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\|To support our last UOI in this semester, “Sharing the planet”, students will learn about how to use natural resources to make colours that can be applied on a cloth. After they make observation on how natural resources can help them to colour the cloth, they will try to make a heart pattern using a tie dye technique. They will cook the natural resources in the kitchen (food technology room) and use the coloured water to dip the cloth and create their own tie dye T-shirt with heart shape on it. Students need to be able to deliver the process of making the colour from the natural resources. The concept used in this project is connection and resources as related concept.
Sleep in one of the most fascinating things about human (and animal) behavior. It is an involuntary function of our body in which we spend hours lying, unresponsive to our environment. The fascination with sleep has been around for thousands of years. Psychology has been exploring the wonders of sleep and dreams for centuries, and what we know about this incredible, day-to-day occurrence is still scarce. Because sleep is all about brain activity, it is still an area of interest for many researchers and doctors. However, what we do know about sleep is that is consists of different cycles. The brain activity during these cycles is different, which helps us understand and characterize brain activity and the effects sleep has on our mental and physical being and health. That is why we’ve decided to take a closer look at the different stages of sleep, how are they characterized and how our brain and body respond to each. The Anatomy of Sleep – How do we fall asleep? In order to understand the stages of sleep, it is important to understand the brain structures involved with sleep; - Hypothalamus – a small region of the brain responsible for numerous bodily functions. Hypothalamus consists of nerve cell groups that serve as the main control center of body temperature, arousal, and sleep. These nerve cells receive necessary information from our eyes, when they are directly exposed to light, and when they’re not. This way, the behavior of sleep is controlled, as well as the circadian rhythms and sleep cycles. To put it simply, when we close our eyes for sleeping, the hypothalamus receives this as an order to control the sleep initiation and cycle. - Thalamus – a small structure within the brain responsible for motor and sensory signals and functions. Thalamus transfers information we receive through sense to the cerebral cortex. Then, the brain processes the information from short- to long-term memory. In regards to sleep, thalamus doesn’t process senses and the information when we sleep. That is why you’re able to dissociate from the real world and enter the world of dreams. When we dream, the thalamus becomes active, responding to the sensations we experience in the dreams. - Brain stem – the base of the brain responsible for the flow of messages between the brain and the rest of the body. The brain stem is also responsible for numerous bodily functions, including swallowing, breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness and of course, being awake and being asleep. The brain stem, together with the hypothalamus, reduces brain activity and promotes sleep. Furthermore, brain stem plays an important role in the REM stage, as it relaxes our muscles and limbs during sleep. - Pineal gland – a small, pea-shaped gland responsible form hormone regulation. The pineal gland is especially famous for its production of melatonin, a hormone responsible for the regulation of sleep patterns. The pineal gland also responds to light exposure and understands that the lack of light (eyes closed) should initiate melatonin production. - Basal forebrain – the front area of the brain responsible for wakefulness and promotion of sleep by the release of adenosine (a chemical that supports sleep drive). - Amygdala – a small set of neurons responsible for processing emotions. The amygdala is especially active during REM sleep, as it helps process memory in regards to previous emotional experiences. Stage of Sleep – Light Sleep (non-REM sleep) Light sleep occurs at the very beginning of the first stage of sleep. It is considered to be a preparatory stage, where the body is starting to calm down, breathing and heart rate slows down and the muscles are starting to relax. Light sleep is also known as the non-REM sleep, and is known to have three stages; - Stage 1 – the brain nerve control center becomes active and recognizes the changes in behavior, especially between wakefulness and sleepiness. During this stage, the brain focuses on the transition between being awake into being sleep. This stage lasts shortly, taking approximately 3% of all of the sleep cycles your body goes through. During this stage, your body is in the so-called wakeful relaxation mode. It is very easy to wake up from this stage and to have your sleep cycle completely interrupted. - Stage 2 – the sleep mode is fully initiated at this point. The brain activity slows down and there is no rapid eye movement. During this stage, the brain activity tends to burst from time to time; this means that the memory is being processed from short-term to long-term memory. This also means that the body has moved from the phase of wakeful relaxation into the phase of sleep. The body is completely relaxed, the limbs and muscles can react to certain external stimuli, in the form of muscle spasm or sudden jerks. - Stage 3 – at this point, you’ve entered sleep and are about to move into a deep sleep. This occurs around 45 minutes into the sleeping phase. The breathing is at this stage stable and regular; however, the blood pressure falls and the pulse is 30% slowed down when compared to the waking rate. The body stops responding to external stimuli and it is difficult to wake up. Stage of Sleep – Deep Sleep Deep sleep occurs 45 to 90 minutes into the sleeping cycle. It is considered to be the most important part of the sleeping cycle. The reason for that lies in the fact that the body recovers completely during the deep sleep. The body is relaxed and ready to accumulate energy for the next day, heal injuries and illnesses and is overall focused on dealing with any damage to the body. Deep sleep is often referred to as slow-wave sleep or delta sleep. Deep sleep may last anywhere between 45 and 90 minutes and often occurs several times during the sleep cycle. The first phase of deep sleep lasts the longest, while each new phase is shorter. Deep sleep intertwines with light sleep in healthy individuals. Usually, deep sleep occurs more in the first half of the night, while light sleep occurs more in the second half of the night. In some individuals, deep sleep doesn’t take place, or it occurs only in its first phase. Lack of deep sleep often leads to sleeping conditions, like insomnia, sleep interruption, sleep apnea, anxiety, depression and overall can affect one’s health negatively. Stage of Sleep – REM (rapid eye movement) Following the light and the deep sleep, REM is the stage of sleep where we go deeper into the state of sleep; so much deeper that we eventually start dreaming. REM is the only stage of sleep when we can dream. During this stage, our eyes move rapidly, and brain activity is incredibly high. The whole body is dissociated from reality, and the experiences/emotions in the dreams now feel real. The body only reacts to the events in the dream and processes them as memory and information. REM is one of the most famous and most interesting stages of sleep. Here are some other interesting characteristics of REM sleep; - The first REM cycle lasts approximately 10 minutes, however, each new REM cycle last progressively longer. - REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movement; the eyes move quickly from left to right under the closed eyelids. It is believed that the eye movement is directly linked to dreaming. - During REM sleep, people experience some of the most vivid dreams. If we wake up directly from the REM sleep, we are able to recall the dreams in great detail. - Compared to the light sleep, during the REM stage our heart rate and blood pressure increase. However, the body temperature falls drastically, and our body is at the state of being almost completely immobile. The legs and arms seem to be paralyzed; this is believed to be a neurological barrier that prevents us from reacting to or acting out or dreams. - During REM sleep our breathing becomes faster and more shallow than it was in the previous sleep stages. - Everything we’ve learned, read, seen, heard or felt is being processed into long-term memory during REM sleep. - Some animals, like giraffes, horses or elephants spend 1 hour daily in REM sleep. Other animals, like cats or ferrets, can spend up to 8 hours daily in REM sleep. Humans, on the other hand, usually get between 1 and 4 hours of REM sleep, if healthy and not suffering from sleeping disorders. - Certain brain regions that control muscle movement are only active during REM sleep. That is why we experience distinct twitches and spasms that can be easily singled out. - When waking up in the middle of REM sleep, it is easy to go back to sleep again. The reason for that lies in the fact that our brain recognizes the need for more sleep, and that the wake-up effect of the REM sleep hasn’t yet been reached. Read More: How Much Deep Sleep Do You Need? How do we go through stages of sleep? We’ve explained the process of falling asleep. However, one cannot help but wonder how is it that we go through a sleep cycle of several hours. How does our body hold such a function for such a long time? Here’s how; - Circadian rhythms – also known as the sleeping pattern, circadian rhythms are the physical, mental and behavioral changes our bodies go through every day. These changes usually refer to light and darkness, or wakefulness and sleep. Because of these changes, our body feels awake or sleepy. Circadian rhythms control the time when you’ll feel sleepy, and when you will feel like waking up, as they synchronize with your daily activities and level of tiredness or restfulness. - Sleep-wake homeostasis – also known as a natural regulation of the balance between sleep and wakefulness. The sleep homeostasis is a reminder to the body that it needs to sleep. The more hours you’re awake, the stronger the sleep homeostasis becomes. This means that, when you fall asleep, you will sleep longer and you’ll be more likely to experience deep sleep phases several times. The importance and beneficial functions of sleep are undeniable. Sleep is surely one of the most interesting, and most mysterious aspect of human and animal life. Just like phones, laptops, and other gadgets, humans and animals also need to recharge in order to perform fully in regards to daily activities and obligations. Our bodies are truly incredible; no wonder scientists have been fascinated by sleeping for hundreds of years now. From Sigmund Freud who was fascinated by sleep in regards to dreaming, to Eugen Aserinsky, who discovered REM sleep, our need to know more about the state of sleep will probably never cease.
Researchers have found a possible explanation for the difficulty in spatial orientation experienced sometimes by elderly people. In the brains of older adults, they detected an unstable activity in an area that is central for spatial navigation. The results are reported in the journal "Current Biology". In the long term, these findings might open up new ways for detecting Alzheimer's disease. To guide us through space in a goal directed manner, the human brain has to process a flood of information, ranging from visual stimuli to cues provided by the muscular system and our sense of balance. Thus, spatial orientation and navigation are among the most complex abilities of the human mind. However, these skills often deteriorate as we grow older, which can severely compromise independence and quality of life. "When you move around an unfamiliar environment, it is perfectly normal to get lost. Yet, this tends to happen more often to older people. So far, we know very little about the underlying neuronal mechanisms of these navigation problems", says first author of the current publication. "We had the hypothesis that so-called grid cells might be implicated. A major part of the navigational processing is done by these cells. They are specialized neurons located in the brain's entorhinal cortex. Therefore, we guessed that deficits in grid cell function might be a cause for problems in navigation." To test this assumption, researchers performed experiments with 41 healthy young and older adults, who were split in two groups: The group of "young adults" consisted of 20 participants aged between 19 and 30 years, whereas the group of "older adults" comprised 21 individuals aged between 63 and 81 years. Both groups included men and women. One of the experiments combined functional brain imaging (fMRI) and virtual reality: The participants had to navigate through a computer-generated scenery while their brain activity patterns were monitored. A second experiment tested the ability for "path integration". In this setup, participants moved along predefined curved paths. At intermediate stops, they had to estimate their distance and orientation relative to their starting point, but without being able to see or pinpoint its location. Since this test was carried out in two versions, it took place both in real space and in a virtual environment. "All things considered, young participants did better in navigation, which is in line with previous studies. However, we found an association between decreased navigational performance and deficits in grid cell activity", says senior author of the current study. "Grid cells fired differently when comparing young and old adults. Specifically, firing patterns were less stable over time in older individuals, which indicates that these brain circuits are compromised in old age. This might be a cause of why many senior people tend to have troubles with spatial navigation." While weakening navigational skills might occur in healthy adults, such a decline is also considered as one of the earliest symptoms of Alzheimer's. "Assessing navigation performance and grid cell function could possibly facilitate early diagnosis of Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative disorders", says the author. "To this end, it would be necessary to develop diagnostic methods that distinguish between an age-related decline in navigational ability and a decline caused by disease. This might be a challenging task. However, our findings lay the foundation for future studies on such topics." Why older people might lose their way - 1,148 views
A fly-through is an effect created by moving the camera through three-dimensional space, giving the impression that you are flying along with the camera as if in an aircraft. You can fly through regions of a scene that might be otherwise obscured by objects in the scene or you can fly by a scene by keeping the camera focused on a particular point. To accomplish these effects you move the camera along a particular path, the x-axis for example, in a series of steps. To produce a fly-through, move both the camera position and the camera target at the same time. The following example makes use of the fly-though effect to view the interior of an isosurface drawn within a volume defined by a vector field of wind velocities. This data represents air currents over North America. This example employs a number of visualization techniques. It uses Isosurfaces and cone plots to illustrate the flow through the volume Lighting to illuminate the isosurface and cones in the volume Stream lines to define a path for the camera through the volume Coordinated motion of the camera position, camera target, and light Run this example in MATLAB®: run example The first step is to draw the isosurface and plot the air flow using cone plots. Setting the data aspect ratio ( [1,1,1] before drawing the cone plot enables MATLAB software to calculate the size of the cones correctly for the final view. load wind wind_speed = sqrt(u.^2 + v.^2 + w.^2); figure p = patch(isosurface(x,y,z,wind_speed,35)); isonormals(x,y,z,wind_speed,p) p.FaceColor = [0.75,0.25,0.25]; p.EdgeColor = [0.6,0.4,0.4]; [f,vt] = reducepatch(isosurface(x,y,z,wind_speed,45),0.05); daspect([1,1,1]); hcone = coneplot(x,y,z,u,v,w,vt(:,1),vt(:,2),vt(:,3),2); hcone.FaceColor = 'blue'; hcone.EdgeColor = 'none'; You need to define viewing parameters to ensure the scene is displayed correctly: Selecting a perspective projection provides the perception of depth as the camera passes through the interior of the isosurface Setting the camera view angle to a fixed value prevents MATLAB from automatically adjusting the angle to encompass the entire scene as well as zooming in the desired amount ( camproj perspective camva(25) Positioning the light source at the camera location and modifying the reflectance characteristics of the isosurface and cones enhances the realism of the scene: Creating a light source at the camera position provides a "headlight" that moves along with the camera through the isosurface Setting the reflection properties of the isosurface gives the appearance of a dark interior ( to 0.1) with highly reflective material ( the cones to 1 makes them highly reflective. hlight = camlight('headlight'); p.AmbientStrength = 1; p.SpecularStrength = 1; p.DiffuseStrength = 1; hcone.SpecularStrength = 1; set(gcf,'Color','k') set(gca,'Color',[0,0,0.25]) gouraud lighting for smoother lighting: Stream lines indicate the direction of flow in the vector field. This example uses the x-, y-, and z-coordinate data of a single stream line to map a path through the volume. The camera is then moved along this path. The tasks include Create a stream line starting at the point y = 30, z = 11. Get the x-, y-, and z-coordinate data of the stream line. Delete the stream line (you could also use stream3 to calculate the stream line data without actually drawing the stream line). hsline = streamline(x,y,z,u,v,w,80,30,11); xd = hsline.XData; yd = hsline.YData; zd = hsline.ZData; delete(hsline) To create a fly-through, move the camera position and camera target along the same path. In this example, the camera target is placed five elements further along the x-axis than the camera. A small value is added to the camera target x position to prevent the position of the camera and target from becoming the same point if the condition xd(n) = xd(n+5) should Update the camera position and camera target so that they both move along the coordinates of the stream line. Move the light along with the camera. display the results of each move. for i=1:length(xd)-5 campos([xd(i),yd(i),zd(i)]) camtarget([xd(i+5)+min(xd)/500,yd(i),zd(i)]) camlight(hlight,'headlight') drawnow end coneplot for a fixed visualization of the same data.
Say the number , draw the shape, name the purple pictures! The bright, familiar illustrations on the Learning Can Be Fun Colours flashcards are designed to appeal to young children learning colours, shapes and numbers 1-10. The uncluttered presentation and the simple and clear grouping of objects will make it easy for the child to count the pictures and name the coloured objects. This set of flash cards shows: - 11 different colours and the variety of ways colours can be represented: colour (yellow splat), word (yellow), and picture representation (yellow moon, duck and dinosaur) - 10 different shapes, showing the shapes written word and a variety of different designs of the shape. - Numbers 1-10, showing the different ways numbers can be represented number symbol (7), number word (seven) and picture representation (seven turtles). Activity guide includes numerous ways of using these 62 flash cards. Each laminated card has rounded edges for easy sorting and measures 87mm x 123mm. - 22 double-sided colour cards - 20 double-sided shape cards - 20 double-sided number card - 3 double-sided activity guide card
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter presented a review of related literature, research and relevant studies conducted that are related to the current study. Ventura (2006) emphasized the importance of music as a natural venue to develop the child’s brain. She stressed early that music can stimulate the cognitive and emotional development of young minds better. The expert noted that there is no strict rule as to how many hours a day a baby needs to be exposed to music because it can be used as background during feeding or playtime. Music and adult interaction, she said, actually helps a baby form a vast range of vocabulary early in his or her life compared to babies who are left to watch educational programs on TV. Castillo (2006) noted that young children who have a sense of “steady beat” do better in school as opposed to those who have not been exposed to music when they were young. She cited research that revealed how children who were born shy are able to overcome their inhibitions and develop better social skills during interaction in musical activities. Gonzalez (2000) has urged public school administrators to intensify music education in their classes, as this would develop multiple intelligence among students. He stated that in keeping with the goals of a liberal education, we need to develop not only our student’s abilities in verbal and numerical reasoning where they exist but likewise their musical expressiveness. According to Tiongson (2000) music can enrich lives and touch emotions. But it also helps children think reasons and create. Koo (2000) noted in the earliest days, weeks and years of life, everything your baby experiences and learns stimulates millions of vital connections in the brain that are the foundation for all future learning. Classical music may soothe as well, calming newborns and helping them adjust to life outside the womb. One reason could be that.
The Beginning of the Tattoo – The history of the first tattoo is often debated as being anywhere from 12,000 BC to 5,000 years ago. Tattoos have been found on mummies all over the world, most dating back to around 5,000 or more years ago. Tattoos have also been recorded as being seen on Native Americans. A tattoo can represent many things: a loved one, a hobby, a favorite pet – just about anything can be made into body ink. The meaning of tattoo is quite clear in many languages. In Tahitian, the word “tatau” literally means “to mark something.” It has been speculated that tattoos were originally an accident. This is because the Samoan word, “tatau” literally means “open wound.” Scientists and Historians around the world believe that thousands of years ago, someone had a scratch or other sort of small wound. This person more than likely wiped the blood from the wound off with their hand, which was covered with ash and soot from a fire. Of course, once the wound healed – they found a permanent mark was left behind. (“Tattoos are created by inserting colored materials beneath the skin’s surface.”) Otzi the Iceman While it is widely accepted that tattoos have been around for thousands of years, the oldest known tattoo is on a man named Otzi, who was found in the Alps. The body of Otzi the Iceman dates back to about the fourth or fifth millennium BCE. It is estimated that Otzi had at least 57 tattoos. These tattoos were simple lines and dots on his left knee forming a cross, as well as dots and lines on his right ankle and his lower spine. However, it has been debated that these are actually acupuncture wounds and not tattoos. Tattoo Facts From Around The World – In Russia, about 120 miles north of the Chinese border; mummies were found with tattoos representing animals, as well as griffins and monsters. – It is estimated that tattooing has been around for at least 10,000 years in Japan. They began the practice of pricking the skin to insert colored dyes. This is the beginning of the modern form of tattooing as we know it. – Mummies were found in Egypt dating from 2160 BC to 1994 BC that had tattoos. The female mummies had abstract, geometric patterns tattooed onto their bodies. – Polynesians use tattoos to define title and rank among their tribes. – Hawaiians believed that tattoos protected their bodies in the next world, as well as keeping them healthy in this world. – “Tax-Paid” was tattooed onto slaves sold to Asia from Ancient Greece and Rome. – One of the most well known examples of forced tattooing is during World War II. During this time, the Nazis used tattoos as a way to identify Jewish people, which would help them find and identify escaped prisoners from their concentration camps. Purpose Of Tattoos The purpose of tattoos ranges from rituals, rites of passage, and ways of distinguishing ranks. Historically, tattoos consisted of symbols that represented religious beliefs, forms of decoration for bravery (much like a medal,) or even protection. They were also used as a form of punishment to mark convicts and criminals. In the modern age, people use tattoos as a form of self expression. They are also used as memorials to lost loved ones or religious symbols. On a sour note, they are also used to mark members of gangs. Tattoos have also been commonly used by members of the service. The US Army, The British Navy, etc – many of these men would tattoo themselves in honor of their country, their family, or which branch they belong to. No matter when tattooing may have began or what it is used to represent, it is a common practice in the world today; and will continue to be for years to come. – – – Tattoo You; “A Brief History of Tattoos” WikiPedia; “History of Tattooing” Designboom; “A brief history of tattoos”
\|Roman imperial dynasties\| The Flavian family, depicted on The Triumph of Titus, by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema \|Vespasian\|\|69 AD – 79 AD\| \|Titus\|\|79 AD – 81 AD\| \|Domitian\|\|81 AD – 96 AD\| \| Gens Flavia \| Year of the Four Emperors The Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 AD and 96 AD, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69–79), and his two sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After Galba and Otho died in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in mid 69. His claim to the throne was quickly challenged by legions stationed in the Eastern provinces, who declared their commander Vespasian emperor in his place. The Second Battle of Bedriacum tilted the balance decisively in favour of the Flavian forces, who entered Rome on December 20. The following day, the Roman Senate officially declared Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic and military events took place during their reign. The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. The surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely buried under ash and lava. One year later, Rome was struck by fire and a plague. On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70, following the failed Jewish rebellion of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between 77 and 83, while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians. In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus. The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. A massive building programme was enacted by Titus, to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum. Flavian rule came to an end on September 18, 96, when Domitian was assassinated. He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nerva–Antonine dynasty. The Flavian dynasty was unique among the four dynasties of the Principate Era, in that it was only one man and his two sons, without any extended or adopted family. Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD.One such family were the Flavians, or gens Flavia , which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian's grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank. Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born in 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born in 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born in 45). –41) and Nero (54–68). Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus. By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66.Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37 From c. 57 to 59, Titus was a military tribune in Germania, and later served in Britannia. His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65.Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who were killed after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy. He never remarried. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor. In 66, the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was forced to retreat from Jerusalem and defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon.The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, and dispatched him to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions. He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais, bringing with him the fifteenth legion. With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem. On 9 June 68, amidst the growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire — Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian —successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor. Before reaching Italy, however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time, Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea. Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome.Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action. When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum, however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69. Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself traveled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. In Rome, meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression. —the imperial bodyguard —considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty. On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord, but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill. During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters. By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar , and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house. The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.Support for the old emperor was waning, however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius. In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II, but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate.Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, however, continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing. By the end of 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor. Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to Mucianus, aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from the Egyptians.In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, such as the institution of the tax on urinals, and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these was the First Jewish-Roman War, which ended in the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus. In addition, Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt, Gaul and Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum. Vespasian died of natural causes on June 23, 79, and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus. The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him. Despite initial concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June 23, 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians.In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80, but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79, and the fire of Rome of 80. Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of the imperial cult, deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian. After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of a fever on September 13, 81, and was deified by the Roman Senate. Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius. Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the Empire, and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome. In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland, but in Dacia, Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians. On September 18, 96, Domitian was assassinated by court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva, who founded the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty. Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's. Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de facto monarch. The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated. The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius.He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during the civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and perhaps most remarkably, was given command of the Praetorian Guard. Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81. Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facadeand transformed his government more or less formally into the divine monarchy he believed it to be. By moving the centre of power to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced. Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in the distribution of strategic posts, admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, and assigning men of the equestrian order to run the imperial bureaucracy. One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible,renewing old ones and instituting new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb "Pecunia non olet" ("Money does not smell") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85, however, forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65,but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits. Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army.The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself. The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judaea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory.Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Giscala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God". Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph. Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Torah. Leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus. The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland, between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries. He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil. In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians, two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control. The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire. Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. Led by King Decebalus, the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor, Oppius Sabinus. Domitian immediately launched a counteroffensive, which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commander, Cornelius Fuscus, was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard lost. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under command of Tettius Julianus, and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed. An attack on Dacia's capital was abandoned, however, when a crisis arose on the German frontier, forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors. For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan, in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the gold and silver mines of Dacia. Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On August 24, 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted,resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava, killing thousands of citizens. Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year. The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire, frozen at the moment it was buried on August 24, 79. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved. Today, it is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. On-going excavations reveal new insights into Roman history and culture. During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days.Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64, crucially sparing the many districts of insulae, Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of Pompey's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions. According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, as well as the death toll, are unknown. Suetonius claims that Vespasian was continuously met with conspiracies against him.Only one conspiracy is known specifically. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian, but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus. According to the historian John Crook, however, the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of the opposition tied to Mucianus, with the mutinous address found on Caecina's body a forgery by Titus. When faced with real conspiracies however, Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words expressing the temper of Vespasian, while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner, rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at the games. Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign, one of which led to his eventual assassination in 96. The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89, when the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, rebelled against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti.The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus. At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid. Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded. Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89.At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed, including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus IV, Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens. Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion. Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted-line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation, however. Therefore, a massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence.At the same time, Flavian propaganda emphasised Vespasian's role as a bringer of peace following the crisis of 69. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace, while the word vindex was removed from coins as to not remind the public of rebellious Vindex. Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors, and a Temple of Peace was constructed in the forum. The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, assuring biases against him were removed,while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers. The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him. Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural Histories to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome. Helvidius Priscus, a pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings. Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, Domitian's first act as Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods. To foster the worship of the imperial family, Domitian erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal,and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother. To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus. In order to further justify the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter, most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme in the city of Rome, intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during the Great Fire of 64, and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and the Temple to the Deified Claudius.In 75 a colossal statue of Apollo, begun under Nero as a statue of himself, was finished on Vespasian's orders, and he also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum (probably after the nearby statue), was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars. Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus also ordered the construction of a new public bath-house, which was to bear his name. Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre. The bulk of the Flavian construction projects were carried out during the reign of Domitian, who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome. Much more than a renovation project, however, Domitian's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus.Among the most important new structures were an Odeum, a Stadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill, known as the Flavian Palace, which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius. The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, which was said to have been covered with a gilded roof. Among those he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus, and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area. Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In the newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item. An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or congiaria , throughout Domitian's reign.In addition, he also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot races, and competitions for oratory, music and acting. Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole Empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, besides the regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams. The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor. Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor, his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum. Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquilius, Cassius Dio, and Pliny the Elder, present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction. Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century CE, and the culmination of the 'Pax Romana'. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but, in reality, their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century, the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to \| \| Flavian dynasty\| 69CE – 96 CE \| Succeeded by\|
In biology, an artery is any of the muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues, and organs of the body. This is in contrast to the veins, which are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. All arteries, with the exception of the pulmonary and umbilical arteries, carry oxygenated blood to the tissues. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and the umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta through the umbilical cord. In developed countries, the two leading causes of death, myocardial infarction (heart attack) and stroke, each may directly result from an arterial system that has been slowly and progressively compromised by years of deterioration. Atherosclerosis, commonly known as hardening of the arteries, is a disease affecting arterial blood vessels that is due in large part to the deposition of particular lipoproteins (biochemical complexes of proteins and lipids) that circulate in the blood and carry cholesterol and triglycerides. The arteries and veins function harmoniously as complementary components in the circulatory system's rhythmic flow cycle orchestrated by the beating heart. As an integral part of this cycle, the arteries participate in delivering oxygen and nutrients to all cells, removing carbon dioxide and waste products, maintaining optimum pH, and circulating hormones, immune cells, lipoproteins, enzymes, and diverse other factors essential to life. As a vital system, the term "artery" also is used in a broader, cultural sense to refer to rivers, railroad, and highways as arteries of transportation and commerce. Overview and history The arterial system is the higher-pressure portion of the circulatory system. Arterial pressure varies between the peak pressure during heart contraction, called the systolic pressure, and the minimum, or diastolic pressure when the heart rests between contractions. This pressure variation within the artery produces the pulse that is observable in any artery, and reflects heart activity. Arteries include both large and minute blood vessels that transport blood away from the heart. In humans, the largest artery is the aorta. It subdivides into smaller arteries, which give rise to smaller, threadlike blood vessels called arterioles, which further divide into the smallest blood vessels, the minute capillaries, which connect arterioles and venules (minute veins). Among the ancient Greeks, the arteries were considered to be "air holders" that were responsible for the transport of air to the tissues and were connected to the trachea. This was as a result of the arteries of the dead being found to be empty. In medieval times, it was recognized that arteries carried a fluid, called "spiritual blood" or "vital spirits," considered to be different from the contents of the veins. This theory went back to Galen. In the late medieval period, the trachea and ligaments were also called "arteries" (Shakespeare 1994). William Harvey described and popularized the modern concept of the circulatory system and the roles of arteries and veins in the seventeenth century. Alexis Carrel at the beginning of twentieth century first described the technique for vascular suturing and anastomosis and successfully performed many organ transplantations in animals requiring the joining of artery to artery as well as vein to vein. He opened the way to modern vascular surgery at a time when vascular surgery had been limited to closing vessels by permanent ligation. The term artery is derived from the Greek artēriā, a term applied to any of the vessels that emanated from the chest cavity, including arteries, veins, and the bronchial tubes, which anatomists believed carried air (Harper 2001; HMC 2004). As it was learned that the windpipe and bronchial tubes carried air, the phrase artēriā trakheia, or "rough artery," was used to refer to the windpipe, with the term trakheia becoming the current term for the windpipe, trachea (HMC 2004). The anatomy of arteries can be separated into gross anatomy, at the macroscopic level, and microscopic anatomy, which must be studied with the aid of a microscope. Systemic arteries are the arteries of the systemic circulation, which is the portion of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Pulmonary arteries are the arteries of the pulmonary circulation, which is the portion of the cardiovascular system that carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart. The outermost layer of an atery is known as the tunica externa (formerly known as "tunica adventitia") and is composed of connective tissue. Inside this layer is the tunica media, or media, which is made up of smooth muscle cells and elastic tissue. The innermost layer, which is in direct contact with the flow of blood is the tunica intima, commonly called the intima. This layer is made up of mainly endothelial cells. The hollow internal cavity in which the blood flows is called the lumen. Types of arteries Systemic arteries can be subdivided into two types: muscular and elastic. This division is according to the relative compositions of elastic and muscle tissue in their tunica media as well as their size and the makeup of the internal and external elastic lamina. The larger arteries (over one centimeter in diameter) are generally elastic and the smaller ones (0.1 to ten millimeters) tend to be muscular. Systemic arteries deliver blood to the arterioles, and then to the capillaries, where nutrients and gases are exchanged. The aorta is the root systemic artery. It receives blood directly from the left ventricle of the heart via the aortic valve. As the aorta branches, and these arteries branch in turn, they become successively smaller in diameter, down to the arterioles. The arterioles supply capillaries which in turn empty into venules. The aorta is a hard artery, and as such is quite distensible. When the left ventricle contracts to force blood into the aorta, the aorta expands. This stretching gives the potential energy that will help maintain blood pressure during diastole, as during this time the aorta contracts passively. Arterioles, the smallest of the true arteries, help regulate blood pressure by the variable contraction of the smooth muscle of their walls, and deliver blood to the capillaries. Arterioles have the greatest collective influence on both local blood flow and on overall blood pressure. They are the primary "adjustable nozzles" in the blood system, across which the greatest pressure drop occurs. The combination of heart output (cardiac output) and systemic vascular resistance, which refers to the collective resistance of all of the body's arterioles, are the principal determinants of arterial blood pressure at any given moment. Capillaries are the smallest of a body's blood vessels, measuring five to ten μm (.005 to .01 mm) in diameter, which connect arterioles and venules. The capillaries are the site of all of the important exchanges occurring in the circulatory system. These include interchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other nutrient and waste chemical substances between blood and surrounding tissues. Being only a single cell thick, the capillary walls permit fast and easy diffusion of gases, sugars, and other nutrients to surrounding tissues. To withstand and adapt to the pressures within, arteries are surrounded by varying thicknesses of smooth muscle which have extensive elastic and inelastic connective tissues. The pulse pressure, the difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures, is determined primarily by the amount of blood ejected by each heart beat, the stroke volume, and the volume and elasticity of the major arteries. Over time, elevated arterial blood sugar, lipoprotein, cholesterol, pressure, smoking, among other factors, are all involved in damaging both the endothelium and walls of the arteries. - Harper, D. 2001. Artery. In Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved May 03, 2008. - Houghton Mifflin Company (HMC). Artery. In The American Heritage College Dictionary, 4th edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Retrieved May 3, 2008. - Shakespeare, W., and S. Lindgren Wofford. 1994. Hamlet Complete, Authoritative Text with Biographical and Historical Contexts, Critical History, and Essays from Five Contemporary Critical Perspectives. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martins Press. ISBN 0312089864. \|Cardiovascular system - edit\| \|Blood \| Heart → Aorta → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries → Venules → Veins → Vena cava → Heart → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Heart\| New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
A device used to transfer heat from a fluid (liquid or gas) to another fluid where the two fluids are physically separated. \| Shell and tube heat exchanger for solar water heating systems Solar water heating systems use heat exchangers to transfer solar energy absorbed in solar collectors to the liquid or air used to heat water or a space. Heat exchangers can be made of steel, copper, bronze, stainless steel, aluminum, or cast iron. Solar heating systems usually use copper, because it is a good thermal conductor and has greater resistance to corrosion. Types of heat Solar water heating systems use three types of heat exchangers: This heat exchanger uses a heat-transfer fluid that circulates through the solar collector, absorbs heat, and then flows through a heat exchanger to transfer its heat to water in a storage tank. Heat-transfer fluids, such as antifreeze, protect the solar collector from freezing in cold weather. Liquid-to-liquid heat exchangers have either one or two barriers (single wall or double wall) between the heat-transfer fluid and the domestic water supply. A single-wall heat exchanger is a pipe or tube surrounded by a fluid. Either the fluid passing through the tubing or the fluid surrounding the tubing can be the heat-transfer fluid, while the other fluid is the potable water. Double-wall heat exchangers have two walls between the two fluids. Two walls are often used when the heat-transfer fluid is toxic, such as ethylene glycol (antifreeze). Double walls are often required as a safety measure in case of leaks, helping ensure that the antifreeze does not mix with the potable water supply. An example of a double-wall, liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger is the "wrap-around heat exchanger," in which a tube is wrapped around and bonded to the outside of a hot water tank. The tube must be adequately insulated to reduce While double-wall heat exchangers increase safety, they are less efficient because heat must transfer through two surfaces rather than one. To transfer the same amount of heat, a double-wall heat exchanger must be larger than a single-wall exchanger. Solar heating systems with air heater collectors usually do not need a heat exchanger between the solar collector and the air distribution system. Those systems with air heater collectors that heat water use air-to-liquid heat exchangers, which are similar to liquid-to-air heat Heat exchanger designs There are many heat exchanger designs. Here are some common ones: The heat exchanger is a coil of tubing in the storage tank. It can be a single tube (single-wall heat exchanger) or the thickness of two tubes (double-wall heat exchanger). A less efficient alternative is to place the coil on the outside of the collector tank with a cover of insulation. The heat exchanger is separate from (external to) the storage tank. It has two separate fluid loops inside a case or shell. The fluids flow in opposite directions to each other through the heat exchanger, maximizing heat transfer. In one loop, the fluid to be heated (such as potable water) circulates through the inner tubes. In the second loop, the heat-transfer fluid flows between the shell and the tubes of water. The tubes and shell should be made of the same material. When the collector or heat-transfer fluid is toxic, double-wall tubes are used, and a non-toxic intermediary transfer fluid is placed between the outer and inner walls of the tubes. In this very efficient design, the tubes of water and the heat-transfer fluid are in direct thermal contact with each other. The water and the heat-transfer fluid flow in opposite directions to each other. This type of heat exchanger has two loops similar to those described in the shell-and-tube heat exchanger. A heat exchanger must be sized correctly to be effective. There are many factors to consider for proper sizing, including the following: Usually, manufacturers will supply heat transfer ratings for their heat exchangers (in Btu/hour) for various fluid temperatures and flow rates. Also, the size of a heat exchanger's surface area affects its speed and efficiency: a large surface area transfers heat faster and more efficiently. - Type of heat exchanger - Characteristics of the heat-transfer fluid (specific heat, viscosity, - Flow rate - Inlet and outlet temperatures for each fluid For the best performance, always follow the manufacturer's installation recommendations for the heat exchanger. Be sure to choose a heat-transfer fluid that is compatible with the type of heat exchanger you will be using. If you want to build your own heat exchanger, be aware that using different metals in heat exchanger construction may cause corrosion. Also, because dissimilar metals have different thermal expansion and contraction characteristics, leaks or cracks may develop. Either of these conditions may reduce the life span of your heat exchanger. For more information about residential solar water heating systems, see:
The world's biosphere is now adding to global warming, turning traditional assumptions about greenhouse gases on their heads, according to a new study published Thursday in the scientific journal Nature. Most students learn that plants absorb carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, as part of photosynthesis. But a team of researchers looking closer at this assumption have found that human-induced changes to plants and animal populations have transformed the biosphere's status from a net greenhouse gas sink to a net greenhouse gas source. “Typically we think of land as a net ‘sink’ of carbon dioxide,” said Dr. Anna Michalak, a professor at Stanford University and co-author of the study, in a press release. “But we found that the sign of the human-induced impact is reversed [turned from a positive into a negative] if we also take into account methane and nitrous oxide.” Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) gets the most attention as the primary contributor to climate change, but methane (CH4 ) and nitrous oxide (N2 O) round out the list of top three greenhouse gas emissions. And while the latter two are smaller in volume, they're much more effective at trapping heat than carbon dioxide. So yes, the biosphere does continue to absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, but it is also producing much more methane and nitrous oxide than in pre-industrial times. “None of the previous studies but these three gases together,” says lead author Hanqin Tian of Auburn University to The Christian Science Monitor in a phone interview. “When we consider these three gases together, then we find methane and nitrous oxide together are two times larger than the sink carbon dioxide offers. In terms of global warming potential, methane and nitrogen oxide are way worse than carbon monoxide.” Humans have planted trees and crops, adding to the biosphere's carbon sink, but we have also created factory farms for cattle (methane producers) and used tons upon tons of chemical fertilizers (nitrous oxide producers). In all, the team concluded, human-driven methane and nitrous oxide production far outweighed the impact of human-driven carbon dioxide uptake. “In other words, the terrestrial biosphere, through human action, is now contributing to climate change rather than mitigating climate change," says Stanford University’s Carnegie Institution in a press release. Tian and his 22 co-authors point to several other agricultural practices and waste disposal methods that are responsible for the change. Rice cultivation, livestock waste, and landfill emissions are major methane sources, and agriculture fertilizers are a main source of nitrous oxide. And human-induced greenhouse gas emissions vary by region. In North America, Northern Asia, South America and Europe, where carbon dioxide emissions often are the highest, the biosphere’s carbon dioxide sinks pretty much balance out the methane and nitrous oxide emissions. But in Southern Asia and Africa, the biosphere’s emissions far surpass its sequestration capacity. “Southern Asia has about 90 percent of the global rice fields and represents more than 60 percent of the world’s nitrogen fertilizer consumption," the study's authors write, and the region is responsible for more than two-thirds of all methane emissions and about half of all nitrous oxide emissions derived from agriculture or waste. The authors also point to a better path forward. "Given the large footprint of agriculture in Southern Asia," they write, "improved fertilizer use efficiency, rice management, and animal diets could substantially reduce global agricultural N2 O and CH4 emissions." And if massive wildfires and deforestation continue, even longstanding carbon dioxide sinks may be a thing of the past. "This study should serve as a wake-up call to governments, policymakers, and individuals around the world," said Dr. Michalak. "We must expand our focus," she says, "and devise strategies that target the biogenic emissions of these other greenhouse gases if we are to change the course of climate change."
ReadWriteThink couldn't publish all of this great content without literacy experts to write and review for us. If you've got lessons plans, videos, activities, or other ideas you'd like to contribute, we'd love to hear from you. Find the latest in professional publications, learn new techniques and strategies, and find out how you can connect with other literacy professionals. Teacher Resources by Grade \|1st - 2nd\|\|3rd - 4th\| \|5th - 6th\|\|7th - 8th\| \|9th - 10th\|\|11th - 12th\| Lesson Plans See All Lesson Plans We have hundreds of standards-based lesson plans written and reviewed by educators using current research and the best instructional practices. Find the perfect one for your classroom. Standard Lessons See All Standard Lessons These lessons are designed to offer three to five classroom sessions with step-by-step instructions. Grades 6 – 8 \| Lesson Plan Students set sail on an online Viking voyage, collaborating to research aspects of Viking culture and then applying their newfound knowledge as they navigate the interactive Viking Quest Game. Grades K – 2 \| Lesson Plan What do cowboy hats have to do with fairy tales? Two traditional fairy tales and their Texas-based counterparts set the stage for five different ways to respond to text. Grades 4 – 6 \| Lesson Plan Students make predictions about Bridge to Terabithia and its characters, complete character studies, and relate the characters' experiences to their own as they identify ways to make and keep friends. Every lesson plan on ReadWriteThink has been aligned not only to the IRA/NCTE Standards for the English Language Arts but to individual state standards as well.
Brilliant idea to learn words while playing block toys! Time needed to perform the activity: 15 to 30 minutes Suitable number of Children: Best with just a single child (Parent participation required) Suitable age: two years to six years old. Location: At Home Items used: Blocks, Markers, Recording Sheet Developmental Milestones supported by this activity: Vocabulary Tags: Blocks, Vocabulary This activity was created by The Printable Princess .
