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(A - G) (Q - Z) Habitat - Food, water, shelter, and space together make up an organism's habitat. Without any one of these four things, the organism would not be able to survive. Hardwood - A tree made of tough material. Many hardwood trees are used by people to make houses, furniture, tools, or other objects. Head - The place where the brain and sense organs of most animals is located. With insects, the head is the first of three sections (head, thorax, abdomen). It contains eyes, antennae, and mouthparts. Hedge - A group of shrubs grown in a line by people to make a barrier or fence. Some birds and other small animals use the hedge for nesting or shelter. Herbivore - An animal that eats mostly plants. Hermaphrodite - An animal that has both male and female body parts. When hermaphroditic animals, such as earthworms and slugs, mate, each animal is then able to lay eggs. Hibernate - To be inactive during Winter. Many insects, most reptiles and amphibians, and some mammals hibernate. Honeydew - A sweet, sticky liquid released by some insects (especially aphids). Other insects used honeydew as food, and carpenter ants will actually "farm" aphids and protect them from predators. Host - One of the organisms in a parasitic relationship. A parasite grows on or inside the host. The host is not helped by the parasite, and is usually harmed. For example, Common Milkweed is a host plant of the Monarch butterfly. Monarch caterpillars eat milkweed as they grow. Incubate - When a bird sits on its eggs to keep them warm as baby birds grow inside. Sometimes the male or female, or both, incubate the eggs. Incubation usually lasts for a week or more. Turltles and snakes will often bury their eggs to incubate underground by themselves. Insect - Six-legged animals in the Arthropod Phylum. Insects also have an exoskeleton (hard part is on the outside) and three main body sections (head, thorax, and abodmen). Most insects also have wings, though not all of them fly. The Insect Class includes bees, ants, beetles, butterflies, moths, flies, crickets, fleas, and many others. Introduce - When a new organism is brought to an environment where it did not live before. Introduced species can cause great problems for native species and for people. Invertebrate - An animal without a backbone. Invertebrates include insects, arachnids (spiders & ticks), gastropods (snails & slugs), crustaceans (crayfish & isopods), centipedes, worms, and others. Kingdom - The largest group for classification of living things (taxonomy). There are five kingdoms that scientists put all living things (organims) into: Animal Kingdom, Plant Kingdom, Fungi Kingdom, Protist Kingdom, Moneran Kingdom. Each kingdom is then divided into smaller groups called a phylum. Lake - A large body of water. Usually fed by several streams. Larger and deeper than a pond. Larva (more than one = larvae) - An early stage of life for animals that go through metamporphosis (cycle of change). With most insects, larvae hatch from eggs, then become pupae (cocoons), then become adults. With frogs, larvae (tadpoles) hatch from eggs, then slowly turn into frogs (adults). Other animals, including salamanders, mussels, and ticks have larva stages. Leaf - Small, flat, green part of a plant. Leaves are important because they use sunlight to turn carbon dioxide (a waste gas) into oxygen (the gas all animals need to breathe). Leaflet - Smaller, "mini-leaf." Some leaves are made up of several leaflets. Leaf Litter - Dead leaves, bits of bark, and other dead plant matter. Leaf litter is the main shelter for many small animals, including insects, centipedes, and isopods. Lichen - A combination of two organisms, a fungus and an algae. The two organisms must grow together. Lichens are usually crusty growths seen on tree trunks or rocks. Life Cycle - The period of time that it takes for an organism to live its entire life. Some animals, such as insects, change their shape several times during their life cycle. These changes are called "metamorphosis." Litter - A group of young; usually mammals. Lobe - A rounded part that sticks out. Many leaves have lobes. Sometimes they look like fingers on a hand. You can often tell what kind of tree it is by counting the lobes on a leaf and looking at their shape. Lungs - Body organs used by animals to breathe oxygen from the air. Animals with lungs must be able to breathe air, although some can hold their breaths under water for a long time. Maggot - Fly larva. Mammal - Warm-blooded, usually hairy animals from the Chordate Phylum. This class of animals breathes air, gives live birth, and feeds milk to their young. Human beings are members of the Mammal Class, as well as dogs, cats, deer, mice, squirrels, raccoons, bats, opossums, and others. Marsh - An area with soft, wet land (also called "wetland"). Marshes are very important because they help clean polluted water, and because many animals and plants live there. Matter - A type of substance. For example, "plant matter" is material made of plants or plant parts. Meadow - Another name for field, especially one growing wild. Metamorphosis - The "cycle of change." Some animals go through metamorphosis, or stages of a life cycle. With insects, most usually go through a four stage cycle (1 = egg, 2 = larva, 3 = pupa, 4 = adult). This is called complete metamorphosis. For other insects, incomplete metamorphosis is when the cycle only has three stages (1 = egg, 2 = nymph, 3 = adult). Aquatic insects go through incomplete metamorphosis because life is too difficult in the water to have a pupa (resting) stage. Besides insects, other animals that go through metamorhposis include frogs (egg, tadpole, adult) and some salamanders. Ticks have their own metamorphosis (egg, larva, nymph, adult). Migrate - To move from one area to another. Sometimes animals, especially birds, move to a new area when the seasons change. Usually birds migrate south for the Winter, then back north for the Summer. This is so they can survive at a comfortable temperature and have plenty of food. Mimic - 1. A species that looks very similar to another species. For example, the Viceroy butterfly looks a lot like the Monarch butterfly. Monarchs are poisonous to most predators, but Viceroys are not. Since the Viceroy is a mimic of the Monarch, it gets protection from predators. 2. To copy or behave like another species. Some birds, such as mockingbirds and starlings, mimic the songs of other birds. Minnow - Any of many species of small fish. Minnows are an important food source for larger fish and other animals. They are often used as bait for fishing. Mollusk - An animal in the Mollusk Phylum. Mollusks have soft bodies, which are usually inside a shell. Most of them live in water. This phylum includes clams, mussels, snails, and slugs. Molt - To shed a coat (fur), feathers or skin. In the Summer, mammals molt their winter coats. Birds often molt old feathers for new ones. Insect larvae and crayfish molt their exoskeletons (outer skin or shell) for newer, larger ones. Moss - Very short, small green plants from the Bryophyta phylum. Mushroom - The "flowering" part of a fungus. The main body of a fungus is a network of tiny thread-like parts, called mycelium. Mushrooms grow from the mycelium during a particular season and release tiny dust-like spores. Spores travel by wind, water, or animal and hopefully start a new fungus in a new location. Mutualsim - A relationship between two organisms where both species benefit. See the Relationships page for more explanation. Mycelium - (more than one = mycelia) The thread-like body of a fungus. Most people think of mushrooms when they think of fungi, but mushrooms are just a part of the organism. Mushrooms "bloom" much like flowers do at certain times of the year. The actual main part of the fungus is the mycelia. Mycorrhizal Relationship - An example of mutualism where a species of fungus (mushroom) wraps itself around a trees' roots. The mushrom pulls nutrients from the tree to grow, and at the same time delivers nutrients from the soil to the tree. Naiad - Another name for nymph. Naiad is used to refer to the nymph stage of aquatic insects, such as dragonflies. Native - Originally from a place. Native plants and animals are organisms that were here before people came. Sometimes new species are introduced to a place. These new species are called "invaders" or "non-natives." Nectar - A sweet liquid made by flowers. It attracts insects, such as bees and butterflies, as well as hummingbirds. Bees also use it to make honey. Needle - The leaf of a pine tree. Pine leaves are long and skinny, not flat and rounded like most leaves. Nematode - Tiny, microscopic animals, also called "roundworms." Some nematodes are important decomposers in the soil. Others live in water, and some are parasites. Neutralism - A relationship between two organisms where neither is helped nor harmed. See the Relationships page for more explanation. Nocturnal - Is active mostly at night. Nutrient - Something that provides nourishment. Food for an animal, plant, fungi, or other organism. Nymph - A stage in the life cycle of insects that do not go through complete metamorphosis (cycle of change). Most insects have four stages (1 = egg, 2 = larva, 3 = pupa, 4 = adult), but some only have three stages. This is called incomplete metamorphosis (1 = egg, 2 = nymph, 3 = adult). With incomplete metamorphosis, nymphs hatch from eggs and slowly change into adults. There is no pupa, or resting stage. Most aquatic insects have a nymph stage, since a pupa (coccoon) could not survive underwater. A few land insects, such as grasshoperrs and crickets, have a nymph stage also. Omnivore - An animal that eats both other animals and vegetable foods. Order - The fourth group that scientists classify living things into. Each class is split into orders. Example: The Rodent Order is in the Mammal Class. Organism - Any lifeform. It may be a plant, animal, fungi, protist, or moneran. This website was designed to study the different organisms in Northern Virginia and see how they interact with each other. Ovate - A leaf shaped like an oval. Overwinter - When an animal survives the Winter and lives until the following Spring. Many insects die when the weather gets cold, but some overwinter. Ovipositor - A long needle-like tube on the abdomens of some female insects. The ovipositor is used to inject eggs into soil or plant stems. Species that have ovipositors include crickets and crane flies. Oxygen - A gas that all animals need to live. Some animals have lungs to get oxygen from the air, others have gills to get oxygen from water. Palmate - A leaf shaped like a hand with fingers stretched out. Parasite - An organism which lives off another oganism (called a host). A parasite usually grows on or inside its host. It also often, but not always, feeds on it. A parasite does not help its host in any way. Parasitism - A relationship where one organism (called a parasite) lives off another (called a host). It may live on or inside the host. A parasite does not help the host. Sometimes it hurts the host, sometimes it does not. See the Relationships page for more explanation. Parthenogenesis - The process by which the female of a species is able to reproduce without a male. Perennial - A plant that does not die when the weather gets cold. Sometimes the leaves and stems above ground die, but the plant sends up new ones from its roots in the Spring. Pest - An organism that people find bothersome. Mosquitos, ticks, dandelions, crabgrass, and yellow jackets are often called pests because they annoy people. Petiole - The stem of a leaf. Photosynthesis - The process where a plant creates oxygen from carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis is very important, since plants make oxygen for animals (including people) to breathe. Phylum (more than one = phyla) - The second largest group that scientists classify living things into. Each Kingdom (Animal, Plant, Fungi, Protist, Moneran) is split into phyla. Example: The Chordate Phylum (animals with backbones) is in the Animal Kingdom. Pinnae - Smaller "mini-leaves" on a leaflet. Pinnate - Describes a leaf made up of smaller leaflets; usually on both sides of a stem. Each leaflet is called a "pinna" (more than one called "pinnae"). Pioneer - A plant that is one of the first to take over an area. For example, after a fire burns all the trees and wildlife in an area (or after people bulldoze), certain weeds and other plants will"pioneer trees." Plankton - A collection of microscopic organisms, including algae, animals, and protists, that float in huge numbers in water. Plankton is usually in largest numbers near the surface. Many animals feed on plankton, including young fish. Zooplankton is plankton that is mostly tiny animals, rather than plants. Plant - An organism in the Plant Kingdom. Plants do not have the ability to move like animals, but they are able to make their own food by pulling water and nutrients from the soil, and by using light. Plants provide food for animals and fungi. Includes trees, shrubs, vines, weeds, wildflowers, ferns, mosses, grasses, and others. Pod - A type of fruit that contains several seeds in it. Pods will split open when ripe and release the seeds. Poison - A substance that causes harm to an organism when the organism ingests (eats) it. Poisons can vary in strength; sometimes a poison just makes the organism sick, other times it may kill it. Many species of mushrooms and plants are poisonous to humans. Poison should not be confused with venom. Pollen - A fine powder made by flowers. With flowering plants, pollen must get from one flower to another flower for a plant to make fruit. Most plants depend on bees or other insects to "pollinate" flowers. Pollinate - To transfer pollen from the flower of one plant to another plant of the same species. This allows the plant to grow fruits and seeds so it can grow new plants. Bees and other insects help most plants spread by pollinating them. Polypore - A type of fungus which is usually shelf-like and often grows on the trunks of trees. Artist's Conk and Mossy Maple Polypore are two examples. Pond - A usually mostly still body of water, smaller than a lake. Usually fed by a small stream. Predation - A relationship where one organism eats another for food. See the Relationships page for more explanation. Predator - An animal that eats another animal for food. Prey - An animal that is eaten by another animal for food. Primary - First or most important. A "primary food source" means a food that an animal eats most. Proboscis - A mouthpart of an insect, usually long and skinny. Mosquitos have a proboscis to suck blood; butterflies and moths have a coiled up proboscis which they unravel to suck nectar from flowers. Protozoa - A group of organisms in the Protist Kingdom. Examples of protozoa include amoebas, euglena, and paramecium. Pupa (more than one = pupae) - The third stage of life for insects (1 = egg, 2 = larva, 3 = pupa, 4 = adult). An insect larva changes into a pupa in order to make a final change into an adult insect. This is a resting stage where the insect usually doesn't move around or eat. With moths, the pupa is called a "coccoon." With butterflies, it is a "chrysalis." For most insects, we just call it a "pupa."
Work your imagination! (Also view Checklist for writing Descriptive Essays) Teaching Descriptive writing for Beginners: One of the very popular games played by children is ‘name , place, and a thing. Children have to write down a name of a person, place, or a country beginning with any alphabet. This has proved to be very helpful with my students while teaching them to think through their imaginative eye. However, this can be modified by asking the students why they came up with a particular name or a place. This would stir their critical imagination and would also help them think about their personal association with a certain person or a place that they had never consciously thought of. \|Alphabet ‘O’\|\|Why did you think of it and are there any personal associations?\| - Another very interesting game of imagination is where you can ask your student to come up with any emotion such as anger, love, betrayal e.t.c that instantly comes to their mind. - Later, ask them to associate this particular emotion with anything that instantly pops in their minds, for instance if they think of anger, what is the next thing that anger reminds them of.;s a pot full of boiling water or a bursting volcano? - Now ask them ‘WHY’ they thought of a boiling water or else. ‘I remember once a student said that anger brought an image of a gray colour in his mind. When inquired ‘WHY’ he couldn’t answer.Later he confessed that he had never realised that a grey pant reminded him of his childhood when he was forced to wear an unimpressive grey pant to school which until he participated in this activity he had never actually realised, why the colour grey popped in his mind whenever he was angry’. - Later, make them associate their emotion with an unusual metaphor \|What instantly comes to your mind ? What makes you think of it?\|\|Metaphor/Simile\|\|Sound\|\|Touch\|\|Hearing\|\|Visual Image\| Activity 3-whet your senses Close your eyes and jot down all the words you hear in this class room Remember to think of all the metaphors you can think to be associated with these sounds. Now write a paragraph using these words. Write S or M against the sentences which are metaphors and similes. 1. It was It was autumn and the leaves were reddish- brown It was autumn and the trees were aflame. 2. The old man’s face was wrinkled. The old man’s face was like a withered apple 3. Her laugh was high pitched. Her laugh tinkled like ice in a glass. 4. The waiting passengers pushed onto the train. The waiting passengers stormed the train 5. The rain beat loudly on the roof. The rain drummed on the roof Change the following sentences inserting metaphors and similes. - Life is but a walking shadow. - The hail fell on the windows. - It started to rain. - The child was crying - The woman got angry. - The football stadium was crowded. 1. Can descriptive writing be a narrative? 2. Can a narrative be descriptive? 3 Can Descriptive Essays have dialogues? 4. Can Discursive essays be argumentative? 5. ’ If I exceed the word count will my grade be affected?’ 6. How long should a Descriptive essay be? 7. ‘My teacher said to get a good grade O-level students should use good vocabulary. 8. ‘Every time I use difficult words i do not get a good grade’. Why? 9. How will I know that I am not overusing difficult words? 10. Is there a difference between writing a descriptive essay in section 2, paper 1 and describing an account of an accident in section 1 (Directed Writing) 11. ‘ My teacher says that the candidate can get more marks in descriptive essays and they are the most easy to attempt.’ 12. Are descriptive essays are based on real incidents only? 13. Should we only use the sense of sight when we describe something? 14. Do we have a thesis statement in descriptive essay writing? 15. We don’t need a topic sentence/thesis statement in descriptive and narrative essays as we need in discursive and argumentative essays. Note: See the answers in the previous posts on descriptive essay writing.(‘FAQs about Descriptive Essays‘)
In 2010, a study revealed that the main agent of malaria in humans, called Plasmodium falciparum, arose from the gorilla. Today, the vector which transmitted the parasite from apes to humans has just been identified. A Franco-Gabonese research consortium has determined which species of anopheles mosquitoes transfer the disease to apes. Among them is Anopheles moucheti, known for biting humans! Therefore, it must be the species which originally infected us through our cousins. And it could do it again today. The same vector IRD and CNRS researchers, in addition to their Gabonese partners based in the CIRMF in Franceville, wanted to determine the identity of the mosquitoes which transmit malaria to apes. To this end, they caught a thousand mosquitoes of the Anopheles genus, in close proximity to groups of wild or semi-wild primates. They then conducted analyses on the insects collected, belonging to fifteen different species, in order to detect which ones were infected by the Plasmodium malaria parasites. Two species of mosquitoes were thus revealed to be contaminated by these pathogenic agents. Anopheles moucheti was one of them – a major vector for humans in Central Africa. This species is therefore both primatophilic and anthropophilic. Since gorillas are the origin of the disease in humans, this species would have enabled the transmission of the infection from apes to humans thousands of years ago. A relatively unknown disease Despite its major impact on public health, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, there are still several grey areas regarding the parasite and its vector. In particular, how the disease is transmitted to great apes was a controversial question until now. By analogy with the transmission methods observed in humans, scientists guessed that the mosquitoes concerned belonged to the Anopheles genus. However, they still needed to identify the species responsible for contamination among great apes, or those species that transferred the infectious agents from gorillas to humans in the past. The same parasites Not long ago, the evolutionary history of pathogens was also unknown. Over the last 5 years, several species of Plasmodium were discovered in our close cousins, gorillas and chimpanzees. Researchers believed that some of them were specific to humans. In gorillas, they recently described P. praefalciparum, which is the closest genetic relative of P. falciparum, the most virulent infectious agent. Anopheles moucheti could continue to transfer parasites from one mammal to another even today. As such, apes could be a reservoir for humans. The increasingly close interaction between humans and apes, due to deforestation and hunting activities, once again raises the question of the possible eradication of the disease. Conversely, the already documented transfer of the disease from humans to apes could also occur, thereby threatening populations that are already highly endangered. Explore further: Malaria parasite crossed to Man from gorilla: scientists More information: Paupy, C. et al. Anopheles moucheti and Anopheles vinckei are candidate vectors of ape Plasmodium parasites, including Plasmodium praefalciparum in Gabon. PLoS One, 2013, 8(2):e57294. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057294. Franck, P. et al. African great apes are natural hosts of multiple related malaria species, including Plasmodium falciparum. PNAS, 2010, 107 (4), p. 1458-1463. ISSN 0027-8424 fdi:010049221
The accusative case in Latin shows which noun is direct object of the sentence. The direct object receives the action of the verb. In English, the direct object follows the verb. In Latin, the accusative case endings show which noun in the sentence is the direct object no matter where it is. In the following chart, make sure that you notice the difference in endings between the nominative and accusative cases. Predicate Nominatives vs. Direct Objects All sentences have two parts - the subject and the predicate. The subject (nominative) is who or what the sentence is about. The predicate tells what the subject does or is. It includes the verb and its objects. When you have an action verb, a noun that follows and answers who or what is called the direct object (accusative). e.g. Elisabeth killed a spider. In this sentence, Elisabeth performs the action and the unfortunate spider received it directly. In Latin, the noun spider would be in the accusative case. Rule I. When you have an action verb, you have a direct object which is in the accusative. However, you could have a sentence with a linking verb (am, is, are, was, were, etc.). When this happens, a noun that comes after the verb is not being acted upon. This noun renames the subject. e.g. Sarah is a student. In this sentence, Sarah is the subject. But is a student does not show action. It tells us who Sarah is. It renames her. We could even say The student is Sarah and have it mean the same thing. A linking verb is the same as =. In the same way that 2+2=4 and 4=2+2, Sarah = student and student = Sarah. The equations must be equal. So, in a sentence, if the subject is nominative, a noun that comes after a linking verb, which is equal to the subject, must also be in the nominative to balance the equation. There is also another special case that may arise when you have an adjective by itself after a linking verb. e.g. Shaquille is tall. In this sentence, Shaquille is the subject or nominative. Tall modifies Shaquille. Since adjectives and nouns must agree in case, number, and gender, tall (which modifies Shaquille, the subject) has to also be nominative in order to balance our equation. Rule II. After a linking verb, any word that modifies or renames the subject must be in the nominative case. How does this work in Latin? It is the exact same in Latin. e.g., Puella aquam portat. Puella is the subject. Aquam portat is the predicate. The noun aquam receives the action of puella portat and has to be in the accusative case. In the sentence, via est longa, via is the subject, and est longa is the predicate. However, longa modifies the subject, via. Because via is nominative and the adjective longa modifies it, it has to be nominative to agree in case, number, and gender.
Scientists at The Sainsbury Laboratory in Norwich, with collaborators at Michigan State University and the University of Illinois, have unveiled a new way in which plants perceive pathogens to activate immunity. They also show how pathogens inhibit the mechanism to cause disease. It was previously only associated with other processes in mammalian cells. When plants detect microbial molecules, they trigger immune responses to prevent disease. Although several plant immune receptors for these microbial molecules are known, how they are activated once the microbe is recognized is not well understood. In a study published this week in the journal Science, the scientists found that phosphorylation of an amino acid called tyrosine -- phosphorylation being a process that can turn molecules on or off -- is key for activating plant immune receptors. This mechanism is already known to play an essential role in the activation of mammalian receptors, and its mis-regulation is often linked to important chronic diseases. The current study shows for the first time that the modification occurs in plant immune receptors as well. "This finding opens the door to improving crop disease resistance as we can investigate ways to optimize how plants recognize pathogenic microbes," says Professor Cyril Zipfel. "It also provides a new link between our understanding of cellular signalling in plant and animal cells." In the same study, the researchers discovered that pathogenic bacteria use an enzyme secreted within plant cells to derail the plant's immune response. They use an enzyme to remove tyrosine phosphorylation from immune receptors, quelling the plant's signalling mechanisms. Inhibiting the immune response allows bacteria to cause disease. "Our research highlights a battle between hosts and pathogens to take control of an important mechanism," said first author Dr Alberto Macho from The Sainsbury Laboratory. "Control over this mechanism to activate immune receptors determines whether a plant stays healthy or suffers from disease," he says. Cite This Page:
\|Index to this page\| Blood groups are created by molecules present on the surface of red blood cells (and often on other cells as well). The ABO blood groups were the first to be discovered (in 1900) and are the most important in assuring safe blood transfusions. The table shows the four ABO phenotypes ("blood groups") present in the human population and the genotypes that give rise to them. \|Blood Group\|\|Antigens on RBCs\|\|Antibodies in Serum\|\|Genotypes\| \|A\|\|A\|\|Anti-B\|\|AA or AO\| \|B\|\|B\|\|Anti-A\|\|BB or BO\| \|AB\|\|A and B\|\|Neither\|\|AB\| \|O\|\|Neither\|\|Anti-A and Anti-B\|\|OO\| When red blood cells carrying one or both antigens are exposed to the corresponding antibodies, they agglutinate; that is, clump together. People usually have antibodies against those red cell antigens that they lack. \|Human red blood cells before (left) and after (right) adding serum containing anti-A antibodies. The agglutination reaction reveals the presence of the A antigen on the surface of the cells.\| The antigens in the ABO system are O-linked glycoproteins with their sugar residues exposed at the cell surface. The terminal sugar determines whether the antigen is A or B. The critical principle to be followed is that transfused blood must not contain red cells that the recipient's antibodies can clump. Although theoretically it is possible to transfuse group O blood into any recipient, the antibodies in the donated plasma can damage the recipient's red cells. Thus, when possible, transfusions should be done with exactly-matched blood. In 2007, Danish and French investigators reported the properties of two bacterial glycosidases that specifically remove the sugars responsible for the A and B antigens. This discovery raises the possibility of being able to treat A, B, or AB blood with these enzymes and thus convert the blood to Group O, the "universal donor". Why do we have antibodies against red cell antigens that we lack? Bacteria living in our intestine, and probably some foods, express epitopes similar to those on A and B. We synthesize antibodies against these if we do not have the corresponding epitopes; that is, if our immune system sees them as "foreign" rather than "self". Rh antigens are transmembrane proteins with loops exposed at the surface of red blood cells. They appear to be used for the transport of carbon dioxide and/or ammonia across the plasma membrane. They are named for the rhesus monkey in which they were first discovered. There are a number of Rh antigens. Red cells that are "Rh-positive" express the one designated D. About 15% of the population have no RhD antigen and thus are "Rh-negative".The major importance of the Rh system for human health is to avoid the danger of RhD incompatibility between mother and fetus. During birth, there is often a leakage of the baby's red blood cells into the mother's circulation. If the baby is Rh-positive (having inherited the trait from its father) and the mother Rh-negative, these red cells will cause her to develop antibodies against the RhD antigen. The antibodies, usually of the IgG class, do not cause any problems for that child, but can cross the placenta and attack the red cells of a subsequent Rh+ fetus. This destroys the red cells producing anemia and jaundice. The disease, called erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease of the newborn, may be so severe as to kill the fetus or even the newborn infant. It is an example of an antibody-mediated cytotoxicity disorder. \|Other examples of antibody-mediated cytotoxicity disorders.\| Although certain other red cell antigens (in addition to Rh) sometimes cause problems for a fetus, an ABO incompatibility does not. Why is an Rh incompatibility so dangerous when ABO incompatibility is not? It turns out that most anti-A or anti-B antibodies are of the IgM class and these do not cross the placenta. In fact, an Rh−/type O mother carrying an Rh+/type A, B, or AB fetus is resistant to sensitization to the Rh antigen. Presumably her anti-A and anti-B antibodies destroy any fetal cells that enter her blood before they can elicit anti-Rh antibodies in her. This phenomenon has led to an extremely effective preventive measure to avoid Rh sensitization. Shortly after each birth of an Rh+ baby, the mother is given an injection of anti-Rh antibodies. The preparation is called Rh immune globulin (RhIG) or Rhogam. These passively acquired antibodies destroy any fetal cells that got into her circulation before they can elicit an active immune response in her. Rh immune globulin came into common use in the United States in 1968, and within a decade the incidence of Rh hemolytic disease became very low. Several other blood group antigens have been identified in humans. Some examples: MN [Link], Duffy, Lewis, Kell.They, too, may sometimes cause (The Duffy red cell antigen also serves as the receptor for entry by the malaria parasite Plasmodium vivax.)
The simple definition of litigation is: the process of taking legal action. Generally it refers to the process of resolving disputes by filing a claim in the public court system. Litigation is governed by a number of rules for the appropriate court, such as: Rules of Civil Procedure, Rules of Appellate Procedure, and Rules of Evidence. These are supplemented by the local rules of each court and the standing orders of the judges. Generally the major steps in a civil case are as follows: - A complaint is filed with the clerk of the appropriate court. The person filing the complaint is called a plaintiff. - The complaint is served on the other person(s) involved in the dispute (who are called defendants). - The defendant files an answer to the complaint or files a motion to dismiss the case. - The court may conduct a pretrial conference and/or issue a scheduling order for the case. - Parties disclose information and documents and the discovery process moves forward. Depositions of the parties or other witnesses may be taken (which involves questioning the witness under oath). - Defendant may file motions seeking to get the case thrown out or to narrow the issues involved. Plaintiff may also file motions seeking to narrow the issues or address other matters. - The court holds a final pre-trial conference. - The court conducts a trial of the issues in dispute between the parties. Each side presents its evidence as allowed by the rules (in many cases a jury is seated to hear the evidence). - The court renders a judgment on the issues in dispute (if there is a jury generally the judgment is based upon their verdict). - Appeal may be taken by the losing party if they believe there were errors in the handling of the case. - On appeal the parties file briefs setting forth their arguments to the court of appeals. There may be an oral argument before the court of appeals judges. - The appellate judges issue a ruling. - In some circumstances other proceedings may be had after this, but most cases go no further and judgment is final. - The judgment is enforced as is appropriate under the circumstances (which may involve a whole new set of procedures if collecting money damages is involved). At any time during this process the parties may discuss settlement and attempt to resolve their dispute. Often the court will offer, or order, the parties to engage in mediation in an attempt to resolve the case prior to trial. In a mediation proceeding the parties get together with a mediator who tries to facilitate the resolution of the case. Most civil cases filed in court are resolved by settlement or dismissal before trial. If you are involved in litigation it is important to have an attorney to guide you through the process with its complex and often confusing rules. All litigants face deadlines with serious consequences for failure to timely respond or comply. Make sure you understand your rights and responsibilities if you are a party to any litigation or you will likely regret it later.
Immigrants came to America for many reasons, but most came for the possibilities of a free society which would allow them to better their lives and to practice their religion freely. The initial American immigrants, known as the Pilgrims, came because they did not want to be persecuted for their religious beliefs.Know More The Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock and originally came from Europe. The English created the first permanent settlements at Jamestown in the Virginia Colony. From there, dissidents came to America so that they could continue to speak out when they were silenced in their own countries. Then new immigrants came to better their lives and that of their families. Of course, the original inhabitants of America were those who crossed the land bridge that used to exist between Asia and North America. Since World War II, more than four million refugees have come to America in order to find safety and freedom. They flourish in the creative openness that the United States has to offer. However, since the early 1850s when a large number of Asian immigrants arrived, seduced by the California gold rush, the anti-immigrant sentiment has grown. Many native-born Americans were concerned that immigrants would become unwanted competition for jobs. Immigration policy was primarily handled by the states, but the federal government stepped in during 1890.Learn more in Population & Demography According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the number of Chinese people who live in America is 3.79 million as of 2013. Of this figure, more than half (2.2 million) were born in China.Full Answer > French explorers came to the New World, including America, to find a route to the Pacific Ocean and to establish a successful colonial empire. The goal in developing the colonies was to export goods such as sugar, spices, seafood and furs. The major parts of French exploration in America and Canada were under the rule of King Francis I in the 16th century.Full Answer > The Spanish came to America to spread the Christian faith and to expand trade. The Spanish colonization of America was started by the Spanish conquistadors.Full Answer > Many Germans immigrated to America because of civil unrest in their country, a lack of jobs or terrible hardships. In the 19th century, millions of German immigrants came to America and began working in labor-intensive industries.Full Answer >
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency rates coal ash ponds according to a National Inventory of Dams (NID) criteria that categorizes the ponds by the damage that would occur in the event of a dam failure. Coal ash dams are usually built from a combination of soil and ash and often impound millions of tons of toxic coal ash and wastewater. The majority are over 40 years old, and most do not have monitoring to detect leaks of toxic pollutants. There are 331 High and Significant hazard coal ash ponds in the United States. The NID hazard potential ratings refer to the potential for loss of life or damage if there is a dam failure: High Hazard (81 ponds) Failure or mis-operation of these dams will probably cause loss of human life. (Designations of * are based on state determinations. EPA considers the hazard potential of these dams to be significant.) Significant Hazard (250 ponds): Failure or mis-operation of these dams results in no probable loss of human life, but can cause economic loss, environment damage, disruption of lifeline facilities, or impact other concerns.
USU 1320: History and Civilization SECTION 16: The Origins and Invention of Writing Denise Schmandt-Besserat points out that writing is one of the great achievements of humankind, for at least three reasons. First, it represents a revolution in communication across space and time. That is, the ability to write allows our words to move far beyond the normal range of the voice and thus extends the expression of our thoughts geographically and chronologically. On this ability rests every sort of human inquiry, including history. Second, writing enables record-keeping, allowing us to study a prophet's words, engrave a tombstone or collect taxes. Crossing this threshold where the voice cannot go, the written word endures, recording the past for later review and consideration. Third, writing give us a means for scrutinizing and editing our ideas which permits us to rewrite our thoughts. As such, it opens the way to revision and greater rigor of thought, essential in logical processes of every sort, including historical investigation. Thus, the introduction of writing marks an important crux in the history of any civilization, not only because it marks a shift in mentality toward extending communication, keeping records and re-assessing thought but also because it allows a people to live on beyond their own lives and speak to a distant future. On the written word depends every form of learning ever invented, history especially. II. Theories of the Origins of Writing Whether consciously or not, most people today understand how important writing is. We distinguish people as literate or illiterate, and when trying to better others' lives, one of the first things we do is teach them to read and write. Our ancient ancestors also recognized the significance of writing and many had myths recalling its invention. In Egypt, for example, the god Thoth was said to have created hieroglyphics, along with language, magic and medicine. The Mesopotamians traced the invention of writing back to Nisaba, the goddess of granaries, who they said created it to keep records of the goods coming through her temples. Perhaps most interesting of all, at least to the modern world, is the tale preserved in Hebrew lore that Moses received the gift of writing from God along with the Ten Commandments. The Bible, after all, says explicitly that the Decalogue was "written with the finger of God" (Ex. 31:18, cf. Deut. 5.22). Israelite scholars in antiquity subsequently reasoned that God had inscribed these commandments because Moses could not write and, thus, the Hebrews must have been illiterate up until then. In this tradition, then, the Ten Commandments serve as a lesson in both morality and literacy. If a rather odd way of interpreting the Bible, this bit of folklore shows how important writing was to the ancient Israelites who made a gift from God. The first western scholar known to have proposed a theory in which writing has a human origin was the French scholar Diderot in 1755. Based on an earlier suggestion by William Warburton, the bishop of Gloucester, Diderot suggested that early phonetic symbols developed out of pictographs, pictures representing ideas. A highly successful thesis, this proposition remained the basis for most explanations of the origin of writing in the West, until Schmandt-Besserat introduced her theory of tokens. Much of this debate has revolved around the earliest known script in Western Civilization, cuneiform, the "wedge-shaped" system of signs used by the ancient Sumerians. Though later carved into stone, this type of writing was first impressed on clay tablets which were later fired, that is, baked so the signs won't wash away or can't be rubbed out. Finding it in deposits dating back as early as 3100 BCE, scholars theorized that cuneiform must have derived from a system of primordial pictographs. Indeed, several of its signs could be traced back to aboriginal "pictures" of the things they denoted. For example, cuneiform included a sign for "star" that looked like an asterisk, so it seemed safe to assume that it originated as some sort of depiction of a star and, therefore, all other signs derived from images, too. But there were two major problems with postulating a pictographic origin for the great array and breadth of cuneiform signs. First, archaeological investigation has failed to produce any evidence of a forerunner for cuneiform. Instead, the physical evidence suggests this writing system arose very abruptly, seemingly out of nowhere, already in a fairly complex state. For instance, it contained right from the start at least nine hundred symbols, perhaps as many as fifteen hundred. If writing first sprang up at this moment, it came to life with a bang, almost impossibly fast. Second, there were relatively few cuneiform signs which showed a clear lineage from pictures. The vast majority didn't look at all like what they represented, even where it would have been easy to do so. For instance, the word for "sheep" was a simple "X." Where are the legs, the wool, the horns? As early as 1928, long before Schmandt-Besserat began her work, the scholar William Mason had recognized this problem: But he then went on to blame this on the ineptitude of ancient scribes: "Primitive" scribes with "crude" ways? Or could it be there was something wrong with theory? Another way early historians explained these anomalies was by asserting that the Mesopotamians had deployed their now-lost system of pictographs only on biodegradable material, such as bark or animal hides. But this explanation rests on two undocumented phenomena: (1) an unknown pictographic writing system which had been executed exclusively on (2) a medium now lost. Stools with two legs missing don't make very comfortable seats. Nevertheless, in the absence of any form of writing preceding cuneiform or any better explanation for its aboriginal complexity, the pictographic theory trudged on, in spite its obvious flaws. Over time, as more and more tablets came to light and our understanding of cuneiform improved, other issues arose to challenge further the theory of a pictographic origin. When scholars could see more clearly how early cuneiform developed, they realized that those few signs which did, in fact, arise from pictographs had been introduced after the invention of this script. That is, while the cuneiform "star" did indeed look like a star, dating suggested it was a later entry in the registry of Sumerian signs, not an early example of a type of pictography from which all cuneiform stemmed. Other historians pointed out that pictographs do not form the basis of other ancient scripts, like the Eskimo and Indian writing systems. Another issue concerned geography. In Sumeria, the earliest cuneiform tablets come from Uruk, a major hub of civilization in the Near East and the focus of much early archaeology. But later archaeologists found evidence that cuneiform was also being used in Syria far to the west and Iran to the east at almost the same time as it first appears in Uruk. And this raised a further issue. Uruk was at that time an urbanized community with a large economy and population. Syria and Iran were relatively poor areas, sparsely populated. But cuneiform appears in all these places simultaneously. How did a complex form of writing with many abstract signs used mainly to keep a tally of properties and possessions spread with such uniformity so widely and rapidly across both city and country? Yet another challenge to the pictograph theory came from the material it was most often written on, clay. According to the standard explanation, there's a good reason for that. There's much clay to be found in and around the Tigris and Euphrates river beds, and not much wood or animal hides. So, because of its sheer abundance alone, clay was the logical choice for Mesopotamians to use as a writing medium. But it's not a logical choice. Clay is, in fact, very difficult to write on. First and foremost, it isn't naturally flat. It has to be pressed into a workable shape first, which is usually something rounded, something that will fit in the palm of the hand. And circular is indeed the form in which we find many a cuneiform tablet. But it's still rather difficult to write on clay even when it's carefully molded into a hand-friendly ball. Yet virtually all early cuneiform is found on clay, as if it were somehow to the ancient people of this area their traditional vehicle for writing. In sum, the standard theory of how writing arose in Mesopotamia is full of holes and contradictions but until Schmandt-Besserat came along, there wasn't any better way to piece together the evidence. Looking at the abstract nature of even the earliest cuneiform signs, their widespread use and, most of all, the material on which they were impressed led her to a new theory and a better account of this all-important development. III. Denise Schmandt-Besserat's New Theory of the Origin of Writing Studying Mesopotamian culture in the early 1970's, Schmandt-Besserat first set out to investigate the uses of clay before the development of pottery in early Near Eastern culture. But as she was searching for bits of clay floors, hearth linings, beads and figurines, she kept running into massive piles of small ceramic pieces found in various shapes and sizes. At the time, these were called "enigmatic objects" or "objects of uncertain purpose," because scholars were utterly bemused about their purpose and meaning. So, for instance, when looking at a group of five cones, one archaeologist, Carleton Coon, remarked famously, "they look like nothing else in the world but suppositories. What they were used for is anyone's guess." In the process of cataloguing them as part of her research, Schmandt-Besserat first referred to them as "geometric objects" because of their configurations, until ones resembling animals and tools began to emerge. Realizing they must have stood for things, she started calling them tokens, the name by which they are now known. But still no one had any idea what they stood for, or how they were used. Schmandt-Besserat noted some important clues, however. Many of these tokens are incised—that is, they have various markings engraved on them—and they come in a wide variety of shapes: spheres, cones, disks, cylinders and so on. Ranging in length from one to five centimeters, though they are clustered in groups of one-to-three and three-to-five centimeters, all are simple to make, in Schmandt-Besserat's words, "the shapes which emerge spontaneously when doodling with clay." That they had, in fact, been molded from wet clay, is evident from the fingerprints still preserved on some of them. There is also a clear evolution in their design. Those found in earlier layers are plain, few in number and naturalistic in shape, while those dating to the latest times, after 3500 BCE, are more highly incised and decorated. Also there are more shapes and greater complexity among later tokens—at the same time, none required high-level skill in ceramics to create—including naturalistic renditions of beds, fruit and tools. Most intriguing of all, they stop being made after 3000 BCE, just as cuneiform enters the scene. In that final phase of their evolution, tokens revert to fewer and plainer shapes and eventually fall out of use entirely. There are several other things notable about the nature and disposition of these tokens. For one, they come from all over the Near East: Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Israel. For another, they date to very early times, as far back as 8000 BCE. Furthermore, there is evidence some care went into their creation because many have been fired. Firing signifies a desire to preserve them, which in turn argues that they had value of some sort. They are, in fact, among the earliest fired ceramics known. Most of this was already evident, if inexplicable, when Schmandt-Besserat began her work. Awareness of the existence of tokens, in fact, went back almost all the way to the beginning of Near Eastern archaeology in the nineteenth century. And as early as 1959, evidence emerged that tokens represented part of a system of enumeration, functioning as counters of some sort. In particular, an envelope-tablet had been found—envelope-tablets are hollow balls of clays with tokens inside—which contained on the exterior a list of sheep and on the interior the exact number of tokens matching that inscribed on the outside. But because this was the only such tablet known, it seemed a stretch to reconstruct a entire system of token-counting based on one single piece of evidence. But, as Schmandt-Besserat later noted, the existence of many tokens having the same shape but in different sizes does, in fact, suggest they once belonged to an accounting system of some sort. The decipherment of that system became the hallmark and triumph of her career. She noted initially that several of the designs used on and for tokens resembled later cuneiform signs. From there it was not much of a conceptual leap, though its implications to history were immense, that the tokens had originally functioned as counters representing one unit of a particular item, in much the same way later cuneiform signs denoted items in written form. But the problem wasn't really the concept, so much as its application. How did this token system of counting work, and what was it used to count? And, most important, why was it necessary? When tokens first appeared around 8000 BCE, the vast majority of people in the world subsisted as hunter-gatherers, constantly on the move, with little or no need for counting things since nomads don't usually own much and what little they have is by necessity portable. Thus, it's surprising to find counters among the remains of civilizations dating to seventh-millennium BCE. What do they have to count? To the contrary, a settled community where goods can be stored is where one expects to find an accounting system develop, but to the first users of tokens urbanization lay far off in a distant future they could hardly have imagined. Or so it once seemed. Recent archaeological investigations have been pushing the horizon of urbanized life back further and further in time. Settlements like Çatal Hüyük (pronounced CHAT-ul HOO-yuk) in central Turkey, which is a prehistoric community dating well back into the sixth millennium BCE, give evidence that city sites existed long before the rise of Sumerian civilization (ca. 3000 BCE). This suggests, in fact, that urbanization began at the very brink of agriculture which in some places developed as early as the eighth millennium BCE, and since farming entails a settled lifestyle and the accumulation and storage of goods, it makes sense that a counting system like tokens would also have roots that deep in history. But the need for something doesn't prove its existence. Fortunately, there's other evidence that tokens served as counters. Similar counting systems, for one, can be found even today all over the planet. Of particular interest here, modern shepherds in Iraq still use pebbles in counting sheep. But pebbles are undifferentiated, making it unclear what they represent. That is, if a counting system employs only one type of counter, it's not possible to discriminate among various commodities. The solution to that problem is obvious and conforms precisely to the archaeological evidence seen in tokens, to differentiate the counters. Seen one way, tokens are exactly that, "differentiated pebbles." This makes it easy to understand how tokens would have been deployed in counting, as Schmandt-Besserat argues. Say, for instance, you're a tribal chieftain and want to hold a feast. You send a runner, a young boy perhaps, off with a handful of tokens that function as a sort of "shopping list." You could also keep for yourself an identical set as a reminder of what you'd put on your "list." And you could even change your mind later and send off another boy with more tokens, in other words, a revised list. With all that, tokens clearly serve as a writing system, at least inasmuch as they are a form of communication and record-keeping in which it's possible to edit one's "words," all the hallmarks of writing. The evolution of tokens over time only adds further to the supposition they represent an ancient accounting system of some sort. In terms of their shapes and signs, many tokens remained highly stable, changing remarkably little during their over four millennia of use in prehistory. Others, however, became more complex, especially in their latest incarnation around and after 3500 BCE as the cities of Mesopotamia were in ascendance. Their increasing vocabulary of incisions—that is, inscribed lines used to signify things—was, no doubt, the by-product of mounting urbanization. After all, as larger and more complex cities began to develop, there would have been more and more things to keep track of, necessitating a richer language of incisions to account for all that. And one final piece of evidence attests to the use of tokens as a system of communication, the fact that many later ones have perforations, doubtlessly designed to allow them to be strung together. But why? As a filing system of some sort? Or, were they threaded on a string—a string, of course, is biodegradable and would not have survived over time—with its loose ends sealed together with a bulla, a stamped clay seal of some sort. That the more complex tokens are the ones most often found with perforations argues in favor of such an interpretation of the evidence. But the evidence that made Schmandt-Besserat's theory most compelling came with her study of a particular type of cuneiform document, the envelope-tablet. As noted before, it was common practice in Mesopotamian society after the invention of cuneiform to enclose a contract in a clay envelope, with a copy of the contract on the outside. This ensured no one had tampered with the details. What Schmandt-Besserat showed was that this tradition extended far back in time, long before cuneiform itself. The envelope-tablet mentioned above in which tokens were deployed as counters had been discovered as early as 1959. Schmandt-Besserat showed this was no fluke. Other and older examples began to appear once it was clear what to look for, particularly "clay balls" with tokens inside and corresponding decorations on the outside. Even more important, though, some of these clay balls contained the impressions of cylinder seals, long narrow stone tubes with images engraved on them in reverse so that, when they're rolled over wet clay, they leave behind a picture in relief. Because each cylinder seal is unique, Mesopotamians used them as a way of "signing" documents. Indeed, some ancient Near Eastern contracts have numerous cylinder seal impressions on them, which are, in effect, the signatures of the individuals involved in the contract. Envelope-tablets with the text of a contract and the signatory cylinder seal impressions on the inside offered the advantage of ensuring the validity and integrity of a business transaction. But when the cuneiform document was completed and sealed inside its envelope, it was difficult to know exactly what the contract stipulated since the clay envelope hid the text inside. Archaeology shows, however, that the ancients found a ready solution to that problem. They copied the contract onto the envelope itself. Schmandt-Besserat's contribution, arguably one of her greatest, was to show how old this practice really was, that in its earliest manifestation the envelope-tablet didn't utilize cuneiform writing but tokens themselves pushed into the wet clay of an envelope which left their impression on it. While the clay is still wet, the tokens themselves were sealed inside, and the whole package was left to dry or be fired. The copy of the tokens on the envelope is itself an important conceptual leap, a first step toward representing tokens abstractly as two-dimensional cuneiform signs, not three-dimensional tokens. The next step was to stop impressing the tokens on the envelope and instead draw their picture on the envelope's wet clay, an advancement which followed soon thereafter. This was especially necessary for incised tokens, because their marks which are crucial to their meaning do not transfer well onto wet clay. And as incised tokens became more popular in the economic boom starting around 3500 BCE, the need to represent them precisely on envelopes would only have increased. Finally the ancient Mesopotamians must have realized that, if the tokens inside are represented on the envelope and the tablet is fired making it impossible to alter it in any way, the tokens themselves inside the envelope aren't necessary. All a contract really needed to ensure its lasting validity was the symbolic signs on the outer envelope, originally an exterior copy of the contract but now the whole contract itself. With this, it makes sense that cuneiform signs derived from the shapes and markings on tokens, which do, indeed, constitute a "picture" of sorts but not the sort of picture expected in the standard view of a pictograph. It's a picture of a token, not a picture of the thing itself. Schmandt-Besserat sums it up this way: The last step to a full and independent writing system was the creation of new cuneiform signs not based on an original token design. That must first have happened when the thing being represented wasn't a commodity of exchange at all in the traditional token economy, no "sheep" or "bar of metal," but something like "star" or "man." And this explains why true pictographic cuneiform signs date, for the most part, to later, not earlier times. It also clarifies why many are expressed as a rebus, a "word-picture" in which the elements of the word are written as separate and unrelated pictures, like writing "carpet" by drawing an automobile and a cat or dog. From there, it's no long trek to creating a syllabary, that is, a writing system representing spoken syllables, in which any word can be spelled phonetically. As we'll see in Chapter 17, the Western alphabet arose from just that. Thus, Denise Schmandt-Besserat's innovative researches have brilliantly elucidated the origins of writing, which we now know evolved from distinctive clay tokens to envelope-tablets with impressions of tokens on the outside to token-free tablets written in cuneiform, eventually containing its own complex syllabary. Besides that, it also shed light on two idiosyncrasies of Mesopotamian writing: why the Mesopotamians wrote on clay as opposed to some more convenient—or, at least, naturally flatter—medium, and why many cuneiform tablets are round. Ever since the earliest use of tokens, clay was the traditional medium of accounting transactions in Mesopotamia. And not just because it was convenient to hold clay in a ball did cuneiform tablets tend to come in a rounded form, but because it was also the traditional shape used for early clay envelopes enclosing tokens. Much like changing people's minds today about writing on paper, "hard copy" that is, or using a size of paper other than eight-and-a-half-by-eleven-inches, cultural traditions can be deeply entrenched, even after technical advancements make them obsolete. IV. Conclusion: The Origin of Writing in Tokens Thus, as a system of communication, tokens fulfill the three fundamental purposes which make writing the monumental invention it is. First, the use of tokens allowed ancient peoples to communicate across unprecedented expanses of space and time far exceeding the range of the voice. Second, they constituted a form of record-keeping, permitting the precise determination of how many there were of something, and even to distinguish between different types of item. And finally, the ability to re-send messages, to renegotiate contracts, to string tokens together and then re-string them entails perhaps the most important feature of this writing system, the revision process which admits scrutiny and editing of thought. Perhaps most important of all to note, the discovery of all this came not from digging up new information but the study of what had already been uncovered and was sitting in museums, and in some cases had been for decades. It took fresh insight, a newcomer's eyes, to realize all that it represented. Little wonder, then, Schmandt-Besserat's theory was nominated as among the top one-hundred scientific theories of the twentieth century. It illuminates, after all, one of the top twenty inventions in a hundred centuries.
