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CBSE Class 10 Maths Trigonometry Notes:-Download PDF Here Class 10 Maths Chapter 8 Introduction to Trigonometry Notes The notes for trigonometry class 10 Maths is provided here. In Maths, trigonometry is one of the branches, where we learn the relationships between angles and sides of a triangle. Trigonometry is derived from Greek words ‘tri’ (means three), ‘gon’ (means sides) and ‘metron’ (means measure). In this chapter, we will learn the basics of trigonometry. Get the complete concept of trigonometry which is covered in Class 10 Maths. Also, get the various trigonometric ratios for specific angles, the relationship between trigonometric functions, trigonometry tables, various identities given here. Students can refer to the short notes and MCQ questions along with separate solution pdf of this chapter for quick revision from the links below: - Introduction to Trigonometry Short Notes - Introduction to Trigonometry MCQ Practice Questions - Introduction to Trigonometry MCQ Practice Solutions Opposite & Adjacent Sides in a Right Angled Triangle In the ΔABC right-angled at B, BC is the side opposite to ∠A, AC is the hypotenuse and AB is the side adjacent to ∠A. For the right ΔABC, right-angled at ∠B, the trigonometric ratios of the ∠A are as follows: - sin A=opposite side/hypotenuse=BC/AC - cos A=adjacent side/hypotenuse=AB/AC - tan A=opposite side/adjacent side=BC/AB - cosec A=hypotenuse/opposite side=AC/BC - sec A=hypotenuse/adjacent side=AC/AB - cot A=adjacent side/opposite side=AB/BC Relation between Trigonometric Ratios - cosec θ =1/sin θ - sec θ = 1/cos θ - tan θ = sin θ/cos θ - cot θ = cos θ/sin θ=1/tan θ Example: Suppose a right-angled triangle ABC, right-angled at B such that hypotenuse AC = 5cm, base BC = 3cm and perpendicular AB = 4cm. Also, ∠ACB = θ. Find the trigonometric ratios tan θ, sin θ and cos θ. Solution: Given, in ∆ABC, Hypotenuse, AC = 5cm Base, BC = 3cm Perpendicular, AB = 4cm Then, by the trigonometric ratios, we have; tan θ = Perpendicular/Base = 4/3 Sin θ = Perpendicular/Hypotenuse = AB/AC = ⅘ Cos θ = Base/Hypotenuse = BC/AC = ⅗ To know more about Trigonometric Ratios, visit here. Visualization of Trigonometric Ratios Using a Unit Circle Draw a circle of the unit radius with the origin as the centre. Consider a line segment OP joining a point P on the circle to the centre which makes an angle θ with the x-axis. Draw a perpendicular from P to the x-axis to cut it at Q. - sin θ=PQ/OP=PQ/1=PQ - cos θ=OQ/OP=OQ/1=OQ - tan θ=PQ/OQ=sin θ/cos θ - cosec θ=OP/PQ=1/PQ - sec θ=OP/OQ=1/OQ - cot θ=OQ/PQ=cos θ/sin θ Trigonometric Ratios of Specific Angles The specific angles that are defined for trigonometric ratios are 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°. Trigonometric Ratios of 45° If one of the angles of a right-angled triangle is 45°, then another angle will also be equal to 45°. Let us say, ABC is a right-angled triangle at B, such that; ∠ A = ∠ C = 45° Thus, BC = AB = a (say) Using Pythagoras theorem, we have; AC2 = AB2 + BC2 = a2 + a2 AC = a√2 Now, from the trigonometric ratios, we have; - sin 45° = (Opp. side to angle 45°)/Hypotenuse = BC/AC = a/a√2 = 1/√2 - cos 45° = (Adj. side to angle 45°)/Hypotenuse = AB/AC = a/a√2 = 1/√2 - tan 45° = BC/AB = a/a = 1 - cosec 45° = 1/sin 45° = √2 - sec 45° = 1/cos 45° = √2 - cot 45° = 1/tan 45° = 1 Trigonometric Ratios of 30° and 60° Here, we will consider an equilateral triangle ABC, such that; AB = BC = AC = 2a ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60° Now, draw a perpendicular AD from vertex A that meets BC at D According to the congruency of the triangle, we can say; Δ ABD ≅ Δ ACD BD = DC ∠ BAD = ∠ CAD (By CPCT) Now, in triangle ABD, ∠ BAD = 30° and ∠ ABD = 60° Using Pythagoras theorem, AD2 = AB2 – BD2 = (2a)2 – (a)2 AD = a√3 So, the trigonometric ratios for 30-degree angle will be; sin 30° = BD/AB = a/2a = 1/2 cos 30° = AD/AB = a√3/2a = √3/2 tan 30° = BD/AD = a/a√3 = 1/√3 cosec 30° = 1/sin 30 = 2 sec 30° = 1/cos 30 = 2/√3 cot 30° = 