The EGFR, or estimated glomerular filtration rate, is calculated the same for all adults and is not determined by the race of an individual. The EGFR is a test that measures the amount of serum creatinine found in the urine. A normal range for adults with normal kidney function is 0.8 to 1.3 milligrams per deciliter for males and 0.6 to 1.1 milligram per deciliter for females.Continue Reading Several things may influence the EGFR level in adults. Young adults with large muscle mass may have a higher serum creatinine level than elderly adults, as creatinine production is based on total muscle mass. Certain medications also may increase the production of creatinine in the body. An EGFR is used to detect chronic kidney disease and to track the progress of treatments used. A 24-hour creatinine-clearance test is another test used in the treatment of chronic kidney disease, but the EGFR test produces more reliable results. Chronic kidney disease is common in individuals with hypertension, diabetes, systemic infections and autoimmune diseases. Individuals who have a family history of chronic kidney disease are also at risk for developing the disease, and regular testing of creatinine levels is essential in prevention and treatment. An EGFR is not a suitable test for women who are pregnant, people who have an acute illness or people who have other serious medical comorbidities, as the test may not be a reliable indicator of chronic kidney disease in these populations.Learn more about Molecular Biology & DNA
Excerpt from Arizoniana by Marshall Trimble, the state’s official historian. Long before the white people migrated to the vast lands across the wide Missouri—and added a new dimension to the struggle for supremacy, native tribes battled continuously for the most desirable lands. As a rule, three things could happen to a weaker tribe and all were bad. At worst they were exterminated. If they escaped that, assimilation might occur or, as was often the case, they were driven to some less desirable area such as the arid, inhospitable deserts of the Great Basin and the Southwest. Many times, tribes were able to adapt to the harsh lands, turning a disadvantageous situation into a positive one, and gaining their greatest glory as warriors. The Apaches are a classic example. Driven into the barren deserts and brawny mountains of Arizona, New Mexico and the Mexican Republic by more powerful Plains tribes during the 1300s, they became masters in guerrilla warfare. Perhaps even more dramatic was a tribe of people from the Shoshonian language group called the Nermernuh, a name which meant, in their language, The People. The Nermernuh were a humble, squatty, dark-skinned, common-looking tribe living in the northern Rockies. They were beaten, pushed and shoved from region to region by stronger tribes. Eventually, they wound up on the high, desolate plains of West Texas, in a land called the Llano Estacado, or Staked Plains. Then fate intervened. In 1680, the Pueblo Indians living along the Rio Grande in New Mexico revolted and drove their Spanish conquerors out. During the retreat down the Rio Grande to El Paso del Norte, horses got loose and wandered east into the Llano Estacado where they became the seed crop for some of the great herds of mustangs. The arrival of the horse changed the lives of the Nermernuh overnight. The horse was not just a critter to be ridden, it became an object of worship. They quickly learned selective breeding, keeping only the best studs and gelding the rest. Now they could hunt mighty buffalo and challenge other tribes for supremacy. Children learned to ride almost before they learned to walk. They became the most feared raiders of their time, extending their former range by thousands of miles. Nermernuh raiding parties penetrated as far into Mexico as the Yucatan Peninsula. They became the scourge of the Pueblo and Hispanic peoples along the Rio Grande and the settlers in east Texas and along the Gulf Coast. Their success in battle seemed to make the Nermernuh more barbaric. They reveled in taking vengeance for hundreds of years of oppression. They were the first Plains Indians to acquire the horse and none ever adapted their culture to that animal so completely. During the 1830s, American anthropologists observed these people and determined that the equine had been an integral part of the culture for thousands of years. In reality, the animal had been on the Plains only a little over a century. For nearly 200 years the Nermernuh, recognized by other horse-Indians as the horse-Indians, were feared and respected. In 1874, the U.S. Cavalry, after a long and hard-fought campaign, defeated the Nermernuh and located them on a reservation. By now, you’re probably wondering why the exploits of these remarkable people rings a note of familiarity but the name doesn’t. That’s because many of our Native American tribes are better known by the names given them by others, some of which weren’t all that complimentary. The Nermernuh are better-known by a name given them by the Utes. Translated to English it means, “Man Who Goes Around Trying To Kill Me All The Time.” In the language of the Utes, the word became synonymous with fear and terror in the Southwest for nearly two centuries. They were called Comanches.
The location of the host servers is known to the redirectors, which are specially equipped routers. They maintain information about host servers and the services currently installed on them. Each redirector maintains a redirector table, which lists the transport-level service access points (in our case pairs of IP addresses and port numbers) for which packets must be redirected, and the host server to which the packets must go. When a redirector receives an IP packet, it checks the destination IP address and port in the header against the entries in the redirector table. If it finds a match, it forwards the packet to the appropriate server host. If there is no match, the packet is simply forwarded to the origin host. A packet is redirected to the appropriate host server by tunnelling it using IP-in-IP encapsulation. The host server is equipped to detect tunnelled packets and to forward them internally to the service .
Transmission Control Protocol, or TCP for short, is a connection-oriented protocol allowing peers to exchange streams of data. Unlike UDP, with TCP package reception is guaranteed and packages are received in the same order they are sent. Common uses of TCP include HTTP requests, peer-to-peer applications, and IM client/server connections. Erlang distribution is built on top of TCP. Just as with UDP, neither the client nor the server has to be implemented in Erlang. On an architectural level, the main difference between TCP and UDP is that once you’ve opened a socket connection using TCP, it is kept open until either side closes it or it terminates because of an error. When setting up a connection, you would often spawn a new process for every request, keeping it alive for as long as the request is being handled. How does this work in practice? Say you have a listener process whose task is to wait for incoming TCP requests. As soon as a request comes in, the process that acknowledges the connection request becomes the accept process. There are two mechanisms for defining the accept process: The first option is to spawn a new process which becomes the accept process, while the listener goes back and listens for a new connection request. The second option, as shown in Figure 15-2, is to make the listener process the accept process, and spawn a new process which becomes the new listener. Figure 15-2. The listener and accept processes If the socket is opened ...
At Langmoor we believe that music is a unique way of communicating that can inspire and motivate children. It is a vehicle for personal expression and it can play an important part in the personal development of people. Music reflects the culture and society we live in, and so the teaching and learning of music enables children to better understand the world they live in. Besides being a creative and enjoyable activity, music can also be an academic and demanding subject. It also plays an important part in helping children feel part of a community. We provide opportunities for all children to create, play, perform and enjoy music, to develop the skills to appreciate a wide variety of musical forms, and to begin to make judgements about the quality of music. The aims of music teaching are to enable children to: - know and understand how sounds are made and then organised into musical structures; - know how music is made through a variety of instruments; - know how music is composed and written down; - know how music is influenced by the time, place and purpose for which it was written; - develop the interrelated skills of performing, composing and appreciating music. Below is the Primary National Curriculum Programmes of Study document for Music, provided by the UK Government. Year 4 also have free Music lessons all year - these are provided by Leicestershire Arts. This year the children are having Ukulele lessons.
A photogenic and favorite target for amateur astronomers, the full beauty of nearby barred spiral galaxy M83 is unveiled in all of its glory in this Hubble Space Telescope mosaic image. The vibrant magentas and blues reveal the galaxy is ablaze with star formation. The galaxy, also known as the Southern Pinwheel, lies 15 million light-years away in the constellation Hydra. The Hubble photograph captures thousands of star clusters, hundreds of thousands of individual stars, and “ghosts” of dead stars called supernova remnants. The galactic panorama unveils a tapestry of the drama of stellar birth and death spread across 50,000 of light years. The newest generations of stars are forming largely in clusters on the edges of the dark spiral dust lanes. These brilliant young stellar groupings, only a few million years old, produce huge amounts of ultraviolet light that is absorbed by surrounding diffuse gas clouds, causing them to glow in pinkish hydrogen light. Gradually, the fierce stellar winds from the youngest, most massive stars blow away the gas, revealing bright blue star clusters and giving a “Swiss Cheese” appearance to the spiral arms. These youngest star clusters are about 1 million to 10 million years old. The populations of stars up to 100 million years or older appear yellow or orange by comparison because the young blue stars have already burned out. Interstellar “bubbles” produced by nearly 300 supernovas from massive stars have been found in this Hubble image. By studying these supernova remnants, astronomers can better understand the nature of the stars that exploded and dispersed nuclear processed chemical elements back into the galaxy, contributing to the next generation of new stars. This image is being used to support a citizen science project titled STAR DATE: M83. The primary goal is to estimate ages for approximately 3000 star clusters. Amateur scientists will use the presence or absence of the pink hydrogen emission, the sharpness of the individual stars, and the color of the clusters to estimate ages. Participants will measure the sizes of the star clusters and any associated emission nebulae. Finally, the citizen scientists will "explore" the image, identifying a variety of objects ranging from background galaxies to supernova remnants to foreground stars.
Bahrain - History The history of Bahrain has been traced back 5,000 years to Sumerian times. Known as Dilmun, Bahrain was a thriving trade center around 2000 BC ; the islands were visited by the ships of Alexander the Great in the third century BC . Bahrain accepted Islam in the 7th century AD , after which it was ruled alternately by its own princes and by the caliphs' governors. The Portuguese occupied Bahrain from 1522 to 1602. The present ruling family, the Khalifa, who are related to the Sabah family of Kuwait and the Sa'udi royal family, captured Bahrain in 1782. Following an initial contact in 1805, the ruler of Bahrain signed the first treaty with Britain in 1820. A binding treaty of protection, similar to those with other Persian Gulf principalities, was concluded in 1861 and revised in 1892 and 1951. After World War II, Britain maintained at Bahrain its headquarters for treaty affairs in the lower Gulf. Claims to Bahrain pressed by Iran were abandoned in 1971 after a UN mission ascertained that the Bahrainis wished to remain independent of that nation. Between 1968 and 1971, Bahrain participated in discussions aimed at forming a federation of the nine sheikhdoms of the southern Gulf. On 14 August 1971, Sheikh 'Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa declared that, in view of the failure of the larger federation to materialize, Bahrain would declare its independence. Its treaties with the United Kingdom were replaced by a treaty of friendship and cooperation, and on 15 August, the country became the sovereign State of Bahrain. Bahrain promulgated its first constitution in 1973, which occasioned the convening of an elective National Assembly; the legislature was dissolved in August 1975 amid charges of communist influence. The emir continued to set state policy, and his brother, Crown Prince Hamad bin 'Isa al-Khalifa, directed government administration. In 1993, Bahrain established an appointive Consultative Assembly (Majlis al-Shura). On 14 February 2001, a referendum was held that endorsed a return to constitutional rule. Under the constitution amended 14 February 2002, the country is no longer an emirate, but a constitutional monarchy. The emir was replaced by a king. A two-house National Assembly was established, along with an independent judiciary. Owing to its small size, Bahrain generally takes its lead in foreign affairs from its Arab neighbors on the Gulf. A founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council, it shares with the other five members a long-standing concern with pressures from Iran and Iraq. During the Iran-Iraq War, Bahrain joined most other Arab states in supporting Iraq. Subsequently, it has carefully tried to foster better relations with Iran through trade. When Iraq invaded Kuwait, Bahrain stood with the allies, contributing military support and facilities to the defeat of Iraq. Bahrain has long assisted the American naval presence in the Persian Gulf. In 1977, a formal agreement for home-porting US naval ships was replaced by arrangements to continue ship visits and other security cooperation. Since the Gulf War, this cooperation has expanded with arms sales, plans for joint exercises and US pre-positioning of military material for future contingencies. In 1991, the United States signed an agreement giving the Department of Defense access to facilities on the island. The country is home to the US Navy's Fifth Fleet. Since 1994, Bahrain, like several traditional emirates of the Gulf, experienced sometimes severe civil disturbances from a Shi'ite-led resistance opposed to the ruling family and supportive of establishing an Islamic democracy. In 1996, a band of 44 Bahraini Islamists were arrested for allegedly planning a coup to overthrow the ruling family. The emirate broke relations with Iran, which the former accused of fomenting its civil disturbances which between 1994 and 1996 had resulted in 25 deaths. In 1997, the United States disclosed that it had uncovered a plot to attack its military forces stationed in the country. On 6 March 1999, Sheikh 'Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa, who had ruled his country since its independence in 1971, died of a heart attack. He was succeeded on the throne by his son, Sheikh Hamad bin 'Isa al-Khalifa. Over the following year, there were signs that while the new ruler would continue his father's pro-Western foreign-policy orientation, domestically he would take a more liberal approach to government. In April, Sheikh Hamad released high-profile Shi'ite dissident, Sheik Abdul Amir al-Jamri, from jail together with hundreds of other political prisoners. Another broad pardon of dissidents took place in November. By February 2001, the emir had pardoned and released all political prisoners, detainees, and exiles. On 16 March 2001, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) resolved a territorial dispute between Bahrain and Qatar over the potential oil- and gas-rich Hawar Islands. The islands were controlled by Bahrain since the 1930s but were claimed by Qatar. Bahrain also claimed the town of Zubarah, which is on the mainland of Qatar. The dispute has lasted for decades and almost brought the two nations to the brink of war in 1986. In its judgment, the ICJ drew a single maritime boundary in the Gulf of Bahrain, delineating Bahrain and Qatar's territorial waters and sovereignty over the disputed islands within. The ICJ awarded Bahrain the largest disputed islands, the Hawar Islands, and Qit'at Jaradah Island. Qatar was given sovereignty over Janan Island and the low-tide elevation of Fasht ad Dibal. The Court reaffirmed Qatari sovereignty over the Zubarah Strip. In August 2002, Hamad (now king) made the first state visit to Iran since the Islamic revolution in 1979. The two countries voiced their support for solidarity with the Iraqi people. Iraq was at that time under the threat of a military attack led by the United States for its possession of weapons of mass destruction. Bahrain and Iran urged Iraq to implement all UN resolutions then pending, so that Iraq's territorial integrity and sovereignty could be honored. President Mohammed Khatami of Iran and King Hamad also noted the importance of preserving security and stability in the region, and thus pledged to strengthen ties with one another. Several trade, taxation, and naval agreements were signed at the conclusion of the state visit. As well, both countries agreed to "open a new page" in their bilateral relations, previously strained due to Iran's support for Bahraini opposition movements, and Iran's criticism of the American military presence in Bahrain. In January 2003, demonstrations took place in Bahrain in opposition to a potential US-led war with Iraq. By 13 January, there were approximately 150,000 US troops in the Gulf region, many of which were stationed in Bahrain, in addition to Kuwait, Qatar, Sa'udi Arabia, and Oman.
Definition of as if or as though in English: As would be the case if: she behaved as if he weren’t there More example sentences - It was all he could do to act as though he had never read either of her letters. - The men around her laughed and acted as though it was the cleverest thing they had seen. - Football is now a business, but players are expected to act as if it was still a sport.
(covers information from several alternate timelines) Warp drive was a technology that allowed space travel at faster-than-light speeds. It worked by generating warp fields to form a subspace bubble that enveloped the starship, distorting the local spacetime continuum and moving the starship at velocities that could greatly exceed the speed of light. These velocities were referred to as warp factors. Warp drive was the most common form of interstellar propulsion used in the Milky Way Galaxy, making interstellar exploration, commerce, and warfare; essentially Interstellar civilization possible. By the 24th century, warp was the primary means of interstellar transport, but scientists from various cultures were pursuing various alternative propulsion methods that were hypothetically faster or more efficient. In 2063, the term "warp drive" was already used by Zefram Cochrane of his engine on the Phoenix. However, Cochrane used the term "space warp generator" in the monitor displays on his spacecraft (Star Trek: First Contact). Even as late as the 2150s, the warp five engine was still officially known as a "gravimetric field displacement manifold" (ENT: "Cold Front"). Most cultures throughout the Milky Way Galaxy used the term "warp drive" and by the late-23rd century it was the most common term used by the Federation as well (Star Trek: The Original Series, et al.). In the 2250s the term "hyperdrive" was used by Starfleet (TOS: "The Cage") and the Ferengi occasionally used the term "lightspeed drive" (TNG: "Peak Performance"). 24th century Federation warp engines were fueled by the reaction of matter (deuterium) and antimatter (antideuterium), mediated through an assembly of dilithium crystals, which were nonreactive with antimatter when subjected to high-frequency electromagnetic fields. This reaction produced a highly energetic plasma, called electro-plasma or warp plasma, which was channeled by plasma conduits through the electro-plasma system (EPS); that system also provided the primary energy supply for the ships other electronic systems. For propulsion the electro-plasma was funneled by plasma injectors into a series of warp field coils, usually located in remote warp nacelles. These coils were composed of verterium cortenide and generated the warp field. Other civilizations used different power sources, such as the Romulans' use of artificial quantum singularities to power their warp drives, but the basic process was similar. In some vessels, such as the Intrepid-class, the nacelles were mounted on variable geometry pylons. Parts of the system Edit - Antimatter containment - Antimatter inducer - Antimatter relay - Deuterium cartridges - Deuterium control conduit - Emergency shutdown trips - Main stage flux chiller - Magnetic interlock - Nullifier core - Pre stage flux chiller - Phase inducer - Plasma conduit - Plasma intercooler - Plasma regulator - Power transfer conduit - Power transfer grid - Space matrix restoration coil - Warp field generator - Warp plasma conduit - Warp core / matter/antimatter reaction assembly System types Edit - Class 7 warp drive - Class 9 warp drive - Enhanced warp drive - S-2 graf unit - Subspace resonator - Tetryon plasma warp drive - Tricyclic plasma drive - Warp five engine - Warp three engine - Yoyodyne pulse fusion Warp drive and other faster-than-light (FTL) propulsion technologies were the linchpin of an interstellar civilization, making trade and exploration across vast interstellar distances viable. Without these technologies, these distances could not be crossed in any reasonable period of time, making interstellar civilization usually limited to a single sector. (TNG: "A Matter of Time") To put this in perspective, planets that were years away with impulse speeds could be reached in days with ships equipped with warp drive. (TOS: "Where No Man Has Gone Before") Cultures in the galaxy discovered warp drive at their own pace and rate of development, as most of the cultures had to do. The Vulcans were an interstellar civilization by 9th century BC and had reached the level of warp 7 by 2151. (ENT: "The Andorian Incident", "Fallen Hero"; DS9: "Little Green Men") Klingons had interstellar travel capability around the time of Kahless in the 9th century. They had achieved the capability of warp 6 by 2151. (TNG: "Rightful Heir"; DS9: "Little Green Men"; VOY: "Day of Honor"; ENT: "Judgment") Romulans were once considered a group of thugs and warp drive was regarded as the key technology that allowed the founding of the Romulan Star Empire. (Star Trek: Insurrection) The Vissians developed warp drive around the 12th century. (ENT: "Cogenitor") The Borg in the Delta Quadrant began to establish their interstellar collective by the 15th century. (VOY: "Dragon's Teeth") However, it was the rapid progress of Humanity which led to the wide-scale exploration of the galaxy and the formation of the United Federation of Planets. The development of the warp drive was recognized by the United Federation of Planets as the marker of an advanced society. It was only after a people developed warp drive that the Federation made contact, as codified in the Prime Directive. (TNG: "First Contact") A warp capable society was deemed technically and psychologically ready to embrace the universe at large. 21st century Edit Despite the hardships imposed by the war's aftermath and the lack of advanced materials, Cochrane was able to build a manned warp-capable vessel using a converted Titan II missile. The successful first flight of his ship – the Phoenix – took place on April 5, 2063, and drew the attention of a Vulcan exploratory vessel, leading to the event known as First Contact. (Star Trek: First Contact) 22nd century Edit Development of warp technology proceeded slowly over the next eighty years, after the flight of the Phoenix – due, in no small part, to the cautious advice of the Vulcans – and it was not until the 2140s that a warp engine developed by Henry Archer at the Warp Five Complex could exceed warp factor 2. This engine was successfully tested in the second NX prototype by Commanders A.G. Robinson and Jonathan Archer to a speed of warp 2.5, breaking the so-called "warp 2 barrier" in 2143. Eight months later, Duvall achieved warp 3 with the NX Delta. Warp 4 would be first achieved by the Franklin. (ENT: "First Flight"; Star Trek Beyond) By the year 2149, warp technology was sufficiently advanced to begin the construction of Enterprise, a vessel capable of warp 5 and launched in 2151. (ENT: "Broken Bow") Although Enterprise was at first unable to fully realize this potential (maxing out at warp 4.7), the starship finally reached warp 5 on February 9, 2152. (ENT: "Fallen Hero") By 2161, Starfleet warp drive technology had achieved the capability to reach warp 7, and these engines were being built into the latest class of Starfleet vessels as the NX class were being decommissioned. (ENT: "These Are the Voyages...") 23rd century Edit Development and improvement of warp drive continued apace, and by the 2240s, Starfleet vessels of the Constitution-class had standard cruising speeds of warp 6 and emergency speeds as high as warp 8 (although under the right conditions, the engines could reach warp 9). These ships took advantage of a major breakthrough in warp technology that took place between 2236 and 2254, the breaking of the so-called "time barrier". (TOS: "The Cage") Higher warp factors continued to be reached, mostly through alien intervention, or dangerous malfunction. The USS Enterprise was modified by the Kelvans to maintain a speed of warp 11 in 2268. Later that year, the Enterprise accelerated to a speed of warp factor 14.1, after being sabotaged by a Kalandan planetary defense system. At that velocity, however, the ship came within moments of destroying itself. (TOS: "By Any Other Name", "That Which Survives") At around the same time, warp engines were being redesigned to allow standard speeds of warp 8 and above. During the refit of the Constitution-class, the cylindrical-shaped nacelles were replaced with a new flattened design. (Star Trek: The Motion Picture) Warp theory continued to advance with the development of the first transwarp drive engines in the mid-2280s, which would have theoretically allowed greater efficiency and any warp speed to be available for a ship. However, the transwarp experiment of USS Excelsior ended in failure, and the technology was abandoned at that time. The Excelsior itself was deemed spaceworthy, retrofitted with conventional warp drive and commissioned as NCC-2000 under the command of Captain Hikaru Sulu. (Star Trek III: The Search for Spock; VOY: "Threshold"; Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country) 24th century Edit By the time the Galaxy-class starship was being designed in the 2360s, warp technology had progressed to the point where speeds of warp 9.6 could be sustained for up to twelve hours, although warp 9.2 was considered the "red line." (TNG: "Encounter at Farpoint") In 2370, the Hekaran scientist Serova discovered that the use of conventional warp engines caused damage to the fabric of spacetime. The Federation Council imposed a speed limit of warp factor 5 on all Federation vessels in all but extreme emergency cases, such as medical emergencies. (TNG: "Force of Nature", "Eye of the Beholder") It was not until 2372, that the transwarp threshold was broken by the Federation. Tom Paris of the USS Voyager managed to achieve infinite velocity on the shuttlecraft Cochrane. However, this form of travel was found to have severe, unanticipated side effects. (VOY: "Threshold") ...and beyond Edit Background information Edit Gene Roddenberry originally intended the Enterprise to become transparent while in warp drive, as depicted in "The Cage" (later reformatted into the two-part "The Menagerie"). The idea was that the ship would be traveling faster than light, which means that light would not reach it, rendering the vessel invisible to the naked eye. However, according to Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity, the speed of light is a constant from any frame of reference; an observer moving at close to "c" would still observe light moving toward him and away from him at "c." - Warp drive at Memory Beta, the wiki for licensed Star Trek works - Hyperdrive at Memory Beta, the wiki for licensed Star Trek works - André Bormanis's explanation of Warp Drive(X) - The Warp Drive: Hyper-Fast Travel Within General Relativity – a paper by Miguel Alcubierre - Warp Drive: A New Approach. An exciting new concept in warp drive by Richard Obousy - rec.arts.startrek.tech Warp Velocities FAQ – extra information on maximum warp explanations - rec.arts.startrek.tech Warp and Subspace FAQ – discussions about warp and subspace - Alcubierre drive at Wikipedia - Hyperdrive at Wookieepedia, the Star Wars Wiki
John Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice of the United States whose court opinions helped lay the basis for American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court of the United States a coequal branch of government along with the legislative and executive branches. Previously, Marshall had been a leader of the Federalist Party in Virginia and served in the United States House of Representatives from 1799 to 1800. He was Secretary of State under President John Adams from 1800 to 1801. The longest-serving Chief Justice and the fourth longest-serving justice in US Supreme Court history, Marshall dominated the Court for over three decades and played a significant role in the development of the American legal system. Most notably, he reinforced the principle that federal courts are obligated to exercise judicial review, by disregarding purported laws if they violate the Constitution. Thus, Marshall cemented the position of the American judiciary as an independent and influential branch of government. Furthermore, Marshall's court made several important decisions relating to federalism, affecting the balance of power between the federal government and the states during the early years of the republic. In particular, he repeatedly confirmed the supremacy of federal law over state law, and supported an expansive reading of the enumerated powers.
In grades 6 – 8, students are ready for new levels of intellectual challenge. If they have followed Great Minds's Wheatley Portfolio up to this point, they should have a strong background in mythology, folktales, and fables from around the world; classic and contemporary fiction and poetry; and literary nonfiction related to historical and select scientific topics. They should be able to write a short paper in which they articulate a central idea and support it with examples from texts. Through the diverse use of texts, new topics are introduced and old ones reintroduced in greater depth deliberately across the middle school grades. As in the earlier grades, many units combine fictional narratives with historical accounts; students may build background knowledge while considering similarities and differences between fiction and nonfiction. For example, in seventh grade, students build upon the “Literary Heroes” unit from Grade 4, and then read about the Middle Ages, as they compare varying depictions of medieval characters. Students make connections between literature and science as well: In sixth grade, they read about flying from literary, historical, and scientific perspectives, and in seventh grade they consider to what extent the science in science fiction must be truthful. The arts are integrated into the units, both for comparison with literature and for enrichment. Through class discussion, close reading, and careful writing, students deepen their understanding of all of these works and concepts. The suggested texts reflect a wide variety of cultural and personal perspectives and accommodate a range of interests. The unifying themes allow students to consider what seemingly disparate texts have in common; for instance, one unit focuses on determination, another on survival in the wild, and another on the greater good. The arts are deeply integrated into select units; students look at how authors and artists are similar in a grade eight unit, “Authors and Artists.” Students hone their writing skills through a variety of assignments and projects. They learn to write cogent arguments, responses to literature and informational text, narratives, reflective essays, and more. Each unit includes word study, with special attention to word origins and history. Students work with graphic organizers in order to clarify their ideas and plan their writing. They engage in discussions, give presentations, and deliver expressive readings of literature. By the end of eighth grade, students have learned many ways of looking at a text, have built historical, scientific, and cultural knowledge and understanding, and have learned to express their ideas clearly. They are prepared to explore literature as a subject in itself and to engage in close textual analysis. The content cloud below distills the key content knowledge in the Middle School maps. The larger an event, name, or idea appears, the more emphasis it receives in the maps. As you examine this cloud, do keep in mind that the Middle School maps contain much that is not included here.
It's a long way from the dull hums of the amorous midshipman fish to the strains of a Puccini aria - or, alas, even to the simplest Celine Dion melody. But the neural circuitry that led to the human love song - not to mention birdsongs, frog thrums and mating calls of all manner of vertebrates - was likely laid down hundreds of millions of years ago with the hums and grunts of the homely piscine. By mapping the developing brain cells in newly hatched midshipman fish larvae and comparing them to other species, Andrew H. Bass, Cornell professor of neurobiology and behavior, and colleagues Edwin Gilland of Howard University and Robert Baker of New York University found that the neural network behind sound production in vertebrates can be traced back through evolutionary time to an era long before the first animals ventured onto dry land. The research is published in the July 18 issue of the journal Science. Bass used fluorescent dyes to identify distinct groups of neurons in the brains of the larvae of midshipman fish, a species known for the loud humming sounds adult males generate with their swim bladders to attract females to their nests. With laser-scanning confocal microscopy, the research team observed clusters of cells in the larvae's developing hindbrain as they formed connections and grew into the networks that control vocalization in mature fish. "Confocal microscopy allows you to look at different populations of neurons at the same time - to really be precise about their locations relative to each other," Bass said. He found that the neurons in a compartment of the hindbrain known as rhombomere 8, which are thought to control pattern generation in vocalizing vertebrates, gives rise to the circuitry of the vocal motor nucleus - the system behind the fishes' hums. Comparing the system to the neural circuitry behind vocalizations of amphibians, birds, reptiles and mammals, including primates, Bass found that while the networks vary in complexity, their fundamental attributes are conserved. The finding puts human speech - and social communications of all vertebrates - in evolutionary context, Bass said. The research also provides a framework for neuroscientists and evolutionary biologists studying social behavior in a variety of species, he said - and sends a message to scientists and non-scientists "about the importance of this group of animals to understanding behavior; to understanding the nervous system; and to understanding just how important social communication is - among them, as it is among ourselves."
An envelope is a flat, flexible container, made of paper or similar material, that has a single opening and a flap that can be sealed over the opening. The envelope is usually sealed by wetting an area of the flap. Some envelopes are sealed with a metal fastener. Others are sealed with a piece of string that wraps around flat, circular pieces of cardboard attached to the envelope. A recent development in envelopes is a thin strip of plastic, which is removed to reveal an area of the flap with an adhesive that does not need moistening. Envelopes are almost always rectangular, but they exist in a wide range of sizes. The two main styles used are banker envelopes, which have the opening on the long side, and pocket envelopes, which have the opening on the short side. In the United States, standard sizes range from 3.5 x 6 in (89 × 152 mm) to 10 x 13 in (254 x 330 mm). In Europe, sizes range from 3.2 x 4.5 in (81 x 114 mm) to 11 x 15.75 in (280 x 400 mm). Sizes are somewhat different in the United Kingdom, with the most common being 4.25 x 8.625 in (108 x 219 mm). Some envelopes have one or more windows cut into the front to allow addresses written on sheets inside to be seen. These windows may be covered with a transparent material. The earliest ancestor of the envelope was used by the ancient Babylonians five or six thousand years ago. Messages were written on clay tablets, which were baked to harden them. The tablets were then covered with more clay and baked again. The inner tablet could only be revealed by breaking open the outer layer of clay, ensuring the security of the message. True envelopes did not exist until much later, long after the invention of paper. The oldest form of paper was papyrus, first manufactured by the ancient Egyptians at least as early as 3000 B.C. Papyrus was made from a fibrous material found within the woody stems of an aquatic, grassy plant (Cyperus papyrus). Long strips of this material were placed side by side, then covered with another layer of strips at right angles to the first. The sheet formed by the two layers was dampened, pressed, dried, flattened, then dried again. The resulting papyrus, if properly made, was pure white and free from spots and stains. An excellent writing material, papyrus was used extensively by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. It continued to be used until paper made from other plant sources reached the rest of the world from China. Some papyrus was used in Europe as late as the twelfth century. Early forms of Chinese paper, made from reeds and rice, date back as far as 1200 B.C. A superior kind of paper, similar to modern paper, was first made about the year 105. Attributed to a court official named Ts'ai Lun, this improved paper was made from a mixture of materials, including mulberry and other woody fibers, hemp, rags, and fishing nets. Papermaking spread slowly from East to West, reaching Central Asia by 751 and Baghdad by 793. By the fourteenth century, there were several paper mills throughout Europe, particularly in Spain, Italy, France, and Germany. The development of the printing press in the 1450s greatly increased the demand for paper. The early history of the paper envelope is not known. Paper may have been used to wrap messages at a very early date in China. They did not appear in Europe until the seventeenth century, when they began to be used in Spain and France. Until that time, messages were simply folded and sealed. Even today, some stationery is designed to be folded and mailed without an envelope. Cotton and linen rags were the main raw materials used to make paper until the early nineteenth century, when they were replaced by wood. At about the same time, papermaking by hand began to be replaced by papermaking machines. The emerging envelope industry was noted by Karl Marx in his book Das Kapital in 1867. Envelope manufacturers continued to increase the speed of production, from three thousand envelopes per hour at the time of Marx to more than fifty thousand per hour in the late twentieth century. By the late 1990s, nearly two hundred billion envelopes were made in the United States each year. Most envelopes are made from paper. Some large, strong envelopes are made from synthetic materials, such as polyethylene. Polyethylene is a plastic made from ethylene, which is derived from petroleum. Paper used for most envelopes is made from wood. Modern technology allows the wood to come from almost any kind of tree. Paper used to make very high quality envelopes, such as those used to enclose formal invitations, may be made partly or completely from cotton or linen. Some envelopes are made from manila, a fiber from the leaves of a plant found in the Philippines that produces a strong, yellowish paper. Most so-called manila envelopes, however, are made of paper derived from wood which only resembles true manila. The glue applied to envelopes is of two basic types. The glue applied to the flap that is sealed by the consumer is usually a gum. A typical natural gum is gum arabic, derived from a substance produced by the acacia tree. Synthetic gums are often derived from dextrans, which are produced by the fermentation of sugar. The glue that holds the rest of the envelope must be stronger and more permanent. This glue is often derived from starches, which are obtained from corn, wheat, potatoes, rice, and other plants. The fastener attached to some envelopes is made of aluminum or other metals. The string attached to other envelopes is made of cotton or other fibers. The material covering the windows in some envelopes is usually polystyrene. Polystyrene is a plastic made from styrene, a derivative of petroleum. Modern envelope manufacturing is highly automated, and almost always results in a reliable product. Although constant testing is not necessary, certain factors are checked to ensure quality. Paper arriving at the factory is inspected to be sure that it has the correct weight. A very small number of sample envelopes are checked to ensure that they have the correct shape and size, and that adhesives have been applied in the correct places. Any printing that appears on the envelope must be in the correct position, of the correct color, and without printing errors. If any windows are cut in the envelope, they must have the correct dimensions and be in the correct position. Although major changes in envelope design are not expected, innovations are likely in the way paper is made. Manufacturers are constantly looking for ways to make paper that are more efficient, less costly, and result in less pollution. Genetic engineering may result in trees that grow faster and produce wood that is better adapted to producing pulp. A recent trend that is likely to continue is the increasing use of recycled paper as a raw material for making envelopes and other paper products. Biermann, Christopher J. Essentials of Pulping and Papermaking. New York: Academic Press, 1993. Ferguson, Kelly, ed. New Trends and Developments in Papermaking. Miller Freeman, 1994. Keman, Michael. "Pushing the Envelope." Smithsonian (October 1997): 30-31. Ohio Envelope Manufacturing Company. http://www.ohioenvelope.com/ (September 30, 1998). — Rose Secrest
Buff-tailed bumblebees are the UK's largest bumblebee species. The queen is the only one that has the buff-coloured tail, the workers all have white tails. The queen emerges in the spring after hibernating through the winter, and goes looking for a nest site. At the height of its success, a buff-tailed bumblebee colony may contain 150 workers. Scientific name: Bombus terrestris Large earth bumblebee The life and death of a bumble bee colony. David Attenborough describes life at the heart of the hive, exploring the fascinating world of the bee colony. This is one of nature's most highly organised and well constructed ways of life. It's a life cycle story that has provided a rich thematic backdrop to many a work of fiction exploring the nature of humanity and society. Thermal cameras show how bumblebees leave a warm glow. New camera technologies have enabled scientists and film-makers to study and reveal the secret inner workings of animals' lives. Here, a thermal camera shows the mechanical technique used by a chilly bumblebee to get to a flight-ready temperature. The camera then also shows how heat from the bumblebee is left behind in the flowers visited by the hot-bodied bee. The following habitats are found across the Buff-tailed bumblebee distribution range. Find out more about these environments, what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them. Discover what these behaviours are and how different plants and animals use them. Additional data source: Animal Diversity Web Take a trip through the natural world with our themed collections of video clips from the natural history archive. Bees are amazing - not only do they fulfil a vital role in our ecosystem, they are one of the most complex and sophisticated living things in the history of evolution.
Cardioversion can be done using an energy shock (electric cardioversion) or medications (pharmacologic cardioversion). Electric cardioversion may use a device that can be placed inside (internal) or outside (external) the body. External electric cardioversion uses a device called a defibrillator. Electrode patches are placed on the front and back of the chest and connected to the defibrillator. When the defibrillator paddles are placed on your chest, an energy shock is delivered to your heart. This shock interrupts all existing electrical activity of the heart and then allows the normal heart rhythm to return. Reasons you may have external electric cardioversion: - An external cardioversion may be done during an emergency situation. Some abnormal rhythms, such as ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation can be life-threatening. An energy shock can be life saving. - People who have an arrhythmia (usually atrial fibrillation ) that began recently, or one that cannot be controlled with medicines may be scheduled for external cardioversion. First, tests such as a transesophageal echocardiogram are often done to make sure that there are no blood clots in the heart. Some people may need to take blood thinners before the cardioversion procedure. If you are having a scheduled cardioversion, you will usually be given a sedative before the procedure starts. After the external cardiovresion, you may be given medicine to prevent blood clots and to help prevent the arrhythmia from coming back. Internal cardioversion uses a device called an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD). ICDs have two parts: a pulse generator and electrodes (wires). The generator is implanted under the skin, like a pacemaker. The wires connect the generator to the heart. This device also delivers an electric shock to your heart. An implantable cardiac defibrillator is placed in people who are at high risk of sudden cardiac death from dangerous arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation. See also: Implantable cardiac defibrillator Cardioversion can be done using drugs that are taken by mouth or given through an intravenous line (IV). It can take several minutes to days for a successful cardioversion. If pharmacologic cardioversion is done in a hospital, your heart rate will be regularly checked. Although rare, cardioversion using drugs can be done outside the hospital. However, this requires close follow-up with a cardiologist. As with electrical cardioversion, you may be given blood thinning medicines to prevent blood clots from forming and leaving the heart (which can cause a stroke). Possible complications of cardioversion are uncommon, but may include: - Worsening of the arrhythmia - Blood clots that can cause a stroke or other organ damage - Bruising, burning, or pain where the electrodes were used - Allergic reactions from medicines used in pharmacologic cardioversion Those who perform external cardioversion may be shocked if the procedure is not done correctly. This can cause heart rhythm problems, pain, even death. Miller JM, Zipes DP. Therapy for cardiac arrhythmias. In: Libby P, Bonow RO, Mann DL, Zipes DP. Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 8th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;2007:chap 33. Epstein AE, DiMarco JP, Ellenbogen KA, Estes NA, 3rd, Freedman RA, Gettes LS, et al. ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 Guidelines for Device-Based Therapy of Cardiac Rhythm Abnormalities: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 Guideline Update for Implantation of Cardiac Pacemakers and Antiarrhythmia Devices): developed in collaboration with the American Association for Thoracic Surgery and Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Circulation. 117:e350-e408.
CBSE NCERT Solutions for Class 6th Science Chapter 9 : Living Organisms and Their Surroundings. NCERT Class 6 Science Solutions 1. What is a habitat? The surrounding where a living organism lives is called its habitat. 2. How are cactus adapted to survive in a desert? Adaption to survive in a desert: (i) Leaves are modified into spines which prevent the loss of water. (ii) Stem is modified into leaf like structures which store water and perform photosynthesis. (iii) Stem are spongy and have waxy coating which prevents transpiration. (iv) Roots are deep which can access water from depths. 3. Fill up the blanks (a) The presence of specific features, which enable a plant or an animal to live in a particular habitat, is called ____________ . (b) The habitats of the plants and animals that live on land are called _____________ habitat. (c) The habitats of plants and animals that live in water are called ____________ habitat. (d) Soil, water and air are the _____________ factors of a habitat. (e) Changes in our surroundings that make us respond to them, are called _____________. (a) The presence of specific features, which enable a plant or an animal to live in a particular habitat, is called adaption . (b) The habitats of the plants and animals that live on land are called terrestrial habitat. (c) The habitats of plants and animals that live in water are calledaquatic habitat. (d) Soil, water and air are the abiotic factors of a habitat. (e) Changes in our surroundings that make us respond to them, are called stimuli. 4. Which of the things in the following list are nonliving? Plough, Mushroom, Sewing machine, Radio, Boat, Water hyacinth, Earthworm Plough, sewing machine, radio, boat 5. Give an example of a non-living thing, which shows any two characteristics of living things. Car (shows motion and creates sound) is an example of a non-living thing which shows two characteristics of living things. 6. Which of the non-living things listed below, were once part of a living thing? Butter, Leather, Soil, Wool, Electric bulb, Cooking oil, Salt, Apple, Rubber Butter, leather, wool, cooking oil, apple, rubber 7. List the common characteristics of the living things. (i) It shows growth. (ii) Needs nutrition. (iii) It reproduce. (iv) It responds to stimuli. (v) It respires. 8. Explain, why speed is important for survival in the grasslands for animals that live there. (Hint: There are few trees or places for animals to hide in grasslands habitats.) Speed is important for survival in the grasslands for animals that live there because it help them in protecting themselves from their predators. In grasslands, there are very less numbers of suitable places available there where animals can hide so speed help them in escaping from their predators.
Centre for Assessment Information about assessment Non-verbal reasoning tests Group intelligence tests requiring recognition of similarities, analogies and patterns in unfamiliar designs, are referred to as non-verbal reasoning (NVR) tests. Like verbal reasoning tests, NVR tests are comprised of a variety of item types, including series completion, codes and analogies. However, unlike verbal reasoning tests, none of the question types requires learned knowledge for its solution. In an educational context, these tests are typically used as an indication of a pupil’s ability to understand and assimilate novel information independently of language skills. Scores on these tests can indicate a pupil’s ability to learn new material in a wide range of school subjects based on their current levels of functioning. These tests have high reliability, typically in the region of 0.90 to 0.95, and good predictive validity, i.e. they are relatively good predictors of future academic attainment. NVR tests have been widely used to measure general intellectual ability for many years and have been subject to continual development by theorists. Spearman (1927) proposed a ‘two factor’ theory of intelligence, whereby all test questions contained a general intelligence factor known as ‘g’ and another factor specific to each question, and it is this general intelligence factor ‘g’ which Spearman suggests represents reasoning ability. Vernon (1950) developed a hierarchical model of intelligence, which stemmed from the earlier work by Spearman. Vernon proposed that the general intelligence factor ‘g’ could be divided into two group factors, a spatial-mechanical-practical factor and a verbal-educational factor, both of which were further divided into sub-factors. In comparison, Guilford (1967) adopted a model in which several equally important factors ran in parallel with each other, ‘general reasoning’ being identified as one of these factors. Cattell (1963) however, defined NVR as a ‘fluid-general intelligence’, which involves the ability to reason with novel material, without the need to draw on learned knowledge. Cattell believed measures such as NVR tests could be considered ‘culture fair’ and thus provide a more appropriate measure of general intelligence, compared with verbal reasoning tests, for test takers not fluent in the language being used. The following are two relatively straightforward examples of non-verbal reasoning questions:
Whenever you quote or base your ideas on another person's work, you must document the source you used. If reading a source contributed to the ideas presented in your paper, you must give the author(s) credit, even if you do not quote their work directly. Citations should provide answers to the following questions: Who produced the work? Where is it published or made available? When was it written? For a book, it is standard to include the following: Content of the citation will vary between type of material you are referencing. Use the style manual tabs at the top of this guide to find style guides and websites with examples for citing articles, books, and other source material. The following are excellent sources for citation examples, and resources on citing. Books, chapters, and journal articles should all be entered uniquely in a bibliography. When looking at an existing bibliography, look for the following clues to determine the format of the material that is being referenced. This information will help you to search appropriately for the material and use it for your own research. 1)A Citation for a Book: Smith, Christopher J. 1996. Early Rome and Latium: Economy and Society c. 1000 to 500 BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press How do we know this is a book? 2)A Portion of a book (Chapter) Corbeill, A. (2002), ‘Political Movement: Walking and Ideology in Republican Rome’, in D. Fredrick (ed.), The Roman Gaze: Vision, Power, and the Body (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press), 182–215. How do we know this is a chapter in a book? 3)An Article in a Journal Jones, C. P. (1971). The Levy at Thespiae under Marcus Aurelius. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 12(1), 45-48. How do we know this is an article in a journal?