Surrounded by India and Tibet, Nepal has been isolated but also a connecting link for trade across the Himalayas. That Nepal had an early settlement is evident from the finds of stone implements. Historically, the Liccha Empire is from the 400th to the 700s. Nepal, until 2008 the world’s only Hindu kingdom, was divided into many small princely states until the mid-18th century, where the dynasties had both Tibetan, Buddhist, and Indian, Hindu, spitefuls. In the 1380s, Jaya Sthiti seized power in the Mall. His reign meant political and social consolidation. Newark culture flourished. Many of Nepal’s palaces and temples were built in the 17th century. The Mallad dynasty dominated the Kathmandu Valley until 1768, but the country was long divided into four princes, which in 1768-69 became an easy prey for cucumber conquerors. See abbreviationfinder for geography, history, society, politics, and economy of Nepal. Gurkhas were war caste Hindus from India. Prithvi Narayan Shah, ancestor of the reigning Shah dynasty in Nepal, united the country into a unity, and Nepal gained its present limits during his reign (1742-75). His foreign policy was anti-Chinese and anti-British, but continued Nepali conquest attempts were halted by defeats against both China (1788-92) and the British (1814-15). A British envoy was stationed in Kathmandu, and Nepal was indebted to China for a long time. Domestic political conflicts prevailed between the royal family and high-caste families. In 1846, Jang Bahadur seized power, adopted the family name Rana and made the Prime Minister’s office hereditary within his family. From 1846 to 1951, the kings lacked all real power. Jang Bahadur Rana centralized power and initiated reforms, among others. within the judiciary. In 1850 he visited Britain, became convinced of the British military and industrial superiority and initiated a pro-British policy. The British received military support from Nepal and began recruiting Cucumber soldiers. Dissatisfaction in the country grew during the 20th century. The British retreat, India’s independence in 1947 and the Communists’ power in China in 1949 shook the Rana family. Domestic politics had great instability, and King Tribhuvan fled to India for a short time. Until the 1950s, the family tried to keep Nepal isolated from the rest of the world. - COUNTRYAAH.COM: Provides latest population data about Nepal. Lists by Year from 1950 to 2020. Also includes major cities by population. In 1950, Nepal’s Congress Party was formed, and in 1959 the country got its first democratic constitution and parliamentary government. However, democracy was short-lived. Already in 1960, King Mahendra dissolved the parliament and banned the political parties. The modernization of the tradition-heavy and isolated country continued anyway. In 1962, the powerful king introduced a party-less system of elected councils (panchayat) at the bottom and an indirectly elected parliament. King Mahendra was succeeded in 1972 by his son Birendra Bar Bikram Shah Deb. After widespread unrest, the king in 1980 ordered a referendum, which provided a 55% majority for continued panchayat rule. He also amended the constitution so that Parliament received a majority of directly elected members. However, power remained with the king and the government appointed by him. In the 1980s, the strikes and demonstrations intensified against the rule of the royal house and the dominant high-caste families – despite the fact that the king was still perceived by many Nepalese as an incarnation of the god Vishnu. The newly formed democracy movement was brutally fought, but the rulers eventually gave way: a new constitution was adopted in 1990, the panchayat system was abolished, the kingdom turned into a constitutional monarchy, where the king is head of state without political power, and parties were allowed for the first time in 30 years. The 1991 parliamentary elections resulted in successes for the Congress party, which formed the government, and the communists. However, the new government’s reluctance to radical reform led to unrest in the community and tearing down the Congress party. After the 1994 election, a communist party was formed to form a government, but this also failed to live up to the high expectations of the population for improved living conditions. More weak and short-lived governments followed, often unshakable coalitions between radical and conservative parties. The increasingly widespread disappointment over the shortcomings of democracy was exploited by the Maoist Communist Party in 1996 to launch an armed revolt to overthrow the monarchy and establish a communist “people’s republic”. The uprising began in isolated districts of western Nepal, but soon spread to large parts of the country. An increasing part of the state budget was spent on defense, and the conflict began to be likened to civil war. Human rights were increasingly violated by stricter security laws, which in themselves spurred opposition to the regime. In 2001, King Birendra was murdered by his son Dipendra. Queen Aishwarya and eight other members of the royal family were also shot to death by the temporarily confused Crown Prince, who then took his own life. Birendra’s brother Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Deb was appointed new king who immediately took a more active part in politics than Birendra did after the abolition of the one-world. A new government established a ceasefire with the Maoist guerrillas and initiated peace talks. However, these became unsuccessful, and the fighting resumed after a few months. In 2002, the king set aside the democratic system and took on the executive power, invoking the inability of politicians to put an end to the war. His takeover was followed by mass arrests of politicians, journalists and intellectuals. In 2002, the king set aside the democratic system and took on the executive power, invoking the inability of politicians to put an end to the war. His takeover was followed by mass arrests of politicians, journalists and intellectuals. In 2002, the king set aside the democratic system and took on the executive power, invoking the inability of politicians to put an end to the war. His takeover was followed by mass arrests of politicians, journalists and intellectuals. The harsher social climate meant that support for the armed insurgency was increasing among the population, and the established parties entered into a loose political cooperation with the guerrillas. When Gyanendra was pressured to reinstate Parliament in 2006, he quickly removed all political influence and the following year also the formal role of head of state. The Maoists were included in a unifying government in 2007 and after general elections to a constitutional assembly in 2008, Nepal was declared a republic. The country’s first president was elected Ram Baran Yadav (born 1948), a former health minister representing the center-focused Nepalese Congress Party. Maoist leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal (born 1954)), better known by the guerrilla name Prachanda, formed a coalition government in August 2008. Already in May 2009, however, the Maoists left the government after disagreement with the president and the army leadership, among other things. the incorporation of former guerrillas into the army. A broad but fragile coalition government took over, and political tension increased again. In foreign policy, Nepal tries to balance the powerful neighbors China and India. Nepal has gradually developed closer contacts with China. Oppositions to India were temporarily sharpened in 1989-90 in connection with an Indian trade boycott, led by, among other things, a planned Nepalese arms import from China. In 1996, however, an agreement on river regulation and power plants was signed with India. With Bhutan, Nepal has faced contradictions regarding emigration and refugees. Nepal for a neutral and alliance-free foreign policy. The UN and the Alliance-Free Movement.
Learn about 3D lighting & how to create different light conditions that can completely alter a computer-generated scene & the way that objects look in it. We perceive the world around us using our senses: we hear, we feel, we smell, we see. We can see because our eyes are picking up information brought to us by elementary particles called photons. This information is processed by our brain to produce an image. What we interpret as an object color, glossiness, translucency or metallic qualities are all products of the interaction between the photons and the object’s surface. Light mechanics in a computer generated 3D scene follow the same natural principle of photon scattering, through a process called ray tracing. Rays bounce off shapes and interact with their materials, effectively defining how objects appear in the final image. Lights expose dimensionality of anything that exists in a 3D scene. Some materials are more sensitive to lighting conditions than others. Take metals for instance: a chrome object is basically reflecting everything around it. If a light is moved, becomes brighter, or larger, all of that information is visible directly on the chrome surface in almost mirror-like detail, so it can appear completely different from one light condition to the other. The process of creating a 3D render is never quite the same, but these are the most common steps: When you get to the lighting phase, it is ideal to set up your lights before working on the materials. To do this, you can assign a neutral gray, matte material to the whole scene. That way, you’ll be able to see and understand more clearly how the lights affect the object silhouettes in the scene. After the materials are completed, the lighting might need further refinement. It’s best to work on the lights one at a time. The active light should be the only one visible in the scene, whereas all other lights should be temporarily turned off. This way, you’ll be able to see how a specific light influences the scene, and change that by working on its properties, such as the position, direction, intensity, etc. Another useful trick is to create a sphere with a shiny metal material (a chrome or a mirror). This “mirror ball” will effectively reflect the entire scene around it, so you can easily determine the light’s position, direction, or size. In case of the environment lights, you’ll be able to see its reflection in the mirror ball, which will help set up its orientation in space. Environment lights are equirectangular (spherical) images, which are wrapped around the entire scene. As the name suggests, these lights serve to emulate the whole environment, including the light sources, which are stored in them. When you create a new scene in Dimension, a default environment light will be created for you. This is why you are immediately able to actually see anything in the scene. Adobe Dimension Starter Assets include a certain number of environment lights, which you may try right away. In addition, Adobe Stock offers a huge, curated selection of environment lights. Environment lights produce highly realistic results, and can save you a lot of time. In order to achieve something similar manually, you would have to actually create the whole environment in 3D (including various light sources), which is a significant amount of work. There are many ways to create environment lights, including capturing from a 3D scene, from a photograph, and using parametric systems. If the environment light is made out of a 3D scene, the process is straightforward. The output image needs to be 32 bit, which will capture the light information of all the lights in the scene. The 3D camera needs to use the equirectangular projection (to output a spherical image). You can also create environment lights by capturing photographs of the real world. For this workflow, a 360 camera is needed (e.g., Ricoh Theta Z1). The camera is then used for exposure bracketing, or taking multiple shots of the same environment, taken with a range of different exposure values (from underexposed to overexposed). These shots are then used to construct 32 bits images, often called HDRs (short for a High Dynamic Range). One way to assemble such an image is with the Merge to HDR function in Photoshop. The embedded exposure range will become the intensity property. In both cases, the light sources (and their intensities) are “baked” into these images and will emit the light once they are used in Dimension. In these methods you’ve captured all the lighting, reflections, and details you need, but 3D apps let you continue editing them in the 3D space, so you can adjust the lighting rotation as well as change the overall intensity and color. In addition to Environment lights, which emit light from 360 degrees, there are also Directional lights, which emit light from one direction only. They are used to emulate flashlights and other types of lights coming from a well defined emitter, and they can be shaped as a circle or a square. Using directional lights offers full control over the lighting setup. Lighting the scene using these lights is done in the same fashion as in traditional photography, where each light can be controlled independently, allowing you to build your own virtual photographic lighting. One of the most commonly used lighting setups is the 3-point light system. Dimension has a convenient action, Aim Light at Point, which allows you to control the rotation and height by simply clicking and dragging across a 3D object. This way, you can dynamically direct the light rays. These parameters can be adjusted manually as well. You are able to change the color and the intensity of the directional lights as well as adjust the shape of the light source – make it circular or rectangular, stretch it, or make it bigger. Finally, you can soften the edges of the light source. If you make the light source smaller than the object, the shadows will be sharper, with a crisper outline, because the rays can’t get past the illuminated object. Bigger light sources produce softer shadows, because in this case the rays are coming from all sides of the object (marked red in the illustration below), creating an array of shadows. These shadows are softened by the rays coming from the opposite direction. Sunlight is a special type of directional light. The process of setting it up is very similar to a regular directional light, however this light will automatically change the color with height; when it is close to the horizon (low height angle values), it will gradually become warmer to simulate the sunset. The color can also be changed by using presets. Meanwhile, cloudiness will affect the shadow softness. We are able to emulate the sky using environment lights, and any environment light featuring the sky can be used. Now, we have to align the sunlight (made in Dimension) with the Sun, captured in the environment light. A fast way to do this is to create a sphere and assign a metal material to it; this will provide us with real time reflections of the environment, so we can use Aim light at point to align the sunlight with the Sun. If the environment light features an overcast sky, the cloudiness property can be used to match these conditions more closely. Once the Sunlight and the Sky Environment light are paired, you may rotate them together using the Global Rotation property. Objects can be turned into light sources, by turning the Glow property on for their materials. This way, it is possible to create objects like light bulbs, neon lights, softboxes, and all kinds of screens and displays. The key benefit of using this type of illumination is the intensity falloff, which produces very natural results. This is quite useful for product visualization or other studio based scenes. You can control the softness of the shadows by scaling the glowing object up or down, using the transformation tool. Making it bigger will also increase the light intensity. Unlike the previous types of lights we’ve covered, these lights can also utilize textures, in addition to plain colors. The textures can be attached to the base color of their materials, and the light intensity is controlled via a glow slider. There are many photographic techniques for setting up the light for a product shot. We will use one of the most commonly used setups, which is the 3-point light system. This setup consists of three lights: Key light: used as the primary source, this shines approximately from the camera direction Rim light: oriented on the opposite side from the key, this is used to expose the silhouette of the subject. Fill light: less intensive and serving to fill in darker areas, this is used for areas the previous two lights don’t reach. There are two ways to create the 3-point lighting in Dimension – using Directional lights (individually adding them to the scene or using a 3-Point Light preset) or via glowing objects. Creative lighting is used where physical accuracy is not the primary goal. This includes abstract and surreal scenes of all kinds, so there are no real boundaries where our imaginations can take us. In the example above, the idea was to portray a dream-like environment: candy, pastel colors, and smooth surfaces. The lighting system is made out of three glowing plates (two on the side, and the main one shining from the bottom). All of the glowing plates are unrealistically big, which creates very smooth shadows and highlights. The light sources are colored and that color is transferred into the material assigned to the objects in the scene. The subject of the scene (pipes) is completely surrounded by the walls geometry. This will cause light rays to bounce back and forth and mix together in interesting ways. Playing with cool VS warm tones often produces nice contrast (this technique is sometimes used in portrait photography). Creating a visualization of a 3D interior follows a certain set of rules, which almost always guarantees good results. For this use case, we will consider only natural light (no artificial sources, like lamps). First and foremost, a scene like this needs to be in an enclosed environment. Just like in real life, the interior will need walls, floor, ceiling, and windows. This will ensure that the light comes through the windows and then bounces around (via a process called ray tracing). This behavior produces very natural lighting (for instance, the occluded areas, like corners, will be darker). Since the scene is almost completely surrounded by architectural geometry, we will see very little illumination and almost no reflections coming from the Environment light. However, in this case, we are actually building our own environment, which is the interior itself. So the light will react with the objects in the scene by bouncing off of them and the surrounding walls. The objects will reflect only each other and the walls around them. Nonetheless, it is a good idea to add an Environment light, featuring the sky. This will add some diffuse blue fill. The easiest way to set this light is by using planes with glowing materials. In this use case we have three planes, which cover all the openings in the interior. The intensity of the light is controlled by the glow property on the planes’ materials. You are able to add a color or even a texture, which can be used to cast interesting shadows. Using glow materials will also provide the light intensity falloff, which is quite important for interior lighting. Creating outdoor lighting is fairly straightforward and it comes down to using a Sun and Sky light system (see above). It is important to match the sunlight correctly with the sky-based environment light – paying attention to both the orientation and the cloudiness value. The scene itself plays a big role in this. To produce compelling results, use objects in your scene as catalysts that interact with the light. In the forest render shown above, the objects (various plants, logs, and trees) are placed close to each other. This means there will be a lot of complex ray tracing interaction, as the light bounces between the objects. Shaded spots will appear dark (as expected), whereas exposed areas remain bright. I hope this overview illustrates the importance of mastering 3D lights in various situations. You should be ready to start producing more compelling results. Happy lighting! Download the latest release of Dimension today.
The Laws of the Indies, or Las Leyes de los Indios, dictated the Spanish colonies of the Hispanic Americas. These laws directives provided guideance as to how to construct new societies. In a paradoxical way the conquestedors, were to build cities in a way that would reflect human rights. You can see these in places from Savannah, GA, to Santa Fe, NM and Jackson Hole, WY. They all had common themes, which should and do apply today: - Find a suitable place of land - Construct the plaza first - Display a governmental building on the plaza - Build a church - Two sides for shops with a covered arcade and continued four blocks on two main streets for the "convience of the shop owners", i.e. just in case in rains or snows - Repeat and connect schools, districts and systems Asucion Mita, Guatemala On a recent trip to El Salvador, I randomly stopped in a small town along the highway to buy bricks for my mothers garden. This lead me to the center of the City in search of an ATM, where I found the best living example I have ever seen of one of these cities in effect. I was so excited taking the video that I forgot to mention the significance of the government near the park: democracy. It gives the people a direct place to demonstrate their grievances with the government. But in some cases, the government had other ideas ... :/ There lies the great debate amongst the urbanists with the public and among ourselves. Does our built environmental reflect how we live our lives? Would it add significance to the idea of democracy if government was physically surrounded by the public [out of their cars]? Do you think where you lives determines how you live your life?
Lesson One: Introduction to Digital and Physical Archives - Before Teaching - Lesson Plan - Activities, Materials & Presentations - Curriculum Standards - Download Lesson Plan [PDF format] - Introduction to Digital and Physical Archives: Distance Learning Video Archives are facilities that house physical collections, where records and materials are organized and protected. Archival materials are used to write history. Through the internet, digital archives make those records more accessible to students, researchers, and the general public. Students learn to navigate a digital archive by browsing and performing effective keyword searches. Through this process, students learn how to use the Helen Keller Archive. They also learn the value of preserving information. - Understand the function and significance of an archive. - Describe the different capabilities of a physical and a digital archive. - Know more about how archives can increase accessibility for people with visual and/or hearing impairments. - Navigate the digital Helen Keller Archive using the Search and Browse tools. - What is an archive? - How do I use a digital archive? - Why are archives important? - Computer, laptop, or tablet - Internet connection - Projector or Smartboard (if available) - Worksheets (provided, print for students) - Helen Keller Archive: https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive - American Foundation for the Blind: http://www.afb.org The Library of Congress images below can be used to illustrate and explain the Define an archive section of this lesson. Library of Congress: The Library of Congress Manuscript Reading Room Courtesy of the LOC Manuscript Division. The digital Helen Keller Archive homepage. Other Digital Archive Examples - Sports: Baseball Hall of Fame; primarily physical archive with partial photographic digital collection (https://baseballhall.org/about-the-hall/477) (https://collection.baseballhall.org) - Politics: United Nations; primarily physical archive with online exhibits (https://archives.un.org/content/about-archives) (https://archives.un.org/content/exhibits - Comics: Stan Lee Archives (https://rmoa.unm.edu/docviewer.php?docId=wyu-ah08302.xml) - History: Buffalo Bill Collection (https://digitalcollections.uwyo.edu/luna/servlet/uwydbuwy~60~60) - Dogs: American Kennel Club; primarily physical archive with partial digital collection (https://www.akc.org/about/archive/) (https://www.akc.org/about/archive/digital-collections/) - Art: Metropolitan Museum of Art Archives; physical archive with separate digital collections and library (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/libraries-and-research-centers/museum-archives) - Travel: National Geographic Society Museum and Archives (https://nglibrary.ngs.org/public_home) - National Geographic digital exhibits (https://openexplorer.nationalgeographic.com/ng-library-archives) - Space travel: NASA Archive; partially digitized (https://www.archives.gov/space) - Music: Blues Archive; partially digitized (http://guides.lib.olemiss.edu/blues) - Books: J.R.R.Tolkien; physical archive (https://www.marquette.edu/library/archives/tolkien.php) Ask and Discuss - Do you have a collection? Baseball cards, rocks, seashells, gel pens, shoes, vacation souvenirs? - Do you and/or your parents save your schoolwork or art projects? - Where and how do you store old photos? Text messages? - Personal collections are a kind of archive. - Things that you store and organize (to look at later) make up a basic archive. - If you wrote a guide for your friend to use when searching through your [vacation photos/baseball cards/drafts of your papers], you would be running an archive like the pros! - Optional: Select a sample archive to show students; options provided in resource section. Define an Archive - Optional: Use the definitions provided in the lesson definitions. - To be an archive, a collection must be: - Composed of unique documents, objects, and other artifacts; and - Organized to make sense of a collection so that people can find what they are looking for. - An archive is sometimes also: - Organized by an institution, managed by archivists, and made available to researchers. - Tells us about a person, organization, or physical things. - Typically held and protected in a physical repository, but may be made accessible electronically in a digital platform. What are the advantages of a physical archive, where you can have the materials right in front of you, versus seeing them on a screen? - Hands-on encounter with the past. For example, how would it feel to see/read from the original Declaration of Independence at the National Archives? - Analyze material properties of objects and manuscripts. - Wider range of access to all the items held in the archive (not all items are digitized). - Can flip through a physical folder rather than load a new page for every document. - What do you think is “easier”? - Have any students experienced something like this? What are the advantages of a digital archive, where you can have the materials available to you in digital format, on a website? - Accessible worldwide on the internet—you don’t have to travel to see what’s in the archive. - Keyword searchable. - Useful information in the format of transcriptions and metadata often included. - Accessible to people with disabilities, including those with impaired vision/hearing. - For example, the digital Helen Keller Archive allows users to change the text size and color of text and provides description for multimedia including photographs, film, and audio. Who is Archiving Information About You Right Now? - How is the public able to access that information now? In the future? - Is there information you would not want them to access now? In the future? Why? Using the Helen Keller Archive Open the digital Helen Keller Archive: https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive Note: The digital Helen Keller Archive team strongly recommends that this or similar demonstration be included in the lesson, unless the teacher has formally taught these students browse and search techniques. We find that students are used to “Google” style searches, which are not as effective on specialized sites like digital archives. We are going to use the digital Helen Keller Archive. Who has heard of Helen Keller? Why is she famous? What did she do? - Keller lost her sight and hearing at a young age but learned to sign, read, write, speak, and graduated college. - She used her fame to advocate on behalf of blind and deaf communities, fought for education/employment for blind people and the inclusion of people with disabilities in society. - She was politically active: Anti-war, advocated for socialism and workers’ rights, as well as the suffrage movement and women’s rights. - Distribute student version of How to Search [download PDF] and How to Browse [download PDF] and explain that you will be going through a few sample searches as a class. Invite the class to follow along if feasible. - Pull up the Helen Keller Archive home page and ask the class to explain the difference between search and browse. For example: - The Browse tool follows the structure and order of the physical collection. Browse is the best way to see how an archive is organized and what it contains. - The Search tool uses a keyword search term or terms. Search is the best way to find a specific item. Show the Browse Function - Click the Browse tab. - Click Browse by Series; point out the series titles and ask students to explain what each “series” contains. - In this archive, series are organized based on the type of materials (letters, photographs, and more). - Explain that this is how a physical archive is organized (in series, subseries, boxes, and folders). - Browse for a type of item. Guide students through the choices they have at each level. - For example: “Browse the photographs in this archive. This series is divided into photographs and photo albums. Let’s explore the photographs. How are these organized? It looks like they are organized alphabetically by subject matter. Wow, there are two folders here just for Helen Keller’s dogs! Let’s take a peek.” - Optional: Ask students to browse for “boomerang given to Helen in Australia”. Show the Search Function - Click the Simple Search tab. - Ask the class to pick a word to search based on either their knowledge of Helen Keller or class curriculum on late 19th/early 20th century. - For example: Let’s search for documents related to the women’s suffrage movement. The best way to start a keyword search is with a simple keyword. Let’s use “suffrage.” - Point out the filters in the left hand column and explain how they are used narrow search results. Ask students to choose one area to refine search to narrow their results for a specific reason. - For example: “Let’s select 1910-1920 so we can find material written before the 19th Amendment was passed.” - Works like a library or e-commerce website. - Optional: Ask students to search for a speech given by Helen Keller while she was traveling abroad. She gave many – they can choose any one. Brainstorm effective search terms and ways they might refine their results, and warn students it will take more than one step to find a speech that qualifies. - Show the Browse by subject functions and ask how they are similar to, or different from, searching by Keyword(s). - Use same topic as keyword search (or as close as possible). For example: Can you find “suffrage” in this subject list? - Explain that not all topics will be present. For example, there is no subject header for “computers”. - Break students into working groups. - Assign each group a “scavenger hunt” item (see in class worksheet). - Optional: Collect scavenger hunt items in a private list to be shared with the whole class. Sample Scavenger Hunt List - Flyer for a 1981 dance production “Two In One” - Film of Helen Keller testing a new communication device in 1953 - Medal from the Lebanese government - Photograph of Helen Keller at a United Nations meeting in 1949 - Or choose your own … Activities & Presentations for Teachers Activities for Students - Exploring the Digital Helen Keller Archive [PDF format] - Exploring the Digital Helen Keller Archive – The Needle in the Haystack [PDF format] Materials (Students & Teachers) - Definitions: [PDF format] - Frequently Asked Questions [PDF format] - How to Search [PDF format] - How to Browse [PDF format] This Lesson Meets the Following Curriculum Standards: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using different mediums (e.g., print or digital text, video, multimedia) to present a particular topic or idea. Conduct short research projects to answer a question, drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions for further research and investigation. Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively; assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation. Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words. Empire State Information Fluency Continuum - Uses organizational systems and electronic search strategies (keywords, subject headings) to locate appropriate resources. - Participates in supervised use of search engines and pre-selected web resources to access appropriate information for research. - Uses the structure and navigation tools of a website to find the most relevant information.
Oxyhydrogen is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gases. This gaseous mixture is used for torches for the processing of refractorymaterials and was the first gaseous mixture used for welding. Theoretically, a ratio of 2:1 hydrogen:oxygen is enough to achieve maximum efficiency; in practice a ratio 4:1 or 5:1 is required to avoid an oxidizing flame. This mixture may sometimes be called by an old term knallgas (German; "bang-gas"), although some authors used to define knallgas to be a generic term for the mixture of fuel with precise amount of oxygen required for complete combustion, thus 2:1 oxyhydrogen would be called "hydrogen-knallgas". Oxyhydrogen will combust when brought to its autoignition temperature. For a stoichiometric mixture at normal atmospheric pressure, autoignition occurs at about 570 °C (1065 °F). The minimum energy required to ignite such a mixture with a spark is about 20 microjoules. At standard temperature and pressure, oxyhydrogen can burn when it is between about 4% and 95% hydrogen by volume. When ignited, the gas mixture releases energy and converts to water vapor, which sustains the reaction: 241.8 kJ of energy (LHV) for every mole of H2 burned. The amount of heat energy released is independent of the mode of combustion, but the temperature of the flame varies. The maximum temperature of about 2800 °C is achieved with a purestoichiometric mixture, about 700 degrees hotter than a hydrogen flame in air. When either of the gases are mixed in excess of this ratio, or when mixed with an inert gas like nitrogen, the heat must spread throughout a greater quantity of matter and the temperature will be lower. William Nicholson was the first to decompose water in this manner in 1800. The energy required to generate the oxyhydrogen always exceeds the energy released by combusting it. (See Electrolysis of water#Efficiency). Many forms of oxyhydrogen lamps have been described, such as the limelight, which used an oxyhydrogen flame to heat a piece of limeto white hot incandescence. Because of the explosiveness of the oxyhydrogen, limelights have been replaced by electric lighting. Oxyhydrogen was once used in working platinum because at the time such a torch was the only device that could attain the temperature required to melt the metal (1768.3 °C). These techniques have been superseded by the electric arc furnace. The oxy-hydrogen blowpipe was developed by English mineralogist Edward Daniel Clarke and American chemist Robert Hare in the early nineteenth century. It produced a flame hot enough to melt such refractory materials as platinum, porcelain, fire brick, and corundum, and was a valuable tool in several fields of science. It is used in the Verneuil process to produce synthetic corundum. Due to competition from the acetylene-fueled cutting torch and from arc welding, the oxyhydrogen torch is seldom used today, but it remains the preferred cutting tool in some niche applications—see oxy-fuel welding and cutting. A "water torch" is a portable oxyhydrogen torch that combines a DC power supply and an electrolytic cell with a pressure gauge andflashback arrestor. Water is decomposed on-demand into oxyhydrogen, obviating the need for separate hydrogen and oxygen tanks. The original was designed in 1962 by William Rhodes and Raymond Henes of the Henes Manufacturing Co. (now Arizona Hydrogen Manufacturing, Inc.) and marketed under thetrade mark "Water Welder". A hypodermic needle was originally used for the torch tip. "Brown's Gas" is simply oxyhydrogen with a 2:1 molar ratio of H2 and O2 gases, the same proportion as water. It's named after Yull Brown who claimed that it could be used as a fuel for the internal combustion engine. It's also called "HHO gas" after the claims of fringe physicist Ruggero Santilli, who claims that his HHO gas, produced by a special apparatus, is "a new form of water", with new properties, based on his (fringe) theory of "magnecules". Oxyhydrogen is also often mentioned in conjunction with vehicles that claim to use water as a fuel. The most common and decisive counter-argument against producing this gas on board to use as a fuel or fuel additive is that the energy required to split water molecules exceeds the energy recouped by burning it. Additionally, the number of liters per minute of gas that can be produced for on-demand consumption through electrolysis is very small in comparison to the liters per minute consumed by an internal combustion engine. An article in Popular Mechanics reports that Brown's gas can't even increase the miles per gallon (MPG) of your vehicle, and that the only real savings come from tampering with your engine, which may confuse the anti-smog controls.
the Virtual Music Classroom Music Activities and Resources for Kids and Teachers This site contains music resources and activities that encourage the ability to read, write, and make music. For more detailed information on this topic see this article. There are two ways to approach this site: 1. Jump right into the Activities page and have some fun with the music activities you find there. 2. Go to the Teachers Resources page to help you plan an activity or series of activities for specific learning outcomes or to learn a specific technique for teaching music. -A Strategy for Teaching a song to your class - How to begin a song all together on the same note! - Computers in the elementary music classroom - conducting - in 2 - Teaching for Vocal Health -A Paper on "Whole Language" and it's lessons for teaching "Music Literacy" The Teachers' Resources section will include lesson plans for using this site as part of your classroom music program. - Past Featured Composers. You can use this site in the classroom, as an instructional tool. Music notation for each melody is on each of the song pages. You can use the notation to help your children and yourself (if you are not a music reader) learn to read music. Let the tune play over and over, singing the words and following the melody, until the children know the music well. A single computer can be used with the class gathered around it. While it is easy to sit and watch the computer sing, be sure and get the kids actively singing along. Once the children know the music, try playing the games or dances. On these pages you will also find a wealth of resources to help you use these songs in integrated activities in schools. These resources include recipes, historical references, bluebird facts and art ideas. DOWNLOAD needs and NET INFO for using this page: - QuickTime Musical Instruments info - Download QuickTime 2.1 - Download Crescendo! by Liveupdate - Download Arnold's Midi Player - Download OMS - MacIntosh Midi Users Internet Guide BACK TO HIGHER DIRECTORIES ON THIS SITE KODÁLY Society of Canada Homepage - Arts Culture and Heritage SITE designed and Maintained by
Self-harm, also known as self-injury, is defined as the intentional, direct injuring of body tissue, usually done without the intent of suicide. Self harm has a stigma attached to it, with non-suffers often assuming the only reason for this behaviour is to garner ‘attention’. However, this behaviour is often routed in psychological suffering and provides a function for the sufferer. Self-harm is often associated with a history of trauma, including emotional and sexual abuse. Some use it as a coping mechanism to provide temporary relief of intense feelings such as anxiety, depression, stress, emotional numbness, or a sense of failure. Studies also provide strong support for a self-punishment function. Often those that self harm have strong feelings of guilt. They believe they deserve to be punished for some perceived failing, so they inflict harm on themselves. Punishing ones self has been found to relieve these feelings of guilt. In one study, participants who were made to feel guilty by depriving a fellow student of a few lottery tickets were willing to keep their hands in freezing ice water for significantly longer periods of time. Another reason people may self harm is to avoid disassociating. Self harm may be the only way the individual is able to feel like they are alive and real. It is used as a grounding strategy to interrupt the disassociation process. Others use self harm as a form of sensation-seeking. Self harm allows them to feel calm and in control. The body’s endorphin release can provide this calming effect, the antidote to the body’s activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Some individuals may wish to be cared for and inflicting harm on themselves can be a way to get the affection and attention of those close to them. Usually these individuals have a history of abandonment and may fear feeling uncared for. In conclusion, there are many reasons someone may self harm and there is almost always a deeper reason for doing so. It is often a coping technique and it cannot be taken away without allowing the individual to find something else to replace the behaviour. Finding the route cause of the behaviour can help you find healthier ways of coping. If you struggle with self harm, please seek help.
Following a major discovery implying that a ninth planet may be orbiting our solar system, the scientists are investigating its possible impact on the tilted orbits observed for the other planets. All known planets of the Solar System have their orbits in almost the same plane, but it's interesting that the plane is approximately 6° aslope of the Sun's rotation plane. The momentum conservation law implies such an occurrence cannot happen lightly, which has led the scientists to suspect another object may have entered the system some time ago, causing the observed tilt. Prior to its discovery, the likely candidate to explain the spin alignment has been a passing star, or magnetic field interactions of the Sun and the disc from which the Solar System was formed in the early days. The Planet's Nine theoretical orbital plane differs from other Solar System planets and it may have put other planets off their axes during the early Solar System period. This would also suggest the planet doesn't originate from our Solar System, but it may be an exoplanet captured the Sun. After the scientists at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena suspected the Planet Nine may be causing some of the unusual movements of the outer Solar System planets, the idea can be applied to other planets, as well. “Because we think Planet Nine has a significant inclination, if it exists, then that means it would tilt things. It’s one puzzle piece that seems to fit together, and it really seems to be in support of the Planet Nine hypothesis,” said Elizabeth Bailey, a Caltech scientist. According to the calculations, the Planet Nine could weigh between 5 and 20 times the mass of our planet with an extremely eccentric orbit that reaches 250 times the distance of the Sun and the Earth, at its farthest end. Such an orbit indicates it was actually once an exoplanet before it got captured by our Sun. If this occurred during the early solar system formation days, the planet's gravitational pull would cause the observed alignment of the planets' relative to the Sun. The most important aspect of the Planet Nine is its tilt while if it were the mass, then Jupiter would be suspected as a cause. “What is important is that the perturbing planet is off-plane. Jupiter cannot cause its own tilt,” said Alessandro Morbidelli at Côte d’Azur Observatory in Nice. The Planet Nine's definite existence is, however, yet to be examined. - "The inclination of the planetary system relative to the solar equator may be explained by the presence of Planet 9" – Rodney Gomes, Rogerio Deienno, Alessandro Morbidelli – arXiv:1607.05111 Video credit: TheLipTV2 Featured image credit: TheLipTV2 If you value what we do here, create your ad-free account and support our journalism. Producing content you read on this website takes a lot of time, effort, and hard work. If you value what we do here, select the level of your support and register your account. Your support makes this project fully self-sustainable and keeps us independent and focused on the content we love to create and share. All our supporters can browse the website without ads, allowing much faster speeds and a clean interface. Your comments will be instantly approved and you’ll have a direct line of communication with us from within your account dashboard. You can suggest new features and apps and you’ll be able to use them before they go live. You can choose the level of your support. Stay kind, vigilant and ready!