1/tan 30 = √3 Similarly, we can derive the values of trigonometric ratios for 60°. - sin 60° = √3/2 - cos 60° = 1/2 - tan 60° = √3 - cosec 60° = 2/√3 - sec 60° = 2 - cot 60° = 1/√3 Trigonometric Ratios of 0° and 90° If ABC is a right-angled triangle at B, if ∠A is reduced then side AC will come near to side AB. So, if ∠ A is nearing to 0 degree, then AC becomes almost equal to AB and BC get almost equal to 0. Hence, Sin A = BC /AC = 0 and cos A = AB/AC = 1 tan A = sin A/cos A = 0/1 = 0 cosec A = 1/sin A = 1/0 = not defined sec A = 1/cos A = 1/1 = 1 cot A = 1/tan A = 1/0 = not defined In the same way, we can find the values of trigonometric ratios for a 90-degree angle. Here, angle C is reduced to 0, and the side AB will be nearing side BC such that angle A is almost 90 degrees and AB is almost 0. Range of Trigonometric Ratios from 0 to 90 degrees - 0 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 - 0 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 - 0 ≤ tan θ < ∞ 1 ≤ sec θ < ∞ - 0 ≤ cot θ < ∞ - 1 ≤ cosec θ < ∞ tan θ and sec θ are not defined at 90∘. cot θ and cosec θ are not defined at 0∘. Variation of trigonometric ratios from 0 to 90 degrees As θ increases from 0∘ to 90∘ - sin θ increases from 0 to 1 - cos θ decreases from 1 to 0 - tan θ increases from 0 to ∞ - cosec θ decreases from ∞ to 1 - sec θ increases from 1 to ∞ - cot θ decreases from ∞ to 0 Standard values of Trigonometric ratios \|tan A\|\|0\|\|1/√3\|\|1\|\|√3\|\|not defined\| \|cosec A\|\|not defined\|\|2\|\|√2\|\|2/√3\|\|1\| \|sec A\|\|1\|\|2/√3\|\|√2\|\|2\|\|not defined\| \|cot A\|\|not defined\|\|√3\|\|1\|\|1/√3\|\|0\| To know more about Trigonometric Ratios of Standard Angles, visit here. Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles Complementary Trigonometric ratios If θ is an acute angle, its complementary angle is 90∘−θ. The following relations hold true for trigonometric ratios of complementary angles. - sin (90°− θ) = cos θ - cos (90°− θ) = sin θ - tan (90°− θ) = cot θ - cot (90°− θ) = tan θ - cosec (90°− θ) = sec θ - sec (90°− θ) = cosec θ Example: Find the value of sin65°/cos25°. cos A = sin (90° – A) cos 25° = sin (90° – 25°) = sin 65° Hence, sin65°/sin65° = 1 To know more about Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles, visit here. The three most important trigonometric identities are: Example: Prove that sec A (1 – sin A)(sec A + tan A) = 1. Solution: We will start solving for LHS, to get RHS. sec A (1 – sin A)(sec A + tan A) = (1/cos A)(1 – sin A)(1/cos A + sin A/cos A) = [(1 – sin A)(1 + sin A)]/cos2 A = [1 – sin2A]/cos2A To know more about Trigonometric Identities, visit here. - NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Maths Chapter 8 Introduction to Trigonometry - Class 10 Maths Chapter 8 Introduction to Trigonometry MCQs - Important Questions for Class 10 Maths Chapter 8- Introduction to Trigonometry Trigonometry for Class 10 Solved Problems Find Sin A and Sec A, if 15 cot A = 8. Given that 15 cot A = 8 Therefore, cot A = 8/15. We know that tan A = 1/ cot A Hence, tan A = 1/(8/15) = 15/8. Thus, Side opposite to ∠A/Side Adjacent to ∠A = 15/8 Let BC be the side opposite to ∠A and AB be the side adjacent to ∠A and AC be the hypotenuse of the right triangle ABC respectively. Hence, BC = 15x and AB = 8x. Hence, to find the hypotenuse side, we have to use the Pythagoras theorem. (i.e) AC2 = AB2 + BC2 AC2 = (8x)2+(15x)2 AC2 = 64x2+225x2 AC2 = 289x2 AC = 17x. Therefore, the hypotenuse AC = 17x. Finding Sin A: We know Sin A = Side Opposite to ∠A / Hypotenuse Sin A = 15x/17x Sin A = 15/17. Finding Sec A: To find Sec A, find cos A first. Thus, cos A = Side adjacent to ∠A / Hypotenuse Cos A = 8x/17x We know that sec A = 1/cos A. So, Sec A = 1/(8x/17x) Sec A = 17x/8x Sec A = 17/8. Therefore, Sin A = 15/17 and sec A = 17/8. If tan (A+ B) =√3, tan (A-B) = 1/√3, then find A and B. [Given that 0° <A+B ≤ 90°; A>B ] Tan (A+B) = √3. We know that tan 60 = √3. Thus, tan (A+B) = tan 60° = √3. Hence A+B= 60° …(1) Similarly, given that, Tan (A-B) = 1/√3. We know that tan 30° = 1/√3. Thus, tan (A-B) = tan 30° = 1/√3. Hence, A-B = 30° …(2) Now, adding the equations (1) and (2), we get A+B+A-B = 60° + 30° 2A = 90° A = 45°. Now, substitute A = 45° in equation (1), we get 45° +B = 60° B = 60°- 45° B = 15° Hence, A = 45 and B = 15°. Video Lesson on Trigonometry Stay tuned with BYJU’S – The Learning App and download the app to learn all Maths-related concepts easily by exploring more videos.