By Professor Sonia Contera For the past decade, scientists and engineers have been gaining increasing control over the properties of matter at the nanometer scale - measuring, predicting and constructing nanoparticles and nanostructures. Novel applications have been created which have the potential to transform everything from manufacturing to energy production and access to clean water; more effective pollution reduction and prevention; stronger, lighter, cheaper materials. An area where nanotechnology could make one of the most substantial impacts is medicine. Why nano in medicine? The fundamental building blocks of life - DNA, proteins, lipids - are nano-sized systems. At the molecular level a lot of biology happens at the nm-scale. DNA (diameter ~ 2nm) and proteins (typically ~ 3 - tens of nm), are effectively complex nanomachines fine-tuned by evolution, and their function, their movements, their mechanics and their interactions with each other in health and disease can be studied, and targeted, with nanotechnology tools. Figure 1. Size comparison: nanoparticles and biological systems This convergence of nanotechnology and biology has led to the emergence of nanomedicine. Nanomedicine is the use of nanotechnology to create radically improved research, diagnosis and treatment of disease that can reach the single-molecule level. Nanotechnology is helping to create a revolution, a paradigm shift in the way we treat and diagnose disease; current research focuses on areas such as new targeted drug-delivery systems, nanomaterials to restore damaged tissues, and extremely accurate biosensing devices. Nanomedicine offers hope for treating e.g. spinal cord injuries, diabetes, heart disease, Parkinson’s disease and cancer. Multidisiciplinarity of nanomedicine Nanomedicine arises from the convergence of different sciences at the nm scale: materials science, physics, chemistry, biology, engineering, etc. This leads to scientists with different backgrounds, and different technical and intellectual skills, trying to tackle medical problems using nanotechnology, such as "what is the best way to target a tumour with a nanoparticle?". The challenge of nanomedicine is to integrate the knowledge of chemists, biologists and physicists to reach the optimal answer. One important contribution to this field comes from physics. Physicists try to identify and to quantify the basic interactions of nanomaterials with biological systems - the molecular forces that drive the interaction (electrostatics, van der Waals, dynamical complex phenomena), the thermodynamics, the interface of the nanoparticle with the liquid, the role of mechanical properties (stiffness, elasticity, adhesion). The objective is to understand the basic phenomena so that rational design of nanoparticles for a specific medical application becomes possible. From a physicist's point of view, biological systems exploit the physical chemistry of nm-sized biomolecules (proteins, DNA...) to create complex functional, dynamic structures with detailed nanomechanical properties (adhesion, stiffness, elasticity), tailored interfaces and a functional hierarchical organization (from nm to micron to mm scales). Interfaces and mechanical properties modulate the functional structures that enable biological function, from the selectivity of a membrane channel, to the binding of a protein to DNA, to cell division and morphogenesis and the organization of tissues and organs. All of these functions are altered by disease or trauma. Additionally, biological systems such as proteins and DNA will create interfaces with the surrounding fluids that will govern their interactions with nanomaterials; cells will react to manmade nanomaterials through interactions at their interfaces that will be modulated by mechanical properties (e.g. adhesion, elasticity) of both the cell and the material, as cells dynamically react to chemical, as well as to mechanical cues (mechanotransduction). Understanding these complex, dynamic structures and physical properties is one of the main challenges of modern science and constitutes the scientific background to modern nanomedicine, biomaterials and bioinspired/biomimetic systems. Key physical parameters and concepts: - molecular forces - mechanical properties (adhesion, elasticity) There is little quantitative scientific knowledge of the basic processes that govern the nanomaterial/biological medium interactions. With currently available techniques, it is very challenging to obtain the necessary quantitative information of all the relevant parameters, from nm and sub-nm resolution of structures and their dynamics in physiological fluids, to mapping of mechanical properties of cells, biomolecules and nanomaterials at the nm scale, and the properties of the interfaces that complex biological and nanostructured materials establish with biological fluids. \|Figure 2. Sonia Contera uses AFM based techniques for quantitative measurement of mechanical properties and interfaces of biological systems in physiological conditions\| In the last few years we have developed techniques based on the atomic force microscope (AFM) that have enabled us to quantitatively measure the interfaces of biological molecules and structures with physiological fluids. Using AFM with a novel small-amplitude method in which a microcantilever is oscillated just with ~ 1 Å amplitude at the interface of the surface and the liquid, we’ve been able to measure the solid-liquid adhesion energy with sub-nm resolution 1. Using this technique we quantified the complex electrostatics of membrane proteins (bacteriorhodopsin, a 3-nm sized light activated proton pump) measuring ionic effects on the water structure at the interface 2. Using the AFM tip as a very precise nanoindenter we have quantified the stiffness of a single membrane protein 3. Furthermore we have been able to show that the elasticity of a membrane protein is related to its interface properties 2. Using a high-speed AFM technique (developed by Toshio ando and colleagues at Kanazawa Univeristy) that combines sub-nm resolution with speeds up to 50 frames/s, we have studied the dynamics of bacteriorhodopsin during pumping of proteins 4, 5 and shown how protein function within the membrane involves the coupling with neighboring proteins 5. We have increased the resolution of AFM in solution to resolve single atoms in solution 1, an ion binding to a membrane protein and have been able to resolve the DNA double-helix. More recently, using state-of-the-art multifrequency AFM we have been able to quantitatively map the nanomechanical properties of living cells with unprecedented speed and accuracy 6; this will make it possible to study the fundamental mechanisms that determine cell nanomechanical response in different contexts. We have shown the relevance of these properties for the interaction of biomolecules and cells with surfaces and we have shown that interfaces, dynamics and mechanical properties are indeed interrelated 2. Application of basic physics to nanomedicine Currently we are exploiting this knowledge and techniques to design nanostructures (nanostructure-based drug-delivery systems, and nanocomposites for tissue regeneration) that enable selectivity and biocompatibility by controlling interfaces and mechanical properties. - It has been shown that mechanics matters in cancer: for example nanoparticles can reach tumours using the differential mechanical properties of the surrounding blood vessels (the so-called EPR effect 7). Our aim is to design nanoparticles that not only have the right chemistry but also the right mechanical properties, using our ability to quantify mechanical properties at the nm-scale. - There is a growing interest in using nanotechnology in bio materials applications such as implants to repair bone tissue. Bioinspired nanomaterials and nanocomposites can promote healing and tissue regeneration because they can be used to provide a good structural and mechanical matching to that of real tissue, can provide nanoscale electrical conductivity (important in e.g. heart and spinal cord tissues), improve the implant adhesive and micro/nanoenvironment- defining moieties, and improve the ability of cells to self-assemble in 3D tissues. Figure 3. SEM image of a 3D scaffold created using a nanocomposite of chitosan and carbon nanotubes, by L Bugnicourt, S. Trigueros and S Contera, unpublished. We are particularly interested in carbon nanotubes. For example, carbon nanotubes show viscoelastic behaviour similar to that observed in soft-tissue membranes, so they can be used to increase the Young's modulus and tensile strength of hybrid biomaterials. Carbon nanotubes have been shown to support the cultivation of neurons. Conjugation of these nanotubes to different substrates can affect cell behaviour and promote attachment, growth, differentiation and long-term survival of neurons, as neurons seem to need a conductive nanostructure to be able to survive. Despite the advantages of carbon nanotubes they have shown some biocompatibility issues. We are developing strategies for creating nanocomposite networks of carbon nanotubes and biopolymers, with controlled structural and mechanical properties. We could ensure that the nanocomposites are biocompatible and electrically active by using the self-assembly properties and biocompatibility of e.g. chitosan 8. - Voitchovsky,K., JJ Kuna, SA Contera, E Tosatti, F Stellacci, Direct mapping of the solid-liquid adhesion energy with subnanometre resolution. Nature Nanotechnology, 2010. 5(6): p. 401-405. - Contera*, S.A., K. Voitchovsky, and J.F. Ryan, Controlled ionic condensation at the surface of a native extremophile membrane. Nanoscale, 2010. 2(2): p. 222-229. - Voitchovsky, K., S. A. Contera, et al. (2007). "Electrostatic and steric interactions determine bacteriorhodopsin single-molecule biomechanics." Biophysical Journal 93(6): 2024-2037. - Yamashita, H., K. Voitchovsky, et al. (2009). "Dynamics of bacteriorhodopsin 2D crystal observed by high-speed atomic force microscopy." Journal of Structural Biology 167(2): 153-158. - Voitchovsky, K., S. A. Contera, et al. (2009). "Lateral coupling and cooperative dynamics in the function of the native membrane protein bacteriorhodopsin." Soft Matter 5(24): 4899-4904. - Raman, A., S. Trigueros, et al. (2011). "Mapping nanomechanical properties of live cells using multi-harmonic atomic force microscopy." Nature Nanotechnology 6(12): 809-814. - Matsumura, Y. and H. Maeda (1986). "A new concept for macromolecular therapeutics in cancer chemotherapy: mechanism of tumoritropic accumulation of proteins and the antitumor agent smancs." Cancer Res 46(12 Pt 1): 6387-6392. - Bugnicourt, L., S. Trigueros, SA Contera "Engineering Biocompatibility and Assembly in Carbon Nanotube Electrodes Using the Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan" Solid State Devices and Materials 2011, proceedings, no. 5372.
The progressive acquisition, reinforcement, and creative use of language structures will give the student confidence to self-expression. By analyzing, comparing and applying the French past tenses, the student will have the basic tools to story telling. At this level, the student will be encouraged to express simple and complex sentence structures. Anecdotes by authors from French speaking Canada will serve as models for the final task. Students will be required to submit an oral/visual presentation using either a DVD/CD. A headset or microphone and speakers are required for the oral parts of this course. Students will submit recordings using software such as Jing, YouTube or Windows Media Player. Audio clips are provided in .wma format which is Windows compatible. MAC users will need to convert the files to an appropriate format. It is recommended that students take OL354 French II prior to taking this course.
Microscale experiments in organic chemistry worksheet lab 31 extraction worksheet 1. Infiltration is governed by two forces, gravity, and capillary action. Lesson 1 filtering water introduction this lesson will introduce students to the concepts of water pollution and access to clean water through class discussion and a water filtration experiment. It covers the entire chemistry form 3 syllabus, for the preparation of national and local exams. In the center column, state whether the material is a pure substance or mixture. Moore, edd by clicking on following download button. Check out these two important components of the human bodys filtration system. Worksheets are very critical for every student to practice his her concepts. For example, they take advantage of the varying strengths and abilities of different materials to make composite materials that. Qld science teachers has free online science lessons, worksheets, quizzes, experiments and faqs. Read over all sets of notes know the definition of all terms that appear in the notes solubility, electrolyte, solution some answers are given in. Science chemical sciences for primary and middle years. Amount of acetylsalicylic acid in powder see box 2. We here at the cavalcade o chemistry regularly donate to the free software. Introduction to water chemistry lesson worksheet answers 1 introduction to water chemistry worksheet vocabulary definitions 1. Separating mixtures filtration and crystallisation. In most cases, this liquid is water, and the filtrate is purified water. Students, teachers and parents can download all cbse educational material and extremely well prepared worksheets from. This activity is only concerned with filtration, which removes most but not all of the impurities from the water. Use a hot plate or a hot water bath on a hot plate. Number worksheets science worksheets worksheets for kids worksheet maker properties of matter rational numbers states of matter 5th grade math physical science mixtures and solutions activity packet here is a useful and simple foldable activity that can be used to teach mixtures and solutions. Download cbse class 5 science filtration in pdf, questions answers for science, cbse class 5 science filtration worksheets have become an integral part of the education system. Filtration, evaporation, distillation, chromatography, rusting, ph of materials, prepare sodium chloride, prepare hydrogen, prepare oxygen, prepare carbon dioxide. If copper sulphate is added until no more will dissolve, a saturated solution is formed. Here you can purchase a subscription to allow you to access the notes, worksheets, worked answers. Jan 29, 2020 filtration is a process used to separate solids from liquids or gases using a filter medium that allows the fluid to pass through but not the solid. Introduction to water chemistry worksheet answers pdf teach. Tes global ltd is registered in england company no 02017289 with its registered office at 26 red lion square london wc1r 4hq. Chemical formula models acids, bases and polyatomic ions. There are many types of filters, and the pore sizes determine the purity of the liquid. Write a chemical equation that shows the formation of the following ions. Modeling chemistry 1 u4 ws1 v1 name date pd chemistry unit 4 worksheet 1 1. Describe the difference between an atom and an ion. Displaying all worksheets related to water filtration. The filtration methods used in this activity are a simple demonstration and the water should. Either the clarified fluid or the solid particles removed from the fluid may be the desired product. Chemistry i worksheet name classification of matter and changes instructions. The process of distillation involves the evaporation and condensation of a liquid. To print this proof we recommend that you scale the pdf to fit the size. In this coloring science worksheet, your child will color each fruits seeds and learn about the relationship between seeds, flowers, and fruit. Looking for free pdf chemistry worksheets that you can print. The questions are differentiated to give students an idea about the level of demand of each one. Worksheets cover a range of topics including basic chemistry, writing chemical formula, chemical reactions and balancing chemical equations. Chapter 7 water chemistry introduction to volunteer water quality monitoring training notebook water chemistry plays an important role in the health, abundance and diversity of the aquatic life that can live in a stream. While preparing tea, a filter or a sieve is used to separate tea leaves from the water. Within this domain, students should understand the causes of waves, tides, and currents. Write the dissociation equations for each of the following. Introduction to water chemistry lesson worksheet 1 introduction to water chemistry worksheet vocabulary definitions 1. Helge mygind, ole vesterlund nielsen and vibeke axelsen. What is the chemical symbol for each element below. Common types of filters are coffee filters, those used in air conditioning units and furnaces. Chemistry worksheets elements puzzles by fran lafferty tpt. The soil serves as a reservoir for wastes either through purification or by storage, and it provides materials such as clays or silica sands that are. The five main branches of chemistry include analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry and biochemistry. Singleuse items, such as water bottles, bags, straws, or paper d. We here at the cavalcade o chemistry regularly donate to the free software foundation and the wikimedia foundation. For these reasons, water that is delivered to our homes must go through a water treatment process. We will begin with types of solutions and then various alternatives in which concentrations of a solute can be expressed in liquid solution. For example, in sea water there is a large difference between the boiling points of the dissolved salts. The fluid that passes through the filter is called the filtrate. By physically removing the pathogens, membrane filtration can significantly reduce chemical addition, such as chlorination. Filtration meaning, process, method, examples chemistry. Water chemistry 109 introductory level workshop 1 chapter 7 water chemistry introduction to volunteer water quality monitoring training notebook water chemistry plays an important role in the health, abundance and diversity of the aquatic life that can live in a stream. Chemistry30worksheets introduction to redox chemistry 1. Crosby, newton south high school, newton, ma 02459 page 4 of 4. This website and its content is subject to our terms and conditions. Saturated solution at some point, even with highly soluble compounds, a solution will reach its capacity to dissolve. This file contains the worksheets for all eight chapters of basic che. Ws201112, water chemistry contentsorganization organisation the course is given by prof. This lesson was originally designed for the aqa gcse 91 chemistry specification but is easily transferable to other specifications including ks3 as a challenge lesson and ks5 as a recap lesson. A practice quiz for practicing your first semester material. Material engineers and mechanical engineers are focused on understanding different materials so that they can create new materials with desired properties. It includes title, learning objective, success criteria, 4 part lesson structure connect activity, activate activity, demonstrate activity and consolidate activity and a strip to glue in books. This page will be where i will post any materials ive created for, or used in, the teaching of my national 5 class. If the material is a pure classify it as either an element or compound in the right column. Introduction to water chemistry worksheet answers pdf. Advanced chemistry experiments for ap, ib, and honors chemistry teacher guide 21st century science pasco scientific 10101 foothills blvd. Filtration worksheet learning mat year 8 chemistry. Using reasons from chemistry, describe the effect on the environment of one of the following. Can assign oxidation states on inspection and give delectron count of transition metal. Theyll get the chance to practice their research skills by using a book or the internet to find out what each organs job is. Elements to chemical symbols basic click here for the periodic table. Feb 11, 2015 this resource is aimed at a level chemistry students studying reaction kinetics. Solutions and concentration the cavalcade o chemistry. This is an external download link and found free from viruses. Infiltration hydrology infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. Concentration worksheet w 328 everett community college. Filtration is a process used to separate solids from liquids or gases using a filter medium that allows the fluid to pass through but not the solid. The precipitate is typically isolated from the reaction mixture by filtration. Suitable for middle school to high school students and teachers. To correct something that has gone bad or defective. Worksheet 20 coordination compounds nomenclature worksheet key. Explain why the technique at left would not be effective in separating a mixture of salt and sugar. Also available is a pdf of a pie chart of the elemental composition of the human body. Methods of separating substances worksheets filtration, fractional. Functions of soil include plant growth food and fiber, as well as aesthetics, providing physical support for our infrastructure roads and buildings, and purification and filtration of water. Filtration iwb lesson and worksheet teaching resources. Separation of mixtures exercise river dell regional school. Chemistry teaching resources national 5 n5 chemistry. Free download chemistry essentials for dummies chemistry. Chemistry form 3 notes 6 this category contains chemistry form 3 notes as aggregated from the various high school approved text books, including klb,etc. Aact is a professional community by and for k12 teachers of chemistry. Show student engineering teams their various student reference sheets. Kids will cut out the various functions listed at the bottom of the worksheet and match them to the appropriate organ. White 1 worksheet 20 coordination compounds nomenclature worksheet key 1. According to, a filtrate is the end product after a liquid has been filtered. The presence of a minor component in another chemical or mixture. Water experiments 4 4 procedure pour dirty swampriverreservoir water into the two litres bottle with a cap. Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the word equations below. Find the mole fraction of the sodium chloride and of the water in the solution. A less than 10 g b exactly ic g more than g n it is possible to predict. More lessons for chemistry math worksheets this is a series of junior certificate chemistry experiments in videos. Cbse class 5 science filtration practice worksheet for. High school chemistry worksheets and answer keys, study guides and vocabulary sets. Periodic trends worksheet 1 rank the following elements by increasing atomic radius. Website with lessons, worksheets, and quizzes on various high school chemistry topics. Classifying matter classify each of the materials below. Water chemistry adjustment worksheets blandin foundation. A read is counted each time someone views a publication summary such as the title, abstract, and list of authors, clicks on a figure, or views or downloads the fulltext. The diagram illustrates how filtration is done in a scientific laboratory. These pages offer questions and answers on separate page so you can check. Solutions national council of educational research and. I also donate to the linux mint project and toward hosting puppy linux. Filtration chromatography evaporation sand and salt water and collect both sugar and water and collect sugar only soluble ink and water and collect both soluble coloured inks you evaporate the water, vou be able tc get the salt back again. The addition or change of a subscript changes the meaning of the formula unit and of the equation. In chemical plants, gravity is also used to separate and is an economical. It is easy to separate the salty sea water from the sand and seaweed by a method called filtration. The presence of a minor component in another chemical or. Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, how and why substances combine or separate to form other substances, and how substances interact with energy. Problemsolving workbook 51 mole concept name class date problem solving continued sample problem 2 a student needs 0. The lessons in the fine filters unit focus conceptually on the role of membrane technology for filtering water. Free pdf chemistry worksheets to download or print chemistry. Chemistry 12 worksheet 4 5hydrolysis chemistry 12 worksheet 4 5hydrolysis page 3 of 3 pages 7. In this chemistry lesson, students experiment on water samples using thin layer and column chromatography. This is a collection of chemistry worksheets in pdf format. Some people shy away from trying to understand his subject because they feel its over their heads. Common chemical formula list nacl sodium chloride h 2 o water c 6 h 12 o 6 glucose c 2 h 6 o alcohol caso 4 sulfate group h 2 s hydrogen sulfide nacl salt o 2 oxygen c 2 h 6 o ethanol. The term filtration applies whether the filter is mechanical, biological, or physical. In an equation, all chemical species appear as correct formula units. C 2 h 4 o 2 vinegar nh 3 ammonia mgcl2 magnesium chloride c 2 h 4 o 2. Methods of separating substances worksheets filtration, fractional distillation, chromatography. For example, sea water contains water, salt, sand and seaweed. Determine the ka for the cation and the kb for the anion and state whether the salt acts as an acid or a base in water. Methods of separating substances worksheets filtration. Water chemistry 1 somefundamentalssome fundamentals water quality standards expressing concentration units ph waaesa p g oga ster sampling programs atomic structure each atom of an element is composed of a nucleus surrounded by electrons in various orbitals nucleusacentralconcentrationelectrons orbitals a central concentration. Printable chemistry worksheets and answer keys, study. Hot filtration never heat organic solvents with a bunsen burner. What is the coordination number of the metal in each of the following complexes. Free download chemistry essentials for dummies by john t. Sometimes during a gravity filtration, crystals can start to grow in the filter funnel and may block the. Chemistry experiments in videos online math learning. What mass of zinc in grams should the student obtain. Sublimation is the process whereby the substances changes from the solid that sublimes upon heating from another substance with a high melting point. Worksheets are lesson 1 filtering water, water filtration lesson june 2004, water filtration system, 5 2 ovr l lesson 2 natures water filter, water wise work, lesson 2 treatment of water teachers guide, teacher resources lesson 6 water treatment, water work information required to size water. In this filtration lesson, 6th graders work in groups to test biofiltration units. This will be followed by studying the properties of the solutions, like vapour pressure and colligative properties. Assembly of filtration test equipment and production of filter tubes. Water chemistry is basic but, nonetheless, its still chemistry. Epub, pdf, and html and on every physical printed page the following. Write e in the blank if the material is heterogeneous or o if it is homogeneous. The answers to the questions are available on separate pages so you can fill them out and then check. Excessive amounts of some constituents nutrients, or the lack. Here are a dozen pages 6 worksheets with their answer keys that will serve as a welcome supplement to anyone teaching the chemical elements. Practice chemistry with worked chemistry problems printable periodic tables pdf. Chemical formulas about chemistry name the following compounds from the chemical formulas. Assume the particles are uniformly distributed throughout each object, and particles of the same size have the same mass. With suspensions, filtration can usually be used to separate the excess. Elements search 1 aluminum to zirconium after finding the 32 elements in the word search puzzle, write all the le. Introduction to water chemistry lesson worksheet answers. Filtration, the process in which solid particles in a liquid or gaseous fluid are removed by the use of a filter medium that permits the fluid to pass through but retains the solid particles. Here you can purchase a subscription to allow you to access the notes, worksheets, worked answers to ap questions and much more, that are otherwise unavaila. This is typically a fivepart process that consists of aeration, coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. During the first year of high school chemistry or the first semester of college chemistry, all the terms, units of measurement, and atoms, molecules, elements, and compounds may seem a bit overwhelming. Year 8 chemistry particles and separation techniques lesson filtration worksheet learning mat this is a back to back page on publisher. On gentle heating, the salt sublimes and deposited on cold filter funnel. Pure water can be obtained from sea water by the process of distillation. Filtration is technically defined as the process of separating suspended solid matter from a liquid, by causing the latter to pass through the pores of a membrane, called a filter. The presentation, notes, activities and readings focus on key aspects of filtration such as underlying technologies, particle filtration sizes, and applications. Chemical equation worksheet write, complete, and balance the following equations using phase notation. Winter, dblock chemistry, oxford chemistry primers, oup, 2001. Filtration is the process of removing or straining a solid the chemical term is precipitate from a liquid by the use of filter paper or other porous material. A filtration test device consisting essentially of an inlet pump, a collection container and the filtration unit was assembled for wet filtration experiments. Chemistry worksheet solution concentrations wkst solutions concentrations 02. Which technique would be useful to separate a mixture of sand and salt. Place the cap on the bottle and vigorously shake the bottle for 30 seconds. A collection of printable chemistry worksheets with answers. Free pdf chemistry worksheets to download or print thoughtco. List three processes that happen during the water cycle. Solutions 4 with ionic compounds, it is not so easy to predict if they will dissolve in water. Lesson focuses on how filtration systems solve many problems throughout the world such. The answers to the questions are available on separate worksheets so you can fill them out and then check your work.1041 775 482 1437 1323 137 1052 1308 444 592 86 1441 687 208 1051 866 1273 1360 1335 313 176 1425 158 1247 468 1024 111
Eddies encourage the ocean’s absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and help regulate the planet’s climate. Now, scientists have more details about how these ephemeral ocean features die. Eddies are circular currents that wander around the ocean like spinning tops, ranging from tens to hundreds of kilometers in diameter. They mimic weather systems in the atmosphere and serve as a feeding grounds for sharks, turtles, and fish. Eddies often spin off major ocean currents and typically die within a matter of months. Some fundamental questions in physical oceanography center around the life cycle of eddies: What gives rise to them, and how do they die? “It’s a big puzzle that’s been long-standing in the community,” said fluid dynamicist Hussein Aluie from the University of Rochester, N.Y. Aluie and his colleagues found that when it comes to eddy killing, the planet’s winds are partly to blame. Their innovative analysis of satellite data suggests that wind sucks energy out of the ocean from features smaller than 260 kilometers—features that include most eddies. Wind continually extracts about 50 gigawatts of energy from eddies around the world. The team published their research in Science Advances in July. “Fifty gigawatts is equivalent to detonating a Hiroshima nuclear bomb every 20 minutes, year-round,” said first author Shikhar Rai, a doctoral student at the University of Rochester. “It is equivalent to operating 50 million microwave ovens continuously throughout the year.” Although it’s long been suspected that wind zaps eddies of their spin, the latest study provides a seasonal signal and an estimate of wind power loss in major currents. Although wind may be a killer of eddies, it supercharges larger-scale ocean circulation. Wind adds about 970 gigawatts of energy to features larger than 260 kilometers, the recent research found. Eddies boost ocean heat intake, ocean mixing at the surface, and the exchange of gases with the atmosphere, so calculating these processes relies on accurate depictions of eddies in computer models. Blowing in the Wind Eddies likely form from interconnected physical forces in the ocean that include density-driven motion from water of different temperatures or salinities. Wind destroys ocean eddies by applying stress to the ocean’s surface and slowing eddies’ spin to the point of extinguishing them. Because wind stress hinges on the difference between the speed and direction of wind compared with the speed and direction of the ocean’s surface flow, wind categorically slows eddies rather than quickening them. Eddy killing happens year-round, but the effects are particularly strong in winter, when winds grow stronger because of storms, according to the new study. Most eddies come from western boundary currents like the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic and the Kuroshio in the Pacific, and the latest results reveal just how much energy relative to the total input wind removes from these currents’ eddies: 50% from the Gulf Stream and a whopping 90% from the Kuroshio. “The movement of the ocean is critical in regulating the climate of the Earth,” Aluie said. Eddies can affect the trajectories of major currents: For example, eddies are widely believed to play a crucial role in causing the warm waters of the Gulf Stream to curve away from the eastern United States, keeping the climate of Canada, Greenland, and the Labrador Sea cold. The research adds to the building evidence that wind stifles eddies. Chris Hughes, a professor of sea level science at the University of Liverpool and author of a 2008 study that found that wind sucked 60 gigawatts of energy from the ocean, said, “It’s nice to see this confirmed independently and some new diagnostics shown.” A Blurred Photograph The research team used an emerging method in physical oceanography to conduct the new work. Typically, researchers study how the ocean changes over time. But in the latest analysis, the scientists looked at differences over space, not time. The latest study “represents a novel application of the newly developed coarse-grain method,” said physical oceanographer Xiaoming Zhai of the University of East Anglia, who was not involved in the research. Coarse-graining analysis can be explained with a simple example, said Aluie. Imagine a flower in a photograph. If you blur the photograph, you can’t see the texture of the flower’s petals, the grains of pollen on its anthers, or the edges of the sepals. If you now take the unblurred photo and subtract the blurry one from it, you get only the fine details of the flower. The new study used measurements taken between 1999 and 2007 from NASA’s QuikSCAT satellite scatterometer. By “blurring” the satellite information, Rai and his colleagues used coarse-graining analysis to see the details of small-scale ocean flow, which included eddies. The method allowed them to pinpoint the 260-kilometer cutoff. Sadly, QuikSCAT died in 2009, but an upcoming NASA mission, Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT), along with wind data from other satellite missions could provide Rai and others with higher-quality data soon. The team will continue to use spatial techniques like coarse-grain analysis in future work, which will include a look into the other side of an eddy’s life cycle: its birth. —Jenessa Duncombe (@jrdscience), Staff Writer
February is National Children’s Dental Health Month. Help your students brush up on oral hygiene with these art projects and lessons. Explain to students that they have 20 teeth called primary teeth or baby teeth. At age 6, these teeth will begin to fall out one by one. They fall out because the secondary teeth (adult teeth) need space to grow. When they are adults, they will have 32 teeth. Have students cut out a mouth shape and draw a tongue. Then have each student count out 20 mini marshmallows to represent teeth and glue 10 on the top and 10 on the bottom. Laminate a copy of a tooth pattern (download a free tooth pattern here). Give students toothbrushes and allow them to practice brushing by brushing the laminated tooth with shaving cream. You can also allow students to practice flossing teeth using egg cartons and a piece of string or yarn. They can then practice brushing the teeth using shaving cream. To demonstrate the importance of brushing teeth daily, hard boil several eggs. Show the students the eggs and compare the white color to their teeth. Place several eggs in Coke or a dark-colored soft drink overnight. Show the students the discolored eggs and explain that teeth will discolor and eventually get cavities if not brushed daily. Clean the dark-colored eggs with toothpaste to show students the importance of brushing. Copy a tooth pattern onto brown or yellow construction paper. Allow the students to paint a discolored tooth with a toothbrush dipped in white paint. See if they can make the tooth clean and white again. Copy a tooth pattern onto white and brown construction paper. Give students a white and a brown tooth. Let them search through magazines for pictures of healthy foods (foods that are good for your teeth) and glue them on the white tooth. Have them search for sugary foods or foods that are bad for your teeth and glue them on the brown tooth. Display the teeth on a bulletin board. This activity can be done using the free Pic Kids app or Pic Collage. I like the Pic Kids app because it keeps all internet searches kid-safe. Take a picture or download the brown tooth and the white tooth below. Insert the brown tooth into Pic Kids and enlarge it to fit the screen. Have students find pictures of foods that are bad for their teeth and place them on the discolored tooth. You can have food pictures already on your camera roll for them to search through or you can have them do a web search. Do the same process with the white tooth and have students find and add pictures of healthy foods. Here are examples of 2 that we made:
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOUND WAVE When a sound wave travels through a material medium, then the density or pressure of the medium changes continuously from maximum value to minimum value and vice-versa. Thus, the sound wave propagating in a medium can be represented as shown in figure. Now, we shall discuss the characteristics or quantities to describe a sound wave. (i) Amplitude : The maximum displacement of a vibrating body or particle from its rest position (i.e. mean position) is called amplitude. In S.I., unit of amplitude is metre (m). (ii) Wavelength (or length of a wave) : The distance between two successive 1 regions of high pressure or high density (or compressions) or the distance between two successive regions of low pressure or low density (or rarefactions) is known as wavelength of a sound wave. It is denoted by l (read as lambda). In S.I., unit of wavelength is metre (m). (iii) Frequency : The number of oscillations or vibrations made by a vibrating body or particles of a medium in one second is known as the frequency of a wave. It is denoted by u (read as Neu). In S.I., unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). 1 hertz = one oscillation completed by a vibrating body or a vibrating particle in one second. (iv) Time period : Time taken by a vibrating particle or a body to complete one vibration or oscillation is known as time period. It is denoted by T. In S.I., unit of time period is second(s). Relation between Frequency and time period Let T = time period of a vibrating body. Then number of oscillations completed in T second = 1 Number of oscillations completed in 1 second = 1\T But number of oscillations completed in 1 second = frequency (v) (f) n = 1\T, frequency = 1\ time period (iv) Pitch or Shrillness : Pitch is the characteristic (i.e., typical feature) of a sound that depends on the frequency received by a human ear. A sound wave of high frequency has high pitch and a sound wave of low frequency has a low pitch. You must have noticed that the voice of a woman has higher pitch than the voice of a man. Thus, the frequency of woman's voice is higher than the frequency of man's voice. A sound wave of low pitch (i.e. low frequency) is represented by figure (a) and a sound wave of high pitch (i.e. high frequency) is represented by figure (b) (v) Loudness : Loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the vibrating body producing the sound. A sound produced by a body vibrating with large amplitude is a loud sound. On the other hand, a sound produced by a body vibrating with small amplitude is a feeble or soft sound. Loud sound and soft or feeble sound are represented as shown in Figure (a) and (b) respectively. Loudness is a subjective quantity : It depends on the sensitivity or the response of our ears. A loud sound to a person may be a feeble sound for another person who is hard of hearing. (vi) Timbre or quality : Quality or timbre is a characteristic (i.e., a typical feature) of a sound which enables us to distinguish between the sounds of same loudness and pitch. This characteristic of sound helps us to recognise our friend from his voice without seeing him. The quality of two sounds of same loudness and pitch produced by two different sources are distinguishable because of different waveforms produced by them. The waveforms produced by a vibrating tuning fork, violin and flute (Bansuri) are shown in figure. (vii) Intensity : Intensity of a sound is defined as the sound energy transferred per unit time through a unit area placed perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of sound. That is, intensity of sound Intensity of a sound is an objective physical quantity. It does not depend on the response of our ears. In S.I., unit of intensity of sound is joule s-1 m-2 or watt m_2 ( 1Js-1 = 1W) We have seen above that sound can travel through solids, liquids and gases. The question which comes to mind is how fast does sound travel? Sound travels at different speeds in different media. The speed of sound depends on the following factors : The properties (or nature) of the medium. The order of the speed of sound is Solids > Liquids > Gases In any medium, the speed of sound is increases with a rise in temperature. As per definition, Speed of sound The speed of light in the air (or more correctly in vacuum) is 3 × 108 m/ s, (3lakh kilometre per second). Speed of sound in solids is greater than the speed of sound in liquids and the speed of sound in liquids is greater than the speed of sound in gases. Speed of sound in various media REFLECTION OF SOUND When a sound wave travelling in a medium bounces back to the same medium after striking the second medium, reflection of sound wave is said to take place. The reflection of sound wave is similar to the bouncing back of a rubber ball after striking a wall or the surface of a floor. Just like light, sound is reflected by the solid and liquid surfaces. The reflection of sound obeys the laws of reflection. The laws of reflection of sound are as follows : (i) Incident angle = Reflected angle and (ii), The incident direction of sound, reflected direction of sound and the normal to the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. If we clap our hands while standing at some distance from a high and huge wall or a hill, we hear the clapping of our hands again after some short interval of time. The sound of clap heard by us is known as echo. Echo is produced due to the reflection of sound. Thus, echo is a repetition of sound due to the reflection of original sound by a large and hard obstacle. Conditions for the production of an echo 1. Time gap between the original sound and the reflected sound We can hear the two sounds separately if the time gap between these two sounds is more than 1/10 s or 0·1 s. The time interval equal to 0·1 s is known as persistance of hearing. This means, the impression of any sound heard by us remains for 0·1 s in our brain. If any other sound enters our ears before 0·1 s, then the second sound will not be heard by us. Thus, the echo will be heard if the original sound reflected by an obstacle reaches our ears after 0·1 s. 2. Distance between the source of sound and obstacle Minimum distance between the observer and the obstacle for echo to be heard Distance between the observer and the obstacle = d Speed of sound (in the medium) = v Time after which echo is heard = t Speed of soune; in air at 25°C = 343 m s-1 For an echo to be heard distinctly, t ≥ 0.1 s Then d or d ≥ 17.2 m Thus, the minimum distance (in air at 25°C) between the observer and the obstacle for the echo to be heard clearly should be 17.2 m. The speed of sound increases with a rise in temperature. Therefore, the minimum distance in air between the observer and the obstacle for an echo to be heard clearly at temperatures higher than 25°C is more than 17.2m. In rooms having walls less than 17.2 m away from each other, no echo can be heard. 3. Nature of the obstacle : For the formation of an echo, the reflecting surface or the obstacle .must be rigid such as a building, hill or a cliff. 4. Size of the obstacle : Echoes can be produced if the size of the obstacle reflecting the sound is quite large. The repeated reflection that results in the persistence of sound in a large hall is called reverberation. Excessive reverberation in any auditorium/hall is not desirable because the sound becomes blurred and distorted. The reverberation can be minimised/reduced by covering the ceiling and walls with sound absorbing materials such as, fiber-board, rough plaster, draperies, perforated carboard sheets etc. Uses of multiple Reflection of sound 1. Megaphone : Megaphone is a device used to address public meetings. It is a orn-shaped. When we speak through megaphone, sound waves are reflected by the megaphone. These reflected sound waves are directed towards the people (or audience) without much spreading. 2. Hearing Aid : Hearing aid is used by a person who is hard of hearing. The sound waves falling on hearing aid are concentrated into a narrow beam of sound waves by reflection. This narrow beam of sound waves is made to fall on the diaphragm of the ear. Thus, diaphragm of the ear vibrates with large amplitude. Hence, the hearing power of the person is improved. 3. Sound boards : Sound boards are curved surfaces (concave) which are used in a big hall to direct the sound waves towards the people sitting in a hall. The speaker is (i.e. source of sound) placed at the focus of the sound board as shown in figure. Sound waves from the speaker are reflected by die sound board and these reflected waves are directed towards the people (or audience). 4. Stethoscope : Stethoscope is a device used by doctors to listen the sound produced by heart and lungs. The sound produced by heart beat and lungs of a patient reaches the ears of a doctor due to multiple reflection of sound. 5. Ceilings of concert halls are curved : The ceilings of concert halls and auditoriums are made curved. This is done so that the sound reaches all the parts of the hall after reflecting from the ceiling as shown in figure. Moreover, these ceilings are made up of sound absorbing materials to reduce the reverberation.
kids and songs teachingenglish british council bbc inside toys worksheets for young learners. This can be a creative solution that will make your kid enhance their imagination and creativity. This free activity is also good for redeem the boredom. During this session, you can play a cheerful music on the background. Ask your kid to dance together and they will enjoy for this activity. This can be done step by step. After a quarter, continue to the half and finish until the perfect spiral. It’s better to start the spiral from the center. These tools are also good for they who want to prepare the kids before start joining the formal school. Without any further do, let’s dig into these amazing and creative worksheets. Thus, you should simply the template of picture tracing worksheet and have fun with your kid. After the tracing process is done, you also can engage your kids to color the pictures. If you run out of the picture objects, then try to create your own picture. Ask your children to follow and imitate the picture. This might need an extra effort. For the advanced exercise, if you think that your kids have already got their line traced tidily, then you also can make the other line examples with more complex shapes. Similar with the alphabet tracing, the alphabet coloring also can be fun activity to do. However, the main purpose of this exercise is to introducing the alphabet. These preschool worksheets are simple. It’s also didn’t have any complex solution. You just need to explore your kids’ creativity. Try to get a worksheet with the picture that have a colorful theme. If they done with their drawing, you also can ask them to color their drawing. Remember, you can’t expect the color or drawing in a really good picture. Usually, kids in preschool age draw some random objects. Another fun activity that can be done during the learning in home is by tracing a picture with kids. The picture tracing worksheets are awesome tool that can be used to achieve this activity. It will show some abstract on the result. However, this can be a good sign that your kids’ creativity is actually developing. After finished with the free activity, you can continue the next exercise of tracing the line or object. This also can be done by giving them an offer about the reward if they can finish the task. After done with the preparation, you can start instruct the kid to tracing the shapes. At this stage, you also can introduce the name of the shapes.
Protecting the Valdivian forests of Chile and Argentina Latin America/Caribbean > South America > Argentina Latin America/Caribbean > South America > Chile The Valdivian forests of Argentina and Chile are the only temperate rainforests in South America. They are home to the majestic alerce tree, which can reach heights of 115m and live for more than 3,000 years. The forests are under increasing threat from intensive logging and the replacement of native forest with non-native pine and eucalyptus plantations. WWF is working to promote cross-border conservation, including the protection of key sites and wildlife populations. The Valdivian temperate rainforest of Chile and Argentina covers approximately 166,248 sq km. It is the 2nd largest of 5 temperate rainforests in the world and is the only one in South America. Of the estimated 141,120 km2 of original Valdivian forest existing at the time of European contact, only about 40% remains. Around 70% of these forests are found in Chile. Biodiversity assessments indicate that the forests’ ecosystem is globally outstanding both in terms of biodiversity and endemism. The forests contain 122 species of vascular plants, over 70% of the woody species found in Chile. These forests contain the endemic monkey puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana), a tree existing since the time of dinosaurs, as well as the second oldest living organism on earth: the endemic conifer alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides) that can live to 3,600 years and measure up to 5m in diameter and 60m in height. These forests are home to a unique collection of animal species including the threatened Chilean guemal (Hippocamelus bisulcus), the small feline, the kodkod (Oncifelis guigna), the world's smallest deer, the Southern pudu (Pudu puda), the Southern river otter (Lutra provocax), and the rufous-legged owl (Strix rufipes), the cousin of the Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentailis caurina) of the US Pacific coast. Land-use processes in Chile have resulted in severe forest fragmentation, with many of the remaining fragments in the hands of either small, rural farmers or large commercial forestry enterprises. The threats to the remaining forest are significant and include intensive logging and replacement of native forest with plantations of exotic species of pine and eucalyptus. Argentina is engaged in a big push to copy the Chilean free market model, and Chilean investors are quickly buying up large tracts of cheaper land in Argentina including Valdivian forests, where they plan to install plantations. 1. Mobilise conservation action on an ecoregional scale. 2. Protect key sites and wildlife populations. 3. Shape regional development to support conservation. 4. Lay foundations for lasting conservation. Public concern for conservation of the Valdivian forests is growing in both countries and conservation planners now recognize the need for a bi-national approach to this problem. Unfortunately, international funding for NGOs in Chile has fallen as it is considered a developed country. WWF is the only major international NGO working in the Valdivian ecoregion. WWF has worked with government agencies and private conservation partners in the region for more than a decade, primarily on the Chilean side. WWF believes that if comprehensive measures are not taken now these forests could become severely fragmented, as is the case with other coastal and highland forests elsewhere in South America. With 40% of the native forest remaining, there is still an opportunity to ensure the long term health of the region's flora and fauna, soil productivity, water quality, and other natural systems. WWF will marshal support for ecoregional protection efforts with international organizations concerned with forest management, including IUCN, the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) as well as Argentine and Chilean government agencies and local communities.