Metabolic syndrome is not a single disease but a term used to describe a collection of health issues that increase the risk factors of developing heart disease, diabetes, and stroke. These health problems include high blood pressure, high blood sugar levels, and elevated cholesterol levels. When you’re diagnosed with these conditions together, the chances of developing cardiovascular disease is greater than if only one factor is diagnosed. For instance, elevated blood sugar levels might be a serious condition by itself, but when you’re also diagnosed with high blood pressure, your risks of developing cardiovascular disease become more pronounced. What Causes Metabolic Syndrome? Some of the risk factors associated with metabolic syndrome include obesity, overweight, physical inactivity, age, and genetics. These group of risk factors happens because your body is incapable of regulating specific proteins and sugars (glucose) and cholesterol (lipids). Abdominal obesity is having a waistline that exceeds 35 inches in women and 40 inches in men. In other words, those having an “apple-shaped” body have excess fat deposits. Having excess fat around the stomach puts you at a greater risk of having heart disease than fat elsewhere in the body. 2. High Blood Pressure High blood pressure or hypertension happens when the pressure pushing blood on the walls of the arteries rises and stays high. This could potentially damage your heart and lead to the build-up of plaque in the arteries. Blood pressure above 135/85 is considered high. 3. Low Levels of HDL High-density lipoproteins (HDL) or ‘good’ cholesterol is important to the body because its responsible for removing cholesterol deposits in the arteries. When the level of HDL is too low, it means cholesterol deposits are not being removed as much as is required. This increases your risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Likewise, the medication to treat high cholesterol levels is also a risk factor. 4. High Triglycerides These are types of fats found in the blood. If the level exceeds 150mg/dl, it’s considered high and becomes a risk factor for developing heart disease. Additionally, the medication used to treat high triglycerides is a risk factor. 5. High Fasting Blood Sugar Levels If your blood sugar level rises beyond 100 mg/dl while fasting, it increases your chances of having heart disease. This is mainly due to insulin resistance where the body fails or is unable to use insulin as required. Having one of the above conditions is problematic enough. Now imagine being diagnosed with two or more conditions. That cluster of health conditions is what’s called metabolic syndrome. Who’s at Risk for Metabolic Syndrome? In most cases, metabolic syndrome is hereditary. If your family has a history of type-2 diabetes, hypertension, or insulin resistance, then your risks are high. Other groups who risk developing metabolic syndrome include: - Women approaching menopause or around menopause. - Eating too many unhealthy carbohydrates such as white rice, pasta, and bread. - Certain race or ethnic communities like Mexican Americans and African Americans. - Body Mass Index (BMI) that’s greater than 25. - Heavy drinking for a long time. - Acute stress. - Diet that’s high in fat. Symptoms of Metabolic Syndrome Generally, metabolic syndrome has no symptoms. If you have obesity, large waistline, diabetes, or any of the risk factors associated with metabolic syndrome, you should visit your doctor for an evaluation. Prevention and Treatment of Metabolic Syndrome Opt for a Plant-Based Diet Nutritionists encourage that you eat plenty of plant-diets, specifically the Mediterranean diet which comprises a lot of vegetables, fruits, seafood, legumes, whole grains and less of meat, sugar, sweets, and cheese. This lowers the risks for metabolic syndrome by keeping your heart healthy. Avoid Certain Drinks Avoid any drink that could potentially raise your blood sugar and triglyceride levels. These include fruit juice, soda, cocktails, alcohol, and any sugary beverages. Tea, water, coffee, and low-fat milk are better options. Water is always healthy to prevent dehydration and keep your body functioning properly. Having a large waist circumference puts you at a higher risk for metabolic syndrome. According to experts, where you wear fat is more important than your overall weight. Carrying fat around the hips or butt is less risky than carrying fat around your stomach or middle area. Losing weight, regardless of how little you lose, significantly reduces the risk for metabolic syndrome. Engage in different forms of physical exercises and combine this with a balanced diet. Apart from feeling great about yourself, exercise will help you shed off the excess fat and might even take medication off your list. Lifestyle Avoid sitting for a long period at work, watching TV, or using your computer. You’re encouraged to walk every few hours, use your computer while standing, and walk to work if it’s not that far. A study associates sedentary activities with diabetes, suggesting that every hour you sit watching TV raises your risk for diabetes by 3.4 percent. If lifestyle changes such as eating a healthy diet, exercising or quitting smoking don’t give the desired results, there are certain medications you can use. Since an individual’s condition is unique, you need to speak to your doctor to get a diagnosis and recommendations for the correct treatment. If you have metabolic syndrome, all is not lost. The good news is that, if managed early, it’s possible to reverse the condition and live a healthier life. All images by Pixabay
The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the occurrence of mental health problems, such as compulsive disorders. Public health measures to prevent infection, such as frequent hand washing and disinfecting, can greatly affect people who already have obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The adverse mental health effects of COVID-19 are, in general, more acute for people with OCD. For example, research shows that people with contamination-related OCD and washing compulsions experienced worsened symptoms. As a mental health condition, OCD is not widely understood. It is a complex condition and every individual displays a unique set of symptoms with even more complexities. Even in the best of times, it requires a lot of effort for people with OCD to manage their condition. Society-wide anxiety around a pandemic can make life much harder for people with this disorder. Symptoms of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder is a common disorder that affects children, adolescents, and adults of all age groups. People with OCD have intrusive thought patterns or obsessive ideas and desires that cause them to act in a certain—often eccentric—way. These individuals believe their obsessions and compulsions are ways to ward off danger. Doing certain things (like cleaning rituals or repeating something a set number of times) may help alleviate the anxiety when facing danger, real or imagined. The problem is, these actions are not real solutions to most situations. The lack of control may throw them into a cycle of more anxiety and compulsion. People with OCD tend to develop co-occurring anxiety disorders or unipolar mood disorders. Obsessions generally fall into five categories: - Compulsions to prevent harm - Obsessions with symmetry by ordering and counting items - Obsessions about cleanliness - Repugnant avoidance of sex, violence, and other social interactions - Hoarding and collecting compulsively This disorder is usually caused by genetics, changes in brain or body chemistry, childhood trauma, or habits formed over a long time. Usually, OCD conditions do not come on all of a sudden; mere anxiety over COVID-19 does not make people develop OCD. People who have such conditions feel something bad could happen to themselves or loved ones if they don’t perform their personalized rituals or compulsions. Of course, untreated OCD can certainly worsen in an anxious time such as a pandemic. Challenges During the Pandemic A public health crisis like COVID-19 which requires people to wash hands, disinfect surfaces, and mask up can trigger compulsions for people living with OCD. With their anxiety over how many times they washed their hands, whether they stood too close to someone, whether a surface is clean enough, or how many times they sanitized their home justified, even encouraged, obsessions and compulsions can worsen. Other behaviors, such as checking the internet for the latest news about the virus, can also become compulsive. Social distancing, isolation, and remote or hybrid work have made it more difficult for working adults who struggle with OCD. They worry about the potential for contamination in the workplace, which increases perceived job difficulties. Treating Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Evaluation and diagnosis for OCD is the first step toward treatment. Health professionals will discuss one’s thoughts, feelings, and behavioral patterns to determine if one has the disorder and what kind of compulsive category they fall into. They will also use the criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) to arrive at a diagnosis. Challenges in the diagnostic phase include differentiating OCD symptoms from those of other disorders such as anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, or other mental health illnesses. Like many mental health conditions, OCD can be treated with a combination of medication and psychotherapy. Because people with this disorder tend to have co-occurring mental disorders, they need access to personalized and well-rounded treatment plans. Common medications for OCD include serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) in higher daily doses than treating depression. It may take up to three months for SRIs to start working. Some people benefit from an antipsychotic medication which helps them better cope with OCD symptoms. When treating adults with OCD, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) may be used as a supplementary treatment. This disorder may also be treated by using cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), habit reversing training, and exposure and response prevention (ERP) therapy. Comprehensive Treatment Programs for OCD Some treatment centers provide comprehensive treatment programs with ERP plans that cater to the severity of patients’ OCD symptoms. These intensive residential treatment programs typically last a few weeks. ERP is provided by a licensed mental health professional, such as a psychologist, therapist, social worker, or counselor. ERP can also be delivered via teletherapy. The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the occurrence of mental health problems, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The adverse mental health effects of COVID-19 are generally more acute for people with OCD. If you or a loved one is experiencing new or worsened symptoms of OCD, it may be time to seek treatment. There are proven methods to alleviate the symptoms of OCD. Though Laguna Shores Recovery does not treat OCD as a primary diagnosis, our team of licensed mental healthcare professionals and therapists can walk alongside people who have substance use disorder with OCD as a secondary diagnosis. We understand the challenges of this mental health disorder and are capable of treating it. We can help you design custom treatment plans for your needs. Our full medical residential facility offers a range of treatments, including diagnosis, behavioral therapies, and 12-step programs. We believe that life starts after recovery. Call us at (866) 906-3203.
Characters often find resistance through conflict with other characters. This doesn’t mean they have to physically fight with each other. Dialogue can play a big role in conflict. The narrative of a story defines the plot and description sets the scene. But dialogue shows how your characters react to different events in their own words. It shows what they tell other characters and what they hide from them. Dialogue is a great way to create conflict and builds tension and suspense in your book. Here are 10 ways to introduce conflict into dialogue. Your characters can: Great dialogue allows a character to respond another character by causing conflict. It also allows them to create conflict. Tension increases when you build doubt and uncertainty with your character’s words. You should use dialogue to show who your characters really are. Other ways to introduce conflict outside of dialogue include making a character: Conflict in dialogue should be supported by these crimes of physical conflicts. It will make your characters think, plan, and react to different situations.
How Do the COVID19 Antibody Tests Differ from Other Diagnostic Tests? There are a few different types of COVID tests being conducted in America and all around the world, which has caused some confusion in people about the purpose of each test and how they’re different from each other. Today, we’ll discuss one type of COVID test called the COVID-19 antibody test in detail. What Is an Antibody Test? The antibody test helps determine whether an individual has had COVID-19 in the past and if their immune system is now producing the antibodies needed against the virus. Antibodies are proteins that are necessary for fighting the virus and cleaning out the bad or infected cells from the body. The antibody test is also known as the serology test. It is typically conducted after a person has contracted COVID-19 and has fully recovered from the virus, meaning they have tested negative. The antibody test is conducted by a medical professional who takes a blood sample, either by drawing a small amount of blood from a vein or by pricking a finger and collecting a few droplets. If the antibody test shows that a person has antibodies against COVID-19, it means they were infected by the virus at some point in the past. The presence of antibodies means the person is now immune to the coronavirus for some time. However, more research is being conducted to determine whether immunity against the virus also includes immunity against reinfection with COVID-19, the level of immunity and how much protection it offers, and how long the immunity will last. When to Conduct an Antibody Test? Antibody testing is usually recommended after a minimum of 14 days have passed from the day the symptoms of the virus first started to show. The timing of the test is vital to ensure that the test results are accurate. If the test is done too early during the course of the infection, the immune system might still be building antibodies to fight the virus, so the test might not be able to detect them. It's important to use the specific antibody tests which have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration or FDA. A significant benefit of antibody testing is that people who have recovered from COVID-19 and have antibodies are eligible to donate plasma, which can help treat other infected patients and boost their immune system’s response to the virus. What Other Tests Are Available For COVID-19? There are two other tests available for COVID-19, and they are both different from the antibody test. The first test is the PCR or polymerase chain reaction, a molecular test that detects whether a person has been infected with the virus using fluid collected from either a throat or nasal swab. The second test is the antigen test which is used to detect specific proteins in the COVID-19 virus. The test is also used to confirm whether a person has contracted the virus, and it can offer results within minutes.
Local and migratory armyworm are making their presence felt, with reports coming in from Moama, north-western Victoria and the Mallee area. But this doesn’t necessarily mean they will cause damage to crops. In this article we will provide information on recent reports and explain why action might not be needed depending on the larvae size and crop stage. Armyworm is the common name for several species of crop and pasture moth larvae. The native species of armyworm include the common armyworm (Mythimna convecta), the southern armyworm (Persectania ewingii) or the inland armyworm (Persectania dyscrita). Armyworm moths can be highly migratory and will be more abundant in years when there has been higher rainfall inland or in coastal breeding areas, where source populations are based over autumn and winter. Inland and southern armyworm are the species most likely to be found in Victoria during autumn and winter, as they are relatively cold tolerant, whereas the common armyworm is normally found in NSW over the winter with flights into Victoria occurring during late winter and spring. Being able to tell the difference between these three armyworm species is generally not critical because their habits, type of damage and control measures are similar. For more information on armyworm including identification, control and behaviour visit our PestNote. In the last two weeks we have received reports of armyworm in cereals in Ouyen and Hopetoun, and through the southern Mallee region. Some large common armyworm larvae have also been reported in barley in Moama. Closer inspection of the images sent showed one of the reports was common armyworm and two were southern armyworm. It’s common to see native species of armyworm in south-eastern Australia at this time of year. How to know if larvae will cause damage Crops which are most susceptible to economic damage include barley, oats, rice and grass pastures, but armyworm can also occasionally cause foliage damage or secondary tiller loss in wheat and triticale. The extent of damage depends on the size of larvae present at vulnerable crop stages; 70% of all food consumed is in the final larval stage (30-40mm). Defoliation is normally only a risk when armyworm reach very high numbers. While extensive defoliation of tillering and flowering crops is unusual in our region, you can find more information on defoliation rates in this Beat sheet article about extreme defoliation experienced in Queensland in 2019. Head lopping most frequently occurs during late stages of crop senescence, when the other green material on the plant starts to dry out leaving less palatable food for the larvae at the base of the plant. Barley is most susceptible to head lopping because it has a relatively thin stem, making it easier for larvae to chew through in comparison to other cereals. The risk of head lopping is highest when mature caterpillars are present, because armyworm feed more as they reach maturity, and they have bigger jaws for chewing than smaller grubs. Therefore, the development profile of this pest is key. If small to mid-sized larvae are present as the crop turns, then they are unlikely cause head lopping. Alternatively, if larvae are large enough to pupate before crop senescence, then there won’t be enough grubs left to cause economic loss. An example from the field As an example, the grubs found in Moama (shown in the photo above) were around 20mm long, placing them at larval stage 4. Modelling data which incorporates the common armyworm development profile and local climate data predicts that these larvae will pupate by the time the crop starts to senesce. Therefore, the risk of head lopping is very low. These simulations show that factors such as the date that larvae were found, their size, as well as the type and stage of crop are vital when deciding whether intervention is required. Cesar Australia are currently working on the adaptation of our modelling tool DARABUG for industry use. The app will be used to predict the growth rate and stages of common armyworm and native budworm in relation to the crop stage, to highlight when to focus monitoring efforts and if damage is likely to occur. If you are interested, we are able to run simulations for common armyworm development and provide information on monitoring dates for your area. Please get in touch for more details. Although control of armyworm in south-eastern Australia is rarely needed, it’s important to keep an eye on when large larvae will be present at vulnerable crop growth stages, as explained above. Common armyworm are likely to have migrated into cropping regions from mid winter. Monitoring should occur from August to November, particularly in barley, with the most critical time being 3-4 weeks prior to harvest (although crops should also be monitored during tillering). Armyworm larvae are active at night, seeking shelter under debris and vegetation on the ground during the day. This means that the best way to monitor is to do a direct ground search along with a sweep net in the evening. If you find armyworm in your crops, please let us know so we can keep up to date with their numbers in 2021. A rule of thumb threshold of 8 – 10 armyworm larvae per m2 in cereals provides a guide for spray decisions during winter and early spring. When cereal crops (mostly barley or oats) approach ripening and are drying off, the threshold drops to 1 – 3 larvae per m2 due to the risk of head lopping. Parasitic flies and wasps, predatory beetles and diseases are often effective at suppressing natural populations of native armyworm species. Many thanks to Leo McGrane and Garry McDonald for contributions to this article, and to the following advisors for their reports: Andrew James (Dodgshun Medlin), Matt Bissett (Independent) and Brad Bennett (Agrivision).
Among the many mysteries of the universe there is one that is deceptively simple and yet strikes at the very heart of our ignorance of the cosmos: what is the shape of the universe? To come to the correct answer, we need to solve the mysteries of dark matter and dark energy and some other pretty crucial problems — and we don’t have the tools to do that just yet. So, for now, we have the best guess: The universe, as far as we can tell, is 3-dimensionally flat. Now, this doesn’t mean we live in Flatlandia or that somehow the Earth is flat (it really isn’t). It’s about the geometry of the universe, and the flat universe has a very simple geometry, something you might have encountered in math lessons in school: two parallel lines in this universe will never meet, and the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is always 180 degrees. The geometry of the universe is estimated from the properties of the various components: electromagnetic radiation, regular matter, dark matter, and dark energy. If the sum of all the densities of these matches a precise number, called the "critical density", the universe is flat. A value lower or higher produces very different geometries, as you can see below. If the density of the universe is less than the critical density then the shape of the universe is akin to a saddle or a pringle (if the universe was 2-dimensional). In that universe, two parallel lines not only never meet but grow further and further apart. This is known as an "open universe". On the other side of the critical density, there is the "closed universe". The universe in this case has a geometry that has a 2D equivalent to the surface of a sphere. This doesn’t mean that the universe is a big ball, these are just ways for us to understand the complexity of 4-dimensional geometry using something we are familiar with. In a closed universe, parallel lines meet twice. This might seem completely wrong, but it is easy to picture it. Just imagine the meridians, the lines that provide the longitude of a location on Earth. These lines are all parallel to each other at the equator. But they will converge at the North and South Pole. So where does our best guess come from? Observations of the components of the universe tell us that it is really very close to the critical density, so very close to being flat, with the uncertainty being in the closed cosmos territory. While the geometry is simple(r), there are a lot of physical problems to solve this First of all, we still don’t know exactly what dark matter and dark energy are, which may affect the geometry of the universe. Even if we ignore that, there are more issues to solve. For the universe to have a density very close to the critical density today, it means that it had to be exactly the critical density during the Big Bang. However, there is no reason for this to be the case. There are scenarios that solve this and other problems, such as cosmic inflation but they are yet to be experimentally confirmed. The size of the universe, if it’s infinite or not, depends on the shape of the universe (among other factors). But that, as they say, it’s another story.
- Differentiation and Integration as the Means to a Unit-Perspective - Concept-Formation as a Mathematical Process - Concepts of Consciousness as Involving Measurement-Omission - Definition as the Final Step in Concept-Formation - Concepts as Devices to Achieve Unit-Economy For man, sensory material is only the first step of knowledge, the basic source of information. Until he has conceptualized this information, man cannot do anything with it cognitively, nor can he act on it. Human knowledge and human action are conceptual phenomena. Although concepts are built on percepts, they represent a profound development, a new scale of consciousness. An animal knows only a handful of concretes: the relatively few trees, ponds, men, and the like it observes in its lifetime. It has no power to go beyond its observations—to generalize, to identify natural laws, to hypothesize causal factors, or, therefore, to understand what it observes. A man, by contrast, may observe no more (or even less) than an animal, but he can come to know and understand facts that far outstrip his limited observations. He can know facts pertaining to all trees, every pond and drop of water, the universal nature of man. To man, as a result, the object of knowledge is not a narrow corner of a single planet, but the universe in all its immensity, from the remote past to the distant future, and from the most minuscule (unperceivable) particles of physics to the farthest (unperceivable) galaxies of astronomy. A similar contrast applies in the realm of action. An … Read the rest in Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand.
Without Roots was a Sci-Art exhibit showcasing larger-than-life models of plant-root cells. Using the 3Doodler Create+ Pen, participants explored the science of plant biology through a tactile experience. We spoke with Dolores Bartholomew, artist, scientist, and educator from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and host of Without Roots, to show you how this inspiring event can be replicated in your classroom. Without Roots took place at the Esther Klein Gallery in Philadelphia between August 16th and September 29th. The exhibit featured a STEM workshop sponsored by 3Doodler. Teaching STEM through art Without Roots explored how STEM education, through art and design, can present science in ways that excite both scientists and non-scientists. We used 3Doodler pens to produce “cytocells” or plant cell cytoskeletons. Each attendee was invited to create a miniature cytocell using the 3Doodler pen. We then connected each cytocell together, forming lateral roots. This created a truly visual example of “root communication” and how that contributes to the growth of plants. To better understand the cytoskeleton and its role in cells, students replicated the various parts that make up a cell, tissue, or organ to help them visualize and learn. Using images, explain the details of the subject matter (for example cells), and their functions. Familiarize the students with 3Doodler pens. Have them practice by Doodling related vocabulary words on their DoodlePads®. Check out tips for getting started here. Show students finished examples so they can visualize their goal. Next, have students design their own models using reference images. They can use a DoodlePad® to trace over printed images, adding layers to take their models 3-Dimensional. Once finished, ask each student to explain the science behind their model to help them integrate the knowledge further. Either split students into pairs to share their learnings, or have individual presentations. Last but not least, display the students’ projects for others to view! Exhibiting the models for others to see helps students feel excited about their work. Learn more about how you can enrich the lives of your students with 3Doodler.
⇧ [VIDÉO] You may also like this partner content (after the ad) While physicists have been debating this for nearly four decades, new data analysis by the NNPDF collaboration reveals that the proton actually contains another fundamental particle called a charm quark. The intrinsic nature of this quark may have important implications in the search for new physics. All matter around us is made up of atoms, which are made up of subatomic particles: protons and Neutrons Create a center and gravitate around it Electrons. According to the standard model of particle physics, the proton is called a composite particle: experimental evidence shows that it is made up of at least three particles (two quarks). up to and a quark under), bound by gluons. However, quantum theory predicts that the proton may contain many quark-antiquark pairs, including quarks. Charm – These are heavier than protons. Theorists believe that these quarks Charm “Intrinsic” to the proton, meaning they are part of the proton on long timescales and are not the result of interactions with an external particle. However, no experiment has succeeded in proving the existence of this quark. Charm Inherent at this time. Thanks to the analysis of large volumes of collision data through machine learning techniques, the NNPDF collaboration finally provides the long-awaited proof. Data from over 500,000 collisions were analyzed NNPDF collaboration (For this Neural network Barton distribution function) conducts research in the field of high energy physics. The aim is to determine the precise structure of the proton (i.e. the distribution of its constituents, quarks and gluons) using the methods.Artificial intelligence. This knowledge is an important part of the Large Collider’s research program Hadrons (LHC) at CERN. Specifically, the team used a machine learning model to generate different hypothetical structures of protons, with different flavors of quarks; Remember that these flavors are six in number: up to, under, top, below, Different And Charm. They compared these different proton structures with results obtained during more than 500,000 real collisions carried out in particle accelerators over the past ten years. They found that a small fraction (0.5%) of the proton’s momentum is attributed to a quark. Charm. The latter are much heavier than quarks up to And under (A few thousand times heavier than a quark up to !). This finding is particularly concerning An LHCb experiment (Large Hadron Collider beauty) was carried out last year on the Z boson, which revealed the existence of quarks Charm in protons. According to their calculations, the team estimates that the protons — which are a little less than 1 GeV — are made up of quarks. Charm and their antiparticle, each with a mass of about 1.5 GeV, sometimes appear arbitrary. The level of confidence is still low So, incredible as it may seem, the proton is a particle larger than itself! ” It goes against all common sense. If you buy one kg of salt packet, you will get two kg of sand. But in quantum mechanics, it is very possible. », Juan Rojo explainstheoretical physicist at the Free University of Amsterdam and lead author of the paper describing the discovery. The researchers also say that if the proton did not have a pair of charm-anticharm quarks, there would be only a 0.3% chance of obtaining the experimentally observed values. This gives their results a confidence level of 3 sigma. ” This is what we call the serious index in particle physics “Rojo says. However, a level of 5 sigma is necessary for a result to be considered truly significant. So other studies must be done to move from the level of “evidence” to the level of “discovery.” In particle accelerators, the motion of colliding protons, heavy quarks, and their antiparticles sometimes provide energy that can evolve from this energy—these “external” quarks are not fundamental to the proton’s identity. On the other hand, it is a question of quarks that appear naturally, from time to time, in an unbounded proton, and therefore at low energy. This phenomenon is rare, but may be of great importance for experiments carried out at the LHC. ” In CERN experiments, we create collisions between protons and look for subtle anomalies that could indicate new particles or forces. This is only possible if their nature is fully understood. “, concludes the physicist.
Public Service Day Activities for Kids June 23rd marks Public Service Day. This day was founded by the United Nations as a way to recognize the men and women who serve the public in key roles. Help your child to better understand the importance of this holiday with a fun-filled celebration activity! Play Eye Spy Your young child may not know what public service means. Help him to get a grip on this idea with a game of ‘Eye Spy’. Take a walking tour around your neighborhood or drive through – looking for people who work in public service positions (such as the police, fire fighters or crossing guards). Point out the people and count as many as your child can find. Go through the dress-up bin, looking for public service costumes. Pick out fire fighter costume pieces or have your child dress like a teacher. Act out a scene. Your child can role play what a public servant does, getting in some creative drama time too! Write a Bio Older children and teens can do online research (or head out to the local library) on famous public servants. Your child can then write a brief bio, create a timelines and even add in pictures. See a Lecture Find a local lecture given by a public servant. If you can’t find one, invite a service speaker to your school or community event.
The Perseverance rover has found an overabundance of organic molecules on Mars, along with other materials, making the dry delta it’s currently exploring ripe for searching for potential signs of ancient life. Large concentrations of complex organic molecules This new discovery of organic molecules in March took place when Perseverance explored a rocky outcrop located in the jezero crater. Collected with the help of its robotic arm, some of these layered sedimentary rock samples contained materials that had most likely been transported hundreds of kilometers away by one of the many rivers that dotted the surface of the Red Planet billions of years ago. years. . ” The goal was to search for areas similar to those on Earth that harbor signs of ancient life. “, explains Thomas Zurbuchen, chief scientist at NASA. ” We chose to explore Jezero Crater because we thought it was more likely to return scientifically qualitative samples, and now we know we’ve sent Perseverance to the right place.. » These sedimentary rocks contain complex organic molecules called aromatics, as well as clays and sulfate minerals, which can be produced when water interacts with rocks. Although none of these materials is a clear sign of life, known as a biosignature, their presence in 12 of the samples collected by Perseverance as part of its mission that began in September 2021 has important implications. ” This implies a strong potential for the preservation of biosignatures. “, details David Shuster, from the University of California at Berkeley. ” If these were present nearby when the rock was formed, this is precisely the type of material that will preserve them.. » “We’re seeing more and more concentrations as we go up the delta” It also turns out that the prevalence of organic matter has steadily increased throughout Perseverance’s journey through Jezero Crater. “ In this ‘treasure hunt’ for potential signs of life on another planet, organic matter is a clue says Sunanda Sharma of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. ” We observe increasingly important concentrations as we ascend through the delta. » Although organic matter has been discovered in sedimentary rocks that are known to preserve fossils of ancient organisms here on Earth, the instruments carried by Perseverance, however advanced, will not detect their possible Martian counterparts. We will have to wait at least 2033, and the end of the mission. Mars sample returnso that researchers can study them directly and confirm the presence (or absence) of traces of ancient life.
Fancy footwork: Darwin’s pigeons and the evolution of foot feathers Ever since Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, people have been fascinated with understanding the mechanisms of how species could change over time. Like sitting down with relatives around the dinner table during the holidays, it is sometimes hard for us to look at other species and understand how we could have a common ancestor, yet wind up looking and acting so differently. We know that heritable traits are encoded in DNA, and that changes in DNA (mutations) are responsible for changes in traits. But this raises many questions, such as: how many mutations does it take to evolve a new trait? Which genes are mutated to form a new trait, and how do the mutations affect the gene? And when different species evolve similar traits, did that happen through similar mutations? Dr. Mike Shapiro's lab at the University of Utah has chosen to investigate these questions using one of Darwin's favorite species, the domestic rock pigeon (Columba livia). Domestic pigeons are incredibly diverse, with over 350 recognized breeds worldwide. In this study, we focused on the evolution of one remarkable trait in particular, which is the transformation of foot scales into feathers. Like most bird species, most pigeon breeds are scale-footed, but several breeds grow feathers on their feet, instead. To study this trait, we took several complementary approaches. In one, we mated a scale-footed pigeon to feather-footed one to shuffle the information embedded within their DNA. Such information were then tracked down in order to find which locations of their DNA correlated with the amount of foot- feathering in the descendants. In another, we compared the whole DNA sequences from multiple feather-footed breeds to scale-footed ones to find differences between the two groups. In a third, we identified genes that had different activation levels during leg development between feather-footed and scale-footed pigeon embryos. All of these approaches pointed to the same, surprising conclusion: there were two main DNA mutations largely responsible for foot-feathering, but they weren't simply causing the foot skin to produce feathers instead of scales. Rather, they were partially re- programming the pigeon's leg into a wing. During development, certain genes act to "tell" cells to which body part they belong. For instance, during limb development, a gene called Tbx5 programs the developing forelimb to develop into a wing, while another gene called Pitx1 programs the developing hindlimb to develop into a leg. These same genes are involved in arm and leg development in humans. Normally, they act in the correct limb, so each limb develops properly. In foot- feathered pigeons, however, one mutation was causing Tbx5 to be active in both the forelimb and hindlimb, and another mutation was reducing the amount of Pitx1 activity in the hindlimb. As a result, the leg partially changed its development into a "wing" like one, which resulted in the growth of feathers instead of scales. In addition, these mutations also caused the hindlimb of feather-footed pigeons to develop differences in muscle and skeletal anatomy, too. Although the vast majority of birds are scale-footed, pigeons aren't the only species that have evolved foot-feathering; some domestic chicken breeds (Gallus gallus) have, as well. We performed similar experiments and found that changes in Tbx5 expression contributed to foot-feathering in chickens, too. This means that both pigeons and chickens independently evolved similar changes in the exact same gene to produce foot-feathering. Even more strikingly, previous research had found that the other "foot-feathering" gene, Pitx1, was also involved in the evolution of pelvic spines in a very-distantly related organism, the three-spined stickleback fish (Gasterosteus aculeatus) (Shapiro et al., 2004). So to revisit the questions posed at the beginning of the article, we see that for foot-feathering in pigeons, two mutations were sufficient to produce a dramatic transformation in the appearance of the leg, that these mutations altered expression of two genes important in programming limb-type identity, and that mutations in these same genes are responsible for hindlimb evolution in other animals, too. As we ponder the shared origins and diverse trajectories that life has taken on this planet, this study shows that sometimes a small number of mutations can have a very big effect! Original Article:Domyan, E., Kronenberg, Z., Infante, C., Vickrey, A., Stringham, S., Bruders, R., Guernsey, M., Park, S., Payne, J., Beckstead, R., Kardon, G., Menke, D., Yandell, M. and Shapiro, M. (2016).Molecular shifts in limb identity underlie development of feathered feet in two domestic avian species. eLife, 5. Massimo Caine , Founder and Director We thought you might like Resetting nature’s clock: shifting seasons and species relationshipsSep 14, 2016 in Earth & Space \| 3.5 min read by Stephen Thackeray , Sarah Burthe The lingering effects of parental care and its role in evolutionary changeJan 27, 2016 in Evolution & Behaviour \| 4 min read by Rebecca Kilner More from Evolution & Behaviour Ships with hitchhiking critters connect Antarctica to the rest of the worldJul 8, 2022 in Evolution & Behaviour \| 4 min read by Arlie McCarthy Notes from underground: naked mole-rats and vocal dialectsMar 1, 2022 in Evolution & Behaviour \| 3.5 min read by Alison J. 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Wind erosion, water erosion, soil fertility degradation, intensive cultivation, imbalance of nutritious material – are the most common risks for agriculture as well as for the nature. Some systems are much more prone to water erosion than others. When crops are harvested in the late autumn under unfavourable soil conditions, as it is for forage maize for animal feed and vegetables, the soil is under the inestimable risk for water and wind erosion. Long term leys and permanent extensively usable pasture usually decrease the risk. Fine seedbeds and/or bare ground are much more susceptible to erosion than soils with a good crop cover. As for wind erosion, cultivated, sandy, dry and peaty soils are most susceptible in the spring before the crops sprout under the surface of the ground. Planting shelter belts and keeping field sizes small can help reduce wind erosion, but this is not enough. Crop rotation is the systematic management of planting different crops in a particular previously considered order over several years in the same growing space. This process helps maintain the soil fertile, reduce wind and water erosion, as well as it prevents plant diseases and pests. There is no universally accepted rotation schedule or system as the types of plants in a particular farm or garden depend on the local soil, climate, and resources available. Crops and seeds can be separated into different categories – heavy nitrogen using plants (e.g., wheat) and a nitrogen depositing plants (e.g., beans, peas). Rotation of it helps to maintain nutritious materialbalance in soil. There are plants exceptionally prone to the pests as brassicas (e.g. rapeseed, cabbage), so they should be rotated with different class of plants – grain crops, beans, clover, etc. to control pests and diseases. To sum up, managing crop rotation, leaving seedbeds after the harvesting, using no-till technology, avoiding late planted autumn sown, using green manures, and using natural resources consciously can help stabilize the soil and keep it fertilized.
There are three major viruses of influenza that affect human beings, influenza A (Swine flu or H1N1 and H3N2), B, and C. The first two viruses, A and B, are very dangerous and normally result in very severe diseases. For that reason, these types of influenza viruses are targeted by annual flu vaccination programs. There are a number of ways in which influenza can be transmitted from one person to another. Some of the common ways include sneezing, by air through coughing, and contact with the virus directly through people’s hands and hard surfaces. The flu can be very dangerous and can cause complications such as pneumonia and chest infections for young children and elderly people. The symptoms of the flu normally start appearing three days after someone has acquired the infection. Some of the major symptoms include coughing, sneezing, runny noses, chills, high fever, muscle aches, tiredness, and headache. Most people who get the flu suffer for around four weeks and then recover. However, in some cases, victims can develop severe health problems such as pneumonia, sinus infections, bronchitis, liver complications or blood system complications which might lead to hospitalisation or even death. One of the best ways to prevent flu and other associated illness is by having the annual flu vaccination, you can either visit your General Practitioner (GP) or speak with your employer to arrange for a workplace flu vaccination program. It is important to note that you should have the flu vaccine every year since the virus continuously mutates. The vaccine provides protection against the flu strains which are most available during each winter season. Research indicates that the influenza vaccine is very effective in protecting people from the flu, especially in the cold months of July and August. Would you like to know more about how to prevent the spread of the flu or influenza at work? Just drop us a line or simply give us a quick phone call to find out more.
CHILDREN (6-8 Yrs) DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES Developmental milestones are things most children can do by a certain age. Children reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, behave, and move (like crawling, walking, or jumping). What happens to kids in childhood shapes who they become as adults. Children who are nurtured and supported throughout childhood are more likely to thrive and develop into happy, healthy and productive adults. Children (6-8 Years) Middle childhood brings many changes in a child’s life. By this time, children can dress themselves, catch a ball, and tie their shoes. Developing independence from family becomes more important now. Events such as starting school bring children this age into regular contact with the larger world. Friendships become more and more important. Physical, social, and mental skills develop quickly at this time. This is a critical time for children to develop confidence in all areas of life, such as friendships, schoolwork, and sports. Emotional/Social Changes (6-8 Years) Children in this age group might: - Show more independence from parents and family. - Start to think about the future. - Understand more about his or her place in the world. - Pay more attention to friendships and teamwork. - Want to be liked and accepted by friends. Thinking & Learning (6-8 Years) Children in this age group might: - Show rapid development of mental skills. - Learn better ways to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings. - Have less focus on self and more concern for others. Positive Parenting Tips (6-8 Years) Following are some things you, as a parent, can do to help your child during this time: - Show affection for your child. Recognize his/her accomplishments. - Help your child develop a sense of responsibility—ask him to help with household tasks, such as setting the table. - Talk with your child about school, friends, and things he/she looks forward to in the future. - Talk with your child about respecting others. Encourage him to help people in need. - Help your child set achievable goals and learn to take pride in himself/herself and rely less on approval or reward from others. - Help your child learn patience by letting others go first or by finishing a task before going out to play. Encourage him to think about possible consequences before acting. - Make clear rules and stick to them, such as how long your child can watch TV or when he/she has to go to bed. Be clear about what behavior is okay and what is not okay. - Do fun things together as a family, such as playing games, reading, and going to events in your community. - Get involved with your child’s school. Meet the teachers and staff and develop an understanding of their learning goals and how you and the school can work together to help your child do well. - Continue reading to your child. As your child learns to read, take turns reading to each other. - Use discipline to guide and protect your child, rather than punishment to make him feel bad about himself/herself. Follow up any discussion about what not to do with a discussion of what to do instead. - Praise your child for good behavior. It’s best to focus praise more on what your child does (“you worked hard to figure this out”) than on traits she can’t change (“you are smart”). - Support your child in taking on new challenges. Encourage her to solve problems, such as a disagreement with another child, on his/her own. - Encourage your child to join school and community groups, such as a team sports, or to take advantage of volunteer opportunities. Healthy Bodies (6-8 Years) - Parents can help make schools healthier. Work with your child’s school to limit access to foods and drinks with added sugar, solid fat, and salt that can be purchased outside the school lunch program. - Make sure your child has 1 hour or more of physical activity each day. - Limit screen time for your child to no more than 1 to 2 hours per day of quality programming, at home, school, or afterschool care. - Practice healthy eating habits and physical activity early. Encourage active play, and be a role model by eating healthy at family mealtimes and having an active lifestyle. JOIN US as we use our voices against abuse, neglect and injustice! Join the conversation! Engage and connect on our Positive Parenting forum. We thank all those who are protecting our kids and keeping them safe every single day.
How VFD Saves Power & Basic Concept of VFD: VFD is nothing but a variable frequency drive, sometime it is called as VVFD (Variable Voltage Frequency drive). In an induction motor you can control speed of the motor by three methods. First one is Stator input voltage control, as the motor’s input voltage changes simultaneously motor speed also get changed. The second one is Pole changing method. You know the speed of the motor N is From this equation, the speed of the motor N is indirectly proportional to the motor’s pole, therefore by changing the pole motor we can vary the speed of the motor. Third method is changing the frequency: From the motor speed equation, the speed of the motor is directly proportional to the input frequency of the motor this method is normally established by electronics types of equipment such as converter, inverter etc. The basic concept of VFD: From our third method, we can change the speed of the motor by adjusting input frequency. This method gives smooth operation and accurate speed control of an induction motor. But one important thing has to be taken care, while changing input supply frequency of the motor. Lete see the detailed explanation, As we know the output emf of an alternator or generator E is E- emf in volts Φ- is the flux in Weber f- frequency in Hertz Tph is the number of turns in armature (alternator/generator) or Transformer’s primary number turns. In this, flux ϕ is By removing constants, From equation 3 the flux in the stator winding is directly proportional to the motor input voltage and indirectly proportional to the frequency of the motor. Hence while changing the frequency of the motor leads to changes in the flux, this may result into saturation of stator and the rotor cores. Such a saturation leads to sharp increase in the load current of the motor. So that we have to maintain the flux constant in the stator winding. To achieve this, you can see the other variable E, the input voltage of the motor, along with changing the frequency, the voltage also must be changed. By doing that we can maintain constant E/f ratio. To ensures constant flux giving speed control without affecting the performance of the motor. Hence this method is called V/f control. Key Points: how VFD saves Power As we know the input power P is The reducing the input voltage to the motor saves our energy, this is the concept behind the VFD Variable voltage and variable frequency can be delivered by modern electronics scheme such as converter and inverter module. Normally, the grid supply is available in constant voltage and constant frequency format typically AC voltage. In this, the converter consists of diode module or thyristor combinations are used to convert the input alternating current voltage to Direct current voltage. The input to the VFD is given through the line inductor, here inductor is used to protect our equipment from voltage spike. The output of the converter is given to inverter module through DC capacitors, which work as filter as well high voltage protector. The inverter inverts DC voltage to AC variable voltage and variable frequency, by selecting the required frequency (speed) the output voltage of the inverter also varies and keeps E/f ratio constant. It ensures the smooth operation and speed control of an induction motor. The advantage of VFDs: Pole changing method: We cannot maintain contactor logic; it is very complex circuit. Even I had worked for six months in pole changing speed changer, but it was difficult to work. If one phase of the contactor got stuck, then the motor takes high input current, due to this high current there is a changes of motor’s winding failure. In my carrier, two pole changing speed controller motors got burnt. Also we cannot get exact speed of the motor. i.e the possible speed changes is 3000 rpm, 1500rpm, 750rpm, 325rpm, and so on. In between numbers we cannot get from this method. Power saving is not possible as the input voltage is constant. Stator voltage control: In this method, we can change the speed of the motor by adjusting the input voltage to the motor, The voltage variation can be done with the help of rheostat. In this method, due to reduction in the voltage, current drawn by the motor increases. Large changes in the voltage for small change in speed. This is the biggest disadvantage of this method. Due to decrease in voltage motor get overheated and the Power loss is very high. Hence this method is very rarely used in practice. Advantage of VFD: - Power saving - Smooth operation - Exact speed control - Less maintenance - Reliable operation Disadvantage of VFDs: - Very costly - The output voltage of the VFDs cannot be used to another load, so we have to provide separate VFDs for each motor - Very costly especially IDBTs - Needs technically skilled people to do annual maintenance - Very sensitive electronic circuit boards, change of failure in our body static electricity
This entry focuses on Aristotle’s conception of logos, which, as one of three artistic proofs, provides a basis for reasoning and argument. As a critical method, neo-Aristotelianism was the first formal method of rhetorical criticism developed in the early 20th century. This entry addresses the concepts of argument, reasoning, logos, and the rhetorical syllogism or enthymeme. During the Greek classical era, a division arose between Plato’s more philosophical approach and the more pragmatic approach of the Sophists to the practice of argumentation and rhetoric. Aristotle’s teacher, Plato, believed in a monolithic, universal truth whereas the Sophists, itinerant teachers who would, for a fee, provide instruction in argumentation to help citizens win their respective court cases, believed in relative truth. Plato held a certain ... Looks like you do not have access to this content.
