhakar Ranganathan and Dr. Ravi Prakash Jagadeeshan of Monash University, Gadkari’s research involved four different theoretical and computational studies. The first study looked at electrospinning, which is a relatively simple technique used to generate nanofibres. It does this by applying an axial electric field at both ends of a jet of fluid that is flowing through a very fine opening. The electric field creates instabilities on the jet, including a whipping instability, that leads to swirling of the jet in hundreds of circles that increase in diameter in a short distance. This results in tiny fibres (nanofibres) being created. Whilst the proces is easy to perform, it is challenging to model as it brings together three different fields of physics (a multi-physics problem) and has a large number of dependent parameters (such as the type of liquid that is used, viscosity of the liquid, the strength of the electric field and the environmental temperature. Gadkari’s research looked at whether there was a relationship between the diameter of the resulting fibre and the various process parameters. Being able to predict the diameter of a nanofibre is important when creating them for industrial use; generally the thinner the fibre the more uses it has. As the process of electrospinning is very fast, it can take mere seconds to create nanofibres once an electric field is applied to the liquid jet, making the process difficult to study. This research created a simple equation, taking into account all the relevant parameters, that can then predict the diameter of a nanofibre that would be created. Gadkari reached his solution by creating a non-dimensional equation. This involves effectively removing the specific dimensions of each parameter (for example, you can make a whole number dimensionless by dividing it by itself) and plotting these on a graph to determine if there was any correlation between the parameters and the diameters of the nanofibres produced. The second study in this research looked at viscosity ratios between two fluids, where one fluid jet was placed inside another fluid, as part of the electrospinning process. For example, a water jet may be placed inside a honey solution. Because honey is more viscous than water, it slows down the electrospining process so that it can be better observed. Gadkari’s study plotted the viscosity ratio between the two fluids and looked at how this ratio affected the stability of the electrospinning process. This study improves the fundamental knowledge of the electrospinning process and will help other scientists detemine what viscosity of fluid to use in other studies. The third study looks at the concept of capillary thinning. If you put some saliva between your index finger and thumb, you will see a small filament is formed that gets thinner and thinner at the centre as you increase the distance between your finger and thumb. This process is called capillary thinning. If you observe this you can see that, to begin with, the filament is relatively stable, but as it becomes thinner in the centre it becomes more unstable until it eventually breaks. The amount of time it takes a fluid to return to its equilibrium after it has been disturbed is called it’s relaxation time. It has been found that a polymer solution’s relaxation time is a specific property of that fluid, just like viscosity or density of the fluid is. This study looked at the relaxation time of polymers in dilute solutions. A dilute solution is one in which the molecules are far from one another, but the properties of each individual molecule generally should not change even if concentration changes (in other words, there is only a weak dependency on concentration). As relaxation time is an integral property of fluids, it therefore should not change even if the concentration of the fluid changes. Gadkari sought to explain why there appeared to be a dependence on relaxation time, when dilute solutions were used. He used a mathematical description of the liquid and created an advanced model for describing the polymer. This built on theoretical models that already existed, and was able to predict results of experiments much better than previous models. It was therefore successful in explaining the atypical dependence of relaxation time on the concentration of the polymer solution. The final study of this research considered the importance of relaxation time in electrospinning. A viscous liquid will produce thicker nanofibres in electrospining then a thinner liquid, as thinner nanofibres are preferred for industrial applications, it is therefore important to understand how relaxation time impacts electrospinning and therefore the diameter of nanofibres. The diameter of a fibre is also directly proportional to the concentration of the polymer solution being used. The study tested fluids with low concentration and high relaxation time to determine how high relaxation time could help improve the stability of low concentrated polymers when producing nanofibres. Through a series of mathematical equations that include looking at mass, momentum and charge of electric field, Gadkari was able to confirm that a low concentration polymer solution could lead to stable jets where the solution had a high relaxation time. As a result this can be used in future studies to improve the properties of nanofibres produced through electrospinning. Graduate research scholars of IITB-Monash Research Academy study for a dually-badged PhD from both IIT Bombay and Monash University, spending time at both institutions to enrich their research experience. IITB-Monash Research Academy is a collaboration between India and Australia that endeavours to strengthen scientific relationships between the two countries. Reflecting on his research Gadkari said “I chose this topic because of its inherent complexities. As a multi-physics problem, few people choose to work on these issues yet we have only just started to scratch the surface of these problems.” Processes such as electrospinning are critical in developing nanofibres, which are critical in many areas of scientific application. From the material in the sports shoes you wear to artificial joints, nanofibres have been involved in new product development. Understanding the techniques that create them and how they are impacted will help develop better products and medical solutions into the future. Siddharth Gadkari, IITB-Monash Research Academy Project title: Viscous liquid jets and filaments in electric fields: Stability analysis and role of viscoelasticity Supervisors: : Dr. Rochish Thaokar and Dr. P Sunthar of IIT Bombay. Dr. Prabhakar Ranganathan and Dr. Ravi Prakash Jagadeeshan of Monash University Contact details: [email protected] The above story was written by Ms Rakhee Ghelani based on inputs from the research student and IITB-Monash Research Academy. Copyright IITB-Monash Research Academy.
General Astronomy/Thermal Radiation All objects emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. As the atoms are shaken by random thermal motion, the moving charge of the electrons causes them to emit a changing electromagnetic field. In general, the cooler the body, the slower the motion of its atoms and molecules, and the longer the wavelength of emitted radiation. Thus a human body emits mostly in the infrared part of the spectrum, making night vision cameras so valuable to the military and police. But the tungsten filament of an incandescent light bulb is at a much higher temperature (roughly 3000 K or about 5000 degrees F), causing it to emit mostly visible light. Thus the spectrum and intensity of the emitted radiation can be used to determine the object's temperature from a distance. If a material is heated above 700 Kelvins, it begins to glow visibly - starting out as a dark red color and moving towards the blue end of the spectrum with increasing temperature. However, most objects radiate a wide range of temperatures, and the effective color perceived by the human eye may not be fully indicative of the true temperature. For example, the Sun appears white to most observers, but the wavelength at which it radiates most of its energy is about 5800 K or roughly 10,000 degrees, which spectroscopically is equivalent to a green color. However, when the human eye detects the various wavelengths we receive from the Sun, the in particular ratios emitted by the Sun, our eye-brain connection perceives it as white.
A code of ethics that is specific to the individual comes into play in everyday situations experienced by teachers. It could be in a situation where an influential parent asks for special favors for his child, while dealing with an impudent student or an impertinent remark that comes from him or her, while dealing with colleagues, or at any point while performing the daily duties of the job. In actuality, all actions and responses are a function of a personal code of ethics, which is the foundation for differences in teachers’ styles of dealing with students and school-related situations. A code of ethics will help a teaching professional to negotiate difficult times during the life of their careers. They allow teachers to decipher the right thing to do based on their perspective, and to take responsibility for and stand by their decisions. Another ideal to be realized in the process of abiding by one’s code of ethics is to make quick and prudent decisions. Ethically correct decisions ought not to be dragged on or delayed for long periods of time before putting them into practice. If the code of ethics is strong, a teacher will be able to make decisions on the spot and have the conviction to bear the consequences. Too much pondering or hesitation in acting takes the impact out of even the soundest ethical decisions, and must therefore be avoided. Ultimately, it is individual-specific responses to what individuals think is right and what is wrong that provide insight into an individual’s code of ethics. It is for that very reason that this particular code of ethics is not a stringent formulated one. Individuals can appropriate and set guidelines for themselves, as per what they think is right, and depend upon these guidelines to solve dilemmas and complex situations in educational situations. Individual codes of ethics are not formal codes laid out by organizations and institutions to be obligatorily adhered to by their members. Instead individual codes of ethics are intangible moral guidelines that an individual appropriates of his or her own accord. The next relevant point in the discussion is whether or not individual codes of ethics are inborn in humans. Many debates have taken place on this question however the opinions remain divided at this point. A more accommodating view finds relevance in the belief that humans are born with a vague sense of the moral legitimacy of various issues and situations. The degree of stringency that an individual attaches to this is a result of what he or she has experienced through interaction with others, as well as spiritual and religious wisdom, reasoning ability, and secular guides during the course of life. Quite understandably then, the development of one’s personal code of ethics revolves around a loose framework with which everyone is endowed. The process of achieving a personal code of ethics however is a continuous and never-ending one. Ethical guidance can be derived from any sources. It can even reach us sub- consciously through seemingly non-influential aphorisms one hears by chance, or maybe a bumper sticker observed while driving. The idea comes across and seeps into one’s conscience, even unconsciously at times. Influences too play a strong role in shaping an individual’s code of ethics. Humans are imitative creatures and that’s why we seek role models and tend to replicate their thoughts and actions to some extent. Individuals select models from a number of possibilities with whom they associate—it could be a father, mother, grandfather, teacher, and/or a mentor for example. This model selection process is observable in children when they want to do everything mommy or daddy does. Likewise, in adulthood, when one is faced with questions like “what should I do?” or “am I approaching the problem in the correct manner?” one impulsively frames the question into “what would my father have done had he faced such a circumstance?” or “is my response to the issue similar to what that Jane would have done?” This largely happens on a sub-conscious level, but nonetheless plays a part in the final decision-making of an individual. Some people look beyond their immediate family or daily contacts for models to emulate. For them, historical or literary figures provide enough substance to be replicated and they set them as role models. People wear “WWJD” bands to remind them to ask “What Would Jesus Do?” in a moral or ethical situation with which they are faced. The vast majority of people who are rooted in spirituality or religion tend to derive ethical guidance from religious scriptures, spiritual guides, and spiritual/religious focused books. It is not uncommon to find cases where moral precepts or stories that are a part of holy books like The Koran, The Torah or The Bibleserve as guides to an individual’s understanding of ethical matters. It is ultimately for the purpose of moral guidance that famous figures from all walks of life are taught about in schools—with the intent that students may use the wisdom of these great legacies as a guide for their personal behavior and decision-making processes. Parents play a part by ensuring that they choose the most morally sound educational tools (e.g., specific schools, teachers, books) for their children so that their children establish ethical values from “good” examples. Self-help books focused on moral awareness have recently exploded the book market, and serve as another source of ethical guidance. Today, bookstores are flooded with moral guides to provide assistance to good parenting, becoming a good spouse or succeeding in business through ethical means. The knowledge of right and wrong can be derived in almost any area. Factors that affect the development of an individual’s code of ethics do not work in isolation. Instead, they work in close proximity to each other, and collectively shape the final outcome in the form of problem solving. The varied responses among different individuals, given the same situation, are determined by the extent to which coordination of various influential factors occurs. In fact, if we look closely, we can see that this is the case with every new craft that one attempts to learn or master. Various factors, when congregated in coordination make a complete package. In the case of codes of ethics, it is from these factors that an individual selects attributes that go into making a final decision. And the entire process is involuntary and automatic rather than being imposed on an individual. When a teacher sees something happening that his or her code of ethics does not allow, he or she would not have to think twice–his or her inherent code of ethics would immediately guide him or her to make the apt decision. The process is so spontaneous that there is no room for having second thoughts about the decision before putting it into practice. Dr. Matthew Lynch is an Assistant Professor of Education at Widener University. Dr. Lynch is the author of three books; It’s Time for Change: School Reform for the Next Decade (Rowman & Littlefield December, 2012), A Guide to Effective School Leadership Theories (Routledge February 26, 2012), and The Call to Teach: An Introduction to Teaching (Pearson 2013). Please visit his website at www.drmattlynch.com for more information.
Memorial stone, usually rectangular or with a rounded upper edge, with representations and/or texts. The majority of the texts are funerary in character. The owner of the stela listed his names and titles so that they would live on, and often biographical information. Often there is also a request to the living to give offerings. Funerary stelae are known from as early as the Protodynastic period, the main aim of which was to record the name of the king, written in a serekh. Around the beginning of the Old Kingdom, this type was combined with the niche in which the stela stood, which eventually led to the creation of the false door. Egyptians ideally wanted to be buried in the sacred town of Abydos, or if that was not possible at least to have a cenotaph there. Even this was too expensive for most Egyptians, however, and thus they contented themselves with the erection of a stela in Abydos, near the temple of Osiris. The idea behind this was that then you were at least present in Abydos 'in name'. Another type of stela is the one inscribed with hymns to the gods. Among the best known examples of this type are those with hymns to the sun god and other gods found in the tomb of Horemheb at Saqqara. Votive stelae, mainly known from the Ramesside Period as an expression of 'personal piety', contain prayers of entreaty to the gods. The owner of the stela would confess his sins on it and praise the god's greatness in the hope of receiving healing. Sometimes these stelae include an illustration of the god's ear, 'which hears'. This type of stela was usually placed in or near a temple. Furthermore, there are memorial stelae on which, for example, the victories of the king over his enemies or other important events were recorded. Given that this usually happened on the orders of or on behalf of a god, this type of stela was also erected in temples as a type of votive stela. Well known examples include Tutankhamun's Restoration Stela, which revoked Akhenaten's religious policies, and Merenptah's Israel stela. Finally, there were also border stelae. These marked out the borders of Egypt, of a city such as Akhetaten, or of smaller areas. Stelae were nearly always made of stone, usually limestone. Examples in other materials are also known, for example wood covered in plaster which was then painted. An occasional stela of faience is also known.
Symmetry (from Greek συμμετρία symmetria "agreement in dimensions, due proportion, arrangement") has two meanings. The first is a vague sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. The second is an exact mathematical "patterned self-similarity" that can be demonstrated with the rules of a formal system, such as geometry or physics. Although these two meanings of "symmetry" can sometimes be told apart, they are related, so they are here discussed together. Mathematical symmetry may be observed with respect to the passage of time; as a spatial relationship; through geometric transformations such as scaling, reflection, and rotation; through other kinds of functional transformations and as an aspect of abstract objects, theoretic models, language, music and even knowledge itself. - Alphabetized by author or source: - A · B · C · D · E · F · G · H · I · J · K · L · M · N · O · P -Q · R · S · T · U · V · W · X · Y · Z · Anon · External links - ...which were neither lofty nor shaped by any noticeable inner harmony or symmetry, other than that all parts of the room were pretty much ... - The earth is a cylindrical column, surrounded by air; it floats upright in the centre of the universe without support or anything to stand on, yet it does not fall because, being in the centre, it has no preferred direction towards which to lean; if it did, this would disturb the symmetry and balance of the whole. The spherical heavens enclose the atmosphere 'like the bark of a tree', and there are several layers of this enclosure to accommodate the various stellar objects. - While both the metaphysicist and the physicist draw conclusions from their general doctrines, the one is contented with logical symmetry, the other demands the confrontation with facts. - Aristotle, in Aristotle: a chapter from the history of science including analyses of ..., p. 33, quoted by George Henry Lewes. - The chief forms of beauty are order and symmetry and definiteness, which the mathematical sciences demonstrate in a special degree... - Tyger! Tyger! burning bright in the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry? - Guided only by their feeling for symmetry, simplicity, and generality, and an indefinable sense of the fitness of things, creative mathematicians now, as in the past, are inspired by the art of mathematics rather than by any prospect of ultimate usefulness. - The sands run red In lands of the Pharoahs. Their symmetry gets right inside me. - I cannot stop to comfort them. I'm busy chasing up my demon. I cannot stop to comfort them. I'm busy chasing up my demon. Oh, I'm in love With Egypt. - ...That a right Mind, and generous Affection, had more Beauty and Charm, than all other Symmetrys in the World besides. And, That a Grain of Honesty and Has five Worth, was of more value than all the adventitious Ornaments... - Men achieve tranquillity through moderation in pleasure and through the symmetry of life. Want and superfluity are apt to upset them and to cause great perturbations in the soul. The souls that are rent by violent conflicts are neither stable nor tranquil. ...one ought not to desire other men's blessings, and one ought not to envy those who have more, but rather, comparing his life with that of those who fare worse, and laying to heart their sufferings, deem himself blest of fortune in that he lives and fares so much better than they. Holding fast to this saying you will pass your life in greater tranquillity and will avert not a few of the plagues of life—envy and jealousy and bitterness of mind. - I wrote Fearful Symmetry during the Second World War, and hideous as that time was, it provided some parallels with Blake’s time which were useful for understanding Blake’s attitude to the world. - Her dreams, of course, partook of this symmetry. The same dream returns to her periodically, annually, and punctual to its night. - Proportion, or symmetry, is the basis of beauty; propriety, of grace. - Physicists describe the two properties of physical laws—that they do not depend on when or where you use them—as symmetries of nature. By this usage physicists mean that nature treats every moment in time and every location in space identically—symmetrically—by ensuring that the same fundamental laws are in operation. Much in the same manner that they affect art and music, such symmetries are deeply satisfying; they highlight an order and coherence in the workings of nature. The elegance of rich, complex, and diverse phenomena emerging from a simple set of universal laws is at least part of what physicists mean when they invoke the term "beautiful." - Brian Greene, The Elegant Universe (1999) Ch. 7 The "Super" in Superstrings. - Truth it seems to me — is no absolute thing, but always relative, the essential symmetry in the varying relationships of life;... - According to the atomic theory the forming force in this process is to a certain extent the symmetry characteristic of the solution to Schrodinger’s wave equation and to that extent x crytalization is explained by the atomic theory. - Werner Heisenberg, in Nobel Lectures in Physics, p. 300. - There is in all things a pattern that is part of our universe. It has symmetry, elegance, and grace - those qualities you find always in that which the true artist captures. You can find it in the turning of the seasons, in the way sand trails along a ridge, in the branch clusters of creosote bush or the patterns of its leaves. - To let the reader sometimes complete the symmetry between words and to do no more than suggest it. In this painting of our life given to us by our memories, everything is moving and depends on our point of view. - You know what Aquinas says: The three things requisite for beauty are, integrity, a wholeness, symmetry and radiance. - Lived in perfect symmetry What I do, that will be done to me As the needle slips into the run out groove Love, maybe you'll feel it too. - I feel the delicate symmetry of a leaf. I pass my hands lovingly about the smooth skin of a silver birch, or the rough shaggy bark of a pine. - Without any underlying symmetry properties, the job of proving interesting results becomes extremely unpleasant. The enjoyment of one's tools is an essential ingredient of successful work. - ...for the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature. - Your borrowers of books—those mutilators of collections, spoilers of the symmetry of shelves, and creators of odd volumes. - Since the beginning of physics, symmetry considerations have provided us with an extremely powerful and useful tool in our effort to understand nature. Gradually they have become the backbone of our theoretical formulation of physical laws. - The introduction of symmetries belongs here too, silhouettes in inkblots, etc. Likewise the gradation we establish in the order of creatures: all this is not in the things but in us. In general we cannot remember too often that when we observe nature, and especially the ordering of nature, it is always ourselves alone we are observing. - I'm terribly fastidious. I like symmetry and neatness, but my house is as chaotic as any other family's. - The symmetry of form attainable in pure fiction can not so readily be achieved in a narration essentially having less to do with fable than ... - Like the ski resort full of girls hunting for husbands and husbands hunting for girls the situation is not as symmetrical as it might seem. - Some people focus more on sonics. Some people focus more on story. I focus on both sonics and story, but music sometimes, just music itself, can turn into more of a maths problem. I guess everything in life is a math problem, but it can be more about an empirical route to getting the symmetry that you want, and this vibe, sonically. - Beauty is our weapon against nature; by it we make objects, giving them limit, symmetry, proportion. Beauty halts and freezes the melting flux of nature. - Symmetry is what we see at a glance; based on the fact that there is no reason for any difference... - Fascinated by its symmetry the geometer may at times have been too exclusively engrossed with his science, forgetful of its applications;... - By the time of his w:String Quartet No. 4 (Bartók)Fourth String Quartet, inversional symmetry had become as fundamental a premise of Bartok's harmonic language as it is of the twelve-tone music of Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern. - It is the harmony of the diverse parts, their symmetry, their happy balance; in a word it is all that introduces order, all that gives unity, that permits us to see clearly and to comprehend at once both the ensemble and the details. - ...among its most tender flesh without a reflex or cry, then at least, at very least, waiting for a symmetry of choices to break down, to go skew.... - When one is involved in the discovery and discernment of the marvelous laws and symmetries that shape the phenomenal world, one cannot but be struck by the silent and unfathomable intelligence that seems to pervade the Cosmos. - Graphic design, which evokes the symmetria of Vituvius, the dynamic symmetry of Hambidge, the asymmetry of Mondrian; which is a good gestalt, generated by intuition or by computer, by invention or by a system of coordinates, is not good design if it does not communicate. - I don't know if it's a sign of all the chaos that is happening out there or not, but I've lately craved the structure and order of classical music, the balance and symmetry. - No human face is exactly the same in its lines on each side, no leaf perfect in its lobes, no branch in its symmetry. All admit irregularity as they imply change; and to banish imperfection is to destroy expression, to check exertion, to paralyze vitality. All things are literally better, lovelier, and more beloved for the imperfections which have been divinely appointed, that the law of human life may be Effort, and the law of human judgment, Mercy. - Let us think that no human rights will exist without symmetry of the duties that correspond to them. It is not to be expected that government in the next 50 years will do it. - His genius for poetry and music enabled him to reproduce the rhythm and melody, the parallelism and symmetry, of Hebrew poetry and prose. - Take a sound from whatever source, a note on a violin, a scream, a moan, a creaking door, and there is always this symmetry between the sound basis, which is complex and has numerous characteristics which emerge through a process of comparison within our perception. - Consistency is the enemy of enterprise, just as symmetry is the enemy of art. - Perhaps the most profound synthesis of physical sciences came from the realization that everything could be understood from “conservation laws” and symmetry principles. - The nearest approach I have ever seen to the symmetry of ancient sculpture was among the Arab tribes of Ethiopia. Our Saxon race can supply the athlete, but not the Apollo. - The universe is built on a plan the profound symmetry of which is somehow present in the inner structure of our intellect. - Break a vase, and the love that reassembles the fragments is stronger than that love which took its symmetry for granted when it was whole. - We have simply arrived too late in the history of the universe to see this primordial simplicity easily … But although the symmetries are hidden from us, we can sense that they are latent in nature, governing everything about us. That's the most exciting idea I know: that nature is much simpler than it looks. Nothing makes me more hopeful that our generation of human beings may actually hold the key to the universe in our hands—that perhaps in our lifetimes we may be able to tell why all of what we see in this immense universe of galaxies and particles is logically inevitable. - Symmetry is a vast subject, significant in art and nature. Mathematics lies at its root, and it would be hard to find a better one on which to demonstrate the working of the mathematical intellect. - Thus the musical scale is a convention which circumscribes the area of potentiality and permits construction within those limits in its own particular symmetry. - Nature seems to take advantage of the simple mathematical representations of the symmetry laws. When one pauses to consider the elegance and the beautiful perfection of the mathematical reasoning involved and contrast it with the complex and far-reaching physical consequences, a deep sense of respect for the power of the symmetry laws never fails to develop. - By the late Nineties, we had become a more visual nation. Big-money taste moved to global standards - new architecture, design and show-off contemporary art. The Sloane domestic aesthetic - symmetry, class symbolism and brown furniture - became as unfashionable as it had been hot in the early Eighties. - Time could not mar the perfect symmetry of those walls. Moonlight can play odd tricks upon the fancy, and suddenly it seemed to me that light came from the windows. - In Transcript of Listening Drills, p. 203.