A brain stroke is when the blood supply to our brain reduces due to blockage or hemorrhage. According to world-stroke.org, more than 13 million people have a stroke each year, and 5.5 million die. Most of them die due to delays in seeking medical attention. What is a brain stroke? A stroke usually happens when the blood supply to our brain is blocked or ruptured in the blood vessel supplying the brain. Due to this, our brain does not get the required amount of oxygen, and the tissues start suffocating, leading to their death within minutes. When patients with stroke are not provided treatment on time, it can lead to long-term disability, Brain damage, and death. There are three types of stroke: - Transient Ischaemic attack - Ischaemic stroke - Hemorrhagic stroke Transient Ischaemic attack TIA or ministroke occurs when the blood supply to our heart is temporarily blocked. Though the symptoms are similar to a complete brain stroke, the effects are temporary as they last only a few minutes or hours. The blood flow in the blocked area restores by treatment. Though a Transient Ischaemic attack is not as severe as a full stroke, it is better to seek treatment as there are chances of recurrence. In Ischaemic stroke, patients develop a blockage or narrow arteries that supply blood to the brain. As a result, the blood reduces to the brain due to blood clots or reduced blood flow. Ischaemic stroke occurs due to the development of two blockages: cerebral embolism and cerebral thrombosis. Cerebral embolism is when a blood clot forms in body parts except for the brain. As they move through the blood vessels, they become too narrow for the blood clots to pass. Cerebral thrombosis is when a blood clot forms at a fatty plaque inside a blood vessel. Hemorrhagic stroke occurs due to the opening or leaking of the blood vessels in the brain. It causes the cranial pressure to increase, swells the brain, and damages the brain cells and tissues. They are mainly of two types: - Intracerebral hemorrhagic stroke - Subarachnoid hemorrhagic stroke Symptoms of stroke Brain stroke is recognized when the body parts controlled by the damaged area start to become dysfunctional. If the patient fails to get treatment on time, they can die. Therefore, we must familiarize ourselves with the symptoms of a stroke. They are as follows: - disorientation, or lack of responsiveness - sudden behavioral changes - Trouble seeing in either or both the eyes. The vision can be blackened or blurred, or double vision - trouble walking - loss of balance or coordination - severe, sudden headache with an unknown cause - nausea or vomiting - trouble speaking or understanding others - slurred speech Advanced treatment for Ischemic stroke and TIA Ischaemic stroke and Transient Ischaemic Attacks (TIA) are due to a blood clot’s blockage of blood vessels. Thus, the treatment for both these conditions is quite similar. Dissolving the blood clots is essential to treat the Ischaemia stroke or TIA as it can block the oxygen supply. Thrombolytic drugs help dissolve the blood clots in the brain’s blood vessels thus, ensuring proper blood flow. In addition, drugs such as tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) or Alteplase IV r-tPA help dissolve the blood clot. Mechanical thrombectomy is successful when performed between 6 to 24 hours. In this procedure, a small catheter is inserted in the head that guides a tiny device. The basket-like little device enters the site of brain stroke, and the clot is collected, thus, opening the blood vessel and establishing normal blood flow. Doctors sometimes use a catheter to insert a stent that directs the blood flow away from the site of aneurism. It reduces the pressure on it and prevents its rupturing. Most of the time, doctors guide the stent in the clot region and inflate it as it widens the lumen of the artery and supports the wall. In rare cases, the techniques mentioned above do not work. In such cases, doctors perform surgery to remove the blood clot or plaque with the help of a catheter. If the clot is too large, it may open up the artery to re-establish the blood flow to the brain. Advanced treatment for Hemorrhagic stroke Hemorrhagic stroke occurs due to the opening or leaking of the blood vessel. Thus, the treatment options for this type of stroke are different. In this technique, the doctors insert a coil-like device in the area of hemorrhage or weakened arteries. It lowers the blood supply to the region and reduces bleeding. Sometimes, doctors find an aneurysm that is not bleeding or where the bleeding has stopped. In such situations, doctors place a clamp at the base of an aneurysm that cuts off the blood supply and prevents other hemorrhages. If the patient has suffered a significant stroke, the doctor has to perform surgery to reduce the cranial pressure. It also applies to the situation when a doctor finds an aneurysm that has burst to prevent further bleeding. Hopefully, this article has helped you understand the basics of brain stroke and advanced treatment that will save the life of your loved ones or even strangers.
A narrator is a person who tells a story to an audience. Narrators occur in face-to-face story-telling, and in literary works, movies, and plays. They can be fictional, or they can be real people. When the narrator is also a character within the story, he or she is sometimes known as the viewpoint character. The narrator is one of three parts in any story-telling. The others are the author and the audience; in literature, the latter is the reader. The author and the audience both live in the real world. It is the author's function to create the universe, people, and events within the story. It is the audience's function to understand and interpret the story. The narrator only exists within the world of the story and presents it in a way the audience can grasp. In non-fiction the narrator and the author may be the same person, since the real world and the world of the story may be the same.
One of the most common questions people are asking me these days is: How long do infectious viruses and bacteria live on surfaces? Like everything in life, the viability of a virus or bacteria is a function of molecular structure. But viruses are not really “alive” because they cannot reproduce by themselves. So instead of asking how long a virus or a bacterium can live on a surface, we should be asking how long they remain infectious. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Americans spend 93% of their life indoors—87% of their life within a building, then another 6% within their vehicles. That’s only 7% of your entire life spent outdoors—or only one half of one day per week in the fresh air. The best reference for this statistic appears to be The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS) published in 2001. From the data in this study and others available to us, we can conclude that we are basically an indoor species. People often think that the reason we get colds and flu more often in the winter is that it’s cold out. This is actually false. We get colds and flu more often in the winter because we are generally indoors, where the humidity is lower, and we are exposed to higher concentrations of airborne pollutants, including cold and flu viruses. The potential for transmission of bacteria or viruses by indirect contact (i.e. via fomites) is linked to their ability to survive on commonly touched surfaces. However, although there have been studies, big gaps remain in knowledge, evidence, and data on this subject. So, what’s a fomite? A fomite is any inanimate object that may be contaminated with infectious agents and serve in their transmission and spread of disease. These inanimate objects carry germs that cause infection. And yet, many people have never heard of this word, nor do they know themselves about the very objects—the cutting boards, kitchen sponges, toothbrushes, cups, etc—the ordinary devices of modern life that, when exposed to bacteria and viruses, increase the risk of serious infection for many individuals. Bacteria and viruses can remain infectious for a surprisingly long time on almost anywhere you may touch—countertops, door handles, light switches, toys, computers, even inside refrigerators and freezers. Contaminating a fomite surface A surface or object can be initially contaminated by the depositing of bacteria or virus particles from the air, such as through coughing, sneezing, talking, breathing, vomiting, diarrhea incidents, toilet flushing, and hand touching. Many studies exist on pathogen transfer between hands and surfaces. A study in 2000 showed that a hand contaminated with certain viruses can contaminate up to seven other surfaces. Mechanism of fomite spread Although the initial contamination process appears straightforward, there is limited information about how surface contamination is transmitted by human touch. When we touch an object, we transfer bacteria or viruses to a surface or accumulate more bacteria or viruses on our hands. A contaminated surface can be touched by a number of people, and each of these individuals subsequently touch other surfaces as they move around. Each of these now contaminated surfaces can be touched again by other people, and so the touching sequence progresses. The major physical processes involved in the fomite route include contamination of the initial surface, bacteria or virus survival on and transfer between the hand and surface during each subsequent touch, hand to mucous membrane transfer (eyes, nose, mouth), and finally exposure to a sufficient amount of a pathogen to establish an infection. This is called the “infectious dose.” If a person were to be exposed to exactly one copy of a SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19 or a single Bartonella species bacterium that causes emerging infectious diseases that include cat scratch disease, Carrion’s disease, and trench fever, it is unlikely they would become infected. If the pathogen is in low levels in the area where you are exposed, you are less likely to be infected. But if the pathogen is available in large quantities, you are more likely to be infected. We know that contaminated surfaces and objects can transmit disease agents, and that discarding contaminated objects, surface cleaning and disinfection, and handwashing with soap or hand sanitizer, can decrease the risk of infection. Viruses on fomite surfaces Viruses are probably the most common cause of infectious disease acquired indoors. The rapid spread of viral disease in crowded indoor establishments, including schools, day care facilities, nursing homes, business offices, and hospitals, consistently facilitates disease morbidity and mortality. Yet, fundamental knowledge concerning the role of surfaces and objects in viral disease transmission is lacking, and further investigation is needed. The study of fomites has traditionally only involved determining whether the presence of specific potentially pathogenic organisms—primarily those of viruses or bacteria—resided on environmental surfaces. Stephanie A. Boone and Charles P. Gerba, in their study Significance of Fomites in the Spread of Respiratory and Enteric Viral Disease (2007), sampled over 300 fomite surfaces from day care centers and homes to determine the presence of influenza A virus on each surface. During flu seasons, approximately half of all common building surfaces from both types of indoor environments had measurable levels of influenza virus, suggesting that contaminated fomite surfaces could play a role in influenza transmission. Other similar studies targeting influenza and other viruses have shown more results, such as: - Norovirus and influenza A virus were found on frequently used fomites (e.g., desktops, faucet handles, and paper towel dispensers) in elementary school classrooms. - Widespread norovirus contamination was found on fomite surfaces in houseboats, aircraft, and cruise ships on which an outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis occurred. - Picornavirus (including rhinovirus and/or enterovirus) was detected on approximately 20% of toys in pediatric office waiting rooms. - Human rhinovirus was detected on 5% of clothing samples from teachers working in child care centers. - Rotavirus was detected on about 20% of fomite samples in day care centers, including on telephone receivers, drinking fountains, water-play tables, and toilet handles. - Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus RNA was found on 30% of surface swab samples in hospitals, including in patient rooms, on computer mice at nurse stations, and on the handrails in the public elevators. - Human parainfluenza virus (HPIV-1) was detected on 37% of a total of 328 fomites from 12 different office buildings, most frequently isolated on desktops. - Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) was detected on high-touch surfaces in patient rooms with laboratory-confirmed MERS-CoV patients. These studies and many others confirm that viruses that are known to cause communicable diseases in humans are commonly found on surfaces, but it then must be determined whether they are viable and potentially infectious to humans. Virus viability and infectiousness outside the body In general, infectious viruses prefer a human or animal body first, followed by hard non-porous surfaces at room temperature. The smallpox virus, for example, can remain viable for months—even years—on a tabletop. That is why it caused a devastating epidemic before the smallpox vaccine was developed. Some viruses are viable and infectious for shorter periods outside the body, although “shorter” is often still long enough to infect other people. Hepatitis B and C virus can remain viable between 16 hours and one week. Cold viruses up to one week and flu viruses about 24 hours. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an example of a virus that dies almost instantly outside the body. A study entitled Survival of influenza viruses on environmental surfaces in the Journal of Infectious Diseases of July 1, 1982, tracked the viability of influenza viruses on various surfaces, finding that they remained infectious up to 48 hours on hard, non-porous surfaces, such as stainless steel and plastic and up to 12 hours on porous surfaces, such as cloth, paper, and tissues. Moreover, fomite transmission of influenza viruses was considered possible because influenza virus could be transferred from stainless steel surfaces to hands for up to 24 hours after contamination, and from tissues to hands for up to 15 minutes after contamination. The viruses then subsequently survived on hands for an additional five minutes after transfer from the tested fomite surfaces. Others have found that influenza virus can remain viable and/or potentially infectious much longer on fomite surfaces, using a variety of approaches. Thomas et al. in their study of Survival of Influenza Virus on Banknotes found on the Applied and Environmental Microbiology (AEM) website (2008) tested the survival of influenza A viruses on banknotes after intentional contamination, finding viruses could survive up to three days after inoculation at high concentrations. Additionally, when the virus was encapsulated in respiratory mucus, which may more realistically reflect human contributes to fomite surfaces, viability was as high as 17 days. And when nasopharyngeal secretions from naturally infected children were used to inoculate banknote surfaces, influenza virus survived at least two days in one-third of the test cases. Similarly, in a study of The survival of influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus on 4 household surfaces in the American Journal of Infection Control (2014), Oxford et al. found that influenza A virus remained infectious for up to 48 hours on a wooden surface, for 24 hours on stainless steel and plastic surfaces, and for eight hours on a cloth surface. Also, Thompson et al. in their study Persistence of influenza on surfaces in the Journal of Hospital Infection (2017) tested the viability of five influenza strains seeded on three surfaces (cotton, microfiber, and stainless steel) over time, finding that viable virus was detected for up to two weeks on stainless steel and up to one week on cotton and microfiber samples. Times to achieve 99% reductions in viability were 18 hours for cotton, 34 hours for microfiber, and 175 hours for stainless steel. Specific to materials used in personal protective equipment (PPE), Sakaguchi et al. in a study of Maintenance of influenza virus infectivity on the surfaces of personal protective equipment and clothing used in health care settings in Environmental Health and Preventative Medicine (2010) found that the infectivity of influenza A virus was maintained for 8 hours on the surface of an N95 particulate respirator, a non-woven fabric surgical mask, a Tyvek gown, a coated wooden desk, and stainless steel, and for 24 hours on a rubber glove, suggesting that frequent replacement of PPE and clothing worn by health care professionals is warranted to minimize cross-infection. Caliciviruses that can infect humans and animals are very stable in the environment and difficult to inactivate. Norovirus is a common cause of diarrhea and vomiting in people and can remain viable for days or weeks outside the body, depending on the surface and environment. Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus is a highly infectious and fatal disease that affects wild and domestic rabbits and is a very hardy virus, remaining viable in the environment outside of the body for 105 days at 68 F on fabric, 225 days at 39 F just above freezing temperatures, and one hour at a temperature of 122 F. Products commonly used for household disinfection do not work against caliciviruses. Studies have shown that many quaternary ammonium compound-based disinfectants do not inactivate caliciviruses. A list of disinfectants that are effective against caliciviruses can be found on the EPA website. Bacteria on fomite surfaces Bacteria have been found on fomite surfaces, including potentially pathogenic and antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which are often not mutually exclusive. Salmonella and Campylobacter, which can cause severe diarrhea and vomiting, can survive about one to four hours on hard surfaces and fabrics. On a dry surface, most Salmonella strains will remain infectious for up to four hours. Keeping kitchen surfaces clean is especially important to reduce the spread of foodborne pathogens, and soft surfaces like kitchen sponges and towels are particularly bacteria-friendly and should be cleaned, disinfected, or even disposed of frequently. Staphylococcus aureus, the bacterium that causes methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections, can live for many weeks on surfaces because it thrives without moisture. These are of particular concern at hospitals and food service establishments. Public transit can also play an important role, as handrails of public buses, as well as the hands of bus riders, in two cities in Portugal tested positive for MRSA. You can get bacteria on your skin relatively easily by touching somebody with it, by sharing towels, bed sheets or clothes with somebody with it, or by touching surfaces with it. However, getting MRSA on your skin alone isn’t enough to make you ill. Often, it will leave your skin without you ever knowing you had it. This can be as quick as a few hours or could take a couple of weeks. But to make you ill, it needs to get deeper into your skin for example, via a wound or sore. Two strains of Streptococcus that cause ear and throat infections, skin infections, pneumonia and sepsis, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes have been found to survive more than 24 hours on soft and hard toys like stuffed animals and books. The researchers of the study Biofilm Formation Enhances Fomite Survival of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes from Infection and Immunity (February 2014) also found that month-old biofilms of S. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes from contaminated surfaces readily colonize mice. When this study by the University of Buffalo was published in 2014 the results were much longer than previously thought, and significant because many public places—including day care centers and schools—based their cleaning procedures on the idea that those bacteria couldn’t survive overnight. Anders Hakansson, senior author, concluded that “commonly handled objects contaminated with these biofilm bacteria could act as reservoirs of bacteria for hours, weeks, or months, being vehicles of spread upon contact.” SARS-Cov-2 virus and COVID-19 disease A study published in February 2020 in the Journal of Hospital Infection entitled Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents, concluded that human coronaviruses can remain infectious on surfaces, outside the body, at room temperature for up to nine days and also mentions that animal coronaviruses can remain viable for up to 28 days. Kampf et al. stated contamination of frequent touch surfaces is a potential source of viral transmission. Another study in March 2020 by the U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases found that how long the virus can survive depends on the surface and that the human coronavirus can survive for up to three days on stainless steel and plastic, four hours on copper, and up to 24 hours on cardboard. However, the amount of viable virus decreased much more quickly than that, and we all need to be exposed to a certain “dose” before any of us become infected. But sometimes only small amounts of a virus are needed to infect someone, and we lack data to quantify this amount. The CDC study published in March 2020 found that on the Diamond Princess and Grand Princess cruise ships that SARS-CoV-2 RNA was identified on a variety of surfaces in cabins of both symptomatic and asymptomatic infected passengers up to 17 days after cabins were vacated and before disinfection procedures had been conducted. The CDC team stated that this “data cannot be used to determine whether transmission occurred from contaminated surfaces, and further study of fomite transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is warranted.” We need more research The aforementioned studies confirm that not only do viruses and bacteria deposit and exist on surfaces indoors of virtually any facility, but they can also remain viable for hours, or even days, dependent upon the fomite material, microorganism type, and indoor environmental characteristics. But we need more research to determine: - From what surfaces does contact transmit bacteria and viruses to humans and to what extent does it occur and, if so, what the implications are of fomites for human health. - The frequency of hands becoming contaminated with viruses or bacteria, or the “infectious dose” load on hands after touching contaminated surfaces. - How temperature and humidity affect survival time on surfaces, which has been studied for some viruses and bacteria, but many knowledge gaps still exist. - How much virus or bacteria on a surface influences the viability time and for how long it remains infectious. Part of the uncertainty is because bacteria and viruses are diverse and have a variety of surface survival rates. There isn’t a hard-and-fast rule for how long they survive outside the body in the environment. The type of surface, temperature, and humidity are all influencers. The commonly repeated advice to “wash hands frequently” may be replaced in the future by more strategic advice such as “clean surfaces right now,” or advice based on who should wash their hands, and when. We all need to identify which surfaces we touch and decide how often do we need to clean and disinfect them. by Dr. Gavin Macgregor-Skinner — Originally published in the September/October 2020 issue of ISSA About the Author. Dr. Gavin Macgregor-Skinner is director of the Global Biorisk Advisory Council® (GBAC), a division of ISSA. As an infection prevention expert and consultant, he works to develop protocols and education for the global cleaning industry to empower facilities, businesses, and cleaning professionals to create safe environments.
Sum of Numbers in Java Sum of Two Numbers in Java In Java, finding the sum of two or more numbers is very easy. First, declare and initialize two variables to be added. Another variable to store the sum of numbers. Apply mathematical operator (+) between the declared variable and store the result. The following program calculates and prints the sum of two numbers. The sum of numbers is: 340 Sum of Two Numbers in Java Using Method There are two ways to find the sum of two numbers in Java. By Using User-defined Method The Java Scanner class allows us to read input from the user. We take two numbers as input and pass them to the user-defined method sum(). The following program calculates the sum of two numbers using the method and prints the result. Enter the first number: 34 Enter the second number: 12 The sum of two numbers x and y is: 46 By Using Integer.sum() Method The Integer class provides the sum() method. It is a static method that adds two integers together as per the + operator. It can be overloaded and accepts the arguments in int, double, float, and long. It returns the sum of the numbers that are passed as an argument. It throws ArithmaticException when the result overflows an integer value. Note: If both arguments are negative, the result will be negative. The sum of x and y is: 88 The sum of x and y is: -38 Similarly, we can calculate the sum of double, float, and long type numbers. Sum of Two Numbers Using Command Line Arguments in Java The command-line arguments are passed to the program at run-time. Passing command-line arguments in a Java program is quite easy. They are stored as strings in the String array passed to the args parameter of the main() method in Java. The sum of x and y is: 101 First, compile the above program by using the command javac SumOfNumbers4.java. After that, run the program by using the command java SumOfNumbers4 89 12. Where 89 and 12 are command-line arguments. Sum of Three Numbers in Java The program for the sum of three numbers is the same as the sum of two numbers except there are three variables. Enter the first number: 12 Enter the second number: 34 Enter the third number: 99 The sum of three numbers x, y, and z is: 145 Sum of N Numbers in Java Let's implement the above steps in a Java program. Enter Number of Numbers to be Calculated: 4 Enter the number: 12 Enter the number: 13 Enter the number: 5 Enter the number: 4 The sum of the numbers is: 34
Cultural appropriation draws the fine line between a cultural exchange and a new form of racism. It involves taking aspects of a group’s cultural identity to commodify and trivialize them. This act does not take into account and ignores significant parts of the group’s history and socio-political background. There are many examples of this in our society. The most common and prevalent examples are through costumes and dress like Native American headdress at music festivals and Japanese geisha costumes during Halloween. The fine line and distinction between cultural appropriation and cultural exchange is the space they each take up. A cultural exchange occurs in a space of respect and acknowledgment of the group’s history and socio-political background. This space allows individuals to engage and to participate in a positive exchange of cultures. A common example of a positive cultural exchange occurs at weddings, wherein partners share the merging of their two cultures between family and friends in ceremonial traditions and celebrations like dance and dress. In comparison, cultural appropriation takes up a space in which the group’s complex historical background is either completely dismissed or unacknowledged. It is the difference between celebrating a culture and perpetuating harmful stereotypes. Some have noted the difference between cultural appropriation and cultural misappropriation as a more significant distinction to be made. Through cultural appropriation you borrow and share from other cultures. However, through cultural misappropriation you take from one specific culture that has historically been oppressed and marginalized. The difference here is in the position taken up, whether it is a position of power or through a cultural group that has historically wielded power over another group. UNESCO attempts to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect. UNESCO relates cultural appropriation to cultural objects and property. The UN agency emphasizes the importance of complying with copyright law, but also not perpetuating the negative stereotypes of certain groups. The key problem in current practices of cultural appropriation is that it is a movement backwards from present day attempts at combating and challenging systems of race based privilege and oppression. The “undercurrent” of racism in the practices of cultural appropriation perpetuates the historic marginalization of oppressed groups. Borrowing from a cultural group, specifically through music, dress, speech and style, would not be oppressive in nature if it were not occurring as an “undercurrent” but instead as an obvious form of acceptance and acknowledgement of culture. In changing practices of cultural appropriation, it is important to move towards the inclusive nature of a cultural exchange in order to provide a space for all cultures.
Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into specialized cells and can divide to produce more stem cells. Stem cells can be thought of as primitive, “unspecialized” cells that are able to divide and become specialized cells of the body such as liver cells, muscle cells, blood cells, and other cells with specific functions. They are found in multicellular organisms. Stem cells of adult organisms and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body and again fill the adult tissues. Treatments or therapies are used Stem Cells to prevent or treat any disease are known as stem cell therapy. Among many Stem Cell therapies ‘ Bone Marrow ’ transplantation is the most common and widely used stem cell therapy in India. Other than bone marrow some other therapies derived from embryos are also prevalent We are looking forward to developing stem cell treatments to be done for diabetes, heart diseases and other conditions too. But stem cells derived from embryos have ethical issues and also they have a large tumour risk. Stem cell therapy, also known as regenerative medicine. It promotes the reparative response of diseased, dead or injured tissue using stem cells. The basic process of stem cell therapy can be understood by the following process like the doctors take out bone marrow and/or adipose tissue and they process the stem cells in a lab. Then these stem cells are manipulated to specialize into specific types of cells, such as heart muscle cells, blood cells or nerve cells. The specialized cells can then be implanted into a person. Researchers have already shown that adult bone marrow cells guided to become heart, like cells can repair heart tissue in people. What are the advantages of Stem Cell Therapy? One of the best advantages of stem cell research is the medical benefits it provides. They have been proven to drastically improve the condition of many people with degenerative diseases. stem cell research paved way for effective treatment discoveries. This offers great possibility for discovering cures and treatments for a wide variety of illnesses such as diabetes, spinal cord injury and more. Organs and limbs can be grown in labs from stem cells and then utilized for treatment of transplants. Stem cell research also benefits other studies. This is essential to the study of particular development stages that cannot be directly studied in human embryo. This is sometimes linked to primary clinical consequences like pregnancy loss, birth defects and infertility. Stem Cells have the unique ability to become any cell in the body. Stem cells can keep on renewing themselves. These basic building blocks of life are fast becoming the ultimate repair-kit of the future.
So say scientists writing this week in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. Christopher Bird from the Department of Zoology at the University of Cambridge and colleague used simple experiments on adult rooks to test whether they could understand that certain situations are impossible. Using a concept called the 'Expectancy Violation paradigm' - where subjects in an experiment look for longer at an image that they think is strange or unexpected - the researchers were able to show that the birds don't expect objects to be floating in mid air, and therefore understand that due to gravity, still objects need to be supported. Seven rooks were each shown four sets of images during the experiment. Because rooks naturally like to peep through holes, the research team set up an LCD screen behind a wooden board with a small hole in it for the rooks to look through. They then displayed the images on the screen. In each experiment, the birds were shown two images of a possible situation - a Kinder Egg resting on a wooden platform, and two 'impossible images' where the egg was in a gravity-defying position such as floating in thin air above the platform. The rooks spent significantly longer looking at the impossible images than those that were viable, suggesting that rooks don't expect objects to be hovering in mid air. Not only did the birds understand that contact between the egg and the platform were necessary in order for the object to be supported, but they also had an understanding of the type of contact needed and the amount of contact a concept which is lost on babies until they are over 6 and a half months old, and which chimpanzees never manage to grasp, even as adults. This research provides evidence that rooks can solve complex problems through comprehension rather than through trial and error learning, and might cause us to question just how smart the animals really are.
Ages before the terms Native American or Indian were considered, the tribes were spread all over the Americas. Before any white man set foot on this land, it was settled by the forefathers of bands we now call Sioux, or Cherokee, or Iroquois. For thousands of years, the American Indian developed its traditions and legacy without interference. And that history is fascinating. From Mayan and Incan ruins, from the mounds left in the central and southern parts of what is currently the U.S. we have learned much. It’s a narrative of beautiful art and deep spirituality. Archaeologists have unearthed remarkably elaborate structures and public works. While there was unavoidable tribal conflict, that was nothing more than a slight blemish in the tale of our forebears. They were at peace with this beautiful continent and deeply plugged into nature. The European Settler Arrives When European leaders sent the first ships in our direction, the plan was to discover new resources – however the quality of environment and the bounty of everything from timber to wildlife soon changed their tune. As those leaders learned from their explorers, the drive to colonize spread like wildfire. The English, French and Spanish rushed to carve up the “New World” by sending over inadequately prepared colonists as fast as possible. At the beginning, they skirmished with the alarmed Indians of America’s eastern seaboard. But that soon gave way to trade, because the Europeans who landed here knew that their survival was doubtful without Indian help. Thus followed decades of comparative peace as the settlers got themselves established on American land. But the drive to push inland followed soon after. Kings and queens from thousands of miles away were restless to find additional resources, and some colonists came for independence and adventure. They required more space. And so began the process of pushing the American Indian out of the way. It took the form of cash arrangements, barter, and famously, treaties which were nearly consistently ignored after the Indians were pushed away from the territory in question. The U.S. government’s policies towards Native Americans in the second half of the nineteenth century were influenced by the desire to expand westward into areas inhabited by these Native American tribes. By the 1850s virtually all Native American tribes, roughly 360,000 in number, were living to the west of the Mississippi River. These American Indians, some from the Northwestern and Southeastern territories, were confined to Indian Territory situated in contemporary Oklahoma, while the Kiowa and Comanche Native American tribes shared the land of the Southern Plains. The Sioux, Crows and Blackfeet dominated the Northern Plains. These Native American groups experienced misfortune as the constant stream of European immigrants into northeastern American cities delivered a stream of immigrants into the western lands already inhabited by these various groups of Indians. Find Native American Indian Jewelry in Queen City, Texas The early nineteenth century in the United States was marked by its steady expansion to the Mississippi River. However, due to the Gadsden purchase, that lead to U.S. control of the borderlands of southern New Mexico and Arizona along with the authority over Oregon country, Texas and California; America’s expansion would not end there. Between 1830 and 1860 the U.S. pretty much doubled the amount of territory under its control. These territorial gains coincided with the arrival of hordes of European and Asian immigrants who wanted to join the surge of American settlers heading west. This, combined with the discovery of gold in 1849, presented attractive opportunities for those prepared make the extended journey westward. Consequently, with the military’s protection and the U.S. government’s assistance, many settlers set about building their homesteads in the Great Plains and other areas of the Native American group-inhabited West. Native American Tribes Native American Policy can be defined as the laws and procedures established and adapted in the United States to define the relationship between Native American tribes and the federal government. When the United States first became an independent country, it implemented the European policies towards these local peoples, but throughout two centuries the U.S. adapted its own widely varying policies regarding the changing perspectives and requirements of Native American regulation. In 1824, in order to administrate the U.S. government’s Native American policies, Congress formed a new agency within the War Department called the Bureau of Indian Affairs, which worked directly with the U.S. Army to enforce their policies. At times the federal government recognized the Indians as self-governing, separate political communities with numerous cultural identities; however, at other times the government attempted to force the Native American tribes to give up their cultural identity, give up their land and assimilate into the American traditions. Find Native American Indian Art in Queen City, TX With the steady flow of settlers in to Indian “” land, Eastern newspapers circulated sensationalized reports of cruel native tribes carrying out widespread massacres of hundreds of white travelers. Although some settlers lost their lives to American Indian attacks, this was far from the norm; in fact, Native American tribes frequently helped settlers get across the Plains. Not only did the American Indians peddle wild game and other supplies to travelers, but they acted as guides and messengers between wagon trains as well. Despite the friendly natures of the American Indians, settlers still feared the risk of an attack. Find Native American Jewelry in Texas To soothe these worries, in 1851 the U.S. government presented a conference with several local Indian tribes and established the Treaty of Fort Laramie. Within this treaty, each Native American tribe accepted a bounded territory, allowed the government to construct roads and forts in this territory and pledged to not assault settlers; in return the federal government agreed to honor the boundaries of each tribe’s territory and make total payments to the Indians. The Native American tribes responded peacefully to the treaty; in fact the Cheyenne, Sioux, Crow, Arapaho, Assinibione, Mandan, Gros Ventre and Arikara tribes, who entered into the treaty, even agreed to end the hostilities amongst their tribes in order to accept the terms of the treaty. Navajo Jewelry is Celebrated Worldwide by American Indian Art Collectors This peaceful agreement between the U.S. government and the Native American tribes didn’t hold long. After hearing testimonies of fertile land and great mineral wealth in the West, the government soon broke their pledge established in the Treat of Fort Laramie by permitting thousands of non-Indians to flood into the area. With so many newcomers moving west, the federal government established a plan of restricting Native Americans to reservations, modest swaths of acreage within a group’s territory “” reserved exclusively for Indian use, in order to grant more property for “” non-Indian settlers. In a series of new treaties the U.S. government made Native Americans to abandon their land and move to reservations in exchange for protection from attacks by white settlers. In addition, the Indians were given a yearly payment that would include money in addition to food, livestock, household goods and farming tools. These reservations were created in an effort to pave the way for increased U.S. expansion and administration in the West, as well as to keep the Native Americans isolated from the whites in order to lessen the potential for friction. History of the Plains Indians These deals had many problems. Most importantly many of the native people didn’t completely grasp the document that they were confirming or the conditions within it; further, the treaties did not acknowledge the cultural norms of the Native Americans. In addition to this, the government agencies responsible for applying these policies were weighed down with poor management and corruption. In fact most treaty provisions were never executed. The U.S. government rarely fulfilled their side of the agreements even when the Native Americans relocated quietly to their reservations. Shady bureau agents frequently sold the supplies that were meant for the Indians on reservations to non-Indians. Additionally, as settlers required more property in the West, the government constantly decreased the size of the reservations. By this time, many of the Native American peoples were unhappy with the treaties and angered by settlers’ endless demands for territory. A Look at Native American Symbols Angered by the government’s dishonorable and unjust policies, several Native American tribes, including bands of Cheyennes, Arapahos, Comanches and Sioux, battled back. As they struggled to defend their territories and their tribes’ survival, more than one thousand skirmishes and battles broke out in the West between 1861 and 1891. In an attempt to compel Native Americans onto the reservations and to end the violence, the U.S. government reacted to these skirmishes with costly military operations. Clearly the U.S. government’s Indian policies required an adjustment. Find Native American Indian Music in Queen City, TX Native American policy changed considerably after the Civil War. Reformers believed that the policy of forcing Native Americans inside reservations was far too harsh while industrialists, who were concerned with their property and resources, regarded assimilation, the cultural absorption of the American Indians into “white America” to be the single long-term method of assuring Native American survival. In 1871 the government enacted a critical law stating that the United States would no longer treat Native American tribes as autonomous nations. This legislation signaled a major change in the government’s working relationship with the native peoples – Congress now viewed the Native Americans, not as countries outside of its jurisdictional control, but as wards of the government. By making Native Americans wards of the U.S. government, Congress concluded that it would be better to make the policy of assimilation a broadly acknowledged part of the cultural mainstream of America. More On American Indian History Many U.S. government officials looked at assimilation as the most practical answer to what they viewed as “the Indian problem,” and the only long-term means of protecting U.S. interests in the West and the survival of the American Indians. In order to accomplish this, the government pushed Native Americans to relocate out of their customary dwellings, move into wooden houses and become farmers. The federal government enacted laws that forced Native Americans to reject their usual appearance and way of living. Some laws outlawed customary spiritual practices while others required Indian men to cut their long hair. Agents on more than two-thirds of American Indian reservations set up tribunals to impose federal regulations that often restricted traditional cultural and religious practices. To hasten the assimilation operation, the government started Indian schools that attempted to quickly and forcefully Americanize Indian youth. According to the founder of the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, the schools were created to “kill the Indian and save the man.” In order to make this happen goal, the schools required students to speak only English, wear proper American clothing and to switch their Indian names with more “American” ones. These new regulations helped bring Native Americans closer to the conclusion of their traditional tribal identity and the beginning of their life as citizens under the complete control of the U.S. authorities. Native American Treaties with the United States In 1887, Congress enacted the General Allotment Act, the most important part of the U.S. government’s assimilation platform, which was created to “civilize” American Indians by teaching them to be farmers. In order to achieve this, Congress planned to establish private title of Indian land by splitting up reservations, which were collectively owned, and allowing each family their own stretch of land. Additionally, by forcing the Native Americans onto small plots of land, western developers and settlers could purchase the left over acreage. The General Allotment Act, also referred to as the Dawes Act, required that the Indian lands be surveyed and each family be awarded an allotment of between 80 and 160 acres, while unmarried adults received between 40 to 80 acres; the remaining territory was to be sold. Congress hoped that the Dawes Act would divide Indian tribes and encourage individual enterprise, while cutting down the cost of Indian supervision and serving up prime property to be sold to white settlers. Find Native American Indian Clothing in Queen City, TX The Dawes Act turned out to be disastrous for the American Indians; over the next generations they existed under regulations that outlawed their traditional lifestyle and yet didn’t provide the necessary resources to support their businesses and families. Dividing the reservations into small parcels of land caused the significant decrease of Indian-owned land. Inside three decades, the tribes had lost in excess of two-thirds of the acreage that they had controlled before the Dawes Act was passed in 1887; the majority of the remaining land was sold to white settlers. Frequently, Native Americans were cheated out of their allotments or were required to sell their land in order to pay bills and provide for their families. Because of that, the Indians were not “Americanized” and were often not able to become self-supporting farmers or ranchers, like the makers of the Act had expected. This also developed resentment among Indians toward the U.S. government, as the allotment method sometimes ruined land that was the spiritual and social location of their activities. Native American Culture Between 1850 and 1900, life for Native Americans changed tremendously. Through U.S. administration policies, American Indians were forced from their homes because their native lands were parceled out. The Plains, which they had previously roamed without restriction, were now inhabited with white settlers. The Upshot of the Indian Wars Over the years the Indians ended up cheated out of their land, food and way of life, as the “” government’s Indian policies forced them into reservations and attempted to “Americanize” them. Many American Indian bands would not survive relocation, assimilation and military defeat; by 1890 the Native American population was reduced to fewer than 250,000 persons. Thanks to decades of discriminatory and corrupt policies instituted by the United States government between 1850 and 1900, life for the American Indians was changed permanently. [google-map location=”Queen City TX”
While outer space fascinates most children, preschoolers -- with their inquisitive minds -- devour knowledge about all things fantastical. Finding the right balance between keeping your preschool class interested and bombarding kids with facts can prove quite difficult. Most preschool children have seen the "Toy Story" movie series, so teachers could use pictures of Buzz Lightyear in his spacesuit and helmet to explain that space has no air for humans to breathe. Looking up at the night sky evokes curiosity and a sense of wonder in preschool children, who may wonder why stars twinkle and why they only appear at night. The stars they can see are actually balls of burning gas in outer space, but so far away that they only appear as small, bright dots in the dark sky. Singing “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star” and making star-shaped ornaments can reinforce the idea of stars shining a long way from planet Earth. The solar system consists of eight planets, one dwarf planet, the sun and the moon. Telling the children that Mars is known as the red planet, or that Saturn's rings are made of ice provides them with some simple facts about each planet. Creating the solar system using different sizes of foam balls reinforces facts about the size and the distance of each planet from the sun. This activity also teaches preschool kids that planets orbit the sun. Sun and Moon The sun is Earth’s nearest star, and belongs to the Milky Way galaxy. Making yellow play dough and asking children to make a model of the sun illustrates its shape and physical appearance. An often-surprising fact for children of this age: The moon is the only place in the solar system that humans have visited. Showing pictures or watching footage of manned moon landings can help them grasp this idea. The moon’s journey from east to west takes about 27 days and 8 hours. During this journey, the shape of the moon alters, giving the familiar crescents and full moon seen at different times throughout the month. Paper plates painted and cut into the different shapes of the moon simplify this idea for preschoolers. Spaceships and rockets appeal to preschool children, who will be amused to learn that Laika, a dog, orbited the earth in a Russian spacecraft called Sputnik 2 in 1957. Apollo 11, Neil Armstrong's space shuttle, landed in the Pacific Ocean on its return to Earth in 1969. Crafting their own weird and wonderful spaceships or rockets -- made from toilet roll tubes and aluminum foil -- lets children achieve their own version of space travel. About the Author Jo Walmsley-Lockhart began writing professionally in 2010, with work appearing on eHow. She also teaches English, drama and literature. Jo Walmsley-Lockhart holds a Bachelor of Arts in English from Teesside University and a postgraduate certificate in English education from Durham University.
The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of the observations in a statistical sample or population. The standard error of a sample statistic (such as a sample mean) is a measure of the degree of uncertainty in that sample statistic. Terminology and equations Physical sample vs Statistical sample In what follows it is important to know the meaning of the word -sample’ when used in a statistical (rather than a physical) sense. A -physical sample’ is a sample of material taken from an environment – a test tube of river water, a section of leaf, etc. A -statistical sample’ is a collection of observations (whether these are measurements, counts, scores or recorded categories) taken from a population of interest. In what follows, the word -sample’ can be assumed to mean -statistical sample’ unless explicitly indicated otherwise. Similarly we can distinguish between a -physical population’ and a -statistical population’. A physical population is the total set of units to be observed, such as the trees in a forest, or all possible Janz wheat plots grown in a specified region, in a specified year (as in the latter example, populations can be hypothetical in nature). A statistical populationis the set of all values of an observation of interest that could be obtained from the physical population, such as the circumferences (measured at breast height) of all of the trees in the aforementioned forest, or the set of all possible total grain yields from wheat plots grown in the specified region and year. In what follows, we may use the word -population’ in either sense – the context of the use should make it clear which meaning is intended. The Standard Deviation (SD) The standard deviation (SD for short) is a measure of the spread of a set of numbers. The -true’ or -population’ SD is usually denoted , while its estimate, the sample SD, is denoted s. Given a set of observations xi, i=1…n, the formula for the sample standard deviation is: A formula (not shown here) also exists for the population standard deviation, which is only applicable when you have observed every unit in the population of interest- as this is rarely the case in practice, the sample standard deviation formula above is by far the most commonly used. In using statistical software to calculate the standard deviation, you may need to ensure you are using the appropriate form. If the software has a default choice, this will generally be the sample standard deviation. Origins and nature of the Standard deviation The standard deviation as a measure of spread has its origins in the mathematical theory of the Normal (or Gaussian) distribution – the classic -bell curve’-shaped distribution: Provided a population follows the normal distribution, approximately 68.27% of observations are expected to lie within one SD of the population mean indicated by in the above diagram. Approximately 95.45% of observations are expected to lie within two SD’s of the mean. And approximately 99.73% of observations are expected to lie within three SD’s of the mean (the percentages are often abbreviated to -approximately 68%, 95% and 99.7%’ respectively. Thus interpretation of a particular SD value in terms of the actual spread of a set of numbers is not entirely trivial. However, mathematical theory underlying the normal distribution provides the ability to calculate the probability of observing values that lie within different ranges, hence giving rise to the theory of the hypothesis test and confidence intervals for means or differences between means, via the Standard Error, discussed below. The Standard Error of the sample mean (SEM, or SE) The Standard Error is a measure of the uncertainty in a sample statistic (such as a mean or correlation) that has been obtained from a statistical sample. For a simple sample mean, the estimated standard error is …where n is again the size of the statistical sample from which the sample mean was calculated. This formula for the sample statistic relies on the assumption that the observations in the statistical sample are independent- i.e., the value of any observation does not influence the value of any other. Standard errors can also be calculated for other kinds of sample statistic – examples are not given here. Distinctions in usage In practice, a standard deviation is quoted when one wishes to indicate the spread of individual measurements in the population from which one sampled. The standard error is quoted as an indication of the level of uncertainty in a sample statistic such as an observed sample mean. Since the value of the standard error depends on the sample size, it is not to be interpreted as indicating the spread in a population – a larger statistical sample naturally leads to a smaller SE (reflecting the improved accuracy obtained via a larger sample size), while the SD of the population remains unchanged. Standard errors of means in turn give rise to the Standard Error of the Difference (SED), which is the statistic used to assess the statistical significance of differences between observed sample statistics (most commonly, sample means).
8: TURBOPROP ENGINE The turboprop engine uses a propeller with a large disk area to accelerate a large mass flow rate of air through a small . Thus it has high propulsive efficiency. Twin-spool designs enable operation of the propeller shaft and the main high-pressure compressor shaft at different rotation speeds. Such engines have better performance at take-off and at low Mach number than turbofans and turbojets. The propeller rotation speed is limited to about 2000 to 3000 rpm because of the need to keep the tip Mach number below 1. The turbine shaft speed may be in the range of 4000 to 10000. Thus a gear is needed to reduce the rpm. This adds a considerable amount of weight to the engine. AN OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM Engine design involves many decisions based on trade-offs between various factors. An example is the decision on the best division of the available power between the propeller and the exhaust nozzle. There may be many other constraints in practice, such as low noise, low weight, etc. For this example, let us define "best" as the division which produces maximum thrust. This division will depend on the efficiency of the nozzle, propeller, turbine, and on the flight velocity. be the enthalpy drop available, after taking out enough work to run the turbine which runs the compressor and other auxiliary devices. is the fraction of the enthalpy drop used to run the power turbine. This is what we want to optimize. be the efficiencies of the power turbine, nozzle, gear, and propeller respectively. Energy Balance for the propeller: Energy balance for the exhaust nozzle: Thus, total thrust is Differentiate with respect to and equate to zero to solve for the optimum value : 1) As u increases, it pays to exhaust more kinetic energy through the nozzle. 2) At very low u, (e.g., helicopters, tanks), the optimum value is very close to 1, so that all available power should be taken out through the shaft.