Population below poverty line: 56.8% (2018 est.) Definition: National estimates of the percentage of the population falling below the poverty line are based on surveys of sub-groups, with the results weighted by the number of people in each group. Definitions of poverty vary considerably among nations. For example, rich nations generally employ more generous standards of poverty than poor nations. Source: CIA World Factbook - This page was last updated on Saturday, September 18, 2021See Also - Population below poverty line by year chart - Population below poverty line rank chart - Population below poverty line - comparative map - Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - thematic map - World Bank indicator - Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - country comparison - World Bank indicator
- What is a balanced diet Class 5? - What is a balanced diet Child definition? - What is balanced diet example? - What is balanced diet and its benefits? - What is a basic healthy diet? - What is a normal diet plan? - What is a balanced diet short answer? - What is a balanced diet chart? - How do you create a balanced diet chart? - What is a healthy balance? - What should I eat everyday? - What is a balanced diet Ncert? What is a balanced diet Class 5? A balanced diet includes all the basic requirements of nutrients, including carbohydrates, vitamins, proteins, fats, fibre and a lot more. A healthy diet provides all the essential nutrients for survival, growth and for our body organs to function accurately.. What is a balanced diet Child definition? Children need a balanced diet with food from all 3 food groups—vegetables and fruit, whole grain products, and protein foods. Children need 3 meals a day and 1 to 3 snacks (morning, afternoon and possibly before bed). Healthy snacks are just as important as the food you serve at meals. What is balanced diet example? A balanced diet contains the proper quantities and proportions of the needed nutrients to maintain good health. It must have balanced amounts in proper proportions of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water intake. What is balanced diet and its benefits? Vitamins and minerals in the diet are vital to boost immunity and healthy development, A healthy diet can protect the human body against certain types of diseases, in particular noncommunicable diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, some types of cancer and skeletal conditions. What is a basic healthy diet? Eating lots of vegetables and fruit This is one of the most important diet habits. Vegetables and fruit are packed with nutrients (antioxidants, vitamins, minerals and fibre) and help you maintain a healthy weight by keeping you full longer. Fill half your plate with vegetables and fruit at every meal and snack. What is a normal diet plan? A healthy eating plan: Emphasizes vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and fat-free or low-fat dairy products. Includes lean meats, poultry, fish, beans, eggs, and nuts. Limits saturated and trans fats, sodium, and added sugars. What is a balanced diet short answer? A “balanced diet” means the foods you usually eat provide all the nutrients your body needs to lower your risk of developing nutrient deficiencies and optimise your health long-term. Choose a variety of foods from each of the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating core food groups. What is a balanced diet chart? There are four key essential nutrients that make up a balanced diet. Top of the list is fruits and vegetables, which need to be consumed every day in vast