Fossil-quake clues in ancient sediments help map out earthquake prediction As the terror of earthquakes looms large again with the shocking consequences of seismic ruptures demonstrated so dramatically first in New Zealand, and now Japan being able to nail down seismic risks has never seemed so vital. Whether it's the building of hydroelectric dams, office blocks or of nuclear reactors, fully appreciating the scale and frequency of earthquakes is essential if future catastrophic failures are to be avoided. Now seismologists may have a new tool in their armory to help them this quest fossil-quakes preserved in water-lain sediments, which could extend the timespan of logged seismic activity back tens of thousands of years. In a study published in the recent issue of Geology, a team led by Professor Shmuel Marco from Tel Aviv University's Department of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences has described a means of deciphering strange wave-like forms, seen in sediments in the Dead Sea. He believes these represent the imprint of ancient earth tremors, which rippled through the water-laden sediments of the region. Because modern-day seismic records date back only 100 years, having records from sediments that date back over thousands of years would be a real boon, to those studying earthquakes. Dr. Marco likened them to a "fossil seismograph." His technique could be applied to areas across the world where large packets of sediment lie underwater, under assault from plate movements. That would include regions such as the US Pacific Coast. The observed waves patterns are produced where heavy and light sediment meet. They are caused by the varying speeds with which tremors pass through these sediments of different densities. This kicks off first waves, then folds and finally fragmentation, along the boundary as the strength of the earthquake increases. Prof. Marco said "Our new approach investigates wave patterns of heavy sediment that penetrates into the light sediments that lie directly on top of them. This helps us to understand the intensity of earthquakes in bygone eras it's a yardstick for measuring the impact factor of earthquakes from the past." Whilst accurate prediction of the timing of earthquakes won't be directly aided by this research, knowing the number and size of earthquakes over long periods will help scientists to better assess the risks to man-made structures. Even if earthquakes can't be stopped, the more information engineers have to properly tremor-proof their works, the better as recent events have so sadly shown.
Chemistry Practice Questions (No answers will be given) 1. Zinc chloride can be removed by reacting it with sodium carbonate. ZnCl2 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) –> ZnCO3 (s) + 2NaCl (aq) (a) State the name for this type of reaction. (b) Construct an ionic equation for the above reaction. (c) Suggest how zinc carbonate can be removed from the mixture. 2. Lithium, atomic number 3, is an element in Group I. (a) Describe what you observe when a small piece of lithium is added to water, followed by the addition of universal indicator. (b) Lithium fluoride is a crystalline solid with a high melting point. Explain why the melting point of lithium fluoride is high. (c) Caesium, atomic number 55, is another element in Group I. (i) the number of electron shells an atom of caesium possesses, (ii) formula of caesium iodide, (iii) name of product of the reaction between caesium and oxygen. 3. The Blast Furnace produces pig iron from haematite. (a) Besides haematite and coke, what is the other raw material A fed into the Blast Furnace? (b) Explain using equations why A is added to the Blast Furnace. (c) Name the reducing agent that reduces iron(III) oxide to iron. (d) The iron produced by the Blast Furnace is converted into steel. What is the composition of steel? 4. State the separatory method that can separate the underlined substance: (a) pure water from seawater (b) a mixture of hexane and water (c) red ink from a mixture of red and black ink (d) heptane from a mixture of heptane and hexane 5. Use the information in the table to answer the following questions. ◆ Conducts electricity ◆ Melting point /oC ◆ Dissolves in water (a) Which two substances could be metals? (b) Describe how the arrangement and movement of particles in E change as the temperature rises from 640oC to 663oC. (c) Is D a pure element, compound or a mixture? Explain briefly your answer. (d) What type of bonding could particles of A have? (e) Element B is sulfur. Explain why sulfur has a low melting point. 6. Ethanol undergoes combustion with oxygen and oxidation with an oxidising agent. (a) Write the balanced equation of ethanol reacting with oxygen. (b) The oxidising agent used is acidified potassium dichromate (VI). State the product when ethanol is oxidised and the colour change of potassium dichromate (VI) after the reaction. (c) The product is extracted and litmus paper is placed in contact with the product. State the colour change of the litmus paper. (d) State a use of the product from (b) 7. Carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. (a) Write the equation for the above reaction. (b) 100 g of carbon reacts with an excess of oxygen to form carbon dioxide. Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced at room temperature and pressure. (c) Describe a test for carbon dioxide. 8. Calcium reacts with water to form an alkaline solution. Which set of conditions would give the fastest initial rate of reaction? A 2 g of calcium at 25oC B 5 g of calcium at 5oC C 5 g of calcium at 25oC D 5 g of calcium at 40oC 9. The reaction below is an example of a redox reaction. Br2 (l) + H2 (g) –> 2HBr (g) (a) Identify the oxidising agent in the reaction. (b) Explain with reference to bromine and using oxidation number, why this is a redox reaction. (c) Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen bromide, HBr to form a salt. Give the chemical name of the salt. – olevelpurechem.blogspot.sg
fires. Such devices contain a fire-suppressive agent, either under constant pressure or with the ability to quickly pressurize, and are used by spraying this suppressive agent over the base of a fire, smothering the fire. Modern extinguishers are almost always under constant pressure, but some (especially older types) use a chemical reaction to create a propellant gas. This kind must be turned upside-down when used to create the needed pressure. Fire extinguishers are generally used in an emergency, and should not be wasted on routine, controlled fires (such as a campfire). Modern fire extinguishers are rated for the types of fires they are effective against: - Class A: ordinary flammable solids, such as wood and paper. - Class B: flammable liquids, such as grease, oil, and gasoline. - Class C: electrical fires. - Class D: flammable metals, such as titanium or magnesium. The steps in correct use of a fire extinguisher can be remembered by the acronym P.A.S.S.: Pull, Aim, Squeeze, Sweep.
A single volcanic eruption wiping out life on entire continents isn't exactly a cheery thought, but at least we had the mild comfort that it would take as much as 200,000 years for one to erupt. Yeah, about that... There's only a handful of known supervolcanoes capable of destruction on near-planetary levels - the one beneath Yellowstone National Park is the most famous - but even just a handful of such volcanoes have done plenty of damage. There's the Toba Event some 70,000 years ago, in which an Indonesian supervolcano affected climate patterns in Africa severely enough that humans almost went extinct. And then there's the Long Valley eruption that took place in California some 760,000 years ago. The eruption buried much of North America in thousands of cubic miles of ash and devastated countless ecosystems. The scale of the Long Valley eruption is unlike anything humanity has witnessed in it entire history, and the question Vanderbilt researcher Guilherme Gualda and his team set out to answer was just how much warning we could expect for the next Long Valley type eruption. Previous research has focused on the formation of zircon crystals inside the supervolcanoes. Using trace radioactive elements from these crystals, scientists had deduced that the initial formation of the magma pools and the resultant supervolcano eruptions were separated by some 200,000 years. If that's the case, then even the most rudimentary monitoring of these supervolcanoes would tell us whether humanity has anything to worry about from these volcanoes for the next several hundred centuries. But the Vanderbilt team's research focused instead on quartz crystals that started forming along with the magma pools and stopped developing once the eruption occurred. Our knowledge of quartz formation is well enough advanced for Dr. Gualda and his team to come up with a revised estimate for the time it takes supervolcanoes to form and erupt. If the quartz crystals are anything to go by, we're looking at just 500 to 3000 years between when the magma starts collecting and when the supervolcano has to blow. Obviously, that's a massively different result from what the zircon had suggested, and further study is needed to figure out just why there's such a massive discrepancy between the two data sets. But as Dr. Gualda explained to BBC News, if the quartz results do stand up, supervolcanoes have just become a much realer concern to humanity - if not in 2012, then possibly as soon as 2512...and that's assuming there aren't any magma pools currently forming: "Our study suggests that when these exceptionally large magma pools form they are ephemeral and cannot exist very long without erupting. The fact that the process of magma body formation occurs in historical time, instead of geological time, completely changes the nature of the problem."
The Lend-Lease Act of March 11, 1941, was the principal means for providing U.S. military aid to foreign nations during World War II. The act authorized the president to transfer arms or any other defense materials for which Congress appropriated money to “the government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States.” Britain, the Soviet Union, China, Brazil, and many other countries received weapons under this law. By allowing the president to transfer war matériel to a beleaguered Britain–and without payment as required by the Neutrality Act of 1939–the act enabled the British to keep fighting until events led America into the conflict. It also skirted the thorny problems of war debts that had followed World War I. Lend-Lease brought the United States one step closer to entry into the war. Isolationists, such as Republican senator Robert Taft, opposed it. Taft correctly noted that the bill would “give the President power to carry on a kind of undeclared war all over the world, in which America would do everything except actually put soldiers in the front-line trenches where the fighting is.” The Reader’s Companion to American History. Eric Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors. Copyright © 1991 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.
The Cromwell Current (also called Pacific Equatorial Undercurrent or just Equatorial Undercurrent) is an eastward-flowing subsurface current that extends the length of the equator in the Pacific Ocean. The Cromwell Current was discovered in 1952 by Townsend Cromwell, a researcher with the Honolulu Laboratory. It is 250 miles (400 km) wide and flows to the east. It is hidden 300 feet (100 m) under the surface of the Pacific Ocean at the Equator and is relatively shallow compared to other ocean currents being only 100 feet from top to base. It has 1000 times the volume of Mississippi River and its length is 3500 miles (6000 km). Townsend Cromwell, a keen surfer, swimmer and oceanographer, discovered the current that now bears his name whilst researching drifting in the equatorial region of the Pacific Ocean. He died in 1958 when his plane crashed en route to an oceanography expedition. In 1951 researchers on board the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service research vessel were indulging in a spot of long line fishing. They noticed that the gear deep under water drifted eastwards. This was unusual because the surface currents of the pacific ocean flow westwards on the equator. (They follow the direction of the winds). The following year Townsend Cromwell led a research party to investigate how the currents of the ocean varied as a function of depth. They discovered a fast flowing current that flowed eastwards in the deep surface layers. - Depth: The surface currents flow west. There is reversal point about 40 m down, where the water starts to flow east. The current goes down to about 400 m. - Flow rate:The total flow is up to around 30 000 000 cubic meters per second. The top speed is around 1.5 m/s (this is about twice as fast as the westerly surface current) - Length:13,000 km Interaction with El Niño El Niño is a reversal of the normal situation in the Pacific Ocean. Surface water is blown westwards by the prevailing winds and deeper water is forced upwards to replace it. Every now and then, the surface water sloshes back across the ocean, bringing warm water temperatures along the eastern coasts of the pacific. In non-El Niño years, the Cromwell current is forced to the surface by underwater seamounts near the Galapagos islands (this is called upwelling.) However during El Nino years the current does not upwell in this way. The waters around the islands are therefore considerably warmer during El Niño years than during normal years. Effect on wildlife The Cromwell Current is both oxygen- and nutrient-rich. A large number of fish are concentrated in it. Upwelling occurs near the Galapagos islands. This brings food supplies to the surface for Galápagos Penguin. Upwelling, however, is a sporadic phenomenon; it fails to occur on a regular basis, and so the food supply comes and goes. The penguins have several adaptations to cope with this, including versatility in their breeding habits. Possible effect on climate The effect of this current on world climate is not well understood. - Cromwell, Townsend (1953). "Circulation in a meridional plane in the central equatorial Pacific." Journal of Marine Research 12 196-213. - Cromwell, T., Montgomery, R. B., and Stroup, E. D. (1954). "Equatorial undercurrent in the Pacific Ocean revealed by new methods." Science 119 (3097) 648-649. - Lomonosov current — deep current in the Atlantic Ocean - Ocean current - Oceanic gyres - Physical oceanography
Albacore are widely distributed throughout the world's marine ecosystems in tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate zones of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. In the Pacific Ocean, it is generally believed that there exists two stocks of albacore, one in the North Pacific hemisphere and one in the South Pacific hemisphere. Available data indicate that the two stocks do not cross the equator and have separate spawning grounds and times. The North Pacific albacore stock, which is the population that is primarily targeted by commercial and recreational fisheries associated with the U.S. Pacific coast, is centered around 35o N latitude in the Pacific Ocean. This stock's distribution extends from the central (west) coast of Mexico to the Gulf of Alaska in the eastern Pacific Ocean, and from the equator to the north (east) coast of Japan in the western Pacific Ocean. The actual boundaries of the stock's range depend largely on the season of the year and oceanic conditions (see below). Currently, fishery researchers are uncertain whether the population of albacore inhabiting the North Pacific Ocean is strictly a single stock or possibly, composed of two (or more) stocks. Results from some tagging experiments indicate that substocks of albacore may exist in the North Pacific Ocean, based on differences in migratory routes, growth and mortality rates, and size distributions of the commercial catches. The two-stock hypothesis for the North Pacific albacore population defines a stock that migrates between the western and eastern Pacific Ocean north of approximately 40o N latitude, and a southern stock that enters the U.S. fisheries south of 40o N latitude and for the most part, does not travel back to western Pacific Ocean waters, but rather, stays in the central Pacific Ocean east of 180o. However, more information concerning albacore biology and genetics is needed before definitive conclusions can be drawn at this time regarding the stock structure of the North Pacific population of albacore. The South Pacific stock occurs from the equator to 40o S latitude in the central and western areas of the Pacific Ocean, and between 10o and 30o S latitude in waters between 150o E and 80o W longitude.
An apostrophe (’) is used to create possessive forms, contractions and some plural forms. It indicates where the letter has been omitted. I am = I’m He’s = he is They’re = they are Do not = don’t I’d = I would or I had She would have failed. = She would’ve failed. Contracted forms are not considered appropriate in formal writing. However, it is basically a matter of personal choice. Before writing contractions in a paper that is going to be graded, you should ask your tutor whether it is appropriate to include them in your writing. Apostrophes are used in writing possessives. While writing possessives, the position of the apostrophe depends on whether the noun is singular or plural. If the noun is singular, the apostrophe goes before the –s. Example: the girl’s parents If the noun is plural, the apostrophe usually goes after the –s. Example: the girls’ parents If the plural form of the noun does not end in –s, the apostrophe goes before the –s. Example: the men’s hostel You can also create possessive forms with of. In this case, no apostrophes are used. - A friend of mine works abroad. The words its and it’s are often confused. Its is a possessive word. - The dog wagged its tail. It’s means it is or it has. - It’s your book. (= It is your book.) - It’s stopped raining. (= It has stopped raining.) They’re and their These two expressions are also confused. They’re means they are. Their is a possessive word. They took their children along. - They’re waiting for us. (= They are waiting for us.) ‘There are’ does not have an appropriate contracted form. An apostrophe is also used to form the plurals of letters and digits. This is particularly common when the letters are written in the small case. - Mind your p’s and q’s. - She got 4 a’s this term. Apostrophes are no longer used to form plurals of years. - Example: 1990s (more natural than 1990’s)
Understanding VLP Vaccines What are virus-like particles and how are they being used in the design of AIDS vaccine candidates? Many vaccines teach the body how to fend off a chosen bacterium, virus or parasite by presenting it with a killed or weakened form of that pathogen. These approaches are not, however, viable for HIV due to concerns that any such virus preparation may not be completely inactivated, or that its weakened form might mutate and regain its ability to cause disease. So scientists have relied instead on delivering purified proteins derived from recombinant HIV genes, or the genes themselves, to trigger cellular (T-cell) and antibody (B-cell) responses against HIV (see VAX July 2008 Special Issue, Understanding the Immune System and AIDS Vaccine Strategies). AIDS researchers have tended to favor recombinant vaccines, in which parts of the pathogen are synthesized from scratch and used as immunogens (the active ingredient in the vaccine candidate). In some cases, the vaccine candidates have consisted of soluble proteins, which, as the phrase suggests, dissolve easily in water. This is the approach that was used in one vaccine candidate used in the RV144 trial (see VAX Sep. 2009 Spotlight article, First Evidence of Efficacy from Large-Scale HIV Vaccine Trial), which demonstrated modest efficacy, and the candidate used in the Step trial (see VAX Oct.-Nov. 2007 Spotlight article, A STEP Back?), which did not. A viral imitator Another type of recombinant vaccine that has captured the attention of scientists in recent years relies on virus-like particles (VLPs) to deliver HIV’s payload. While VLP vaccine candidates present their own challenges, these multi-protein structures have yielded impressive results in studies and represent a safe and potentially more effective alternative for HIV vaccines. Studies suggest that VLP vaccines against the influenza virus might be able to provide more potent and longer-lasting protection than do the current seasonal vaccines. AIDS researchers are developing VLP-based vaccines as well. A variety of VLPs are currently in various stages of pre-clinical and clinical development. So how do these candidates work? As you may know, viruses need a human host to multiply. A virus particle—or virion—is essentially a combination of DNA or RNA material packaged in a protein capsule that’s made by infected cells and spreads by budding. A number of years ago, researchers described during their study of the hepatitis B virus that it’s possible to assemble particles that lack a viral genome and some of its proteins, but can still be recognized by the immune system. VLPs present parts of the proteins specific to the targeted pathogen, such as the Envelope (see VAX March 2011 Primer on Understanding HIV’s Envelope Protein) that sits on HIV’s surface and is used by the virus to invade cells. VLPs are similar in size and conformation to intact virions. Because they lack crucial genetic material, they are non-infectious and so provide a safer alternative to weakened viruses. Many VLP vaccine candidates are also built from viruses that infect bacteria, or those that infect plants, animals, or even humans. Studies have found that VLP vaccine candidates can be highly immunogenic, in part because they can display multiple antigens on their surface, improving interaction with components of the immune system and thus increasing the odds of inducing a potent antibody response. VLPs in HIV science AIDS vaccine researchers are employing VLPs in different ways. One group of researchers is using them to induce antibodies to a part of the protein spike that protrudes from HIV’s Envelope called the membrane proximal external region. This part of the spike is important for fusion of the viral membrane with the target cell membrane. Researchers are using a baculovirus—which infects cultured insect cells—to express the recombinant HIV genes. The VLPs are then purified from infected cells. Researchers have also created a VLP vaccine candidate that swapped one segment of HIV’s spike—another name for the Envelope, or trimer—with a smaller protein from the influenza virus. They devised this method to try and make portions of the HIV spike more accessible to the human immune system. Finally, researchers have developed a test that uses VLPs to screen for proteins that bind to the earliest ancestors of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs), which prevent a broad variety of HIV variants from invading cells in laboratory studies. Scientists have identified dozens of these bNAbs in people with chronic HIV, but the antibodies take years to develop. So engaging these early cells, known as germ-line precursors, represents a potential road to success in developing a vaccine candidate that might induce these coveted bNAbs (see VAX May 2013 Primer onUnderstanding How a Vaccine May be Designed to Induce Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies). While VLP vaccine candidates are an attractive alternative, they present manufacturing challenges that developers will need to overcome. Some VLP candidates are too costly to produce in significant quantities and the biological structures of some VLPs are, in some cases, too complicated for large-scale production. Still, there are now two recombinant vaccines on the market—one for hepatitis B and the other for human papilloma virus—that employ VLP platforms. Another VLP-based vaccine candidate, GlaxoSmithKline’s malaria vaccine candidate RTS,S, is in late-stage clinical testing (see VAX Nov. 2012 Global News). The hope is that VLPs may help AIDS vaccine scientists achieve similar success.