Watch 131 Years of Global Warming in 26 Seconds Don't Have Flash? Watch this video on your iPad or iPhone here While temperatures soared for many this summer, this video takes the longer historical view. It comes to us from our friends at NASA and is an amazing 26-second animation depicting how temperatures around the globe have warmed since 1880. That year is what scientists call the beginning of the “modern record.” You’ll note an acceleration of those temperatures in the late 1970s as greenhouse gas emissions from energy production increased worldwide and clean air laws reduced emissions of pollutants that had a cooling effect on the climate, and thus were masking some of the global warming signal. The data come from NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York, which monitors global surface temperatures. As NASA notes, “in this animation, reds indicate temperatures higher than the average during a baseline period of 1951-1980, while blues indicate lower temperatures than the baseline average.”
By Mike Ekberg, manager for water monitoring and analysis Groundwater may seem mysterious. You can’t see it. You can’t hear it. You can’t touch it. Yet, it may be the most important resource we have because, quite simply, we can’t live without water. While this region has plenty of good quality groundwater, we can’t take it for granted. Did you know: - Americans use 6 billion gallons of groundwater each day. - Volume of groundwater is 20 to 30 times larger than all U.S. lakes, streams, and rivers combined. - In the U.S., 44 percent of the population depends on groundwater for its drinking water supply, including 2.3 million people in southwest Ohio. - Groundwater in the Great Miami River Watershed supplied people with 6 billion gallons of water in 2016. On March 11-17, help us celebrate National Groundwater Awareness Week by busting some myths about groundwater. Myth: Groundwater in the Miami Valley is found in an underground river Fact: Rain soaks into the ground and moves downward until it reaches a point where all of the pore space is filled with water. Groundwater occupies the tiny pore spaces between individual particles of sand and gravel or fractures in rock, and it moves through those spaces. Porous materials that can store usable quantities of groundwater and allow it to flow are called aquifers. Myth: Groundwater moves rapidly Fact: Groundwater can move at a rate of 0.5 to 50 feet per day in a productive aquifer. That’s pretty fast for groundwater! At this rate it would take groundwater at least six days to travel the length of a football field. Meanwhile, water in the Great Miami River could travel that distance in as little as 33 seconds! Myth: Groundwater pumped from our region is never replaced Fact: Rain and melting snow replenish our local aquifers. This region receives plenty of precipitation to replace the amount of water pumped for home and commercial use. And, most groundwater that’s used locally is returned as treated wastewater via the Great Miami River or one of its tributaries. In drier regions, however, water often is used at a faster rate than it can be replenished. Myth: Groundwater and rivers and streams do not mix Fact: Do you wonder why the Great Miami River doesn’t dry up? Even during a very hot and dry summer? Groundwater provides plenty of flow to our rivers and streams throughout the year – from 25 to 80 percent of the totally yearly flow. When river flows are high, these conditions can reverse and river water seeps into the aquifer becoming groundwater. Myth: In the Miami Valley, rivers are the most important source of water supply Fact: If you live in the Miami Valley, chances are high that your drinking water comes from groundwater. According to Ohio Department of Natural Resources, groundwater resources in the Great Miami River Watershed supplied people with 91.6 billion gallons of water in 2016. In comparison, surface water use was a mere 9.8 billion gallons. Here are a few things you can do to ensure your family’s health and protect our region’s groundwater: - If you own a well, get your drinking water tested. Learn more about what tests to consider and where to get help. - Find out if your community uses groundwater as its source of drinking water. If it does, encourage community officials to develop and implement a source water protection plan to ensure a safe drinking water supply. - Be groundwater aware. A couple of great places to start include the National Groundwater Association and MCD Source: MCD and the National Groundwater Association
Is the West Antarctic ice sheet collapsing? These scientists want to go find out Let’s play a game. It’s called “Hollywood or Real Life?” The rules are self-explanatory: In a world where technology is cutting people off from the natural world, scientists are treated like conspiracy theorists, and government officials can’t agree on what to do about climate change, humanity is in danger. A huge swath of the West Antarctic ice sheet nearly 75 miles wide is on the verge of collapse, and if it takes the rest of the ice sheet with it, global sea levels could rise by a catastrophic four feet. To make matters worse, scientists don’t know when or how this doomsday scenario could unfold, and the only way to find out is to travel to a remote and treacherous part of the ice sheet known as Thwaites Glacier, nearly 2,500 miles from McMurdo Station. Will the U.S. government support such a dangerous mission? Will world leaders ever get their act together? Or will Mother Nature just say “F**k it,” and wipe the slate clean? You guessed it — this is real life. People have been worrying over the imminent collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet ever since researchers published two papers last year warning that glaciers along the Amundsen Sea were not only retreating, but also unlikely to stop due to the “retrograde,” or increasingly downhill, nature of the seabed below them. But much of what scientists know about this area comes from satellite data. Thwaites and other nearby glaciers are so hard to get to and have such dangerous weather conditions that only a handful of scientists have ever actually made the journey. Now, because of the potentially catastrophic consequences of ice sheet collapse, a group of Antarctic researchers are asking the National Science Foundation to support a more aggressive research approach. Here’s more from The Washington Post: That means a great deal more research and direct measurements in this extremely remote environment. It isn’t research on the moon or at the ocean’s greatest depths, but in terms of work on or near the surface of Earth, it’s about as tough as it gets. To understand the difficulty of the scientific task, consider this — one key problem will be figuring out exactly what is going on at the ground level beneath over a mile of ice. A key unknown involves precisely what kind of terrain the base of Thwaites glacier rests upon, and what it is composed of – which will affect just how much resistance there is to the glacier’s movement. The late climate scientist John Mercer first alerted the scientific community about the instability of the West Antarctic ice sheet back in 1978. At the time, Mercer thought that warming air temperatures would cause the collapse, but scientists now understand that warm water melting the ice from below is the real threat. Still, there are a lot of unanswered questions about how the collapse could play out: “There has been a pendulum in this community in the last 20 years, from, ‘we’re sure the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is going to collapse,’ to ‘actually we’re not,’ to ‘oh yes we are,’ to ‘oh, it’s happening now,’” says Eric Steig, a University of Washington glaciologist. … “I think that many of the ideas that people came up with for why it won’t collapse have been disproven,” Steig says – although he emphasizes that there is still a great deal of scientific uncertainty about the matter. Scientists don’t know, for example, how soon a rapid collapse could begin — 900 years? 200 years? Sooner? And they don’t know whether the ice sheet collapsed before during a previous period of warming about 120,000 years ago — something they could find out if they can get ice core samples. Now, given our short attention span and complete inability to grasp the true existential threat that is climate change, most people will forget about this terrifying drama playing out at the bottom of the Earth within 24 hours, go see The Martian this weekend, and then spend an excessive amount of time pondering the possibility of humans visiting Mars. Which is why, in the interest of getting people to give a shit, someone really should just turn this into a frivolous two-hour blockbuster hit. Picture it: Lily Tomlin and Danny Trejo play a husband and wife team of Antarctic researchers leading an expedition to Thwaites. They bring along two graduate students — one a wise-cracking source of comic relief played by Jerrod Carmichael, the other a brooding and sarcastic voice of pessimism played by Mae Whitman. A grumbling member of the British Antarctic Survey (Peter Capaldi) joins the expedition, along with his young protege (Parminder Nagra), who’s pretty quiet but vlogs about the whole trip. Roland Emmerich of The Day After Tomorrow and Independence Day fame will direct, of course, and the movie will probably be called something minimalist and dramatic like Thwaites. Scientists declare an “urgent” mission – study West Antarctica, and fast, The Washington Post
What Is Social Justice? Social justice is a political and philosophical concept which holds that all people should have equal access to wealth, health, well-being, justice, and opportunity. Understanding Social Justice Social justice is a broad concept that is not limited to any specific religious or political movement. It is generally associated with the political left, and in the U.S. its advocates are found mainly in the Democratic party, particularly in the party's self-identified progressive and socialist wings. Progressives and socialists who do not associate with the Democratic party (independents, Greens and others) also commonly employ the term. Every major religion contains at least one social justice movement: liberation theology, a movement that originated among Latin American Catholics, is one of the most famous. Self-identified advocates of social justice are often at odds with one another over specific policies and priorities, but share a broad vision of an ideal society in which no one race, class, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, or language group is singled out for oppression or enjoys special privileges. All major religions have at least one social justice movement, such as liberation theology, which was started by Latin American Catholics. In the U.S., for example, progressives often push for reform of the criminal justice system, which they believe has been unduly harsh on people of color (particularly blacks and Latinos). They also criticize the healthcare system, which they think neglects women, the poor, immigrants, and people of color. They advocate for reform of the immigration system, arguing that it keeps millions of families from realizing their full potential, and for equal pay for equal work, which they believe women and people of color have been denied.
Birds’ ranges appear to be shifting in response to the changing climate. However, as we note in Winged Sentinels, tropical birds could face special constraints in their ability to track climate change in this way. A new study in PLoS ONE sheds light on the response of tropical mountain birds. As the climate changes, bird populations may be expected to track their climate niches, tracking (roughly-speaking) toward to poles or upward in elevation. But in the tropics temperature changes relatively little with latitude, implying that birds may rely to a greater extent on their ability to shift to higher ground if they are to keep up with climate change. As the first study to evaluate the effects of warming on the elevation ranges of tropical birds, the new research shows that although tropical birds in Central Peru are shifting upslope, they are not keeping up with warming. This rare glimpse into tropical birds’ response to warming is possible because German Forero-Medina of Duke University and his colleagues were able to compare data on birds in remote Cerros del Sira with observations made there by John Terborgh in 1969. Luckily, Terborgh had collected information on the elevational limits of the same bird species across different peaks of the Cerros. He found that these limits varied from peak to peak, implying that the birds’ range margins were unlikely to be a simple response to temperature. Interestingly, and despite this complexity, Forero-Medina’s study reveals that the birds showed remarkably consistent upward range shifts across four decades of warming — but at a slower rate than the change in climate. This lag, they theorise, may indicate that these tropical birds are tracking the responses of trees, which have been shown in South Eastern Peru to migrate at just 45% the rate one would predict from warming in that region. The danger for birds is that if they move to higher elevations to keep cool, they may run out of suitable habitat; as for those that do not shift upslope, it will be important to understand if and how climate warming could exceed their tolerances. Forero-Medina G et al. (2011) Elevational Ranges of Birds on a Tropical Montane Gradient Lag behind Warming Temperatures. PLoS ONE 6(12): e28535. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0028535 Climate Change Driving Tropical Birds to Higher Elevations (2011) Duke University web article.
- Great strategies for helping ELL students in the classroom. - Creative lesson ideas for developing language. - An enduring understanding of the principles of linguistics. - An understanding of the impact of being an English language learner in an elementary school setting and its long-lasting effects. - Ideas to help ELL students & their families feel comfortable in a school setting as they develop their language skills. - A more precise understanding how the ELL students I work with acquire a second language. - Utilize information in/from the program in the classroom and beyond. - Present the new knowledge to classroom teachers, staff, principals. - Better understanding about how language works. - Sense of accomplishment. - Obtain more knowledge on how to better help my Lang. Learners in the classroom. - Create a resource for the students in the school. - How to make the regular students understand the obstacles Language Learners go through in the classroom. - Help the Language Learners be more successful. - Use the knowledge obtained to help classroom teachers create lessons that incorporate strategies for Language Learners. - I would like to learn strategies to help my ESOL students with the HAS in order for them to be successful and not feel overwhelmed by the tests. - How to teach in the content areas at the high school level enabling ELL students to make academic progress and offer a smooth transition between learning how to communicate and academic learning to be successful according to their level of proficiency. - Learn how to provide from all academic teachers equal opportunities for the ELL students academic careers to ensure functioning at a comparable level to their peers. - Learn strategies on how to offer ELL students empowerment in their content classrooms ensuring a stress free learning environment. - I would like to learn about implementing a sheltered classroom program that could be used successfully at my school. - Background Info. about ELL. - Culture—What is important to ELL students’ families? - Student Goals—What ELL students plan to do after high school graduation. - How can I help ELL achieve their goals? - Increase effectiveness/understanding of Core Learning Goal objectives for ELL students. - Master strategies to improve reading comprehension in my students through recognition of how socio-linguistic obstacles interfere with understanding. - Increase cultural diversity within classroom. - Improve student written composition. - Decrease teacher talk by including wider variety of learning activities. - Strategies to use with all students to promote language development. - To share strategies with other staff & the migrant program. - To improve my instructional techniques. - Promote and encourage parental involvement. - Organize a training (professional development) for staff @ St. Michaels to use various strategies and instructional tools. - The ability to assess and instruct my ESOL students better. - Knowledge of the English language and how it is similar and different from other languages. - Different approaches for the instruction of language. - A better writer! - Methods for better reaching all of my diverse learners.
IPCS Curriculum OverviewThe curriculum framework for Innovations contains an integrated, thematic approach infused with inquiry and project-based learning, using standards to guide instruction. Students are placed in multi-aged groupings for their core curriculum as well as resource classes and interest groups. Innovations is committed to providing every child with a quality education. Using new technologies together with proven ideas about learning, every child is challenged and experiences success. "Best Practices" in Science Education heavily influence our curricular approach. To promote meaningful learning, six practices designed to engage students are used by Innovation's instructors. - Student-Centered Instruction - Hands-On/Minds-On Learning - Authentic Problem-Based or Issue-Based Learning - Inquiry Approaches - Emphasis on Communication Skills - Ongoing, Embedded, Authentic Assessment The following section defines the practices and provides curriculum resources that support each of the practices in the classroom setting. (Source: Best Practices in Science Education by Judith Sulkes Ridgway, Lynda Titterington, and Wendy Sherman McCann) Student-centered instruction is at the heart of current research on how children learn. This approach allows children to identify the paths they find most fruitful in constructing knowledge. Instruction is based on what children know and what they need to know, and children are encouraged to choose topics of study from their everyday lives, interests, and needs. By controlling the selection of classroom topics, children realize that their thoughts are valued, feel more of an investment in the lessons, and therefore have greater motivation to learn. Student-centered instruction stimulates children's curiosity, requires them to think analytically and creatively, and requires them to use logic to make sense of the information and data they gather in class. Students rely on their reasoning to answer their own questions. Teachers engage children by allowing them to conduct investigations, often in groups. Teachers facilitate investigations by providing children with the materials they need, by asking them questions that help focus their study, and by allowing them to discuss and test their ideas. Many people might say, "Gee, those sound like buzzwords to me. Do they have any substance?" The answer is yes. If children are generating their own ideas in a student-centered classroom, they need the freedom to be physically active in their search for knowledge. How can children begin to understand the nature of the world in which they live if they experience it vicariously? For this reason, the many of the activities that children perform are physical explorations. Physical explorations not only make the concepts more tangible but also appeal to children's diverse learning styles and take advantage of their multisensory strengths. If children are physically involved, they are more apt to be mentally engaged. Authentic Problem-Based or Issue-Based Learning Neither student-centered learning nor hands-on learning is as effective when children confront concepts that are not applicable to their own lives. This supports the idea that knowing a concept is being able to apply it; new knowledge becomes more meaningful when children can tie it to their real-life experiences. Children engaged in authentic problem-based learning apply their knowledge to questions they have about why things happen in their world, and they discuss their social ramifications. Inquiry is a method of approaching problems that is used by professional scientists but is helpful to anyone who scientifically addresses matters encountered in everyday life. Inquiry is based on the formation of hypotheses and theories and on the collection of relevant evidence. There is no set order to the steps involved in inquiry, but children need to use logic to devise their research questions, analyze their data, and make predictions. When using the inquiry methods of investigation, children learn that authorities can be wrong and that any question is reasonable. The most abstract component of inquiry is imagination. Both students and professional scientists have to be able to look at scientific information and data in a creative way. This unconventional vision allows them to see patterns that might not otherwise be obvious. Teachers incorporate inquiry approaches to learning by allowing small groups of students to explore ideas. The children can then reconvene as a class, discuss their observations, and compile a list of several different hypotheses from this discussion. Each group can choose a hypothesis to investigate. Emphasis on Communication Skills Children learn to share ideas with members of their study group and to report the results of their investigations to the rest of the class. Communication can take the form of casual conversations or more formal presentations, such as oral reports, posters, or written reports. Using the Internet, students also learn to exchange ideas with experts in the field or with children in other parts of the world who may be interested in the same questions. Children need to employ scientific language or terminology to communicate meaningfully. If they are helping each other define a problem, trying to devise the best method to test an idea, or helping each other analyze the results of an exploration, children need to use language that is scientifically appropriate. Teachers engage children by training them to use the language of science. The development of communication skills also entails the ability of children to relate science to other school subjects. Teachers facilitate this process and enrich the learning experience by providing bridges from science to other disciplines, such as art, history, or language arts. This helps children see that authentic scientific investigations are not isolated from the rest of their school subjects. Ongoing, Embedded, Authentic Assessment How do teachers get an idea of what students know and can do in the "best-practices" learning environment? Teachers assess children's knowledge and scientific reasoning skills throughout the instruction process. Teachers gauge preexisting knowledge from the questions that children generate for investigation. This process allows teachers to decide how to help students realign their conceptions with more scientifically accepted ideas. Similarly, as children are gathering background information and devising their experiments, the teacher is observing their techniques. No matter how the teacher has designed the lesson, knowledge can be assessed when children are asked to communicate what they have learned. Computers can assist in this process. Teachers see student responses to questions or prompts in the program. Teachers also evaluate children who are using presentation software to communicate their understanding. The teacher's role is to ensure that students achieve their primary goal: meaningful understanding of concepts. The practices described above help bring this about in several ways. When instruction centers on students and focuses on hands-on experience, learning becomes exciting. When instruction concentrates on the investigation of current problems and issues through scientific inquiry, learning becomes relevant and meaningful. When instruction emphasizes the development of communication skills, the classroom becomes an invaluable place for preparing children to tackle the challenges of adulthood. National Research Council. 1996. National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 391 690. Judith Sulkes Ridgway is a Graduate Research Assistant Abstractor for the Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Education at The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. She is also a doctoral student in science education at the university. Lynda Titterington is the Senior Science Abstractor for the Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Education at The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. She is also a doctoral student in science education at the university. Wendy Sherman McCann is the Science Education Analyst and an AskERIC Specialist at the ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education at The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. She is also a doctoral student in science education at the university.
Descriptions of Standardized Tests The IOWA Test of Basic Skills The Iowa Test of Basic Skills, published by Riverside, is an assessment that measures students' achievement in grades 2-7 in Mathematics, Reading, and Language. Information from these test results is used to assist in individual student planning and the development and implementation of instructional improvement plans, as well as curriculum development. The ACT Aspire is the first digital, longitudinal assessment system to fully connect student performance from elementary grades through high school. ACT Aspire will provide educators and parents with the insights they need to help students get and stay on track by better connecting assessment to teaching and learning. ACT Aspire will include summative assessments that measure how much students have learned over time, as well as aligned classroom-based assessments that help educators better understand students' learning needs in individual classes throughout the school year. The aligned assessments will inform teachers about students' progress toward specific learning standards, so they can better tailor their instruction and resources to help students learn. The PSAT/NMSQT stands for Preliminary SAT/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test. It is a standardized test that provides first hand practice for the SAT. It is also the qualifier for the National Merit Scholarship Corporation's scholarship programs. The PSAT/NMSQT measures: verbal reasoning skills, critical reading skills, math problem solving skills, and writing skills. Common reasons for taking the PSAT/NMSQT are: as a practice test for SAT program tests, to receive feedback on your strengths and weaknesses on skills necessary for college study, to see how your performance on an admissions test might compare with that of others applying to college, and to enter the competition for scholarships from the National Merit Scholarship Corporation. The PSAT/NMSQT is designed to be taken in the junior year; however, it can be taken earlier. The ACT is designed to measure high school students' general education development and their ability to complete college-level work. The test covers four skill areas: English, Mathematics, Reading, and Science Reasoning. The findings from the ACT help a student with educational and career planning. In addition, ACT Test Results assist teachers and school administrators in developing and implementing more effective educational services to students. Scale scores range from 1 (low) to 36 (high). Since all tests involve some measurement error, psychometricians have designed ways to estimate the standard error of measurement. On the ACT, the standard error of measurement is two (2) points on each test score and sub-score and one (1) point for the composite score. The SAT is published by the College Board. The new SAT is a 3 hour and 45 minute test (45 minutes longer than in past years) that measures critical thinking skills students need for academic success in college. There are three sections of the SAT: Critical Reading, Writing, and Math. The test is typically taken by juniors and seniors. The scores are one indicator of a student's potential to do college work. Colleges and universities use SAT results for admission in specific programs and as a basis for awarding merit-based financial aid. The mean score for each section of the SAT is set at or near the midpoint of 500 of the 200-800 score scale. ADVANCED PLACEMENT (AP) The Advanced Placement Tests are published by the College Board. Participating in Advanced Placement courses gives students an opportunity to take college-level work in high school and gain valuable skills and study habits for college. By taking an Advanced Placement Test and scoring a qualifying score of 3 or better, students can earn college credit or advanced placement status. The KEYSTONE EXAMS The Keystone Exams are end-of-course assessments designed to assess performance in the content areas of Algebra I, Biology, and Literature. Future content areas to be assessed include Algebra II, Chemistry, English Composition, Geometry, U.S. History, World History, and Civics and Government. The Keystone Exams were developed by Pennsylvania educators and are aligned to the Keystone Exams Assessment Anchors and Eligible Content. These Exams are one component of Pennsylvania’s new system of high school graduation requirements. To receive a diploma, a student must also meet local school district credit and attendance requirements, complete a culminating project, and pass any additional district requirements.
Throughout human history, work has often required organization. Capture of game and fish required varying degrees of cooperation among members of the group. Communal activity of this type had important social implications. Food had to be equitably distributed, and a leader was needed to organize and direct the group. Because the basic social group was the family tribe, kin relationships—from the tribal chief down—formed the basis for the “managerial hierarchy.” Bones of large animals killed by hunters have been found in sites of the Upper Paleolithic Period (about 40,000 bce to about 10,000 bce), indicating a high degree of organization in hunting at this early stage of the human race. Shortly thereafter men began using dogs to assist with hunting. A more complex organization of work came with the development of pottery. While some sort of clay adequate for making passable pottery can be found nearly everywhere, the best potter’s clay is not universally distributed. Thus, people in some locations were able to make pottery products that could be traded elsewhere. Skilled workmanship and specialized tools aided production, perhaps further encouraging specialization. There is no conclusive evidence that the earliest potters spent their full time at that task or that pottery making was carried on by women in its earliest stages (before introduction of the potter’s wheel). There is reason to believe, however, that in prehistoric times some organization of the work existed. In some societies, for instance, the gathering of the clay and firing materials may have been the work of the men, while the women may have fashioned and decorated the pots. The same type of specialization might also have been involved in the making of textiles. Early protective garments were derived from animal skins. The development of agriculture reduced the supply of available skins and required a substitute material for clothing. To make textiles, yarn had to be spun; the earliest apparatus for this work consisted of a spindle and a distaff (a forked stick holding the unspun fibres). The assignment of tasks in primitive agricultural societies may have involved a division of work along sexual lines, with the fields entrusted to the women while the men hunted (although men would have helped with the more physically demanding tasks such as clearing land). Because crop cultivation began as a part-time means of supplementing the food source, there was little likelihood of full-time specialization in primitive agriculture. Yet even in its earliest stages agriculture was significant to the organization of work, for it provided a slight surplus that could be used to support human society’s first real specialists: makers of metal tools and weapons. Although the origins of metallurgy are as yet unclear, the development and use of copper tools and weapons created a new organization of work in which some persons devoted their full time to mining, smelting, and forging (see Bronze Age). Although deposits of flint for stone tools and weapons were fairly widely and evenly distributed, copper ores were not. Some of the earlier copper artifacts and remains of early copper mines have been found in areas where climate and topography most likely prevented agricultural development. Geography thus made it difficult for the earliest miners and metalworkers to cultivate crops. Besides, the techniques of prospecting, mining, smelting, casting, and forging were probably so demanding of physical strength and mental concentration as to preclude the metallurgist from farming or hunting activities. Because copper ores are generally located in mountainous regions, the metal had to be transported to its lowland users. The specializations of mining and metalworking could evolve only after cultivation efforts created yields that could exceed subsistence levels. Thus, metalworkers and their families were supported by the surplus foodstuffs of farmers. Not surprisingly, metallurgy developed first near the farming valleys of the great river systems of the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, and Indus, all of which provided a high yield of foodstuffs per acre. If metalworkers pursued their occupations full-time, then it is likely that other craft specialties developed in a similar manner. The combination of agricultural surpluses with copper and bronze tools provided the basis for development of the great irrigation civilizations of the Middle East. There the organization of work developed along lines that remained unchanged for the next 5,000 years, until the beginnings of mechanization and industrialization in the 18th century. The ancient world In his seminal book Oriental Despotism (1957), historian and political scientist Karl Wittfogel presented a general theory of the development of ancient civilizations. He found examples of large-scale systematic organization of work, the emergence of social classes, and widespread specialization. Wittfogel believed that the development of irrigation projects in such areas as Mesopotamia and Egypt led to the use of mass labour, to an organizational hierarchy for coordinating and directing these activities, and to government control for ensuring proper distribution of the water. (See hydraulic civilization.) Though tribal societies had some form of government, this was usually personal in nature, exercised by a patriarch over a tribal group related by various degrees of kinship. Now, for the first time, an impersonal government as a distinct and permanent institution was established. Irrigation increased the food supply, allowing larger numbers of people to agglomerate into towns and cities. Because farmers were vulnerable to attack, armies were needed; this created the development of an officer class. Town specialization of labour brought the emergence of potters, weavers, metalworkers, scribes, lawyers, and physicians, while the new surpluses also created the basis for commerce. The more complex economy created a need for record keeping, so writing—of which the first examples come from the bookkeeping records of the storehouses in ancient Mesopotamia—was born. Wittfogel’s theory has been modified by scholars who point to urban civilizations that lacked large-scale irrigation works. In their view, several factors, including geographic features, natural-resource distribution, climate, kinds of crops and animals raised, and relations with neighbouring peoples, entered into the response to the environment. (The work of these scholars represents a “systems” approach to defining the origins of organized societies.)
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Coxal gland, in certain arthropods, one of a pair of excretory organs consisting of an end sac where initial urine is collected, a tubule where secretion and reabsorption may take place, and an excretory pore at the base (coxa) of one of the legs. Variations among the species include highly convoluted tubule sections, doubling back of straight tubule sections, and expansion of the terminal end into a bladder. In many higher crustaceans the excretory glands are located in the head. They are called antennal glands or maxillary glands, depending on whether they open at the base of the antennae or at the maxillae. If the tubule adjacent to the excretory pore is green, the gland is called a green gland. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: excretion: The coxal glands of aquatic arthropodsCoxal glands are tubular organs, each opening on the basal region (coxa) of a limb. Since arthropods are segmented animals, it is reasonable to suppose that the ancestral arthropod had a pair of such glands in every segment of the… arachnid: Excretion…excretory organs occur in arachnids: coxal glands and Malpighian tubules. The coxal glands consist of three parts: a large excretory sac lying opposite the coxal segment of the first pair of legs, a long coiled tubule, and a short exit tube that opens to the exterior through orifices behind the…
COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS: CC.11-12.SL.1 Initiate and participate effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grades 11–12 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively. CC.11-12.SL.1.b Work with peers to promote civil, democratic discussions and decision-making, set clear goals and deadlines, and establish individual roles as needed. CC.11-12.SL.1.c Propel conversations by posing and responding to questions that probe reasoning and evidence; ensure a hearing for a full range of positions on a topic or issue; clarify, verify, or challenge ideas and conclusions; and promote divergent and creative perspectives. CC.11-12.SL.1.a Come to discussions prepared, having read and researched material under study; explicitly draw on that preparation by referring to evidence from texts and other research on the topic or issue to stimulate a thoughtful, well-reasoned exchange of Group Dynamic: Who has power over you? Almost all of our time is spent interacting in groups; we are educated in groups, we work in groups, we play in groups, and we are attracted to others and form groups. But even though we live our lives in groups, we often take them for granted. Group dynamics is the study of groups, and also a general term for group processes. A group is defined as two or more individuals who are connected to each other by social relationships. Individuals join groups because they satisfy a need for safety, identity, affiliation, give individuals a chance to test and share social realities, reduce anxieties and insecurities about being isolated and powerless, and provide a problem-solving mechanism for social and interpersonal relations. Because they interact and influence each other, groups develop a number of dynamic processes that separate them from a random collection of individuals. These processes include norms, roles, relations, development, need to belong, social influence, and effects on behavior. Norms are the rules of the group. They may be explicit (outwardly stated) or implicit (known only by observation).They tell the group members how to behave or how not to behave in different situations. Newcomers who do not follow these rules may be excluded from the group. Norms are positive in that they can bring order to chaos, but they can turn negative if they cause uncomfortable exclusion. Examples of norms may include: How much socializing occurs at meetings How members dress at meetings. Whether group members go out together and when Whether meetings start on time or are always 15 minutes late Rules about who can talk when and how much time they can use Roles are expected behavior for positions within the group. They can be formal (President, Treasurer, Facilitator, Cheerleader, Focus Enforcer, Time Keeper, etc.) or informal and untitled. The most common roles include: Leader's "right hand man": enforces the orders and/or views of the leader Cheerleader: encourages and fosters the harmony in the group. Often uses positive reinforcement to help the group to work together toward their goal Comedian: Harmonizer, mediates conflict and reconciliation with the use of humor Gatekeeper: Encourages all group members to participate. Standard Setter: Evaluates the quality of the group process. Commentator: records and comments on group process or dynamic Followers: serve as passive audience Avoider: remains isolated and apart from others Dominator: manipulates group, interrupts others Recognition Seeker: calls attention to self by boasting, bragging, or acting superior Who are the high participators? Who are the low participators? What are the greeting behaviors? Do they serve to bond the group? Who talks to whom? Who initiates the talk? Early arrival and late departure phenomenon –do people want to spend time together? Who keeps the ball rolling? And why? How are the silent people treated? And how is their silence interpreted? Who is attracted to whom (This means more than sexual attraction. It can mean having interests in common or shared desire to be friends or allies within the group) As a group or team forms, it goes through certain predictable and observable stages, progressing from a loose collection of individuals to a cohesive group working together more or less effectively for a common cause. Each stage poses a challenge to group members and their respective leaders causing certain behaviors to appear. Mastering the behaviors that surface in one stage will allow the group or team to progress to the next stage. Need to Belong: Cohesiveness refers to all of the forces that cause individuals to remain in groups. High cohesiveness, such as strong liking and close match between individual needs and goals may help the group. It can interfere, however, if the group spends so much time in social interaction that they cannot get any work done. Generally, a sense of esprit de corps helps group performance. A newcomer may have more difficulty fitting in a group that has a very high cohesion level. As leader of the group, you can provide the extra help the newcomer may need in adjusting to the group as well as help established members welcome their newest member. Effects on Behavior: Group Dynamic Class Activity: Directions: Even though we live our lives in groups, we often take them for granted. Consider their influence on you by enumerating the groups to which you belong, as well as those that influence you. Group influences in your life: 1. Make a list of all the groups you belong to now. List as many as possible; don't forget family, clubs, sport teams, classes, social groups, cliques of friends, work teams, and social categories that are meaningful to you (e.g., American). 2. Do any of the groups you belong to transform members into a unit that is greater than the sum of its parts? Do they have supervening qualities? 3. Which group has changed the most over time? Describe this change briefly? 4. Which group is highest in "entitativity" (others perceive it to be “pure” or essential in nature) 5. Which group has influenced you, as an individual, the most? Explain the group's influence on you briefly. 6. Identify five groups that you do not belong to, but that influence you in some way. Of these groups, which one influences you--your behaviors, your emotions, or your outcomes--the most? Sense of Self: 1. Number the lines on a sheet of paper from 1 to 20. On each line, complete the statement "I am ..." with whatever aspect of yourself comes to mind. Answer as if you were talking to yourself, not to somebody else. Write the answers in the order they occur to you, and don't worry if they aren't logical or factual. Do not continue reading about this activity until after you finish making your list! 2. Read each statement and then classify it into one of two categories. Collective qualities are any descriptions that refer to the self in relationship to others. It includes roles ("I am a student,"), family relations ("I am a mother,"), ethnicity, race, gender, and origins (e.g., "I am an African American" or "I am from the States"), and religion. Individualistic qualities are qualities that apply to you personally, such as traits, attitudes, habits, and mood (e.g., I am intelligent," or "I like to play soccer"). 3. Summarize your self-concept by computing the percentage of your self that is individualistic versus collectivistic. a. Is your self-concept more individualistic or collectivistic? b. Did you tend to list collective qualities earlier in the list than individualistic ones? c. Was it difficult to classify the self-descriptions as either individualistic or collectivistic? d. Which qualities are more central to your identity: the collective components or the individualistic components? What is group structure? Take a moment and reflect on the structure of a group to which you belong. This group can be one that meets regularly in a work or social setting, or a subgroup of the students within a class. (You can even consider your family's structure.) Describe the group's structure in terms of roles, norms, and inter-member relations. 1. List the members of your group by first name. 2. Describe each person's behavior with 3 or more adjectives and a role label such as leader, follower, Mr. Friendly, deviate, joker, silent member, conformist, or brains. 3. List some of the norms that existed in your group. Are any of these norms relatively unique or unusual? Did anyone violate any norms, and need censuring by the group? 4. Draw a diagram of the authority relations in the group, placing the leader at the top, followed by those next in status, and so on. 5. Draw a sociogram of your group that reflects patterns of attraction. Use your best judgment to determine who likes and dislikes whom. 6. Graph the communication network in your group. How efficient is the organization? How can it be changed to be more effective? Are you a conformist? If you meet regularly in a group, take a moment and reflect on its influence on you. Do you change your behavior when you are in this group? Has the group influenced you, in some way, even when you are no longer in the group? 1. Describe the group briefly: its composition, structure, dynamics, and tasks. How long have you belonged to the group, and what is your role in the group? 2. Is the group an influential one for you, personally? To answer this question, briefly describe your basic personality in terms of the these five qualities: introversion/extroversion (outgoing vs. reserved), agreeable (friendly vs. aloof), conscientious (responsible vs. uninvolved), stability (assured vs. nervous), and openness (open to ideas vs. conservative). Do your actions in the group reflect your personal qualities, or do you act in ways that are inconsistent with your personality in this group? 3. People differ in their tendency to conform in groups. Do you have any conformity-increasing qualities? Are you shy? Do you prefer to change your behavior to match the demands of situations in which you find yourself? Do you avoid attracting too much attention to yourself when you are in social settings? Are you generally uncertain about the validity of your opinions and conclusions? Are you more introverted than extroverted? Further Links for Further Study: Groups Dynamic Research and Theory University of Kentucky Research “History of Group Research”
It wasn’t long ago that the world thought intelligent aliens inhabited Mars. In fact, the subject was still considered up for debate as late as 1916. To put that in perspective, electric lights, radio, powered flight, and mass produced automobiles had all been invented before most astronomers conceded that we are almost certainly alone in our solar system. Given the widespread belief in the existence of a planetary scale civilization right next door, it is hardly surprising that many astronomers and mathematicians of yore attempted to devise a way to say hello. The first scientific proposal for contacting extraterrestrials is widely attributed to the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, who suggested creating a giant visual proof of the Pythagorean theorem in the early nineteenth century. This visual proof consists of a right triangle bordered on each side by a square and Gauss suggested it should be writ large on the surface of the Earth so that it could be seen by aliens he believed inhabited the moon. To do this, he proposed creating an outline of the squares and triangle using trees and filling the inside of the shapes with wheat. Gauss’s plan for interplanetary communication was elegant for its simplicity, and information rich. Not only would it indicate that Earthlings had a basic grasp on geometry, it would also demonstrate our capacity for large-scale agriculture. Gauss’s plan is as forward thinking as it is absurd, but it nevertheless inspired other scientists to begin thinking about how to overcome the challenges of interplanetary communication. Later in the nineteenth century, for instance, the Austrian astronomer Johann von Littrow suggested digging huge trenches in the Sahara Desert in the form of various shapes. These trenches would be filled with water and oil would be dumped on their surface. Each night, the oil in the trenches would be set alight to send flaming messages to our extraterrestrial neighbors. Suffice it to say, neither Gauss’s nor von Littrow’s plans for drawing shapes on the surface of the Earth ever came to fruition, but one of Gauss’s inventions did catch the attention of later would-be alien hunters. In 1821, Gauss invented the heliotrope, which used a mirror to reflect sunlight in order to send signals over several miles. The device was rapidly adopted by land surveyors, but Gauss also recognized its potential for interplanetary communication. He described an array of sixteen mirrors that could use sunlight to flash messages toward the moon in an attempt establish contact with any extraterrestrials that might live there, a feat that Gauss estimated “would be a discovery greater than that of America.” Gauss never got a chance to test his mirror array before his death in 1855. But only a few decades later the idea was revived by scientists in France, whose free flowing ideas about methods for sending a message to extraterrestrials turned Paris into the intellectual capital of interstellar communication. In 1874, the eccentric French inventor Charles Cros petitioned the French government for funding to build a giant mirror that could burn messages into the surface of Mars as a means of communicating with Martians. Cros never received funding for his ambitious plan, but he didn’t stop petitioning the government until his death in 1888. The dream of using mirrors to communicate with Martians didn’t die with Cros, however. A French astronomer who went by A. Mercier published a booklet titled Communication with Mars in which they outlined a plan to coat the Eiffel tower in mirrors. As the sun set each night, these mirrors could be turned toward Mars and used to send signals to the Martians. By the end of the nineteenth century, “Mars fever” was in full swing in Europe, due in large part to the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli announcing that he had discovered “canals” on the Red Planet. To spur scientists to focus on interstellar communication, Clara Gouget, a member of Parisian high society, established a prize in her will that awarded 100,000 francs (about $500,000 dollars today) to the first person to make contact with extraterrestrials on another planet. Notably, communication with Mars was not eligible for the prize because Gouget considered the existence of life there to be “sufficiently well known.” (The prize was eventually awarded to the Apollo 11 astronauts in 1969.) For all the ingenuity of these early attempts at interplanetary communication, the advent of radio technologies quickly made optical schemes for extraterrestrial communication obsolete. In 1899, the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi transmitted the first message—a single letter—across the English channel by radio, demonstrating for the first time that “wireless telegraphy” was commercially viable. That same year, Nikola Tesla, who was also gaining fame for his own experiments in wireless technology in the United States, recorded in his notebooks that he had received an interplanetary radio message. “I have observed electrical actions, which have appeared inexplicable.” Clearly, Tesla realized the power of radio for interplanetary communication, even if the signal he received from Mars was likely produced by storms on Jupiter. Marconi also recognized the power of radio for communicating over interplanetary distances and throughout the early 20th century the popular press, including the New York Times, spread rumors that Marconi was possibly sending messages to Mars. Although Marconi never admitted to trying to communicate with Mars, he did acknowledge that it was possible in principle. As Marconi told the Electrical Standard in 1906, “in 10 years, probably much less, the world will be able to send messages to Mars directly and unhesitatingly, without a hitch or a stop or a word lost in space.” Although Marconi was a little off on his timeline, his prediction about the importance of radio for interplanetary communication was remarkably prescient. To this day, almost every spacecraft has communicated with Earth using radio (the notable exception being a handful of experiments using laser communication that NASA conducted over the past decade). The only problem for Marconi and his contemporaries was, if there were any extraterrestrials on our neighboring planets, they didn’t seem very interested in talking. In 1932, Karl Jansky made a serendipitous observation of radiation coming from the Milky Way galaxy. Overnight, the entire universe had been transformed into a fertile hunting ground for extraterrestrial life. Although it would be another thirty years before Frank Drake launched the first microwave search for extraterrestrial intelligence at the Green Bank observatory, astronomers at least knew that interstellar communication was possible. For the last half-century, every message humans have broadcast into space, with the exception of the Pioneer plaques and the Voyager golden records, have used radio waves as their communication medium. This isn’t to say that stranger ideas haven’t been proposed. SHOUTING IN A JUNGLE: THE BIRTH OF In 1971, astronomers from the United States and the Soviet Union held the first joint conference on communicating with extraterrestrial intelligence. This meeting was attended by some of the brightest minds from both sides of the Iron Curtain, including Iosif Shklovsky, Carl Sagan, Frank Drake, and Marvin Minsky. The meeting was to discuss plans for interstellar communication, and the future of SETI. Given the creative brain power in the room, it’s hardly surprising the participants hit on some pretty wild ideas for establishing contact with ET. In a sign of the times, the astronomer James Elliot, who would later discover the rings of Uranus, proposed blowing up the entire world’s stockpile of nuclear weapons simultaneously on the far side of the moon, as a method for signaling extraterrestrials. Based on an analysis of Starfish Prime, the largest nuclear detonation to ever occur in space, and the size of the American and Soviet nuclear stockpiles, Elliot estimated that a blast on the moon could be detected up to 190 light years from Earth. This would require a method for directing the radiation from the blast and would also require any extraterrestrials to be observing Earth at the time of detonation. Elliot conceded this made it a less than practical proposal. Marvin Minsky, one of the progenitors of artificial intelligence, also had a novel suggestion for interstellar communication. Rather than sending images of life on Earth like, say, a photo of a cat, Minsky suggested it would be better to send the cat itself. Minsky wasn’t suggesting that we launch one of our furry friends into space, of course. Instead, he suggested using computer technology to represent various aspects of life on Earth. This could take the form of a cat simulation, or perhaps sending the genome of a cat, a human, or other animals. If aliens have more sophisticated cloning technology than our own, this DNA could act as a sort of blueprint to recreate a living version of a species, which could then be studied in vivo on the alien’s own planet. To this day, scientists are exploring novel solutions for interplanetary communication. Laser beacons, neutrino beams, and fleets of thumb nail-sized nanocraft propelled by lasers have all been recently proposed as potential ways to overcome the so-called “great silence.” Perhaps the universe is awash in extraterrestrial communication that uses a technology we haven’t discovered yet. We’ll never learn how to pick up the phone, however, unless we challenge conventional modes of communication. And if the strange history of interstellar communication can teach us anything, it’s that even the most outlandish proposals for calling ET might contain the seed of a practical plan. This essay was adapted from Extraterrestrial Languages, a forthcoming book from MIT Press.