5- Phyllobates aurotaenia : Phyllobates aurotaenia is a member of the frog family Dendrobatidae, which are found in the tropical environments of Central and South America. First described by zoologist George Albert Boulenger in 1913, P. aurotaenia is known for being one of the most poisonous frogs in the world. It is the smallest of the poison dart frogs in the Phyllobates genus and is endemic to the Pacific coast of Colombia. Wild specimens store batrachotoxin in glands in their skin, which can be fatal to humans in doses as small as 100 µg. The unique lethality of their poison is a trait often exploited by certain Native American peoples of Colombia for hunting. The members of this species are characterized by: black dorsums, sometimes covered by orange suffusions; green, yellow, orange, or brownish gold dorsolateral stripes; and black abdomens with blue or green dots. The name Phyllobates aurotaenia is currently applied to two forms: a smaller, large-stripe form and a larger, small-stripe form. These forms are separated by a ravine yet retain the ability to interbreed. The number and range of P. aurotaenia is declining, primarily due to loss of habitat, and is currently classified as Least Concern by the IUCN. Conservation status : Least Concern (IUCN 3.1) Scientific classification : Binomial name : Dendrobates aurotaenia Boulenger, 1913 Range and habitat : P. aurotaenia is found in the wet forests of the Choco region of Colombia, west of the Andes, in the Atrato and San Juan drainages. It lives on the ground of humid lowland and submontane forests, typically between altitudes of 60 and 520 meters, and is found in primary and secondary forest but not in degraded areas. As a vivarium subject, this frog is an active animal that will make use of vertical space. Kokoe dart frogs are highly social frogs that require high humidity, cool temperatures, and larger prey items than many dart frogs. P. aurotaenia usually performs mating calls while concealed beneath fallen leaves or logs, but occasionally while sitting on top of leaf litter.Their calls have been described as a loud, bird-like whirring Twitter that consists of rapidly repeated notes, repeated at irregular intervals of several seconds and lasting up to 45 seconds. These frogs do not engage in wrestling behavior among each other as do many other dart frogs. Males vying for a female will face off, calling loudly until one backs down. Unlike the other Phyllobates species, these frogs will not breed in coconut shells; they prefer to lay their eggs inside a narrow tube (small film canisters or nut pods) on the ground. Female P. aurotaenia lay their clutch of eggs, averaging 15-20, in leaf-litter and the male takes the tadpoles to slow-flowing water after the eggs hatch. P. aurotaenia is one of the most lethal species of the poison dart frogs, which is attributed to their storage and release of batrachotoxin from cutaneous granular glands scattered throughout the frogs’ bodies. This extremely potent toxin is a steroidal alkaloid which, in mammals, acts by irreversibly binding to and permanently opening sodium ion channelswithin nerve and muscle cells. This prevents repolarization of the cell membrane and halts further signaling, resulting in paralysis and often death as any affected muscle becomes locked in the contracted state. In order to avoid self-intoxication the frogs have developed modified sodium channels to prevent the binding of batrachotoxin. Although wild frogs are extremely deadly, frogs raised in captivity are generally non-toxic. It has therefore been proposed that the frogs do not synthesize batrachotoxinthemselves, but it is instead obtained from their environment. Evidence suggests that the frogs accumulate this toxin through their diet of various beetles (ex: Melyrid beetle), millipedes, and flies as well as the unique composition of leaf litter on the forest floor. P. aurotaenia is one of three species known to be used for poisoning darts; the others being P. terribilis and P. bicolor. The Chocó Native Americans of the upper San Juandrainage region of Colombia attract and capture these species by imitating their calls. Because they release their poison only under stress, the poison is extracted by piercing the frogs through the mouth with a wooden skewer and holding them over a fire. The Chocóan people then coat their darts by rubbing the darts across the backs of the frogs. For the external links , refrences click here to read the full wikipedia article Male Phyllobates aurotaenia calling Care articles : 1- Scientific. Name: Phyllobates aurotaenia (B OULENGER , 1913) courtesy to : www.dendrobase.de/index.php The generic name Phyllobates comes from the Greek words "fyllo" (= leaf) and "bates" (= runners). The combination "Blattläufer" (Blatteiger) refers to more ground-oriented habitat of the species in the Krautschicht of the rainforest. The epithet aurotaenia is composed of the Latin words "aureum" (= gold) and "taenia" (band) and refers to the golden yellow body bands (dorsolateral ligaments) of the animals. Phyllobates aurotaenia (D UNN , 1957) Dendrobates aurotaenia (B OULENGER , 1914) English name: Kokoe Poison Frog German name: Goldstreifen Blattsteiger Amphibian-> Anura-> Dendrobatoidea-> Dendrobatidae -> -> Phyllobates -> Phyllobates aurotaenia(B OULENGER , 1913) Fig .: Dorsal and ventral view Phyllobates aurotaenia The skin poison of P. aurotaenia is composed of batrachotoxin, homobatrachotoxin and batrachotoxinin-A. Typefundort of the first description "Peña Lisa, Condoto, 300 feet, Departamento Chocó, Colombia" sensu F ROST (2006). Colombia, Chocó and Valle del Cauca at heights of 100--1000 meters Structural biotope of Phyllobates aurotaenia at Bahia Solano, Departamento Chocó, Colombia. As call stations, males of Phyllobates aurotaenia like to increase elevated structures like rotting tree trunks. Climate chart Cali / Alfonso Bonillaaragon, Colombia, height 961 m. Attitude in the terrarium : Terrarium / Facility: Rainforest terrarium from 50x50x50cm, rain system recommended 23-25 ° C, night reduction 5-6 ° C Minimum annual temperature fluctuation (1-2 ° C) 70-80%, at noon to 70%, in the morning and in the evening 100% (fog) Usual small and medium-sized animal animals Drosophila, Micro-Heimchen (also somewhat larger), jumping tails, meadow plankton Fringing P.aurotaenia Day 12 2- Phyllobates Aurotaenia Difficulty: Intermediate - due to difficulty with breeding Location & History Found in Colombia at the Atrato and San Juan drainages (1) . Officially named in 1957 by Dunn. Descriptions & Behavior: P. Aurotaenia is one of the smaller members of the genus Phyllobates at 24 and 34 mm long. They typically have a U-shaped band on the animal's back of varying width. On some adults, the band has joined into a solid patch of color. This band can be orange, green or gold. The body is black with white or sky blue spots. Despite their size, they are very bold frogs with a loud call. In the US hobby there are currently three morphs: Note: These morphs represent unique subpopulations in the wild that share general physical characterisitics, and for that reason different morphs should not be mixed. Green - By far the most common of the auros, and often mistaken for the only morph of this species, they have a bright green "horseshoe" marking on their backs, and may have green spotting on the back as well. Narrow Banded - One of two yellow/gold morphs in the hobby, they have a narrow horseshoe yellow/gold marking on the back, with some individuals showing yellow/gold flecking on the back. These were imported with greens at the time, and some were accidently crossed, so beware of green x narrow hybrids that are still floating around the hobby. Wide Banded - Similar looking to narrow banded as juveniles, the yellow/gold horseshoe marking gradually fills in as the animals mature, similar to P. terribilis/P.bicolor, leaving the back almost completely solid colored, while the legs remain black with blue flecking. Orange/red animals have been reported in the wild but are not in captivity. Aurotaenia require temps to be at the low to mid 70's and high humidity of at least 70%. These frogs are susceptible to heat stress. P. Aurotaenia climb more often than other phyllobates and should be provided some vertical space. They are easily kept in groups. Aurotaenia consume larger prey than similarly sized frogs and can consume medium sized crickets. Bromeliads should be provided as some individuals prefer to lay eggs on the leaves. The forest in which they live in the wild has mossy areas and vined plants on the forest floor and tree stumps. Aurotaenia seem to enjoy sleeping in dark, enclosed areas such as coco huts bromeliad axils, dead leaves, or cork bark tubes. Breeding & tadpole Care: P. Aurotaenia breeds easily in a highly humid vivarium. They tend to lay eggs inside a petri dish/cocohut combination or in horizontal film canistersduring periods of high humidity. Females can lay anywhere between 15 to 28 eggs. Froglets are aggressive feeders and feed on springtails, Drosophila melanogaster, or hydei when young. Young Narrow Banded (side view) Young Wide Banded Adult Narrow Banded Young Narrow Banded Madagascar Dart frogs South America Dart Frogs - Species Phyllobates genus : Phyllobates genus :
Entering the child's world. Labelling children. Prasing children from british council. Schemas in Children’s Play - N a t u r e P l a y. Symbolic play and language development. Open Access Highlights Longitudinal indication for the link between simple symbolic action and symbolic development. Simple symbolic actions link to babbling and complex symbolic outputs. Frequency at initiation of babbling associated with initiation of complex symbolic behaviors. Results support a direct-path hypothesis and an indirect one, rather than a dual-path hypothesis. Mother's responsiveness is related to the production of symbolic play. Abstract Symbolic play and language are known to be highly interrelated, but the developmental process involved in this relationship is not clear. Keywords Symbolic development; Play; Babbling; Speech; Mother responsiveness 1. 1.1. Scientists Say Child's Play Helps Build A Better Brain : NPR Ed. Deion Jefferson, 10, and Samuel Jefferson, 7, take turns climbing and jumping off a stack of old tires at the Berkeley Adventure Playground in California. The playground is a half-acre park with a junkyard feel where kids are encouraged to "play wild. " David Gilkey/NPR hide caption toggle caption David Gilkey/NPR. The cognitive benefits of play: Effects on the learning brain. © 2008 - 2014, Gwen Dewar, Ph.D., all rights reserved Science supports many of our intuitions about the benefits of play. Playful behavior appears to have positive effects on the brain and on a child’s ability to learn. Why play-based learning? (free article) - Early Childhood Australia. ‘ … for the EYLF to be implemented properly, all early childhood educators need to know what play is, why it is important, how to implement and assess a play-based program and their role in it.’ Questioning practice The Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) is built on the understanding that the principles of early childhood pedagogy (DEEWR, 2009, pp. 12-13) guide the practice of early childhood educators. Research tells us that an educator’s pedagogy is one of the most important aspects when assessing the quality of children’s learning. Importance of play for babies & children. Play is more than just fun for babies and children. It’s how they learn best, and how they work out who they are, how the world works and where they fit into it. You can read this article in a selection of languages other than English. The importance of play Playing is one of the most important things you can do with your child, because play is essential for your child’s brain development. The time you spend playing together gives your child lots of different ways and times to learn. Apps. ZERO TO THREE. How do you speak 'Motherese'? Deb Roy: The birth of a word. The Woman Who Changed Her Brain: Barbara Arrowsmith-Young at TEDxToronto. Listen to Your Mother. Young children face a remarkable challenge in learning to use the language of their culture. Toddlers vary widely, however, in the rate at which they learn new words.1 A team of Harvard Graduate School of Education researchers set out to ask whether and how children's language environment can impact vocabulary development. In their study of mother-child pairs from low-income families, they found that mothers who used many different words (not just many words) had toddlers with faster growth in vocabulary use. During the toddler and preschool years, most children learn to use hundreds of words, combining them into sentences and engaging in conversation with others. From previous research, we know that variation in vocabulary growth relates to child characteristics like gender, and also to parental factors. What did they find? 1Huttenlocher, J., Haight, W., Bryk, A., Seltzer, M., & Lyons, T. (1991). 2Bauer, D.J., Goldfield, B.A., & Reznick, J.S. (2002). Let's Talk. What do babies need in order to learn and thrive? One thing they need is conversation — responsive, back-and-forth communication with their parents and caregivers. This interactive engagement is like food for their developing brains, nurturing language acquisition, early literacy, school readiness, and social and emotional well-being. A dispiriting number of children don’t get that kind of brain-fueling communication, research suggests. In early childhood policy (and in the wider media), much attention has been paid to the so-called word gap — findings that show that low-income children hear 30 million fewer words, on average, and have less than half the vocabulary of upper-income peers by age three. But putting that alarming number in the spotlight obscures a more critical component of the research, says Harvard Graduate School of Education literacy expert Meredith Rowe: it’s not so much the quantity of words but the quality of the talk that matters most to a child’s development. Why does my toddler love repetition? - BabyCentre. Paediatric speech and language therapist. It may test your patience when your toddler demands 'Row, row, row your boat' for the 10th time. But there's a good reason for her insistence. Toddlers love repetition because it helps them to learn, and because it's familiar and comforting. From around the age of two, you will notice your toddler repeating the same words and phrases constantly. How can I help my child to start talking? (Video) - BabyCentre. Health visitor Sara Patience describes how you can help develop your child's language skills by talking and playing with her. Show transcript Hide transcript.
Internet and Social Media Safety The Internet and social media have dramatically changed the way children interact with the world. They have access to in-depth knowledge, tools to express their creativity, and people from all over the world. Yet along with offering a new way to connect with the world, the Internet and social media also offer new risks, including: - Exposure to inappropriate material - Online predators - Revealing too much personal information - Learning to recognize the warning signs of these risks will allow trusted adults to intervene and lessen potential negative impacts. Source: NetSmartz, a resource of the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. Tips for Staying Safe Online The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offers the following strategies for parents and educators: - Talk to your child. Parents ask their children where they are going and who they are going with whenever they leave the house. They should take the same approach when their children go on the Internet—where are they going and who are they with? - Develop rules. Together with your child, develop rules about acceptable and safe behaviors for all electronic media. - Explore the Internet. Visit the websites your child frequents, and assess the pros and cons. Most websites and on-line activities are beneficial. They help young people learn new information and interact with people who have similar interests. - Talk with others. Talk to other parents about how they have discussed technology use with their children. Connect with the school. Parents are encouraged to work with their child’s school and school district to develop a class for parents that educates about school policies on electronic aggression and resources available to parents. - Educate yourself. Stay informed about the new devices and websites your child is using. Continually talk with your child and explore the technology yourself. Source: Violence prevention information from The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Social Media 101 Get the basics on social media, including tips for parents and videos explaining the different types of social media platforms out there. Cyberbullying is bullying that takes place over digital devices like cell phones, computers, and tablets. Cyberbullying can occur through SMS, Text, and apps, or online in social media, forums, or gaming where people can view, participate in, or share content. Learn how to protect your child. Information regarding cyberbullying from stopbullying.gov. Find parent guides on topics ranging from Cyber Security, Medial Literacy, Educational Technology and Student Data Privacy. Internet safety guidelines from connectsafely.org. Report tips and safety concerns using Colorado Safe2Tell, the 24/7 Anonymous Reporting Tool Call 1-877-542-7233 (SAFE) or make an anonymous report at www.safe2tell.org.
Purpose of this policy To support schools to create safe and respectful school environments and prevent bullying, cyberbullying and other unacceptable behaviours. Schools must include a statement about bullying and cyberbullying behaviours in the Rights and Responsibilities section of their Student Engagement Policy. Note: A Student Engagement Policy should include a positive statement about the school’s values and philosophy, and the related programs and strategies being implemented by the school to promote student engagement, high attendance and positive behaviours see: Department resources Policy template for schools A downloadable policy template for Victorian government schools is available on the Department's intranet at: Bullying Prevention Schools can modify the template to suit their local circumstances. The national definition of bullying for Australian schools says: Bullying is an ongoing and deliberate misuse of power in relationships through repeated verbal, physical and/or social behaviour that intends to cause physical, social and/or psychological harm. It can involve an individual or a group misusing their power, or perceived power, over one or more persons who feel unable to stop it from happening. Bullying can happen in person or online, via various digital platforms and devices and it can be obvious (overt) or hidden (covert). Bullying behaviour is repeated, or has the potential to be repeated, over time (for example, through sharing of digital records). Bullying of any form or for any reason can have immediate, medium and long-term effects on those involved, including bystanders. Single incidents and conflict or fights between equals, whether in person or online, are not defined as bullying. This table describes the categories of bullying. \|Direct physical bullying - hitting, kicking, tripping, pinching and pushing or damaging property \|Direct verbal bullying - name calling, insults, teasing, intimidation, homophobic or racist remarks, or verbal abuse. - action designed to harm someone’s social reputation and/or cause humiliation. Indirect bullying includes: - lying and spreading rumours - playing nasty jokes to embarrass and humiliate - encouraging others to socially exclude someone - damaging someone’s social reputation or social acceptance - direct verbal or indirect bullying behaviours using digital technologies. This includes harassment via a mobile phone, setting up a defamatory personal website or deliberately excluding someone from social networking spaces. Note: Many distressing behaviours are not examples of bullying even though they are unpleasant and often require teacher intervention and management. Mutual conflict: involves an argument or disagreement between people but not an imbalance of power. Both parties are upset and usually both want a resolution. Unresolved mutual conflict can develop into bullying if one of the parties targets the other repeatedly in retaliation. Social rejection or dislike: is not bullying unless it involves deliberate and repeated attempts to cause distress, exclude or create dislike by others. Single-episode acts: of nastiness or physical aggression are not the same as bullying. If someone is verbally abused or pushed on one occasion they are not being bullied. Nastiness or physical aggression that is directed towards many different people is not the same as bullying. However, this does not mean that single episodes of nastiness or physical aggression should be ignored or condoned as these are unacceptable behaviours. - promote and support safe and respectful learning environments where bullying is not tolerated - put in place whole-school strategies and initiatives as outlined in the Department’s anti-bullying policy - develop a Student Engagement Policy that includes processes and strategies to prevent and respond to incidents of bullying and other forms of unacceptable behaviour. - involve students, staff and parents in updating the Student Engagement Policy. - work in partnership with parents to reduce and manage bullying. - take a whole-school approach focusing on safety and wellbeing. - Education and Training Reform Act 2006 For more information see: - Bullying. NoWay! – the joint Australian Education Authorities website - National Safe Schools Framework providing a set of nationally agreed principles for safe and supportive school environments and includes appropriate responses that schools can use to address the issues of bullying, harassment, violence, and child abuse and neglect.
Introducing Photogrammar to Teach Media Literacy and U.S. History I saw that the camera could be a weapon against poverty, against racism, against all sorts of social wrongs. I knew at that point I had to have a camera. — Gordon Parks For students to grow into informed citizens, media literacy is an indispensable skill. Yet, incorporating this complex topic within an already crowded curriculum can prove tricky. An elegant solution to this dilemma is to consider teaching media literacy through a historical lens, which will provide students the needed critical distance while simultaneously building content knowledge about U.S. history and government. Read on to learn about a new online tool, Photogrammar, that lets you do all this and more. Add it to your tool kit for interdisciplinary media-history lessons and primary source discovery. What is Photogrammer and how can it help you nail the fundamental place played by the media in 20th-century American history? First, some historical context. The power of journalism to advance a political agenda was pioneered over a century ago. This so-called “yellow journalism” flew off the presses of news magnates William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. While President Teddy Roosevelt called journalists like Upton Sinclair (The Jungle) and Ida Tarbell (The History of the Standard Oil Company) “muckrakers,” he viewed the press as his ally in shaping public opinion. T.R. adroitly used the public uproar over Sinclair’s exposé to force Congress to pass the landmark legislation of the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act. The mixing of media and politics continued to grow as the 20th century wore on. Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s innovative use of radio “Fireside Chats” calmed the fears of a worried nation and explained complex legislation like the Lend-Lease Act. These are textbook examples of presidential media savvy. FDR was also the first president to latch onto the power of visual image, a crucial component of any media literacy lesson. To garner popular support for New Deal initiatives, the Roosevelt Administration sent out photographers to document rural life and poverty throughout America. Students still respond to compelling images like Dorothea Lange’s iconic photo of a thin-lipped woman holding her child. Working with visual documents of this quality are a fundamental step in gaining an understanding of the power of visual rhetoric and an image’s ability to advance an agenda. Enter the NEH-funded Photogrammar project, developed at Yale University. In this online database of photos commissioned by the Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information, users browse images through an interactive map as well as a more traditional search and tagging function. The collection can be filtered by date, photographer (Ben Shahn, Gordon Parks, and Dorothea Lange, among others), geographical area, or content, and is especially rich in its depictions of sharecropping and agriculture, industry, daily life in the 1930s-40s, Dust Bowl poverty, and the World War II home front. Using the map tool, we can see that Gordon Parks, for example, worked from upstate New York to Florida, exclusively on the East Coast; Dorothea Lange, on the other hand, worked across the South, and in the West. The Metadata Explorer (undergoing construction; California is now available) is a valuable tool for organizing information by photographer, theme, and a photo's location (county). The Treemap helps students organize their work through a tiered breakdown of the site's twelve main subject categories. Both visualizations aid the conduction of productive searches as well as a comparative analysis across a range of subjects. History teachers can assign students to browse Photogrammar to find images for PowerPoint presentations or for use as primary sources in research papers (in alignment with CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.7). The images also make great sources for practice A.P. U.S. History DBQ’s about the New Deal, urbanization, migrant workers, and women in the workplace. Today the world is image-saturated, but the power of photographs to reflect, if not make, history has not faded. The Pulitzer Prize, which celebrates its centennial this year, continues to bestow awards for photojournalism (see a gallery of winning photos that can be used as lesson source material here). The reason we teach students to analyze images is summed up in the editors’ note to the first glossy issue of the photo-heavy magazine LIFE in 1936: because photography is a “human document” that can capture, on a visceral level, the stories of “hundreds, perhaps thousands.”* * H.R. Luce, J. S. Billings, and D. Longwell, "Introduction to This First Issue of LIFE," Life, November 23, 1936. If you need tools for image analysis and photojournalism, we recommend these resources from the Getty Museum, the Museum of Modern Art, and the National Archives: - Lesson on Interpreting Dorothea Lange’s Photographs from the Getty - Lesson “Photography as a Witness” Using Dorothea Lange Photographs from MoMA - Lesson on Analyzing Photographs from the Getty - Photo Analysis Worksheet from the National Archives After asking students to evaluate how these images might have influenced the public’s perception of New Deal policies, the discussion of the influence of visual media extends easily to the present. Students can turn from analyzing historical photos to modern coverage (which has reached election-induced fever pitch). What images are splayed on the front page, and what impressions do they give? Here are some resources that may be helpful in guiding the conversation: - Lesson on Photos Made for Headlines from the Getty - Lesson on the Press and the Presidency from the Newseum - Lesson about Images Used in Print Publications from the Getty Elizabeth Partridge, Dorothea Lange: “Grab a Hunk of Lightning,” Closer Readings (blog), August 25, 2014.
GED Math Practice Questions: Basic Math Operations About half of the GED Math test depends on basic arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, decimals, and fractions). The better you know the fundamentals, the better you can do on the test. The following practice questions offer some examples of basic math operations. - Lawrie is trying to save money, so she keeps her money in both checking and savings accounts. Each week, she puts $24.00 from her paycheck into her savings account. However, the fourth week, she overdraws her checking account by $7.50, and the bank transfers the money from her savings account. For providing this service, the bank charges Lawrie $10.00. Her savings account balance after the fourth week is - Georgette needs $185.00 to buy books for her Geography course, but because her hours at work have been cut back this month, she cannot afford to buy them, even though she needs them. Walking to class, she notices a sign offering to loan her $200.00 for one month for $20.00 interest. She calculates that if she can repay the money within the month by working extra hours, she will be able to afford the principal and the interest. When Georgette applies for the loan, she reads the contract carefully and notices that after the initial one-month period, the interest rate climbs to 15 percent per month and includes the previous month’s principal and interest. If she earns $11.00 per hour, how many extra hours (to the nearest hour) would she have to work to pay the additional second month’s interest? Answers and explanations - The correct answer is $78.50. This question tests your knowledge of number operations by asking you to perform several operations to calculate an answer. After the fourth week, Lawrie would’ve deposited There would’ve been two withdrawals totaling Her balance after the fourth week would be - The correct answer is 3 hours. At the end of the first month, Georgette will owe The second month’s interest will be At $11 an hour, Georgette would have to work an additional 2.76 hours, or practically 3 hours because no one would hire someone to work 2 hours, 45 minutes, and 36 seconds.
Dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata) start their life as aquatic larvae or nymphs, passing through a series of developmental stages or ‘stadia’, undergoing several moults as they grow. Before the final moult (emergence), metamorphosis occurs in which the larvae transform into the adult form. After emergence, adults undergo a pre-reproductive phase known as the maturation period, when individuals normally develop their full adult colour (5). As an adult damselfly, the Seychelles fineliner likes to perch for long periods on the tips of fern or palm leaves one to two metres above the ground, only occasionally leaving to glean small insects from nearby leaves and twigs (2). In Buda forest, south-east Kenya, mating and egg-laying (oviposition) have been observed to begin in April, at the onset of the long rains. Males approach females from their perching positions and mate without any courtship behaviour. Females then place their eggs into damp, muddy soil or leaf-litter, still in the tandem position, guarded by the male until the end of oviposition. Oviposition in water, common to most damselflies and dragonflies (Odonata), has not been observed in this species (2).
The structure of the leaves corresponds to the specific habitat of the plant. Species that typically bask in sunlight, or grow on sites which can be occasionally very dry, have thick, leathery leaves and the laminae are covered by a waxy cuticle to retain their necessary water supply. Shade-loving species, on the other hand, have long, thin leaves. Orchid roots are surrounded by a tissue-paper thin membrane called velamen. This multi-purpose membrane soaks up large amounts of water quickly, adheres to rough surfaces, and promotes the exchange of minerals and salts. Like an expensive water meter, orchid velamen is an excellent indicator of your plant's water needs. Dry velamen is white or silvery, and freshly watered velamen is green or mottled (depending on the species). Using the molecular clock method, it was possible to determine the age of the major branches of the orchid family. This also confirmed that the subfamily Vanilloideae is a branch at the basal dichotomy of the monandrous orchids, and must have evolved very early in the evolution of the family. Since this subfamily occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, from tropical America to tropical Asia, New Guinea and West Africa, and the continents began to split about 100 million years ago, significant biotic exchange must have occurred after this split (since the age of Vanilla is estimated at 60 to 70 million years). It sounds like it is not getting enough light. Repotting once per year after blooms have dropped is a good thing. Use a high quality bark mix for orchids or high quality sphagnum moss. If the flower spike dried out you did exactly the right thing by removing it. So try more light without direct sun and be sure to water only if the mix is dry. No wet feet for most orchids. Good luck A pollinium is a waxy mass of pollen grains held together by the glue-like alkaloid viscin, containing both cellulosic strands and mucopolysaccharides. Each pollinium is connected to a filament which can take the form of a caudicle, as in Dactylorhiza or Habenaria, or a stipe, as in Vanda. Caudicles or stipes hold the pollinia to the viscidium, a sticky pad which sticks the pollinia to the body of pollinators. Explore different types of orchids to learn if these graceful, exotic bloomers are plants you’d like to grow. Various orchid types hail from all kinds of diverse environs around the world. Some, like phalaenopsis orchids, are tropical beauties, while others, like cymbidium orchids, are native to cool mountainous regions. Some orchid species are hardy wildflowers, like the enchanting lady slipper orchids. Masdevallia is one of my favorite types of orchids! They have triangular flowers (the petals are tiny, so you just see the three sepals.) They need cool temperatures to do well, and like a lot of humidity, but are otherwise quite easy to grow. (But they have a reputation as being hard to grow from people who've ignored their temperature and humidity requirements.) I wish I could tell you exactly how often to water your phalaenopsis orchids and how much water to give them and be done with this post. Unfortunately, there is no one size fits all answer. When it comes to watering any plants there are lots of factors to consider that’ll make the amounts and regularity vary. I’ll go over all those factors so you can see what will be the best for your own situation.
During the school years, there are big demands placed on a child in the classroom. The most challenging and possibly the most important task a child faces is learning to read. Reading requires children to accurately use all of their language, decoding, phonetic, and visual skills to successfully recognize words and gather meaning from the written text. Vision plays a vital role in the reading process. For success in school, children must have other equally important visual skills besides their sharpness of sight, or visual acuity. They must also be able to coordinate their eye movements as a team. They must be able to follow a line of print without losing their place. They must be able to maintain clear focus as they read or make quick focusing changes when looking up to the board and back to their desks. And they must be able to interpret and accurately process what they are seeing. If children have inadequate visual skills in any of these areas, they can experience great difficulty in school, especially in reading. Children who lack good basic visual skills often struggle in school unnecessarily. Their “hidden” vision problem is keeping them from performing at grade level, yet teachers and parents often fail to make the connection between poor reading and the child’s vision.
3 the IMPORTANCE OF the THEMATIC MAPS IN the EDUCATION OF GEOGRAPHY In the geography education the use of thematic maps is favorable and becomes indispensable to know the space geographic. The reduced vision of the territory, proportionate for from above vision, scalling and conventional graphical language, is so important that the maps finish fascinating all those that dominate this knowledge. The cartography became important in the education contemporary, as much to take care of our necessities, how much to study the environment where we live. Learning the physical, economic, social characteristics and human beings of environment, being able to understand the transformations caused for the action of the man and the natural phenomena throughout the time. Geography in turn has for task to describe and to analyze the knowledge that occurs in the surface and the subsoil of the land. The education of thematic maps is verified that, as content of geography in all the levels is of mere importance in the direction to create a cartographic mentality and consequently to awake the space perception in providing the agreement where we inhabit. The cartographic representation treats to improve the expressividade of the graphical characteristics of the elements that composes a map with the end to optimize the visualization process that transfers the information of the map to the consultant of the same. The paradigm communicator of the map defined for Kolancny (1969), Rataiski (1973), Morrison (1976) and Salichtchev (1978) affirmed that the drawing would have as purpose to show the visual form more clearly possible, the characteristics of the territories represented in the map. According to Chorley Hagget (1995), ' ' the cartography, more specifically the maps establish bridges between the levels of comment and terico' '. The maps are the form most efficient to represent the information space and, therefore, they constitute the tool most important in geography. 4 CONCLUSION the present work looked for to contribute for the agreement of the importance of the visual representations of the cartography, for the education of geography. The maps are, therefore resources sufficiently important to locate, to inform or to orient themselves in the space, since that the individual knows to interpret it. The maps contain information on the geographic space. Thus, when reading them and interpreting them, we take knowledge of definitive aspects and characteristics of the space. Therefore, the maps are resources of great utility for geography. 5 REFERENCE dog/geodesia.ufsc.br/geodesia-online/arquivo/cobrac-2006/014 geo-formation Geography: man and space: the nature, the man and organization of the space, 5 series Elian Alabi Lucci, Anselmo Lazarus White rev. Current. – They are Pablo: Hail, 2005.
Kids learn content while sharpening processing skills. Students with LD who dictated their compositions […] showed greater writing improvements than students who composed by hand. There are 50 organizers in each of the six collections listed below, and each of these collections contains 10 free ones! Teachers can make use of analogy as a way to let students compare concepts. Establishing classroom routines, providing warm up activities, structuring instructional time, the "Going to the Movies" approach, setting expectations, and. Graphic organizers are great for visual learners, and anyone who needs to see their ideas in an organized manner. For example, a student is listening to his teacher talk about dogs and needs to take notes. I have finished my paragraph when: I hope you find a few of these tips and my graphic organizers helpful! When you put all of these elements together, you usually get a message or theme. He went into the garage to look at his old baseball cards. Traits for Primary Writers In middle school aged children, graphic organizers can be effectively used as a means of constructing story pyramids. The built-in dictation software on Mac OS X is genius. You can stop at the last point of whatever it is you are reporting. Mint should stop making pennies. Give students a model. How Graphic Organizers Help Students Master Writing How Graphic Organizers Help Students Master Writing Graphic organizers are diagrams that guide students in creating visual representations of the facts, ideas, and concepts of a given school assignment. Models show kids what to write and how much to write. I have written a conclusion that restates the main idea. Teaching Resource Tools Classroom Libraries: At this point, the student should be able to construct five sentence paragraphs, and five paragraph stories. Return to Top of Page free graphic organizers I would imagine that most of the graphic organizers presented on this page would be suitable for any grade level. Opinion, Reason, Example, Opinion. Some children might need very specific examples of how to use graphic organizers with a lot of practice before being expected to use them efficiently on their own. We know that kids with LD tend to spend less time revising. Explain that in the evidence column they should write down specific words or sentences from the story that the author uses to convey the individual elements of character, setting, plot, etc. The most prevalent educational areas that are positively affected by the effectiveness of graphic organizers are comprehension, reading and vocabulary knowledge. Kids can focus on their ideas. Create a Name Encourage students to make up a name. These downloadables are entirely free of charge. The teacher should make a point to establish a specific purpose that the graphic organizer is being used for. Take notice of the graphic organizers your children bring home from school and let them show you how these visual tools are used for assignments. I'd love to connect with you on Twitter and Pinterest! Strategies and Methods Tools Motivating Students: A strategy or procedure, perhaps? As versatile classroom tools, printable graphic organizers come in countless formats and are used for every subject and grade level, with writing graphic organizers being one of the most widely used applications. My students did pretty well with the initial organizer and we used it again to plan out opinion pieces on whether sledding should be banned in city parks. Before your son or daughter begins a writing assignment, take a few minutes to review the rubric. They also like getting petted. Whale characteristics are listed on the left and guppy characteristics on the right. How do you do this? The hamburger is very helpful for writing or speech preparation because it allows students to clearly see the main points in an organized fashion, helping them visualize the order of their upcoming written work or speech. Should birthday treats and bagel sales be banned at school?In addition to 8-week online writing courses, Time4Writing provides free writing resources to help parents and educators teach writing more effectively. The writing resources listed below are organized into seven main fmgm2018.com category includes a selection of fun writing games, instructional videos, printable writing worksheets and other writing tools that are topic specific and. These free graphic organizers include webs for preparing to write, flow charts for sequencing, persuasive and expository essay maps, customizable organizers. Free Printable Graphic Organizer circular flow charts, graph paper, think-pair-share, story Here are over fifty of the free K graphic organizers. Ashley River Creative Arts Elementary School, in partnership with families and community, provides students with a strong academic curriculum infused with the arts. A graphic organizer provides learners with a visual representation of information, concepts, or ideas. Graphic organizers are often used to help children understand what they are reading or to organize information in order to report it, such as through writing or an oral presentation like a speech. Now that they've mastered the art of the sentence, first graders start writing by trying their hand at stories. fmgm2018.com has tons of great worksheets for first grade story writing, from story starters and writing prompts to graphic organizers and sequencing games.Download
Sand absorbs very little water because its particles are relatively large. The other components of soils such as clay, silt and organic matter are much smaller and absorb much more water. Increasing the amount of sand in the soil reduces the amount of water that can be absorbed and retained. Potting soil is typically very absorbent, this is due to its high organic matter content and very little sand. Designing a science fair project to demonstrate this fact is simple and interesting to perform. Water is absorbed by a material in proportion to its ability to maintain contact with the surface of the substance. The greater the surface area of the substance the more water will be absorbed and the stronger it will be held. With smaller particles the individual molecules of water are more easily trapped in the material. Absorption of water into the soil is also regulated by gravity. Thus, the greater the surface area of the soil, such as one with lots of clay, silt and organic matter, the water will not drain as fast and will absorb more evenly throughout the soil. Sand versus Potting Soil Demonstrate the difference between the water absorption of sand and potting soil by measuring how much water drains through a quart-sized pot filled with sand and one filled with potting soil. Pack the potting soil gently and add the same amount of water to both pots. To make sure it is enough water to drain through, use at least a quart. Allow the exact same draining time for both. Varying Sand Content Mix varying degrees of sand and potting mix to show how changing the ratio will affect water absorption. In the first pot mix one part sand to three parts potting soil. In the second pot mix half sand with half potting soil. In a third pot mix three parts sand with one part potting mix. Apply the same amount of water to all three and the same draining time. Varying Sand Size Sand size can vary from coarse to fine and very fine. Demonstrate the changing absorption of each sand size by filling three pots with a quart each of different sand sizes. Pour the same amount of water through each and measure the difference. This experiment could also be combined with potting soil. That is, different ratios of sand, sand size and potting soil water absorption could all be compared.
Particles collected by Stardust probe could help untangle planetary ingredients Microscopic grains of space dust captured by NASA’s Stardust spacecraft appear to have come from interstellar space. These fragile particles, perhaps the first directly captured from outside the solar system, could help researchers understand the building blocks of not only Earth and its siblings but also planets around other stars. The sample — just seven particles — comes after years of collecting dust and more years of thousands of people analyzing the spacecraft’s take. “Any sane person asks: Why spend years doing this?” says Andrew Westphal, a planetary scientist at the University of California, Berkeley and a member of the Stardust team. “This is about our origin,” he says, “what materials formed the sun, planets and us.”
This action might not be possible to undo. Are you sure you want to continue? Maurice D’Mello, P.Eng. Systems Engineer, GE Consumer & Industrial, Canada What is Paralleling? Paralleling is the operation in which multiple power sources, usually two or more generators, are synchronized and then connected to a common bus. Some applications require two or more generators to be paralleled with the Utility. The frequency, voltage, phase angle and phase rotation of all the sources must match within prescribed limits before they can be paralleled. Paralleling multiple sources provides increased reliability, flexibility in load management, uninterruptible maintenance and cost savings during peak rate incentive periods. Multiple generators paralleled to a common bus better serve critical loads. The first generator that reaches the preset operating parameters will power the critical loads with the remaining generators synchronizing and then picking up the lower priority loads. Load management schemes are easier to manage when load demands match the individual generator capacities. It is easy to take one generator off line for maintenance and let the others pick up the slack, especially if a N+1 configuration was adopted. Generators run at their highest efficiency when near full load. Lightly loaded generators are prone to ‘wet stacking’ where the temperature at which the engine runs is not high enough to efficiently burn all the fuel, resulting in un-burnt fuel being deposited in the exhaust system. What is Paralleling Switchgear? Paralleling Switchgear (PSG) is a combination of protection, metering, control and switching elements acting as an integrated system – to control the distribution of power for the following systems; • Emergency Systems. • Legally required standby Systems. • Critical Operation Power Systems (COPS). • Optional Standby Systems (emergency transfer and load management systems). In the first three types of systems, all generators start on a utility power failure. As there is no Utility circuit in the Paralleling Switchgear, an “Engine Start” signal must be sent from the Utility switchgear to the Paralleling Switchgear. The first generator that reaches close to the rated voltage and frequency is connected to a dead bus without having to wait to synchronize and should normally be sized to provide at least power to the critical and life safety loads. For emergency systems this must occur within 10 seconds. A signal is sent to the transfer switch to transfer load to emergency power. The other generators can be synchronized to provide power to the lower priority loads. This must happen within 60 seconds. On return of utility power, most loads will open transition while others may close transition (max 100 msec) to utility power. This would require synchronizing of the two sources of power. Such systems typically consist of Paralleling Switchgear and automatic transfer switches (Fig 1). Paralleling Switchgear by Maurice D’Mello Other generators would synchronize and connect to the emergency bus and the load management program would add more loads on the system. all engines start and the first generator that reaches near rated voltage and frequency is connected to the dead emergency bus. the generators would be synchronized with the utility and the loads would be gradually transferred back to the utility. They are the most complex as they require not only the generators to be synchronized between themselves. the generator main circuit breaker and the generator circuit breakers are opened and the generators are allowed to run through the cool down period before being shut down. less than 100 msec) or a somewhat longer duration (soft load/unload) or a sustained duration (maintained parallel with the utility. Based on a preset minimum reserve capacity. The utility circuit breaker would be opened and the generator main circuit breaker would close feeding the highest priority loads. Such systems typically consist of Paralleling Switchgear and transfer switches for fine control of load management (Fig 2). but the generators must be synchronized with the utility. When the utility voltage returns.Fig 1: Emergency/Standby/COPS The last type of system is normally a ‘Parallel with Utility’ systems (also referred to as “infinite bus” systems). On receipt of an engine start signal. Fig 2: Parallel with Utility Paralleling Switchgear by Maurice D’Mello 2 September 2008 . When the generators are unloaded. The generators and utility could be connected together for a short duration (momentary closed. The master PLC will now receive demand load and on-line generator capacity information. ‘Cogen’ system). it would adjust the number of generators to match the demand load or adjust the loads to match the on-line generating capacity. • Feeder/Distribution Breaker Compartment – breakers directly feeding loads or transfer switches. Load banks are sometimes used to load the generators when the plant loads are not enough to prevent “wet stacking’. which can be installed outside the arc flash boundary of the breaker compartments. Standby and Prime Power applications there are no Utility and Generator Main breaker compartments.Parallel with Utility systems are brought on line even when the Utility voltage is available. • Off-Line Peak Shave – the generators supply all the power demand once the demand exceeds the Peak Demand Threshold. This method ensures that the generators are running at near full load. These could be utility tie or generator tie (optional). run for a period of time and then transferred back to the utility. • Generator Breaker Compartment – breaker directly fed from generator source. The following are the basic control compartments. For Emergency. where the generators are started. The system monitors the utility power usage and when Peak Demand Threshold is approached. What are the building blocks of Paralleling Switchgear? Paralleling Switchgear consists of breaker compartments and control compartments. These can be integrated into one line-up or separately installed. the generators are run at full load and the balance demand is supplied by the utility. The latter is preferred in order to lower the arc flash hazard risk category (HRC). If the generating capacity is less than the load demand. Paralleling Switchgear by Maurice D’Mello 3 September 2008 . The generators could have a ‘wet stacking’ problem if the excess kW requirement is low as compared to the generator capacity. They would consist of a Paralleling Switchgear but no transfer switches. ‘On-load’ testing is done where the load is gradually transferred from the utility to the generators. Non-critical loads could be shed to prevent this or the generators could be run at full capacity and the excess generated power could be provided back to the utility. synchronized and connected to the emergency bus without taking on load. System operators spend most of their time near control compartments. Irrespective of the layout of the switchgear the following are the basic breaker compartment requirements for parallel with utility application. ‘No-load’ testing is done. System testing is a very important requirement for emergency/standby systems. they could do either of the following. Some systems may have load banks for testing the generators and the system controls without impacting the load. • Generator Main Breaker Compartment – breaker that ties the generator bus to the utility bus and is used for transfer control between the two sources. • On-Line Peak Shave – the generators supply the excess power demand above the Peak Demand Threshold. • Utility Breaker Compartment – breaker directly fed from utility source. Prime Power systems are in a category by themselves as they are always on and are the only system supplying power to the site (also referred to as “isolated bus” system). • Tie Breaker Compartment – breaker in-between similar source breakers. This test will not have any effect on the load fed from the utility and can be scheduled to occur at regular intervals (Engine Exercise setting). It is called Peak Shaving and is done to avoid the high cost of peak demand charges. • • • • Master/System Control Compartment – used for controlling the paralleling of generators. generator optimization. One required per system. system status annunciation. which is normally a 15” color touch screen HMI. alarms and shutdowns. Generator Control Compartment – used for starting and stopping of generators. Fig 4: Switchgear Layout for same SLD Paralleling Switchgear can be low voltage or medium voltage. power management and providing transfer device status. Mimic Panel – used normally when needed to display system one line status when using a black and white OIP (Operator Interface Panel). One required per utility source. Paralleling Switchgear by Maurice D’Mello 4 September 2008 . metal-enclosed construction or metal-clad construction. Utility Control Compartment – used for loading control between utility source and generator source. user HMI and local transfer control. This function is incorporated in the ACS (Automatic Control System). load add/shed. They can be of switchboard construction. speed and output and provide annunciation of engine and generator status. The applicable standards will depend on voltage and type of construction. Fig 3 shows a single line diagram of a Parallel to Utility system with two generators (Cogen application) Fig 3: Typical One Line Diagram Fig 4 shows how this single line diagram would be configured into an integrated switchgear lineup. One required per generator. control of voltage. Utility circuits normally require the following protective functions – 25.The protection requirements for Paralleling Switchgear are dependent on the size of the generators and the required level of reliability of the system. For medium voltage PSG. For high speed inter-tripping and communication. Sub-priority load add/shed is done to prevent light loading of the generator. add or shed loads. Recommended protection relay that meets all the above functions is the GE Multilin SR750 – Feeder Protection System Relay. a GE Multilin PQMII meter may be needed to provide metered values with higher accuracy. watt-hour and engine run time. watt demand.1 – For Metal-Enclosed LV Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear. Loss of voltage and changes to frequency are captured by the SR750 and SR489 and are used by the Master PLC to transfer/re-transfer. 81O/U and 87G. 67G. 47. 27. Utility and generator circuits require more protection than what low voltage circuit breakers can provide. For feeder circuits in MV systems. Certain metered values are required for load management – watts. Special selectivity considerations are required when applying LV circuit breakers in conjunction with protective relays. Low voltage circuit breakers have built-in trip units and therefore provide all the protection for feeder circuits. A GE Multilin F35 relay also provides protection and metering for up to 5 feeders in one relay. If metering is required on the feeders. 27. 59. Generators would normally require the following protective functions as indicated by ANSI device numbers – 25. The equivalent Canadian standard for all the above is CSA C22.2 No. 32. Large generators may require the GE Multilin G60 relay for proper protection.20. They have to be provided with separate protective relays. 50/51G. What are the components of Paralleling Switchgear? Protection . • ANSI/IEEE C37. utility circuits may require a GE Multilin F60 relay. • UL1558 and ANSI/IEEE C37. Block shedding is done if a generator fails. Block and priority settings are done through the ACS.20. a GE Multilin G30 relay is ideally suited. For precise load management. Paralleling Switchgear by Maurice D’Mello 5 September 2008 . Engine run time information is used to even the usage of all generators.2 – For Metal-Clad and Station Type Cubicle Switchgear. to generator and utility circuits. 49. Loads are divided into blocks by the number of generators in parallel and are also given sub-priorities. 50P. For combined generator – transformer protection.For low voltage PSG. SR489 and SR750 provide these metered values via analog signal and/or communication. The GE Multilin SR735 or MIFII provides all these functions. 46. Generators can be sequentially or randomly loaded and unloaded based on this usage information. 51V. Load Management – Load add/shed is controlled by the master PLC and is very important for the efficient operation of the engine-generators. 67 and 81O/U. 59. 50/51P. Loads are added/shed by pre-assigned priorities based on the available on-line capacity. • UL891 – For Dead-Front Switchboards. a SR750 can be used. 67G is also available for directional ground alarm. 32. 50/51G. Recommended protection relay that meets all the above functions (except 25) is the GE Multilin SR489 – Generator Protection System Relay. the minimum requirement is 50/51P and 50/51G. 40. 31. The Master PLC controls the transfer switches for load add/shed. there is a need to have an automatic synchronizer to send control signals to the voltage regulator and engine governor controller to bring the generator into synchronism with the generator bus.Engine Control . the PLCs in the Paralleling Switchgear would only provide the enable signal and the engine governor controller would control the engine-generator. Master Control . On master PLC failure. Alternatively. The generator PLCs communicate with the engine/generator’s controllers via specific gateways. the Paralleling Switchgear will have one PLC (GE Fanuc 90/30) per generator and one for the Master Control (GE Fanuc 90/70 or 90/30). controls the speed and output of the engine.There are two major engine/generator controls that are required by the Paralleling Switchgear for proper functioning: • An Engine Governor Controller. If reliability needs to be enhanced. complete manual control could be employed as backup for the PLC. the generator PLC will Fig 5: Typical PLC Architecture provide the generator start signals. They are most often mounted near the generator in the terminal box. Lastly. automatically synchronize all generators and connect the first priority loads. All protective. alarm and shutdown signals can be hardwired to meet the requirements of NFPA 110. The lower priority loads will have to be connected manually. In order to ensure reliability. In these cases. metering.PLCs are the heart of the Paralleling Switchgear (Fig 5). Most major engine manufacturers have their own matched engine governor controller and prefer to mount it near the engine in the control cabinet. control and display devices are connected to the PLCs and the PLCs are daisy chained to each other. • A Voltage Regulator. redundant Master PLC can be employed. Synchronizing switches are used to connect the synchronizing equipment to the correct line and load bus. Paralleling Switchgear by Maurice D’Mello 6 September 2008 . This device is normally mounted in the Paralleling Switchgear and is shared between generators. controls the voltage and the reactive power of the generator. Critical start/stop. voltmeters. single line diagrams and various other information and control screens can be incorporated in the ACS. (2x9 windows) can be provided for users that appreciate the standard annunciator displays or the ACS can have screens that depict the discrete annunciators and replicate the operation. shutdown. Some users prefer to have discrete meters such as ammeters. wattmeters etc. ACS will incorporate the mimic and provides the interface for control.HMI . soft switching and load management. alarming.Paralleling Switchgear can be built as simple as possible with minimal control or as complex as possible with complete control. Advanced diagnostics such as fault monitoring.A master HMI is provided on all Paralleling Switchgear. transition mode selections etc). 19” or 42” high resolution. Annunciators. 17”. This system ensures a stable 24VDC supply. Front views. The ACS can provide this same information either in tabular format or as digitized analog meters on the screen. As the ACS is only an input device. event recording and trending can be done on the local ACS or even remotely. This option is normally selected with the OIP option. 15”. option settings (time delays. OIPs may need a separate mimic panel to complete the visual display of the overall system. failure of this device will not effect the switchgear operation. touch screen color ACS (Fig 6). This can be a simple 5” black and white OIP or a 12”. Fig 7: GE Paralleling Switchgear Conclusion . Redundant ACS or remote ACS can Fig 6: ACS with Typical Screens be provided as an option. load management and redundancy. At the lower Paralleling Switchgear by Maurice D’Mello 7 September 2008 . 24VDC is provided to the Paralleling Switchgear from the best starting battery available and is controlled by an automatic 24VDC Control Voltage Sensor system. Digital controls have extensive diagnostics that can enhance reliability. hardwired relays are used but at the higher end.Application Guide. It also permits operational modifications to be done outside the equipment and then uploaded after complete testing.end. Redundancy is achieved by having hot synched PLCs in lieu of hardwired switches and meters. The trend is towards Digital Control as it can handle complex algorithms that enable multiple scenarios for load management and redundancy. Power Quality – TB-2103. Reference: Energy Commander TM Paralleling Switchgear. complete digital control is adopted. Paralleling Switchgear by Maurice D’Mello 8 September 2008 . It provides flexibility for system upgrades and enhancements. GE Consumer & Industrial. This action might not be possible to undo. Are you sure you want to continue? We've moved you to where you read on your other device. Get the full title to continue listening from where you left off, or restart the preview.