Greek literature scholars have generally considered Theocritus to be the original pastoral poet. Many others have adopted this style since but Theocritus is acknowledged as the greatest. His idylls reflected 3rdC BC life in Greece, a land of roaming flocks of sheep and the shepherds that tended them, and the fishermen who made their living in little boats. As with all other writers of this time though one has to treat with caution what one reads about him. The authenticity of certain works of poetry, attributed to Theocritus, can easily be doubted. It is believed that he was born on the island of Sicily in the year 315 BC, the son of Praxagoras and Philina, though some reports put his origins as Syracuse. He moved around and there are mentions in his story of living in Egypt, Alexandria and Kos. He wrote bucolic and mime poetry, possibly in the Ancient Greek dialect known as “Doric”. The difference is that bucolic verse is sited firmly in the countryside while his mimes were generally set in a variety of towns. The bucolics are filled with lovesick shepherds and goatherds with goddesses such as Aphrodite appearing in visions to taunt or chastise the mortals below. It was a fairly common theme of verse at this time that the Gods should be challenged. Most of his bucolic poems go by the simple titles of Idyll (with a number attached). Some are curiously laid out as so-called singing matches where the narrator takes one point of view and the “singer” offers an alternative theme. Examples of the above mentioned lack of authenticity could be found in Idylls 8 and 9. In number 9, for example, it has been suggested that lines have been added to the original verse to make the reader believe that it is true Theocritean when it may not have been so. A good example of one of the idylls is Idyll Number XII, described as “a poem to a beautiful youth”. Here is the first verse: It seems clear that at different points in his life Theocritus needed a wealthy sponsor so that he did not starve. An ideal opportunity presented itself when the Egyptian emperor Ptolemy Philadelphus contracted an incestuous marriage with his sister Arsinoe in the year 277 BC. Theocritus was invited to write a poem celebrating this marriage and he did so, pleasing the new Queen in the process. Poems that were originally thought to have been written by Theocritus include such titles as Love Stealing Honey, Fishermen and Passionate Lover. While these have almost certainly come from the pen of the same author some doubt exists who the true originator was. Such are the difficulties faced by literature scholars of ancient Greek or Roman poets. The same would apply to a number of epigrams and mimes which come from the same period. There is no doubt though that the work of Theocritus has stood the test of time and can be held up as some of the greatest pastoral verse written at any time in history. It is believed that Theocritus died in the year 260 BC, aged 55.
Temporal range: Eocene-Recent, 45–0Ma \|Charaxes brutus natalensis in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania\| Butterflies are a chiefly diurnal group of the order Lepidoptera (which also includes moths). Adults have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight. The group comprise the true butterflies (superfamily Papilionoidea), the skippers (superfamily Hesperioidea) and the moth-butterflies (superfamily Hedyloidea). All the many other families within the Lepidoptera are referred to as moths. The earliest known butterfly fossils date to the mid Eocene epoch, 40–50 million years ago. Butterflies exhibit polymorphism, mimicry and aposematism. Some, like the Monarch, will migrate over long distances. Some butterflies have evolved symbiotic and parasitic relationships with social insects such as ants. Some species are pests because in their larval stages they can damage domestic crops or trees; however, some species are agents of pollination of some plants, and caterpillars of a few butterflies (e.g., Harvesters) eat harmful insects. Culturally, butterflies are a popular motif in the visual and literary arts. - 1 Etymology - 2 Life cycle - 3 External morphology - 4 Polymorphism - 5 Habits - 6 Flight - 7 Defense - 8 Notable species - 9 In culture - 10 See also - 11 Notes - 12 References - 13 Further reading - 14 External links The name is derived from Middle English buterflie, butturflye, boterflye, from Old English butorflēoge, buttorflēoge, buterflēoge, perhaps a compound of butor (beater), mutation of bēatan (to beat), and flēoge (fly). \|This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2012)\| Butterflies in their adult stage can live from a week to nearly a year depending on the species. Many species have long larval life stages while others can remain dormant in their pupal or egg stages and thereby survive winters. Butterfly eggs are protected by a hard-ridged outer layer of shell, called the chorion. This is lined with a thin coating of wax which prevents the egg from drying out before the larva has had time to fully develop. Each egg contains a number of tiny funnel-shaped openings at one end, called micropyles; the purpose of these holes is to allow sperm to enter and fertilize the egg. Butterfly and moth eggs vary greatly in size between species, but they are all either spherical or ovate. Butterfly eggs are fixed to a leaf with a special glue which hardens rapidly. As it hardens it contracts, deforming the shape of the egg. This glue is easily seen surrounding the base of every egg forming a meniscus. The nature of the glue is unknown and is a suitable subject for research. The same glue is produced by a pupa to secure the setae of the cremaster. This glue is so hard that the silk pad, to which the setae are glued, cannot be separated. Eggs are almost invariably laid on plants. Each species of butterfly has its own hostplant range and while some species of butterfly are restricted to just one species of plant, others use a range of plant species, often including members of a common family. The egg stage lasts a few weeks in most butterflies but eggs laid close to winter, especially in temperate regions, go through a diapause (resting) stage, and the hatching may take place only in spring. Other butterflies may lay their eggs in the spring and have them hatch in the summer. These butterflies are usually northern species, such as the Mourning Cloak (Camberwell Beauty) and the Large and Small Tortoiseshell butterflies. Butterfly larvae, or caterpillars, consume plant leaves and spend practically all of their time in search of food. Although most caterpillars are herbivorous, a few species such as Spalgis epius and Liphyra brassolis are entomophagous (insect eating). Some larvae, especially those of the Lycaenidae, form mutual associations with ants. They communicate with the ants using vibrations that are transmitted through the substrate as well as using chemical signals. The ants provide some degree of protection to these larvae and they in turn gather honeydew secretions. Others such as Phengaris arion communicate with ants to form a parasitic relationship. Caterpillars mature through a series of stages called instars. Near the end of each instar, the larva undergoes a process called apolysis, in which the cuticle, a tough outer layer made of a mixture of chitin and specialized proteins, is released from the softer epidermis beneath, and the epidermis begins to form a new cuticle beneath. At the end of each instar, the larva moults the old cuticle, and the new cuticle expands, before rapidly hardening and developing pigment. Development of butterfly wing patterns begins by the last larval instar. Butterfly caterpillars have three pairs of true legs from the thoracic segments and up to 6 pairs of prolegs arising from the abdominal segments. These prolegs have rings of tiny hooks called crochets that help them grip the substrate. Some caterpillars have the ability to inflate parts of their head to appear snake-like. Many have false eye-spots to enhance this effect. Some caterpillars have special structures called osmeteria which are everted to produce foul-smelling chemicals. These are used in defense. Host plants often have toxic substances in them and caterpillars are able to sequester these substances and retain them into the adult stage. This makes them unpalatable to birds and other predators. Such unpalatibility is advertised using bright red, orange, black or white warning colours, a practice known as aposematism. The toxic chemicals in plants are often evolved specifically to prevent them from being eaten by insects. Insects in turn develop countermeasures or make use of these toxins for their own survival. This "arms race" has led to the coevolution of insects and their host plants. Wings or wing pads are not visible on the outside of the larva, but when larvae are dissected, tiny developing wing disks can be found on the second and third thoracic segments, in place of the spiracles that are apparent on abdominal segments. Wing disks develop in association with a trachea that runs along the base of the wing, and are surrounded by a thin peripodial membrane, which is linked to the outer epidermis of the larva by a tiny duct. Wing disks are very small until the last larval instar, when they increase dramatically in size, are invaded by branching tracheae from the wing base that precede the formation of the wing veins, and begin to develop patterns associated with several landmarks of the wing. Near pupation, the wings are forced outside the epidermis under pressure from the hemolymph, and although they are initially quite flexible and fragile, by the time the pupa breaks free of the larval cuticle they have adhered tightly to the outer cuticle of the pupa (in obtect pupae). Within hours, the wings form a cuticle so hard and well-joined to the body that pupae can be picked up and handled without damage to the wings. When the larva is fully grown, hormones such as prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) are produced. At this point the larva stops feeding and begins "wandering" in the quest of a suitable pupation site, often the underside of a leaf. The larva transforms into a pupa (or chrysalis) by anchoring itself to a substrate and moulting for the last time. The chrysalis is usually incapable of movement, although some species can rapidly move the abdominal segments or produce sounds to scare potential predators. The pupal transformation into a butterfly through metamorphosis has held great appeal to mankind. To transform from the miniature wings visible on the outside of the pupa into large structures usable for flight, the pupal wings undergo rapid mitosis and absorb a great deal of nutrients. If one wing is surgically removed early on, the other three will grow to a larger size. In the pupa, the wing forms a structure that becomes compressed from top to bottom and pleated from proximal to distal ends as it grows, so that it can rapidly be unfolded to its full adult size. Several boundaries seen in the adult color pattern are marked by changes in the expression of particular transcription factors in the early pupa. Adult or imago The adult, sexually mature, stage of the insect is known as the imago. As Lepidoptera, butterflies have four wings that are covered with tiny scales (see photo). The fore and hindwings are not hooked together, permitting a more graceful flight. An adult butterfly has six legs, but in the nymphalids, the first pair is reduced. After it emerges from its pupal stage, a butterfly cannot fly until the wings are unfolded. A newly emerged butterfly needs to spend some time inflating its wings with hemolymph and let them dry, during which time it is extremely vulnerable to predators. Some butterflies' wings may take up to three hours to dry while others take about one hour. Most butterflies and moths will excrete excess dye after hatching. This fluid may be white, red, orange, or in rare cases, blue. Adult butterflies have four wings: a forewing and hindwing on both the left and the right side of the body. The body is divided into three segments: the head, thorax, and the abdomen. They have two antennae, two compound eyes, and a proboscis. Butterflies are characterized by their scale-covered wings. The coloration of butterfly wings is created by minute scales. These scales are pigmented with melanins that give them blacks and browns, but blues, greens, reds and iridescence are usually created not by pigments but the microstructure of the scales. This structural coloration is the result of coherent scattering of light by the scales. The scales cling somewhat loosely to the wing and come off easily without harming the butterfly. Photographic and light microscopic images Zoomed-out view of an Inachis io. Closeup of the scales of the same specimen. High magnification of the coloured scales (probably a different species). Electron microscopic images A patch of wing Scales close up A single scale Microstructure of a scale Magnification Approx. ×50 Approx. ×200 ×1000 ×5000 Many adult butterflies exhibit polymorphism, showing differences in appearance. These variations include geographic variants and seasonal forms. In addition many species have females in multiple forms, often with mimetic forms. Sexual dimorphism in coloration and appearance is widespread in butterflies. In addition many species show sexual dimorphism in the patterns of ultraviolet reflectivity, while otherwise appearing identical to the unaided human eye. Most of the butterflies have a sex-determination system that is represented as ZW with females being the heterogametic sex (ZW) and males homogametic (ZZ). Genetic abnormalities such as gynandromorphy also occur from time to time. In addition many butterflies are infected by Wolbachia and infection by the bacteria can lead to the conversion of males into females or the selective killing of males in the egg stage. Batesian and Mullerian mimicry in butterflies is common. Batesian mimics imitate other species to enjoy the protection of an attribute they do not share, aposematism in this case. The Common Mormon of India has female morphs which imitate the unpalatable red-bodied swallowtails, the Common Rose and the Crimson Rose. Mullerian mimicry occurs when aposematic species evolve to resemble each other, presumably to reduce predator sampling rates, the Heliconius butterflies from the Americas being a good example. Wing markings called eyespots are present in some species; these may have an automimicry role for some species. In others, the function may be intraspecies communication, such as mate attraction. In several cases, however, the function of butterfly eyespots is not clear, and may be an evolutionary anomaly related to the relative elasticity of the genes that encode the spots. Many of the tropical butterflies have distinctive seasonal forms. This phenomenon is termed seasonal polyphenism and the seasonal forms of the butterflies are called the dry-season and wet-season forms. How the season affects the genetic expression of patterns is still a subject of research. Experimental modification by ecdysone hormone treatment has demonstrated that it is possible to control the continuum of expression of variation between the wet and dry-season forms. The dry-season forms are usually more cryptic and it has been suggested that the protection offered may be an adaptation. Some also show greater dark colours in the wet-season form which may have thermoregulatory advantages by increasing ability to absorb solar radiation. Bicyclus anynana is a species of butterfly that exhibits a clear example of seasonal polyphenism. These butterflies, endemic to Africa, have two distinct phenotypic forms that alternate according to the season. The wet-season forms have large, very apparent ventral eyespots whereas the dry-season forms have very reduced, often nonexistent, ventral eyespots. Larvae that develop in hot, wet conditions develop into wet-season adults whereas those growing in the transition from the wet to the dry season, when the temperature is declining, develop into dry-season adults. This polyphenism has an adaptive role in B. anynana. In the dry-season it is disadvantageous to have conspicuous eyespots because B. anynana blend in with the brown vegetation better without eyespots. By not developing eyespots in the dry-season they can more easily camouflage themselves in the brown brush. This minimizes the risk of visually mediated predation. In the wet-season, these brown butterflies cannot as easily rely on cryptic coloration for protection because the background vegetation is green. Thus, eyespots, which may function to decrease predation, are beneficial for B. anynana to express. Butterflies feed primarily on nectar from flowers. Some also derive nourishment from pollen, tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, decaying flesh, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. Butterflies are important as pollinators for some species of plants although in general they do not carry as much pollen load as bees. They are however capable of moving pollen over greater distances. Flower constancy has been observed for at least one species of butterfly. Adult butterflies consume only liquids, ingested through the proboscis. They sip water from damp patches for hydration and feed on nectar from flowers, from which they obtain sugars for energy, and sodium and other minerals vital for reproduction. Several species of butterflies need more sodium than that provided by nectar and are attracted by sodium in salt; they sometimes land on people, attracted by the salt in human sweat. Some butterflies also visit dung, rotting fruit or carcasses to obtain minerals and nutrients. In many species, this mud-puddling behaviour is restricted to the males, and studies have suggested that the nutrients collected may be provided as a nuptial gift along with the spermatophore, during mating. Butterflies use their antennae to sense the air for wind and scents. The antennae come in various shapes and colours; the hesperids have a pointed angle or hook to the antennae, while most other families show knobbed antennae. The antennae are richly covered with sensory organs known as sensillae. A butterfly's sense of taste, 200 times stronger than humans, is coordinated by chemoreceptors on the tarsi, or feet, which work only on contact, and are used to determine whether an egg-laying insect's offspring will be able to feed on a leaf before eggs are laid on it. Many butterflies use chemical signals, pheromones, and specialized scent scales (androconia) and other structures (coremata or "hair pencils" in the Danaidae) are developed in some species. Vision is well developed in butterflies and most species are sensitive to the ultraviolet spectrum. Many species show sexual dimorphism in the patterns of UV reflective patches. Color vision may be widespread but has been demonstrated in only a few species. Many butterflies, such as the Monarch butterfly, are migratory and capable of long distance flights. They migrate during the day and use the sun to orient themselves. They also perceive polarized light and use it for orientation when the sun is hidden. Many species of butterfly maintain territories and actively chase other species or individuals that may stray into them. Some species will bask or perch on chosen perches. The flight styles of butterflies are often characteristic and some species have courtship flight displays. Basking is an activity which is more common in the cooler hours of the morning. Many species will orient themselves to gather heat from the sun. Some species have evolved dark wingbases to help in gathering more heat and this is especially evident in alpine forms. - See also Insect flight Like many other members of the insect world, the lift generated by butterflies is more than what can be accounted for by steady-state, non-transitory aerodynamics. Studies using Vanessa atalanta in a windtunnel show that they use a wide variety of aerodynamic mechanisms to generate force. These include wake capture, vortices at the wing edge, rotational mechanisms and Weis-Fogh 'clap-and-fling' mechanisms. The butterflies were also able to change from one mode to another rapidly. - See also Insect migration Many butterflies migrate over long distances. Particularly famous migrations are those of the Monarch butterfly from Mexico to northern USA and southern Canada, a distance of about 4000 to 4800 km (2500–3000 miles). Other well known migratory species include the Painted Lady and several of the Danaine butterflies. Spectacular and large scale migrations associated with the Monsoons are seen in peninsular India. Migrations have been studied in more recent times using wing tags and also using stable hydrogen isotopes. Butterflies have been shown to navigate using time compensated sun compasses. They can see polarized light and therefore orient even in cloudy conditions. The polarized light in the region close to the ultraviolet spectrum is suggested to be particularly important. It is suggested that most migratory butterflies are those that belong to semi-arid areas where breeding seasons are short. The life-histories of their host plants also influence the strategies of the butterflies. - See also Defense in insects Chemical defenses are widespread and are mostly based on chemicals of plant origin. In many cases the plants themselves evolved these toxic substances as protection against herbivores. Butterflies have evolved mechanisms to sequester these plant toxins and use them instead in their own defense. These defense mechanisms are effective only if they are also well advertised and this has led to the evolution of bright colours in unpalatable butterflies. This signal may be mimicked by other butterflies. These mimetic forms are usually restricted to the females. Cryptic coloration is found in many butterflies. Some like the Oakleaf butterfly and Autumn Leaf are remarkable imitations of leaves. As caterpillars, many defend themselves by freezing and appearing like sticks or branches. Some papilionid caterpillars resemble bird dropping in their early instars. Some caterpillars have hairs and bristly structures that provide protection while others are gregarious and form dense aggregations. Some species also form associations with ants and gain their protection (See Myrmecophile). Behavioural defenses include perching and wing positions to avoid being conspicuous. Some female Nymphalid butterflies are known to guard their eggs from parasitoid wasps. Eyespots and tails are found in many lycaenid butterflies. It is thought that their function is to divert the attention of predators from the more vital head region. An alternative theory is that these cause ambush predators such as spiders to approach from the wrong end and allow for early visual detection. A butterfly's hind wings are thought to allow them to take swift, tight turns to evade predators. There are between 15,000 and 20,000 species of butterflies worldwide. Some well-known species from around the world include: - Swallowtails and Birdwings, Family Papilionidae - Whites and Yellows, Family Pieridae - Blues and Coppers or Gossamer-Winged Butterflies, Family Lycaenidae - Metalmark butterflies, Family Riodinidae - Brush-footed butterflies, Family Nymphalidae - Skippers, Family Hesperiidae Artistic