quantities. Proteins, fiber-rich carbs and good fats make up the other three components to a balanced diet. How do you create a balanced diet chart? Use the MyPlate Plan and the tips below to meet your needs throughout the day.Make half your plate veggies and fruits. … Include whole grains. … Don’t forget the dairy. … Add lean protein. … Avoid extra fat. … Get creative in the kitchen. … Take control of your food. … Try new foods.More items… What is a healthy balance? Eating a healthy, balanced diet is an important part of maintaining good health, and can help you feel your best. This means eating a wide variety of foods in the right proportions, and consuming the right amount of food and drink to achieve and maintain a healthy body weight. What should I eat everyday? Eat these foods daily (or at least often)Salmon. This oily fish, known for its bright pink color, is rich not only in healthy protein but also in omega-3 fatty acids, which benefit both your heart and your brain. … Brussels sprouts. … Blueberries. … Nuts. … Plain yogurt. What is a balanced diet Ncert? 11.3 Balanced dIet You have already learnt in earlier classes that a diet which contains all the essential nutrients like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins in the proportion required for the normal growth and development of the body, is called balanced diet.
Asteroid 2001 FO32 - the largest near-Earth asteroid predicted to zip by Earth this 2021 - will be making its closest approach on March 21, Sunday. NASA reports that the "potentially hazardous asteroid," while having no detectable threats of collision with our planet, is expected to provide a "valuable scientific opportunity for astronomers" to study the object believed to have formed at around the same time the Solar System did. According to the space administration, the huge rocky object will not be coming closer than 1.25 million miles (2 million kilometers) with Earth - a distance that is about 5.25 times the distance between the Earth and the Moon. Closer and Faster than Most NEOs According to Paul Chodas, director of the Center for Near-Earth Object Studies (CNEOS), Asteroid 2001 FO32 was first discovered twenty years ago and has been tracked ever since, leading them to understand the orbital path of the asteroid around the sun. CNEOS is also managed by the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. "There is no chance the asteroid will get any closer to Earth than 1.25 million miles," Chodas said. However, in terms of astronomical objects, NASA noted that a distance of 1.25 million miles is still considered "close," leading to the designation of the Asteroid 2001 FO32 as a "potentially hazardous asteroid." The space administration explains that CNEOS high-precision orbits for near-Earth objects (NEOs) together with NASA's Planetary Defense Coordination Office under the Science Mission Directorate. Their monitoring of near-Earth objects mainly relies on the use of telescopes and ground-based radar to better characterize every NEO orbit and draw hazard assessments on each of them. During its Sunday approach, Asteroid 2001 FO32 is expected to go at about 77,00 miles per hour (124,000 kph) - a speed NASA says is faster than most asteroids passing through Earth. They explain that it is because of its "highly inclined and elongated" orbit around the Sun, which is tilted 39 degrees with respect to Earth's own orbital plane. This sped-up trajectory also takes the upcoming asteroid closer to the Sun than Mercury. "As 2001 FO32 makes its inner solar system journey, the asteroid picks up speed like a skateboarder rolling down a halfpipe," NASA reports. "And then slows after being flung back out into deep space and swinging back toward the Sun." Asteroid 2001 FO32 Asteroid 2001 FO32 was first discovered in March 2001 by the LINEAR - Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research - laboratory located in Socorro, New Mexico. It has been estimated to be about 3,000 feet (1km) wide. Additional observations made by the NEOWISE mission - an