If you watched a movie of the Earths climate history, you would see the ocean frequently plays the role of leading actor. If you observed sea surface temperature across the entire globe, over a span of years you would begin to detect patterns. Of course, since you cannot see heat, you would have to assign colors to represent temperature. What would become immediately obvious to your eye is that the temperature anomalies of El Niño and La Niña occur roughly every 3 to 7 years. These would appear as vast red and blue spikes, respectively, appearing off the west coast of South America and extending westward along the equator across most of the Pacific Ocean. Watching the movie a little longer, your eye might pick up the fact that there is a long-distance relationship between the equatorial Pacific and the equatorial Atlantic Oceans. Interestingly, and for reasons scientists dont fully understand, when the southern Pacific is warmer than average the southern Atlantic is cooler than average, and vice versa. These temperature patterns swing back and forth between the two oceans like a pendulum. You might also notice that there is an oscillation in the Northern and Southern Atlantic Ocean, on either side of the equator. One side is cooler than average for a year or two while the other side is warmer than average, then they flip-flop and this pattern continues. If you watched for a decade or longer, many more recurring patterns would begin to reveal themselves. For instance, you would see that the body of water that extends from the western equatorial Pacific into the eastern Indian Ocean, called the Indo-Pacific warm pool, seems to pulsate. That is, the warm pool expands and contracts in size while its average annual temperatures rise and fall over cycles of about two decades. The movie has a surprise ending. Perhaps you didnt notice, but there was another actor onscreenon the land. Turn your attention to the continents and you will see green waves of vigorous plant growth and creeping brown hues of drought wax and wane across the landscapes as if the worlds vegetation dances in response to the rhythms of the ocean. How can this be? Is there a connection? Yes, say a team of scientists at NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center. Led by Sietse Los, terrestrial biologist, the team recently assembled the first long-term global data set that demonstrates there is a connection between changing patterns of sea surface temperature and patterns of plant growth across the Earths landscapes. The results of their new study appeared in the April 2001 issue of the Journal of Climate (Los et al. 2001). The above series of images shows changes in sea surface temperature and land plant growth in every January from 1983 to 1989. In the ocean, blue indicates where temperatures are cooler than normal and red is warmer than normal; on land, yellow indicates less vigorous than normal vegetation growth and green shows more vigorous growth than normal. As sea surface temperatures rise and fall, the vegetation in adjacent areas responds. In general, cool ocean water upwind leads to drought and reduced vegetation growth, while warm ocean waters produce excess rainfall and vigorous plant growth. Notice how the vegetation in northern South America responds to water temperatures in the Atlantic Ocean. The corresponding animation shows the effect dramatically. Images courtesy Marit Jentoft-Nilsen, NASA GSFC Visualization and Analysis Lab, based on data from Sietse Los, University of Wales. Once the movie loads and begins playing you may click anywhere on it to stop it. Use your keyboard arrows to manually move forward and backward through the animation at a controlled rate. Double click on the movie to play it again at its normal rate. Click to download the high quality animation (26 MB). When Plants are Thriving When it is thriving, land vegetation can absorb vast amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. Over a period ranging from months to decades, however, the carbon stored in plants is released back into the atmosphere through the processes of respiration, decomposition, and fires, thus completing the carbon cycle. With their new data set, the team wanted to gain new insights into where there are large variations in plant growth because such variations have implications for where and when vegetation serves as a source for carbon dioxide (releasing it into the atmosphere) and when it is a sink (or absorbing it). Additionally, they wanted to find out how these sources and sinks change over time. Seasonal variations in plant growth can be quite large, and plant growth can vary widely from one year to the next. Moreover, recent studies suggest that, due to global warming, the growing season is getting longer at higher latitudes, thereby increasing the ability of terrestrial plants to serve as a carbon sink (Myneni et \|Read "Measuring Vegetation (NDVI & EVI)" to learn how scientists use satellite data to monitor vegetation growth.\| To determine where and when plants are thriving, the team used AVHRR to measure Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), which is basically an indication of how green a patch of land is. To derive NDVI, researchers must observe the distinct colors (wavelengths) of visible and near-infrared sunlight reflected by plants. As can be seen through a prism, many different wavelengths make up the spectrum of sunlight. When sunlight strikes an object, certain wavelengths of this spectrum are absorbed and other wavelengths are reflected. The pigment in plant leaveschlorophyllstrongly absorbs visible light (from 0.4 to 0.7 µm) for use in photosynthesis. The cell structure of the leaves, on the other hand, strongly reflects near-infrared light (from 0.7 to 1.1 µm). The more leaves a plant has, the more these wavelengths of light are reflected and absorbed, respectively. (Click for more details on NDVI.) Los' team processed eighteen years of AVHRR data into a series of one-month global composite images of NDVI. From there, they were able to calculate the average greenness value for a given patch of land for a particular time of the year. Any significant departure from the average greenness value would then be an anomaly. Similarly, they used AVHRR data to calculate average global sea surface temperatures for any given patch of ocean for every month over the same 18-year time period. Again, any significant departure from average is termed an anomaly. When they put the two sets of measurements together into one continuous movie, Los' theory was confirmedthere is a clear and obvious relationship between sea surface temperature trends and terrestrial plant growth across the continents. "For the first time, we can see patterns of climate variability reflected in land vegetation growth, globally, which was not possible before," Los states. "Until now, we haven't had a good data set to show us how vegetation changes over long periods of time." Carbon atoms move from the atmosphere to the biosphere (plant and animal life) and the lithosphere (the solid Earth) in a cycle that spans from months to decades. Plants "breathe" carbon dioxide, using the carbon to grow. When a plant dies (or its leaves fall off) the carbon dioxide is released back into the air as the organic material decays. Alternatively, the carbon may be buried and eventually become peat, coal, or oil. Image by Robert Simmon, NASA GSFC Collatz points to the recurring cycles of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation in the equatorial Pacific and Southern Atlantic during the 1980s. Then he notes the subsequent patterns of drought and then vigorous growth that sweep back and forth across South America, as if the continent were the ball in an ongoing ping-pong match between the two mighty oceans. "What it shows is what you might expect," he observes. "Sea surface temperatures have an impact on the climate (temperature and precipitation) over land and this affects growth of A very strong El Niño brought drought to northern South America in 1983, while a large La Niña brought excess rain in 1989. The vegetation responded by growing poorly in 1983 and vigorously in 1989. Image by Marit Jentoft-Nilsen, NASA GSFC Visualization and Analysis Lab, based on data from Sietse Los, University of Wales. Dubbed the "global heat engine," Earth scientists have long since recognized that as the ocean releases warmth and moisture into the overlying atmosphere it dramatically influences weather patterns. Anomalously high sea surface temperature, as seen in the equatorial Pacific during El Niño, can drive weather patterns to extremesproducing torrential rains and flooding in some parts of the world and severe drought in others. But, says Collatz, you cannot expect El Niño to always have the same effects on plant growth across a given region. The impacts of some El Niños are more intense than others. "Climate oscillations can sometimes interact with one another," explains Collatz. "For instance, the effects of El Niño are sometimes magnified and at other times almost completely cancelled out by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)." (The NAO is an ongoing, long-distance relationship between a high-pressure system over the Azores Islands and a low-pressure system over Iceland. For more details, read Searching for Atlantic Rhythms.) Trade winds blow from east to west along the equator, carrrying moisture over South America. Evaporation is slowed if the sea surface is cooler than normal, leading to decreased rainfall over adjacent land. Conversely, more evaporation leads to excess rainfall when the sea surface temperature is higher than normal. The image at left shows winds over the Atlantic on June 3, 2001. Arrows correspond to direction, color to velocity. Image courtesy Seaflux, NASA Jet Propulsion Lab. Ultimately, say the authors, this new data set strengthens scientists ability to forecast the effects of climate change on vegetation on a global scale. But in order to improve their predictions of what impacts El Niño might have, they need to know what other climate oscillations might affect the strength of El Niño. "Natural resources, foodlots of things depend upon the healthy growth of vegetation," concludes Collatz. "It is important for us to understand and be able to predict how forests and crops will respond to climate cycles like El Niño." Toward that objective, the team now has almost 20 years of global observations to give scientists a perspective theyve never had before. With these new data the team can begin to examine in more detail the roles of the terrestrial biosphere in both the carbon and water cycles. Collatz adds that the team is already looking ahead to the new NASA satellite sensors now in orbit that are much better calibrated than AVHRR, and they are specifically designed to measure the Earths vegetation. Even as they improve upon the quality of the measurements, these sensorssuch as the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS), flying aboard OrbView-2, and the Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), flying aboard Terrawill extend the heritage of the AVHRR data set well into the new millennium. Graph by Robert Simmon, based on data provided by Sietse Los, University of Wales.
Boffins at the University of Bristol have come up with a system which means that the number of quantum computing algorithms may soon do more than current computers can manage. Top boffin Professor Jeremy O'Brien, Director of the Centre for Quantum Photonics said that using a custom optical chip the his team can perform what's known as a "quantum walk" with two particles. The breakthrough will bring full on quantum computing closer than many thought possible. A quantum walk is like a random walk of maths only applied to the world of quantum physics. If the boffins get it right then algorithms go like the clappers. The team designed a network of optical circuits in a silicon chip, and then managed to make two photons perform a quantum walk along the network at the same time. Another team has so far managed to do such quantum walks with one particle. But using two or more photons, means the number of outcomes increases exponentially. This allows the researchers to simulate highly complex situations that are outside of the number-crunching possibilities of today's fastest supercomputers. Using the new technique, a quantum computer could, in less than ten years, be performing calculations that are outside the capabilities of conventional computers.
Prevod reči: government Smer prevoda: engleski > srpski government [ imenica ] ETYM French gouvernement. Related to Govern. The act of governing; exercising authority; SYN. governing, governance. The organization that is the governing authority of a political unit; SYN. authorities, regime. The system or form by which a community or other political unit is governed. Any system whereby political authority is exercised. Modern systems of government distinguish between liberal democracies, totalitarian (one-party) states, and autocracies (authoritarian, relying on force rather than ideology). The Greek philosopher Aristotle was the first to attempt a systematic classification of governments. His main distinctions were between government by one person, by few, and by many (monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy), although the characteristics of each may vary between states and each may degenerate into tyranny (rule by an oppressive elite in the case of oligarchy or by the mob in the case of democracy). The French philosopher Montesquieu distinguished between constitutional governments—whether monarchies or republics —which operated under various legal and other constraints, and despotism, which was not constrained in this way. Many of the words used (dictatorship, tyranny, totalitarian, democratic) have acquired negative or positive connotations that make it difficult to use them objectively. The term liberal democracy was coined to distinguish Western types of democracy from the many other political systems that claimed to be democratic. Its principal characteristics are the existence of more than one political party, relatively open processes of government and political debate, and a separation of powers. Totalitarian has been applied to both fascist and communist states and denotes a system where all power is centralized in the state, which in turn is controlled by a single party that derives its legitimacy from an exclusive ideology. Autocracy describes a form of government that has emerged in a number. Of Third World countries, where state power is in the hands either of an individual or of the army; normally ideology is not a central factor, individual freedoms tend to be suppressed where they may constitute a challenge to the authority of the ruling group, and there is a reliance upon force. Other useful distinctions are between federal governments (where powers are dispersed among various regions which in certain respects are self-governing) and unitary governments (where powers are concentrated in a central authority); and between presidential (where the head of state is also the directly elected head of government, not part of the legislature) and parliamentary systems (where the government is drawn from an elected legislature that can dismiss it). uprava [ ženski rod ]
On this day, the GREAT Thurgood Marshall (July 2, 1908 – January 24, 1993) became an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, serving from October 1967 until October 1991. Marshall was the Court’s 96th justice and its first African American justice. Before becoming a judge, Marshall was a lawyer who was best known for his high success rate in arguing before the Supreme Court and for the victory in Brown v. Board of Education, a decision that desegregated public schools. He served on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit after being appointed by President John F. Kennedy and then served as the Solicitor General after being appointed by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. President Johnson nominated him to the United States Supreme Court in 1967.
For generations, high school students have studied something in school that has been called mathematics, but which has very little to do with the way mathematics is created or applied outside of school. One reason for this has been a view of curriculum in which mathematics courses are seen as mechanisms for communicating established results and methods - for preparing students for life after school by giving them a bag of facts. ... Given this view of mathematics, curriculum reform simply means replacing one set of established results by another one. ...They identify lots of mathematical habits of mind, and give good examples to explain them. Some seem pretty similar to me, so I combined them here. There is another way to think about it, and it involves turning the priorities around. Much more important than specific mathematical results are the habits of mind used by the people who create those results. ... The goal is to allow high school students to become comfortable with ill-posed and fuzzy problems, to see the benefits of systematizing and abstraction, and to look for and develop new ways of describing situations. Students can learn to be... - pattern sniffers - talk big and think small, (Trying to understand a new idea? Start with a simple example.) - talk small and think big, (Start with a simple example, and build a big web of mathematical structure.) - use functions, - use multiple points of view, - mix deduction and experiment, - push the language, - use intellectual chants. In Avery's post on the new Common Core Math Standards, he noticed two things missing from the standards: pattern sniffing and problem posing. (A good book on that last is The Art of Problem Posing, by Stephen Brown.) If the standards were about habits of mind, instead of particular content, maybe I could get over my anti-standards attitude. As I said at Avery's blog, I'd love to turn the ideas from this article into suggestions for standards; I think that would help us focus our lessons in good directions. *I believe the proper word there is curricula, the plural.
Jonah, Age 19 Months, Develops Thinking Skills Watch to see how Jonah shows us his new pretend play skills as he takes on the role of a frog in this video clip. To Think About: - How does Jonah show that he now understands symbols? - How does Claudine encourage Jonah’s pretend play skills? - How do you think the presence of an older child (Jonah’s friend Ella) influences Jonah’s pretend play? - What skills might Jonah be learning during this interaction? What the Experts Say About This Interaction What Jonah does: - Listens intently to mom reading. - Imitates his friend Ella hopping like a frog, which helps build his understanding of pretend and symbolic thinking. - Initiates pretending to be a frog the second time around—showing how quickly he learned though imitation. - Shows interest in his peer (Ella) by watching, smiling at, and imitating her. What Claudine does: Makes reading an interactive experience by asking the children to imitate the animals’ sounds and movements. This also helps Jonah understand the book’s content. Builds Jonah’s understanding of symbolic thinking by encouraging him to pretend. Does not force Jonah to sit and listen to the story, but lets him get up to jump like a frog again. Shows that she is having fun and enjoying being with Jonah and his friend Ella—making them feel valued and important. Think About How Your Child Is Learning These Skills How is your child developing thinking skills through her everyday interactions with you? Here are some questions to think about: - How does your child like to explore the world around him? Does he prefer to use his fingers and hands to figure out how things work, or does he like to be on the move, using his large muscles (arms and legs) to explore? - What kinds of activities does your child seek out and truly enjoy? Why do you think he prefers these activities? - Think about a recent playtime with your child. - What was he exploring? - How did he go about his exploration? - What do you think he was learning? - Did you participate in his play? If so, how? What impact did you participation have? Read more about: Watch to see how Gabby shows she is interested in the way this new toy works. How does her father, Mark, help her learn? Watch to see how Haley conquers her fear of the jack-in-the-box with her mother, Lynette's, support. Watch to see how Haley copes with leaving her family child care setting. How does her mother, Lynette, help Haley manager her strong emotions and finally say good-bye for the day?
The success of Einstein's 1905 papers established him as an accomplished physicist. Upon request, he wrote several review articles explaining Special Relativity; in the process he realized that "all natural phenomena could be discussed in terms of special relativity except for the law of gravitation." Einstein struggled to define gravitation in his spare time—after long hours at the patent office and even when he became a professor at the University of Zurich. By 1911, gravity had finally lured Einstein from other topics, and his thoughts culminated in 1916 with his masterpiece, General Theory of Relativity. Many scientists did not accept Einstein's ideas at first. But confirmation of his theory came in 1919 when astronomers documented the deflection of starlight by the Sun's gravity. Einstein had predicted this phenomenon, but he could not foresee the fame that would follow. Seeing Is Believing Sir Arthur Eddington led a 1919 expedition that captured the eclipse images needed to confirm what General Relativity predicted: The Sun's gravity deflects light. Sir Isaac Newton wondered in 1704: "Do not Bodies act upon Light at a distance, and by their action bend its Rays; and is not this action strongest at the least distance?" Gravity's Growing Pains Einstein began his quest to expand the Special Theory of Relativity in 1907 when he realized he couldn't "represent gravitation in the framework of this theory." This inkling led Einstein to his "equivalence principle," the cornerstone of his new theory that stated gravity and acceleration are equivalent. Troubled by the mathematics, Einstein ruminated on this idea for nine years. He called Special Relativity "child's play" compared to his new problem. School chum and mathematician Marcel Grossmann helped Einstein find the mathematical tools needed to describe the universe. Einstein used those tools to formulate General Relativity, and he expected mixed reactions from other physicists. "Gravitation elicits just as much respect among my colleagues as skepticism," he wrote in 1914. Einstein staked his theory on a series of astronomical observations—all of which were later confirmed, launching him into the spotlight. Behind the Scenes "Grossmann, you've got to help me, or I'll go crazy," Einstein wrote to his good friend Marcel Grossmann when General Relativity hit a mathematical roadblock. Grossmann had twice before come to the rescue; this time he identified the mathematics Einstein needed to complete the new theory.
The tropical Pacific Ocean and atmosphere swings, or oscillates, between warm, cool and neutral phases on a timescale of a few years. A typical El Niño or La Niña event may show its first signs of development during the southern hemisphere autumn and strengthen over winter and spring. It will normally start to decay in the mid to late southern summer, and finally dissipate in the subsequent autumn. ENSO events typically decay during autumn, as this is the time of year when the tropical Pacific Ocean naturally evens out the temperature difference between the east and west. This annual weakening of the temperature gradient across the Pacific also means the weather patterns which help reinforce a La Niña or El Niño ease, allowing ENSO to return to neutral. In general, El Niño events tend to only last for a single cycle (i.e. one year from autumn to autumn), but it is not uncommon for multi-year La Niña events to occur. For example, the 1998–2001 La Niña affected three consecutive years from autumn 1998 to autumn 2001. Watching out for events The first signs of an emerging El Niño or La Niña event are often observed in the ocean. The Bureau of Meteorology monitors and reports on a range of ENSO indicators, including: - short-term bursts of tropical rainfall activity - water temperatures at the sea surface and at depth - ocean heat content – measuring the amount of energy stored in the ocean - the Southern Oscillation Index - atmospheric air pressure - cloudiness – measuring the amount of cloud in tropical regions - the strength of the trade winds and winds higher in the atmosphere - ocean currents. These climate indicators provide information about current ENSO conditions, and are inputs into climate models that are used to predict conditions for the months ahead. Climate models come in two forms: - Statistical climate models are based on what has happened in the past – that is, they use historical patterns to estimate what is likely to happen in the future. - Dynamical climate models are based on physics – that is, they model the physical processes driving the current climate situation forward in time to predict what is likely to happen. Data are collected from a wide variety of sources – including satellites, buoys (moored, drifting and expendable), sea level analysis and meteorological surface observations – all drawn from a network of national and international observing systems.
Dont understand this! Need help from anyone please please! Choose any four consecutive whole numbers. a. multiply the first and last numbers together. multiply the middle pair together. Choose several sets of four consecutive whole numbers and do the same. b. Make a conjecture based on what you notice in part a. c. prove/ or disaprove this conjecture for every set of four consecutive whole numbers. d. what happens if you take four consecutive even numbers and do the same? or four consecutive odd numbers? 1 Answer \| Add Yours Choose 4 consecutive whole numbers:1 2 3 4 (1)(4)=4 and (2)(3)=6 Another 4: 2 3 4 5 (2)(5)=10 and (3)(4)=12 Another 4: 3 4 5 6 (6)(3)=18 and (4)(5)=20 b) Following this pattern, the resulting two numbers are separated by 2. c) In order to prove this: Let n = number 1 Let n+1 = number 2 Let n+2 = number 3 Let n+4 = number 4 Therefore, the difference will always be 2 d) Let's try this with even numbers: Let 2n = number 1 Let 2n+2 = number 2 Let 2n+4 = number 3 Let 2n+6 = number 4 Therefore, the difference will always be 8 when the numbers are consecutive even numbers Now for odd numbers: Let 2n+1 = number 1 Let 2n+3 = number 2 Let 2n+5 = number 3 Let 2n+7 = number 4 Therefore, the difference will always be 8 when the numbers are consecutive odd numbers. We’ve answered 315,647 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
Why was Margaret Thatcher called the Iron Lady? Margaret Hilda Thatcher, was a British political Leader, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the longest-serving British Prime Minister of the 20th century and the first, and to date the only, woman to have held the office. Soviet press dubbed her the “Iron Lady”, a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she introduced and implemented policies of her own, that later became known as Thatcherism. Early life and first steps into politics Margaret Thatcher was born as Margaret Hilda Roberts on October 13, 1925, in Grantham, England. Daughter of a grocer and local municipal high-ranking official, she was well educated and soon influenced by her father to further pursue a political career as a conservative member. Thatcher graduated the Oxford University, where she became politically active in her youth and even served as president of the Conservative University Association. Thatcher first bid for public office in 1950 when she ran as the conservative candidate for a parliamentary seat. She earned the respect of her political party peers with her speeches. Despite her failure, Margaret bid for the second time the following year, but once more her efforts were unsuccessful. Two months after her loss, she married to became Mrs. Thatcher. In 1952, however, Thatcher put politics aside as to study law and qualify as a barrister. Nonetheless, she could not stay away from the political arena for too long. Thatcher eventually won a seat in the House of Commons and clearly very energetic woman on the rise, she was appointed parliamentary under-secretary for pensions and national insurance in 1961. When the Labor Party assumed control of the government, she became a member of the so-called “Shadow Cabinet”, representing a group of political leaders who would hold Cabinet-level posts once their party was in power. Thus, unsurprisingly, when Conservatives returned to office in June 1970, Thatcher was appointed secretary of state of education and science. After the Conservative Prime Minister Edward Heath lost two successive elections, Thatcher, though still low in the party hierarchy, was the only minister ready to challenge him for the party leadership and reverse the party’s decline. With the backing of the Conservative right wing, she was elected leader in February 1975 and thus began a 15-year ascendancy that would change the face of Britain. Margaret Thatcher as the first female British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher led the Conservatives to a decisive electoral victory in 1979 following a series of major nationwide union strikes during the previous winter under the Labor Party government. As a prime minister representing the newly energetic right wing of the Conservative Party, Thatcher advocated greater independence of the individual from the state; an end to allegedly excessive government interference in the economy, including privatization of state-owned enterprises and the sale of public housing back to tenants; reduction in expenditures in social services such as healthcare, education, and housing. She also eagerly aimed at limitations on the printing of money in order to lower inflation; and legal restrictions on trade unions. The term Thatcherism came to refer not just to these policies but also to some aspects of her ethical outlook and personal style, including moral absolutism, fierce nationalism, a zealous regard for the interests of the individual, and a combative, uncompromising approach to achieving her political goals or crushing political opponents. Thatcher’s cabinets economy and taxation The main impact of Thatcher’s first cabinet was economic. She managed to lower direct taxes on income, while at the same time increased indirect taxes on consumption. She increased interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply and thereby lower inflation, introduced cash limits on public spending, and reduced expenditure on social services such as education and housing. That sharply contradicted with her earlier calls for high educational standards accessible for all working class children. Some Conservatives in the Cabinet occasionally expressed doubt over Thatcher’s controversial policies. However, by 1987, unemployment was secured well below government targets, the economy was stable and strong, and inflation was hitting its record lows. Opinion polls showed a comfortable Conservative lead. Thatcherism effectively transformed public house ownership by making former tenants once again private home owners. Meanwhile Thatcher reformed local government taxes by abolishing the former taxes based on the nominal rental value of a home. She introduced new Community so-called poll taxes where the amount charged varied upon the number of each estate’s adult residents. That new tax proved to be among the most unpopular policies of her premiership. However, Thatcher proclaimed that the British hard earned taxes would be used for the greater good of further reforms in public services and welfare. Industrial relations and Privatization Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trade unions, whose leadership she accused of undermining parliamentary democracy and economic performance bringing the country to a standstill through strike actions like those preceding her premiership. Her government enacted a series of measures designed to weaken the unions ability to organize and stage strikes, forbade sympathy strikes, and rendered unions responsible for damages caused by their members. In 1984, the National Union of Mineworkers began an emblematic nationwide strike to prevent the closing of 20 coalmines that the government claimed unproductive. The strike, which lasted nearly a year, soon became commonly recognized as The Great Struggle between the Conservative government and the trade union movement. Thatcher steadfastly refused to meet the union’s demands, and in the end the miners returned to work without winning a single concession. Despite the successful battle against trade unions, the true crucial ingredient in Thatcherism turned out to be the policy of privatization. The process itself, especially the preparation of nationalized industries for privatization, was associated with marked improvements in performance, particularly in terms of labor productivity. Margaret Thatcher truly managed to transform the face of the British economy. Some of the privatized industries, including gas, water, and electricity, were natural monopolies for decades. Unsurprisingly, their massive privatization led to almost insignificant increase in competition. However, with some optimization of the resources and facing down trade unions opposition, closing excessive unnecessary plants or reducing workforce by half and redirecting it to other sectors, the privatized industries demonstrated some marginal profitable improvements. Yet, in order to compensate the loss of direct government control, Thatcherism significantly expanded state regulations introducing new regulatory bodies. Although, the results were overall “mixed”, in most cases privatization generally benefited consumers in terms of lower prices and improved efficiency. However, it also led to a temporary unemployment rise and workforce disruption. Furthermore, Thatcher combined the privatization of public assets with financial deregulation in an attempt to fuel economic growth even more. Thatcherism started abolishing Britain’s exchange controls as early as 1979, allowing investment of more capital in more profitable foreign markets and effectively removing a great number of restrictions on the London Stock Exchange. The Thatcher government encouraged growth in the finance and service sectors to compensate for Britain’s ailing manufacturing industry. All these deregulation measures eventually led to the so-called “Big Bang” effect that transformed London into one of the major European and world financial centers. Northern Ireland and Thatcher’s foreign affairs In 1984, Thatcher narrowly escaped a fatal injury in the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) assassination attempt in Brighton. The organized terrorist bombing at her Conservative Party conference nearly killed Thatcher and several senior members of her government. However, she was reluctant to leave and steadily refused to reschedule the meeting as advised by her security officials. Instead, Thatcher passionately delivered her speech as planned the following day. That act of bravery was widely welcomed and supported across the political spectrum and enhanced her even greater popularity with the public. Despite all, the defining moment in Thatcher’s premiership was the Falklands war, started on 2 April 1982 when Argentina tried to invade the British-controlled Falkland Islands and South Georgia. Thatcher set up and chaired a small War Cabinet to take charge of the war conflict. She did not hesitate to dispatch a naval task force to retake the islands, as well as to authorize a controversial sink of Argentina’s cruiser “General Belgrano”, though it did not represent a direct threat. Argentina surrendered on 14 June and the operation was called a great success. The opposition criticized Thatcher soon after for the neglect of the Falklands’ defense that led to the war and especially for the decision to sink Argentina’s cruiser. Nevertheless, backed up by the British propaganda, the case and investigation were soon closed, and Thatcher remained generally recognized as a highly capable and committed war leader nationwide. The decisive win in the Falklands war, an economic recovery beginning in early 1982, and a bitterly divided opposition all contributed to Thatcher’s second election victory in 1983. Thatcher instantly became close ally with the US President Ronald Reagan by virtue of their shared views and Cold War policies, based on mutual distrust of communism. Thatcher and Reagan, who together turned the 1980s into the decade of conservatism, shared a vision of the world in which the Soviet Union was an evil enemy deserving of no compromise. Their partnership ensured the emblematic Thatcher’s legacy of general close and warm support between Great Britain and the USA during the following decades. Passionate anti-communist but also protecting nation’s sovereignty, Thatcher strongly supported the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Britain’s right to conduct independent nuclear policy, a stance that proved popular with the electorate. In keeping with her strong anticommunism in one of her speeches, Thatcher fiercely condemned communism and that earned her the mocking nickname “Iron Lady” given by the Soviet press. However, Thatcher and the British propaganda actually embraced the nickname and turned it in their favor. She made sure, backed up by her transatlantic ally, that the Cold War would continue in all its frigidity until the rise to power of the reform-minded Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985. Moreover, Thatcher was one of the first Western leaders to respond warmly to the reformist Soviet leader. Following reforms enacted by Gorbachev, she even went to the USSR on a state visit and in 1988 declared that “We are not in a Cold War anymore”. The second half of Thatcher’s tenure was also marked by an inextinguishable controversy over Britain’s relationship with the European Community (EC, forerunner of the European Union). In 1984 she succeeded, amid fierce opposition, in drastically reducing Britain’s contribution to EC budget. After her third electoral victory in 1987, her antipathy towards European integration became even more pronounced. She outlined her opposition to EC proposals for a federal structure and increased centralization of decision making. She was similarly averse to the construction of a supranational Europe fearing that it would compromise Britain’s national sovereignty. Although, Thatcher and her party had supported British own membership of the EC in the 1975 national referendum, she believed that the role of the organization should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition. Despite her support for a single European market, Thatcher was a profound euro-skeptic. She feared that bureaucrats in Brussels would seek to force Britain to back away from the liberalizing reforms she had put in place and that the EC’s approach was at odds with her views on smaller government and deregulation. Some of her senior ministers did not agree with these views and eventually left Thatcher’s Cabinet. Challenges to leadership, resignation and later years During her premiership, Thatcher had the second-lowest average approval rating of any post-war Prime Minister. Polls consistently showed that she was much less popular than her party. Her reforms were drastic and unpopular as she aimed at thoroughly transforming the face of the British economy and welfare nation. The falling ratings, together with Thatcher’s combative personality and willingness to override colleagues’ opinions, contributed to discontent within the Conservative Party. Unsurprisingly, in 1990, Geoffrey Howe - the last remaining member of Thatcher’s original 1979 cabinet, resigned from his position as Deputy Prime Minister. This final resignation occurred to be fatal to Thatcher’s premiership. The next day, Margaret Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party and after a consultation with her party officials, she was persuaded to temporarily withdraw. Later, she reportedly regarded her ousting as her own party betrayal. She remained a Member of Parliament until the 1992 election but Thatcher continued to hold public speeches and lectures. She established the Thatcher Foundation to support free enterprise and democracy, particularly in the newly liberated countries of Central and Eastern Europe. However, following a series of strokes, she retired from public speaking in 2002. Margaret Thatcher died on April 8, 2013, at the age of 87. The legacy of the Iron Lady Thatcher’s death prompted mixed reactions, including criticism as well as praise. However, in her efforts to reshape Britain Margaret Thatcher was truly unresting and persevering. One of Thatcher’s most notable achievements, still in effect today, was the weakening of the trade unions. Furthermore, she convinced her party members and general British voters that she would put their hard-earned taxes to great use in often unpopular and controversial reforms in public services, whilst appeasing their fears about immigration and mistrust of everything in Europe by negotiating rebates and exclusions from the EU and imposing stronger border controls. That forced the other member states, particularly France, to effectively pay more to offset Britain’s rebate - an outcome that increased her popularity at home but made her even more unpopular and further alienated in Europe. Her efforts to introduce massive government deregulation and promoting individualistic instead of collective society, resulted in the fact that speculation and financial trading became more important to the economy than industry and manufacturing. Moreover, Thatcher style deregulation of the financial markets has contributed to, if not caused, many of today’s world problems: the irresponsible risk taking behavior of many leading banks as well as the inadequate governmental regulation of Wall Street, the City of London and other stock markets around the globe. Nevertheless, despite all questionable or controversial Thatcherism policies, the Iron Lady altered the course of post-war Britain and Europe. As the leader of the Conservative Party, she consolidated a determined skepticism of European integration, setting the stage for the U.K.’s ongoing efforts to keep its distance from the European Union, making it more pro-US and anti-EU. She also liberalized the British economy and set a gold standard for Anglo-American relations, forging a close solid relationship between the two Superpowers. Perhaps most of all the United States recognized Thatcher as a Churchillian figure that stood alongside America in times of conflict and largely supported NATO and US foreign policy. Teamwork between London and Washington helped guide the course of the Cold War to a peaceful end, which was Thatcher’s most obvious achievement on the world stage. Clearly, she sought to change East/West relations based on both the western ideological reasons and clear economic agenda for growth through opening up new markets for trade among Britain, the USA, Europe and Russia. Unsurprisingly, the Iron Lady remained a political force and government advisor in retirement. She continued to influence internal Conservative Party policies, and Thatcherism shaped even the priorities of the opposition Labor Party, which she had kept out of office for more than a decade. “Time” magazine named Thatcher one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century as well as the fourth-greatest British Prime Minister of the 20th century. In 2002, though some 20 years past her official resignation, she was still ranked 16th in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. - Margaret Thatcher: Early political career - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher - Margaret Thatcher: Britain's First Female Premier - http://www.biography.com/people/margaret-thatcher-9504796#britains-first-female-premier - Margaret Thatcher: Prime minister of United Kingdom - http://www.britannica.com/biography/Margaret-Thatcher - Foreign policies and anticommunism approach - http://www.britannica.com/biography/Margaret-Thatcher - Stepney, P. (2013) The Legacy of Margaret Thatcher - A Critical Assessment, University of Tampere, 135-142 - http://file.scirp.org/pdf/JSS_2014011315063698.pdf
Thank you for helping us expand this topic! Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. The topic Cippus Abellanus is discussed in the following articles: ...belong to So-and-so,” dating to as early as the mid-6th century bce). The largest text, a treaty between Nola and Abella from the 2nd century bce, is carved on a stone slab, called the Cippus Abellanus. In Bantia, a nearly unknown town of Lucania, the Tabula Bantina is preserved, the most extensive Oscan inscription. It is a bronze tablet with penal laws concerning municipal... Click anywhere inside the article to add text or insert superscripts, subscripts, and special characters. You can also highlight a section and use the tools in this bar to modify existing content: Add links to related Britannica articles! You can double-click any word or highlight a word or phrase in the text below and then select an article from the search box. Or, simply highlight a word or phrase in the article, then enter the article name or term you'd like to link to in the search box below, and select from the list of results. Note: we do not allow links to external resources in editor. Please click the Websites link for this article to add citations for
Thanks to high-tech scanning, 2,000-year-old inscriptions on the Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek “computer,” can be read more clearly than ever before, revealing more information about the device and its possible uses.Ever since the first fragments of the device were pulled from a shipwreck off the coast of the Greek island Antikythera in 1901, scientists and historians have been trying to learn more about its purpose. The bronze astronomical calculator was about the size of a shoebox, with dials on its exterior and an intricate system of 30 bronze gear wheels inside. With the turn of a hand crank, the ancient Greeks could track the positions of the sun and the moon, the lunar phases, and even cycles of Greek athletic competitions. The 82 corroded metal fragments of the Antikythera mechanism contain ancient Greek text, much of which is unreadable to the naked eye. But over the past 10 years, new imaging techniques, such as 3D X-ray scanning, have revealed hidden letters and words in the text. SEE MORE AND READ MORE AT SOURCE