depictions of butterflies have been used in many cultures including Egyptian hieroglyphs 3500 years ago. In the ancient Mesoamerican city of Teotihuacan, the brilliantly colored image of the butterfly was carved into many temples, buildings, jewelry, and emblazoned on incense burners in particular. The butterfly was sometimes depicted with the maw of a jaguar and some species were considered to be the reincarnations of the souls of dead warriors. The close association of butterflies to fire and warfare persisted through to the Aztec civilization and evidence of similar jaguar-butterfly images has been found among the Zapotec, and Mayan civilizations. Today, butterflies are widely used in various objects of art and jewelry: mounted in frames, embedded in resin, displayed in bottles, laminated in paper, and used in some mixed media artworks and furnishings. Butterflies have also inspired the "butterfly fairy" as an art and fictional character, including in the Barbie Mariposa film. According to Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things, by Lafcadio Hearn, a butterfly was seen in Japan as the personification of a person's soul; whether they be living, dying, or already dead. One Japanese superstition says that if a butterfly enters your guestroom and perches behind the bamboo screen, the person whom you most love is coming to see you. However, large numbers of butterflies are viewed as bad omens. When Taira no Masakado was secretly preparing for his famous revolt, there appeared in Kyoto so vast a swarm of butterflies that the people were frightened — thinking the apparition to be a portent of coming evil. The Russian word for "butterfly", бабочка (bábochka), also means "bow tie". It is a diminutive of "baba" or "babka" (= "woman, grandmother, cake"), whence also "babushka" = "grandmother". The ancient Greek word for "butterfly" is ψυχή (psȳchē), which primarily means "soul" or "mind". In Chinese culture, two butterflies flying together symbolize love. Also, Butterfly Lovers is a famous Chinese folktale. The Taoist philosopher, Zhuangzi, once had a dream about being a butterfly that flew without care about humanity; however; when he awoke and realized that it was just a dream, he thought to himself, "Was I before a man who dreamt about being a butterfly, or am I now a butterfly who dreams about being a man?" In some old cultures, butterflies also symbolize rebirth after being inside a cocoon for a period of time. Some people say that when a butterfly lands on you it means good luck. However, in Devonshire, people would traditionally rush around to kill the first butterfly of the year that they see, or else face a year of bad luck. Also, in the Philippines, a lingering black butterfly or moth in the house is taken to mean that someone in the family has died or will soon die. The idiom "butterflies in the stomach" is used to describe a state of nervousness. The structural coloration of butterflies is inspiring nanotechnology research to produce paints that do not use toxic pigments and in the development of new display technologies. The discoloration and health of butterflies in butterfly farms, is now being studied for use as indicators of air quality in several cities. - Butterfly Alphabet - Butterfly zoo - Differences between butterflies and moths - Florida Museum of Natural History#McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity - List of butterflies of Great Britain - List of butterflies of India - List of butterflies of Menorca - List of butterflies of North America - List of butterflies in Taiwan - List of butterflies of Tobago - List of Australian butterflies - List of U.S. state butterflies - Hall J.P.W., Robbins R.K., Harvey D.J. (2004). "Extinction and biogeography in the Caribbean: new evidence from a fossil riodinid butterfly in Dominican amber". Proceedings of the Royal Society B 271 (1541): 797–801. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2691. PMC 1691661. PMID 15255097. - Donald A. Ringe, A Linguistic History of English: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (Oxford: Oxford, 2003), 232. - Powell, J. A. 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"Foraging strategies in the small skipper butterfly, Thymelicus flavus: when to switch?". Animal Behavior 53 (5): 1009–1016. doi:10.1006/anbe.1996.0390. - Molleman, Freerk; Grunsven, Roy H. A.; Liefting, Maartje; Zwaan, BAS J.; Brakefield, Paul M. (2005). "Is male puddling behaviour of tropical butterflies targeted at sodium for nuptial gifts or activity?". Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 86 (3): 345–361. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00539.x. - Colours take wing Frontline Magazine , pg 75, Oct 27–Nov 9, 1990 - "Article on San Diego Zoo website". Sandiegozoo.org. Retrieved 2009-03-30. - Obara, Y, Hidaki, T. (1968). "Recognition of the female by the male, on the basis of ultra-violet reflection, in the white cabbage butterfly Pieris rapae crucivora". Boisduval. Proc. Japan Acad. 44: 829–832. - Hirota, Tadao; Yoshiomi, Yoshiomi (2004). "Color discrimination on orientation of female Eurema hecabe (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)". Applied Entomology and Zoology 39 (2): 229–233. doi:10.1303/aez.2004.229. - Kinoshita, Michiyo; Shimada, Naoko; Arikawa, Kentaro (1999). "Color vision of the foraging swallowtail butterfly Papilio xuthus". The Journal of Experimental Biology 202 (2): 95–102. PMID 9851899. - Swihart, S. L (1967). "Hearing in butterflies". Journal of Insect Physiology 13 (3): 469–472. doi:10.1016/0022-1910(67)90085-6. - Reppert, Steven M.; Zhu, Haisun; White, Richard H. (2004). "Polarized light helps monarch butterflies navigate". Current biology 14 (2): 155–158. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2003.12.034. PMID 14738739. - Ellers, J., Boggs, Carol L. (2002). "The evolution of wing color in Colias butterflies: Heritability, Sex Linkage, and population divergence". Evolution 56 (4): 836–840. doi:10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[0836:teowci]2.0.co;2. PMID 12038541. - Srygley, R. B., Thomas, A. L. R. (2002). "Aerodynamics of insect flight: flow visualisations with free flying butterflies reveal a variety of unconventional lift-generating mechanisms" (PDF). Nature 420 (6916): 660–664. doi:10.1038/nature01223. PMID 12478291. - Williams, C. B. (1927). "A study of butterfly migration in south India and Ceylon, based largely on records by Messrs. G Evershed, E.E.Green, J.C.F. Fryer and W. Ormiston". Trans. Ent. Soc. London 75: 1–33. - Urquhart, F. A., Urquhart, N. R. (1977). "Overwintering areas and migratory routes of the Monarch butterfly (Danaus p. plexippus, Lepidoptera: Danaidae) in North America, with special reference to the western population". Can. Ent. 109 (12): 1583–1589. doi:10.4039/Ent1091583-12. - Wassenaar, L.I., Hobson, K.A. (1998). "Natal origins of migratory monarch butterflies at wintering colonies in Mexico: new isotopic evidence". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95 (26): 15436–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.26.15436. PMC 28060. PMID 9860986. - Sauman, Ivo, Briscoe, Adriana D., Zhu, Haisun, Shi, Dingding, Froy, Oren, Stalleicken, Julia, Yuan, Quan, Casselman, Amy, Reppert, Steven M. et al. (2005). "Connecting the Navigational Clock to Sun Compass Input in Monarch Butterfly Brain". Neuron 46 (3): 457–467. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.03.014. PMID 15882645. - Southwood, T. R. E. (1962). "Migration of terrestrial arthropods in relation to habitat". Biol. Rev. 37 (2): 171–214. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1962.tb01609.x. - Dennis, R L H, Shreeve, Tim G., Arnold, Henry R., Roy, David B. (2005). "Does diet breadth control herbivorous insect distribution size? Life history and resource outlets for specialist butterflies". Journal of Insect Conservation 9 (3): 187–200. doi:10.1007/s10841-005-5660-x. - Nishida, Ritsuo (2002). "Sequestration of defensive substances from plants by Lepidoptera". Annu. Rev. Entomol 47: 57–92. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145121. PMID 11729069. - Robbins, Robert K. (1981). "The "False Head" Hypothesis: Predation and Wing Pattern Variation of Lycaenid Butterflies". American Naturalist 118 (5): 770–775. doi:10.1086/283868. - Nafus, D. M. and I. H. Schreiner (1988) Parental care in a tropical nymphalid butterfly Hypolimas anomala. Anim. Behav. 36: 1425- 143 - William E. Cooper, Jr. (1998) Conditions favoring anticipatory and reactive displays deflecting predatory attack. Behavioral Ecology - Hind Wings Help Butterflies Make Swift Turns to Evade Predators Newswise, Retrieved on January 8, 2008. - Larsen, Torben (1994) Butterflies of Egypt. Saudi Aramco world. 45(5):24-27 Online - The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. Miller, Mary 1993 Thames & Hudson. London ISBN 978-0-500-27928-1 - "Table complete with real butterflies embedded in resin". Mfjoe.com. Retrieved 2009-03-30. - Hearn, Lafcadio (1904). Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Thing. Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-21901-1. - Hutchins, M., Arthur V. Evans, Rosser W. Garrison and Neil Schlager (Eds) (2003) Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, 2nd edition. Volume 3, Insects, Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2003. - Rabuzzi, M. 1997. Butterfly etymology. Cultural Entomology November 1997 Fourth issue online - Dorset Chronicle, May 1825, reprinted in: "The First Butterfly", in The Every-day Book and Table Book; or, Everlasting Calendar of Popular Amusements, Sports, Pastimes, Ceremonies, Manners, Customs, and Events, Each of the Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Days, in Past and Present Times; Forming a Complete History of the Year, Months, and Seasons, and a Perpetual Key to the Almanac, Including Accounts of the Weather, Rules for Health and Conduct, Remarkable and Important Anecdotes, Facts, and Notices, in Chronology, Antiquities, Topography, Biography, Natural History, Art, Science, and General Literature; Derived from the Most Authentic Sources, and Valuable Original Communication, with Poetical Elucidations, for Daily Use and Diversion. Vol III., ed. William Hone, (London: 1838) p 678. - "Death practices Philippine style". Sunstar.com.ph. 2005-10-30. Retrieved 2009-03-30. - "An Introduction to The World of Birdwing Butterflies". Nagypal.net. 2000-05-28. Retrieved 2009-03-30. - Vukusic, Pete and Ian Hooper. 2005. Directionally Controlled Fluorescence Emission in Butterflies Science. 310(5751):1151. doi:10.1126/science.1116612. - Boggs, C., Watt, W., Ehrlich, P. 2003. Butterflies: Evolution and Ecology Taking Flight. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA. - Darby, Gene, 1958. What Is A Butterfly. Chicago, Benefic Press. pp. 5–48. - Heppner, J. B. 1998. Classification of Lepidoptera. Holarctic Lepidoptera, Suppl. 1. - Monteiro, A., Pierce, N. E. (2001). "Phylogeny of Bicyclus (Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae) inferred from COI, COII, and EF-1 alpha gene sequences". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 18 (2): 264–281. doi:10.1006/mpev.2000.0872. PMID 11161761. - Nemos, F. ca. 1895. Europas bekannteste Schmetterlinge. Beschreibung der wichtigsten Arten und Anleitung zur Kenntnis und zum Sammeln der Schmetterlinge und Raupen Oestergaard Verlag, Berlin, (pdf 77MB) - Peña, C.; Waklberg, N.; Weingartner, E.; Kodandaramaiah, U.; Nylin, S.; Freitas, A. V. L.; Brower, A. V. Z. (2006). "Higher level phylogeny of Satyrinae butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) based on DNA sequence data". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40 (1): 29–49. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.007. PMID 16563805. - Pyle, R. M. 1992. Handbook for Butterfly Watchers. Houghton Mifflin. First published, 1984. ISBN 0-395-61629-8 - Stevens, M. (2005). "The role of eyespots as anti-predator mechanisms, principally demonstrated in the Lepidoptera". Biological Reviews 80 (4): 573–588. doi:10.1017/S1464793105006810. PMID 16221330. Some field guides to butterfly species include: - Butterflies of North America, Jim P. Brock and Kenn Kaufman (2003) - Butterflies through Binoculars: The East, Jeffrey Glassberg (1999) - Butterflies through Binoculars: The West, Jeffrey Glassberg (2001) - Catalogue of the Butterflies of the United States and Canada Jonathan Pelham (2008) - Butterflies of British Columbia Crispin S. Guppy and Jon H. Shepard(2001) - Life Histories of Cascadia Butterflies David G. James and David Nunnallee(2011) - The Butterflies of Cascadia Robert Michael Pyle (2002) - A Field Guide to Eastern Butterflies, Paul Opler (1994) - A Field Guide to Western Butterflies, Paul Opler (1999) - Peterson First Guide to Butterflies and Moths, Paul Opler (1994) - Las Mariposas de Machu Picchu by Gerardo Lamas (2003) - The Millennium Atlas of Butterflies in Britain and Ireland by Jim Asher (Editor), et al. - Pocket Guide to the Butterflies of Great Britain and Ireland by Richard Lewington - Butterflies of Britain and Europe (Collins Wildlife Trust Guides) by Michael Chinery - Butterflies of Europe by Tom Tolman and Richard Lewington (2001) - Butterflies of Europe New Field Guide and Key by Tristan Lafranchis (2004) - Butterflies of Lebanon by Torben B. Larsen. Beirut. (1974) - The butterflies of Saudi Arabia and its neighbours. by Torben B. Laren (Stacey intl.) (1984) - The butterflies of Egypt by Torben B. Larsen (Apollo Books, Denmark). (1990) - Field Guide to Butterflies of South Africa by Steve Woodhall (2005) - The butterflies of Kenya and their natural history by Torben B. Larsen (OUP) (1991) - Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their Natural History by Meena Haribal (1994). - Butterflies of Peninsular India by Krushnamegh Kunte, Universities Press (2005). - Butterflies of the Indian Region by Col M. A. Wynter-Blyth, Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India (1957). - A Guide to Common Butterflies of Singapore by Steven Neo Say Hian (Singapore Science Centre) - Butterflies of West Malaysia and Singapore by W.A.Fleming. (Longman Malaysia) - The Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula by A.S. Corbet and H. M. Pendlebury. (The Malayan Nature Society) - Butterflies of West Africa (two vols.) by Torben B. Larsen. (Apollo Books, Denmark) (2005) - Oxford Butterflies of India by Thomas Gray, I.D.Kehimkar, J Punetha, Oxford University Press (2008) \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to:\| \|Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Butterflies\| \|Look up Butterfly in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\| \|Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Butterfly.\| - The Royal Horticultural Society butterfly exhibition - Papilionoidea on the Tree of Life Web project - Butterflies on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site - Literaturatenbank Free downloads - Butterflies at Lepidoptera.pro: thousands of species and photos - International Field Guides database—a (more) comprehensive list of field guides - Collodi Butterfly House Tuscany - Butterflies and Moths of North America - Butterflies of America - Butterflies of Canada - North American Butterfly Association (NABA) - Butterflies and Moths in the Netherlands - Butterflies of Spain and Portugal - Insect and butterfly diversity of Pakistan - Butterflies of the Philippines - Butterflies of Southern India - Butterflies of Sri Lanka - Butterflies of Singapore - Israel Insect World - Singapore Butterfly Checklist - Butterfly Conservation Society of Taiwan - Butterflies of Morocco - Butterflies of Indo-China Chiefly Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. - Butterflies of Southeastern Sulawesi - Naturalis Butterflies of Sulawesi (Illustrated pdf) - Butterflies of Thailand - Butterflies of Mexico - Butterflies of Ghana - Butterflies of Turkey Images and movies - BugGuide.net Many images of North American butterflies, many licensed via Creative Commons - Butterfly Pictures and Information - Butterfly of Brazil - Reference quality large format photographs, common butterflies of North America - Gallery of Florida Butterflies and Moths - Butterfly Picture Gallery - Photographs of most of the Butterflies in Southern California - Butterflies of Southern Illinois - Butterflies of France - Butterflies of Spain and Portugal - Butterfly Movies (Tree of Life) - 1000+ photos of Massachusetts butterflies - European butterfly pictures - common names and wildlife photography - Online videos of Skippers of the Northeast-USA - Butterflies Monitoring & Photography Society of Turkey - Gerardo Lamas, 1990 An Annotated List of Lepidopterological Journals Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 29(1-2):92-104 pdf
Bats and dolphins are about as different as mammals get. Yet, both home in on their prey by emitting sound waves and sensing the reflections, a process called echolocation. And a new study shows that in both groups the same protein evolved in the same way to make that possible. Researchers say it's surprising to discover a molecular convergence in these very distantly related groups of animals. The protein, called prestin, exists in all mammals and helps so-called outer hair cells in the inner ear amplify incoming sound waves. Because people with mutations in the prestin gene often can't hear high frequencies, Shuyi Zhang, an ecologist at East China Normal University (ECNU) wondered whether prestin had evolved to make possible the high-frequency hearing that bats use for echolocation. With student Liu Yang of ECNU, James Cotton and Stephen Rossiter of Queen Mary, University of London, and colleagues, he analyzed the sequence of the prestin gene in distantly related bats that had independently evolved echolocation. In 2008, the researchers discovered that the functional parts of prestin had come to look the same in both groups of bats but not in other bats that do not use echolocation, indicating convergent evolution of the protein. The team has now looked even farther afield, examining whether prestin in dolphins and other toothed whales has the same makeup. They sequenced the prestin gene in several dolphin species, in a sperm whale, and in baleen whales, which do not use echolocation, and then compared the sequences with those of bats. Fourteen sites had evolved to be exactly the same, six of which proved most likely to be due to convergent evolution, they report in the 26 January issue of Current Biology. They then used computers to simulate how the prestin gene might change over time to rule out that these six genes converged by chance through random mutations. They concluded that natural selection likely drove the changes to be the same. The sperm whale had some of the same prestin gene sequence but was not completely the same. That difference might be because it seems to use lower frequencies for echolocation than other toothed whales, says Rossiter. Intrigued by what Shuyi Zhang and colleagues had seen in bats, evolutionary geneticist Jianzhi Zhang of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, also chased down prestin sequences in 25 other species. He, Ying Li and Zhen Liu of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Kunming, and colleagues also find that prestin has come to look quite similar in bats and toothed whales, and report their results as well in another paper in Current Biology. "It is likely that in echolocating mammals, prestin is specifically tuned to amplify very high-frequency sound," says Jianzhi Zhang. Many researchers assume that similarities among organisms in very different environments would occur by evolution of different genes, or at least different mutations of the same genes. So the new finding was "very unexpected," says Gareth Jones, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Bristol in the United Kingdom. "The next big question will be to determine what the functional significance of these changes are." Shozo Yokoyama, an evolutionary biologist at Emory University in Atlanta agrees that verifying prestin's role in echolocation is a critical next step. "Until then," says Yokoyama, "the results in the two papers should be interpreted with caution."
Medical ultrasound machines work by sending a sequence of sound beams into the body which are reflected back from organs and tissue boundaries. Very high frequency sound (ultrasound) travels in straight lines, and this tells us the line on which a reflector is located. If we know how fast the sound travels, we can calculate the depth of the reflector along this line from the time it takes for the reflected echo to return. Thus we can build up a picture of what is going on inside the body. The problem with this sort of imaging is that we cannot make the sound beams thin enough, and as a result, each bit of our output data is derived from the interaction of reflectors in a small volume around the point we are trying to scan. This leads to a particular type of blurring in our output images called speckle. The goal of this project is to reduce this problem and produce clearer ultrasound images with better resolution. We will do this by first scanning known shapes to work out the three-dimensional volume in which the reflectors interact to create the speckle. As the beam-width varies with distance from the probe, the size and shape of this volume changes with depth and we will have to measure it several times and model the variation. We will then use our model of this volume at each point in the ultrasound image, together with the reflected raw ultrasound signal, to estimate the reflectors in the body using a technique called deconvolution. This reflector information can then be used to create clearer images with less speckle. We will evaluate the usefulness of our new images at Addenbrooke's Hospital, particularly focussing on scans of thyroids, breasts, arteries, and the shoulder. Doctors frequently want to work out the the size and shape of a particular structure in the body. For example it is necessary to monitor cancerous growths to check that they are getting smaller in response to treatment. To do this, doctors have to identify the scan data relating to the structure of interest. This process is called segmentation. It is very hard to design reliable automatic algorithms using a normal ultrasound image. Most doctors end up just drawing round the object of interest using a mouse or pointer. One of the reasons for this is that ultrasound images are created using signal processing techniques that discard a lot of the information in the original signal and are thus hard to relate to the physical properties of the tissue being scanned. When we calculate the reflector data we will preserve the full information content of the signal. We therefore hope to be able to devise more reliable segmentation algorithms to work on this rich representation. We will compare our new algorithms with segmentations performed by doctors to evaluate their performance. All this work is only possible if we work with three-dimensional ultrasound data. Our group has a strong track record in this area, and recently developed the highest definition freehand three-dimensional ultrasound system on record. Through this project we will open up a new era of clearer, higher-resolution, cheap, safe, ultrasound imaging.