ongoing effort using a space telescope to hunt for asteroids and comets - show the 2001 FO32 being faint under infrared wavelengths, suggesting it to be less than the initial estimates - about 1,300 to 2,230 feet (440 to 680 meters) wide. Despite these size estimates, it remains the largest asteroid expected to pass through Earth for the entire 2021. Among the observatories waiting for Asteroid 2001, FO32 will be the Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF) - the ten-and-a-half foot telescope sitting a top of Mauna Kea in Hawaii. Check out more news and information on Asteroids in Science Times.
Shh! Don’t tell the kids, but play, like leafy green veggies and reasonable bedtimes, is good for them. While they’re busy constructing Lego® castles and hosting tea parties for teddy bears, they’re building brain power, too. But which toys build which skills? This guide breaks it down for you, matching the brain-boosting power of toys with the skills they teach. Imagination & Creativity What do dress-up, finger painting, and action figures have in common? While your child is pretending to be a vet, painting her latest masterpiece, or telling a story using action figures, she’s thinking creatively, solving problems, and using her imagination—skills important for learning to read, write, and do math. Children can get creative with toys like these: - Puppets, dolls, and action figures - Coloring and sticker books, art supplies, and craft kits - Clothes and props for pretend play (dollhouses, playhouses, plastic food, toy vehicles, etc.) - Blocks and construction sets - Musical instruments For younger children: Try age-appropriate versions of the toys listed above, including toys like Duplo® blocks, bathtub crayons, and magnetic doodle toys. Doesn’t everybody think? Critical thinking means a person can analyze and evaluate a problem—and then solve it. Sounds complicated, yet your child does it every time he puts on his thinking cap to answer a riddle or make a move in a game of chess or checkers. It’s the same type of thinking he’ll use to solve math problems or decipher unfamiliar words while he reads. Toys that encourage him to use logic, explore cause and effect, or experiment with different solutions to problems all teach critical thinking skills. Some examples include: - Jigsaw puzzles - Brainteasers and logic puzzles - Strategy and guessing games like Clue, Chinese checkers, and Guess Who? - Marble runs and other construction toys - Science kits and chemistry sets For younger children: Try shape sorters, nesting and stacking toys, and busy boxes. Reading & Writing When it comes to building language skills, reading storybooks to your child is the most obvious choice. But would you believe a jump rope or CD of silly songs helps, too? Any type of play that encourages your child to talk, or play with letters and words (like chanting jump-rope rhymes or singing songs) helps her learn how language works. Here are some more ideas to try. - Puzzle books - Toy microphones - Costumes and props for putting on plays - Magnetic letters and poetry kits - Word games like Bananagrams or Scrabble Junior. For younger children: Try alphabet blocks, puppets, playsets (such as farm, airport, garage) and toy telephones. Many toys and games have math built right in. Remember, counting and working with numbers are just two small parts of learning math. Toys that teach your child to handle money, create patterns, compare sizes, or require him to calculate the score all teach math skills. Some examples of toys with built-in math boosts include: - Domino and dice games - Toys and games using shapes, like tangrams or Perfection - Games encouraging money-counting skills, like Monopoly and Payday - Card games like Go Fish to teach number recognition, and UNO for score-keeping - Blocks and other construction toys For younger children: Try shape sorters, stacking and nesting toys, wooden beads, and number blocks. Barbara A. Tyler is a freelance writer specializing in family fun, fitness, and education.