November 03, 2013 - radiate (verb) - What does it mean? - 1 : to proceed in a direct line from or toward a center2 a : to send out rays : shine b : to come forth in the form or as if in the form of rays3 : to spread around from or as if from a center - How do you use it? - "With two rats flanking him, the Father Abbot stepped forward in a slow, dignified manner. Even clad in his nightwear he radiated calm and fortitude." (Brian Jacques, _Redwall_) - Are you a word wiz? "Radiate" has quite a few meanings, and three of the following sentences correctly show different meanings of "radiate" in use. Which one of the sentences below uses "radiate" in a way that does NOT make sense?A plant's roots soak up water, rather than radiate it, so Sentence C does not make sense. The other sentences all show "radiate" being used correctly in one of the ways the word is defined. "Radiate" comes from the Latin word "radius," meaning "ray." "Radius" also gave us the English word "radius." Among the several meanings of English "radius" is one you may come across in math class: "a line extending from the center of a circle or sphere to the circumference or surface." The familiar words "radio" and "ray" (as in "ray of light") also come from "radius."
NASA \| MSFC \| SAO \| Chandra X-ray Observatory \| 2018 Jun 06 press release. This is important for the viability of life in the nearest star system outside the Solar System. Chandra data from May 2nd, 2017 are seen in the pull-out, which is shown in context of a visible-light image taken from the ground of the Alpha Centauri system and its surroundings. Alpha Centauri is a triple star system located just over four light years, or about 25 trillion miles, from Earth. While this is a large distance in terrestrial terms, it is three times closer than the next nearest Sun-like star. The stars in the Alpha Centauri system include a pair called "A" and "B," (AB for short) which orbit relatively close to each other. Alpha Cen A is a near twin of our Sun in almost every way, including age, while Alpha Cen B is somewhat smaller and dimmer but still quite similar to the Sun. The third member, Alpha Cen C (also known as Proxima), is a much smaller red dwarf star that travels around the AB pair in a much larger orbit that takes it more than 10 thousand times farther from the AB pair than the Earth-Sun distance. Proxima currently holds the title of the nearest star to Earth, although AB is a very close second. The Chandra data reveal that the prospects for life in terms of current X-ray bombardment are actually better around Alpha Cen A than for the Sun, and Alpha Cen B fares only slightly worse. Proxima, on the other hand, is a type of active red dwarf star known to frequently send out dangerous flares of X-ray radiation, and is likely hostile to life. Planets in the habitable zone around Proxima receive an average dose of X-rays about 500 times larger than the Earth, and 50,000 times larger during a big flare. ... Alpha Centauri Beyond the Crossroads - T. R. Ayres - Research Notes of the AAS 2(1):17 (2018 Jan) DOI: 10.3847/2515-5172/aaa88f
A recent claim of a newly discovered “feathered” dinosaur has pushed the controversy over birds and dinosaurs back into the limelight.1 Were dinosaurs really feathered, and did they evolve into birds?2 One of the biggest stumbling blocks to the idea that dinosaurs evolved into birds is the lack of actual fossil support. Fossils of true birds with real feathers are found in rocks buried prior to the claimed bird-like dinosaurs. Likewise, alleged bird ancestors such as Velociraptor and Deinonychus are found in Upper Cretaceous system rocks, supposedly deposited 37 million years after the lower layers containing the true bird Archaeopteryx.3,4 This flips the evolutionary timeline upside down. But these facts are downplayed by the advocates for dinosaur-to-bird evolution. They insist that some yet-to-be-discovered ancestor lived prior to Archaeopteryx and will prove to be the common link between both groups despite the lack of fossil evidence.5 Secular paleontologists have identified hairlike structures protruding from the body of some dinosaur fossils. They claim these are “proto-feathers,” precursors to true feathers. Alan Feduccia and his colleagues found no evidence in any of the published discoveries from China that these hairlike structures are feathers or even proto-feathers.6 They determined that the presumed proto-feathers were the remains of thin collagen fibers left over from partly decomposed skin. Their research included analysis of decomposing collagen skin fibers in modern reptiles, sharks, and dolphins, and comparisons of these fibers with those of several dinosaurs.6 Some claimed “feathered dinosaurs” later turned out to be true birds after more careful examination. In 2002, Stephen Czerkas and his wife, Sylvia, self-published a book called Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight in which they described Scansoriopteryx as a theropod dinosaur. But in 2014, Mr. Czerkas and Alan Feduccia re-examined the Scansoriopteryx fossil and concluded it had an “absence of fundamental dinosaurian characteristics.”7 They imaged the specimen with advanced 3-D microscopy and high-resolution photography. Both techniques revealed features in the wrist bones, feathers, and hind limbs that clearly demonstrated it was a bird and not a dinosaur. Archaeopteryx and Scansoriopteryx were likely gliding birds like modern roadrunners—not dinosaurs. One of the newest fossils in this controversy, Zhenyuanlong suni, was described as a dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur like Velociraptor.1 It had large wings made of true pennaceous (non-downy) feathers on its short arms and similar feathers on the tail, just like birds. And yet Junchang Lü and Stephen Brusatte claimed it was a dromaeosaurid dinosaur and not a bird. When reading their article in Scientific Reports, it’s difficult to see how they came to this conclusion. They repeatedly use phrases that point out dissimilarities between Z. suni and dinosaurs, such as “differing from Tianyuraptor and most other dromaeosaurids,” and “the latter is a highly unusual feature among theropods…not seen in any other dromaeosaurids,” and “differs from the proportions of most other dromaeosaurids.”1 The presence of fully developed wing and tail feathers and the dimensional differences described between Z. suni and other dromaeosaur dinosaurs make one wonder why it was ever called a dinosaur. Will future studies show this is just another bird, like Scansoriopteryx and Archaeopteryx? While a “feathered” dinosaur would fit the evolutionary worldview, this theory is not supported by data-driven science. Like Scansoriopteryx, the true feathers and unusual body dimensions of Z. suni do not add up to a dinosaur but rather a bird. Again and again, fossils support that birds were birds and dinosaurs were dinosaurs from the moment of creation, just as Genesis says. - Lü, J. and S. L. Brusatte. 2015. A large, short-armed, winged dromaeosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Early Cretaceous of China and its implications for feather evolution. Scientific Reports. 5: 11775. - Clarey, T. L. 2015. Dinosaurs: Marvels of God’s Design. Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 125-126. Available at www.ICR.org. - Thomas, B. Archaeopteryx Is a Bird. . . Again. Creation Science Update. Posted on ICR.org November 8, 2011, accessed January 19, 2016. - Shipman, P. 1998. Taking Wing: Archaeopteryx and the Evolution of Bird Flight. New York: Simon & Schuster. - This is called a ghost lineage because it hasn’t been found or seen. - Feduccia, A., T. Lingham-Soliar, and J. R. Hinchliffe. 2005. Do Feathered Dinosaurs Exist? Testing the Hypothesis on Neontological and Paleontological Evidence. Journal of Morphology. 266 (2): 125-166. - Czerkas, S. A. and A. Feduccia. 2014. Jurassic archosaur is a non-dinosaurian bird. Journal of Ornithology. 155 (4): 841-851. Image Credit: The claimed dromaeosaurid Zhenyuanlong suni. Jinzhou Paleontological Museum, Liaoning Province, China. Copyright © 2015 T. Ha. Adapted for use in accordance with federal copyright (fair use doctrine) law. Usage by ICR does not imply endorsement of copyright holder. * Dr. Clarey is Research Associate at the Institute for Creation Research and received his Ph.D. in geology from Western Michigan University.
AfghanistanArticle Free Pass - The economy - Government and society - Cultural life - Historical beginnings (to the 7th century ce) - The 7th–18th centuries - Last Afghan empire - Overthrow of foreign rule - The Durrānī dynasty - The rise of the Bārakzay - Modern Afghanistan - Afghanistan since 1973 Nādr Qolī Beg took Herāt in 1732 after a desperate siege. Nādr was impressed by the courage of the Herātis and recruited many of them to serve in his army. He had himself elected shah of Persia, with the name Nādir Shah, in 1736. In 1738, after a year’s siege, the city of Kandahār fell to Nādir Shah’s army of 80,000 men. Nādir Shah seized Ghazna and Kabul and occupied the Mughal capital at Delhi in 1739. His booty included the Koh-i-noor diamond and the Peacock Throne. He was assassinated at Fatḥābād, Iran, in 1747, which led to the disintegration of his empire and the rise of the last great Afghan empire. The commander of Nādir Shah’s 4,000-man Afghan bodyguard was Aḥmad Khan Abdālī, who returned to Kandahār and was elected shah by a tribal council. He adopted the title Durr-i Durrān (“Pearl of Pearls”). Supported by most tribal leaders, Aḥmad Shah Durrānī extended Afghan control from Meshed to Kashmir and Delhi, from the Amu Darya to the Arabian Sea. The Durrānī was the second greatest Muslim empire in the second half of the 18th century, surpassed in size only by the Ottoman. Aḥmad Shah died in 1772 and was succeeded by his son, Tīmūr Shah, who received but nominal homage from the tribal chieftains. Much of his reign was spent in quelling their rebellions. Because of this opposition, Tīmūr shifted his capital from Kandahār to Kabul in 1776. After the death of Tīmūr in 1793, his fifth son, Zamān, seized the throne with the help of Sardār Pāyenda Khan, a chief of the Bārakzay. Zamān then turned to India with the object of repeating the exploits of Aḥmad Shah. This alarmed the British, who induced Fatḥ ʿAlī Shah of Persia to bring pressure on the Afghan king and divert his attention from India. The shah went a step further by helping Maḥmūd, governor of Herāt and a brother of Zamān, with men and money and encouraging him to advance on Kandahār. Maḥmūd, assisted by his vizier, Fatḥ Khan Bārakzay, eldest son of Sardār Pāyenda Khan, and by Fatḥ ʿAlī Shah, took Kandahār and advanced on Kabul. Zamān, in India, hurried back to Afghanistan. There he was handed over to Maḥmūd, blinded, and imprisoned (1800). The Durrānī empire had begun to disintegrate after 1798, when Zamān Shah appointed a Sikh, Ranjit Singh, as governor of Lahore. Shah Maḥmūd (1800–03; 1809–18) Shah Maḥmūd left affairs of state to Fatḥ Khan. Some of the chiefs who had grievances against the king or his ministers joined forces and invited Zamān’s brother Shah Shojāʿ (1803–09; 1839–42) to Kabul. The intrigue was successful. Shah Shojāʿ occupied the capital, and Maḥmūd sued for peace. The new king, Shah Shojāʿ, ascended the throne in 1803. The chiefs had become powerful and unruly, and the outlying provinces were asserting their independence. The Sikhs of the Punjab were encroaching on Afghan territories from the east, while the Persians were threatening from the west. Napoleon I, then at the zenith of his power in Europe, proposed to Alexander I of Russia a combined invasion of India. A British mission, headed by Mountstuart Elphinstone, met Shah Shojāʿ at Peshawar to discuss mutual defense against this threat, which never developed. In a treaty of friendship concluded June 7, 1809, the shah promised to oppose the passage of foreign troops through his dominions. Shortly after the mission left Peshawar, news was received that Kabul had been occupied by the forces of Maḥmūd and Fatḥ Khan. The troops of Shah Shojāʿ were routed, and the shah withdrew from Afghanistan and found asylum with the British at Ludhiāna, India, in 1815. The rise of the Bārakzay Do you know anything more about this topic that you’d like to share?
- Dear Abby - Games & Puzzles - Events & Exhibits - Food & Drink - Arts & Music - Movies & TV Across the board, stars are uniformly spherical in shape - but they come in many colors (white, blue, orange, yellow and red) and sizes depending on where a star is in its lifespan. Stars are born in stellar nebulas, such as the Orion Nebula (also known as the middle "star" in Orion's sword). As gravity causes its gases to coalesce, an average star will burn yellow, like our sun, while a massive star will burn blue - extra hot. As they age, an average star becomes a red giant while a massive star becomes a red supergiant. An average star turns into a planetary nebula and dies as a white dwarf. A typical white dwarf is slightly bigger than Earth but 200,000 times as dense. These form when average stars have burned through all their fuel and lack the temperature and pressure to continue fusion in their core. Ninety-seven percent of stars will end as white dwarfs. The most massive stars in the universe morph into supernovae and die violently as either neutron stars or black holes. Stars can be much smaller than our sun or large enough to push the bounds of comprehension. The largest known star in the universe is a red hypergiant called VY Canis Majoris (VY CMa), located in the constellation Canis Major, which also hosts Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky. An airplane traveling 600 mph would take 1,100 years to circle VY CMa once. The star is almost 2 billion miles in diameter and roughly 5,000 light years from Earth. VY CMa is a hypergiant exhibiting tremendous mass and luminosity and showing signs of a very high rate of mass loss. In other words, this star is on its deathbed. One step down from this red hypergiant is Betelgeuse, a red supergiant, which can be viewed as the orange star at Orion's left shoulder. Astronomers, with the help of the Hubble Space Telescope, believe VY Canis Majoris will explode as a hypernova within the next 100,000 years. A hypernova could, in theory, cause gamma ray bursts that would eliminate all cellular life within a number of light years, but no hypergiant is close enough to Earth to do this. VY CMa is likely to create an enormous black hole as its final act. Visit and "like" Local Universe's Facebook page at www.facebook.com/localuniverse.
What is an algorithm? An algorithm is a step-by-step set or rules or instructions necessary for performing a specific mathematical task or solving a particular mathematical problem. For instance, a retailer might use an algorithm to optimize product prices. Kristopher Kubicki, chief architect of Dynamite Data, on algorithms: An algorithm is a very general term to describe any kind of process or function. Typically, when computer science people talk about algorithms, they are describing a series of events the computer does to solve a problem. When a company like Dynamite Data builds a product for a customer, what we're really doing is building that method that can be used to answer an ongoing challenge again and again. This might be something very complicated and mathy -- like recommending the optimal price for a merchant. It could also be something a little more subjective, like recommending which products to promote based on gaps in a competitor's assortment.
from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition - n. The region, usually described as spherical, marking the outer boundary of a black hole, inside which the gravitational force is strong enough to prevent matter or radiation from escaping. from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License - n. The gravitational sphere of a black hole within which the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, causing time to practically stop. - n. A point of no return, by analogy to the astronomical usage from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English - n. the boundary surface surrounding a black hole, from outside of which nothing inside can be observed, because nothing inside that surface, even light, can escape beyond it. See also black hole and escape velocity. Sorry, no etymologies found. Sorry, no example sentences found.
Comment: 05:49 - 06:54 (01:05) Source: Annenberg/CPB Resources - Earth Revealed 24, Waves, Beaches and Coasts Keywords: "James Sadd", ocean, wave, "seismic sea wave", tsunami, coast, "wave height", "geologic hazard", earthquake, "sea floor", wavelength, "circular orbit", "wave velocity", sediment Our transcription: Perhaps the ultimate ocean wave is the "seismic sea wave," otherwise known as the "tsunami." Tsunamis can strike coasts without warning. With wave heights sometimes exceeding 30 meters. These waves have a potential for death and destruction that makes them the subject of legend throughout the world. Unlike ordinary wind-generated waves, tsunamis are caused by a much more powerful force -- earthquakes. Undersea and coastal earthquakes can cause the ocean floor to shift suddenly. This movement of the ocean floor displaces a vast volume of the overlying water creating these unusual waves. Tsunamis are tremendously fast moving, some traveling in excess of 800 kilometers per hour. The wavelength of a tsunami may be 150 kilometers, and so the movement of the orbiting water particles within the wave will stir up deep sea sediments even in the mid-ocean. Remarkably, however, such a tsunami may measure only a meter, or so, high in the open ocean. But as tsunamis approach the coast, they bunch up and rise monster-like from the sea. In a few minutes a tsunamis can completely devastate a coastal community. Geology School Keywords
Glomaji character entry rules - wa/ha, e/he, o/wo and zu/du Though in certain cases the written Japanese characters for “ha” (は) and “he” (へ) are pronounced also as “wa” (わ) and “e” (え) respectively, and “wo” (を) and “du” （づ） are pronounced as “o” (お) and “zu” (ず), they are written as you would when inputting Japanese text into a PC: “ha,” “he,” “wo” and “du.” E.g. “Watashi ha gakkou he ikimasu.” “Benkyou wo tsudukemasu.” - “data” is written as “de-ta ” In romaji “-“ (hyphen) represents a long vowel sound. It does not break up or connect a sentence as in English. “-“ is mostly used in katakana words. E.g. “de-ta” (data). - onnna (woman), kinnyuu (finance) When you input the “n” letter into a PC, the computer waits to see if you will add a vowel to it to create characters such as “na,” “ni,” “nu,” “ne” and “no,” as well as “nya,” “nyu” and “nyo.” Therefore, in order to input an “n” to form a character you have to type “n” twice when “a,” “ i.” “u,” “e,” “o” and “n” follow. - ben(n)kyou, Nihon(n) In order to get the “ん” (n) character, you need to add another letter“n.”However, when the following letter is a consonant such as “k,” “s,” or “t,” and when the word ends with “n,” it is still possible to type the Japanese character without adding another “n.” In Glomaji another “n” is not necessary after the first “n” for such cases. - pa-thi- (party) Pronounced as “pa-ti-,” but when inputting with a PC you must add the letter “h” between “t” and “i” to get “パーティ.” Some people write an “n” as an “m” when it comes before the letter “b” and “p.” E.g. “newspaper” (新聞 / しんぶん) is written “shimbun.” You can not convert into correct Japanese, so please write as “shinbun,” - coffee (ko-hi-) Loan English words like “coffee” are written as they would be in English, therefore in Glomaji we simply type: “coffee.” Of course, if you were converting these words into katakana using a PC, you would type “ko-hi-” in order to get “コーヒー.” Words like “convenience store” (コンビニ) “konbini’ which have been greatly altered by their inclusion into the Japanese language, remain written as they would in katakana, i.e. “konbini.” - Tokyo or Toukyou You may spell out Japanese names used internationally such as “Tokyo” in the same way they would be written in English, even if this spelling does not exactly reflect their true pronunciation, i.e. “Toukyou.” - Ichiro or Ichirou ,Many Japanese names end in “ou,” but written without “u” when they use as English. For instance” Ichiro” (the famous Japanese baseball player in American major league) uses “Ichiro” as his name in the USA. However, correct spelling to match Japanese “いちろう / 一郎” is ‘”Ichirou.” You can use it either “Ichiro” or “”Ichirou.”. - Los Angeles, Not Rosanzerusu Places names like Los Angeles are spelt as they would be in English and NOT converted into katakana words, ie. Rosanzerusu (ロサンゼルス). The same applies to proper nouns: ‘Google’ is not Guuguru, it is instead spelt “Google.” - ODA Nobunaga, Barack OBAMA The order in which to put first names and surnames depends on the custom of a country. Either order is fine, but to distinguish between the two please write surnames in caps. It is not necessary to do so after the first time. - Nihon, Tennnou (Emperor), Watashi (I) Capital letter is used for the first letter of proper nouns and the words as English does such as Sunday, January and God. - gakkou (school), ikkai (one time) A small character “っ” (tsu) is described repeating the letter. [Time & Calendar] - gogo 3 ji 15 fun (three fifteen pm) You may also write as 3:15 pm in the same way as English. - 15 nichi (the fifteenth) Write out days of the month using figures. However, the first to the tenth of the month are spelt out as tsuitachi for the first day, futsuka, mikka, yokka, itsuka, muika, nanoka, youka, kokonoka, touka. Also the 20th, hatsuka, is written in full. - Getsuyoubi (Monday) Day of the week use caps as you would in English. - 1 gatsu (January) Gatsu (month) follows figures of the month. - 2012 nen (year) Nen (year) follows figures of the year. [Numerals & Counting] - 46 man 5 sen 923 en Under one thousand, figures are used. You may write in figures only as “465,923 en.” - 1 ban / 1 i (first) When you describe orders, add “ban” or “i” after figures. You may write also same as English: 10 percent - hitotsu, hitori The other counting than figures is written as they are. - counters can be omitted. In Japanese, a counter like ‘ko,’ ‘dai’ and ‘ken’ are added after figures, but you may omit these counters. - “Watashi wa Amerikajin desu” (I am American) Place a space between words. Also place spaces between words and particles such as”‘は”(wa), “が” (ga), “を”(o), “に” (ni), “へ” (e), “の” (no), “‘で” (de) and adjoining words. - Suzuki san, Kanagawa Ken San used after a name is separated, and the words that represent districts such as ken (prefecture), shi (city) and ku (ward) are also separated and capita letter is used for the first letter. - osake and gohan (rice) Polite words like “o” and “go” are not separated. - chou’gouka (super gorgeous), nyuusha‘go (after entering a company) Prefixes and suffixes are separated by an apostrophe, which is not typed when converting into Japanese. - Yoyogi’uehara, kabushiki’gaisha , jinkou’eisei’ When two place names and proper nouns are a conjugation, separate the two with an apostrophe, which is not typed when converting into Japanese. - benkyou suru, Benkyou shite imasu Such verb words combining benkyou (noun) and suru (verb) are separated. - Put a space after “~te” (~て) and “de” (~で) When breaking a sentence using “te” (て), put a space. E.g. Nihongo wo benkyou shite tsuuyaku ni narimasu. Asonde kudasai. - “kimasu ka” (Are you coming?) , “sou desu ne” (that’s righr) When placing a “か” (ka) at the end of a sentence to indicate a question, put a space before typing ‘ka. Treat the following word endings in the same way: “ね” (ne), “‘よ” (yo), “‘よね” (yone,) “‘わ” (wa). - “ikitai nn desu” (I want to go), “sou ja nai.” (Isn’t it correct?) You often hear people use ‘n’ instead of ‘no’ in conversation, ‘In this case separate the ‘n’ with a space either side. In the same way the colloquial phrase “‘ja” (じゃ) used instead of “deha” (では) is also separated. When one “u” is followed by another “u” they are pronounced with a lengthened vowel sound, e.g. “tsu-kin.” - “you” and “to” Please note that when reading Glomaji, you pronounce the above spellings differently than if you were reading it as English text. “You” is pronounced as “yo u” (the “u” is pronounced as a separate vowel rather than blending with the “yo.” “To” is pronounced the same as the “to” from the Japanese word “tomodachi” (friend). The pronunciation of the Japanese “ou” combination is similar to the pronunciation of “oa” in float, NOT like the “ou” in “would.” In Japanese, vowels are pronounced separately, as in “ko u ban.”
Your cart is empty! The magnetic properties of natural ferric ferrite (Fe3O4) stones (lodestones) were described by Greek philosophers. Amber is a yellowish, translucent mineral. As early as 600 BC the Greek philosopher, Aristophanes was aware of its peculiar property: when rubbed with a piece of fur, amber develops the ability to attract small pieces of material such as feathers. For centuries this strange, inexplicable property was thought to be unique to amber. This strange effect remained a mystery for over 2000 years, until, around AD 1600, Dr William Gilbert investigated the reactions of amber and magnets and first recorded the word 'Electric' in a report on the theory of magnetism. Later in, in 1895, H.A. Lorentz developed the Electron Theory. We now know that there are three ways to generate electricity: Static, Electrochemical and Electromagnetic Induction. Alexander Neckem an English monk of St. Albans describes the workings of a compass. Petrus Peregrinus de Marincourt, a French Crusader, describes a floating compass and a compass with a pivot point. In the 16th century, William Gilbert(1544-1603), the Court Physician to Queen Elizabeth I, proved that many other substances are electric (from the Greek word for amber, elektron) and that they have two electrical effects. When rubbed with fur, amber acquires resinous electricity; glass, however, when rubbed with silk, acquires vitreous electricity. Electricity repels the same kind and attracts the opposite kind of electricity. Scientists thought that the friction actually created the electricity (their word for charge). They did not realize that an equal amount of opposite electricity remained on the fur or silk. Dr. William Gilbert, realized that a force was created, when a piece of amber (resin) was rubbed with wool and attracted light objects. In describing this property today, we say that the amber is "electrified" or possesses and "electric charge". These terms are derived from the Greek word "electron" meaning amber and from this, the term "electricity" was developed. It was not until the end of the 19th century that this "something" was found to consist of negative electricity, known today as electrons. Gilbert also studied magnetism and in 1600 wrote "De magnete" which gave the first rational explanation to the mysterious ability of the compass needle to point north-south: the Earth itself was magnetic. "De Magnete" opened the era of modern physics and astronomy and started a century marked by the great achievements of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and others. Gilbert recorded three ways to magnetize a steel needle: by touch with a loadstone; by cold drawing in a North-South direction; and by exposure for a long time to the Earth's magnetic field while in a North-South orientation. Otto von Guericke invents a crude machine for producing static electricity. Stephen Gray describes that power possessed by one electrified body could be passed to another by connecting them. Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay first to recognize two kinds of electricity. Servigton Savery produces the first compound magnet by binding together a number of artificial magnets with a common pole piece at each end. Gowen Knight produces the first artificial magnets for sale to scientific investigators and terrestrial navigators. Leyden Jar is one of the earliest and simplest forms of electric capacitor, invented independently about 1745 by the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek of the University of Leyden and Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania. The original Leyden jar was a stoppered glass jar containing water, with a wire or nail extending through the stopper into the water. The jar was charged by holding it in one hand and bringing the exposed end of the wire into contact with an electrical device. If contact was broken between the wire and the source of electricity, and the wire was touched with the other hand, a discharge took place that was experienced as a violent shock. If a charge Q is placed on the metal plates, the voltage rises to amount V. The measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge is the capacitance C, where C = Q/V. Charge flows from a capacitor just as it flows from a battery, but with one significant difference. When the charge leaves a capacitor's plates, no more can be obtained without recharging. This happens because the electrical force is conservative. The energy released cannot exceed the energy stored. The ability to do work is called electric potential. A type of conservation of energy is also associated with emf. The electrical energy obtainable from a battery is limited by the energy stored in chemical molecular bonds. Both emf and electric potential are measured in volts, and, unfortunately, the terms voltage, potential, and emf are used rather loosely. For example, the term battery potential is often used instead of emf. Benjamin Franklin (1706-90) was an American printer, author, philosopher, diplomat, scientist, and inventor. After Gilbert's discovery that a force of electric charge is created by friction of different materials, Benjamin Franklin in 1747, improved on this by announcing that this electric charge exists of two types of electric forces, an attractive force and a repulsive force. (William Watson (1715-87) in England independently reached the same conclusion.) To identify these two forces, he gave the names, positive and negative charges and to symbolize them, he used the + and - signs the + being for positive and the - for negative. Benjamin Franklin realized that all materials possess a single kind of electrical "fluid" that can penetrate matter freely but that can be neither created nor destroyed. The action of rubbing merely transfers the fluid from one body to another, electrifying both. Franklin and Watson originated the principle of conservation of charge: the total quantity of electricity in an insulated system is constant. Franklin defined the fluid, which corresponded to vitreous electricity, as positive and the lack of fluid as negative. Therefore, according to Franklin, the direction of flow was from positive to negative--the opposite of what is now known to be true. A subsequent two-fluid theory was developed, according to which samples of the same type attract, whereas those of opposite types repel. Franklin was acquainted with the Leyden jar (a glass jar coated inside and outside with tinfoil), how it could store a charge and how it caused a shock when it was discharged. Franklin wondered whether lightning and thunder were also a result of electrical discharges. During a thunderstorm in 1752, Franklin flew a kite that had a metal tip. At the end of the wet, conducting hemp line on which the kite flew he attached a metal key, to which he tied a nonconducting silk string that he held in his hand. The experiment was extremely hazardous, but the results were unmistakable: when he held his knuckles near the key, he could draw sparks from it. The next two who tried this extremely dangerous experiment were killed. John Mitchell publishes the first book on making steel magnets. James Watt(1736-1819) conducted no electrical experiments. He was an instrument maker by trade and set up a repair shop in Glasgow in 1757. Watt measured the rate of work exerted by a horse drawing rubbish up an old mine shaft and found it amounted to about 22,000 ft-lbs per minute. He added a margin of 50% arriving at 33,000 ft-lbs is equal to one horse-power. James Watt, also invented the steam condensing engine. His improvements to steam engines were patented over a period of 15 years, starting in 1769 and his name was given to the electric unit of power, the Watt. When Edison's generator was coupled with Watt's steam engine, large scale electricity generation became a practical proposition. It was known as early as 1600 that the attractive or repulsive force diminishes as the charges are separated. This relationship was first placed on a numerically accurate, or quantitative, foundation by Joseph Priestley, a friend of Benjamin Franklin. In 1767, Priestley indirectly deduced that when the distance between two small, charged bodies is increased by some factor, the forces between the bodies is reduced by the square of the factor. For example, if the distance between charges is tripled, the force decreases to one-ninth its former value. Although rigorous, Priestley's proof was so simple that he did not strongly advocate it. The matter was not considered settled until 18 years later, when John Robinson of Scotland made more direct measurements of the electrical force involved. Because of an accident the 18th-century Italian scientist Luigi Galvani started a chain of events that culminated in the development of the concept of voltage and the invention of the battery. In 1780 one of Galvani's assistants noticed that a dissected frog leg twitched when he touched its nerve with a scalpel. Another assistant thought that he had seen a spark from a nearby charged electric generator at the same time. Galvani reasoned that the electricity was the cause of the muscle contractions. He mistakenly thought, however, that the effect was due to the transfer of a special fluid, or "animal electricity," rather than to conventional electricity. Experiments such as this, in which the legs of a frog or bird were stimulated by contact with different types of metals, led Luigi Galvani in 1791 to propose his theory that animal tissues generate electricity. In experimenting with what he called atmospheric electricity, Galvani found that a frog muscle would twitch when hung by a brass hook on an iron lattice. By 1792 another Italian scientist, Alessandro Volta, disagreed: he realized that the main factors in Galvani's discovery were the two different metals - the steel knife and the tin plate - upon which the frog was lying. the different metals, separated by the moist tissue of the frog, were generating electricity. The frog's leg was simply a detector. In 1800,Volta showed that when moisture comes between two different metals, electricity is created. This led him to invent the first electric battery, the voltaic pile, which he made from thin sheets of copper and zinc separated by moist pasteboard (felt soaked in brine). In this way, a new kind of electricity was discovered, electricity that flowed steadily like a current of water instead of discharging itself in a single spark or shock. Volta showed that electricity could be made to travel from one place to another by wire, thereby making an important contribution to the science of electricity. In 1820, a physicist Hans Christian Oersted, learned that a current flowing through a wire would move a compass needle placed beside it. This showed that an electric current produced a magnetic field. Andre Marie Ampere, a French mathematician who devoted himself to the study of electricity and magnetism, was the first to explain the electro-dynamic theory. He showed that two parallel wires, carrying current, attracted each other if the currents flowed in the same direction and opposed each other if the currents flowed in opposite directions. He formulated in mathematical terms, the laws that govern the interaction of currents with magnetic fields in a circuit and as a result of this the unit of electric current, the amp, was derived from his name. An electric charge in motion is called electric current. The strength of a current is the amount of charge passing a given point per second, or I = Q/t, where Q coulombs of charge passing in t seconds. The unit for measuring current is the ampere or amp, where 1 amp = 1 coulomb/sec. Because it is the source of magnetism as well, current is the link between electricity and magnetism. Baron Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) was a French mathematician. His method of analyzing waves, published in 1822, was a spinoff of his work on the flow of heat. It shows how any wave can be built up from simpler waves. This powerful branch of mathematics, Fourier Transforms has contributed to important modern developments like electronic speech recognition. In 1826, the German Physicist Georg Simon Ohm, examined Volta's Principle of the electric battery and Ampere's relationship of currents in a circuit. He noted that when there was a current in a circuit, there was at times, heat, and the amount of heat was related to different metals. He discovered that there was a relationship between current and heat, there was some "resistance" to the flow of current, in the circuit. By discovering this, he found out that if the potential difference (volts), remained constant, the current was in proportion to the resistance. This unit of electrical resistance - the ohm - was named after him. He also formulated a law, showing the relationship between volts, amps and resistance and this law was called "Ohm's Law" also named after him. This law as we know it today, is the basis of electricity. In 1830, Joseph Henry (1797-1878), discovered that a change in magnetism can make currents flow, but he failed to publish this. In 1832 he described self-inductance - the basic property of inductor. In recognition of his work, inductance is measured in henries. The stage was then set for the encompassing electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell. The variation of actual currents is enormous. A modern electrometer can detect currents as low as 1/100,000,000,000,000,000 amp, which is a mere 63 electrons per second. The current in a nerve impulse is approximately 1/100,000 amp; a 100-watt light bulb carries 1 amp; a lightning bolt peaks at about 20,000 amps; and a 1,200-megawatt nuclear power plant can deliver 10,000,000 amps at 115 V. In 1836, John Daniell (1790-1845) proposed an improved electric cell that supplied an even current during continuous operation. The Daniell cell gave new impetus to electric research and found many commercial applications. In 1837 Daniell was presented the highest award of the Royal Society, the Copley Medal, for the invention of the Daniell cell. After the electric battery and the electromagnet were discovered, Samuel Morse(1791-1872) introduced the electric telegraph. Coded messages were sent over wires, by means of electrical impulses (identified as dots and dashes) known as Morse code. This was really the beginning of commercially used electricity. The electric telegraph is known as the first practical use of electricity and the first system of electrical communication. It is interesting to note here, that the Post Office in Australia, played an important part at that time, in the organizing of the communication. Charles Babbage (1791-1871), a British mathematician, designed several machines to generate error-free tables for navigation. The mechanical devices would serve as models for the later electronic computers. Thomas Seebeck a German physicist was the discover of the "Seebeck effect". He twisted two wires made of different metals and heated a junction where the two wires met, producing a small current. The current is the result of a flow of heat from the hot to the cold junction. This is called thermoelectricity. Thermo is a Greek word meaning heat. George Boole was entirely self taught. He published a way of using symbols that perfectly expresses the rules of logic. Using this system, complicated rules can be written clearly and often simplified. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) an Englishman, made one of the most significant discoveries in the history of electricity: Electromagnetic induction. His pioneering work dealt with how electric currents work. Many inventions would come from his experiments, but they would come fifty to one hundred years later. Failures never discouraged Faraday. He would say; "the failures are just as important as the successes." He felt failures also teach. The farad, the unit of capacitance is named in the honor of Michael Faraday. Faraday was greatly interested in the invention of the electromagnet, but his brilliant mind took earlier experiments still further. If electricity could produce magnetism, why couldn't magnetism produce electricity. In 1831, Faraday found the solution. Electricity could be produced through magnetism by motion. He discovered that when a magnet was moved inside a coil of copper wire, a tiny electric current flows through the wire. H.C. Oersted, in 1820, demonstrated that electric currents produce a magnetic field. Faraday noted this and in 1821, he experimented on the theory that, if electric currents in a wire can produce magnetic fields, then magnetic fields should produce electricity. By 1831, he was able to prove this and through his experiment, was able to explain, that these magnetic fields were lines of force. These lines of force would cause a current to flow in a coil of wire, when the coil is rotated between the poles of a magnet. This action then shows that the coils of wire being cut by lines of magnetic force, in some strange way, produces electricity. These experiments, convincingly demonstrated the discovery of electromagnetic induction in the production of electric current, by a change in magnetic intensity. As the practical use of electricity became evident and the electric telegraph was in operation, it was not long before scientists were looking towards making further use of this electricity. The next advance of great importance, was the introduction of the electric carbon arc light, which was exhibited in experimental form in 1808, by Sir Humphry Davey. He used a large battery to provide current for his demonstration, as these arc lights require a heavy current and no means of mechanically generating electricity had as yet been developed. The principle of these arc lights, is that when two carbon rods in a circuit are brought together, an arc is created. This arc, which gives off a brilliant incandescence, is maintained as long as the rods are just separated and keep mechanically fed this way, to maintain the arc. As the arc lights took a heavy current from these batteries, it was not until about 1860, that practical use was made of them. By this time adequate generating sources were developed and then they were only used mainly for street lighting and in picture theaters. Although arc lighting was still used until the early 1900's they were eventually superseded by the incandescent light, except that most picture theaters use them in their projectors even today. The history of the electric motor begins with Hans Christian Oersted, who discovered in 1820, that electricity produced a magnetic field, as mentioned before. Faraday followed up this in 1821, by devising the principle of the electric motor of his own design. Some of those worth mentioning are Jacobi in 1834, Elias in 1842, Froment in 1844 and Pacinotti in 1860. Pacinotti used a ring wound armature which was used in 1860 and was an outstanding advance on any previous attempts. Most of these motors were in the experimental stage but it was not until 1871, that Zenobe Theophile Gramme introduced his motor, which was really a development of Pacinotti's machine. This motor was said to be the first electric motor of commercial significance. During this period the scientists concentrated on the "motor", but meanwhile, experiments with machines producing electricity dynamically were under way. Leclanche (1839-1882) is a French engineer who in about 1866 invented the battery that bears his name. In slightly modified form, the Leclanché battery, now called a dry cell, is produced in great quantities and is widely used in devices such as flashlights and portable radios. This cell consists of a zinc case filled with a moist paste containing ammonium sulfate. In the center of this electrolyte paste is a carbon rod coated with manganese dioxide, which is a strong oxidizing agent. With the development of the carbon filament lamp by Edison in 1879, the DC generator then became one of the essential components of the constant-potential lighting systems. Previous to this only arc lights were used for street lighting. Then commercial lighting and residential lighting, as the inventors were aiming at, became practical and so the electric light and power industry was born. When H. C. Oersted in 1820, discovered that an electric current produces magnetic fields, the DC motor was developed. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction. He found that moving a magnet through a coil of wire, caused an electric current to flow in the wire, thus the electric generator could now be developed. But it was not until 1871, when Gramme introduced his motor and generator, that the electric generator was used commercially. By 1872, Siemens and Halske of Berlin improved on Gramme's generator, by producing the drum armature. Other improvements were made, such as the slotted armature in 1880 but by 1882, Edison had completed the design of the system we still use to distribute electricity from power stations. Since the telegraph was invented by Samual Morse in 1837, great advances had been made in its utilization, but it continued as a telegraph system using Morse Code for its communication. Alexander Graham Bell in 1875, was interested in telegraphy and realized that in using Morse Code over telegraph wires there should be other ways to this form of communication using electricity. He was also interested in acoustic and sound and worked on the principle that if Morse Code created electrical impulses in an electrical circuit, some means of sound causing vibration in the air, could also create electrical impulses in a circuit. In an experiment he use a "diaphragm" associated with an electrical circuit and any sound reaching the diaphragm, would cause electrical impulses and these were carried on to the other end of the circuit. These then would cause vibrations to another diaphragm at this end and would be in relation to the first diaphragm, hence the sound was electrically transmitted from one end of the circuit to the other end. He continued working on these experiments and on March 7th, 1876 his telephone was officially patented and a successful demonstration was made at an Exhibition Hall in Philadelphia. Graham Bell was just in time to patent his telephone, as another inventor Elisha Gray, was experimenting also on a similar invention. Later, Edison improved on the diaphragm - then called transmitters - but Bell won the day, by being given the honor of inventing the "telephone". Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) born in Scotland, was raised in a family that was interested and involved in the science of sound. Bell's father and grandfather both taught speech to the deaf. A unit of sound level is called a bel in his honor. Sound levels are measured in tenths of a bel, or decibels. The abbreviation for decibel is dB. Thomas Alva Edison, (1847-1931)was one of the most well known inventors of all time with 1093 patents. Self-educated, Edison was interested in chemistry and electronics. During the whole of his life, Edison received only three months of formal schooling, and was dismissed from school as being retarded, though in fact a childhood attack of scarlet fever had left him partially deaf. Nearly 40 years went by before a really practical DC (Direct Current) generator was built by Thomas Edison. Edison's many inventions included the phonograph and an improved printing telegraph. In 1878 Joseph Swan, a British scientist, invented the incandescent filament lamp and within twelve months Edison made a similar discovery in America. Swan and Edison later set up a joint company to produce the first practical filament lamp. Prior to this, electric lighting had been my crude arc lamps. Edison used his DC generator to provide electricity to light his laboratory and later to illuminate the first New York street to be lit by electric lamps, in September 1882. Edison's successes were not without controversy, however - although he was convinced of the merits of DC for generating electricity, other scientists in Europe and America recognized that DC brought major disadvantages. Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) The British mathematician realized that information travels along a cable as a wave in the space between the conductors, rather than through the conductors themselves. His concepts made it possible to design long-distance telephone cables. He also discovered why radio waves bend around the Earth. This led to long-range radio reception. William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) was best known in his invention of a new temperature scale based on the concept of an absolute zero of temperature at -273°C (-460°F). To the end of his life, Thomson maintained fierce opposition to the idea that energy emitted by radioactivity came from within the atom. One of the greatest scientific discoveries of the 19th century, Thomson died opposing one of the most vital innovations in the history of science. Moskowitz, L. R.: Permanent Magnet Design and Application Handbook, Cahners Books International, Inc. (1976) The German physicist, Gustav Kirchoff (1824-1887) extended Ohm's Laws to deal with situations where more than one resistor was connected to more than one battery. His circuit laws state that all the current flowing into any point must also flow out of it, and that the total voltage driving current around any loop must equal the total of the voltages opposing it. The French physicist Charles A. de Coulomb, whose name is used as the unit of electrical charge, later performed a series of experiments that added important details, as well as precision, to Priestley's proof. He also promoted the two-fluid theory of electrical charges, rejecting both the idea of the creation of electricity by friction and Franklin's single-fluid model. Today the electrostatic force law, also known as Coulomb's Law, is expressed as follows: if two small objects, a distance r apart, have charges p and q and are at rest, the magnitude of the force F on either is given by F = Kpq/rr, where K is a constant. According to the International System of Units, the force is measured in newtons (1 newton = 0.225 lb), the distance in meters, and the charges in coulombs. The constant K then becomes 8.988 billion. Charges of opposite sign attract, whereas those of the same sign repel. A coulomb C is a large amount of charge. To hold a positive coulomb (+ C) 1 meter away from a negative coulomb (- C) would require a force of 9 billion newtons (2 billion pounds). A typical charged cloud about to give rise to a lightning bolt has a charge of about 30 coulombs. James Maxwell (1831-1879) a Scottish mathematician translated Faraday's theories into mathematical expressions. Maxwell was one of the finest mathematicians in history. A maxwell is the electromagnetic unit of magnetic flux, named in his honor. Today he is widely regarded as secondary only to Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein in the world of science. David Hughes (1831-1900) was a professor of music and invented a successful telegraph. Back in London, experimenting with sound, he discovered an effective transducer, so sensitive that he though of it as a sound microscope, and called it a microphone. Nikola Tesla was born of Serbian parents July 10, 1856 and died a broke and lonely man in New York City January 7, 1943. He envisioned a world without poles and power lines. Referred to as the greatest inventive genius of all time. Tesla's system triumphed to make possible the first large-scale harnessing of Niagara Falls with the first hydroelectric plant in the United States in 1886. With the DC generator being in operation by 1882, it was not long before the first direct-current central power station built in the United States, in New York, was in operation in 1882. Around this period however, the scientists were still active, as they realized that with DC current, they could not transmit it over long distances. Nikola Tesla , was experimenting on generators and he discovered the rotating magnetic field in 1883, which is the principle of alternating current. This rotating magnetic field changes in opposite directions fifty time a second and is called 50 Hertz. The alternating current generator has a rotating magnetic field and is referred to as a A.C. current. The direction current generator generates current in the one direction hence DC current. He then developed plans for an induction motor, that would become his first step towards the successful utilization of alternating current. George Westinghouse was awarded the contract to build the first generators at Niagara Falls. He used his money to buy up patents in the electric field. One of the inventions he bought was the transformer from William Stanley. Westinghouse invented the air brake system to stop trains, the first of more than one hundred patents he would receive in this area alone. He soon founded the Westinghouse Air Brake Company in 1869.Westinghouse was a famous American inventor and industrialist who purchased and developed Nikola Tesla's patented motor for generating alternating current. The work of Westinghouse, Tesla and others gradually persuaded American society that the future lay with AC rather than DC (Adoption of AC generation enabled the transmission of large blocks of electrical, power using higher voltages via transformers, which would have been impossible otherwise). Today the unit of measurement for magnetic fields commemorates Tesla's name. In 1885, George Westinghouse, head of the Westinghouse Electric Company, bought the patent rights to Tesla's polyphase system of alternating current. In America, in 1886 the first alternating current power station was placed in operation, but as no AC motor was available, the output of this station was limited to lighting. Although Telsa developed the polyphase AC induction motor in 1883, it was not put into operation until 1888 and from then on, this AC motor became the most commonly used motor for supplying large amounts of power. Faraday's, discovery of electromagnetic induction, was used to create the transformer. The transformer is a simple device, mainly consisting of two separate coils of wire. When a moving current is applied to the first coil, a current is "induced" into the second coil. By this induction, the magnitude of the voltage in the second coil depends on the number of turns in the coil. If the number of turns in the second coil is greater than the first coil, the voltage is increased and vice versa. The first transformer was announced by L. Caulard and J. D. Gibbs in 1883 and so this device revolutionized the systems of power transmission. By generating at a low voltage, the transformer steps it up to a high voltage for transmission and then to a lower voltage where required. Probably the first generating station in the world to serve private consumers was the Holborn Viaduct in London, which started up in 1882, supplying about 60 kilowatts of power. Also in 1882, Brighton in England had its first public supply and that year the Crystal Palace London, had its first demonstration of electric light. The Pearl Street Central Power Station in New York, was the first recorded station in America in 1882. One of the first transmission lines, was between Miesbach to Munich in Germany in 1882. Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) a German physicist, laid the ground work for the vacuum tube. He laid the foundation for the future development of radio, telephone, telegraph, and even television. He was one of the first people to demonstrate the existence of electric waves. Hertz was convinced that there were electromagnetic waves in space. Otto Hahn (1879-1968), a German chemist and physicist, made the vital discovery which led to the first nuclear reactor. He uncovered the process of nuclear fission by which nuclei of atoms of heavy elements can break into smaller nuclei, in the process releasing large quantities of energy. Hahn was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1944. Lee De Forest (1873-1961) made the first electronic amplifier - the triode(1906) Albert Einstein (1879-1955). Einstein's formula proved that one gram of mass can be converted into a torrential amount of energy. To do this, the activity of the atoms has to occur in the nucleus. E = energy, M = mass, and C = the speed of light which is 186,000 miles per second. When you square 186,000 you can see it would only take a small amount of mass to produce a huge amount of energy. K. Honda and T. Takai add cobalt to tungsten steel to dramatically increase the coercive force of permanent magnets. The first commercially available quench-hardened steel magnets were made available. Edwin Armstrong (1890-1954)invented two essential building blocks of the radio - oscillators and frequency changers. I. Mishima produces the first Alnico magnet containing an alloy of iron, nickel, and aluminum. The transistor was invented in 1956 by John Bardeen, Walter Brittain and William Shockley. J.J. Went, G.W.Rathenan, E.W. Gorter, and G.W. Van Oosterhout from the Phillips Company develop the first commercial ceramic magnets based on barium, strontium, and lead-iron oxides. In 1953, Jack Kilby created the integrated circuit. In 1963, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig of the California Institute of Technology proposed a theory according to which the electronic charge e might not be the fundamental charge after all. In their theory, heavy particles such as protons and neutrons consist of various combinations of particles called quarks. One quark is supposed to have charge (-1/3)e and another (-2/3)e. This theory has prompted a major search for quarks. Dr. Karl J. Strnat at the U.S. Air Force Materials Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base discovers the high energy product (18 MGOe) of the Samarium-Cobalt (SmCo5) compound. Dr. Karl J. Strnat and Dr. Alden Ray develop a higher energy product (30 MGOe) Samarium-Cobalt (Sm2Co17) compound. General Motors, Sumitomo Special Metals and the Chinese Academy of Sciences develop a high energy product (35 MGOe) Neodymium-Iron-Boron (Nd2Fe14B) compound. Manchester Community College Lee, E. W.:Magnetism, An Introductory Survey, Dover Publications Inc. (1970)
Children write about items of interest--holidays or not. My Year One students write about anything of interest in their journals on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday mornings as an essential part of our literacy block (see schedule below). The pre-writing talking time of co-operative show and tell (Swan, 2009) is central to journal writing because it enables the children to talk in small groups about topics of interest before moving to writing. It's as if: 'I have something to talk about--I have something to write about'. Sometimes the children visualise what they will draw and write. This helps them focus on personal or class interests and the immediate task of writing and/or drawing. In journals, children demonstrate what they can do with writing: construct sentences, form letters, spell words, leave spaces, label pictures, use capital letters, add punctuation and connect text and images. Children also read as they write, and after completing their writing, they read it aloud to me and/or peers. Some children use classroom resources to help them write: Velcro words from word walls, sentence starters from fish-netting and word cards from labelled boxes. Children may also copy words from lists, charts and books. A spirit of help and co-operation pervades the room as children respond to classmates' requests about letters, words and writing. What did the children write about on day one, term three? * events in their holidays * objects they brought to school (just as they do any school day) * a friend's objects * going to the local agricultural show after school, that day * an upcoming birthday * family events from the previous day * words from class word walls What does the children's writing show? Children write about meaningful experiences and objects: * 2 mentioned an event as 'over the holidays' (visiting town X with cousins) * 3 mentioned an event without reference to 'the holidays' * 9 wrote about objects of interest brought from home * 3 wrote about objects brought by friends * 3 wrote about future events of interest to them as individuals--2 to the local show and 1 an upcoming birthday * 2 wrote about meaningful events on the previous day (parent's work and cousin's place) without reference to 'the holidays' * 1 copied words from the word wall (family and walked) but indicated this was not a family event An event mentioning the holidays On the holidays my cousins came up to see us. We went to the reef with them. We stayed in a hotel with them. They left on Tuesday. (Next page ... I went on the big boat that came into town). An event--but not mentioning holidays I went swimming at the caravan park at Nana and Granddad's Personal objects of interest Yesterday I got NRL cards. I have mascots. They have legs. They look cool except the Eels. The Kangaroos are AFL. The Titans look like they have armour. It looks cool. I like my tiger. It is cute and very soft. It has a pink bow. It has lots of stripes. The stripes are black. It has purple and black eyes. I like my flower. It is cute with a smiley face. A future event of personal interest I am going to the YYY show at 2 o'clock today. My Nana maybe will get me a show bag. 'I will go on the rides maybe,' said X. I will have fun today. I like the big slide. What does the children's writing tell me? Children write about: * what they are interested in, and * what is meaningful to them Significantly, that tenet doesn't change whether it's after holidays or not. Why do I include journal writing in our literacy mornings? Journals work in my classroom because children demonstrate what they know about language as they write/draw about interests and meaningful experiences (Swan, 2009). Subsequent child-teacher conversations develop and extend children's learning through sharing, revising and explicit teaching. Journal writing on papers or computers enables children to: * choose what to write about * decide how to write about it * demonstrate understanding of written language * develop independence as they write for various purposes * learn more about using language (by calling on knowledge and experiences to integrate new understandings) * gain confidence as they write (and read) about interests * enjoy writing/drawing * share their writing/drawing with others What is my role in supporting, developing and extending this writing? Writing practices and explicit teaching In everyday classroom life we interact and use meaningful spoken, written and visual language in: * modelled writing * shared writing or joint construction * independent writing * free writing * sharing time and * celebrating writing accomplishments Oceans of print Children use meaningful print and images in the classroom to assist their writing and reading. The room contains: * functional print * word walls, lists, charts and banks * word families * sentence starters * alphabet and word placemats * labels, directions and instructions * questions and reflections * class books * children's books and topic books * a range of boards, papers and pens for writing During writing time, teacher-child conversations encourage, support and scaffold children's attempts at writing. The conversations develop and extend learning because the conversation is immediately relevant to that child. In hearing children read their writing I often respond with a written comment, query or question to: * participate as an interested reader * demonstrate handwriting * model correct spelling * encourage more writing * revise written conventions * extend specific learning Group sharing time In sharing time I use children's writing to model or explain language features and written conventions, e.g. a possessive apostrophe. Sharing time also enables us to provide constructive feedback to the writer by: * acknowledging effort * encouraging clarification * seeking reasons for writing decisions * making links between writing/ drawing * celebrating accomplishments Using children's lives and experiences as vehicles for their early literacy learning is effective because interests and experiences are at the core of their talking, writing (and reading). This its with my deeply held belief that children learn best from their interests. Co-operative show and tell, prior to writing, affords children opportunities to talk in small groups about personal and class interests and experiences. Writing follows--and rarely do I hear, 'I don't know what to write' because children actively participate in the talking-sharing time and then, choose what to draw and write about. Assigning a topic like 'What I did in the holidays' is not necessary when children are familiar with making choices in their writing. Children may well write about something they did in the holidays--but it does not have to be prefaced with 'In the holidays ...' Children write about meaningful experiences and items of interest--holidays or not. Swan, C. (2009). Teaching strategies for literacy in the early years. Norwood, SA. Australian Literacy Educators' Association Ltd. Coral Swan teaches and learns with Year Ones at Freshwater State School, Queensland. Email [email protected] Table 1: Morning schedule on board Our morning 1. Roll 2. Calendar 3. Shared reading: big books/charts 4. Shared writing: class news 5. Co-operative show and tell 6. Journals 7. Home-reading books 8. Sharing time 9. Lunch 10. Outside play \|Printer friendly Cite/link Email Feedback\| \|Date:\|\|Feb 1, 2010\| \|Previous Article:\|\|Coming to grips with planning for literacy learning: a template for designing open-ended tasks.\| \|Next Article:\|\|Writing and viewing: please don't ask me to write or draw what I did in the holidays.\|
Featured Animal: June 2015 By Dr. Nicki Frey As the evenings grow longer, and we spend more time outside during the summer, we often see bats flitting around in the dusk. Those that have swimming pools, or frequent their favorite swimming hole as the sun goes down, will no doubt have a story about bats swooping down to take a drink, inevitably scaring the human swimmers out of the water. We are afraid of bats – because they look strange, we don’t want to get bit, or because of pop culture. But is there any real reason for us to have a healthy fear of bats? There are 18 species of bats in Utah; all 18 can be found in southern Utah, while 6 species are found mostly in northern Utah, predominantly in the mountainous habitats (UDWR 2015). The largest bat in Utah, the big free-tailed bat (Nyctinomops macrotis) weighs less than 1oz (28 g), about the weight of a small handful of crackers (DePaepe, Messmer & Conover, 2010). Most of the time, bats and humans exist together without much interaction. Potential conflict occurs when bats roost inside attics, crawl spaces, or other structures that place them close to human contact. Sometimes, bats fly into homes at night through open windows, creating a potentially hazardous situation for both the bat and the humans. Animal bites are nothing to joke about; one can get any number of diseases and infections as a result of getting bit by a wild animal (or a domestic one, for that matter; Conover & Vail, 2015). However, one of the things that makes bat bites potentially dangerous is that many people that have been bit or scratched by a bat never know it. Therefore they don’t seek proper medical attention when they need to. The danger in getting bit or scratched by a bat is our ability to get rabies from bats. Rabies cannot be transmitted through intact skin, but does enter the body through a bite or scratch. Additionally, mucous from bats can become airborne while they hibernate and inhaled by people that are exploring caves, thereby transmitting the rabies virus (Conover and Vail, 2015). At first, the symptoms of rabies are similar to influenza. Then symptoms follow a progression of hypersensitivity (extremely sensitive to light, air, or touch) and hyperactivity that eventually leads to paralysis and finally death. The symptoms of the virus do not present themselves for at least 10 days, and up to several weeks, possibly even several months. By the time a person is exhibiting the symptoms of rabies, death is likely. Of the 33 cases of rabies in the United States from 2002-2011, fatality was 91% (Conover and Vail, 2015). While possible, the risk of becoming infected by rabies is low in the western United States, because most people receive vaccinations in time. Of the known rabies cases in the United States from 2002-2011, nearly half were known to be transmitted by a bat bite or scratch (Conover and Vail, 2015). Many bats have been previously exposed to the rabies virus, which indicates that the virus continues to circulate through bat populations. However only about 6% of bats that have been submitted for testing actually had rabies. The problem is that one cannot tell by looking at a bat if it has rabies or not. The Center for Disease Control recommends seeking professional medical treatment for anyone scratched or bitten by a bat regardless of its apparent health (http://www.cdc.gov/rabies/exposure/animals/bats.html). If you are bitten or scratched by a bat (or any wild mammal) follow these steps: - Wash the wound immediately with soap, water, and antiviral antiseptic for at least 15 minutes. - Seek medical attention. Your physician will consult with local public health authorities to determine the appropriate steps to take. - Often, rabies vaccination may be required. This is a series of 4 doses of rabies vaccine. Since 1980, there have been no documented cases of rabies in the US among patients that have completed this series of vaccinations. - If you have been bitten or scratched by a bat, the Center for Disease Control recommends the vaccination series. - Avoid any bat that is active during the day, attacking other animals, unable to fly or resting on the ground. - Never handle a bat with your bare hands, even if it is behaving normally. - If you think you might have been scratched or bit, seek prompt medical attention. - If a bat if found, especially one that is showing signs of illness, around small children or those with an inability to express themselves (i.e. you don’t know if they’ve been bitten or not) seek prompt medical attention. Center for Disease Control [CDC]. (2015). Bats. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/rabies/bats/index.html Conover, M. R., and R. M. Vail. (2015). Human Diseases from Wildlife. CRC Press: Boca Raton, Florida. Utah Division of Wildlife Resources [UDWR]. (2015). Vertebrate Animals. Retreived from http://dwrcdc.nr.utah.gov/rsgis2/Search/SearchVerts.asp. DePaepe, V., T. A. Messmer, and M. R. Conover. 2010. Bats. Retreived from http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2009&context=extension_histall.
Memorial Day is a federal holiday in the United States for remembering the men and women who died while serving in the country's armed forces. The holiday, which is celebrated every year on the last Monday of May, was formerly known as Decoration Day and originated after the American Civil War to commemorate the Union and Confederate soldiers who died in the war. By the 20th century, Memorial Day had been extended to honor all Americans who died while in the military service. It typically marks the start of the summer vacation season, while Labor Day marks its end. Many people visit cemeteries and memorials, particularly to honor those who have died in military service. Many volunteers place an American flag on each grave in national cemeteries. Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in some rural areas of the American South, notably in the mountain areas. In cases involving a family graveyard where remote ancestors as well as those who were deceased more recently are buried, this may take on the character of an extended family reunion to which some people travel hundreds of miles. People gather on the designated day and put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives and others. There often is a religious service and a picnic-like "dinner on the ground," the traditional term for a potluck meal in which people used to spread the dishes out on sheets or tablecloths on the grass. It is believed that this practice began before the American Civil War and thus may reflect the real origin of the "memorial day" idea. Memorial Day is not to be confused with Veterans Day; Memorial Day is a day of remembering the men and women who died while serving, while Veterans Day celebrates the service of all U.S. military veterans.
Waste Management System Waste management is the "generation, prevention, characterization, monitoring, treatment, handling, reuse and residual disposition of solid wastes". There are various types of solid waste including municipal (residential, institutional, commercial), agricultural, and special (health care, household hazardous wastes, sewage sludge). The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Sewage treatment may also be referred to as waste treatment, although the latter is a broader term which can also be applied to purely industrial wastes. Surface runoff and effluents from small-scale industries or pre-treated industrial wastes are sometimes routed through municipal sewage treatment plants when the environmental advantages of treatment outweigh the disadvantages of reduced treatment efficiency. Dilution of sewage by stormwater runoff or industrial waste with low biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) decreases the efficiency of secondary treatment; because secondary treatment ecosystems require a minimum concentration of biologically decomposable waste to sustain the ecosystem population.
The 1969 subglacial eruption on Deception Island (Antarctica): events and processes during an eruption beneath a thin glacier and implications for volcanic hazards Smellie, J.L.. 2002 The 1969 subglacial eruption on Deception Island (Antarctica): events and processes during an eruption beneath a thin glacier and implications for volcanic hazards. In: Smellie, J.L.; Chapman, M.G., (eds.) Volcano-ice interaction on Earth and Mars. London, Geological Society of London, 59-79. (Geological Society Special Publication, 202).Full text not available from this repository. A short-lived eruption of basaltic andesite to andesite on Deception Island in 1969 occurred from a series of fissures underneath a glacier. The glacier was thin (c. 100 m) and the eruption created a large and sudden discharge of meltwater that overflowed the glacier, severely damaging buildings on the island. The eruption was unusually well documented and it illustrates several features of subglacial eruptions that are only poorly known and not well understood. In particular, overflowing meltwater is contrary to predictions based on existing simple hydrological models for eruptions beneath thin glaciers. The eruption is analysed in this paper and used as a model for the fluid dynamics and thermodynamics of eruptions beneath a thin glacier mainly composed of impermeable ice. It is suggested that, in eruptions of relatively fluid magmas with a low magma rise rate, volatiles and magma are able to decouple and subglacial melting is strongly influenced by the superheated magmatic and hydrothermal gases (mainly steam). Thus, melting is much faster than that due solely to coupled conductive (magma) and convective (meltwater) heat transfer. The influence of gasdriven melting also has an important effect on the shape of the meltwater cavity and may be at least partly responsible for the cylindrical ice chimneys developed above vents on Deception Island. The results of the study are important for reconstructing the shapes of englacial cavities melted above a vent. They also highlight the importance of glacier structure and densification, rather than simply glacier thickness, in determining the hydraulic evolution of an eruption. Even eruptions beneath thin glaciers can generate significant meltwater floods. \|Item Type:\|\|Publication - Book Section\| \|Digital Object Identifier (DOI):\|\|10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.202.01.04\| \|Programmes:\|\|BAS Programmes > Antarctic Science in the Global Context (2000-2005) > Global Interactions of the Antarctic Ice Sheet\| \|Date made live:\|\|22 Mar 2012 15:07\| Actions (login required)
When Sir Philip Sidney's sonnet sequence was completed in the early 1580s, it immediately circulated among courtiers and others among Sidney's contemporaries. A pirated edition of the sequence appeared in 1591, five years after Sidney's death, but the edition, published by Thomas Newman, was inaccurate and contained a multitude of errors and misreadings. Finally, in 1598, an authorized edition of the work was published under the direction of Sidney's sister. Astrophil and Stella is widely considered to be the key work that forever changed the course of English Renaissance literature. This cannot be denied; Sidney's work introduced the English public to Italian poetry and the concept of a sonnet sequence (Astrophel and Stella was the first of many sonnet sequences that would be published during the period). The work also followed the traditions of Elizabethan love poetry while expanding them into a true narrative of a courtly romance, something that had never been done before. Yet, over four hundred years later, the significance of the text to literature and society is less apparent. In today's classrooms, Sidney is often overshadowed by one of his contemporaries, William Shakespeare, who was himself an author of numerous love sonnets and became the primary figure of Renaissance literature. Students might go through their literary education without ever reading one of Sir Philip Sidney's sonnets, not to mention his entire sonnet sequence. What then, is the value of Astrophil and Stella in the 21st century? Trying to place a value on a piece of literature can be difficult. Astrophil and Stella is not really a social or political text, although it expresses some ways of interaction between men and women that we can compare to today's society. In many academic literary circles today, texts that do not express or fit a social or political agenda are given less attention. Does this sonnet sequence do more than provide a glimpse into the world that produced it, showing its readers the history of the society and the culture that doomed Astrophil to always be separated from his Stella? It is true that Sidney's irony and frequent insults toward his society display Queen Elizabeth's court in a way that supplements straight historical texts. And from the perspective of literary history, we have seen the text's importance. But what is its importance for the lay reader? The sonnet sequence does have universal value, demonstrating many things that have remained the same about human beings over much more than 400 years. Astrophil's love and passion are fundamental to people across all societies and human relationships, although his high-culture literary expression of this love and passion is not universal. The relationship that he describes, in all its conflict and anguish, is real, and the emotions that Sidney expresses are equally real and equally present in the 21st century, common among people of a wide variety of ages. Because the emotions in this text are so real and so pertinent to readers today, Astrophil and Stella still receives attention from literary critics. Dozens of articles focus on two questions: Was Stella a real woman, and did Sidney really love her? The preoccupation with history turns quickly to a preoccupation with love, even among many contemporary critics. Romance has always had a place in society, and every person who reads Astrophil and Stella wonders if the love and passion in the sonnet lines were as real and powerful in the 16th century as they sound in the 21st century. Some people may not appreciate Astrophil and Stella for what it is. To many of them, it is a long, boring collection of poems in an archaic form of English, in an irrelevant style, with too many obscure mythological references. Do not let the language barrier, however, interfere with your appreciation of the emotion in the poetry, which is as significant as if it were written today. The sonnet sequence introduces readers to what might seem the strange, heady world of Queen Elizabeth's court as well as what might seem the strange world of 16th-century England, but the universal appeal of the sequence-especially among people who are or have been lovers of their beloveds-proves that people have not changed. Emotions still rule us from time to time, particularly when we are in love or in a romantic mood. Sidney gives us worthwhile advice about love, reason, desire, and more in ways that we can understand. His 108 sonnets and 11 songs, most significantly, give us the knowledge (and warnings) that each of us is, in our own way, an Astrophil or a Stella.
The Fibonacci sequence is one of the simplest, yet fascinating mathematical discoveries ever made. Back in the beginning of the thirteenth century, this crazy talented guy from Pisa, Italy called Leonardo Pisano Bogollo, later known as Fibonacci, presented his discoveries in his book “Liber Abaci”. Fibonacci is famous for introducing a new numeral system in Europe, the Hindu-Arabic system that replaced the Roman numeral system; the latter was more complicated and limited in applications. The Fibonacci sequence was only one of his many great contributions in the field of mathematics. What is the Fibonacci sequence? It is a sequence of integers, or whole numbers where every number is the sum of the previous two. The sequence begins with 0, 1 or 1, 1 as the first two integers and after that every number is the sum of the last two. By definition, the sequence will look something like this: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89…….. or 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 55, 89, 144……………… Although this sequence was named after Fibonacci, it was not he who first discovered it. This sequence has been seen appearing in Sanskrit scripts from as early as the 6th century. But Fibonacci is given credit for being able to bring it to light among Western mathematicians. And since then, Western mathematicians have observed many of its fascinating applications. IGNITE: Science for the Internet Generation -- the most exciting and educative science festival in Bangladesh. To participate or to learn more, please log in to www.ignite-bd.com
Infrastructure includes roads, railways, airports, canals and pipelines. The infrastructure is the network where things are carried. Infrastructure also includes airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports (docks). Infrastructure is usually built by governments and paid for by taxes from the citizens of a country or region. Infrastructure such as roads and railways are designed by civil engineers and urban planners. Vehicles or vessels travel on the infrastructure. Vehicles include cars, trucks, trains and airplanes. Vehicles are usually designed by mechanical engineers. Vessels include boats, ferries, and barges which travel on canals and use docks and seaports. In the same way that trains use train stations, airplanes use airports. In the same way that trains use railway lines (train tracks), airplanes use flight paths and then fly in the sky. Operations control the system. Operations include traffic signals, railway signals and air traffic control. Operations also include the government policies (a policy is a plan of action to guide decisions and actions) and regulations (a set or group of laws and rules) used to control the system, such as tolls, fuel taxes, and traffic laws. Transport and communications[change \| change source] Transport and communication can be used instead of each other (someone could telephone a person rather than visit them). Transport traffic also needs communication. For example, air traffic control lets more airplanes fly. So, an increase of either transport or communication usually leads to an increase in the other one. Transport, energy, and the environment[change \| change source] Transport uses a lot of energy. Most transport uses hydrocarbons (oil and gas). This can create pollution. Environmental regulations (laws) and low-pollution fuels (for example liquified natural gas) can reduce pollution. But as more vehicles are used, more pollution is created. Ethanol and biodiesel pollute less than petroleum. Kinds of transportation[change \| change source] There are three main kinds of transportation. They are: - land transport using roads and railway tracks - water transport using ships and barges in canals and in rivers and seas - air transportation using airplanes and airports and helicopters References[change \| change source] - Transport in Japan, "What is transport?"; retrieved 2012-9-5. - Transport in Japan, "There are paths even in the air"; retrieved 2012-9-5. - Transport in Japan, "Land vehicles"; retrieved 2012-9-5. - Transport in Japan, "Sea vehicles"; retrieved 2012-9-5. - Transport in Japan, "Air vehicles"; retrieved 2012-9-5. Other websites[change \| change source] \|The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for: transport.\|
How were the American colonies (United States) able to defeat Great Britain in the War for Independence? How did the leadership of George Washington contribute to this victory? Thank you for using Brainmass. There were many factors that contributed to the American colonies' ability to eventually defeat Great Britain in the War for Independence (also known as the Revolutionary War) from 1776 to 1783. It is remarkable that the American colonies were able to win the war because Great Britain entered the war with two significant advantages: 1) In 1776 the 11 million inhabitants of the British Isles outnumbered the 2.5 million American colonists (1/3 of the American colonists were either loyalists of Great ... This solutions examines how the American colonies (United States) able to defeat Great Britain in the War for Independence. The solution also analyzes the role that George Washington played in the war.
This snake’s range extends discontinuously from east-central Nevada, and central and western Utah, at elevations of 2,800 to 9,100 feet. Large areas of unsuitable arid habitat often surround occupied areas. Utah Mountain King snakes are found north of the Colorado River, while Arizona mountain kingsnakes are found south of the Colorado River in Arizona This species of kingsnake inhabits mountains in pinyon-juniper woodlands, yellow pine and pine-fir forests. Often found near streams or springs and in and around rotting logs or rocks. In Utah, they have been found in sagebrush, Ponderosa pine and Douglas fir plant communities. The Utah mountain kingsnake is a medium sized snake with red, black, and white bands that encircle the body. There are generally 42-57 white rings on the body and 9-10 on the tail. Utah specimens are quite variable. In general, they tend to be darker than Arizona specimens and have more black rings that widen across the red rings dorsally. Fifty percent or more of the white body rings extend unbroken across the belly. The red rings do not contact the white rings. Their face is white, with a distinct black mask; the first white ring encircles the head, starting behind the mask. The scales are smooth. Utah mountain kingsnakes prefer low temperatures to high temperatures. They live beneath the ground to cool their body surfaces. Occasionally, they are found basking in the sun with their tails hidden underneath the ground but generally they remain well hidden by undergrowth. This snake is a constrictor but often vibrates tail as a “bluff.” King snakes use constriction to kill their prey and tend to be opportunistic when it comes to their diet. This snake is secretive and occurs in rough terrain that often lacks good access for humans. King snakes can and do eat venomous snakes that occur in their habitat because they are resistant to their venom. However, they are not necessarily immune or resistant to the venom of snakes from different localities. This snake species breeds from mid-March to early July to enhance survival of hatchlings. Females lay an average of three to six eggs per cycle, which hatch within 66 to 83 days. Hatchlings size range from eight to 11 inches. During winter, reproduction activity is low because hatchlings cannot survive in the cold winter temperatures. The striped and banded phases often occur within offspring of the same clutch of eggs. The "king" in the name (as with the king cobra) references its eating of other snakes. Both the Utah Mountain King snake and the Arizona Mountain King snake (Lampropeltis pyromelana pyromelana) are sub-species of the Sonora Mountain King snake. The three species closely resemble each other, and are often killed because their coloration mimics the venomous Coral Snake. There are several mnemonic rhymes to help people distinguish between the coral snake and is non-venomous look-alikes, such as: if red touches black, its OK, Jack. If red touches yellow, you’re a dead fellow. Utah Mountain Kingsnakes are state-protected in Utah and Nevada and may not be collected. They are also illegal to collect in National Parks. The overcollection of snakes including kingsnakes is a significant threat to their continued survival in the wild. The Utah Mountan kingsnake is under varying degrees of protection in all parts of its range in the United States. \|Did YOU Know?\| \|They have well adapted belly muscles that allow them to climb trees where they prey on birds in their nests.\| \|Length:\|\|lengths of up to 3.5 feet\| \|Wild Diet:\|\|Lizards, rodents, birds, other snakes\| \|Predators:\|\|Carnivorous mammals including raccoons, weasels and foxes as well as birds such as raptors and other snakes\| \|USFWS Status:\|\|Not Listed but Utah mountain kingsnakes are state-protected in Utah and Nevada and may not be collected.\| \|Where at the Zoo?\|\|Small Animal Building\|
Manisha Sashital, a student in Environmental Engineering and Environmental Policy at Carnegie Mellon University, worked on a botanical glossary under the supervision of Dr. Mori at the Garden this summer. As part of her internship she prepared a cartoon illustrating the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration. Scott A. Mori has been studying New World rain forest plants for The New York Botanical Garden for over 35 years. His interest in tropical forests as carbon sinks have been stimulated by his studies of trees in old growth tropical forests. Global warming has become one of the planet’s deadliest threats. Since the Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide concentrations have risen from 280 ppm to nearly 390 ppm, with the potential to reach 550 ppm by 2050 if carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion are not controlled. The earth has experienced major warming three times; but the Cretaceous warming period took place over millions of years and the Paleocene/Eocene warming happened over thousands of years. In contrast, today’s temperature changes are happening over decades. As a result, many species, perhaps even humans, may not be able to adapt to such rapid and high increases in temperature. One concern that is generally unknown to the public is that photosynthesis, the source of energy for nearly all organisms on the planet, shuts down at around 104° F. Mankind’s extreme disruption of the carbon cycle is causing and will continue to cause serious consequences for life on earth. Carbon dioxide levels contribute to global warming through the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases trap radiation from the sun in the atmosphere, which causes global temperatures to rise because the radiation is not reflected back out of the atmosphere. The reason for today’s increased atmospheric carbon levels can be attributed to the combustion of fuels used for the production of electricity and in transportation, both of which are essential to modern societies; as well as to cutting and burning forests throughout the world. Since there is no precedent for the rapidity of current temperature increases, it is impossible for humans to predict which areas of the world will be affected and at what magnitude. The unpredictability of global warming makes it an especially serious environmental problem. Rain forests as well as other vegetation types play an important role in reducing the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Annually, plants in tropical rain forests around the world take in millions of tons of carbon dioxide and release millions of tons of oxygen through photosynthesis, and this balances the respiration of microbes, plants, and animals, which take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide. As seen in the accompanying cartoon, plants take in carbon dioxide and water and use the energy of the sun to create carbohydrates that are, in turn, oxidized to produce the energy needed for plants to sustain themselves. The carbohydrates are also the building blocks plants use to make leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits. Oxygen, the byproduct of respiration, is used by organisms to break down ingested carbohydrates to produce the energy needed for them to grow and reproduce. Mankind’s extreme disruption of the carbon cycle is and will continue to have serious consequences for life on earth. read more »
\|End of Stage 5 (end of Year 10)\| \|Grade C\|\|Frances Jamie\| Description of activity Students are given a selection of visual portraits of a range of individuals in different contexts and choose one of the portraits and interpret a character from it. They prepare a 2-3 minute dramatic monologue as that person in a way that reflects their interpretation of the character and the relevant context, for presentation to the class. Students use class time and out-of-class time to prepare this assessment activity. Students have studied a range of texts that focus on character, characterisation and context (eg poems, pen portraits by Dickens, dramatic monologues such as Alan Bennett's Talking Heads, cartoons and books) and have considered different ways to develop a narrative and how composers create and develop characters in both print and visual texts. They have considered how characterisation is shaped through the use of visual images, stereotypes, caricatures and figurative language, and how their knowledge of language features can be transferred to different types of texts. 1. responds to and composes increasingly sophisticated and sustained texts for understanding, interpretation, critical analysis and pleasure 5. transfers understanding of language concepts into new and different contexts 6. experiments with different ways of imaginatively and interpretively transforming experience, information and ideas into texts 11. uses, reflects on and assesses and adapts their individual and collaborative skills for learning with increasing independence and effectiveness. Criteria for assessing learning (These criteria would normally be communicated to students with the activity.) Students will be assessed on their ability to: - compose a coherent oral text using the conventions of a monologue such as: - the creation of an engaging and suitable persona - the disclosure of relevant aspects of character and situation throughout the monologue - a sustained sense of audience - respond imaginatively to a visual text that explores the complexities of the chosen character and his/her context by: - the use of language forms and features, and structures of text appropriate to the character - the use of appropriate and imaginative gestures and mannerisms - the presentation of key attitudes of the character - demonstrating the character's context - present a view of the world through a monologue constructed and delivered imaginatively and interpretively demonstrating: - a clear purpose evident throughout the monologue - reflect on the English skills that have been applied to the development and presentation of the dramatic monologue.
Music Theory 101 Terminology Musicians tend to have an expanded vocabulary that incorporates many music-specific terms. Below is a list of some of the musical terms you would likely learn in a Music Theory 101 class. Pitch Class – All pitches on a keyboard that have the same name Scale – A group of pitches arranged from low to high or high to low Tonic – The note upon which a scale or key is based; the first note of the scale that is the tonal center of a musical piece Tonality – The organization of pitches based on their hierarchical relationship to the tonic (central tone) Atonal – Lacking tonality; not based on a central scale or key Key – The group of pitches associated with a specific tonic; a musical piece may be in the key of a major or minor scale (e.g., C Major or E minor) Accidental – A musical symbol indicating that the pitch of a note should be altered (sharps, flats and naturals) Sharp – A symbol indicating that the pitch should be a half step higher than the written note Flat – A symbol indicating that the pitch should be a half step lower than the written note Natural – A symbol indicating that a note should be played as written (not raised or lowered); typically only used to counteract a flat or sharp that has appeared in the piece previously, or in the key signature Key Signature – The sharps and flats placed at the beginning of a staff, used to indicate which pitches should be played a half-step higher (sharp) or lower (flat); key signatures are typically associated with a particular key Time Signature (also called meter signature) – A symbol placed at the beginning of a staff used to indicate the meter of a composition. The symbol typically consists of two numbers: the number at the top indicates how many beats are in each measure and the number at the bottom indicates the note value (e.g., a quarter note) that constitutes one metric beat. Tempo – The speed at which the music is played; may be expressed in beats per minute, or with descriptive terms such as “largo” (Italian for slow) and “allegro” (Italian for fast). Interval – The distance between two pitches; the interval describes the relationship that occurs when both pitches are played in unison (e.g., Minor 2nd or Major 6th) Triad – A cord consisting of three pitches arranged in 3rds (a triad can be major, minor, augmented or diminished) MUSIC TRIVIA QUESTION: What is the difference between a heptatonic scale and a pentatonic scale? Comment on this post with the correct answer to the question above and we’ll give you a shout out on our Twitter and Facebook accounts! Some good sources for music theory vocabulary and terms: Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary (see the letter index at the bottom of the page) And always remember to contact Flatts & Sharpe for all your Chicago music lesson needs!