By Claudette Lesperance at December 23 2018 16:13:08 The basic skill you require in order to successfully assist your child with its 3rd grade math worksheets problems is to be able to identify the difficulty. Does it lack the requisite skills that it should have already possessed for the work at hand? If that is the case then it is best that you take the child back to the missing link, so that your it learns what it is missing and move forward. Graphic Organizers - Graphic organizers are visual diagrams to aid in organizing information. Others names many include maps, webs, graphs, charts, etc. These organizers assist students in determining main ideas and supporting details. They help students visually summarize a reading selection. In math bingo, each student is given a bingo card (also known as a "bingo worksheet" or "bingo board") printed with numbers. These aren't necessarily the standard bingo numbers, but rather are the answers to a number of different math problems. The game is then played exactly like a normal game of bingo, with the teacher playing the part of the bingo caller, but instead of the teacher calling out the numbers printed on the cards, the teacher instead calls out math problems (the teacher may also write the problem on the blackboard). The students' task is to solve each problem, and then look for the number on their bingo card. If you are looking for an article that describes the basics of Excel and introduces the interface and concepts for beginners, you have come to the right place. Microsoft Excel is a powerful business application that is organized into a structural hierarchy of Workbooks, Worksheets, and Cells. In order to master the subject, earnest practice on multiple problems is the best way to go. However, not every person is bestowed with required materials like math worksheets to receive adequate amount of practice. Letter tracing: This is where you have a dotted line spelling out a word, with the picture next to the word, and the goal of the exercise is for students to practice writing while improving their phonetic skills. For instance, they might trace out the words for bat, ball, and basket. This is a really good, straightforward activity. Most teachers want to incorporate fun into the school day. Some, however, simply don't know where to begin. They have the right attitude, but don't know how to deliver. Students who have fun during class end up learning more because there minds are actively engaged. For teachers with a hard time incorporating fun, here are 5 secrets to making learning fun. Involve Everyone : Some students fall through the cracks because they never speak in class, are never called on, and don't complete their homework. They feel no ownership nor pride for school. This can be easily corrected by simply involving each and every student in class. It is more fun being involved in class than sitting back like a bump on a log. Call on students that don't have their hands raised. Go around the room and have each person read a paragraph out loud from the study material. If students feel invested in schoolwork, they will be more likely to have fun and succeed. math puzzle worksheets pdf 6th grade math multiplication worksheets 7th grade math worksheets with answers
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with Europe and the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (November 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term "crime" does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence (or criminal offence) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society or the state ("a public wrong"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law. The notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by criminal law of each country. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, in some common law countries no such comprehensive statute exists. The state (government) has the power to severely restrict one's liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere. If found guilty, an offender may be sentenced to a form of reparation such as a community sentence, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo imprisonment, life imprisonment or, in some jurisdictions, execution. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime. Breaches of private law (torts and breaches of contract) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure. When informal relationships and sanctions prove insufficient to establish and maintain a desired social order, a government or a state may impose more formalized or stricter systems of social control. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes and can opt to punish or attempt to reform those who do not conform. Authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate (encouraging or discouraging) certain behaviors in general. Governing or administering agencies may for example codify rules into laws, police citizens and visitors to ensure that they comply with those laws, and implement other policies and practices that legislators or administrators have prescribed with the aim of discouraging or preventing crime. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system. Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity; they may include (for example) incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict. Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh punishments: legal mutilation, capital punishment or life without parole. The sociologist Richard Quinney has written about the relationship between society and crime. When Quinney states "crime is a social phenomenon" he envisages both how individuals conceive crime and how populations perceive it, based on societal norms. The word crime is derived from the Latin root cern?, meaning "I decide, I give judgment". Originally the Latin word cr?men meant "charge" or "cry of distress." The Ancient Greek word krima (), from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to an intellectual mistake or an offense against the community, rather than a private or moral wrong. In 13th century English crime meant "sinfulness", according to etymonline.com. It was probably brought to England as Old French crimne (12th century form of Modern French crime), from Latin crimen (in the genitive case: criminis). In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following: "charge, indictment, accusation; crime, fault, offense". The word may derive from the Latin cernere - "to decide, to sift" (see crisis, mapped on Kairos and Chronos). But Ernest Klein (citing Karl Brugmann) rejects this and suggests *cri-men, which originally would have meant "cry of distress". Thomas G. Tucker suggests a root in "cry" words and refers to English plaint, plaintiff, and so on. The meaning "offense punishable by law" dates from the late 14th century. The Latin word is glossed in Old English by facen, also "deceit, fraud, treachery", [cf. fake]. Crime wave is first attested in 1893 in American English. Whether a given act or omission constitutes a crime does not depend on the nature of that act or omission. It depends on the nature of the legal consequences that may follow it. An act or omission is a crime if it is capable of being followed by what are called criminal proceedings. The following definition of "crime" was provided by the Prevention of Crimes Act 1871, and applied for the purposes of section 10 of the Prevention of Crime Act 1908: The expression "crime" means, in England and Ireland, any felony or the offence of uttering false or counterfeit coin, or of possessing counterfeit gold or silver coin, or the offence of obtaining goods or money by false pretences, or the offence of conspiracy to defraud, or any misdemeanour under the fifty-eighth section of the Larceny Act, 1861. For the purpose of section 243 of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, a crime means an offence punishable on indictment, or an offence punishable on summary conviction, and for the commission of which the offender is liable under the statute making the offence punishable to be imprisoned either absolutely or at the discretion of the court as an alternative for some other punishment. A normative definition views crime as deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms – cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave normally. This approach considers the complex realities surrounding the concept of crime and seeks to understand how changing social, political, psychological, and economic conditions may affect changing definitions of crime and the form of the legal, law-enforcement, and penal responses made by society. These structural realities remain fluid and often contentious. For example: as cultures change and the political environment shifts, societies may criminalise or decriminalise certain behaviours, which directly affects the statistical crime rates, influence the allocation of resources for the enforcement of laws, and (re-)influence the general public opinion. Similarly, changes in the collection and/or calculation of data on crime may affect the public perceptions of the extent of any given "crime problem". All such adjustments to crime statistics, allied with the experience of people in their everyday lives, shape attitudes on the extent to which the State should use law or social engineering to enforce or encourage any particular social norm. Behaviour can be controlled and influenced by a society in many ways without having to resort to the criminal justice system. Indeed, in those cases where no clear consensus exists on a given norm, the drafting of criminal law by the group in power to prohibit the behaviour of another group may seem to some observers an improper limitation of the second group's freedom, and the ordinary members of society have less respect for the law or laws in general – whether the authorities actually enforce the disputed law or not. Legislatures can pass laws (called mala prohibita) that define crimes against social norms. These laws vary from time to time and from place to place: note variations in gambling laws, for example, and the prohibition or encouragement of duelling in history. Other crimes, called mala in se, count as outlawed in almost all societies, (murder, theft and rape, for example). English criminal law and the related criminal law of Commonwealth countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation: common law offences. The courts used the concept of malum in se to develop various common law offences. One can view criminalization as a procedure deployed by society as a preemptive harm-reduction device, using the threat of punishment as a deterrent to anyone proposing to engage in the behavior causing harm. The State becomes involved because governing entities can become convinced that the costs of not criminalizing (through allowing the harms to continue unabated) outweigh the costs of criminalizing it (restricting individual liberty, for example, to minimize harm to others). Criminalization may provide future harm reduction at least to the outside population, assuming those shamed or incarcerated or otherwise restrained for committing crimes start out more prone to criminal behaviour. Likewise, one might assume[original research?] that criminalizing acts that in themselves do not harm other people ("victimless crimes") may prevent subsequent harmful acts (assuming that people "prone" to commit these acts may tend to commit harmful actions in general). Some[who?] see the criminalization of "victimless crimes" as a pretext for imposing personal, religious or moral convictions on otherwise productive citizens or taxpayers. Some commentators[who?] may[original research?] see criminalization as a way to make potential criminals pay or suffer for their prospective crimes. In this case, criminalization becomes a way to set the price that one must pay to society for certain actions considered detrimental to society as a whole. An extreme view might see criminalization as state-sanctioned revenge. States control the process of criminalization because: The label of "crime" and the accompanying social stigma normally confine their scope to those activities seen as injurious to the general population or to the State, including some that cause serious loss or damage to individuals. Those who apply the labels of "crime" or "criminal" intend to assert the hegemony of a dominant population, or to reflect a consensus of condemnation for the identified behavior and to justify any punishments prescribed by the State (in the event that standard processing tries and convicts an accused person of a crime). Justifying the State's use of force to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of natural law. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of morality or constructs them. Thomas Aquinas wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts" (Aquinas, ST I-II, Q.90, A.I). He regarded people as by nature rational beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s William Blackstone (1979: 41) described the thesis: But John Austin (1790-1859), an early positivist, applied utilitarianism in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus in Austinian terms a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly, Hart (1961) saw the law as an aspect of sovereignty, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end. Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law simply involved internal logic and consistency, and that the state's agents used state power with responsibility. Ronald Dworkin (2005) rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of deference (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make. Indeed, despite everything, the majority of natural-law theorists have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.[clarification needed] One can solve this problem by granting some degree of moral relativism and accepting that norms may evolve over time and, therefore, one can criticize the continued enforcement of old laws in the light of the current norms. People may find such law acceptable, but the use of State power to coerce citizens to comply with that law lacks moral justification. More recent conceptions of the theory characterise crime as the violation of individual rights. Since society considers so many rights as natural (hence the term "right") rather than man-made, what constitutes a crime also counts as natural, in contrast to laws (seen as man-made). Adam Smith illustrates this view, saying that a smuggler would be an excellent citizen, "...had not the laws of his country made that a crime which nature never meant to be so." Natural-law theory therefore distinguishes between "criminality" (which derives from human nature) and "illegality" (which originates with the interests of those in power). Lawyers sometimes express the two concepts with the phrases malum in se and malum prohibitum respectively. They regard a "crime malum in se" as inherently criminal; whereas a "crime malum prohibitum" (the argument goes) counts as criminal only because the law has decreed it so. It follows from this view that one can perform an illegal act without committing a crime, while a criminal act could be perfectly legal. Many Enlightenment thinkers (such as Adam Smith and the American Founding Fathers) subscribed to this view to some extent, and it remains influential among so-called classical liberals and libertarians. Some religious communities regard sin as a crime; some may even highlight the crime of sin very early in legendary or mythological accounts of origins – note the tale of Adam and Eve and the theory of original sin. What one group considers a crime may cause or ignite war or conflict. However, the earliest known civilizations had codes of law, containing both civil and penal rules mixed together, though not always in recorded form. The Sumerians produced the earliest surviving written codes.Urukagina (reigned c. 2380 BC - c. 2360 BC, short chronology) had an early code that has not survived; a later king, Ur-Nammu, left the earliest extant written law system, the Code of Ur-Nammu (c. 2100 - c. 2050 BC), which prescribed a formal system of penalties for specific cases in 57 articles. The Sumerians later issued other codes, including the "code of Lipit-Ishtar". This code, from the 20th century BCE, contains some fifty articles, and scholars have reconstructed it by comparing several sources. The Sumerian was deeply conscious of his personal rights and resented any encroachment on them, whether by his King, his superior, or his equal. No wonder that the Sumerians were the first to compile laws and law codes.-- Kramer Successive legal codes in Babylon, including the code of Hammurabi (c. 1790 BC), reflected Mesopotamian society's belief that law derived from the will of the gods (see Babylonian law). Many states at this time functioned as theocracies, with codes of conduct largely religious in origin or reference. In the Sanskrit texts of Dharmastra (c. 1250 BC), issues such as legal and religious duties, code of conduct, penalties and remedies, etc. have been discussed and forms one of the elaborate and earliest source of legal code. Sir Henry Maine (1861) studied the ancient codes available in his day, and failed to find any criminal law in the "modern" sense of the word. While modern systems distinguish between offences against the "State" or "community", and offences against the "individual", the so-called penal law of ancient communities did not deal with "crimes" (Latin: crimina), but with "wrongs" (Latin: delicta). Thus the Hellenic laws treated all forms of theft, assault, rape, and murder as private wrongs, and left action for enforcement up to the victims or their survivors. The earliest systems seem to have lacked formal courts. The Romans systematized law and applied their system across the Roman Empire. Again, the initial rules of Roman law regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved dominion. The pater familias owned all the family and its property (including slaves); the pater enforced matters involving interference with any property. The Commentaries of Gaius (written between 130 and 180 AD) on the Twelve Tables treated furtum (in modern parlance: "theft") as a tort. Similarly, assault and violent robbery involved trespass as to the pater's property (so, for example, the rape of a slave could become the subject of compensation to the pater as having trespassed on his "property"), and breach of such laws created a vinculum juris (an obligation of law) that only the payment of monetary compensation (modern "damages") could discharge. Similarly, the consolidated Teutonic laws of the Germanic tribes, included a complex system of monetary compensations for what courts would now consider the complete range of criminal offences against the person, from murder down. Even though Rome abandoned its Britannic provinces around 400 AD, the Germanic mercenaries – who had largely become instrumental in enforcing Roman rule in Britannia – acquired ownership of land there and continued to use a mixture of Roman and Teutonic Law, with much written down under the early Anglo-Saxon kings. But only when a more centralized English monarchy emerged following the Norman invasion, and when the kings of England attempted to assert power over the land and its peoples, did the modern concept emerge, namely of a crime not only as an offence against the "individual", but also as a wrong against the "State". This idea came from common law, and the earliest conception of a criminal act involved events of such major significance that the "State" had to usurp the usual functions of the civil tribunals, and direct a special law or privilegium against the perpetrator. All the earliest English criminal trials involved wholly extraordinary and arbitrary courts without any settled law to apply, whereas the civil (delictual) law operated in a highly developed and consistent manner (except where a king wanted to raise money by selling a new form of writ). The development of the idea that the "State" dispenses justice in a court only emerges in parallel with or after the emergence of the concept of sovereignty. In continental Europe, Roman law persisted, but with a stronger influence from the Christian Church. Coupled with the more diffuse political structure based on smaller feudal units, various legal traditions emerged, remaining more strongly rooted in Roman jurisprudence, but modified to meet the prevailing political climate. In Scandinavia the effect of Roman law did not become apparent until the 17th century, and the courts grew out of the things – the assemblies of the people. The people decided the cases (usually with largest freeholders dominating). This system later gradually developed into a system with a royal judge nominating a number of the most esteemed men of the parish as his board, fulfilling the function of "the people" of yore. From the Hellenic system onwards, the policy rationale for requiring the payment of monetary compensation for wrongs committed has involved the avoidance of feuding between clans and families. If compensation could mollify families' feelings, this would help to keep the peace. On the other hand, the institution of oaths also played down the threat of feudal warfare. Both in archaic Greece and in medieval Scandinavia, an accused person walked free if he could get a sufficient number of male relatives to swear him not guilty. (Compare the United Nations Security Council, in which the veto power of the permanent members ensures that the organization does not become involved in crises where it could not enforce its decisions.) These means of restraining private feuds did not always work, and sometimes prevented the fulfillment of justice. But in the earliest times the "state" did not always provide an independent policing force. Thus criminal law grew out of what 21st-century lawyers would call torts; and, in real terms, many acts and omissions classified as crimes actually overlap with civil-law concepts. The development of sociological thought from the 19th century onwards prompted some fresh views on crime and criminality, and fostered the beginnings of criminology as a study of crime in society. Nietzsche noted a link between crime and creativity – in The Birth of Tragedy he asserted:[context?] "The best and brightest that man can acquire he must obtain by crime". In the 20th century Michel Foucault in Discipline and Punish made a study of criminalization as a coercive method of state control. The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (January 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The following classes of offences are used, or have been used, as legal terms of art:[clarification needed] Researchers and commentators have classified crimes into the following categories, in addition to those above: One can categorise crimes depending on the related punishment, with sentencing tariffs prescribed in line with the perceived seriousness of the offence. Thus fines and noncustodial sentences may address the crimes seen as least serious, with lengthy imprisonment or (in some jurisdictions) capital punishment reserved for the most serious. Under the common law of England, crimes were classified as either treason, felony or misdemeanour, with treason sometimes being included with the felonies. This system was based on the perceived seriousness of the offence. It is still used in the United States but the distinction between felony and misdemeanour is abolished in England and Wales and Northern Ireland. The following classes of offence are based on mode of trial: In common law countries, crimes may be categorised into common law offences and statutory offences. In the US, Australia and Canada (in particular), they are divided into federal crimes and under state crimes. In the United States since 1930, the FBI has tabulated Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) annually from crime data submitted by law enforcement agencies across the United States. Officials compile this data at the city, county, and state levels into the UCR. They classify violations of laws based on common law as Part I (index) crimes in UCR data. These are further categorized as violent or property crimes. Part I violent crimes include murder and criminal homicide (voluntary manslaughter), forcible rape, aggravated assault, and robbery; while Part I property crimes include burglary, arson, larceny/theft, and motor-vehicle theft. All other crimes count come under Part II. Booking arrests require detention for a time-frame ranging 1 to 24 hours. There are several national and International organizations offering studies and statistics about global and local crime activity, such as United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the United States of America Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC) safety report or national reports generated by the law-enforcement authorities of EU state member reported to the Europol. Many different causes and correlates of crime have been proposed with varying degree of empirical support. They include socioeconomic, psychological, biological, and behavioral factors. Controversial topics include media violence research and effects of gun politics. Emotional state (both chronic and current) have a tremendous impact on individual thought processes and, as a result, can be linked to criminal activities. The positive psychology concept of Broaden and Build posits that cognitive functioning expands when an individual is in a good-feeling emotional state and contracts as emotional state declines. In positive emotional states an individual is able to consider more possible solutions to problems, but in lower emotional states fewer solutions can be ascertained. The narrowed thought-action repertoires can result in the only paths perceptible to an individual being ones they would never use if they saw an alternative, but if they can't conceive of the alternatives that carry less risk they will choose one that they can see. Criminals who commit even the most horrendous of crimes, such as mass murders, did not see another solution. Crimes defined by treaty as crimes against international law include: From the point of view of state-centric law, extraordinary procedures (usually international courts) may prosecute such crimes. Note the role of the International Criminal Court at The Hague in the Netherlands. Different religious traditions may promote distinct norms of behaviour, and these in turn may clash or harmonise with the perceived interests of a state. Socially accepted or imposed religious morality has influenced secular jurisdictions on issues that may otherwise concern only an individual's conscience. Activities sometimes criminalized on religious grounds include (for example) alcohol consumption (prohibition), abortion and stem-cell research. In various historical and present-day societies, institutionalized religions have established systems of earthly justice that punish crimes against the divine will and against specific devotional, organizational and other rules under specific codes, such as Roman Catholic canon law. In the military sphere, authorities can prosecute both regular crimes and specific acts (such as mutiny or desertion) under martial-law codes that either supplant or extend civil codes in times of (for example) war. Many constitutions contain provisions to curtail freedoms and criminalize otherwise tolerated behaviors under a state of emergency in the event of war, natural disaster or civil unrest. Undesired activities at such times may include assembly in the streets, violation of curfew, or possession of firearms. The complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly scams include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions. In the United States, it is estimated that workers are not paid at least $19 billion every year in overtime and that in total $40 billion to $60 billion are lost annually due to all forms of wage theft. This compares to national annual losses of $340 million due to robbery, $4.1 billion due to burglary, $5.3 billion due to larceny, and $3.8 billion due to auto theft in 2012. In Singapore, as in the United States, wage theft was found to be widespread and severe. In a 2014 survey it was found that as many as one-third of low wage male foreign workers in Singapore, or about 130,000, were affected by wage theft from partial to full denial of pay.
Welcome to the Into the classroom series page. Materials from the books in the series and extra resources are available through the links below. We’ll be adding to this page as the series grows, so it’s always worth coming back to see what’s new. All students benefit from learning in inclusive classrooms where differences are supported and celebrated. Find here checklists to help you recognize the main types of SEN, as well as extra materials providing tips and strategies on how to make learning accessible to all of your students. Literature can be a powerful resource in the classroom when used in learner-centred ways. Find here extra activities for engaging your students with literature, as well as the supplementary texts and materials referred to in the book. Extensive reading brings substantial benefits to language learning. Find out about the importance of extensive free reading, how to develop extensive reading materials, choosing the right graded readers for your class, exploiting class readers, developing class libraries, and setting up and running reading circles. Make the most of the technology available to teachers of English including word processing tools, interactive whiteboards, email and chat, the world wide web, and web 2.0. In a mixed-ability class, there can be significant differences in the language proficiency of individual students. Find here a personal note from the authors, as well as extra activities for discovering and freeing the potential of your own mixed-ability groups. Make the most of online video resources in your lessons: links are provided here for all the videos referenced in this book. While you’re here, why not watch our author interview on how this book can help you to bring online video into your classroom? Personalize your English lessons for young learners with new ideas for motivating children to speak English, encouraging learner autonomy and self-assessment, and getting the most out of your coursebook. An author interview with Jamie Keddie Jamie Keddie, author of Bringing Online Video into the Classroom, talks about using and creating video content in the classroom and how he hopes his book will help teachers.
The Romans may have got their alphabet from the Greeks. The Romans spread the Roman alphabet across the empire, which is how it first came to Britain and other parts of the world, such as America etc. Originally, the Roman alphabet only had 23 letters, which excluded J, U and W and they were all capital letters. A simple calligraphy project Roman Capital Letters The Roman capitals are characterised by circular letterforms, long, straight lines and elegant shapes and proportions. The Roman calligraphy style forms a great start to the understanding of the basic rules of letter proportions and writing calligraphy. You can practice writing Roman styles by using a simple pen or Biro. You simply write the letterforms first, using a faint ruled piece of paper and a pen. Copy the letterforms carefully until you get the style right. A good trick to learning how to write Roman calligraphy is to use some tracing paper or layout paper and overlay it onto a Roman alphabet template. You can find templates printouts quite easily, either from a good art store or you can print one off from the Internet. Simply overlay the layout paper on top of the template and study the letterforms. Using a pen, trace the outlines of the letterforms carefully until you get the feel of writing this style. If you can draw the Roman alphabet in calligraphy, you can draw anything. Letter Spaces And The Roman Alphabet You will notice that the spaces between letters of the Roman alphabet will differ depending on the letter written. Circular letters, such as ‘o’ or ‘e’ tend to have smaller spaces between them than straight letters, such as ‘h’ or ‘l’. At first, you may find it tricky to get the spaces between the letters right, but with time and practice, you will get the hang of it. \|Roman Letters - Wikimedia Commons\| Calligraphy Pens And Roman Calligraphy Writing the Roman alphabet can be quite easy and versatile when it comes to choosing a calligraphy pen. You can write this alphabet using a simple Biro or everyday pen, or writing with a broad nibbed calligraphy pen. The broader the nib, the bigger the letters will be. This style can be used for wedding invitations or writing a certificate.