The Seleucid period (320-141 BC) At the end of the Achaemenian Empire, Mesopotamia was partitioned into the satrapy of Babylonia in the south, while the northern part of Mesopotamia was joined with Syria in another satrapy. It is not known how long this division lasted, but, by the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, the north was removed from Syria and made a separate satrapy. In the wars between the successors of Alexander, Mesopotamia suffered much from the passage and the pillaging of armies. When Alexander's empire was divided in 321 BC, one of his generals, Seleucus (later Seleucus I Nicator), received the satrapy of Babylonia to rule. From about 315 to about 312 BC, however, Antigonus I Monophthalmus (The "One-Eyed") took over the satrapy as ruler of all Mesopotamia, and Seleucus had to flee and accept refuge with Ptolemy of Egypt. With the aid of Ptolemy, Seleucus was able to enter Babylon in 312 BC (311 by the Babylonian reckoning) and hold it for a short time against the forces of Antigonus before marching to the east, where he consolidated his power. It is uncertain when he returned to Babylonia and reestablished his rule there; it may have been in 308, but by 305 BC he had assumed the title of king. With the defeat and death of Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301, Seleucus became the ruler of a large empire stretching from modern Afghanistan to the Mediterranean Sea. He founded a number of cities, the most important of which were Seleucia, on the Tigris, and Antioch, on the Orontes River in Syria. The latter, named after his father or his son, both of whom were called Antiochus, became the principal capital, while Seleucia became the capital of the eastern provinces. The dates of the founding of these two cities are unknown, but presumably Seleucus founded Seleucia after he became king, while Antioch was built after the defeat of Antigonus. Mesopotamia is scarcely mentioned in the Greek sources relating to the Seleucids, because the Seleucid rulers were occupied with Greece and Anatolia and with wars with the Ptolemies of Egypt in Palestine and Syria. Even the political division of Mesopotamia is uncertain, especially since Alexander, Seleucus, and Seleucus' son Antiochus I Soter all founded cities that were autonomous, like the Greek polis. The political division of the land into 19 or 20 small satrapies, which is found later, under the Parthians, began under the Seleucids. Geographically, however, Mesopotamia can be divided into four areas: Characene, also called Mesene, in the south; Babylonia, later called Asuristan, in the middle; northern Mesopotamia, where there was later a series of small states such as Gordyene, Osroene, Adiabene, and Garamea; and finally the desert areas of the upper Euphrates, in Sasanian times called Arabistan. These four areas had different histories down to the Arab conquest in the 7th century, although all of them were subject first to the Seleucids and then to the Parthians and Sasanians. At times, however, several of the areas were fully independent, in theory as well as in fact, while the relations of certain cities with provincial governments and with the central government varied. From cuneiform sources it is known that traditional religious practices and forms of government as well as other customs continued in Mesopotamia; there were only a few Greek centres, such as Seleucia and the island of Ikaros (modern Faylakah, near Kuwait), where the practices of the Greek polis held sway. Otherwise, native cities had a few Greek officials or garrisons but continued to function as they had in the past. Seleucia on the Tigris was not only the eastern capital but also an autonomous city ruled by an elected senate, and it replaced Babylon as the administrative and commercial centre of the old province of Babylonia. In the south several cities, such as Furat and Charax, grew rich on the maritime trade with India; Charax became the main entrepôt for trade after the fall of the Seleucids. In the north there was no principal city, but several towns, such as Arbela (modern Irbil) and Nisibis (modern Nusaybin), later became important centres. In the desert region, "caravan cities" such as Hatra and Palmyra began their rise in the Seleucid period and had their heyday under the Parthians. The only time that the Seleucid kings lost control of Mesopotamia was from 222 to 220 BC, when Molon, the governor of Media, revolted and marched to the west. When the new Seleucid king, Antiochus III, moved against him from Syria, however, Molon's forces deserted him, and the revolt ended. The Parthians, under their able king Mithradates I, conquered Seleucid territory in Iran and entered Seleucia in 141 BC. After the death of Mithradates I in 138 BC, Antiochus VII began a campaign to recover the Seleucid domains in the east. This campaign was successful until Antiochus VII lost his life in Iran in 129 BC. His death ended Seleucid rule in Mesopotamia and marked the beginning of small principalities in both the south and north of Mesopotamia. Seleucid rule brought changes to Mesopotamia, especially in the cities where Greeks and Macedonians were settled. In these cities the king usually made separate agreements with the Greek officials of the city regarding civil and military authority, immunity from taxes or corvée, or the like. Native cities continued with their old systems of local government, much as they had under the Achaemenians. Greek gods were worshiped in temples dedicated to them in the Greek cities, and native Mesopotamian gods had temples dedicated to them in the native cities. In time, however, syncretism and identification of the foreign and local deities developed. Although the policy of Hellenization was not enforced upon the population, Greek ideas did influence the local educated classes, just as local practices were gradually adopted by the Greeks. As in Greece and the lands of the eastern Mediterranean, in Mesopotamia the philosophies of the Stoics and other schools probably had an impact, as did mystery religions; both were hallmarks of the Hellenistic Age. Unfortunately there is no evidence from the east on the popularity of Greek beliefs among the local population, and scholars can only speculate on the basis of the fragmentary notices in authors such as Strabo. The Seleucid rulers respected the native priesthoods of Mesopotamia, and there is no record of any persecutions. On the contrary, the rulers seem to have favoured local religious practices, and ancient forms of worship continued. Cuneiform writing by priests, who copied incantations and old religious texts, continued into the Parthian period. The administrative institutions of the countryside of Mesopotamia remained even more traditional than those of the cities; the old taxes were simply paid to new masters. The satrapy, much reduced in size from Achaemenian times, was the basis for Seleucid control of the countryside. A satrap or strategus (a military title) headed each satrapy, and the satrapies were divided into hyparchies or eparchies; the sources that use these and other words, such as toparchy, are unclear about the subdivisions of the satrapy. There was a great variety of smaller units of administration. In the capital and in the provincial centres, both Greek and Aramaic were used as the written languages of the government. The use of cuneiform in government documents ceased sometime during the Achaemenian period, but it continued in religious texts until the 1st century of the Common era. The archives were managed both in the capital and in provincial cities by an official called a bibliophylax. There were many financial officials (oikonomoi); some of them oversaw royal possessions, and others managed local taxes and other economic matters. The legal system in the Seleucid empire is not well understood, but presumably both local Mesopotamian laws and Greek laws, which had absorbed or replaced old Achaemenian imperial laws, were in force. Excavations at Seleucia have uncovered thousands of seal impressions on clay, evidence of a developed system of controls and taxes on commodities of trade. Many of the sealings are records of payment of a salt tax. Most of the tolls and tariffs, however, were local assessments rather than royal taxes. Artistic remains from the Seleucid period are exceedingly scarce, and, in contrast to Achaemenian art, no royal or monumental art has been recovered. One might characterize the objects that can be dated to the Seleucid era as popular or private art, such as seals, statuettes, and clay figurines. Both Greek and local styles are found, with an amalgam of styles prevalent at the end of Seleucid rule, evidence of a syncretism in cultures. The numerous statues and statuettes of Heracles found in the east testify to the great popularity of the Greek deity, in Mesopotamia identified with the local god Nergal. Aramaic was the "official" written langauge of the Achaemenian Empire; after the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek, the language of the conquerors, replaced Aramaic. Under the Seleucids, however, both Greek and Aramaic were used throughout the empire, although Greek was the principal language of government. Gradually Aramaic underwent changes in different parts of the empire, and in Mesopotamia in the time of the Parthians it evolved into Syriac, with dialectical differences from western Syriac, used in Syria and Palestine. In southern Mesopotamia, other dialects evolved, one of which was Mandaic, the scriptural language of the Mandaean religion. Literature in local languages is nonexistent, except for copies of ancient religious texts in cuneiform writing and fragments of Aramaic writing. There were authors who wrote in Greek, but little of their work has survived and that only as excerpts in later works. The most important of these authors was Berosus, a Babylonian priest who wrote about the history of his country, probably under Antiochus I (reigned 281-261 BC). Although the excerpts of his work that are preserved deal with the ancient, mythological past and with astrology and astronomy, the fact that they are in Greek is indicative of interest among local Greek colonists in the culture of their neighbours. Another popular author was Apollodorus of Artemita (a town near Seleucia), who wrote under the Parthians a history of Parthia in Greek as well as other works on geography. Greek continued to be a lingua franca used by educated people in Mesopotamia well into the Parthian period. Under the Seleucid system of dating, as far as is known, a fixed year became the basis for continuous dating for the first time in the Middle East. The year chosen was the year of entry of Seleucus into Babylon, 311 BC according to the Mesopotamian reckoning and 312 BC according to the Syrians. Before this time, dating had been only according to the regnal years of the ruling monarch (e.g., "fourth year of Darius"). The Parthians, following the Seleucids, sought to institute their own system of reckoning based on some event in their past that scholars can only surmise--possibly the assumption of the title of king by the first ruler of the Parthians, Arsaces. Since Greece was overpopulated at the beginning of Seleucid rule, it was not difficult to persuade colonists to come to the east, especially when they were given plots of land (cleroii) from royal domains that they could pass on to their descendants; if they had no descendants, the land would revert to the king. Theoretically all land belonged to the ruler, but actually local interests prevailed. As time passed, however, the influx of Greek colonists diminished and then ended when the wars of the Hellenistic kings interrupted this movement. Nonetheless, Greek influences continued, and it is fascinating to find in cuneiform documents records of families where the father has a local Mesopotamian name and his son a Greek one, and vice versa. Inasmuch as Mesopotamia was peaceful under the Seleucids, the processes of accommodation and assimilation among the people appear to have flourished. Back to the History Page
When the Spanish first arrived in Chihuahua, more than 200 indigenous groups, including Native Americans, already inhabited the area. Although little of this period’s history is recorded, archeologists have found evidence of inhabitants dating as far back as 3,000 years. Some of these tribes include the Tarahumara (Raramuri), Apache, Comanche and Guarojío. For several thousand years, indigenous groups living in Chihuahua maintained trading relations with groups in other areas. Perhaps the most notable inhabitants were the Tarahumara (Raramuri), a people whose rich spiritual ideology, passive resistance and strong cultural identity enabled them to persevere despite foreign intrusions. Other tribes, like the warlike Apache, were overwhelmed and eventually assimilated after the arrival of the Spaniards. As early as 1567, silver mines were established in Santa Barbara, a region occupied by the Conchos Indians. Many Spaniards poured into the region, forcing the indigenous population to work the mines. Throughout the 16th century, the first Spanish settlements were established around haciendas (country estates) and mining operations. Some Franciscan missions and Carapoa villages were also founded in the mid-1500s. Although the military garrisons at El Paso and Ciudad Juárez were both built in 1598, the Spanish colonizers exerted fairly loose control over the region during most of the 16th century. With the mining industry growing steadily into the 17th century, Chihuahua was named the capital of the province of Nueva Vizcaya. From 1640 to 1731, the area experienced increased economic activity and, concomitantly, frequent indigenous uprisings. Tensions developed between the miners and the hacienda owners who continued to force indigenous groups into slavery. In the Mexican War of Independence, Chihuahua hacienda owners and miners sided with the royalist forces against the independence movement. However, Mexico’s independence in 1821 forced leaders in Chihuahua to join the new country. The 1821 Plan of Iguala established the framework that consolidated the new republic; later, the region of Durango separated from Chihuahua and became an autonomous province. Chihuahua officially became a Mexican state in 1824; the state constitution was ratified the following year. In 1830, an ethnic war broke out in Chihuahua that nearly exterminated the indigenous Apache and Comanche tribes. During the Mexican Revolution, which began in 1910, Chihuahua was again a central battleground. Peasant revolutionary leader Francisco “Pancho” Villa fought throughout Chihuahua, demanding that the peasants be apportioned land and be recognized as legitimate participants in Mexican politics. Villa’s famous Northern Division was first assembled in Chihuahua. Following the revolution, Chihuahua remained a hub of Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) influence. Because of its proximity to the United States, Chihuahua was strategically important to Mexico. The region was also central to the oldest and most important opposition party during PRI rule, the National Action Party (PAN). State leader Luis H. Álvarez became the PAN presidential candidate in 1958 after an unsuccessful run for governor. In 1992, Chihuahua became one of the first states in Mexico to elect a governor who was not a member of the PRI. In 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), designed to encourage trade among the United States, Canada and Mexico by eliminating tariffs and lifting many restrictions on various categories of trade goods, went into effect. Because Chihuahua shares a border with the United States, the state experienced tremendous economic growth as a result of the treaty. However, small farmers found that participation in the well-established and competitive North American market was quite difficult. Since the advent of NAFTA in 1994, relations between Chihuahuan management and labor have been strained. Union membership has declined, and much of the state’s labor force has resisted the implementation of the agreement. Nevertheless, Chihuahua continues to have one of the fastest-growing economies in Mexico. Today, the primary economic drivers in the state are assembly plants (called maquiladoras) that produce electronic components, automobile parts and textile goods. Manufacturers such as Toshiba, JVC and Honeywell have facilities in the state’s recently developed industrial parks. Timber production and livestock ranching in Chihuahua were once staples of the economy; however, as of 2003, they represented less than 10 percent of the total economic activity. Facts & Figures - Capital: Chihuahua - Major Cities (population): Juárez (1,313,338) Chihuahua (758,791) Cuauhtémoc (134,785) Delicias (127,211) Hidalgo del Parral (103,519) - Size/Area: 94,571 square miles - Population: 3,241,444 (2005 Census) - Year of statehood: 1824 - Chihuahua’s coat of arms bears a shield with a red border. Across the top is an image of the old Chihuahuan aqueduct. In the center section, the profiles of a Spaniard and an Amerindian facing each other represent the blending of the two races (mestizo). The lower portion depicts Chihuahua Cathedral. - The state’s name is believed to come from a Náhuatl word that means dry, sandy place. - The largest state in Mexico, Chihuahua is slightly larger than the United Kingdom, six times larger than Switzerland and seven times larger than Holland. - The Chihuahua dog, one of the smallest canine breeds, originated in the state of Chihuahua. Records indicate that the Olmecs kept and bred Chihuahuas, which are thought to have evolved from an earlier breed called the Techichi. - Chihuahua is the richest state in Mexico due in part to its livestock production (Chihuahuan beef is sought after throughout Mexico) and mining (the state is the second largest silver producer in the country). - In 1973, Mexico’s first geothermal power plant, which draws heat from the earth’s interior, began operation at Cierro Prieto, Chihuahua, near the U.S. border. Before its construction, residents relied on a diesel generator that produced electricity only a few hours each day. - In 2001, while in search of silver and zinc, miners in Chihuahua discovered mineral crystals far larger than any previously encountered. Some of these monstrous Selenite crystals were nearly six meters (20 feet) long. Copper Canyon, the network of canyons in southwestern Chihuahua inhabited by Tarahumara Indians, is larger and deeper than the Grand Canyon. Copper Canyon’s main attraction is Candameña Canyon (Canyon of the Cascades), which attracts tourists from all over to view its majestic waterfalls. Piedra Volada (Flying Stone) Falls at 453 meters (1,486 feet) is the highest in Mexico and the 11th highest in the world. Basaseachic Falls is the second-highest waterfall in Mexico and the 28th highest in the world. Chihuahua City, the capital of the state, was originally named San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua. Today, it is affectionately called Lady of the Desert. The city was founded in 1709 and is now home to a mixture of colonial architecture and modern industry. The Government Palace building was where the founding father of Mexico, Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, was imprisoned. He was executed in its central patio on June 11, 1811. Quinta Luz (also known as Pancho Villa’s House), a 50-room mansion located in Chihuahua City, has been converted into the Museum of the Revolution. Chihuahua al Pacífico Railway In 1861, Albert Kinsey Owen envisioned a railroad link through Mexico’s Sierra Madre that would reduce the shipping route from the United States, through South America and on to the Orient. By utilizing Mexico’s deep-water port at Puerto Topolobompo, trade routes would be decreased by some 400 miles. The Kansas City Mexico Orient Railway (KCMO) was to travel from Kansas, through Chihuahua and on to the west coast of Mexico. Due to numerous setbacks–including the Mexican Revolution of 1914–the rail system took nearly 100 years to complete. Today, the railroad, known as Chihuahua al Pacífico, or El Chepe, runs from the coast into the deep chasms of Chihuahua’s Copper Canyon System. Casas Grandes (Paquime) Casas Grandes, located in the northern portion of the state, is the most important archaeological zone in Chihuahua. The great Puebloan community of Paquime was the center of the Casas Grandes culture for over 300 years, reaching the peak of its power in the 13th century. It is believed that the population of the city reached 10,000, with most inhabitants living in five- and six-story “apartment” buildings. Featuring small T-shaped doors, a ceremonial area, temple structures, a ball court, ceremonial pyramids and a cross-shaped mound with perfect astronomical orientation, the Paquime ruins spark wonder and admiration.
June 13, 1911 - Sept. 1, 1988 Alverez was an American experimental physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1968 for work that included the discovery of many resonance particles --subatomic particles having extremely short lifetimes and occurring only in high-energy nuclear collisions. In about 1980 Alvarez (left) helped his son, the geologist Walter Alvarez (right), publicize Walter's discovery of a worldwide layer of clay that has a high iridium content and which occupies rock strata at the geochronological boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras; i.e., about 66.4 million years ago. They postulated that the iridium had been deposited following the impact on Earth of an asteroid or comet and that the catastrophic climatic effects of this massive impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Though initially controversial, this widely publicized theory gradually gained support as the most plausible explanation of the abrupt demise of the dinosaurs. Read more HERE. Image from HERE.
Hives are raised, often itchy, red bumps (welts) on the surface of the skin. They are usually an allergic reaction to food or medicine. When you have an allergic reaction to a substance, your body releases histamine and other chemicals into the blood. This causes itching, swelling, and other symptoms. Hives are a common reaction. Persons with other allergies, such as hay fever, often get hives. When swelling or welts occur around the face, especially the lips and eyes, it is called angioedema. Swelling can also occur around your hands, feet, and throat. Many substances can trigger hives, including: Hives may also develop as a result of: Your doctor can tell if you have hives by looking at your skin. If you have a history of an allergy, then the diagnosis is even more obvious. Sometimes, a skin biopsy or blood tests are done to confirm that you had an allergic reaction, and to test for the substance that caused the allergic response. Treatment may not be needed if the hives are mild. They may disappear on their own. To reduce itching and swelling: If your reaction is severe, especially if the swelling involves your throat, you may require an emergency shot of epinephrine (adrenaline) or a steroid. Hives in the throat can block your airway, making it difficult to breathe. Hives may be uncomfortable, but they are usually harmless and disappear on their own. In most cases, the exact cause of hives cannot be identified. Call 911 or your local emergency number if you have: Call your health care provider if the hives are severe, uncomfortable, and do not respond to self-care measures. Reviewed By: Kevin Berman, MD, PhD, Associate, Atlanta Center for Dermatologic Disease, Atlanta, GA. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
Many applications of laboratory-built human retinal tissues can be envisioned, including using them to test drugs and study degenerative diseases of the retina such as retinitis pigmentosa. One day, it may also be possible replace multiple layers of the retina in order to help patients with more widespread retinal damage. “We don’t know how far this technology will take us, but the fact that we are able to grow a rudimentary retina structure from a patient’s blood cells is encouraging, not only because it confirms our earlier work using human skin cells, but also because blood as a starting source is convenient to obtain,” says David Gamm, MD, pediatric ophthalmologist and senior author of the study. “This is a solid step forward.” In 2011, Dr. Gamm’s lab at the UW Waisman Center created structures from the most primitive stage of retinal development using embryonic stem cells and stem cells derived from human skin. While those structures generated the major types of retinal cells, including photoreceptors, they lacked the organization found in more mature retina. This time, the team, led by Dr. Gamm, assistant professor of ophthalmology and visual sciences in the UW School of Medicine and Public Health, and postdoctoral researcher and lead author Joseph Phillips, PhD, used their method to grow retina-like tissue from iPS cells derived from human blood gathered via standard blood draw techniques. In their study, about 16 percent of the initial retinal structures developed distinct layers. The outermost layer primarily contained photoreceptors, whereas the middle and inner layers harbored intermediary retinal neurons and ganglion cells, respectively. This particular arrangement of cells is reminiscent of what is found in the back of the eye. Further, work by Dr. Phillips showed that these retinal cells were capable of making synapses, a prerequisite for them to communicate with one another. The results were published in the March 12, 2012 online issue of Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. Retinopathy A Marker for Cognitive Loss Women 65 or older who have even mild retinopathy are more likely to have cognitive decline and related vascular changes in the brain, according to a study led by scientists at the University of California, San Francisco. The findings suggest that a relatively simple eye screening could serve as a marker for cognitive changes related to vascular disease, allowing for early diagnosis and treatment, potentially reducing the progression of cognitive impairment to dementia. A diagnosis could indicate early stages of Type II diabetes or hypertension, before they are clinically detectable. Early diagnosis could allow for lifestyle or drug interventions when they might be most effective. “Lots of people who are pre-diabetic or pre-hypertensive develop retinopathy,” said the lead author of the study, Mary Haan, DPH, MPH, UCSF professor of epidemiology and biostatistics. “Early intervention might reduce the progression to full- onset diabetes or hypertension.” The results, reported in the March 14, 2012, online issue of Neurology, were based on data from the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study and the Site Examination study, two ancillary studies of the Women’s Health Initiative Clinical Trial of Hormone Therapy. In the study, the team followed 511 women with an average starting age of 69 for 10 years. Each year, the women took a cognition test focused on short-term memory and thinking processes. In the fourth year, they received an exam to assess eye health. In the eighth year, they received a brain scan. Of the full group of women, 39 women, or 7.6 percent, were diagnosed with retinopathy. On average, these women scored worse on the cognition test than the other women. They had more difficulty, for instance, recalling a list of several words five minutes after hearing them. The women with retinopathy also had more damage to the blood vessels of the brain. They had 47 percent more ischemic lesions in the vasculature overall and 68 percent more lesions in the parietal lobe. The lesions, associated with vascular disease and sometimes stroke, are believed to be caused by high blood pressure. They also had more thickening of the white matter tracks that transmit signals in the brain, which also appear to be caused by high blood pressure. Notably, the women did not have more brain atrophy, which is associated with Alzheimer’s disease. This result indicates that retinopathy is a marker of neurovascular disease rather than Alzheimer’s disease, according to Dr. Haan. Swedish Study: Stem Cells to Epithelial Cells Scientists at the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, have for the first time successfully cultivated stem cells on human corneas, which may in the long term remove the need for donators. Approximately 500 corneal transplantations are carried out each year in Sweden, and about 100,000 in the world. But the procedure requires a donated cornea, and there is a severe shortage of donated material, particularly where religious or political views hinder the use of donated material. Scientists at the Sahlgrenska Academy have taken the first step towards replacing donated corneas with corneas cultivated from stem cells. Scientists Charles Hanson, PhD, and Ulf Stenevi, MD, have used defective corneas obtained from the ophthalmology clinic at Sahlgrenska University Hospital in Mölndal. Their study was published in Acta Ophthalmologica, and shows how human stem cells can be caused to develop into epithelial cells after 16 days’ culture in the laboratory and a further six days’ culture on a cornea. “Similar experiments have been carried out on animals, but this is the first time that stem cells have been grown on damaged human corneas. It means that we have taken the first step towards being able to use stem cells to treat damaged corneas,” says Dr. Hanson. “If we can establish a routine method for this, the availability of material for patients who need a new cornea will be essentially unlimited. Both the surgical procedures and the aftercare will also become much more simple,” says Dr. Stenevi. X-ray Stops Glaucoma in Mouse Model Researchers at the Jackson Laboratory, an independent, biomedical research institution, have demonstrated that a single, targeted x-ray treatment of an individual eye in young, glaucoma-prone mice provided that eye with apparently life-long and typically complete protection from glaucoma. The research was published March 19 in the Journal of Clinical Investigation. Gareth Howell, PhD, Simon John, PhD, and colleagues also used sophisticated genomics methods to uncover some of the very first pathways to change during glaucoma in these mice. The first pathway they detected to change suggests a critical mechanism that could be responsible for the earliest damage that glaucoma inflicts on the optic nerve. About 10 years ago, Dr. John’s lab made the surprising discovery that just a single dose of whole body irradiation along with bone marrow transfer conferred an unprecedented protection against glaucoma: 96 percent of treated eyes had no glaucoma a year later compared to only 20 percent of control eyes. Although this result was unexpected, there is some evidence that radiation may protect from human glaucoma. Epidemiologists who followed Japanese survivors of the atomic bombings in World War II had noticed that exposure to radiation increased the incidence of thyroid and other cancers but seemed to provide protection against glaucoma. The new demonstration that irradiation of just a single eye is protective, and at lower doses than they previously published, raises the possibility of using highly controlled localized radiation of just the eye to prevent human glaucoma. Further research in other animal models to assess protection as well as safety and efficacy is necessary before attempting human treatments. But, as the authors conclude in their paper, “given both the robust and long-term efficacy of a single dose of X-ray radiation in preventing cellular entry into the optic nerve and retina, it will be important to further evaluate the use of X-rays for preventing glaucoma.” The study showed that in response to early tissue stresses, monocytes, a class of immune cells, enter the optic nerve and retina in glaucoma. These monocytes express damaging molecules that appear critical for nerve damage in glaucoma. The entry of these cells is controlled in part by endothelial cells that line blood vessels. Radiation treatment appears to change how these endothelial cells respond to the early tissue stresses and affect the entry of the monocytes into the optic nerve and retina. “While more work is needed to fully understand how the radiation confers long-term protection,” Dr. Howell says, “radiation appears to hinder the adhesion and migration of monocytes into the areas of the eye prone to nerve damage.” This finding strongly implicates the entry of cells into the eye as a key component of the nerve damage that leads to blindness. It also suggests vision may be maintained in eyes with high intraocular pressure by treatments that block the entry of monocytes into the eye. REVIEW
Compare Numbs to 100 +/-4 [H] In this number comparison worksheet, students write the greater than, less than or equal to sign to compare numbers to 100, +or- 4. 3 Views 0 Downloads Initial Fraction Ideas Lesson 23: Overview Celebrate young mathematicians' ability to compare, add, and subtract fractions with this math review lesson. To demonstrate their newly acquired knowledge, children solve a series of fraction word problems, explaining their solutions in... 3rd - 6th Math CCSS: Adaptable Grade 1 Supplement Set A4 Number & Operations: Equivalent Names Engage young mathematicians in developing their basic arithmetic skills with these great hands-on activities. Using Unifix® cubes to model a variety of single digit addition and subtract problems, children build a basic understanding of... K - 2nd Math CCSS: Adaptable
How was human sexuality portrayed during the Enlightenment? What were gender roles like, especially the role of women during this period? What were attitudes about homosexuality and lesbianism like? Describe the reasons why women outnumbered men in Protestant church congregations during the 17th century. How did the phenomenon of gender-skewed congregations contribute to new Christian reflections on gender – especially the thoughts of English ministers like Richard Allestree and Cotton Mather? Who was Mary Astell and how did she contribute to feminist attitudes during this period and beyond? Ideas about masculinity and femininity started to change and the roles started to become more sharpened without any clear reason as to why. For example the homosexual subculture started to develop, but the male version caused more of a moral panic than the female. It’s not really well understood why women outnumbered men in Protestant church congregations. One reason may be that there more opportunities for women in Protestant churches, but the phenomenon of more women in churches continues to this day (except for a certain book club). In the modern church this seems to extend also to the heavy lifting of volunteering. Are women more spiritual than men? As an oppressed gender do they gravitate to Jesus as the great liberator? One benefit of more women was the distaste of witch hunting. Allestree and Mahter began to rethink of the traditional ideas of women being weaker or more emotional and thus susceptible to evil. Perhaps being faced with death in childbirth made them mature in matters of life and death. Mary Astel was a high Church Anglican Tory against discrimination against women as being more prone to vice. She was outraged that girls were not being provided an education over boys. Her views were absorbed in Evangelical movements affecting up to the 20th century. French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650) is often called the Father of Modern Philosophy. He started out his career as a mathematician and is credited with discovering the concept of Analytic Geometry. He also was a physicist of great repute. Descartes was a faithful Catholic, but he privately knew the church was wrong in its resistance to and persecution of men of science. He knew that these men and their philosophies were the way of the future, and if the Church did not adapt, it would suffer as a result. Descartes sought nothing less than the formidable task of a radically revisionist look at knowledge. He started with the premise of doubt and as a result he doubted everything. He believed that everything that he knew, or believed he knew, came from his senses, and sensory experience is inherently suspect. This is the classic Skeptic starting point. Descartes quickly discovered that to doubt absolutely everything is to be poised on the precipice of madness. Is it real, or is it a dream? Descartes came to believe that he could not even know if he was awake or if he was dreaming things. There is no absolute certainty, not even in the realm of mathematics. This was called the Dream Hypothesis and is radical skepticism taken to the max. Descartes went on to speculate that there might not be an all-loving God orchestrating things from a celestial perch. Perhaps there was an Evil Demon who had brainwashed us into believing that all we see and sense is reality, but is really an illusion devised by this diabolical entity. This is called the Demon Hypothesis. You have heard the Latin phrase “Cogito, ergo sum” in its English translation. It is perhaps the most famous sentence in the history of philosophy. “I think, therefore I am,” became the rallying cry of the modern philosophical age. Everything could be questioned, but one thing remained a fact: the thinking of the thinker. Self-awareness. You can count on at least one thing in this wild world, according to Descartes: Wherever you go, there you are. Descartes then tried to use this newfound certainty to prove the existence of God. It is an ontological argument similar to the one employed by St. Anselm a few centuries earlier. Descartes used the following arguments to “prove” the existence of God: - “’I think, therefore I am’ proves that I exist, but I am an imperfect, flawed mortal man. If I were my own creator, naturally I would have made myself perfect. This proves that I did not create myself, and if I did not, then who did? The answer is God.” - “I have a conception of what perfection is, though I am not perfect. Okay, so where does this idea of perfection come from? Not from me, of course. After all, I am imperfect, and perfection cannot come from something as so patently imperfect as I. So there must be a perfect being, and that is God” Having proved that he existed and having “proved” the existence of God, at least to his satisfaction, Descartes turned his sights on the nature of reality. According to him, two elements compose reality, as we know it. He called them substances. Thinking substances are our minds, and extended substances are our physical bodies. He adds that not all ideas come from sensory experience, but other ideas dwell within the mind, ready for the accessing. Descartes calls these ideas innate. Notions of morality, mathematics, logic, and the idea of God are all innate ideas. They are similar to the Platonic theory of Forms. There are also, according to Descartes, two other types of ideas: adventitious, which come from what we experience through our senses, and fictitious, which are what the name implies. Though a scientist and mathematician, Descartes sounds like the Apostle Paul when he speaks of the body-mind disconnection, or dualism. He had a mechanistic view of the physical world and viewed the mind as being imbued with spirit. Descartes believed that a body without spirit could still be a walking, talking, animated entity, like an android. Feelings, or passions as he called them, are generated by the body. They are not to be trusted, and they are best kept under control. This is philosophical spin on the New Testament’s “spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak” belief. That the mind can know things without actually experiencing them is called rationalism. Descartes was initially hesitant to publish his theories because they strongly resembled those of Galileo and did not want the Grand Inquisitor from the Catholic Church come knocking on his door. Ultimately, Descartes did proceed to publish his work and further shook the foundations of the Church, which was already reeling from the one-two punch of the Protestant Reformation and the Scientific Revolution. Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679) The material covered begs me to raise my consistent cry: Is this the history of the TRUE Church? Comments exemplified by MacCulloch’s quip encapsulating Hobbes “… take no Christian doctrine on trust” (P.782) need to be addressed not for their obvious truth but for what it says about their (the Enlightenment’s) understanding of what (or better who) the Church is and its history. Juxtapose this attitude with what is said in the New Testament as summed up in Paul’s applauding and exhorting the Bereans who checked his teachings daily. Here is the Enlightenment’s skepticism ala Descartes seemingly demanded in the NT. Is Paul an original skeptic in the full Enlightenment term? Throughout the NT the writers are saying don’t take our word, check it for yourself. I claim this is germane for our study of Church History because obviously what was meant by Church (Authority) in Hobbes’ time is radically different than Paul’s time. Which is ‘TRUER’ to its founder Jesus Christ’s teachings, doctrines and practices? Christianity has been molded by many forces but none greater than affluence and prosperity. After all, when you live in a purely survival (subsistence) world, there is precious little time to study and discuss philosophy and theology, let alone math, biology and other disciplines. With the increase of prosperity to the lower classes as in the Netherlands and England, common people were now able to pursue study and development as only the wealthy were able to do before. The accomplishments of Descartes, Kant, Hume, etc. were more reliant on the time and place of their birth ( i.e. factors outside their control as exemplified today by Warren Buffets ‘Lucky Sperm Theory’) than the brain power any of them brought to the table. Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) was arguably the pre-eminent philosopher of the Enlightenment who laid the foundations for most of modern Western thought since then. His philosophy is marked by an overwhelming demolition of traditional beliefs. Furthermore, his philosophy affirms the limits of human knowledge and the creative possibilities resulting from an acknowledgement of these limits. In place of superstition and dogma, Kant embraces change and human fallibility. He was born in 1724 in the East Prussian city of Konigsberg which was intensely Lutheran Pietist. Pietism was founded in Germany by Philipp Jakob Spener (1635 – 1705); Pietists regarded the Christian faith as a living personal relationship with Christ rather than a set of doctrinal propositions and emphasized the necessity of a “born-again” experience. They emphasized more on being part of the “invisible church” rather than being a member of the Lutheran church. The schools that Kant attended at an early age stressed Pietism heavily whereby Kant had nothing but scorn and contempt for. Later, after studying rational philosophy, he later became opposed in principle to religious ceremonies and wrote to a friend that “No confession of faith, no appeal to holy names nor any observance of religious ceremonies can help gain salvation.” Kant was determined to apply Newton’s methods of rigorously and systematically analyzing observed phenomena in order to rebuild philosophy. He wanted clarity of definition and reason. He argued, like Descartes, from the existence of individual consciousness rather than from the divine revelation from God. (loc. 15540) Kant argued that the human mind actively orders everything which it experiences, and that somehow it has a set of rules by which it can judge those experiences. These rules enable the mind to order the information which it receives about space and time within the universe. Yet the rules themselves come before any experience of space and time, and it is impossible to prove that these rules are true. All that can be said is that they are absolutely necessary to ordering what we perceive and giving it a quality we can label objectively. (loc. 15544) This revolutionized how philosophy had been done in the past. Previously, philosophy had worked on the premise that each individual mind gives a picture of structures in a real world which lies outside the mind. Now Kant maintained that the mind orders the world by the way in which it interprets experience. (loc. 15548) In other words, Kant argues that our minds are confined within the world of our perceptions, with the realities that generate our perceptions forever beyond our grasp. We understand our world only by imposing on it our own broad conceptual categories like time, space, and causality. Before, philosophers had assumed that objects in the world order our perceptions of them. For instance, if I see a tree, it is the tree that somehow forms a series of concepts in my mind, of shape, color, distance, duration of time, and so on. But the fact is that it is the other way around. The reality is not what the tree supplies but what our mind supplies. Things like space, time and causality have no objective reality in and of themselves, but are rather things in our minds. The human mind has been placed at the center of the universe by Kant. Kant’s philosophy has often been referred to as “transcendental idealism” whereby it centers on our ideas, whether experiences or judgments, rather than on the external world. “Transcendental” means beyond (“transcending”) sense experience. All we experience are representations or appearances, not things as they are in themselves. In the sphere of “pure reason”, of things that can establish with rational certainty, we cannot know anything beyond our ideas. He divided the world into two spheres: noumena are things as they actually are (things-in-themselves) which are beyond the reach of the kind of reason used in science and ordinary life. Here, we cannot have any “scientific” knowledge of what lies behind our perception of a table, or our experience of other people, or our concept of God for that matter. Then there is phenomena, where we are totally limited to “appearances” (or phenomena), our experiences, and perceptions. Our ordinary reason works in the ordinary world (phenomena). But when we try to reach out for the realities beyond the ordinary phenomenal world, we have a wholly different way of operating (noumena). These concepts provide an essential element for our understanding of the physical world. They are not derived from sense-experience or observation but are, in Kant’s terminology, a priori – a truth known “prior” to experience. It is the opposite of a posteriori, which we know “post”, or after, experience. A posteriori thus means the same as empirical- based on our experience through our senses. To Kant, there were certain “ideas” or concepts that the mind could not experience, and therefore are beyond any traditional proof derived by reasoning. This places concepts like God, Freedom, and Immortality beyond the accessibility of reason. However, they can be reached by the conscience within the individual. Therefore, to Kant, God is equated to the “ultimate goal to which (rather than to whom) the individual turns, hoping to meet this goal in an immortality which stretches out beyond our imperfect world.” (loc. 15552) But Kant maintains that God’s existence cannot be proved- philosophical reason could never establish the existence of any supernatural reality. But he did say that this did not imply God’s non-existence, but more so that assertions about his existence or non-existence were beyond the realm or reach of rational knowledge. For Kant, faith takes over where reason fails. In his groundbreaking work Critique of Pure Reason (1781) he writes, “I have found it necessary to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith.” In terms of ethics and morality, Kant argued that morality must be grounded in a priori reasoning and not in any appeal to authority or religion; morality was not rooted in God since pure or scientific reason cannot establish the existence of God. In principle, a person was to do a “duty for duty’s sake”. This was to reverse how philosophy had approached morality in the past two thousand years: the ancient Greeks had identified virtue with happiness, but now Kant was insisting that these two ideas were, and should be kept separate and distinct. Happiness belongs in the empirical realm and to the sciences of human nature such as psychology and anthropology for example; on the other hand, moral thinking involves only human reason, not human nature. Or in another example, courage is usually regarded as a virtue, but not if it is used as being a suicide bomber. For Kant, there is only one thing that can be said to be good without any qualification at all – that is, doing something solely based on the desire to do right just because it is right (and not because you believe a higher power will reward you in the present life or the afterlife). This approach stands in stark contrast to Aristotle’s ethics who said that the truly virtuous person should enjoy the practice of virtue; but for Kant, in order for a moral duty to be true, we should be devoid of any self-happiness, joy, or self-fulfillment when performing a moral task. It should be noted that Kant did not want to completely abandon Christianity altogether. He wanted to recast Christianity into a form that was acceptable to a pure rationalist. He wanted to affirm and establish the key truths of Christianity but without any need or reference to a special divine revelation; there are some essential truths within Christianity that are accessible to unaided reason, but there are also additional truths that only come through revelation. However, on occasion he did draw some revealed truths of Christianity into his philosophy such as original sin and the Lutheran concept of the bondage of the will. Furthermore, he accepted our need of God’s grace to enable to do what the moral law requires. Overall, Kant’s philosophy on the limitations of reason and the human mind makes one think about how much we can really know about God. Christians use words or terminologies to describe God all the time such as “infinite”, “eternal”, and “holy”, but do we really know rationally what these terms really mean or if they comprise any sort of reality altogether? For instance, can the human mind fully grasp a concept like infinity? If we can’t, then how can we apply such terms to God when we have no clue as to what infinity really is? Then again, one wonders how it can still be called Christianity by stripping away key “revealed” (or “supernatural” for that matter) truths such as the Incarnation, the divinity of Christ, the Trinity, his miracles, the Resurrection, and the Cross; if all that you’re left with are just Jesus’ moral teachings it just becomes another ancient form of ethics or morality to follow or emulate for the most part. Much of today’s world has been impacted by Kant’s views of religion and God, keeping faith as a matter of one’s private beliefs and leaving it at that, or you can believe, follow, or see Jesus as a great moral/ethical teacher but not believe him as the Son of God and still call yourself a Christian in some shape or form.* You might just see religion as a means of becoming a more moral or ethical person. There’s a great disconnect there and I’m not sure when this modern mindset might subside or go in the other direction any time soon. *Ron pointed out that we should “be aware that well before Kant, it was evident that all doctrines are post-Jesus in the sense that they were adopted as teachings after Jesus died and so cannot be considered necessary for followers of Christ, only for membership to denominations.”