Infectious Disease Epidemiology Program On this page: Pertussis is a respiratory illness commonly known as whooping cough that is caused by the Bordetella pertussis bacteria. Pertussis is spread from person to person through the air. A person may even catch pertussis by standing close (less than 3 feet away) to an infected person who is coughing or sneezing. A person has to breathe in droplets from an infected person to get sick. The first signs of pertussis are similar to a cold (sneezing, runny nose, fever, and a cough). After one or two weeks the cough gets worse and occurs in sudden, uncontrollable bursts where one cough follows the next without a break for breath. The person may look blue in the face and have a hard time breathing and after a coughing spell the person may throw up. Pertussis can be very serious, especially in infants. Many infants who get pertussis are infected by older siblings, parents or caregivers who might not even know they have the disease. There are two pertussis vaccines available (Dtap and Tdap). Please see the vaccine information statements (VIS) below. - Pertussis Fact Sheet (Word* \| also in PDF) - Maine Immunization Program - Pertussis Vaccine Information Statements (VIS) Dtap and Tdap - For questions or to report a disease call 1-800-821-5821 (24/7) - Mid-Year Report - Surveillance report for Pertussis - 2013 (PDF) - 2013 (PDF) - Weekly Reports Archives
During the War of 1812, some merchants in New Orleans tried to blame the Laffites and their establishment at Barataria for a shortage of specie. It is typical of people who themselves deal in bank notes without cover that they try to blame others who are more fiscally responsible for their own problems. The United States was not on a solid financial footing during the War of 1812, but after the war, things became much worse. In 1816 the Second Bank of the United States was established. And in 1819, we had our first major Panic, aptly named the Panic of 1819. What were the causes of the Panic of 1819? Those in the know will name a few: a reduction in the price of staple goods like cotton due to a resurgence of production in Europe which hurt growers in the U.S., the printing of bank notes without cover by various banks, and the eventual tightening of the money supply when the United States needed to withdraw two million in specie from the Second Bank of the United States to make payments in October of 1818 on its notes for the Louisiana Purchase, promissory notes made out to France but now owned by an English bank. After this withdrawal, there was not enough specie to cover the bank's obligations. The problem for ordinary people was that while banks that were in debt were not forced to pay their creditors in specie, and the Bank of the United States, though a supposedly private entity, was exempt from the laws of the states and could not be foreclosed on, ordinary people still had to pay their own debts, or suffer the consequences. When a tighter fiscal policy was enforced at Second Bank of the United States, the saying went that the bank was saved, but the people were ruined. Now, many populist agitators see this as an issue between the "wicked rich" and the "victimized poor", but this way of conceptualizing the problem hides the real issue: that not all poor people are treated the same. If we go by net worth alone, the Second Bank of the United States and all the other reneging smaller banks that relied on it, were actually poorer than an ordinary person who had a few coins in his pocket, because they had a negative net worth. The banks, including the very biggest one, should by rights have been allowed to collapse and their corpses fed to their creditors. President Monroe is thought to have been a fiscally conservative president, because he did not pass relief for the "poor". But how fiscally conservative is it to allow a bank to reneg on its obligation to depositors? The very poorest of the poor were the banks themselves. They should have been allowed to fail. Would the United States not have fared better under pirates who dealt exclusively in silver and gold and made change in bits and pieces? \|the value of money used to be in the metal and people made change by cutting it\|
Philae, Greek: Philai; Ancient Egyptian: Pilak, is currently an island in the reservoir of the Aswan Low Dam, downstream of the Aswan Dam and Lake Nasser, Egypt. Philae was originally located near the expansive First Cataract of the Nile River in southern Egypt, and was the site of an Ancient Egyptian temple complex. These rapids and the surrounding area have been variously flooded since the initial construction of the Old Aswan Dam in 1902. The temple complex was later dismantled and relocated to nearby Agilkia Island as part of the UNESCO Nubia Campaign project, protecting this and other complexes before the 1970 completion of the Aswan High Dam. The ancient Egyptian name of the smaller island is Philak, or boundary. As their southern frontier, the Pharaohs of Egypt kept there a strong garrison, and it was also a barracks for Macedonian and Roman soldiers in their turn. The first temple structure, which was built by native pharaohs of the thirtieth dynasty, was the one for Hathor. The island temple was built during the Ptolemaic dynasty. The principal deity of the temple complex was Isis, but other temples and shrines were dedicated to other deities such as Hathor and Harendotes. The temple was closed down officially in the 6th century AD by the Byzantine emperor, Justinian ( 527-565 AD ). Philae was a seat of the Christian religion as well as of the ancient Egyptian faith. Photos 1983 Praktika XL, Konica C35, Agfa slides
Like swaddled infants wrapped in lined camo fabric, bagworm caterpillars are encased in an outer covering with an opening just large enough for their heads. Unlike infants, the caterpillars are left to fend for themselves as they transform into moths. During this process, you may mistake their cocoon coverings for tiny cones in your pine trees (Pinus spp.). Bagworm caterpillars are the larval stage of the Theridopteryx ephemeraeformis moth. The caterpillars have heads and thoraxes with black and white spots and brown abdomens, and they are typically 1 inch long. The 1-inch-long adult male moths take flight with clear wings and black bodies, but the female moths are the most unrecognizable. They cannot fly because they don’t have wings, and they also lack eyes and legs. The female bagworm's largely immobile existence is spent entirely inside a cocoon, where she lives for only a couple of weeks to lay eggs that ensure the next generation. The life span of a male moth is even shorter -- he lives only a couple of days to fulfill his role of fertilizing the females, which he accomplishes through an opening in the females' cocoons. Females may lay up to 1,000 eggs, which hatch into tiny caterpillars that leave the cocoon immediately to spin their own, individual cocoons. The first silk strands they weave upon exiting their birth cocoons catch wind currents and transport them to new spots where they weave their own cocoons -- a process called “ballooning.” When the hatchling caterpillars spin their new cocoons, they weave bits and pieces of pine needles around the silk-lined case like little shingles, camouflaging it. Bagworm caterpillars have the distinction of being the only insect that builds this type of home. They leave a hole at the top of the cocoon, from which they dart in and out to feed on the pine needles. As they grow, they enlarge their cocoon home -- essentially, it grows with them. Pine trees grow in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 2 through 9, depending on species. Bagworms attack pines in USDA zones 5 through 9, because their northernmost range is in southern Michigan’s USDA zone 5. As the caterpillars feed on pine needles, they extract plant sap that contains chlorophyll, which impairs a pine's ability to photosynthesize. The needles initially turn brown, but in severe infestations, a tree may lose all its needles before dying. Managing bagworms on your pine trees can be challenging. Handpicking and destroying the cocoons is an effective control if trees are within a ladder’s reach. The height of some mature pines puts the cocoons beyond the reach of sprayers, which prohibits effective chemical control. If you’re able to coat all leaf surfaces thoroughly with a sprayer, using a biorational insecticide such as spinosad or Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki are effective controls. Although product labels vary, typically you dissolve 4 tablespoons of spinosad or 4 teaspoons of Btk in 1 gallon of water and spray on trees. Store these chemicals out of the reach of inquisitive kids, and keep kids and pets out of the way while you're spraying.
Featured Websites - math activities to use with your child CA Department of Education The California Department of Education site with information about the standards and the CCSS-related activities taking place in California. The NRICH Project aims to enrich the mathematical experiences of all learners. To support this aim, members of the NRICH team work in a wide range of capacities, including providing professional development for teachers wishing to embed rich mathematical tasks into everyday classroom practice. NRICH is a team of qualified teachers who are also practitioners in RICH mathematical thinking. This unique blend means that NRICH is ideally placed to offer advice and support to both learners and teachers of mathematics. Illustrative Mathematics (K-12) Illustrative Mathematics is a discerning community of educators dedicated to the coherent learning of mathematics. We collaborate at illustrativemathematics.org, sharing carefully vetted resources for teachers and teacher leaders to give our children an understanding of mathematics and skill in using it. We provide expert guidance to states and districts working to improve mathematics education. The goal of Illustrative Mathematics is: Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium Smarter Balanced is a state-led consortium developing assessments aligned to the Common Core State Standards in English language arts/literacy and mathematics that are designed to help prepare all students to graduate high school college- and career-ready. What is a Growth Mindset? How can it help with Math? Find out here: MindsetKit.Org is a free set of online lessons and practices designed to help you teach and foster adaptive learning mindsets. Inside Mathematics (K-12) A professional resource for educators passionate about improving students' mathematics learning and performance. This site features classroom examples of innovative teaching methods and insights into student learning, tools for mathematics instruction that teachers can use immediately, and video tours of the ideas and materials on the site. The Mathematics Assessment Project (7-12) The project is working to design and develop well-engineered assessment tools to support US schools in implementing the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CCSSM). The project creates tools for formative and summative assessment that make knowledge and reasoning visible, and help teachers to guide students in how to improve, and monitor their progress. The Teaching Channel Teaching Channel is a video showcase -- on the Internet and TV -- of innovative and effective teaching practices in America's schools. It features hundreds of helpful videos showing classroom practices that align with the CCSS-M. Illuminations is a project designed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) which includes lessons and interactives searchable by the Common Core State Standards: over 600 lesson plans and over 100 activities; including virtual manipulatives, applets, and games. Howard County Public Schools, in Maryland, has a site, hcpssfamilymath.weebly.com, which includes links, videos, practice tests and more on the math curriculum, the Common Core State Standards and class lessons in kindergarten through 12th grade.
Your heart is a muscle that is located on the left side of your chest and is about the size of your fist. It sends blood thoughout your body, providing it with the proper nutrients and oxygen that it needs. The heart is also made up of four different blood filled areas which are called chambers. Each side of the heart contains two of these chambers that are used primarily to send blood to your lungs. This is why the need of cardiovascular exercise is important because the more blood being transfered from your lungs to your heart, the more calories you are burning. A person`s heart rate in an exact measurement can and will determine one`s fat loss progress. With physical activity, the heart rate increases to supply the muscles with more oxygen so that the body produces more energy. The heart can beat up to two-hundred times per minute and the brain controls this rate by sending nerve signals to the heart. The rate in which a person`s heart beats depends on intensity of exercise, activity levels, and genetics. There is no "one size fits all" average for heart rate, it will vary on the individual. A person`s resting heart rate is simply the number of times that your heart beats while resting. The average resting heart rate is anywhere from fifty-five to eighty-five beats per minute. Your resting heart rate gets higher as you get older and is lower with physically fit people. Athletes sometimes measure their resting heart rate as one way of finding out if they have overtrained. Measuring your resting heart rate is also used to determine a person`s target heart rate. Athletes use a heart rate monitor as a training aid in identifying their maximum heart rate (MHR) to determine their needed training zones. The easiest method of calculating your maximum hear rate is to subtract your age from 220. Studies have show that one`s MHR on a treadmill is five to six beats higher than on an exercise bike, and two to four beats higher than on a rowing machine. It was also found that physically fit people over the age of fifty are likely to have a higher maximum heart rate that the average person of their age group. This article was intended to provide you with the basic information of calculating your heart rate and information that will become useful when deciding to start your own cardiovascular workout. You also need to take into consideration that you don`t have to burn yourself out by calculating every single step you take to measure your heart rate. Believe it or not, some people actually do this and are looked at strangely by others as well. If you want to burn more calories, simply eat less or become more active, you don`t have to get scientific until you are advanced enough to know what you`re doing. Until next time, later! Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com
Elements for Kids - Symbol: K - Atomic Number: 19 - Atomic Weight: 39.0983 - Classification: Alkali metal - Phase at Room Temperature: Solid - Density: 0.86 grams per cm cubed - Melting Point: 63.38°C, 146.08°F - Boiling Point: 759°C, 1398°F - Discovered by: Sir Humphry Davy in 1807 Potassium is the fourth element in the first column of the periodic table. It is classified as an alkali metal . Potassium atoms have 19 electrons and 19 protons with one valence electron in the outer shell. Potassium is considered chemically similar to sodium , the alkali metal above it on the periodic table. Characteristics and Properties Under standard conditions potassium is a soft silvery-white metal. It is so soft that it can be easily cut with a knife. When cut, the exposed metal tarnishes quickly and forms a dull oxide coating. Potassium has a very low melting point such that even a candle can cause it to melt. When it burns, it produces a pale purple colored flame. Potassium also has a very low density and is the second least dense metal after lithium. It is so light that it can float in water. Chemically, potassium is a very active metal. It reacts violently when coming into contact with water, producing heat and hydrogen gas. It also reacts with many other elements and substances such as oxygen, acids, sulfur, fluorine, and nitrogen. Where is potassium found on Earth? Because potassium reacts so readily with water, it is not found in its elemental form in nature. Instead it is found in various minerals such as sylvite, carnallite, langbeinite, and kainite. Most minerals that contain potassium are referred to as potash. Making up about 2.1% of the weight of the Earth's crust, potassium is the eighth most abundant element in the crust. It can also be found in ocean water where it is also about the eighth most abundant element. How is potassium used today? The largest use of potassium is potassium chloride (KCl) which is used to make fertilizers. This is because potassium is important for plant growth. Industrial applications for potassium include soaps, detergents, gold mining, dyes, glass production, gunpowder, and batteries. Potassium also plays a vital role in our bodies. It is used in muscle contraction, fluid and pH balance, bone health, and helps to prevent kidney stones. It is about the eighth most abundant element in the human body by weight. How was it discovered? Potassium was first isolated by English chemist Sir Humphry Davy in 1807. He used electricity to separate the element from the salt potash. Where did potassium get its name? Potassium gets its name from the salt potash from which potassium was first isolated. The K symbol for the element comes from the Latin word "kalium", which means potash. There are three isotopes of potassium that occur naturally: K-39, 40, and 41. The majority (93%) of potassium found in nature is K-39. Interesting Facts about Potassium More on the Elements and the Periodic Table More Chemistry Subjects - Potassium chloride (KCl) is sometimes used as a substitute for table salt. - The USDA recommends that adults consume 4.7 grams of potassium each day. - A small amount of potassium can taste sweet. A higher concentration can taste bitter or salty. - Potassium bicarbonate is the chemical name for baking soda. It is used in fire extinguishers, baking powders, and antacids. - Some good sources of potassium in our diet include bananas, avocados, nuts, chocolate, parsley, and potatoes.
Thank you for helping us expand this topic! Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. The topic statuary sculpture is discussed in the following articles: ...sculpture has tended to be humanistic and naturalistic, concentrating upon the human figure and human action studied from nature. Early in the history of the art there developed two general types: statuary, in which figures are shown in the round, and relief, in which figures project from a ground. Any history of late Assyrian art must be concerned primarily with relief carving. Some statues in the round have been found, but the comparative ineptitude of the majority of them suggests that this form of expression did not come naturally to Assyrian sculptors. Portal sculptures, which many would consider the most characteristic Assyrian art form, are not statues in the round but... Click anywhere inside the article to add text or insert superscripts, subscripts, and special characters. You can also highlight a section and use the tools in this bar to modify existing content: Add links to related Britannica articles! You can double-click any word or highlight a word or phrase in the text below and then select an article from the search box. Or, simply highlight a word or phrase in the article, then enter the article name or term you'd like to link to in the search box below, and select from the list of results. Note: we do not allow links to external resources in editor. Please click the Websites link for this article to add citations for
The postcard above shows the various places Abraham Lincoln lived between his 1809 birth in Kentucky and his death in 1865. I am showing this card to give a context for the places depicted on the postcards of the relief sculptures below. Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He led the United States through its greatest constitutional, military, and moral crisis—the American Civil War—preserving the Union, abolishing slavery, strengthening the national government and modernizing the economy. (source: Wikipedia) Lincoln was born to a poor family in Kentucky in 1809. He lived in Kentucky with his family until 1816. The next postcard shows one of the five bas-relief stone panels depicting major periods of Lincoln's life at the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial in Lincoln City, Indiana. This panel represents Lincoln's years in the state of Kentucky.. The next postcard shows the Lincoln Monument near Vincennes, Indiana. This monument depicts the Lincoln family moving from Indiana to Illinois in 1830 when Lincoln was 21 years old. The last postcard shows the Lincoln-Douglas Memorial in Quincy, Illinois. This plaque marks the site of the sixth debate between Stephen A. Douglas and Abraham Lincoln 1858. The Lincoln–Douglas Debates of 1858 were a series of seven debates between Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate for the Senate in Illinois, and Senator Stephen Douglas, the Democratic Party candidate. The main issue discussed in all seven debates was slavery. The texts of the debates were published in newspapers throughout the country. After Lincoln lost that Senate election, the debates were published in book form. The widespread coverage of the original debates and the popularity of the book eventually led to Lincoln's nomination for President of the United States at the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago. Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election and was re-elected in 1864. Visit Sepia Saturday For more Vintage Images
In this weekly series, Life's Little Mysteries provides expert answers to challenging questions. Earth's spin controls our lives. As the planet dances around the sun, we sleep and wake by its daily pirouette. The rotisserie-style heating keeps Earth warm and sunny all the way around, and Earth's rotation also drives the geomagnetic field, weather patterns and the circulation of the oceans. Bearing all that in mind, one wonders: what if the world stopped turning? "It would be a total mess," said Louis Bloomfield, a physicist at the University of Virginia. Most humans would drown, suffocate, roast or freeze to death. But it's not all bad news: A select few of us who happen to live in one of four well-situated spots on the planet would survive — and probably rapidly evolve in response to our dramatically altered environment. Amazingly, Earth would literally change shape if it ceased to spin. Earth's rotation makes its midsection bulge; it is 26 miles farther around at the equator than it is from pole to pole. If the spinning stopped, that solid-Earth bulge wouldn't immediately relax, but the bulge of the oceans, which are much more fluid, would. "The oceans would shift from the equator toward the poles, leaving Earth's surface bone dry near the equator and swamped in miles of water at the poles," Bloomfield told Life's Little Mysteries. The atmosphere would shift in a similar fashion, he said, becoming thicker at the poles and thinner at the equator. Only Earthlings living at a sweet spot around the mid-latitudes would experience the right atmospheric pressure to survive the transition. [What if the Sky Fell?] Furthermore, constant sunshine would strike over whichever half of Earth ended up locked toward the sun. That side would be blisteringly hot; the vegetation would die off and the land would dry out and crack. The opposite hemisphere would sunk into permanent, icy darkness, and the land would resemble frozen tundra. "Humans would have to move to the transition area," said Rhett Allain, a physicist at the University of Southeastern Louisiana and blogger at Dot Physics. We would be confined to a thin band of Earth along the hot-cold border, where the sun would always appear just above or just below the horizon. Here, the temperature would be moderate, but the ways in which weather and climate patterns on a non-spinning Earth would change are too unpredictable for the scientists to describe the scenery more fully. At any rate, land on the hot-cold border should be habitable enough for humans to make a go of it. "If you're on the sunny side but where the sun appears very near the horizon, you'll be able to grow crops, but you're not going to get quite as extreme solar heating there," Allain said. People could cross over to the barely dark side at night. "It would be warm enough there because there would still be some sunlight, because the atmosphere diffuses the sunlight (just like it's not pitch-black at night)." Of course, humans couldn't live along the entire hot-cold border, but only in the stretches that contain an atmosphere that's suitable for breathing. "There are going to be four patches that have a decent mixture of the right atmospheric pressure and the right temperature: two in the Northern Hemisphere and two in the Southern Hemisphere," Bloomfield said. The four human tribes would be permanently separated by the harsh conditions that stand between them. That and environmental differences between the patches would drive the evolution of four distinct humanoid species. They'd all need to be hardier and thicker-skinned than current humans, in order to deal with the greater influx of cosmic radiation they would experience in the absence of a geomagnetic field. Now, here's some bad news: Earth is, in fact, headed for an eventual rotational standstill. The heave-ho of the land and ocean tides that result from the spinning take a toll on the planet, and the energy driving all that sloshing back and forth gradually winds us down. When the moon ran out of spinning steam, it became "tidally locked" to Earth, and now the same side of the moon always faces our way. Give it a few eons, and the same thing will happen to Earth; first we'll become tidally locked to the moon, then a few billion years after that we'll lock up to the sun. That is, it would happen, if the sun weren't destined to die in a massive explosion first, blowing the solar system and its future plans to smithereens.
March 1, 2013 EDITOR’S NOTE: In 1798, James Madison authored a series of resolutions for Virginia, which in conjunction with Thomas Jefferson’s resolutions for Kentucky that same year. They were written in response to the hated Alien and Sedition Acts which were passed under the Adams administration during an undeclared war with France. The acts authorized the president to deport any resident alien considered dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States, to apprehend and deport resident aliens if their home countries were at war with the United States, and criminalized any speech which might defame Congress, the President, or bring either of them into contempt or disrepute. As important as these resolutions were in objecting to the unconstitutional Alien and Sedition Acts, their lasting importance was due to the the fact that they were strong statements in defense of federalism, the sovereignty of the people of the several states, and the authority of state governments to check or resist the tyrannical proclivities of the federal government. In 1799-1800, James Madison went into greater detail to explain the purpose and meaning of the resolutions in Virginia. This has become to be known as Madison’s “Celebrated Report of 1800.” It follows in its entirety.
Have your students learn what the 8 major cell organelles are and their primary function by having them make this graphic organizer. Compare with the other Organelles graphic organizer in this section- the ‘spinner’- and do whichever is best for your students. Parts of this Lesson: - 12 min. Member Video (Preview above) - PowerPoint (preview above) - Teacher Notes (free)
The mystery of the world’s largest dinosaur eggs has been solved, and an infamous baby dinosaur fossil now has a family. The fossil dinosaur embryo “Baby Louie” and associated clutch of eggs were first discovered in the early 1990s, but were not formally described at the time. In a paper published in Nature Communications, dinosaur paleontologist Darla Zelenitsky from the University of Calgary and co-authors identified the Baby Louie specimen as the embryo of a new species of oviraptorosaur, Beibeilong sinensis, that lived in central-eastern China 90 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous period. Baby Louie fossil would have grown to gigantic dinosaur The Baby Louie fossil was discovered in 1993 in a rock formation from the western part of China’s Henan Province. At that time, tens of thousands of dinosaur eggs were being collected by local farmers, then sold and exported to other countries. Many, like Baby Louie, ended up in the United States where it was eventually sold to the Indianapolis Children’s Museum in 2001. Zelenitsky and her co-authors Philip Currie and Kenneth Carpenter first began examining Baby Louie (a nickname given by Charlie Magovern, who first exposed the fossil after it came to the United States) shortly after it arrived in the United States. They noticed the eggs and embryo skeleton looked similar to those of oviraptorosaurs, a group of meat-eating dinosaurs that superficially look like cassowaries, but the eggs were far too large to have been laid by any known species of such dinosaurs at the time. Zelenitsky, who is an assistant professor in the Department of Geoscience, said in a statement: “Although the identity of the dinosaur embryo could not be determined due to its state of preservation, I had recognized that the large eggs in the nest belonged to an oviraptorosaur, based on various characteristics of the eggshell. This meant that Baby Louie’s parents must have been truly gigantic, far larger than any known oviraptorosaur species at the time. “In the absence of a formal identity, the specimen became known as Baby Louie.” Along with the dinosaur embryo, the Baby Louie fossil contains between six and eight very large eggs. These giant eggs were given their own scientific name, Macroelongatoolithus (meaning large elongate stone eggs). These are the largest-known type of dinosaur eggs, with eggs reaching up to 23 inches (60 cm) in length (the eggs associated with Baby Louie reach about 17 inches (45 cm) long) that are laid in ring-shaped clutches two to three meters in diameter and contain two dozen or more eggs. The Baby Louie specimen was likely part of one of these large ring-shaped nests. Eggshell fossil held key to identifying new species In 2007, a completely unrelated discovery turned up a solution to the mystery behind Baby Louie’s lineage — the first known giant oviraptorosaur, with an estimated body length of 26 feet (eight meters), was unearthed in northern China. At long last, oviraptorosaurs large enough to have been capable of laying eggs as large as Baby Louie’s were known to have existed. In their article, Zelenitsky and her co-authors compared the bones, and discovered that the Baby Louie skeleton belongs to a different kind of giant oviraptorosaur and have given it a brand-new dinosaur name: Beibeilong sinensis, meaning “baby dragon from China.” Zelenitsky explained, saying: “Dinosaur embryos, because they are so small and are only present for a short time interval in the egg, are very rarely preserved as fossils. So discovering a fossilized dinosaur embryo is equivalent to winning the lottery. “Baby Louie is the only embryo of a giant oviraptorosaur known in the world.” Ring-shaped nests of eggs of smaller oviraptorosaur species have been found with the adults sitting in the center of the nest, so an adult Beibeilong probably shared similar behaviors. With their parrot-like skulls, feathers, and two-legged stance, Baby Louie’s parents, weighing in at around 6,613 pounds (3,000 kilograms) — about half as heavy as a Tyrannosaurus Rex — are the largest dinosaurs likely to have sat on their nests to brood their clutch of eggs. Now that the true identity of the Macroelongatoolithus eggs has been resolved, paleontologists can try to determine the geographic distribution of giant oviraptorosaurs. Zelenitsky went on to say: “Despite being large animals, fossilized remains of giant oviraptorosaurs are extremely rare. To date, only three skeletons of these animals have been discovered, all from Asia. Yet, the remains of Macroelongatoolithus eggs are known from dozens of sites in both Asia and North America. “The fact that Macroelongatoolithus eggs are so widespread and common compared to their skeletons suggests that giant oviraptorosaurs were probably a more important part of Cretaceous ecosystems than previously thought, based on the rarity of their bones.” In 2013, Baby Louie was repatriated to the Henan Geological Museum in its home province. [Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.] Like this article? Subscribe to our weekly email for more!
Beyond the Headline: Online News Verification game This game available in the form of a short poster is available from EAVI and can be used to show students some of the critical and visual cues we can use to quickly judge the veracity of online content. Using Creative Technologies in Elementary Math The Using Creative Technologies in Elementary Math guide provides articles, samples, and lessons to help you find new ideas and approaches that will work for your elementary students. Math is about numbers, but it can also be drawn, manipulated, interpreted, measured, and constructed. In the Using Creative Technologies in Elementary Math guide you can find: - A creative approach to building number sense and problem-solving - Connecting math to art - Creating visual representations of mathematic concepts The guide includes lesson plans where: - students practice counting through the creation of a holiday counting book. - students compose images from shapes, describe their composition, and create their own version of the book, The Shape of Things. - students explore length, width, perimeter, and surface area, convert measurements, and work with 2-D representations of 3-D objects. - students create original artwork and manipulate images to demonstrate understanding of line symmetry. - students improve multiplication skills by skip counting and creating multiplication word problems. - The strategies and lessons in this guide will help you engage students in mathematical thinking through creative technology tools. Making in Math Exploring Line Symmetry Now That's a Problem The 13 Days of Halloween The Shape of Things Dream Room Design Additional ideas from real student projects EJN 5-point test for hate speech This infographic has been created by the Ethical Journalists Network (EJN) and although primarily aimed at journalists can also be used by teachers as part of their media literacy activities. The idea behind the infographic is to help navigate through the current media landscape minefield and take into consideration the wider context in which people express themselves. What is important is to focus not just on what is said, but what is intended. It’s not just a matter of law or socially acceptable behaviour; it’s a question of whether speech aims to do others harm, particularly at moments when there is the threat of immediate violence. The Oscars Teacher's Guide Series It offers teacher guides for exploring the Art and Science of Motion Pictures. It includes lessons on critical thinking and creative writing, for developing visual literacy skills. In this document Christina dePian gives you tips on how to make a animation film Kein Kind ohne digitale Kompetenzen This publication supports educators in preparing their students for their digital lives. Gebrauchsanweisung für dieses Handbuch Die Digitalen Kompetenzen im Überblick Digitale Kompetenzen für die Teilhabe an der Gesellschaft - Kulturtechnik: Lesen & Schreiben sind wichtig – nicht nur am Papier! - IKT hat gesellschaftliche Bedeutung - Ausbilden für die Zukunft - Veränderungen durch digitale Technologien Digitale Kompetenzen der Personen - Schüler/innen heute: Demotivierte Schüler/innen sind störende Schüler/innen - Auf die Lehrenden kommt’s an! - Gemeinsam geht’s leichter! Teamteaching Digitale Kompetenzen für die Schule als Organisation - Schulentwicklung: Unsere Schule wird besser! - Testen, Prüfen und Schummeln - Zusammenstellung von politisch-strategischen Aussagen und Empfehlungen - Da geht’s weiter - Hilfe und Unterstützung im Internet - Digitale Kompetenzen – Definition aus www.digikomp.at Guide for teens: Think Before You Share Tips from Facebook and Mediasmarts about sharing and making decisions online. Dedicated to teens Think before you share Tips from facebook and mediasmarts Your own stuff Next, ask yourself Passwords are not social An image lasts forever Gone in seconds, but maybe not gone forever Think before you share. Other people’s stuff Fixing things if they go wrong How to use thesocial reporting toolnote eProf Research: Skills, access, use and attitudes towards ICT for teachers in secondary education in Romania Report analysis of ICT training needs for Romanian secondary school teachers 1.1. Contextul, Obiectivele şi Temele 1.3. Cum poate fi utilizat acest raport 2. Cunoştinţele şi abilităţile de TIC ale profesorilor 2.1. Familiaritatea cu TIC şi e-learning 2.2. Auto-evaluarea generală a abilităţilor TIC 2.3. Abilități de utilizare a calculatorului pentru muncă de birou 2.4. Abilităţi de bază privind computerele şi reţelele 2.5. Abilităţi legate de Internet 2.6. Abilităţi TIC după caracteristici demografice 3. Interesul şi informaţia despre TIC şi alte subiecte 3.1. Interesul în TIC comparativ cu alte subiecte 3.2. Nivelul de informare despre TIC şi alte subiecte 3.3. Sursele de informare în general, despre disciplina predată şi despre TIC 4. Accesul la TIC şi la suport tehnic 4.1. Accesul la TIC la domiciliu 4.2. Accesul la TIC în şcoli 4.3. Disponibilitatea suportului tehnic TIC în şcoli 5. Utilizarea TIC şi programele de instruire în TIC 5.1. Frecvenţa şi scopul utilizării TIC la şcoală 5.2. Participarea anterioară la cursuri de instruire în TIC 5.3. Evaluarea intenţiilor de folosire şi instruire viitoare în TIC 6. Atitudini şi percepţii în legătură cu utilizarea TIC 6.1. Percepția utilităţii în folosirea TIC 6.2. Atitudini faţă de noutate în educație 6.3. Percepţia ușurinței de utilizare a TIC 6.4. Percepţia compatibilităţii TIC cu activitatea desfăşurată 6.5. Percepţia impactului reputațional al utilizării TIC 6.6. Vizibilitatea folosirii tehnologiei 6.7. Percepţia presiunii instituționale de a folosi și de a se instrui în TIC.59 7.1. Limitări ale studiului 7.2. Concluzii şi Recomandări Net Children Go Mobile- Research Mobile internet access and use among European children. Initial findings of the Net Children Go Mobile project. 1.2 The policy agenda 1.3 The project 1.4 Framework and methodology 1.5 This report 2. Access and use 2.1 Where children use the internet 2.2 How children access the internet 2.4 Age of first use 2.5 Parental uses of the internet smartphones and tablets 3. Online activities 3.1 Types of online activities 3.2 Smartphone users 3.3 Tablet users 3.4 Social networking and media sharing platforms 4. Summary of findings and preliminary observations 6. The network Facebook Guide for Educators The guide is aimed at educators working with young people within schools, colleges, universities, work based learning, formal and informal learning settings. It looks at the way in which Facebook can be used as a tool to: • Support subject teaching across the curriculum • Support out of school hours learning • Encourage informal social learning • Enable easy communication between students, teachers and parents • Support the development of digital citizenship skills The guide aims to be practical and hands on, but is not exhaustive. Innovative uses of Facebook are being developed all of the time and as such The Facebook team has created a Facebook for Educators Page run by educators for educators, to share their experiences and recommendations across the UK and beyond. To like the page, and join the conversation visit www.facebook.com/educationfoundationuk What is Facebook? Why did we do this? What did we learn? Who is this guide written for? How we wrote this guide? Facebook as a tool for teaching and learning Uses for Facebook in and around the classroom Facebook in the real world – Wellington College Facebook in the real world – London Nautical School Getting started with Facebook – useful tools, privacy and safety Introducing Facebook at your school – what can help make the process easier?
Weeds compete with crops for water, light, space, and nutrients and can significantly reduce crop yields through this competition for resources. In general, weed management is more important in the earlier part of the crops life. Crops tend to be more vulnerable to the effects of competition when they are establishing, and some have critical weed-free periods defined. Weeds can also harbor insects and diseases, as well as interfere with harvesting and other farm operations. Weed management options include physical, cultural, and chemical controls. For most growers, integrating these three options provides the best overall control of weeds. Weed control focuses on stopping weeds from establishing, eradicating weeds that have established, and preventing weeds from making seeds which will add to the soil seed bank and create increased weed pressure in the future. Weeds are not all equally competitive. It can be helpful to prioritize weeds by their impact to the crop or their potential to spread aggressively when planning weed management. Proper identification of weeds can be crucial to successful control. Different types of plants (grass, broadleaf, rush, or sedge) respond differently to different controls strategies. Understanding the weed life cycle is also important to select the most effective timing of the control. Weed Life Cycles Annual plants complete their life cycle in one year and reproduce by seed. They germinate from seeds, grow to maturity, flower, and make seeds all within a single growing season. Biennial plants take two years to complete their life cycle. They typically germinate from seeds and grow vegetatively in the first year, then enter a period of dormancy over the winter. They flower and make seeds during the following growing season. Perennial plants can live for many years and may reproduce by seed, runners, rhizomes, etc. Farm practices can impact weed populations on your farm. For example, growers who practice no-tillage or reduced-tillage will typically see the type of weeds shift from annual weeds to perennial weed species. Weed maps of field areas are extremely helpful in planning weed control strategies. A weed map can illustrate problem areas so that growers can target specific problems in specific areas, and help plan for future crop rotations. A weed map can also indicate shifts in weed pressure if kept continuously over years and indicate the possible need for a strategy change.
By h0mT0kt03tY0nK. Kindergarten Worksheets. At Sunday, May 10th 2020, 04:01:08 AM. Do homework regularly and practice each concept on a regular basis. Some students face difficulties and without solving these, they move on to other topics. Hence, they cannot make out any topic properly and end up with a bad experience. It is thus advisable to understand math concepts step-by-step and solve problems repeatedly. Start test preparation much before exams to get a better result. Students should have adequate time in their hand to revise the entire syllabus thoroughly. Math is that kind of subject which cannot be grasped in a hurry. Students should revise each math topic at their own pace. They can download several math worksheets online and practice these to get proficiency on each topic. By the age of three, your child is ready to move onto mathematics worksheets. This does not mean that you should stop playing counting and number games with your child; it just adds another tool to your toolbox. Worksheets help to bring some structure into a child has education using a systematic teaching method, particularly important with math, which follows a natural progression. Learning about numbers includes recognizing written numbers as well as the quantity those numbers represent. Mathematics worksheets should provide a variety of fun activities that teach your child both numbers and quantity. Look for a variety of different ways to present the same concepts. This aids understanding and prevents boredom. Color-by-Numbers pictures are a fun way to learn about numbers and colors too. Each grade act as a step in the whole staircase to the mathematics high-rise building. Performing poor in math in any grade is like breaking some steps in the whole staircase. As broken steps make the whole staircase risky or scary to use in the future, incomplete math competencies in lower grades make math very hard in the high school. So, what it takes to be smart in mathematics? My answer is; stay focused on math in each and every level of your studies. Participate in your class math practice sessions. Ask your teacher lots of questions until you are not clear about any concept. Mathematics is a subject of solving the problems on paper by hand rather than only to read them. As in case of Social Studies taking more readings make you smart, in math practicing lots of problems and solving them by hand makes you smart.