Sir Robert Clive an aggressive British empire-builder who eventually became the chief representative of the East India Company - India; consolidated British control in Bengal Black Hole of Calcutta an underground prison for holding prisoners in Bengal - the local ruler attacked Fort William and imprisoned local British population there. British East India Company Britain's company in charge of trade in India - was able to receive from Mughal court in India the authority to collect taxes from lands in the surrounding areas of Calcutta; set stage for British colonizing India in 1858 1793 - led a mission in Beijing to press for liberalization of trade restrictions; failed - he was angry! first Jesuit missionary - arrived in 1549 to Japan and had some success in converting the local population to Christianity inflation in Europe during sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries; inflation rate = 2-3% a year; wheat prices increased; wages failed to keep up with price increase; commercial and industrial entrepreneurs benefit individuals bought stocks in a company and received dividends on their investment while a board of directors ran the company and made the important business decisions the trading of stocks replaced the exchange of goods; emerged as the hub of the European business world; aka Amsterdam Exchange the belief that the total volume of trade is unchangeable; prosperity of a nation depends on a plentiful supply of buillon (gold and silver); desirable to achieve a favorable balance of trade in which goods exported were of greater value than those imported Flemish cartographer - Mercator Projection - tries to show the true shape of land masses, but only of a limited area; accurate near the equator, not accurate farther away from it; used by ship captains
Explain the following (a) Why is tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps? (b) Why are the conductors of electric heating devices, such as bread - toasters and electric irons, made of an alloy rather than a pure metal? (c) Why is the series arrangement not used for domestic circuits? (d) How does the resistance of a wire vary with its area of cross-section? (e) Why are copper and aluminum wires usually employed for electricity transmission? (a) Tungsten has a very high melting point due to which the filament made up of tungsten does not melt at very high temperatures. (b) Alloy has more resistance than conductors. As electrical heating devices are required to produce a lot of heat they need to be made up of elements having high resistance. High resistance elements release a lot of heat as the loss in voltage due to the resistance of alloy gets converted to heat energy. (c) The series arrangement is not used for domestic circuits because there is a loss in potential difference across the elements in a series arrangement due to which the power in the circuit will be less than the applied power and the farther the element is connected in the circuit, lesser the power supplied to that element. (d) The resistance of a wire varies with its area of cross-section because according to the formula of resistance,R=Pl/A resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor. (e) Copper and aluminum wires are usually employed for electricity transmission because they have low resistivity due to which there is less loss of power while transmitting the electricity. (a) Tungsten is used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps because it does not get destroyed at high temperatures. (b) The conductors of electric heating devices, such as bread - toasters and electric irons are made of an alloy rather than a pure metal because alloys have more resistance. (c) The series arrangement is not used for domestic circuits because uneven power is supplied in a series arrangement. (d) The resistance of a wire varies with its area of cross-section because it is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the wire. (e) Copper and aluminium wires are usually employed for electricity transmission because they have low resistivity. An electric motor works on the principle A: of electromagnetic induction B: when a rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field and current is passed through it, a force acts on the coil which rotates it continuously. C: both A and B D: None of the above In an electric motor the electrical energy is converted into the mechanical energy. And the motor used the magnetic effect of the current. It is saying that when a rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field and current is passing through it then a force is exerted in the coil which rotates the coil. The option(B) is correct. State joules law of heating It is used to calculate the rate at which electric energy is converting into the heat energy due to electrical resistance. The formula of joule’s law of heating is Q = I2RT Here, Q is the heat energy, I is the electric current, R is electric resistance and T is the time interval. Hence, the joule's law of heating is Q = I2RT. Write Joules law of heating A conductor becomes heated when an electric current flows through it for a long time. Joule's law of heating describes the heating of a conductor caused by the flow of electric current across it. Here, i is the current running through the conductor, R is thHe conductor's resistance, and t is the length of time the current has flown. Hence, Joule’s law of heating is given by H=i2Rt. Name some devices in which electric motors are used In contrast to an electric generator, an electric motor is a device that converts electricity into mechanical energy. They work on the basis of electromagnetism, which states that when an electric current is present in a magnetic field, a force is applied. Motors feature a lot of moving elements that allow them to spin and provide power as needed. Electric motors that are used in certain devices are: Pumps for water Fans with electricity Mixers with electricity Machines for washing Some devices in which electric motors are used are water pumps, electric fans, electric mixers, washing machines, etc.
The Reading Like a Historian curriculum engages students in historical inquiry. Each lesson revolves around a central historical question and features a set of primary documents designed for groups of students with a range of reading skills. This curriculum teaches students how to investigate historical questions by employing reading strategies such as sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating, and close reading. Instead of memorizing historical facts, students evaluate the trustworthiness of multiple perspectives on historical issues and learn to make historical claims backed by documentary evidence. To learn more about how to use Reading Like a Historian lessons, watch these videos about how teachers use these materials in their classrooms.
11 Jun 2015 Seventeen years ago, a warm wind was blowing across the pacific. As it blew, it pushed some warmed waters westwards, piling them high to the north east of Australia. When the winds eased, the warm waters washed back across the vast ocean releasing masses of heat into the atmosphere in what became the mother of all El Niño events. It was 1998 and the climate seemed set on a frightening trajectory. But the years that followed didn't live up to predictions, leading to a crisis of confidence. It became the most important question to answer in climate science today: What happened to global warming? © Journeyman Pictures
Computing and ICT The national curriculum states that 'a high-quality computing education equips pupils to use computational thinking and creativity to understand and change the world.' The curriculum for Computing has strong links with mathematics, science, and design and technology. The core of computing is computer science, in which pupils are taught the principles of information and computation, how digital systems work, and how to put this knowledge to use through programming. Computing also ensures that pupils become digitally literate – able to use, and express themselves and develop their ideas through, information and communication technology – at a level suitable for the future workplace and as active participants in a digital world. At Pensans School, we follow the iCompute Scheme of Work which builds progressively, year on year, to enable children to understand the often complex ideas involved and makes full use of the school's laptops and iPads. Digital literacy is promoted through the use of these throughout the REAL projects and children are encouraged to share their learning using a range of programmes and approaches. The school also uses on-line learning sites such as Education City, Mathletics and Bug Club to support the class in work. All staff have also received Prevent training and understand the risks that online communication pose to children. We actively provide support to students, parents and staff to make sure they are aware of how social media, gaming and internet access needs to be monitored and children protected. All children cover an Internet safety module and we have also provided a workshop for parents so they are informed and up to date with the world their children are growing up in.
Vermont became the fourteenth state in 1791, fourteen years after declaring itself independent from the claims of New York. Vermont adopted its first constitution in 1777. Patterning its constitution after the radical document created by Pennsylvania, Vermont went even further, granting universal male suffrage and prohibiting slavery. Wary of power, the framers denied the veto to the governor and forced him to share executive duties with a twelve-man council. A unicameral assembly held legislative power. The governor, lieutenant governor, and treasurer were chosen annually in general elections; they needed a majority to gain office. If there was no majority, the winner was chosen by the Joint Assembly (the House, or General Assembly, and the Executive Council). Freemen of each town selected their representative to the General Assembly annually. Members of the Executive Council were elected statewide. United States congressmen were voted on by district, with the exception of the years 1812–1820, when they were chosen statewide. United States senators were chosen by the Joint Assembly. The Council of Censors were the caretakers of the state constitution. Thirteen men, each elected statewide every seven years to a one-year term, were charged with examining legislation for constitutionality and with proposing appropriate amendments. The early years of statehood saw the old political factions of the Arlington Junto (Thomas Chittenden, the Allen brothers, and their followers) and their opponents fade as the Federalist and Democratic-Republican divisions took center stage. Voter participation was initially sparse but inched upward. It took Jefferson's embargo to jolt Vermonters out of their political inertia. Fifty percent more voters cast ballots for governor in 1808 than in 1807. Madison's declaration of war precipitated a similar rise in 1812. The war years contributed the highest voter turnout of the period. The two parties were evenly matched. In the years of 1813 and 1814, their candidates for governor were separated by less than 300 votes, and the parties in the General Assembly were separated by a handful of votes. Vermont's congressmen were elected by the same narrow margins. Despite such intense party competition, very few men held statewide office. Straying from its Pennsylvania model, Vermont allowed unlimited reelection to state office and multiple office holding. From 1787 to 1825, only eight men sat in the governor's chair. Only seven men served as lieutenant governor. Just two had been elected treasurer. From 1778 to 1825, only 114 different men sat on the Executive Council, out of a possible 588 seats. Because of this, and because of their ability to hold other offices, a small group were able to wield immense influence in the state. After the end of the war, the Federalist Party slowly dissolved, and with it voter participation. The last Federalist candidate for governor ran in 1817. The two-party system being defunct, Republican statewide candidates were chosen by caucus in the legislature and ran virtually unopposed. With no issues to divide the populace, by 1825 the number of votes for governor had dwindled to its lowest level since 1800. - Aichele, Gary. "Making the Vermont Constitution, 1777–1824."In Michael Sherman, ed. A More Perfect Union: Vermont Becomes a State, 1777–1816. Montpelier: Vermont Historical Society, 1991, pp. 2–37. - Bellesilses, Michael. Revolutionary Outlaws: Ethan Allen and the Struggle for Independence on the Early American Frontier.Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1993. - Brynn, Edward. "Patterns of Dissent: Vermont's Opposition to the War of 1812."Vermont History, 40 (Winter 1972): 10–27. - Carroll, Daniel P. "Development of the Unicameral Legislature of Vermont."Proceedings of the Vermont Historical Society, III (1932): 12–31. - Crockett, Walter Hill. Vermont, The Green Mountain State. 5 vols.New York: The Century History Company, 1921–1923. - Gilles, Paul S. and D. Gregory Sanford, eds. Records of the Council of Censors of the State of Vermont.Montpelier: Secretary of State, 1991. - Graffagnino, J. Kevin. "’I saw ruin all around’ and ‘A comical spot you may depend’: Orcamus C. Merrill, Rollin C. Mallory, and the Disputed Congressional Election of 1818."Vermont History, 49 (Summer 1981): 159–168. - Muller, H. Nicholas III. "Early Vermont State Government: Oligarchy or Democracy? 1778–1815."In Reginald L. Cook, ed., Growth and Development of Government in Vermont. The Vermont Academy of Arts and Sciences, Occasional Paper 5 (1970): 5–10. "Smuggling into Canada: How the Champlain Valley Defied Jefferson's Embargo."Vermont History, 38 (Winter 1970): 5–21. - Potash, P. Jeffrey. Vermont's Burned-Over District: Patterns of Community Development and Religious Activity, 1761–1850.Brooklyn: Carlson Publishing, 1991. - Roth, Randolph A. The Democratic Dilemma: Religion, Reform and the Social Order in the Connecticut River Valley of Vermont, 1791–1850.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. - Shaeffer, John N. "A Comparison of the First Constitutions of Vermont and Pennsylvania."Vermont History, 43 (Winter 1975): 33–43. - Shalhope, Robert E. Bennington and the Green Mountain Boys: The Emergence of Liberal Democracy in Vermont, 1760–1850.Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996). - Sherman, Michael, Gene Sessions, and P. Jeffrey Potash. Freedom and Unity: A History of Vermont.Barre, VT: Vermont Historical Society, 2004. - Smith, Donald Allen. "Green Mountain Insurgency: Transformation of New York's Forty-Year Land War."Vermont History, 64 (Fall 1996): 197–235. - Walton, Eliakim P., ed. Records of the Governor and Council of the State of Vermont. 8 vols.Montpelier: J. and J. M. Poland, 1873–1880). - Williamson, Chilton. Vermont in Quandary: 1763–1825.Montpelier: Vermont Historical Society, 1949. What is today referred to as the Democratic Republican Party did not exist as such under that name. "The party name which the Jeffersonians used most commonly in self-designation was Republican. Since nearly all Americans professed to be supporters of a republic, Federalists were reluctant to allow their opponents the advantage of this name, preferring to label them as Antifederalists, Jacobins, disorganizers, or, at best, Democrats." (Noble E. Cunningham, Jr., History of U.S. Political Parties Volume I: 1789-1860: From Factions to Parties. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed. New York, 1973, Chelsea House Publisher. p. 240.) "No precise date can be given for the establishment of the Republican party, for it did not spring suddenly into being, and even those leaders most intimately involved in its formation were not fully aware of what they were creating. The beginnings of what in course of time became the Republican party can be found in the Second Congress in the congressional faction that contemporaries referred to as the 'republican interest.' . . . An examination of roll calls during the Second Congress indicates that a voting bloc was forming around Madison in opposition to another bloc that united in support of Hamilton's program. While only about half of the membership of the House could be identified with one or the other of these factions, two such groups had not been observable in the First Congress." (Cunningham, p. 241) "As members of Congress defended their legislative records and sought reelection, they took to the electorate the issues and the disputes that had divided Congress, and they tended in their campaigns for reelection to impart to the voters something of the partisanship that was developing in Congress. Thus, the party divisions in Congress filtered down to the voters through the electoral process, and voters came to align along the lines that divisions in Congress had marked out. In this process the congressional factions acquired the mass followings in the county necessary to transform them from capital factions into national political parties." (Cunningham, p. 244) Though Thomas Jefferson was seen as the primary leader of the emerging Republican Party, his retirement in 1793 would force that mantle back upon James Madison. "Contemporaries referred to 'Madison's party,' and, when Jefferson was put forward for the presidency in 1796, he was recognized as the candidate of Madison's party. Adams's supporters warned that 'the measures of Madison and Gallatin will be the measures of the executive' if Jefferson were elected. Under Madison's leadership, the Republican party in Congress moved from a role characterized largely by opposition to administration measures, mostly Hamiltonian inspired, to one of offering policy alternatives and proposing Republican programs." (Cunningham, p. 246) "As the country became dangerously polarized, the Federalists, in 1798 with the passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws, used the full power of the government in an effort to destroy their opponents, whom they saw as subversive. The Republicans, forced to do battle for their very survival, were compelled to change their strategy radically. Prior to 1798 they had optimistically believed that the people would repudiate leaders who supported antirepublican measures hostile to the general good of society. By 1798, however, the Federalists' electoral successes and their hold on the federal government seemed to belie that belief. Therefore, the Republicans shifted their focus of attention from the national to the state level. And by emphasizing a more overtly, self-consciously sectional, political enclave strategy, they left the clear implication that state secession and the breakup of the union might follow if the federal government refused to modify its policies and actions to make them more acceptable to opponents, especially Southerners." (American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. James Roger Sharp. New Haven, 1993, Yale University Press. p. 12) "On the national level, Republican members of Congress through their informal associations in the national capital formed the basic national party structure. Many of them lodged together in boarding houses or dined together in small groups where there were ample opportunities to plot party tactics. They kept in close touch with political leaders and party organizations in their home states. In 1800, Republican members introduced what was to become the most important element of national party machinery and the most powerful device for the maintenance of congressional influence of the leadership of the party: the congressional nominating caucus." (Cunningham, p. 252) "The coming to power of the Jeffersonians in 1801 marked the beginning of the Republican era that saw the presidency passed from Jefferson to Madison to Monroe. When the Virginia dynasty came to an end in 1825, the presidential office went to a former Federalist who had become a Republican while Jefferson was president. But, although John Quincy Adams was a Republican, the presidential election of 1824 shattered the Republican party and destroyed the congressional nominating caucus which had given direction to the party's national structure since 1800. Adams's presidency was a period of restructuring of parties - a transitional period from the first party system of the Federalists and the Jeffersonians to the second party system of the age of Jackson." (Cunningham, p. 258-259). "During the period from its rise in the 1790's to its breakup in the 1820's, the Jeffersonian Republican party made contributions of major significance to the development of the american political system. It demonstrated that a political party could be successfully organized in opposition to an administration in power in the national government, win control over that government, and produce orderly changes through the party process. In challenging the Federalist power, Republicans were innovative in building party machinery, organizing poltical campaigns, employing a party press, and devising campaign techniques to stimulate voter interest in elections and support of republican candidates at the polls. In the process, it became acceptable for candidates to campaign for office and for their partisans to organize campaign committees, distribute campaign literature, see that voters get to the polls, and adopt other practices which, though subsequently familiar features of american political campaigns, previously had been widely regarded with suspicion and distrust. Many of the methods of campaigning and the techniques of party organization, introduced by the Jeffersonian Republicans, while falling into disuse by the end of the Republican era, would be revived by the Jacksonians. In taking office in 1801, the Jeffersonians led the nation through the first transfer of political power in the national government from one party to another; and Jefferson demonstrated that the president could be both the head of his party and the leader of the nation." (Cunningham, p. 271) - History of U.S. Political Parties Volume I: 1789-1860: From Factions to Parties. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed. New York, 1973, Chelsea House Publisher. - American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. James Roger Sharp. New Haven, 1993, Yale University Press. - Partisanship and the Birth of America's Second Party, 1796-1800: "Stop the Wheels of Government". Matthew Q. Dawson. Westwood, CT, 2000, Greenwood Press. - Party of the People: A History of the Democrats. Jules Witcover. New York, 2003, Random House Beginning in 1799, many Federalist papers began to refer to the Republican Party as Democrats or the Democratic Party. This continued throughout the first quarter of the 18th Century until what is currently known as the Democratic Party emerged among the followers of Andrew Jackson in the 1828 Presidential Election. Republicans were also called by a variety of different terms in various newspapers throughout the period: Though the Anti-Federalists were not quite the exact same group as the Republicans as they would develop after 1792, there were still some of those who referred to them as such. The term was used by the following newspapers in the following elections: - Porcupine's Gazette (Philadelphia). October 22, 1798. Pennsylvania 1798 Assembly, Chester County. - Virginia Gazette (Richmond). April 30, 1799. Virginia 1799 House of Delegates, New Kent County. - The Virginia Federalist (Richmond). April 26, 1800. Virginia 1800 House of Delegates, Norfolk County. - Virginia Gazette (Richmond). May 12, 1802. Virginia 1802 House of Delegates, Bedford County. - Virginia Gazette (Richmond). May 12, 1802. Virginia 1802 House of Delegates, Pittsylvania County. - The Salem Gazette. May 17, 1805. Massachusetts 1805 House of Representatives, Salem. Though the term is commonly used today to distinguish the Jeffersonian Republicans from the later Republican Party and because so many of those among the Jeffersonian Republicans eventually became Jacksonian Democrats, this term was extremely rare during the actual period. It was used by the Readinger Adler in the October 27, 1818 edition recording the 1818 county elections in Pennsylvania. French / War / Warhawk / Jacobin: Starting in 1798, various Federalist newspapers would refer to Republicans as Jacobins. ("In Newbern district the contest lay between two federalists -- No Jacobin had the effrontery to offer himself." United States Gazette. September 1, 1798.) These references continued through until at least 1810. ("From the Cooperstown Federalist: The election in this County has terminated in favor of the Jacobin Ticket for Assembly. An important revolution has been effected by the most shameful artifices. Never before were the jacobin ranks so completely formed and thoroughly drilled for action. We hope next week to be able to lay before our readers a correct statement of votes, and to exhibit to the world a picture of depravity in the conduct of some of the inspectors of the election which has no parallel." The American (Herkimer). May 3, 1810.) Beginning in 1810, the Newburyport Herald (MA), began referring to Republicans as the French Party (as opposed to the "American" Party, who were Federalists). This continued in the 1811 elections. Beginning in 1812 ("In laying before our readers the above Canvass of this county, a few remarks become necessary, to refute the Assertion of the war party, that the Friends of Peace are decreasing in this country." Northern Whig (Hudson). May 11, 1812.) and continuing through 1813 and 1814 a number of newspapers were referring to the Republicans as the War Party (or Warhawk Party, as the Merrimack Intelligencer (Haverhill) of March 19, 1814 used) due to their support of the Madison administration and the War of 1812 (most of these same papers referred to the Federalists as the Peace Party). These newspapers include the Trenton Federalist, the Columbian Centinel (Boston), the Northern Whig (Hudson), the Independent American (Ballston Spa), the Broome County Patriot (Chenango Point), the New York Spectator, the Commercial Advertiser (New York), the New York Evening Post, the Albany Gazette, the Political and Commercial Register (Philadelphia), the Merrimack Intelligencer (Haverhill), The Federal Republican (New Bern), the Freeman's Journal (Philadelphia), Alexandria Gazette, Poulson's, Middlesex Gazette (Middletown), the Raleigh Minerva and The Star (Raleigh). Jackson / Jacksonian: With the Presidential election of 1824 split among four candidates who were, ostensibly, members of the same political party, the divisions among the Republican Party began to be apparent. The phrase "Jackson" or "Jacksonian" candidate was used in nearly every state election in Georgia in 1824 to distinguish between those were were supporters of Andrew Jackson as opposed to the supporters of William H. Crawford. The Maryland Republican (Annapolis) and the Federal Gazette (Baltimore) used the term "Jacksonian" in the Cecil County elections of 1824 (as opposed to "Adamite" or "Crawfordite") and the Allegheny and Butler county election in Pennsylvania in 1824. The New Hampshire Gazette of March 5, 1816 would refer to the Republican ticket as the Whig Ticket and as being in favor of Peace and Commerce. U.S. Senate: the upper house of the United States Congress. 1788 - 1825: Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia Office Scope: Federal Role Scope: State Historical Note: Prior to the passage of the 17th Amendment in 1913, all United States Senators were elected by state legislatures rather than by popular vote.
African Christians put emphasis on creation and deliverance from hardship, while European Christians put emphasis on sin and salvation. These differences show up in death rituals and funerals. The early Church suffered political persecution. Freedom from slavery saw redemption as the main form of freedom. The early Medieval Church (4th-11th centuries) was more concerned about freedom from the power of the devil after Augustine had emphasized the concept of original sin. The early Scholastic theologians like Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) put less emphasis on the ransom from the devil. Adam had disobeyed and dishonored God. Christ has saved us by being the second Adam, the so-called satisfaction theory. Order and honor were more important. The Third world today sees redemption as something else. Christian redemption is the same reality, but there are different interpretations of what it means to be redeemed.