2 I. Introductory TermsScience: An organized way of using evidence, based on observations, to learn about the natural world.Observations: Information gathered using the senses.1.Quantitative- involves numbers or measurements2. Qualitative-involves characteristics or descriptions not easily measured or counted. 3 C. Biology: The study of life (living things) D. Organism: a complete individual living thing1.Examples: spider, tree, etc. 4 It exhibits all of the characteristics of life 2.How do we know if something is living?It exhibits all of the characteristics of life 5 II. Characteristics of living things Living things are Madeup of units called cellsCell = basic unit of structure and function in all living thingsMulticellular = many cellsUnicellular = 1 cell (like bacteria) 6 Living things Reproduce Asexual – 1 parent, no joining of sex cells or DNASexual – usually 2 parents, sex cells joined and DNA combined 7 Living things Grow & develop Cell divisionCell enlargementCell specializationLiving things Respond to stimuli 8 E.Living things Use energy Autotroph: make own food (plants)Heterotroph: eat somethingMetabolism: chemical reactions that build up or break down materials 9 Living things Maintain homeostasis Regulation of an organism’s internal environmentOptimizes conditions for metabolism 10 Living things display organization Cell structures, cells, tissues, and organs work together to support the organismLiving things Evolve over timeAdaptation: an inherited characteristic that results from changes to a species over time, usually something that helps them survive 11 If something is living, how many of these characteristics must it have? ALL OF THEM! 12 III. The Scientific Method - logical and organized methods of scientific study. SCHyTCo!! 13 State the problemThe problem must specify how the results can be measuredFormat: What effect does the Independent (manipulated) Variable have on Dependant (responding) Variable?IV: The variable being testedDV: results of experiment, what you will be measuring. 14 Good or bad example?How does drinking pop affect concentration?Better --> How does drinking mountain dew affect concentration in class?Best --> How does drinking 1 can of mountain dew affect performance on a memory test? 15 Collect Background Info – research your problem. What things would you research for the mountain dew example?Ex. Amount of caffeine, how caffeine works, how memory works, etc. 16 Hypothesis = possible solution to problem; an educated guess based on background information Ex: scores on memory tests will be lower after drinking mountain dew 17 Test the hypothesis (experiment) Controlled experiment – all conditions the same except one variableExperimental group – group exposed to the variableControl group – not exposed to the variable, used as a comparisonNumber of trials: how many times the experiment is repeated 18 ConclusionsData – scientific facts collected during experimentTables, graphs, chartsStatistics – math that evaluates dataEx. Average growth rate of frogs during development 19 F. Definitions: Theory: An explanation of how a specific natural phenomenon occursA former hypothesis that has been tested with repeated experiments and observations and found always to workLaw: a rule that describes, but doesn’t explain, a pattern in nature and predicts what will happen under specific conditions 20 IV. Metric system basics Base units of the metric systemLength = meterMass = gramVolume = literTime = secondTemperature = degrees Celsius 21 Common metric system prefixes used in Biology Kilo = 1,000Centi = 1/100Milli = 1/1,000Micro = 1 millionthNano = 1 billionth
Geometric Plane Shapes: Circles, Triangles, Rectangles, Squares, and Trapezoids What are geometric plane shapes? What characteristics do they have? These are the questions that we will answer in this post. The principal geometric plane shapes are: The circle is a shape that can be made by tracing a curve that is always the same distance from a point that we call the center. The distance around a circle is called the circumference of the circle. The triangle is a shape that is formed by 3 straight lines that are called sides. There are different ways of classifying triangles, according to their sides or angles. - According to their angles: - Right triangle: the largest of the 3 angles is a right angle. - Acute Triangle: the largest of the 3 angles is an acute angle (less than 90 degrees). - Obtuse Triangle: the largest of the 3 angles is an obtuse angle (more than 90 degrees). 2. According to their sides: - Equilateral Triangle: all 3 sides are the same length. - Isosceles Triangle: it has 2 (or more) sides that are of equal length. (An equilateral triangle is also isosceles.) - Scalene Triangle: no 2 sides are of equal measure. The rectangle is a shape that has 4 sides. The distinguishing characteristic of a rectangle is that all 4 angles measure 90 degrees. The rhombus is a shape formed by 4 straight lines. Its 4 sides measure the same length but, unlike the rectangle, any of all 4 angles measure 90 degrees. The square is a type of rectangle, but also a type of rhombus. It has characteristics of both of these. That is to say, all 4 angles are right angles, and all 4 sides are equal in length. The trapezoid also has 4 sides. It has two sides that are parallel but the other 2 are not. You can practice with the geometric plane shapes by registering in Smartick. - Discover Geometric Figures Found in Our Environment - Geometry and 2D Shapes with the Help of a Tangram - Geometric Shape: Properties of a Square - Geometric Figures and Straight Lines - Learn about Angles: Obtuse, Straight, Right and Acute Angle
NORTH AMERICA’S MIDCONTINENT RIFT: WHEN RIFT MET LIP Tuesday, 15 December 2015: 17:15 306 (Moscone South) Rifts are segmented linear depressions, filled with sedimentary and igneous rocks, that form by extension and often evolve into plate boundaries. Flood basalts, a class of Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs), are broad regions of extensive volcanism due to sublithospheric processes. Typical rifts are not filled with flood basalts, and typical flood basalts are not associated with significant crustal extension and faulting. North America’s Midcontinent Rift (MCR) is an unusual combination. Its 3000-km length formed as part of the 1.1 Ga rifting of Amazonia (Precambrian NE South America) from Laurentia (Precambrian North America) and became inactive once seafloor spreading was established, but contains an enormous volume of igneous rocks. MCR volcanics are significantly thicker than other flood basalts, due to deposition in a narrow rift rather than a broad region, giving a rift geometry but a LIP's magma volume. Structural modeling of seismic reflection data shows an initial rift phase where flood basalts filled a fault-controlled extending basin, and a postrift phase where volcanics and sediments were deposited in a thermally subsiding basin without associated faulting. The crust thinned during rifting and rethickened during the postrift phase and later compression, yielding the present thicker crust. The coincidence of a rift and LIP yielded the world's largest deposit of native copper. This combination arose when a new rift associated with continental breakup interacted with a mantle plume or anomalously hot or fertile upper mantle. Integration of diverse data types and models will give insight into questions including how the magma source was related to the rifting, how their interaction operated over a long period of rapid plate motion, why the lithospheric mantle below the MCR differs only slightly from its surroundings, how and why extension, volcanism, and compression varied along the rift arms, and how successful seafloor spreading ended the rift phase. Papers, talks, and educational material are available at http://www.earth.northwestern.edu/people/seth/research/mcr.html
Compressed Zip File Be sure that you have an application to open this file type before downloading and/or purchasing. How to unzip files. What a BARGAIN! This is a novel unit created to cover many of the Common Core Standards for grades 4-8. The following items are included in this product: (1) A PDF file of the unit Also to help you teach some of the lessons for the unit, I included: (2) A 23-slide PowerPoint on Figurative Language which includes a quiz (3) A 42-slide PowerPoint on Literary Elements which includes quizzes Table of Contents for the PDF File: Literature Circle Roles: Handout of Story Elements Information About the Book Main Idea and Textual Evidence Fun with Figurative Language Vocabulary List and Chapter Notes for this book Activity for Thought: A Great Beginning Nouns: Common, Proper; Singular and Plural; Abstract and Concrete Words, Words, Words! Subjects and Predicates Point of View: How important is it? The Power of Inference: The Educated Guess Comparison and Contrast Antagonist, Protagonist, Mood, and a character A Letter to a character Main Idea and Details Character Event and Picture Create a Bookmarker Who? What? Where? When? Why? Analyzing a character Characters with Character! Clauses, Simple Sentences, Complex Sentences, Compound Sentences, and Compound Complex Sentences Describing a character Subjects and Predicates and Summary A Change of Scenery After Reading Activities: Favorite Part of this book A Good Ending? An Example of the Theme of a Story Identifying the Theme Final Open Book Test for this book Story Elements Quiz Answers to Story Elements Quiz Answers to Grammar Activities Rubrics for Writing Activities Answers for: Clauses, Simple Sentences, Complex Sentences, Compound Sentences, and Compound Complex Sentences. Answers for Grammar Activities and Other Activities with Specific Answers
CHAPTER 8 CELLULAR REPRODUCTION: CELLS FROM CELLS WHAT CELL REPRODUCTION ACCOMPLISHES - May result in the birth of new organisms - Occurs much more often at the cellular level ; Any of your body’s cells reproducing themselves, e.g., skin cells reproducing themselves ; When a cell undergoes reproduction, or cell division, two “daughter” cells are produced that are genetically identical to each other and to the “parent” cell ; Before a parent cell splits into two cells, it duplicates its chromosomes, the structures that contain most of the organism’s DNA ; During cell division, each daughter cell receives one set of chromosomes ; Cell division plays a role in - The replacement of lost or damaged cells - Cell reproduction ; In asexual reproduction: - Single-celled organisms reproduce by simple cell division - There is no fertilization of an egg by a sperm - Some multicellular organisms, such as sea stars, can grow new individuals from fragmented pieces. - Growing a new plant from a clipping is another example of asexual reproduction. ; Sexual reproduction is different. - It requires fertilization of an egg by a sperm - Production of egg and sperm is called meiosis - Thus, sexually reproducing organisms use meiosis for reproduction and mitosis for growth and THE CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS ; In a eukaryotic cell: - Most genes are located on chromosomes in the cell nucleus - A few genes are found in DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts ; Each eukaryotic chromosome contains one very long DNA molecule, typically bearing thousands of genes ; The number of chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell depends on the species ; Chromosomes - Are made of chromatin, a combination of DNA and protein molecules - Are not visible in a cell until cell division occurs ; The DNA in a cell is packed into an elaborate, multilevel system of coiling and ; Histones are proteins used to package DNA in eukaryotes. ; Nucleosomes consist of DNA wound around histone molecules. ; Before a cell divides, it duplicates all of its chromosomes, resulting in two copies called sister ; Sister chromatids are joined together at a narrow “waist” called the centromere. ; When the cell divides, the sister chromatids separate from each other ; Once separated, each chromatid is: - Considered a full-fledged chromosome - Identical to the original chromosome The Cell Cycle ; A cell cycle is the orderly sequence of events that extend from the time a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell to its own division into two cells. ; The cell cycle consists of two distinct phases: - The mitotic phase ; Most of a cell cycle is spent in interphase. ; During interphase, a cell: - Performs its normal functions - Doubles everything in its cytoplasm - Grows in size Mitosis and Cytokinesis - Is the division of the chromosomes - Is preceded by interphase ; The mitotic (M) phase includes two overlapping processes: - Mitosis, in which the nucleus and its contents divide evenly into two daughter - Cytokinesis, in which the cytoplasm is divided in two ; Mitosis consists of four distinct phases: - Typically occurs during telophase - Is the division of the cytoplasm - Is different in plant and animal cells Cancer Cells: Growing Out of Control ; Normal plant and animal cells have a cell cycle control system that consists of specialized proteins, which send “stop” and “go-ahead” signals at certain key points during the cell cycle. ; What Is Cancer? - Cancer is a disease of the cell cycle. - Cancer cells do not respond normally to the cell cycle control system. - Cancer cells can form tumors, abnormally growing masses of body cells. - The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site of origin is metastasis. - Malignant tumors can: ; Spread to other parts of the body ; Interrupt normal body functions - A person with a malignant tumor is said to have cancer. ; Cancer Treatment - Cancer treatment can involve ; Radiation therapy, which damages DNA and disrupts cell division. ; Chemotherapy, which uses drugs that disrupt cell division. ; Cancer Prevention and Survival - Cancer prevention includes changes in lifestyle: ; Not smoking ; Eating a high-fiber, low-fat diet ; Exercising adequately ; Visiting the doctor regularly ; Avoiding exposure to the sun ; Performing regular self-examinations MEIOSIS, THE BASIS OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ; Sexual reproduction depends on - Produces offspring that contain a unique combination of genes from the parents ; Different organisms of the same species have the same number and types of chromosomes ; A human somatic cell - Is a typical human body cell - Has 46 chromosomes ; A karyotype is an image that reveals an orderly arrangement of chromosomes. ; Homologous chromosomes are matching pairs of chromosomes that can possess different versions of the same genes. ; Humans have - Two different sex chromosomes, X and Y - Twenty-two pairs of matching chromosomes, called autosomes Gametes and the Life Cycle of a Sexual Organism ; The life cycle of a multicellular organism is the sequence of stages leading from the adults of one generation to the adults of the next. ; Humans are diploid organisms (2n=46) - Their cells contain two sets of chromosomes - Their gametes are haploid, having only one set of chromosomes (n=23) ; In humans, a haploid sperm fuses with a haploid egg during fertilization to form a diploid zygote ; Sexual life cycles involve an alternation of diploid and haploid stages ; Meiosis produces haploid gametes, which keeps the chromosome number from doubling every The Process of Meiosis ; In meiosis, - Haploid daughter cells are produced in diploid organisms - Interphase is followed by two consecutive divisions occur, meiosis I and meiosis II - Crossing over occurs Review: Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis ; In mitosis and meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate only once, during the preceding interphase ; The number of cell divisions varies: - Mitosis uses one division and produces two diploid cells - Meiosis uses two divisions and produces four haploid cells ; All the events unique to meiosis occur during meiosis I The Origins of Genetic Variation ; Offspring of sexual reproduction are genetically different from their parents and from one another. ; Independent Assortment of Chromosomes - When aligned during metaphase I of meiosis, the side-by-side orientation of each homologous pair of chromosomes is a matter of chance. - Every chromosome pair orients independently of the others during meiosis. - For any species the total number of chromosome combinations that can appear in the gametes due to independent assortment is: ; 2n where n is the haploid number. - For a human: ; n = 23 ; 223 = 8,388,608 different chromosome combinations possible in a gamete ; Random Fertilization - A human egg cell is fertilized randomly by one sperm, leading to genetic variety in the zygote. - If each gamete represents one of 8,388,608 different chromosome combinations, at fertilization, humans would have 8,388,608 × 8,388,608, or more than 70 trillion, different possible chromosome ; Crossing Over - In crossing over, ; Homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information ; Genetic recombination, the production of gene combinations different from those carried by parental chromosomes, occurs When Meiosis Goes Awry ; What happens when errors occur in meiosis? ; Such mistakes can result in genetic abnormalities that range from mild to fatal. ; How Accidents During Meiosis Can Alter Chromosome Number - In nondisjunction, the members of a chromosome pair fail to separate during anaphase, producing gametes with an incorrect number of chromosomes - Nondisjunction can occur during meiosis I or II - If nondisjunction occurs, and a normal sperm fertilizes an egg with an extra chromosome, the result is a zygote with a total of 2n + 1 chromosomes - If the organism survives, it will have an abnormal number of genes ; Down Syndrome: An Extra Chromosome 21 - Down Syndrome: ; Is also called trisomy 21 ; Is a condition in which an individual has an extra chromosome 21 ; Affects about one out of every 700 children - The incidence of Down Syndrome increases with the age of the mother. ; Abnormal Numbers of Sex Chromosomes - Nondisjunction can also affects the sex chromosomes.
\|Salvia mellifera Black Sage\| Salvia Mellifera, Black Sage. Salvia comes from the Latin salveo, “to save” which refers to the medicinal uses of many salvias. In the case of Black Sage, components in the plant’s volatile oils are antimicrobial against gram positive bacteria. Mellifera means “honey bearing”. Nectar gathering bees utilize this plant and it is one of the best honey plants along the California coast. Black sage grows between sea level and 1200 meters. It is found in both the soft (coastal scrub) and hard chaparral. It is a perennial evergreen shrub with very aromatic foliage. There are glandular hairs found all over the plant. Leaves are between 2/5 – 7 cm (1 – 3 inches) long. Black sage blooms February – July. The pale blue-lavender flowers are found in whorls or ball-like clusters spaced out around the stem. These whorls remain on the stems after the blooming season. They darken as they age and give “black sage” its common name. Pollinators are solitary bees. Black sage may be semi deciduous with leaves dropping in reaction to short days (low photo period) and not stress from drought. It needs about 15” of rainfall. Plants in areas below this rainfall may get additional water from fog drip. It is shallow rooted and able to grow in a variety of soil types. Seeds are brown, inconspicuous nutlets (single seeded fruits) in groups of four. These are disbursed by gravity and also by ants. Germination rates increase after exposure to either light or components of fire (charred wood, smoke and Potassium Nitrate. Seedlings are found in the clearings between adult shrubs, especially in the first couple of years after a fire. Plants take two years to mature. Black sage is used extensively in native landscape gardening, restoration and erosion control. It is used in re-vegetation projects because of its resistance to drought, rapid growth rate and spreading habitat. Plants provide both habitat and food for wildlife. As with other salvia species, the seeds of Black Sage are a staple food for numerous birds and small mammals. It is also an important butterfly and hummingbird plant. Along with many coastal sage scrub species, black sage is susceptible to air pollution damage from sulfur dioxide and ozone. In some areas of southern California, it is used as a biological monitor of air pollution.
You’ll hear the word “resolution” used when referring to various display aspects of computers, like monitors and video. But what does resolution mean, and how does it affect the screens you use every day? Below, we explore display resolution and how to understand it clearly. What Is Resolution? When used to refer to computers, resolution (more specifically, display resolution) is the measure of how many pixels a display device can show. Similarly, it also refers to how many pixels of detail a digital piece of media contains. A pixel is the smallest unit that can be displayed on a screen. If you look closely at a screen, especially a lower-resolution one, you can see the individual pixels on the display. Like any other rectangle, resolution is measured in the length times the height of the display, in pixels. For example, a 1920×1080 display is 1,920 pixels wide and 1,080 pixels high—a total of 2,073,600 pixels. How Resolution Impacts Image Quality As you’ve likely observed, a higher-resolution image contains more detail, and thus the image looks clearer. Higher-res images are larger, but they also look less pixelated at the same size. See the below illustration for an example. The 5×5 and below images are a blob of colors, while the 10×10 image is the first one that’s remotely recognizable as an “R”. The 50×50 image looks fine, but it’s easier to notice its jagged edges when compared to the 100×100 image. All digital images are made up of pixels, meaning that the lower resolution an image is, the easier it is to pick out where the pixels between colors change. Resolution and Video Aside from the resolution of an individual image, we also use resolution to measure the quality of a display. However, there are lots of marketing terms used today which obfuscate the resolutions. “Standard definition” is the name used for the quality of displays used in the mid-to-late 1900s, before the advent of high-definition television. In the United States, this resolution is 720×480, also called 480i. DVDs are at this resolution. Ass higher-definition displays became available, new terms arose to describe their resolutions. The next step up from standard definition is 720p, which is 1280×720. This is sometimes referred to as “HD”. What most people consider “high definition” today is 1920×1080 resolution, or 1080p. You might see this called “full HD” on a TV, projector, or similar. Standard Blu-ray discs offer 1080p video. Moving on from 1080p is 4K, which has enjoyed higher adoption in recent years. 4K resolution for consumer media is 3840×2160. 2160p is sometimes used to describe 4K, but 4K UHD (ultra HD) is more common. The standard got its name from the width being roughly 4,000 pixels. It’s also four times as big as 1080p, as both dimensions are exactly double the prior standard. Resolution and PPI Resolution alone doesn’t dictate the quality of an image, but it’s a vital factor. Another important metric is PPI, or pixels per inch. As discussed above, the more pixels in an area, the better the image will look. We saw this earlier with the “R” icons—the size of the box didn’t change, so adding more pixels upped the PPI and thus the clarity. You can observe this with computer monitors. If you buy a decent 24-inch 1080p monitor, it will look great at normal viewing distances. But if you bought a 32-inch 1080p monitor, the PPI would be much lower and thus the image wouldn’t look as sharp, since the same amount of pixels are spread out over a larger space. Upgrading to a 1440p (2560×1440) or 4K monitor would result in a much sharper image at that size. Now that you know more about resolution, you can make better decisions about the displays you buy. To give one example, many budget laptops are sold with 1366×768 screens, which aren’t that sharp. This is technically “HD”, but you’ll be much better off with a machine that has a 1920×1080 display. There’s a lot more that goes into a discussion about resolution, like upscaling low-res media to make the content look better on a high-res TV. But that gets into more technical detail; we’ve covered the basics here to give you a primer. Speaking of displays, we’ve shown ways to make screens easier on your eyes at night, no matter the device.
Painted turtles are easily identified by colorful markings on their heads, necks and shells. The most widely distributed turtles in North America, they're found in freshwater ponds, lakes, rivers and streams throughout the continent. There are four subspecies of painted turtles: eastern, midland, southern and western. Their ranges overlap, and they can interbreed. Interbred offspring are called intergrades. Painted turtles breed from March to mid-June. The male faces the female and waves his front claws at her, sometimes caressing the sides of her neck. The female leaves the water to make her nest between May and July. She may travel a few yards or a half-mile to find a suitable nesting site, often crossing fences, roads and yards. She digs a hole about six inches deep and deposits up to 11 eggs. The female painted turtle covers the eggs with dirt and returns to the water, her job done. The eggs hatch in 72 days, usually in late August through early September. The baby turtles instinctively head straight for the water. Late hatchers may stay in the nest until spring. The sex of the hatchlings is determined by nest temperature. Young turtles will be males if temperatures are cool, females if temperatures are warm. Nests are often discovered by birds, racoons and skunks, who make a meal of the eggs. Newly hatched turtles, about the size of a quarter, are easy prey for birds, foxes, raccoons, skunks, snakes and large fish. It's not unusual for 90 percent of painted turtle eggs and babies to be lost to predators. Predators don't normally bother adult turtles, but it's possible for them to lose limbs if they're attacked by predators on land. Hatchling to Adult As the young turtle grows he sheds the outer layer of bony plates on his shell, growing larger plates underneath. Males reach maturity when they're 2 to 5 years old; females are mature at 4 to 8 years old. Males are smaller than females, with longer, thicker tails and longer front claws. Painted turtles live 20 to 40 years. Painted turtles live and eat underwater. They feed on aquatic insects, plants, small mollusks, carrion, crayfish, tadpoles and fish. Painted turtles have the ability to breathe air or extract oxygen from the water, and they sleep underwater, burrowing under the mud and sand. During winters they hibernate buried in mud, emerging in March to begin their breeding cycle. Karen Mihaylo has been a writer since 2009. She has been a professional dog groomer since 1982 and is certified in canine massage therapy. Mihaylo holds an associate degree in human services from Delaware Technical and Community College.
Linked List is a linear data structure, in which elements are not stored at a contiguous location, rather they are linked using pointers. Linked List forms a series of connected nodes, where each node stores the data and the address of the next node. Node Structure: A node in a linked list typically consists of two components: Data: It holds the actual value or data associated with the node. Next Pointer: It stores the memory address (reference) of the next node in the sequence. Head and Tail: The linked list is accessed through the head node, which points to the first node in the list. The last node in the list points to NULL or nullptr, indicating the end of the list. This node is known as the tail node. Why linked list data structure needed? Here are a few advantages of a linked list that is listed below, it will help you understand why it is necessary to know. - Dynamic Data structure: The size of memory can be allocated or de-allocated at run time based on the operation insertion or deletion. - Ease of Insertion/Deletion: The insertion and deletion of elements are simpler than arrays since no elements need to be shifted after insertion and deletion, Just the address needed to be updated. - Efficient Memory Utilization: As we know Linked List is a dynamic data structure the size increases or decreases as per the requirement so this avoids the wastage of memory. - Implementation: Various advanced data structures can be implemented using a linked list like a stack, queue, graph, hash maps, etc. In a system, if we maintain a sorted list of IDs in an array id = [1000, 1010, 1050, 2000, 2040]. If we want to insert a new ID 1005, then to maintain the sorted order, we have to move all the elements after 1000 (excluding 1000). Deletion is also expensive with arrays until unless some special techniques are used. For example, to delete 1010 in id, everything after 1010 has to be moved due to this so much work is being done which affects the efficiency of the code. There are mainly three types of linked lists: - Single-linked list - Double linked list - Circular linked list In a singly linked list, each node contains a reference to the next node in the sequence. Traversing a singly linked list is done in a forward direction. In a doubly linked list, each node contains references to both the next and previous nodes. This allows for traversal in both forward and backward directions, but it requires additional memory for the backward reference. In a circular linked list, the last node points back to the head node, creating a circular structure. It can be either singly or doubly linked. Circular linked list Operations on Linked Lists - Insertion: Adding a new node to a linked list involves adjusting the pointers of the existing nodes to maintain the proper sequence. Insertion can be performed at the beginning, end, or any position within the list - Deletion: Removing a node from a linked list requires adjusting the pointers of the neighboring nodes to bridge the gap left by the deleted node. Deletion can be performed at the beginning, end, or any position within the list. - Searching: Searching for a specific value in a linked list involves traversing the list from the head node until the value is found or the end of the list is reached. Advantages of Linked Lists - Dynamic Size: Linked lists can grow or shrink dynamically, as memory allocation is done at runtime. - Insertion and Deletion: Adding or removing elements from a linked list is efficient, especially for large lists. - Flexibility: Linked lists can be easily reorganized and modified without requiring a contiguous block of memory. Disadvantages of Linked Lists - Random Access: Unlike arrays, linked lists do not allow direct access to elements by index. Traversal is required to reach a specific node. - Extra Memory: Linked lists require additional memory for storing the pointers, compared to arrays. Linked lists are versatile data structures that provide dynamic memory allocation and efficient insertion and deletion operations. Understanding the basics of linked lists is essential for any programmer or computer science enthusiast. With this knowledge, you can implement linked lists to solve various problems and expand your understanding of data structures and algorithms. Feeling lost in the world of random DSA topics, wasting time without progress? It's time for a change! Join our DSA course, where we'll guide you on an exciting journey to master DSA efficiently and on schedule. Ready to dive in? Explore our Free Demo Content and join our DSA course, trusted by over 100,000 geeks!
Recent research offers a new spin on using nanoscale semiconductor structures to build faster computers and electronics. Literally. University of Pittsburgh and Delft University of Technology researchers reveal in the Feb. 17 online issue of Nature Nanotechnology a new method that better preserves the units necessary to power lightning-fast electronics, known as qubits (pronounced CUE-bits). Hole spins, rather than electron spins, can keep quantum bits in the same physical state up to 10 times longer than before, the report finds. "Previously, our group and others have used electron spins, but the problem was that they interacted with spins of nuclei, and therefore it was difficult to preserve the alignment and control of electron spins," said Sergey Frolov, assistant professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy within Pitt's Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, who did the work as a postdoctoral fellow at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands. Whereas normal computing bits hold mathematical values of zero or one, quantum bits live in a hazy superposition of both states. It is this quality, said Frolov, which allows them to perform multiple calculations at once, offering exponential speed over classical computers. However, maintaining the qubit's state long enough to perform computation remains a long-standing challenge for physicists. "To create a viable quantum computer, the demonstration of long-lived quantum bits, or qubits, is necessary," said Frolov. "With our work, we have gotten one step closer." The holes within hole spins, Frolov explained, are literally empty spaces left when electrons are taken out. Using extremely thin filaments called InSb (indium antimonide) nanowires, the researchers created a transistor-like device that could transform the electrons into holes. They then precisely placed one hole in a nanoscale box called "a quantum dot" and controlled the spin of that hole using electric fields. This approach -- featuring nanoscale size and a higher density of devices on an electronic chip -- is far more advantageous than magnetic control, which has been typically employed until now, said Frolov. "Our research shows that holes, or empty spaces, can make better spin qubits than electrons for future quantum computers." "Spins are the smallest magnets in our universe. Our vision for a quantum computer is to connect thousands of spins, and now we know how to control a single spin," said Frolov. "In the future, we'd like to scale up this concept to include multiple qubits." Cite This Page:
Benefits of Public Health Education Public health education can be considered an ambiguous term. It teaches the proper way to improve one’s health, and can involve only one or two people, or the population of several countries. Anything that can seriously threaten the physical, mental, or spiritual health of a wide range of people, notably due to their interactions with one another, can be classified as a threat to the community’s public health. This is why public health education becomes a necessary tool to aid people against the spread of potential diseases and illnesses. Five of the most important reasons of how public health education can prove beneficial are as follows: 1. People are able to learn how to prevent the spread of communicable diseases through the training and methods being taught in education. People are able to have better access to information regarding general prevention of diseases, including the knowledge of what to do and how to act during epidemics in their area. Certain diseases have their own individual prevention methods that people should be well aware of, and employing these techniques lessens the risk of being infected by possible diseases. Through public health education, even simple things such as wearing a flu mask in particularly affected areas, or knowing when to take vaccines for a particular illness that is prominent at that time of the year, always proves very effective in limiting the number of people affected annually. 2. More people are able to access private and public medical institutions to prevent diseases or medical conditions, or to better treat them. Without the benefits of a public health education, most people may feel healthy enough and not find the need to go for a general check-up. Being aware that it is necessary to see your doctor regularly is one of the important things learned in a good public health education. Most medical hospitals and clinics offer immunization or vaccine shots during the flu seasons, or when a general outbreak of hepatitis is going around, and a public health education ensures that more people know to go to these facilities and avail of the treatment, thereby lessening the amount of ill people. 3. People are able to adopt a healthier behavior to lessen the risk of diseases being spread among themselves. Keeping things cleaner around the house, opting to lessen or quit smoking altogether, or exercising more are just a few of the many different ways taught in public health education to combat sickness and improve one’s lifestyle. 4. People become more aware of information relating to the disease, rather than believing in just public perception. Public health education not only deals with how to prevent illnesses, it also provides details of how a disease works, which may dispel some myths and fallacies about it in society. The HIV virus for example, can be spread through unprotected sexual intercourse, but not through activities such as kissing or touching. This also helps change a person’s views towards someone infected, promoting more empathy rather than discrimination. 5. People are able to help and contribute to disease prevention by supporting or volunteering at health care facilities. Public health education is more than just spreading information; it also calls people to actively participate in aiding others. To be able to protect one’s health, it is also necessary to protect the health of other people around you, and helps foster a more close-knit community and a better sense of camaraderie.
Seafloor spreading is a continuous process that comes about at mid-ocean ridges through volcanic activities and gradually splits away from the ridges. This idea of seafloor spreading plays an important role in the development of plate tectonics which reforms geological thoughts during the last quarter of the 20th century. In the early 1960s, American geophysics proposed the seafloor spreading hypothesis in which basaltic magma from the mantle rises to form a new ocean floor at mid-point ranges. On each side of the ridges, the seafloor moves from the ridges towards the deep-sea trenches where it is deflated and recycled back into the mantle. A test of the hypothesis of seafloor spreading was offered by the studies of Earth magnetism. [Image to be Added Soon] Undersea Mountain Range (Mid Oceanic Ridges) Undersea mountain ranges are the mountain ranges that are mostly or entirely underwater, and specifically under the surface of an ocean. If undersea mountain ranges emerge from current tectonic forces, they are often referred to as the mid-oceanic range. The largest and renowned undersea mountain range is the mid-oceanic range - the Mid Atlantic Range. The theory of plate tectonics states that the outer shell of the Earth is divided into the different plates that slide over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates behave like a hard and immovable shell when compared to the Earth's mantle. This stronger layer is known as the Lithosphere. The Earth's lithosphere is made up of seven or eight major plates and many minor plates. The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of the planet ( the crust and upper mantle) is split up into tectonic plates. When these plates collide, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary like convergent, divergent, or transform. Volcanic activity, mountain - buildings, earthquakes, and ocean trenches formation occur along these plate boundaries ( or faults). The relative movement of plates typically ranges from 0 to 100 mm annually. Types of Plate Boundaries The three types of plate boundaries are convergent plate boundaries, divergent boundaries and transform plate boundaries. Convergent Plate Boundaries - Convergent plate boundaries occur when two plates are pushing towards each other. Convergent Plate Boundaries Example Divergent Plate Boundaries - Divergent boundaries occur when two plates move apart from each other. Divergent Plate Boundaries Example Transform Plate Boundary - The transform plate boundary takes place when two plates slide past each other. Transform Plate Boundaries Example The boundary between Australian plate and Pacific plate crossing New Zealand. In California, the borderline between the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate. What is the Subduction Zone? A subduction zone is a place where two tectonic plates sink back into the mantle and are recycled. Where two tectonic plates come across at a subduction zone, one deviates and slides beneath the other, bending down into the mantle. (The mantle is considered to be the hotter layer under the crust). Both continental crust and oceanic crust are transported by tectonic plates, or they may be formed by only a single kind of crust. Oceanic crust is denser than continental crust. The oceanic crust at a subduction zone generally sinks into the mantle underneath the lighter continental crust. (As per the scientist, the oceanic crust may grow so old and dense that it collapses and immediately forms a subduction zone). If the same kind of crust such as continent-continent collides, the plates may crash and collapse together like crashing cars without subducting. The giant Himalaya mountain chain was formed this way when India struck into Asia. Earth is the only planet where subduction occurs and subduction zones are its important tectonic features. Subducting is the result behind plate tectonic, as without it plate tectonics cannot take place. Did You Know? One of the two major processes of plate tectonics is seafloor spreading, while the other being subduction. The renowned examples of mid-ocean ridges are the Mid- Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise. Seafloor spreading occurs at mid-ocean ridges and obtains basalt, the rock that forms the oceanic crust. Subduction zones are often observed near earthquakes. The biggest crash scene on Earth is the subduction zone. The oceanic crust is denser than the continental crust so when subduction occurs the oceanic crust goes under the continental crust. A subduction zone was found by scientists in 1960. At times continent-continent crash together without subducting which would cause and make the mountains like the Himalayas.
Thatch is a layer of dead and living plant tissue lying between the grass and the root system, and the soil below. Thatch accumulation blocks air, water and nutrients from seeping down into the root system. A thick layer of thatch also decreases the lawns response to fertilizer, as well as promotes disease and insect infestation in the lawn. The formation of thatch over time is inevitable. Be sure to rake leaves in the fall to prevent further thatch build up, and again in the spring. Soil Compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed together, reducing pore space between them. Compacted soil has a reduced rate of both water infiltration and drainage, creating a decline in root growth and shoot growth in the turf, and often leaves the lawn with bare areas. This may occur as a result of a high-traffic area on the lawn, such as children and dogs playing, from workers on your property for home improvement, etc. Annual Aeration and Over-Seeding involved closed-hollow tines that penetrate the soil and remove the soil core at the turf surface. Is it the single most important management tool for controlling soil compaction and thatch, allowing for increased root growth within holes, and shoot growth atop holes. It also improves the lawns response to fertilizer, and the decreases the risk of turf disease. Request an Estimate
Introduction: 5 Things You Need to Know about the Sunk-Cost Fallacy in Economics The sunk cost fallacy is a term that describes the human tendency to invest more time, money, and resources into a project when past investment has been made. This can be seen in the context of economics when companies continue to produce or purchase goods even though they are no longer profitable. The sunk-cost fallacy is a cognitive bias that affects people’s decision-making process by leading them to make irrational decisions about whether or not to continue investing in something. Here are five things you need to know about the sunk-cost fallacy: 1) The sunk cost fallacy is also known as the Concorde Fallacy because it was first observed with regards to the Concorde airplane program. 2) People tend to put too much weight on past costs and not enough weight on future costs, which leads them to make irrational decisions. 3) The sunk-cost fallacy can be seen in economics when companies continue producing or purchasing goods even though they are What is the Sunk-Cost Fallacy? The sunk-cost fallacy is a cognitive bias that leads you to justify increased investment in a project based on the time and money you’ve already invested, even if the project is unlikely to succeed. The sunk-cost fallacy is also referred to as the Concorde Fallacy because of an example of this type of thinking that was seen when the British and French governments spent billions on building Concorde. The government officials justified their spending by saying that they had already spent so much money on it, they might as well keep spending more money because they had already invested so much in it. How to Avoid The Sunk-Cost Fallacy in Economics and Life The sunk-cost fallacy is when someone invests more time or money in something that they know is a bad investment. People can get stuck in the sunk-cost fallacy because they think that they have already spent time, money, and effort on it and so it would be a waste not to finish it. The first step to avoid the sunk-cost fallacy is to recognize when you are committing this error. This can be difficult because there are many factors that can lead someone to commit this error without realizing it. The next step would be to stop investing any more resources into the project and instead focus on other things that are more likely to succeed. What is Sunk-Cost Fallacy and How It Can Affect Your Decision Making The sunk-cost fallacy is the idea that people will continue to invest in a project just because they have already invested a lot of time and money into it. This fallacy can be harmful to your decision making process because it can lead you to make decisions based on past investments instead of future opportunities. Sunk-cost fallacy is an economic term that refers to the idea that people will continue to invest in a project just because they have already invested a lot of time and money into it. This fallacy can be harmful to your decision making process because it can lead you to make decisions based on past investments instead of future opportunities. The Psychology of Sunk Cost Fallacy – And What You Need to Know The sunk cost fallacy is a term used in psychology to describe the phenomenon of people continuing to invest time and money into something even when it is clear that they will not get any more benefits from it. The concept has been around for a long time, but it has only recently been studied in depth by psychologists. It is now believed that this fallacy may be caused by a person’s fear of regret or loss. The sunk cost fallacy can be seen in many areas of life, but one of the most popular examples is when someone invests too much money into an activity which they have lost interest in. This could be anything from going to university to study something they no longer enjoy, or investing in stocks which have gone down. All about the Sunk Cost Fallacy and Why it’s Damaging Your Decisions The sunk cost fallacy is a type of cognitive bias that can cause people to make irrational decisions. The sunk cost fallacy is also known as the Concorde fallacy, which is named after the failed supersonic airliner project. The sunk cost fallacy is when people continue investing in something because they have already invested so much money, time, or effort into it. This can lead to bad decisions and cause people to waste more resources than necessary. People are more likely to fall victim to the sunk cost fallacy when they are tired or stressed and not thinking clearly. The Top 4 Causes Of The Sunk Cost Fallacy As we all know, the sunk cost fallacy is a cognitive bias that makes people continue with a project or endeavor even when they should have stopped because of the loss of time, money, or effort. The sunk cost fallacy is one of the most common biases that affect people’s decision-making. It can lead to bad investments and poor choices in life and work. But what are the top four causes of this fallacy? The top four causes of this fallacy are: 1) The belief that past investments will yield future gains 2) The fear of regret for not completing an investment 3) The endowment effect 4) Loss aversion Introduction: What is Sunk Cost Fallacy? The sunk cost fallacy is a concept from economics and psychology that describes the human tendency to continue investing in something that has proven to be unprofitable. In other words, it is the idea of continuing with a project because one has already invested so much time, money, or effort into it. The sunk cost fallacy can be seen in many different scenarios throughout life. For example, one may have purchased a ticket for a concert that they are not interested in seeing anymore. The person may continue to attend the concert because they have already bought the ticket and spent so much money on it. In this case, their reasoning would be “I’ve already paid for this ticket, so I might as well go.” What is the Rationale Behind the Idea of Sunk Cost? The idea of sunk costs is a way to understand why we might continue with an activity even if it is not productive. Sunk costs are the total cost of an activity, which has already been incurred and cannot be recovered. The rationale behind the idea of sunk cost is that it’s a rational decision to continue with an activity if you have already invested in it and are expecting to recoup your losses. Consider the following example: You have invested $40 for a ticket for a concert, but you are not enjoying it at all. You can choose to stay or leave and lose $40 or go home and spend nothing. In this case, most people would choose to stay because they have already paid for the ticket and they feel that they should get some value for their money even if they don’t enjoy themselves at all. How to Make Decisions Using the Idea of Sunk Cost The sunk cost fallacy is a cognitive bias that occurs when people make decisions based on what they have already invested in a project, rather than on the true value of the investment. In order to make an optimal decision, one should consider what is most likely to happen if they continue with their current course of action. The best way to do this is by using the idea of sunk costs. Conclusion: Should I Ever Make Decisions Based on Sunk Costs? We should not think of these AI writers as a replacement for human copywriters. They just provide assistance to the content writers by getting rid of writer’s block and generating content ideas at scale. AI writing assistants are increasingly getting popular in the workplace. Some companies use them when they need to generate content for a specific topic or niche. While digital agencies use them to generate all kinds of content for their clients.
The role of empathy in overcoming bias is an important and complex topic that requires a deep understanding of human psychology and social dynamics. Bias, or the tendency to favor or discriminate against individuals or groups based on perceived characteristics, can manifest in various ways, such as prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination. Overcoming bias requires a willingness to examine one’s own biases and a commitment to promoting empathy and understanding. Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. It involves putting oneself in another person’s shoes and imagining what they might be feeling or experiencing. Empathy can be a powerful tool for combatting bias because it allows individuals to connect with others on a deeper level and to recognize the unique experiences and perspectives of people from different backgrounds. However, empathy is not always easy to cultivate, particularly when it comes to individuals or groups with whom we have little in common or who we perceive as different from ourselves. For example, research has shown that people are more likely to feel empathy for others who are similar to themselves in terms of race, gender, or social class. This can make it challenging to empathize with individuals who come from different backgrounds or who have had different life experiences. To overcome this challenge, it is important to recognize and acknowledge our own biases and to work actively to expand our understanding and empathy. One way to do this is by seeking out diverse perspectives and experiences. This can involve reading books, watching movies, or listening to podcasts that feature stories and experiences from people with different backgrounds. It can also involve engaging in conversations with individuals from diverse backgrounds and seeking to understand their perspectives and experiences. Another important aspect of promoting empathy and overcoming bias is recognizing the ways in which biases can be perpetuated through social structures and institutions. For example, certain policies or practices within organizations or communities may inadvertently promote bias and discrimination. It is important to examine these structures and to work towards implementing changes that promote inclusivity and equity. Furthermore, cultivating empathy can also involve taking action to address the underlying issues that contribute to bias and discrimination. This may involve advocating for policy changes, supporting organizations that promote social justice and equity, or participating in community outreach and education programs. In addition to these strategies, it is important to recognize that promoting empathy and understanding is an ongoing process that requires patience, persistence, and a willingness to learn and grow. Overcoming bias is not something that can be accomplished overnight, but rather requires a long-term commitment to promoting inclusivity and equity in all aspects of our lives. In conclusion, empathy plays a crucial role in combatting bias and promoting understanding and inclusivity. To cultivate empathy, individuals must be willing to acknowledge and examine their own biases, seek out diverse perspectives and experiences, and take action to address the underlying issues that contribute to bias and discrimination. While promoting empathy is a challenging and ongoing process, it is essential for creating a more just and equitable society for all.
Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in pH units. Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil increases the soil pH decreases thus becoming more acidic. From pH 7 to 0 the soil is increasingly more acidic and from pH 7 to 14 the soil is increasingly more alkaline or basic. Descriptive terms commonly associated with certain ranges in soil pH are: - Extremely acid: < than 4.5; lemon=2.5; vinegar=3.0; stomach acid=2.0; soda=2–4 - Very strongly acid: 4.5–5.0; beer=4.5–5.0; tomatoes=4.5 - Strongly acid: 5.1–5.5; carrots=5.0; asparagus=5.5; boric acid=5.2; cabbage=5.3 - Moderately acid: 5.6–6.0; potatoes=5.6 - Slightly acid: 6.1–6.5; salmon=6.2; cow’s milk=6.5 - Neutral: 6.6–7.3; saliva=6.6–7.3; blood=7.3; shrimp=7.0 - Slightly alkaline: 7.4–7.8; eggs=7.6–7.8 - Moderately alkaline: 7.9–8.4; sea water=8.2; sodium bicarbonate=8.4 - Strongly alkaline: 8.5–9.0; borax=9.0 - Very strongly alkaline: > than 9.1; milk of magnesia=10.5, ammonia=11.1; lime=12 The soil sampling can be done at any time of the year, although autumn and spring are the optimal times, as winter can be too wet and in summer the ground may be too hard. 1) Take three surface soil and three subsoil samples from each site (as described in points 1-5 the Taking soil samples activity guide in this Vitinote series). Make sure surface soil and subsoil are not combined so that they can be analysed separately. 2) Crush large aggregates and remove any gravel so that you have a fine mix to test. a) Using a colorimetric test kit • follow manufacturers instructions or if not available the general procedure is as follows. • Put half a teaspoon of soil on the plate. • Add enough dye to saturate the sample, mix well • Sprinkle barium sulphate onto the soil mix and allow the colour to develop. • Compare the sample colour with the pH colour chart. • Record results. b) Using a portable pH meter • Refer to instructions and calibrate your pH meter prior to each use. • Unscrew jar lid and fill the lid level with soil. Do not compress the soil. Pour into jar.* • Add 5 jar lids of distilled water and screw lid on tight. Shake for 5 minutes then allow to settle for • Rinse the pH meter electrodes in distilled water and dry gently with a tissue. • Take a reading by immersing the electrode in the water above the settled soil as per manufacturer instructions. Make sure the electrodes are fully covered. Take care to minimise electrode contact with soil at the bottom of the jar. • Gently stir the solution with the electrode while allowing the reading to stabilise. Try not to unsettle the sediment. Record results as pHw. • Rinse electrode before next reading. pH Affects Nutrients, Minerals and Growth The effect of soil pH is great on the solubility of minerals or nutrients. Fourteen of the seventeen essential plant nutrients are obtained from the soil. Before a nutrient can be used by plants it must be dissolved in the soil solution. Most minerals and nutrients are more soluble or available in acid soils than in neutral or slightly alkaline soils. Phosphorus is never readily soluble in the soil but is most available in soil with a pH range centered around 6.5. Extremely and strongly acid soils (pH 4.0-5.0) can have high concentrations of soluble aluminum, iron and manganese which may be toxic to the growth of some plants. A pH range of approximately 6 to 7 promotes the most ready availability of plant nutrients. But some plants, such as azaleas, rhododendrons, blueberries, white potatoes and conifer trees, tolerate strong acid soils and grow well. Also, some plants do well only in slightly acid to moderately alkaline soils. However, a slightly alkaline (pH 7.4-7.8) or higher pH soil can cause a problem with the availability of iron to pin oak and a few other trees in Central New York causing chlorosis of the leaves which will put the tree under stress leading to tree decline and eventual mortality. The soil pH can also influence plant growth by its effect on activity of beneficial microorganisms Bacteria that decompose soil organic matter are hindered in strong acid soils. This prevents organic matter from breaking down, resulting in an accumulation of organic matter and the tie up of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, that are held in the organic matter.
Heat pumps are an increasingly popular choice for commercial and industrial buildings seeking to reduce their carbon footprint. Heat pumps are a type of mechanical system that uses a small amount of electricity to transfer heat from one location to another. They are commonly used to heat and cool buildings, and can be an effective way to reduce energy consumption and lower carbon emissions. One of the main benefits of using heat pumps in commercial and industrial buildings is that they are highly efficient. Unlike traditional heating and cooling systems, which rely on burning fossil fuels to generate heat, heat pumps use electricity to move heat. This means that they can provide the same level of heating or cooling with a much smaller amount of energy, thus reducing energy costs over the long term. Heat pumps will also function in cold climate weather, thanks to advances in technology. In the past, heat pumps were not considered a viable option for colder climates because they were not able to transfer enough heat to keep buildings warm. However, modern heat pumps are much more advanced and are now able to operate effectively in colder weather. Heat pumps are a highly efficient and cost-effective way for commercial and industrial buildings to reduce their carbon footprint using electricity instead of fossil fuels to heat and cool buildings. Heat Pumps are an attractive option for businesses looking to reduce their environmental impact.

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