This course offers an overview of the different ways to measure biodiversity, and provides tips for the stratification of primary biodiversity data and the construction of variables that describe its various facets. It also includes an in-depth review of the different types of data used to measure biodiversity and their problems and limitations. Overview: Biodiversity is a complex phenomenon that includes many different facets and functions, covering a wide array of ecological and evolutionary characteristics. In spite of this most studies on biodiversity focus on species richness and, to a lesser extent, on the variation in species composition or the diversity of evolutionary processes. Because of this, many facets of biodiversity are poorly known. In addition, knowledge about the geographical distribution of the biota is incomplete and spatially and taxonomically uneven. The problems of biodiversity data hamper studying the determinants of diversity gradients, and limit their usefulness in conservation planning. During the course we will describe the facets of biodiversity that are commonly studied, with an emphasis on ecological and species diversity. This includes richness, composition, replacement (beta diversity), rarity, endemism, phylogenetic diversity and functional diversity. We will also review the different ecological functions that have been assigned to some of these facets, their possible role in ecosystem functioning, and the relationship between biodiversity and some ecosystem services that are essential to the functioning of the biosphere. Throughout the course we will focus on how to measure biodiversity, with special reference –but not limited– to its geographical and temporal variations. I will review the various sources of information about biodiversity, as well as its accessibility and/or potential utility. We will discuss how to use this information to measure different facets of biodiversity. After that, we will review current shortfalls in biodiversity data. We will describe various sources of bias and/or lack of knowledge associated with these data and measures, their origin, and the effects they have on the knowledge of biodiversity. Finally, we will discuss the different ways to correct or mitigate the limitations imposed by these shortfalls, namely additional sampling, diversity estimators (of richness and composition), and predictive models of the geographic distribution of both species and different measures of diversity. We will overview the methods available for these strategies, as well as their logical order of application and its usefulness in terms of specific objective of the study and the type of data available. We will use several practical examples – including the students’ own work – to discuss about (1) how to decide the most appropriate sampling plan, (2) assessing survey quality, (3) using estimates, (4) how to stratify data, and (5) developing and validating predictive models of geographic distribution. Finally, we discuss the usefulness of the data and methods currently available for the study of diversity gradients, community ecology and conservation planning. This course can have a recognition of 6 ECTs for FCUL PhD students enrolling in it as part of their first doctoral year. For FCUL PhD students only requiring 5 ECTs recognized in their specific PhD programmes the last 6 hours of the course are not mandatory and the certificate will be on 'Topics in Measuring Biodiversity’. Minimal formation of students:“Licenciatura” (bachelor) in Biology, Geography or related areas. PhD or MSc students in Ecology, Geography or related areas, and postdocs and other professionals working in related topics - Course Introduction - Biodiversity, concept and types: genetic diversity, ecological and specific - Facets of Biodiversity. - Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. - Measures of species diversity: richness, composition, substitution (beta diversity), rarity, endemism. - Phylogenetic and functional diversity. - Species traits and functional groups. - Stratification of biodiversity data. - Main shortfalls in biodiversity data. - Databases, data quality and bias. - Sampling effort evaluation. - Species richness estimators. - Survey design. - Species distribution models: theory, utility and limitations. - Measuring and communicating uncertainty associated to data quality. Maps of biogeographical ignorance. - Overview of research projects: practical implementation of measuring protocols (last day, 4 hours). - Discussion, synthesis and future challenges: good practices in the use of biodiversity data (last day, 2 hours). Free for 1st year PhD students in the Doctoral program in Biology (FCUL), Biodiversity, Genetics and Evolution (BIODIV UL; UP) and Biology and Ecology of Global Changes (BEAG UL, UA) when the course counts credits for their formation, in which case the delivery of a final report done after the course is mandatory; 25 € for PhD students from institutions of the PEERS network (cE3c, CFE); 125 € for FCUL Master students and unemployed; 180 € for BTI, BI and other PhD students; 250 € for Professional and postdocs. When the maximum number of students is reached 10 vacancies will be available for non-paying 1st year PhD students mentioned above, being, by order of preference: 1) cE3c students; 2) BIODIV students (not from cE3c); 3) FCUL students (not from cE3c); 4) BEAG students (not from FCUL). Candidates should send a short CV and motivation letter to Joaquín Hortal ([email protected]) explaining why they are interested in the course, including a brief description of their research projects. Include also the following information in the email: Professional activity: Professional/Postdoc, BTI, BI (or other non-post-doc research grant), PhD student (with/ without scholarship), Lic. (Bachelor)/Master student PhD student of the 1st year of Doctoral programme BIODIV (FCUL/FCUP), Biologia (FCUL) or BEAG (FCUL or UA)?: If yes to the above question, PhD student doing the Course to count credits for 1st year?: PhD student of cE3c or CEF (Centro de Ecologia Funcional):? If PhD student from another programme/centre, which:
\|Competencies\|\|Mathematics, analytical skills and critical thinking skills\| \|Doctoral degree, occasionally master's degree\| One of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus (c. 624–c.546 BC); he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. The number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos (c. 582–c. 507 BC) established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was "All is number". It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term "mathematics", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins. The first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria (AD 350 - 415). She succeeded her father as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote many works on applied mathematics. Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles). Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and modes of funding varied based primarily on scholars. It was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. Funding for translation of scientific texts in other languages was ongoing throughout the reign of certain caliphs, and it turned out that certain scholars became experts in the works they translated and in turn received further support for continuing to develop certain sciences. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences. An example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many scholars working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham. The Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. During this period of transition from a mainly feudal and ecclesiastical culture to a predominantly secular one, many notable mathematicians had other occupations: Luca Pacioli (founder of accounting); Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (notable engineer and bookkeeper); Gerolamo Cardano (earliest founder of probability and binomial expansion); Robert Recorde (physician) and François Viète (lawyer). As time passed, many mathematicians gravitated towards universities. An emphasis on free thinking and experimentation had begun in Britain's oldest universities beginning in the seventeenth century at Oxford with the scientists Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle, and at Cambridge where Isaac Newton was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics & Physics. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the “regurgitation of knowledge” to “encourag[ing] productive thinking.” In 1810, Humboldt convinced the King of Prussia to build a university in Berlin based on Friedrich Schleiermacher’s liberal ideas; the goal was to demonstrate the process of the discovery of knowledge and to teach students to “take account of fundamental laws of science in all their thinking.” Thus, seminars and laboratories started to evolve. British universities of this period adopted some approaches familiar to the Italian and German universities, but as they already enjoyed substantial freedoms and autonomy the changes there had begun with the Age of Enlightenment, the same influences that inspired Humboldt. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge emphasized the importance of research, arguably more authentically implementing Humboldt’s idea of a university than even German universities, which were subject to state authority. Overall, science (including mathematics) became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. The German university system fostered professional, bureaucratically regulated scientific research performed in well-equipped laboratories, instead of the kind of research done by private and individual scholars in Great Britain and France. In fact, Rüegg asserts that the German system is responsible for the development of the modern research university because it focused on the idea of “freedom of scientific research, teaching and study.” Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of a student's understanding of mathematics; the students, who pass, are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in real life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their specialized knowledge and professional methodology, approach many of the imposing problems presented in related scientific fields. With professional focus on a wide variety of problems, theoretical systems, and localized constructs, applied mathematicians work regularly in the study and formulation of mathematical models. Mathematicians and applied mathematicians are considered to be two of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers. The discipline of applied mathematics concerns itself with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry; thus, "applied mathematics" is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge. The term "applied mathematics" also describes the professional specialty in which mathematicians work on problems, often concrete but sometimes abstract. As professionals focused on problem solving, applied mathematicians look into the formulation, study, and use of mathematical models in science, engineering, business, and other areas of mathematical practice. Pure mathematics is mathematics that studies entirely abstract concepts. From the eighteenth century onwards, this was a recognized category of mathematical activity, sometimes characterized as speculative mathematics, and at variance with the trend towards meeting the needs of navigation, astronomy, physics, economics, engineering, and other applications. Another insightful view put forth is that pure mathematics is not necessarily applied mathematics: it is possible to study abstract entities with respect to their intrinsic nature, and not be concerned with how they manifest in the real world. Even though the pure and applied viewpoints are distinct philosophical positions, in practice there is much overlap in the activity of pure and applied mathematicians. To develop accurate models for describing the real world, many applied mathematicians draw on tools and techniques that are often considered to be "pure" mathematics. On the other hand, many pure mathematicians draw on natural and social phenomena as inspiration for their abstract research. Many professional mathematicians also engage in the teaching of mathematics. Duties may include: - teaching university mathematics courses; - supervising undergraduate and graduate research; and - serving on academic committees. Many careers in mathematics outside of universities involve consulting. For instance, actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or loss of property. Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk. Using their broad knowledge, actuaries help design and price insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies in a manner which will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis. As another example, mathematical finance will derive and extend the mathematical or numerical models without necessarily establishing a link to financial theory, taking observed market prices as input. Mathematical consistency is required, not compatibility with economic theory. Thus, for example, while a financial economist might study the structural reasons why a company may have a certain share price, a financial mathematician may take the share price as a given, and attempt to use stochastic calculus to obtain the corresponding value of derivatives of the stock (see: Valuation of options; Financial modeling). According to the Dictionary of Occupational Titles occupations in mathematics include the following. - Operations-Research Analyst - Mathematical Statistician - Mathematical Technician - Applied Statistician - Weight Analyst Quotations about mathematicians \|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Mathematician\| The following are quotations about mathematicians, or by mathematicians. - A mathematician is a device for turning coffee into theorems. - Die Mathematiker sind eine Art Franzosen; redet man mit ihnen, so übersetzen sie es in ihre Sprache, und dann ist es alsobald ganz etwas anderes. (Mathematicians are [like] a sort of Frenchmen; if you talk to them, they translate it into their own language, and then it is immediately something quite different.) - Each generation has its few great mathematicians...and [the others'] research harms no one. - —Alfred W. Adler (1930- ), "Mathematics and Creativity" - In short, I never yet encountered the mere mathematician who could be trusted out of equal roots, or one who did not clandestinely hold it as a point of his faith that x squared + px was absolutely and unconditionally equal to q. Say to one of these gentlemen, by way of experiment, if you please, that you believe occasions may occur where x squared + px is not altogether equal to q, and, having made him understand what you mean, get out of his reach as speedily as convenient, for, beyond doubt, he will endeavor to knock you down. - —Edgar Allan Poe, The purloined letter - A mathematician, like a painter or poet, is a maker of patterns. If his patterns are more permanent than theirs, it is because they are made with ideas. - —G. H. Hardy, A Mathematician's Apology - Some of you may have met mathematicians and wondered how they got that way. - It is impossible to be a mathematician without being a poet in soul. - There are two ways to do great mathematics. The first is to be smarter than everybody else. The second way is to be stupider than everybody else—but persistent. - Mathematics is the queen of the sciences and arithmetic the queen of mathematics. Prizes in mathematics There is no Nobel Prize in mathematics, though sometimes mathematicians have won the Nobel Prize in a different field, such as economics. Prominent prizes in mathematics include the Abel Prize, the Chern Medal, the Fields Medal, the Gauss Prize, the Nemmers Prize, the Balzan Prize, the Crafoord Prize, the Shaw Prize, the Steele Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Schock Prize, and the Nevanlinna Prize. The American Mathematical Society, Association for Women in Mathematics, and other mathematical societies offer several prizes aimed at increasing the representation of women and minorities in the future of mathematics. Several well known mathematicians have written autobiographies in part to explain to a general audience what it is about mathematics that has made them want to devote their lives to its study. These provide some of the best glimpses into what it means to be a mathematician. The following list contains some works that are not autobiographies, but rather essays on mathematics and mathematicians with strong autobiographical elements. - The Book of My Life - Girolamo Cardano - A Mathematician's Apology - G.H. Hardy - A Mathematician's Miscellany (republished as Littlewood's miscellany) - J. E. Littlewood - I Am a Mathematician - Norbert Wiener - I want to be a Mathematician - Paul R. Halmos - Adventures of a Mathematician - Stanislaw Ulam - Enigmas of Chance - Mark Kac - Random Curves - Neal Koblitz - Love & Math - Edward Frenkel - Mathematics without apologies - Michael Harris - Lists of mathematicians - Human computer - Mathematical joke - A Mathematician's Apology - Men of Mathematics (book) - Mental calculator - Boyer (1991), A History of Mathematics, p. 43 - (Boyer 1991, "Ionia and the Pythagoreans" p. 49) - Ecclesiastical History,Bk VI: Chap. 15 - Abattouy, M., Renn, J. & Weinig, P., 2001. Transmission as Transformation: The Translation Movements in the Medieval East and West in a Comparative Perspective. Science in Context, 14(1-2), 1-12. - Röhrs, "The Classical Idea of the University," Tradition and Reform of the University under an International Perspective p.20 - Rüegg, "Themes", A History of the University in Europe, Vol. III, p.5-6 - Rüegg, "Themes", A History of the University in Europe, Vol. III, p.12 - Rüegg, "Themes", A History of the University in Europe, Vol. III, p.13 - Rüegg, "Themes", A History of the University in Europe, Vol. III, p.16 - Rüegg, "Themes", A History of the University in Europe, Vol. III, p.17-18 - Rüegg, "Themes", A History of the University in Europe, Vol. III, p.31 - See for example titles of works by Thomas Simpson from the mid-18th century: Essays on Several Curious and Useful Subjects in Speculative and Mixed Mathematicks, Miscellaneous Tracts on Some Curious and Very Interesting Subjects in Mechanics, Physical Astronomy and Speculative Mathematics. - Andy Magid, Letter from the Editor, in Notices of the AMS, November 2005, American Mathematical Society, p.1173. - "020 OCCUPATIONS IN MATHEMATICS". Dictionary Of Occupational Titles. Retrieved 2013-01-20. - "Biography of Alfréd Rényi". History.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk. Retrieved 2012-08-17. - Maximen und Reflexionen, Sechste Abtheilung cited in Moritz, Robert Edouard (1958) , On Mathematics / A Collection of Witty, Profound, Amusing Passages about Mathematics and Mathematicians, Dover, p. 123, ISBN 0-486-20489-8 - Alfred Adler, "Mathematics and Creativity," The New Yorker, 1972, reprinted in Timothy Ferris, ed., The World Treasury of Physics, Astronomy, and Mathematics, Back Bay Books, reprint, June 30, 1993, p, 435. - Sartorius von Waltershausen: Gauss zum Gedachtniss. (Leipzig, 1856), p. 79 cited in Moritz, Robert Edouard (1958) , On Mathematics / A Collection of Witty, Profound, Amusing Passages about Mathematics and Mathematicians, Dover, p. 271, ISBN 0-486-20489-8 - Cardano, Girolamo (2002), The Book of My Life (De Vita Propria Liber), The New York Review of Books, ISBN 1-59017-016-4 - Hardy 1992 - Littlewood, J. E. (1990) [Originally A Mathematician's Miscellany published in 1953], Béla Bollobás, ed., Littlewood's miscellany, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-33702 X - Wiener, Norbert (1956), I Am a Mathematician / The Later Life of a Prodigy, The M.I.T. Press, ISBN 0-262-73007-3 - Ulam, S. M. (1976), Adventures of a Mathematician, Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0-684-14391-7 - Kac, Mark (1987), Enigmas of Chance / An Autobiography, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-05986-7 - Harris, Michael (2015), Mathematics without apologies / portrait of a problematic vocation, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-15423-7 - Krantz, Steven G. (2012), A Mathematician comes of age, The Mathematical Association of America, ISBN 978-0-88385-578-2 \|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Mathematicians\| \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mathematicians.\| - Occupational Outlook: Mathematicians. Information on the occupation of mathematician from the US Department of Labor. - Sloan Career Cornerstone Center: Careers in Mathematics. Although US-centric, a useful resource for anyone interested in a career as a mathematician. Learn what mathematicians do on a daily basis, where they work, how much they earn, and more. - The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. A comprehensive list of detailed biographies. - The Mathematics Genealogy Project. Allows to follow the succession of thesis advisors for most mathematicians, living or dead. - Weisstein, Eric W. "Unsolved Problems". MathWorld. - Middle School Mathematician Project Short biographies of select mathematicians assembled by middle school students. - Career Information for Students of Math and Aspiring Mathematicians from MathMajor
The terrestrial LiDAR in a few words The LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) technology appeared in the 1960s. It uses electromagnetic waves pulses emitted by a laser in the visible or infrared spectrum. It is used in many fields, among which, for geostructures and associated challenges, to carry out rapid and precise digital 3D surveys of: cavities, underground developments, tunnels, rock fronts, civil engineering structures. Three types of terrestrial laser scanner are currently available: The “time-of-flight” or pulse scanner. This type of instrument determines the scanner-object distance by measuring the time between the transmitted pulse and the received one. The “phase-shift” laser scanner. In this case, the scanner-object distance is determined by comparing the phases of the waves emitted by the scanner towards the object and the phases of the returning waves using a digital phasemeter. The “hybrid” laser scanner. This latter uses the “Wave form Digitizer” (WFD) technology which mixes both previous ones. Working illustrations of the laser scanners types (Hiremagalur et al., 2007): top: phase-shift scanner; bottom: time-of-flight scanner The scanner is a movable measurement device, it is autonomous in energy and might be compatible with remote management and data transfer technologies. Field deployment is quite easy and quick, even if the device can weigh up to twenty kilograms for some equipment. Before a field survey, it is important to find open positions (called stations) with a viewing angle as much as possible in front of the object to be digitized, then to configure the device in an ad-hoc manner. Should successive 3D surveys be performed for periodic monitoring, the position of the stations of the first survey must be marked and recorded with a centimeter-resolution GNSS receiver. The objective is to guarantee the same characteristics and the same viewing angles between each survey by performing them strictly in the same places in order to compare the same 3D point clouds. The duration of the measurement cycle depends on the device (its range) and the distance from the target. In-situ installation and data digitization are quickly done: the installation takes at most half an hour. The duration of the measurement for a station is variable depending on the device used, the implementation context and the settings (angular resolution, frequency, taking pictures, etc.). However, to digitize an object with good accuracy, to cover the entire scene and to avoid possible mask effects, several stations are generally necessary. Depending on the scanner used, its configuration and the distance from the object to be scanned, the accuracy may vary from millimeter to centimeter. Which results for the ground and underground hazards? The first result of a LiDAR survey is a 3D point cloud (or several point clouds performed from several stations put together), from which a precise and detailed digital elevation model (DEM) can be generated. This DEM enables to reconstruct the precise morphology of the studied site. It can be the starting point for other analyzes, e.g. to highlight mass movements by comparison of successive DEMs, to characterize the displacements, to estimate the displaced volumes, or to carry out other types of spatial analyzes. These applications are based on post-processing operations which can quickly become cumbersome and complex. Indeed, it is not uncommon to work with clouds of tens of millions of points that can correspond to tens of gigabytes of data. In addition a good knowledge of the software and a good expertise of the results are necessary to get familiar with data processing. Range and complementarity of tools available at Ineris Ineris has two terrestrial scanners which can be used together, but also for their own use: A tripod-fixed long-range “time-of-flight” scanner (up to 4-km range in good weather conditions), enabling to be relatively far from the observation area (e.g. monitoring a mountain slope from the opposite slope) while keeping a centimeter or even a millimeter precision. Because of its weight, a lighter short-range scanner is rather used for too cramped or steep places. A tripod-fixed short-range “phase-shift” scanner (maximum 300-m range), mainly used underground. Its light weight and intuitive configuration make it a very simple tool. It is then used in addition to the long-range scanner, as it is easier to go closer to the interest area. Ineris also has a mobile scanner. It is a light manually very-short-range rotary scanner (up to 30 m indoors, 15 m outdoors), which allows to wander in the area to be scanned. Ineris also has a suite of LiDAR data processing tools and software. In addition, the 3D visualization module available in the e.cenaris web-monitoring solution allows interactive visualization of point clouds and of other results from LiDAR surveys. ⇒ FP: The 3D laser scanner at the service of geotechnical expertise ⇒ Report: Review of RADAR and LIDAR technologies on the market ⇒ News: Acquisition of a latest-generation 3D long-range laser scanner
What is a Joint? • The area where two or more bones articulate (move). • Joints give structure and flexibility to the skeleton. Classification Functional Classifications: 1) Synarthroses: Immovable joints 2) Amphiarthroses: Slightly movable joints 3) Diarthroses: Freely Movable Structural Classifications: 1) Fibrous Joints: Bones are connected by dense fibrous tissue – usu. immovable 2) Cartilaginous Joints: Bones are connected by cartilage (vertebral column, pubic bones) - usu. Slightly movable or immovable 3) Synovial Joints: a joint cavity with fluid allowing highly movable joints. Synovial Joints • Articular Cartilage covers the ends • Fibrous Articular capsule is formed by the synovial membrane • Joint cavity has lubricating synovial fluid • Reinforcing ligaments usually found. Types of Synovial Joints: • Plane Joint: Slipping or gliding movement between bones (wrist/ankle) 2) Hinge Joint: Motion on a single plane (elbow) 3) Pivot Joint: Movement of a bone along its longitudinal axis (radius, atlas/axis “no”) Types of Synovial Joints 4) Condyloid Joint: Oval surfaces (concave/convex) on two bones match (metacarpal/phalange joint-knuckle) Types of Synovial Joints 5) Saddle Joint: concave/convex surfaces with greater range of movement (carpo-metacarpal joint of your thumb) 6) Ball and Socket Joint: The head of a bone fits into a cuplike socket (femur/acetabulum) JOINTS GONE BAD • Arthritis: (Arth=Joint itis=Inflammation) Disease that causes pain, stiffness, and swelling of a joint. 1 out of 7 Americans Can be caused by bacterial infection or genetic Synovial membranes thicken, less fluid, more bone friction Three types of Arthritis • Osteoarthritis (OA): chronic. Cartilage wears out between bones, usu. causes bone spurs • Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): chronic. An autoimmune disorder where the body destroys its own tissue 3) Gouty Arthritis (Gout): Uric acid accumulates in the blood and is deposited as needle-shaped crystals in the joints. Very painful and can cause joints to fuse. Gout Crystals Osteoporosis • Loss in bone mass • Leads to thin, brittle bones • A decrease in estrogen can cause it • Poor diet, smoking, and lack of vitamin D also causes
A new study, said to be the first of its kind, reveals that babies begin learning the distinctive sounds of their native language while in utero. Researchers from Pacific Lutheran University in Washington State have found that infants show interest in the vowels of their native language only hours after being born. The study relied on data from 40 infants in the US and another 40 in Sweden, all ranging from seven to 75 hours old. Newborns were tested on two sets of vowel sounds—17 native language sounds and 17 foreign sounds. Researchers measured the babies’ interest by how long they sucked a pacifier connected to a computer. When babies sucked on the pacifier, they heard a vowel sound until they paused. Sucking again produced a new sound.In both countries, babies listening to foreign sounds sucked pacifiers more compared to those listening to their native tongue. “These little ones had been listening to their mother’s voice in the womb, and particularly her vowels for ten weeks,” explains coauthor Patricia Kuhl. “The mother has first dibs on influencing the child’s brain.” “The fact that the infants can learn the vowels in utero means they are putting some pretty sophisticated brain centers to work, even before birth,” she adds. “We can’t waste early curiosity.” The findings, announced Wednesday, are set to be published in a future edition of the journal Acta Paediatrica. Babycentre.uk advises moms-to-be to talk and sing to their baby bump, which will help bonding, and after birth, your newborn will pay more attention to your voice than others.
Meiosis \| Cell division \| Biology (article) Whereas mitosis occurs in somatic tissue and results in tow identical daughter cells, meiosis occurs in gametocytes (germ cells) and results in up to four nonidentical sex cells (gametes). Meiosis shares some likenesses with mitosis. In both processes, for example, the genetic material must be duplicated, chromatin is condensed to form chromosomes and microtubules emanating from centrioles are involved in dividing genetic material. However, the MCAT tends to ask regarding the differences between these two processes. In contrast to mitosis, which consists of one round of replication and division, meiosis consists of one round of replication pursued by two rounds of division, as shown in Figure 2.5. Meiosis I consequences in homologous chromosomes being isolated, generating haploid daughter cells; this is studied/known as a reductional division. Meiosis II similar to mitosis, in that it results in the segregation of sister chromatids and is known as equational division. Note that crossing over occurs amidst homologous chromosomes and not between sister chromatids of the same chromosome⎯the latter are identical, so crossing over would not produce any change. Those chromatids included are left with a changed but structurally complete set of genes. Such genetic recombination can unlink joined genes, thereby increasing the variety of genetic combinations that can be produced via gametogenesis. Linkage refers to the trend for genes to be hereditary together; genes that are found further from each other physically are fewer likely to be inherited together, and more likely to undergo crossing over relative to each other. Thus, as opposed to asexual reproduction, which produces identical offspring, sexual reproduction provides the advantage of great genetic diversity, which is believed to increase the mastery of a family to evolve and adapt to a changing environment. - 2n → 2n - Occurs in all separating cells - Homologous chromosomes do not pair - No crossing over - 2n → n - Occurs in sex cells only - Homologous chromosomes align on the opposite side of the metaphase plate - Crossing over can occur
Table of Contents What is Ebola virus disease? Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a rare but serious disease caused by infection of the Ebola virus. There are five known strains of the virus. Four of them affect people. One affects only nonhuman primates (monkeys, gorillas, and chimpanzees) and pigs. EVD was first identified in 1976 near the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire). In 2014, large outbreaks occurred in the West African countries of Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there were four cases in the United States. Eleven people were treated and one person died. Since then, several ongoing cases have been reported in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Symptoms of Ebola virus disease Symptoms of EVD often begin 8 to 10 days after a person is infected with the virus. The virus cannot be spread to another person until symptoms appear. Early symptoms can include: - muscle pain - sore throat Later symptoms can include: - stomach pain - unexplained bruising or bleeding, such as a bloody nose, bloodshot eyes, or bloody urine or diarrhea What causes Ebola virus disease? The exact cause of EVD is unknown. Scientists believe that it is animal-borne and most likely comes from bats, which transmit the Ebola virus to other animals and humans. There is no proof that mosquitos or other insects can transmit the virus. Once infected, a person can spread the virus to other people. The Ebola virus is not as contagious as common viruses, such as colds or the flu. It is not spread through air, water, or food. The Ebola virus is spread through direct contact with: - Blood of a person infected with the virus. - Body fluids, such as breast milk, stool, saliva, semen, sweat, urine, or vomit, of a person infected with the virus. - Objects, such as needles or syringes, that are contaminated with the virus. - Animals, such as bats and primates, that are infected with the virus. Direct contact means that a person’s eye, mouth, nose, or broken skin touches contaminated blood, fluids, or an object. Broken skin may be a cut, scratch, scrape, or open wound. For most people, the risk of being infected with the Ebola virus is extremely low. The risk increases if you: - Travel to an area where known EVD outbreaks have occurred. - Help take care of someone infected with the virus. - Have direct contact with a person infected with the virus. Even an infected dead body can still spread the virus. How is Ebola virus disease diagnosed? Tell your doctor about your symptoms and risk factors (for example, all recent travel). You must have symptoms of EVD and have had possible exposure to EVD in order to be diagnosed with it. Your doctor can do a blood test to confirm if you have been infected. If you are diagnosed with EVD, you will be put in isolation right away to prevent the virus from spreading. Can Ebola virus disease be prevented or avoided? Currently, there is no vaccine to protect against the Ebola virus. However, scientists are working on 2 vaccines that may be available in the future. It is rare for people in the United States or other developed countries to get infected. You can help lower your risk of infection by doing the following: - Avoid traveling to areas where known EVD outbreaks have occurred. - Do not touch the blood or body fluids of a person who may be infected with the virus. - Do not touch the body of a person who has died from EVD. - Do not touch items that may be contaminated with the virus. People who work in health care settings should be extra cautious around those who are infected or at risk of being infected with the Ebola virus. Call your doctor right away if you are at increased risk of being infected and you have symptoms of EVD. Avoid contact with other people until you get medical care. Ebola virus disease treatment Currently, there is no medicine to treat EVD. Some experimental medicines are being tested. The main goal of treatment is to manage your symptoms. Options may include: - Getting fluids to prevent dehydration. - Regulating and replacing salts and other chemicals in the body. - Maintaining blood pressure. - Taking medicine to relieve fever, diarrhea, nausea, and pain. - Getting oxygen. - Treating other infections. Close supervision and care by health care professionals is very important. A patient with EVD may need intensive care unit (ICU) services. Living with Ebola virus disease Overall, EVD leads to death in about half of people who become infected. People who recover from EVD may still be contagious. The Ebola virus can remain in certain body fluids for some time. For example, men can spread the virus through their semen for up to 3 months after their symptoms first appear. They should not have sex, including oral sex, during this time. The virus also can remain in breast milk, amniotic fluid, eye fluid, and spinal column fluid. Ebola survivors may have lasting side effects from the virus. These could include fatigue, muscle aches, stomach pain, and eye problems. Questions to ask your doctor - How do I know if my symptoms are related to Ebola virus disease? - How can I prevent getting infected with the virus if I have to travel to a place with known EVD outbreaks? - What treatment options are best for me? - How long am I contagious with the virus? - Once I have EVD, will I always have it or can I get it again? Copyright © American Academy of Family Physicians This information provides a general overview and may not apply to everyone. Talk to your family doctor to find out if this information applies to you and to get more information on this subject.
dotchart() function in R Language is used to create a dot chart of the specified data. A dot chart is defined as a plot which is used to draw a Cleveland dot plot. dotchart(x, labels = NULL, groups = NULL, gcolor = par(“fg”), color = par(“fg”)) x: it is defined as numeric vector or matrix labels: a vector of labels for each point. groups: a grouping variable indicating how the elements of x are grouped. gcolor: color to be used for group labels and values. color: the color(s) to be used for points and labels.
This course will give an introduction to Romance-based creole languages, for instance French-based Haitian Creole and Tayo, Portuguese-based Cape Verdean Creole varieties and Korlai, and Spanish-based Palenquero and Chabacano Creole varieties. We will place these Romance-based creoles both into a world-wide perspective of other-based creole languages and non-creole languages. The data will come from the Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures (Michaelis et al. 2013). We will try to determine which role the contributing languages, the substrates (i.e. the different languages of the slaves or laborers) and the lexifiers (i.e. the dialectal and nonstandard varieties of the colonial Romance languages), play in the process of creolization. 08:30 to 09:45
You don’t need fancy toys to engage your kids or encourage their STEM skills while they’re at home. They can play and learn with just about anything, even rocks. If you’re outside, challenge your kiddos to find between five and ten decent sized rocks. Then ask them to stack them up. Whenever I ask my kids to do this, I’m amazed at how they extend the activity on their own. After doing a basic “quick stack,” they begin playing on their own, inventing new games, and having a ton of fun with just a couple of rocks. How Stacking Rocks Grows STEM Skills Stacking rocks is simple. All you need are some rocks and a surface to stack them on. But, while they work, they’ll be practicing these five important STEM skills. You can’t just randomly place one rock on top of another and expect your tower to stay strong. Instead, you’ve got to plan out your stack, and think about how to make it balance. As your child stacks rocks, they will be learning that: - Smaller rocks work best on top of bigger rocks - The flat side of angled rocks fits best on flat surfaces - Building is easier on a flat surface - You can increase balance by a change in placement These skills transfer to other building materials as well! Observation is using your senses to gather information. It’s an important part of STEM! While stacking rocks, your child must really examine each rock. This helps them figure out where to place it on the stack. During this time, they’re also using their observations to make comparisons, even if they don’t vocalize them. As they look at the shape and size of each rock, they’re using the power of observation. They’re noticing small details that might otherwise go unnoticed. But more importantly, they are gathering information about what they’re working with and putting that information to use. 3. Creative Thinking Stacking rocks can be boring. But, if you sprinkle in a little creative thinking, it suddenly becomes much more fun. Once your child has successfully stacked the rocks in a stack that stays put for at least a minute or two, ask them if there’s anything else they can do with them. If they’re having a little trouble thinking of anything, you can ask them to try one of the following. Each will require them to think creatively about what they have, and how to use the materials. - Build a house - Create the tallest tower that you can - Start building on a different surface - Build a rock monster - Create pillars from two large rocks and build on top of those - Stack your rocks while blindfolded, relying on the sense of touch Creative thinking inspires kids to think outside of the box and try different things. It’s a really important soft skill! 4. Geology Skills The S part of STEM is for science. Geology is a branch of science, so stacking rocks is a great way to learn more about rocks. What kind of rocks do you have in your area? You can talk to your child about some basic geology in your locale. To let your child learn more, have her: - Sort the rocks before stacking - Look for patterns in rocks - Describe the color of each rock - Look for common speckles or other identifying features - Drop a rock and see if it fractures - Use one rock to scratch another to test hardness You never know, you may discover that your child really enjoys learning about rocks and other geological topics. Are there any other materials around your child can stack? Ask your child, and stand back and let their minds get to work. They may try something and realize it doesn’t work. That’s great! Recognizing what doesn’t work is an essential part of learning what will. Don’t micromanage this time of inquiry. Don’t say “I told you so” when their stack of dandelion fluff comes toppling over. You want your child to take risks and try new things, not to be so afraid of failure that they never try. Failure is not the end of the world. It’s only one way that didn’t work. Now they can try to think of something else that does. As an Added Bonus… In addition to practicing STEM skills, your child will be connecting with nature. They’ll be working on a task that isn’t screen oriented. They have to move their bodies to gather and stack rocks. It’s a very grounding experience, and I’ve found it’s very calming for my kids. If we’re waiting outside and my kids are getting antsy, I ask them to stack rocks. It’s an activity they do randomly on walks, as we’re resting. Stacking rocks really is educational, and can be a lot of fun!
What age should kids learn about money? That’s a difficult question because kids learning about money isn’t the same as, say, potty training. Kids continue to learn about money throughout their childhoods. However, having said that, your kids can begin to learn about money in the early preschool years and continue on from there. How Preschool Kids Learn about Money At this age, kids are watching you closely so set a good example. For instance, when you go to a grocery store, don’t reward your kids with a treat every time. If you do, they start to expect that you will just buy things for them. Instead, create buy, spend, and save jars. If you want to pay them an allowance for chores, now is the time to start. You can set up a chore chart, and pay them for their chores. When you pay them, you can help them separate their money into the three jars. Let them use their spend money for little things they want to buy. This is also a good time to get them money-related toys like play cash registers so they can get used to the concept of the different values of our coins and bills, spending money to buy something, not having enough money, and making change. Play store and grocery shopping with them frequently. How Elementary Kids Learn about Money Once your children learn the rudimentaries about money, it’s time to teach them more complex lessons. The grocery store is a great place to teach these lessons. You can teach about buying generics, price comparing different sizes of the same product, and the value of using coupons. Kids this age will be earning more than they did as preschoolers, so you can also help them save for a large goal like an expensive Lego set they want to buy. You should also teach them that once the money is spent, it’s gone. Then, they need to work hard to earn more to save and spend all over again. How Middle School Kids Learn about Money At this age, kids are going to want to spend, spend, spend. This is the time to teach them, if you haven’t already, that you won’t buy everything they want. Just because your daughter wants new jeans when she already has enough doesn’t mean you’ll buy them. She can save her money and buy them if she really wants them. You should also teach them about the power of compound interest. This helps them realize that if they delay spending today, compounding interest can help them have more money later. How High School Kids Learn about Money Now is the time when all your hard work teaching your kids about money comes to fruition. Rather than buying or giving your child a car, have them save for at least half of the price of a car. Also, teach your kids about credit cards, how to use them responsibly, and how to avoid accruing debt. Be very clear how much you can afford to pay for their upcoming college. Then, they can choose a college that is affordable, or choose one that costs more than you can afford. However, help them understand how accruing student loan debt can make it harder to achieve their goals in adulthood. Throughout your child’s life, you should be teaching them money lessons. As they age, these financial lessons should become more specific. If you’ve done your job well, by the time they leave home, they’ll be able to make smart money decisions. However, if your child makes foolish money decisions, know that you’ve laid the ground work so they know how to improve their financial situation should they need to.
TEACHER – CHAPTER 3: “CONSTRUCTION” LESSON OVERVIEW AND AIMS, FOR CHAPTER 3 – “CONSTRUCTION” MORE DETAILED INFO CAN BE FOUND IN THE DOWNLOAD BELOW: To use Minecraft to show innovative solutions to a multifunctional urban structure. To develop skills in collaboration. To gain an understanding of the professions that work together to create a complete construction. To give an understanding of the factors taken into account, and the criteria that must be met, when creating a new urban space. In this chapter, the groups visit a construction site where they will produce a building from scratch. The work in Minecraft is meant to reflect, as far as possible, the processes that a real construction project would undergo. In order to illustrate this working procedure, the students can find inspiration at the site goconstruct.org, where they can see the various roles and phases that are involved in the creation of a building. The teacher simplifies these phases to match a Minecraft context, and introduces the five stages that the group must use as the framework for their production. - Design and planning (off game) - Basic structure When these have been described, the class is introduced to three constraints that they must take account of when they begin: - The building must take into account people on street level and provide attractive facilities such as shops, entertainment facilities and play areas. - The building must provide the framework for an attractive working environment which allows for a flexible workspace. - The building must make use of its height, and must have at least five storeys.
Digestion is a form of catabolism: process of breaking food into its different nutrients and then the nutrients are used by the body for growth, energy and repair of cellular structures (Jerry, 2016). Jerry (2016) mentioned that this process occur in the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), a long, connected, tubular structure that starts with the mouth and ends with the anus. Digestion, the chemical and mechanical break down of food, happen mainly in the lumen of the gut (Seeley, Stephens, & Tate, 2006). The food is propelled forward within the system, change by enzymes and hormones into usable particles and absorbed along the way (Seeley et al., 2006). Seeley et al. (2006) concluded that the undigested part of the food is moved through the digestive tract and eliminated through the anus. There are six types of processes which are ingestion, propulsion, chemical digestion, segmentation, absorption and defecation (refer to Figure 1 in Appendix 1).Ingestion is simply taking food into the digestive tract, usually via the mouth (Marieb & Hoehn, 2014). Food cannot pass through the cell membranes because it consists of the large molecules, therefore, the teeth, saliva, and tongue play a main roles in mastication, in order to break the food into small pieces (Avissar, Choi, DeSaix, Jurukovski, Wise, & Rye, n.d.). Tortora and Derrickson (2010) stated that chewing or mastication breaks up food into small particles to increase the surface area for digestion and absorption. Saliva is necessary to soften food for swallowing (Scanlon & Sanders, 2007). Scanlon and Sanders (2007) reported that starch molecules can be broken down by digestive enzyme in saliva, which is salivary amylase, into glucose molecules. According to Kong and Singh (2008), the food particles is then mixed with saliva containing amylase to form a swallow-able bolus for transport through esophagus.The second process in digestive system is propulsion. According to Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2004), “propulsion is the movement of food from one end of the digestive tract to the other” (p. 860). In other words, it helps to propels food through the alimentary canal, includes swallowing, and peristalsis (Marieb & Hoehn, 2014). Seeley et al. (2006) mentioned that peristalsis is in charge for moving material via most of the digestive tract. Scanlon & Sanders (2007) claimed that peristalsis of the esophagus make sure the food move in one direction and gets to the stomach no matter the body is in what positions. As Seeley et al. (2006) explained, muscular contractions occur in peristaltic waves, consisting of a wave of relaxation of the circular muscles, which forms a leading wave of distention in front of the bolus, followed by a wave of strong contraction of the circular muscles behind the bolus, which forces the bolus along the digestive tube (pp. 860-861). Chemical digestion is the enzyme-mediated, hydrolysis process that breaks down large macro-nutrients into smaller molecules (Martinez, 2017). According to Seeley, Stephens, and Tate (2006), digestive enzymes are produced either by exocrine glands in the small intestine and stomach. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions but are not modify in the process (Martinez, 2017). Chandler (2017) explained that chemical digestion starts in the mouth with salivary amylase in saliva splitting complex carbohydrates into simple carbohydrates. Besides, Chandler (2017) stated that the enzymes and acid in the stomach continue chemical digestion, but the bulk of chemical digestion occur in the small intestine. The pancreas secretes an extremely strong digestive cocktail known as pancreatic juice, which has the ability to digest lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids (Chandler, 2017). Seeley et al. (2006) concluded that food has been reduced to its chemical building blocks—fatty acids, amino acids, monosaccharides and nucleotides by the time it left the duodenum.Segmentation is an automatic process that helps the digestion and absorption in small intestine (Diagram Group, 2005). Seeley, Stephens and Tate (2006) states that short segments of intestine contract and relax alternately along the intestine in segmental contractions. The stomach act as the food storage through expanding rugae to hold the undigested food. (Seeley et al., 2006). According to Kong and Singh (2008), the secretion of gastric juice and stomach contraction stimulate the mixing and homogenizing function which grind and crush foods particle in the stomach. The ingested food in the stomach is .mixed with the secretions of the stomach glands to form chyme by gentle mixing waves which starts a few minutes after the food enters the stomach, repeating gradually in every 15 to 25 seconds (Chamley et al., 2005). The mixing waves are peristaltic-like contractions mixing the ingested food with the secretions of the stomach from the body towards the pyloric sphincter (Chamley et al., 2005). Food is broken apart during digestion and moved from the gastrointestinal tract into circulation and on to the cells (Insel, Turner, & Ross, 2010). Insel et al., (2010) states that many of the nutrients, minerals, vitamins and water do not need to be digested before they are absorbed however the energy-yielding nutrients such as carbohydrate, fat, and protein are too huge to be absorbed and should be digested first (Seeley, Stephens, & Tate, 2006). Seeley et al. (2006) further described that the stomach works as an intermediate between the behavioural act of eating and the physiological events of digestion and absorption in the intestine. Food has been processed into a thick liquid called chyme by the time it leaves the stomach (The Nemours Foundation, n.d.). Integrated signals and feedback loops between the intestine and stomach regulate the rate at which chyme enters the duodenum and ensures that the intestine is not overwhelmed (Seeley et al., 2006). Chyme is kept by a muscular tube called Pylorus in the stomach until it reaches the right consistency to pass into the small intestine where digestion of food continues so the body can absorb the nutrients into the bloodstream (The Nemours Foundation, n.d.).Nagel (2000) stated that the chyme compacted into faeces as water is absorbed gradually during the time it passes through the large intestine by peristalsis. The peristaltic movement is slow and normally needs about 12 to 24 hours for material to travel the along of the organ (Insel, Ross, McMahon, & Bernstein, 2010). Rectum is a place where faeces are stored while anus is a sphincter that controlling defecation (Keshav, 2004). The rectal wall stretches as soon as the powerful peristaltic contractions push the faeces from the sigmoid colon into the rectum, causing the defecation reflex to be initiated (Sullivan, 2004). According to Sullivan (2004), the defecation reflex causes the first sphincter at the beginning of the canal to open, so the faeces is able to enter the anal canal while the outer sphincter is controlled voluntarily and can stay closed. Sullivan explained that, at this moment, local nerves send a signal to the brain regarding the need to defecate. Once this nerve receive the signals to defecate, the walls of the sigmoid colon and rectum contracts and the anal sphincters relaxes to allow the elimination of faeces through the anus, mentioned by Nagel.
At All Saints’ Academy, we accept the fundamental principle that literacy is the key to improving learning and raising standards; literacy enables students to gain access to the curriculum, read for information and pleasure, and to communicate effectively. Poor levels of literacy impact negatively on what students can do and how they see themselves. At All Saints’ Academy, all teachers share responsibility for the teaching of literacy. Literate secondary students should: - read and write with confidence, fluency and understanding - use their skills in speaking and listening to explore, articulate and extend their understanding of texts - be able to orchestrate a full range of reading cues (phonic, graphic, syntactic, contextual) to monitor their reading and correct their own mistakes - understand the sound and spelling system and use this to read and spell accurately - have an interest in words, their usage and meanings and an extensive vocabulary used appropriately for different purposes - understand the conventions of different text types and be able to use these conventions confidently as readers and writers - plan, draft, revise and edit their own writing from notes to a finished form; be able to use a variety of means including ICT to produce texts for different audiences - have an extended technical vocabulary – including subject specific vocabulary – with which to discuss and evaluate their reading and writing - read and write with enjoyment and discrimination - through reading and writing develop their powers of imagination, critical awareness and thinking - be able to research independently and make notes from a variety of sources, including the Internet, libraries, and other sources. - use appropriate reading strategies to extract particular information, e.g. highlighting, scanning - use talk to question, hypothesize, speculate, evaluate, solve problems and develop thinking about complex issues and ideas - be able to write cohesively in an increasingly sophisticated style, using varied punctuation, sentence structures, paragraphs and technical devices - adapt writing to suit audience and purpose 1. To adopt a whole-school approach to literacy across the curriculum. 2. To enable all students to reach their potential in the key literacy skills of reading, writing, speaking and listening. 3. To support the development of literacy skills throughout the curriculum 4. To raise staff awareness of key literacy strategies through working party discussions, INSET and the dissemination of good classroom practice 5. To encourage staff to take responsibility for the development of literacy in their subject areas through the inclusion of appropriate schemes of work and lesson planning 6. To support the development of literacy through the deployment of a range of resources in the school e.g. Library, ICT suites etc 7. To identify specific roles and responsibilities within the school with regard to the development of literacy work 8. To establish procedures for monitoring literacy across the curriculum 1. Across the whole curriculum teachers will provide activities for students to: - read and follow written instructions - read to explore and to develop understanding - learn how to sift, select and take notes from the text - learn how to access their textbook, including format and index - learn how to select from written material, reformulate, question and challenge what they read in textbooks, encyclopaedias, and newspapers or from ICT sources 2. Teachers will provide reading material of high quality, which is up to date, relevant and balanced in its presentation of ethnicity, culture and gender and appropriate for age and ability of the pupils. 3. Opportunities should be created for teachers to refer to students' use of reading in assessments and reports for all curriculum areas. 1. Across the curriculum teachers will provide activities for students to: - use writing to plan and organise - plan, draft, discuss and reflect on their writing, using ICT, where appropriate - write for a range of purposes and audiences - make notes in a variety of formats, e.g. brain storming 2. Teachers will set writing tasks that have clear and immediate purposes are objective driven and which are appropriate for the age and ability of the students concerned. 3. Teachers will teach students how to structure their writing using a variety of sentence structures, paragraphs and a wide range of punctuation, including higher order punctuation e.g. semi- colons, colons and brackets. 4. Where students are asked to write in a particular genre, e.g. a newspaper report, teachers will ensure that pupils are familiar with the appropriate style and conventions. 5. Teachers will correct errors in grammar, punctuation and spelling in line with the school’s assessment policy. 6. We will aim to: - provide good models of particular kinds of writing - provide Frameworks where appropriate - provide dictionaries and teach pupils how to use them - display Key Words in the classroom - teach subject specific vocabulary and spelling - encourage high standards of presentation Speaking and Listening Across the whole curriculum teachers will provide activities for students to: - listen and carry out instructions - explore and develop ideas with others, through their talk - ask questions as well as answer them - work collaboratively with others Roles and Responsibilities All staff : - should ensure that they are familiar with the specific literacy demands of their subject and ensure sufficient coverage of these skills in their lesson planning - should use the agreed strategies in order to teach Writing, Speaking, Listening and Reading skills as outlined in The National Curriculum - should be able to identify a student's literacy strengths and weaknesses and know how to build upon these in order to promote pupil progress - should report on a student's standard of literacy at the Parents’ Evening, as appropriate - should be familiar with the KS3 English Framework objectives for Years 7, 8 and 9 Head of Department The Head of Department should: - ensure that 'subject specific literacy' is clearly identified in schemes of work, and that there is obvious progression through the key stages - seek to find opportunities to liaise with the English Department and the Literacy Co-ordinator to provide continuity - monitor the work of the department with regard to the inclusion of subject specific literacy strategies in lesson planning - encourage models of good practice e.g. modelling and close collaboration between colleagues in order to promote literacy developments - use available assessment data to identify appropriate literacy strategies The Literacy Co-ordinator The Literacy Co-ordinator should: - support departments in the implementation of the school's Literacy Policy - advise the School's KS3 Co-ordinator and Curriculum Committee on literacy issues - co-ordinate KS3 literacy initiatives - liaise with the SENCO about students attaining below level 3 and about the Literacy Progress units (RWI) - help to monitor the impact of the Literacy Policy on standards of literacy The Leadership Group should: - accept overall responsibility for the delivery of the school's Literacy Policy - provide opportunities for staff training about literacy issues to take place on INSET days or during other times - support the Literacy Co-ordinator's literacy initiatives - monitor departments' implementation of the Literacy Policy - be role models in employing literacy strategies in their own teaching - monitor exam and assessment outcomes to ensure that no group is disadvantaged with respect to race, ethnicity or gender. The Special Educational Needs & Disabilities Co-ordinator should: - liaise with the Literacy Co-ordinator about pupils attaining below Level 3 and about the Literacy progress units - communicate with all subject staff about those pupils who have literacy difficulties and give advice on what staff can do to help these pupils in their subject - monitor pupils with literacy difficulties through IEPs and review meetings - be familiar with the KS3 English Framework objectives for Years 7, 8 and 9 The school Librarian should: - provide appropriate resources to support the curriculum - provide appropriate resources to support homework and other curriculum tasks - support staff in teaching pupils how to research independently from a range of sources - support the tutorial reading scheme in Years 7 and 8.

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