A multi-institutional team has devised an efficient way to measure the high-dimensional codecs encoded in quantum frequency combs, a type of photon source, on a single optical chip using experimental and computational resources already available. Despite the fact that the word “qudit” may sound like a typo, this lesser-known relative of the qubit, or qubit, has the ability to carry more data and is more resistant to noise, two important properties required to enhance the performance of quantum networks and quantum key distribution systems, and in The ultimate quantum internet. Unlike traditional computer bits, which classify data as ones or zeroes, qubits can hold values of one, zero, or both. This is due to superposition, a phenomenon that enables many quantum states to exist simultaneously. Goodet’s “d” denotes the variety of levels or values that can be encoded on a photon. Traditional qubits only have two levels, but by adding more levels, they become qudits. Researchers from Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne EPFLAnd the Purdue Universityand the United States power circle Oak Ridge National Laboratory recently completed the characterization of an entangled pair of eight-level qudits that formed a 64-dimensional quantum space, quadrupling the previous record for discrete frequency modes. Their findings were recently published in the journal “We’ve always known that it’s possible to encode 10- or 20-level qudits or even higher using the colors of photons, or optical frequencies, but the problem is that measuring these particles is very difficult,” said Hsuan-Hao Lu, a postdoctoral research associate at ORNL. “That’s the value of this paper — we found an efficient and novel technique that is relatively easy to do on the experimental side.” Qudits are even more difficult to measure when they are entangled, meaning they share nonclassical correlations regardless of the physical distance between them. Despite these challenges, frequency-bin pairs — two qudits in the form of photons that are entangled in their frequencies — are well suited to carrying quantum information because they can follow a prescribed path through optical fiber without being significantly modified by their environment. “We combined state-of-the-art frequency-bin production with state-of-the-art light sources, and then used our technique to characterize high-dimensional qudit entanglement with a level of precision that hasn’t been shown before,” said Joseph Lukens, a Wigner Fellow and research scientist at ORNL. The researchers began their experiments by shining a laser into a micro-ring resonator — a circular, on-chip device fabricated by EPFL and designed to generate nonclassical light. This powerful photon source takes up 1 square millimeter of space — comparable in size to the point of a sharpened pencil — and allowed the team to generate frequency-bin pairs in the form of quantum frequency combs. Typically, qudit experiments require researchers to construct a type of quantum circuit called a quantum gate. But in this case, the team used an electro-optic phase modulator to mix different frequencies of light and a pulse shaper to modify the phase of these frequencies. These techniques are studied extensively at the Ultrafast Optics and Optical Fiber Communications Laboratory led by Andrew Weiner at Purdue, where Lu studied before joining ORNL. These optical devices are commonplace in the telecommunications industry, and the researchers performed these operations at random to capture many different frequency correlations. According to Lu, this process is like rolling a pair of six-sided dice and recording how many times each combination of numbers appears — but now the dice are entangled with each other. “This technique, which involves phase modulators and pulse shapers, is heavily pursued in the classical context for ultrafast and broadband photonic signal processing and has been extended to the quantum avenue of frequency qudits,” Weiner said. To work backward and infer which quantum states produced frequency correlations ideal for qudit applications, the researchers developed a data analysis tool based on a statistical method called Bayesian inference and ran computer simulations at ORNL. This accomplishment builds on the team’s previous work focused on performing Bayesian analyses and reconstructing quantum states. The researchers are now fine-tuning their measurement method to prepare for a series of experiments. By sending signals through optical fiber, they aim to test quantum communication protocols such as teleportation, which is a method of transporting quantum information, and entanglement swapping, which is the process of entangling two previously unrelated particles. Karthik Myilswamy, a graduate student at Purdue, plans to bring the micro-ring resonator to ORNL, which will enable the team to test these capabilities on the laboratory’s quantum local area network. “Now that we have a method to efficiently characterize entangled frequency qudits, we can perform other application-oriented experiments,” Myilswamy said. Reference: “Bayesian tomography of high-dimensional on-chip biphoton frequency combs with randomized measurements” by Hsuan-Hao Lu, Karthik V. Myilswamy, Ryan S. Bennink, Suparna Seshadri, Mohammed S. Alshaykh, Junqiu Liu, Tobias J. Kippenberg, Daniel E. Leaird, Andrew M. Weiner, and Joseph M. Lukens, 27 July 2022, Nature Communications. The study was funded by the US Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, and the Swiss National Science Foundation.
- Japan’s efforts to establish clear naval and air superiority in the western Pacific first hit a snag in the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942, when the U.S. fleet turned back a Japanese invasion force headed for New Guinea. - Despite the setback, Admiral Isaroku Yamamoto, commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy, was convinced his forces enjoyed a numerical advantage over the Americans. - Hoping to replicate the success of the Pearl Harbor attack, Yamamoto decided to seek out and crush the rest of the U.S. Pacific fleet with a surprise attack aimed at the Allied base at Midway Island. Midway is located in the Pacific Ocean almost directly in between the United States and Japan. - After a diversionary attack by a smaller Japanese force on the Aleutian Islands, off the coast of Alaska, Yamamoto planned a three-pronged approach toward Midway. - First, an air attack on the island launched from four firstline Japanese aircraft carriers, Second, an invasion force of ships And finally, once expected U.S. reinforcements from Pearl Harbor arrived, a joint strike by Nagumo’s forces and Yamamoto’s own fleet. - U.S. Navy cryptanalysts had begun breaking Japanese communication codes early in 1942, and knew for weeks ahead of time that Japan was planning an attack in the Pacific at a location they called “AF.” - With Japan’s fleet so widely dispersed, Yamamoto had to transmit all strategy over the radio, enabling Navy cryptanalysts based in Hawaii to figure out when Japan planned to attack (June 4 or 5) and the planned order of battle of the Imperial Japanese Navy. - With this information, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, commander in chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet, could develop a plan to combat the invasion. - After the diversionary Japanese attack on the Aleutian Islands on June 3, a group of U.S. B-17 Flying Fortress bombers flew from Midway to attack Kondo’s invasion force This unsuccessful attack marked the first military engagement in the Battle of Midway. - Before dawn the next day, more B-17s left Midway for a second attack on the Japanese invasion force, also unsuccessful. - Meanwhile, Nagumo launched the first phase of Japan’s attack as planned, sending 108 Japanese warplanes from the four aircraft carriers to strike Midway. - Shortly after that, just as his pilots informed Nagumo that another airstrike against the base would be necessary, U.S. aircraft launched from Midway began attacking the four Japanese carriers, without success. - As Nagumo was rearming Japanese planes for a second air attack, a Japanese scout plane spotted portions of the U.S. fleet. - Nagumo switched tactics, ordering planes that were still armed to prepare to attack the U.S. ships once the rest of the Japanese planes returned from Midway.Meanwhile, a wave of U.S. Devastator torpedo bombers from the U.S. carriers Hornet and Enterprise arrived to attack the Japanese ships. VICTORY FOR US - As the Japanese refueled and rearmed their planes, another wave of U.S. carrier-launched bombers struck, hitting three Japanese carriers—Akagi, Kaga and Soryu—and setting them ablaze. - Though major combat in the Battle of Midway was over by the evening of June 4, U.S. troops at sea and on Midway Island continued their attacks on the Japanese over the next two days. - The Hammann sank in minutes; the Yorktown eventually capsized and sank the following day. On June 6, Yamamoto ordered his ships to retreat, ending the Battle of Midway. - In all, Japan had lost as many as 3,000 men (including more than 200 of their most experienced pilots), nearly 300 aircraft, one heavy cruiser and four aircraft carriers in the battle, while the Americans lost the Yorktown and Hammann, along with around 145 aircraft and approximately 360 servicemen. - As a result of the U.S. victory in the Battle of Midway, Japan abandoned its plan to expand its reach in the Pacific, and would remain on the defensive for the remainder of World War II. The battle injected U.S. forces with confidence and drained Japanese morale, turning the tide of war in the Pacific strongly in favor of the Allies.
When a seed first begins to grow, it is germinating. Seeds are germinated in a growing medium, such as perlite. Several factors are involved in this process. First, the seed must be active–and alive–and not in dormancy. Most seeds have a specific temperature range that must be achieved. Moisture and oxygen must be present. And, for some seeds, specified levels of light or darkness must be met. Check the specifications of seeds to see their germination requirements. The first two leaves that sprout from a seed are called the seed leaves, or cotyledons. These are not the true leaves of a plant.The seed develops these first leaves to serve as a starting food source for the young, developing plant. The seed develops these first leaves to serve as a starting food source for the young, developing plant. Soil is never used in hydroponic growing. Some systems have the ability to support the growing plants, allowing the bare roots to have maximum exposure to the nutrient solution. In other systems, the roots are supported by a growing medium. Some types of media also aid in moisture and nutrient retention. Different media are better suited to specific plants and systems. It is best to research all of your options and to get some recommendations for systems and media before making investing in or building an operation. Popular growing media include: Coco coir is a relatively new growing medium that gives the experience of growing in soil, but many of the benefits of growing in hydro (such as faster growth and bigger harvests). Soilless gardening is called hydroponics and it’s been around for thousands of years. The essential ingredient is an oxygenated mineral-nutrient solution that’s circulated through plants’ roots. Expanded clay rock is an incredibly resourceful growing material, is derived from clay. Clay itself is renewable and plentiful making Expanded Clay Rock a premium growing medium due to its ecologically sustainable quality. Perlite. Volcanic glass is mined from lava flows and heated in furnaces to a high temperature, causing the small amount of moisture inside to expand. This converts the hard glass into small, sponge-like kernels. Rockwool. This is created by melting rock at a high temperature and then spinning it into fibers. There are a number of other materials that can (and are) used as growing media. Hydroponic gardeners tend to be an innovative and experimental group. Think of a plant as a well-run factory that takes delivery of raw materials and manufactures the most wondrous products. Just as a factory requires a reliable energy source to turn the wheels of its machinery, plants need an energy source in order to grow. Usually, natural sunlight is used for this important job. However, during the shorter and darker days of winter, many growers use artificial lights to increase the intensity of light (for photosynthesis) or to expand the daylight length. While the sun radiates the full spectrum (wavelength or color of light) suitable for plant life, different types of artificial lighting are selected for specific plant varieties and optimum plant growth characteristics. Different groups of plants respond in physically different ways to various wavelengths of radiation. Light plays an extremely important role in the production of plant material. The lack of light is the main inhibiting factor in plant growth. If you reduce the light by 10 percent, you also reduce crop performance by 10 percent. Light transmission should be your major consideration when purchasing a growing structure for a protected crop. Glass is still the preferred material for covering greenhouses because, unlike plastic films and sheeting, its light transmission ability is indefinitely maintained. No gardener can achieve good results without adequate light. If you intend to grow indoors, avail yourself of some of the reading material that has been published on this subject. If you are having trouble growing good plants, then light is the first factor to question. A large part of the success in growing hydroponically is planning where to place the plants. Grow plants that have similar growing requirements in the same system. Placing your system 1-2 feet away from a sunny window will give the best results for most herbs and vegetables. Even your regular house lights help the plants to grow. Make sure that all of the lights are out in your growing area during the night. Plants need to rest a minimum of 4 hours every night. If your plants start to get leggy (too tall and not very full), move the system to a spot that has more sun. Once you find a good growing area, stick to it. Plants get used to their home location. It may take some time to get used to a new place. –Charles E. Musgrove The apparatuses used in hydroponic growing are many and varied. There are two basic divisions between systems: media-based and water culture. Also, systems can be either active or passive. Active systems use pumps and usually timers and other electronic gadgets to run and monitor the operation. Passive systems may also incorporate any number of gadgets. However, they to not use pumps and may rely on the use of a wicking agent to draw nutrient to the roots. Media-based systems–as their name implies–use some form of growing medium. Some popular media-based systems include ebb-and-flow (also called flood-and-drain), run-to-waste, drip-feed (or top-feed), and bottom-feed. Water culture systems do not use media. Some popular water culture systems are raft (also called floating and raceway), nutrient film technique (NFT), and aeroponics. Plants need around 16 mineral nutrients for optimal growth. However, not all these nutrients are equally important for the plant. Three major minerals–nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K)–are used by plants in large amounts. These three minerals are usually displayed as hyphenated numbers, like “15-30-15,” on commercial fertilizers. These numbers correspond to the relative percentage by weight of each of the major nutrients–known as macronutrients–N, P, and K. Macronutrients are present in large concentrations in plants. All nutrients combine in numerous ways to help produce healthy plants. Usually, sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) are also considered macronutrients. These nutrients play many different roles in plants. Here are some of their dominant functions: Nitrogen (N)–promotes development of new leaves Phosphorus (P)–aids in root growth and blooming Potassium (K)–important for disease resistance and aids growth in extreme temperatures Sulfur (S)–contributes to healthy, dark green color in leaves Calcium (Ca)–promotes new root and shoot growth Magnesium (Mg)–chlorophyll, the pigment that gives plants their green color and absorbs sunlight to make food, contains a Mg ion Boron (B), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe) manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), and zinc (Zn) are only present in minute quantities in plants and are known as micronutrients. Plants can usually acquire adequate amounts of these elements from the soil, so most commercial fertilizers don’t contain all of the micronutrients. Hydroponic growers, however, don’t have any soil to provide nutrients for their plants. Therefore, nutrient solution that is marketed for hydroponic gardening contain all the micronutrients. In hydroponics, nutrient solution–sometimes just referred to as “nutrient”–is used to feed plants instead of plain water. This is due to the fact that the plants aren’t grown in soil. Traditionally, plants acquire most of their nutrition from the soil. When growing hydroponically, you need to add all of the nutrients a plant needs to water. Distilled water works best for making nutrient. Hydroponic supply stores have a variety of nutrient mixes for specific crops and growth cycles. Always store solutions out of direct sunlight to prevent any algae growth. See also conductivity, macronutrients, and micronutrients. Unlike regular water, you need to be careful where you dispose of nutrient. Even organic nutrients and fertilizers can cause serious imbalances in aquatic ecosystems. If you do not live near a stream, river, lake or other water sources, it is fine to use old nutrient on outdoor plants and lawn. Another possibility is to use it on houseplants. However, if you live within 1,000 feet of a viable water source, do not use your spent nutrient in the ground. As a result of the process of photosynthesis, oxygen (O) is given off by plants. Then, at night, when light isn’t available for photosynthesis, this process is reversed. At night, plants take in oxygen and consume the energy they have stored during the day. The ends of a plant’s roots aren’t open-ended like a drinking straw and they definitely don't suck up a drink of water or nutrients (see capillary action). Science is still seeking a complete understanding of osmosis, so to attempt a full and satisfactory description of all that’s involved in this process would be impossible. However, we can understand the basic osmotic principle as it relates to plants. First, consider a piece of ordinary blotting paper, such as the commonly used filter for home coffee machines. The paper might appear to be solid. However, if you apply water to one side of it, you’ll soon see signs of the water appearing on the opposite side. The walls of a feeding root act in much the same way. If you pour water onto the top of the filter paper, gravity allows the water to eventually drip through to the bottom side. Add the process of osmosis and water that’s applied to the bottom side drips through to the top. With plants, this action allows water and nutrients to pass through the root walls from the top, sides, and bottom. Osmosis is the natural energy force that moves elemental ions through what appears to be solid material. A simplistic explanation for how osmosis works, although not 100 percent accurate, is that the stronger ion attracts the weaker through a semipermeable material. So, the elements within the cells that make up plant roots attract water and nutrients through the root walls when these compounds are stronger than the water and nutrients applied to the outside of the roots. It then follows that if you apply a strong nutrient to the plant roots–one that’s stronger than the compounds inside of the root–that the reverse action is likely to occur! This process is called reverse osmosis. Many gardeners have at some time committed the sin of killing their plants by applying too strong a fertilizer to their plants, which causes reverse osmosis. Instead of feeding the plant, they have actually been dragging the life force out of it. Understanding how osmosis works, the successful grower can wisely use this knowledge to promote maximum uptake of nutrients into the plants without causing plant stress–or worse, plant death–from over-fertilizing. All plants have a different osmotic requirement or an optimum nutrient strength. The pH of a nutrient solution is a measurement of its relative concentration of positive hydrogen ions. Negative hydroxyl ions are produced by the way systems filter and mix air into the nutrient solution feeding plants. Plants feed by an exchange of ions. As ions are removed from the nutrient solution, pH rises. Therefore, the more ions that are taken up by the plants, the greater the growth. A solution with a pH value of 7.0 contains relatively equal concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions. When the pH is below 7.0, there are more hydrogen ions than hydroxyl ion. Such a solution “acidic.” When the pH is above 7.0, there are fewer hydrogen ions than hydroxyl ions. This means that the solution is “alkaline.” Test the pH level of your nutrient with a kit consisting of vials and liquid reagents. These kits are available at local chemistry, hydroponic, nursery, garden supplier, or swimming pool supply stores. It is also a good idea to test the pH level of your water before adding any nutrients. If your solution is too alkaline add some acid. Although such conditions rarely occur, sometimes you may have to reduce the level of acidity by making the solution more alkaline. This can be achieved by adding potassium hydroxide (or potash) to the solution in small amounts until it is balanced once again. –Charles E. Musgrove Pests and Diseases Even though hydroponic gardeners dodge a large number of plant problems by eschewing soil (which is a home to any number of plant enemies), pests and diseases still manage to wreak havoc from time to time. Botrytis, Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Verticillium cover most of the genera of bacteria that can threaten your plants. The insects that can prove annoying include aphids, caterpillars, cutworms, fungus gnats, leaf miners, nematodes, spider mites, thrips, and whiteflies. A few good ways to prevent infestation and infection are to: Always maintain a sanitary growing environment Grow naturally selected disease- and pest-resistant plant varieties Keep your growing area properly ventilated and at the correct temperatures for your plants Keep a close eye on your plants so if a problem does occur, you can act quickly With insects, sometimes you can pick off and crush any large ones. Or you can try to wash the infected plants with water or a mild soap solution (such as Safer Soap). If a problem gets out of control, it may be necessary to apply a biological control in the form of a spray. Research which product will work best in your situation. Always follow the instructions on pesticides very closely. Alternatively, there are a number of control products on the market today that feature a botanical compound or an ingredient that has been synthesized from a plant material. On botanical compounds as controlling agents: Over the last few years, researchers from all around the world have started to take a much closer look at any compounds present in the plant kingdom that might hold the answer to our pest and disease control problems. Many companies have even switched from producing synthetic pesticides to copying nature by synthesizing naturally occurring compounds in a laboratory setting. Extracts of willow, cinnamon, grapefruit, garlic, neem, bittersweet, lemon grass, derris, eucalyptus, and tomato have been helpful in controlling diseases and pests. –Dr. Lynette Morgan Plants need to absorb many necessary nutrients from the nutrient solution or–in the case of traditional agriculture–the soil. However, plants can create some of their own food. Plants use the process of photosynthesis to create food for energy. Carbohydrates are produced from carbon dioxide (CO2) and a source of hydrogen (H)–such as water–in chlorophyll-containing plant cells when they are exposed to light. This process results in the production ofoxygen (O). During photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide (CO2), light, and hydrogen (usually water) to produce carbohydrates, which is a source of food. Oxygen is given off in this process as a by-product. Light is a key variable in photosynthesis. Measuring nutrient solution strength is a relatively simple process. However, the electronic devices manufactured to achieve this task are quite sophisticated and use the latest microprocessor technology. To understand how these devices work, you have to know that pure water doesn’t conduct electricity. But as salts are dissolved into the pure water, electricity begins to be conducted. An electrical current will begin to flow when live electrodes are placed into the solution. The more salts that are dissolved, the stronger the salt solution and, correspondingly, the more electrical current that will flow. This current flow is connected to special electronic circuitry that allows the grower to determine the resultant strength of the nutrient solution. The scale used to measure nutrient strength is electrical conductivity (EC) or conductivity factor (CF). The CF scale is most commonly used in hydroponics. It spans from 0 to more than 100 CF units. The part of the scale generally used by home hydroponic gardeners spans 0-100 CF units. The part of the scale generally used by commercial or large-scale hydroponic growers is from 2 to 4 CF. (strength for growing watercress and some fancy lettuce) to as high as approximately 35 CF for fruits, berries, and ornamental trees. Higher CF values are used by experienced commercial growers to obtain special plant responses and for many of the modern hybrid crops, such as tomatoes and some peppers. Most other plant types fall between these two figures and the majority is grown at 13-25 CF. Every now and again, you are sure to run into a problem with your plants. This is just a simple fact of any type of gardening. The key is to act quickly, armed with quality knowledge. Mineral Deficiency Symptoms Nitrogen deficiency will cause yellowing of the leaves, especially in the older leaves. The growth of new roots and shoots is stunted. In tomatoes, the stems may take on a purple hue. A phosphorous deficiency is usually associated with dark green foliage and stunted growth. As in nitrogen deficiency, the stems may appear purple. But since the leaves don’t yellow as they do in nitrogen deficiency, the whole plant can take on a purplish green color. Iron deficiency results in yellowing between the leaf veins. In contrast to nitrogen deficiency, the yellowing first appears in the younger leaves. After a prolonged absence of iron, the leaves can turn completely white. This condition can be caused by environmental factors or disease (usually caused by Fusarium). Nutrient and media temperature can be adjusted to remedy wilt. However, if Fusarium has taken hold, the chances that your plants will survive are slim. If wilting is due to environmental causes: Try to spray the plants and roots with cool, clean water to rejuvenate them. If this hasn’t helped them by the next day, try it again. If the plants respond, top-off the nutrient solution and check the pH. If the plants don’t respond to the misting, empty the tank, move it to a shadier spot, and refill with cool, fresh nutrient solution. Don’t reuse the old solution – start with fresh water and nutrients. –Charles E. Musgrove If wilting is due to a system blockage of nutrient: I have seen tomato plants that have been so dehydrated due to a nutrient supply blockage that they were lying flat and for all the world looked stone-cold dead. When the nutrient flow resumed and the plants were given the less stressful environment of nighttime, they rebounded so well that I wondered if I had dreamed the previous day’s “disaster.” The moral of this story is to always give plants a chance to revive, even when the situation looks hopeless. Remove any discolored, insect-eaten, or otherwise sick-looking leaves from plants. Picking off some outer leaves or cutting the top off a plant can help it grow fuller. Use sharp scissors to prune your plants. Sometimes you will want to prune a plant to focus its energy on the remaining shoots. Pruning is an art and should be performed with care. Damaged or dying roots may also need to be pruned from time to time. Never use soil during any aspect of hydroponics. If you ever move a plant from a soil-based situation to hydroponics, remove all traces of soil or potting mix from the roots. Soil holds lots of microbes and other organisms and materials that love to grow in and contaminate your hydroponic system. Some of these will actually parasitize your plant and slow its growth. This is another advantage of hydroponic growing: The plant can get on with growing without having to support a myriad of other organisms as happens in conventional soil growing. Different plants have different germination and growing temperatures. Always make sure that you check each plant’s growing requirements–especially minimum and maximum temperature levels. Keep in mind that specific varieties of plants may have different requirements. Because the water supply is the source of life for your plants, quality is important. All plants rely on their ability to uptake water freely. Between 80 and 98 percent of this uptake is required for transpiration (loosely compared to perspiration in animals), which allows the plant to produce and somewhat control its immediate microclimate. Plants also need clean, uncontaminated water to produce their own healthy food supply. The water you use in your hydroponic system needs to be pure. It is always a good idea to test your water source before adding nutrients so you aren’t adding an element that is already present. In small systems, it would be wise to use distilled water. If you are starting a larger hydroponic operation, it would be a good idea to have a water analysis completed. Factors such as sodium chloride (NaCl, or salt) content and hardness will be of great use to growers. Also, groundwater can have elements normally not present in conditioned water. A key piece of advice: Get to know your water!
Many people have never heard of astigmatism, although it is an extremely common eye condition. Astigmatism is one type of refractive error. Nearsightedness and farsightedness are other types of refractive error. Refractive errors are not eye diseases. Refractive error is a result of and imperfection of the size and shape of the eye, which results in blurry or double vision. If left untreated, astigmatism may cause eyestrain, headaches, and blurry vision. If you have astigmatism you may not see objects in the distance or near without some form of distortion. Symptoms of Astigmatism Small amounts of astigmatism can go unnoticed, however, you may be suffering from eye fatigue, eyestrain, and headaches. Astigmatism is a condition that usually can develops early in childhood. According to a study from The Ohio State University School of Optometry, 28% of school age children suffer from astigmatism. Parents should be aware that their children might not notice that their vision is blurry, not understanding that this is not normal. Nevertheless, astigmatism should be treated because vision problems can lead to learning problems and in extracurricular activities. Make sure to have your child’s eyes examined at an eye doctor’s office at least once a year. Causes of Astigmatism Astigmatism is generally caused by a cornea with an irregular shape. The cornea is the front, clear layer of the eye. With astigmatism, the cornea is not round and spherical and is instead irregular having two curves instead of one curve. Astigmatism in some cases could also be caused by the lens located inside the eye that is irregular in shape. Eyes with astigmatism distort the light that comes into the eyes because the cornea is irregularly shaped. This causes the light rays entering the eye to create two images in the back of the eye (because of the two curves), instead of one image. This is what causes the distortion in sight. Treatments for Astigmatism For most people, their astigmatism is fully corrected using prescription glasses or contact lenses. If you select contact lenses to correct your vision, soft contact lenses are the most common option. If for whatever reason soft contact lenses are not an option, rigid gas permeable (RGP or GP) are also a great choice. Rigid gas permeable lenses usually give the clearest vision but the adaptation process will be significantly longer. Another option are hybrid contact lenses. These contacts have a center made from a rigid gas permeable (RGP) lens and an outer ring made of soft contact lens material. This type of lens provides both excellent clarity and comfort. LASIK could be another option to correct astigmatism. LASIK usually only corrects low levels of astigmatism and some patients with higher levels of astigmatism might not be candidates.
When raising a child, there are a number of positive qualities you likely want to instill. From bravery and courage to intelligence and honesty, promoting the development of such traits is often a priority. Of the long list of positive qualities, parents may find that kindness is one of the most valuable and desirable traits for a child to have. Because of this, it is important to acknowledge and adopt the various methods you can use to help your children learn how to be kind. Children, especially those at a young age, often learn best through observation and mimicry. Naturally, then, one of the best ways to instill thoughts and behaviors of kindness in your children is to be kind yourself. Being kind to your children, your partner, and strangers helps show your children that kindness should be unconditional and can be shown to everyone. Additionally, demonstrate kindness in the way you speak about other people, especially when they aren’t present; rather than teach your children to buy into gossip and negatively, instead promote kindness and genuine appreciation and respect for others. Think Before You Speak It can be easy for parents to instinctually correct rude, inconsiderate, and unkind behavior without thinking about how things are phrased. Rather than correct behavior, you should encourage discussion and connection to help your child understand why their behavior is wrong and how they can move forward in a positive, kind way. A key takeaway from this practice is that it is productive to discipline yourself before you discipline a child; control what you say and do to ensure you practice what you preach. Share Positive Media Negativity is rampant in all forms of media. From news outlets sharing tragic stories to social media producing an endless stream of negative influence, children are exposed to negativity from an early age. While some parents may consider that attempting to eliminate all media is the best option, doing so can isolate your child and lead to some form of resentment. Instead, promote positive media for your child’s consumption. Watching films and T.V. shows together, sharing books with positive messages, and generally teaching your child to be positive, hopeful, and critical of what they see online can help limit the negative influence of media and instill kindness in your child. Kindness is a valuable trait in today’s society. Teaching your children to be kind and working to develop your own kindness can help improve their lives and make the world a better place one individual at a time.
Anti-crepuscular rays are beams of sunlight that appear to converge on a point opposite the sun. They are similar to crepuscular rays, but are seen opposite the sun in the sky. Anti-crepuscular rays are most frequently visible near sunrise or sunset. This photo of anti-crepuscular rays was taken at sunset in Boulder, Colorado. Crepuscular rays are usually much brighter than anti-crepuscular rays. Click on image for full size Image Courtesy of Carlye Calvin Have you ever seen clouds in the sky that looked different than "normal" clouds? Or have you wondered why rainbows form? Sometimes there are phenomena in the sky that are affected by light and make clouds and the atmosphere look very colorful or unique. Atmospheric optics shows us how light behaves as it passes through the atmosphere. From rainbows to the northern lights, these optical features are dynamic and allow us to learn about atmospheric conditions. Some of these phenomena can be seen very often, and some are once in a lifetime sights. In some instances, dust, small particles, and moisture droplets scatter light to make the sun's rays visible while clouds and mountain shadows are dark by comparison, creating crepuscular rays or anti-crepuscular rays. In other cases, air and very small particles can scatter colors selectively to make skies blue or sunsets appear to be on fire. Misty clouds and fog contain tiny water droplets that produce strange optical effects that are mostly ringed and brightly colored, including iridescent clouds and glory. Tiny ice crystals in the atmosphere can create halos by refracting and reflecting light. There are many beautiful examples like these of light and color at work in the atmosphere. Visit the Photo Album of Atmospheric Optics and the Atmospheric Optics Image Gallery to see images of many types of these phenomena, as well as information on how they form. You might also be interested in: Rainbows appear in the sky when there is bright sunlight and rain. Sunlight is known as visible or white light and is actually a mixture of colors. Rainbows result from the refraction and reflection of...more Aerosols, also called particulates, are tiny bits of solid or liquid suspended in the air. Some aerosols are so small that they are made only of a few molecules – so small that they are invisible because...more Fog is a ground-level cloud. There are several ways that fog forms. It usually forms when moist air travels over cold land or water. The moist air cools down and the water vapor condenses and forms a cloud...more Noctilucent clouds (NLC’s) or polar mesospheric clouds (PMC’s) are found very high in the Earth's atmosphere (about 85,300 meters above the Earth's surface!). They are called Polar Mesospheric Clouds when...more Altocumulus clouds (weather symbol - Ac), are made primarily of liquid water and have a thickness of 1 km. They are part of the Middle Cloud group (2000-7000m up). They are grayish-white with one part...more Altostratus clouds (weather symbol - As) consist of water and some ice crystals. They belong to the Middle Cloud group (2000-7000m up). An altostratus cloud usually covers the whole sky and has a gray...more Cirrocumulus clouds (weather symbol - Cc) are composed primarily of ice crystals and belong to the High Cloud group (5000-13000m). They are small rounded puffs that usually appear in long rows. Cirrocumulus...more
Ever since climate change become a widely-recognized problem, international leaders have been looking at forests as one of the best opportunities for greenhouse gas mitigation. One thing that they overlooked, up until very recently, is that forests aren’t just full of trees. Millions of people live in the world’s remaining forests, and evidence is mounting that indigenous communities are not only the best managers of the land, but are indispensable allies in the climate fight. Most of the world’s forest-rich countries have been battling with deforestation and land conflicts for decades. But only now, encouraged by mounting evidence, are international donors and leaders recognizing that when it comes to forests, climate action and land tenure are two sides of the same coin. “It’s absolutely clear that reducing deforestation and protecting forests, at least for the next two decades, is the only viable carbon capture and storage technology,” Penny Davies, forests program officer with the Ford Foundation, told Earther. So far, advocacy has primarily focused on ensuring that indigenous people can keep living in their traditional forest homelands without being kicked out by the first company with permission to bulldoze. But today, real resources are being set aside to ensure these peoples also have the power to decide how their forests should be managed. In early October, the International Land and Forest Tenure Facility formally launched as an independent non-profit after several years of development, immediately becoming a focal point of the nascent effort to merge climate mitigation with indigenous peoples’ and local communities’ land tenure rights. The project was created by The Rights and Resources Initiative (RRI), and works in coordination with initiatives such as the Interlaken Group and MegaFlorestaisto to build support for land and forest rights. In its beta stage, the initiative has already started overseeing six pilot projects aimed at solving land disputes in countries at risk of forest loss or degradation: Cameroon, Liberia, Mali, Panama, Peru, and Indonesia. While deforestation is the primary threat to forests, degradation, where the canopy thins and becomes less healthy, is a more subtle but equally serious issue. A recent study found that so much of the world’s tropical tree cover is degraded that these forests are becoming a carbon emitter rather than carbon sink on a global scale. Part of the problem stems from the fact that people who have been living in and managing these forests for millennia are being forgotten. “Over 50 percent of the surface of the global land area is used by people, but governments recognize and grant them ownership of just 10 percent of it,” Andy White, a coordinator with the International Land and Forest Tenure Facility, told Earther. “It’s this huge gap that explains a lot about conflicts and also deforestation, because historically governments in developing countries have seen those lands as empty and given them out to developers.” A landmark study published last year showed that indigenous people manage more than 24 percent of the total carbon stored in the canopy of the world’s tropical forests. That’s more than 250 times the amount of CO2 emitted by global air travel in 2015, and it’s a conservative estimate, Alain Frechette, one of the authors with the NGO Rights and Resources Initiative (RRI), told Earther. “We don’t know how many people live in the forests globally, because only a small part of their territory is recognized by the governments.” For that study, the researchers matched detailed datasets on how much carbon is stored in a given forest ecosystem with information on land tenure to estimate how many people live in and manage the forest overall. The findings add to an expanding body of evidence indicating that where communities have legal rights over their land, biodiversity is more robust and deforestation lower. This makes sense, because for indigenous communities, the forest is home—the source of their livelihood and food, and a crucial part of their culture. “Their longstanding relationship with nature means that indigenous people have very sophisticated management systems,” Davies told Earther. “For example, in some tropical forests, indigenous settlements are dotted with well-tended jungle gardens. They cut little patches for rice that [after the harvest] regenerate into wild vegetation again.” Indigenous people, Davies said, “have the right to say yes, we are actually a climate solution. And if you don’t protect them, giving them tenure security, then we’ve got a major problem.” In recent years, indigenous people all over the world have embraced environmental activism as part of their efforts to assert rights to their land. In the United States, the movement against the Dakota Access Pipeline grew from the defense of ancient tribal lands and local water resources to a countrywide battle against big polluters and corporate interests. The legal aspect of these recent fights often marks a shift from the antagonistic approach against the state that characterized many mainstream environmentalist movements of the past. Today, the protection of natural resources is becoming part of the wide range of human rights that indigenous people are reclaiming, not only in the forest, but also in court. Indonesia is another example of a country where the battle for land rights and the environment is happening through legal means. With 30 percent of its area under industrial concession, between 2001 and 2012, the country ranked first for emissions from deforestation. After a 2013 court ruling declared that the state had wrongly appropriated indigenous land, the government committed to transfer management of 12.7 million hectares of forest back in the hands of indigenous communities. “There is no empty land in Indonesia, but the government failed to acknowledge that for a long time,” Muh Arman, a lawyer with the Indonesian advocacy group AMAN, which in Indonesian stands for Indigenous Peoples’ Alliance of the Archipelago, told Earther. AMAN has already been working with the International Land and Forest Tenure Facility to facilitate community mapping as a first step for indigenous people to reclaim their rights to own and use the land. Measuring and identifying borders is crucial to submit a successful, evidenced-based claim to a government. Dewi Sutejo, project manager of the Indonesia Community Mapping Networks, told Earther that the group has so far consolidated data about around 20 million hectares of land. The information it presents in its interactive online portal is particularly detailed because it is based on the work of local communities, trained to make maps with GPS on a mobile device. “We only facilitate the work of communities that require our assistance, for example when they face landgrabs from the palm oil industry,” she said. “People know that mapping is the best way to protect their rights over the land, because the government will ask for evidence that a territory is inhabited before granting ownership.” Although much is already being done in Indonesia, growing international support could help ramp up efforts and create a model that could be replicated and adapted to other forest-rich countries. “The only way to protect forests is to support these communities,” said Davies. “By securing tenure you protect the environment, and with that you will build a bridge into the fossil fuel-free future that we are waiting for.” Lou is a science and climate journalist who reports on how environmental changes are reshaping our world in unexpected ways.
Croup is an inflammation of the larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), and large airways occurring in young children. The illness may begin with a runny nose, followed several days later by a harsh, barky (seal-like) cough, and hoarse voice. As the windpipe below the voice box narrows, noisy breathing (stridor) occurs as the child breathes in. Symptoms of croup often start suddenly during the night when the child awakens with a cough. Fever frequently is present.
The word periodontal means “around the tooth”. Periodontal disease attacks the gums and the bone that support the teeth. Plaque is a sticky film of food debris, bacteria, and saliva. If plaque is not removed, it turns into calculus (tartar). When plaque and calculus are not removed, they begin to destroy the gums and bone. Periodontal disease is characterized by red, swollen, and bleeding gums. Four out of five people have periodontal disease and don’t know it! Most people are not aware of it because the disease is usually painless in the early stages. Not only is it the number one reason for tooth loss, research suggests that there may be a link between periodontal disease and other diseases such as, stroke, bacterial pneumonia, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and increased risk during pregnancy. Researchers are determining if inflammation and bacteria associated with periodontal disease affects these systemic diseases and conditions. Smoking also increases the risk of periodontal disease. Good oral hygiene, a balanced diet, and regular dental visits can help reduce your risk of developing periodontal disease. Signs and symptoms of periodontal disease: - Bleeding gums – Gums should never bleed, even when you brush vigorously or use dental floss. - Loose teeth – Also caused by bone loss or weakened periodontal fibers (fibers that support the tooth to the bone). - New spacing between teeth – Caused by bone loss. - Persistent bad breath – Caused by bacteria in the mouth. - Pus around the teeth and gums – Sign that there is an infection present. - Receding gums – Loss of gum around a tooth. - Red and puffy gums – Gums should never be red or swollen. - Tenderness or Discomfort – Plaque, calculus, and bacteria irritate the gums and teeth.
Association is a way of defining a relationship between classes of objects. Two classes are said to be associate with each other if they are related with each other in some way. Types of Association: Important definitions for association: Subclass/child class/ derived class: A class which is derived from another class. Super class/ parent class/ Base class: A class from which subclass is derived. Let us take the example of Student and MCAStudent. A MCAStudent is derived from Student class and can inherit the properties from Student class. So MCAStudent is a subclass and Student is a super class here. Note: Every class in java except object class have a super class (object class is a super class of all classes). Next Topic: Inheritance in java with examples. Previous Topic: Dynamic method dispatch or Runtime polymorphism in java with example.
Precocious puberty is when a child's body begins changing into that of an adult (puberty) too soon. When puberty begins before age 8 in girls and before age 9 in boys, it is considered precocious puberty. Puberty includes rapid growth of bones and muscles, changes in body shape and size, and development of the body's ability to reproduce. The cause of precocious puberty often can't be found. Rarely, certain conditions, such as infections, hormone disorders, tumors, brain abnormalities or injuries, may cause precocious puberty. Treatment for precocious puberty typically includes medication to delay further development. Precocious puberty signs and symptoms include development of the following before age 8 in girls and before age 9 in boys. - Breast growth and first period in girls - Enlarged testicles and penis, facial hair and deepening voice in boys - Pubic or underarm hair - Rapid growth - Adult body odor When to see a doctor Make an appointment with your child's doctor for an evaluation if your child has any of the signs or symptoms of precocious puberty. To understand what causes precocious puberty in some children, it's helpful to know what causes puberty to begin. The brain starts the process with the production of a hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). When this hormone reaches the pituitary gland — a small bean-shaped gland at the base of your brain — it leads to the production of more hormones in the ovaries for females (estrogen) and the testicles for males (testosterone). Estrogen is involved in the growth and development of female sexual characteristics. Testosterone is responsible for the growth and development of male sexual characteristics. Why this process begins early in some children depends on whether they have central precocious puberty or peripheral precocious puberty. Central precocious puberty The cause for this type of precocious puberty often can't be identified. In central precocious puberty, the puberty process starts too soon. The pattern and timing of the steps in the process are otherwise normal. For the majority of children with this condition, there's no underlying medical problem and no identifiable reason for the early puberty. In rare cases, central precocious puberty may be caused by: - A tumor in the brain or spinal cord (central nervous system) - A defect in the brain present at birth, such as excess fluid buildup (hydrocephalus) or a noncancerous tumor (hamartoma) - Radiation to the brain or spinal cord - Injury to the brain or spinal cord - McCune-Albright syndrome — a rare genetic disease that affects bones and skin color and causes hormonal problems - Congenital adrenal hyperplasia — a group of genetic disorders involving abnormal hormone production by the adrenal glands - Hypothyroidism — a condition in which the thyroid gland doesn't produce enough hormones Peripheral precocious puberty Estrogen or testosterone in your child's body causes this type of precocious puberty. The less common peripheral precocious puberty occurs without the involvement of the hormone in your brain (GnRH) that normally triggers the start of puberty. Instead, the cause is release of estrogen or testosterone into the body because of problems with the ovaries, testicles, adrenal glands or pituitary gland. In both girls and boys, the following may lead to peripheral precocious puberty: - A tumor in the adrenal glands or in the pituitary gland that releases estrogen or testosterone - McCune-Albright syndrome, a rare genetic disorder that affects the skin color and bones and causes hormonal problems - Exposure to external sources of estrogen or testosterone, such as creams or ointments In girls, peripheral precocious puberty may also be associated with: - Ovarian cysts - Ovarian tumors In boys, peripheral precocious puberty may also be caused by: - A tumor in the cells that make sperm (germ cells) or in the cells that make testosterone (Leydig cells). - A rare disorder called gonadotropin-independent familial sexual precocity, which is caused by a defect in a gene, can result in the early production of testosterone in boys, usually between ages 1 and 4. Factors that increase a child's risk of precocious puberty include: - Being a girl. Girls are much more likely to develop precocious puberty. - Being African-American. Precocious puberty appears to affect African-Americans more often than children of other races. - Being obese. Children who are significantly overweight have a higher risk of developing precocious puberty. - Being exposed to sex hormones. Coming in contact with an estrogen or testosterone cream or ointment, or other substances that contain these hormones (such as an adult's medication or dietary supplements), can increase your child's risk of developing precocious puberty. - Having other medical conditions. Precocious puberty may be a complication of McCune-Albright syndrome or congenital adrenal hyperplasia — conditions that involve abnormal production of the male hormones (androgens). In rare cases, precocious puberty may also be associated with hypothyroidism. - Having received radiation therapy of the central nervous system. Radiation treatment for tumors, leukemia or other conditions can increase the risk of precocious puberty. Possible complications of precocious puberty include: - Short height. Children with precocious puberty may grow quickly at first and be tall, compared with their peers. But, because their bones mature more quickly than normal, they often stop growing earlier than usual. This can cause them to be shorter than average as adults. Early treatment of precocious puberty, especially when it occurs in very young children, can help them grow taller than they would without treatment. - Social and emotional problems. Girls and boys who begin puberty long before their peers may be extremely self-conscious about the changes occurring in their bodies. This may affect self-esteem and increase the risk of depression or substance abuse. Some of the risk factors for precocious puberty, such as sex and race, can't be avoided. But, there are things you can do to reduce your child's chances of developing precocious puberty, including: - Keeping your child away from external sources of estrogen and testosterone — such as prescription medications for adults in the house or dietary supplements containing estrogen or testosterone - Encouraging your child to maintain a healthy weight

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