Dubose, Atticus's actions, and Miss Gates' opinions. Additionally, the actions of the three characters you mention are quite diverse. How about trying "Justice and courage show ambiguous ramifications about society in Maycomb through Mrs. Dubose, Atticus 's actions, and Miss Gates' opinions. Early American writers first had to ensure their own survival before they could think about writing for entertainment. These early writings were more about keeping historical records than of creating something with literary value, so these works would be narratives, descriptions, observations, reports, journals, and histories. We need to be mindful of this when reading them in this current day. Day 3 Vocabulary Record these words and their definitions in your notes. Click on each term and summarize its definition so you have a clear understanding of its meaning: Watch the video and read about the Mayflower Compact. Use the questions to help direct the notes you take on what Bradford writes. Bradford uses several literary devices to create his own style. The way an author uses language is his or her style. If an exam question asks you to describe the style an author uses, you should describe the rhetorical devices the author uses to create his or her style. Can you find anymore in the text? Look again at the definition of litotes from your vocabulary. Bradford uses this device in his writing. Here is one example: Writing Read about 7 Critical Reading Strategies. Yes, this is related to writing! Day 4 Vocabulary Record these words and their definitions in your notes. Tell someone what T. Puritans believed that God had absolute sovereignty and authority. Of course these beliefs would influence the literature they produced. Day 5 Vocabulary Record these words and their definitions in your notes. Review the instructions for Response to Literature assignments in the course description at the top of this page. Record your score out of 30 on the grading sheet using the rubric. Day 6 Vocabulary Record these words and their definitions in your notes. Read about the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Use your function keys for a search for that phrase on the page. Read to the end of the page. For the future United States of America? What does this sermon explain about the beliefs and goals of the Puritans? What concrete ideas does it make you think about? What imagery would Winthrop be creating for his Puritan community and their sense of mission? For this week, read Chapters of The Scarlet Letter. Complete pages of your study guide. You should expect to be done this assignment by Day When assignments tell you to discuss in your small group, instead discuss the issues with a parent or other adult in your household. Day 7 Vocabulary Record these words and their definitions in your notes. It was characterized by clear expression — short words, direct statements. Writing You will have a Reflective Essay due on Day Textbook Solutions Master the problems in your textbooks. With expertly written step-by-step solutions for your textbooks leading the way, you’ll not only score the correct answers, but, most importantly, you’ll learn how to solve them on your own. Lifting the Veil An Investigative History of the United States Pathocracy. Researched and Written by Timothy M. Silver “I know the capacity that is there to make tyranny total in America. Thesis Statement / Essay Topic #4 The Role of Place in To Kill a Mockingbird The town of Maycomb is described in great detail in “To Kill a Mockingbird”, so much so that the reader gets the sense that Maycomb is more than a setting; it takes on the weight and importance of a character. Christopher Bollyn is a well-travelled writer and an investigative journalist who has done extensive research into the events of September 11, , the conflict in Middle-East and the health effects caused by exposure to depleted uranium. Lifting the Veil An Investigative History of the United States Pathocracy. Researched and Written by Timothy M. Silver “I know the capacity . It's easy to write a thesis statement if you understand what it is. Your thesis is your main idea of your essay, and your thesis statement must state your main idea. It's a good idea to plan out.
LumensThe amount of light that comes from a bulb, which has commonly been measured in watts. The more lumens, the brighter the bulb. A measurement of the power delivered to a component of an electric circuit (allowing a one-ampere current to flow through the component under the pressure of 1 volt.) Bulb shapes are denoted with a letter, which describes the shape, and a number, which indicates the size. The number indicates the diameter of the light bulb at its widest part in eighths of an inch. The part of the bulb that connects to the fixture and its power supply. Bulb bases are denoted with the letter E, and a number which indicates the diameter of the bulb base at its widest part in millimeters. Indicates how much voltage a bulb can accept via the fixture it's installed in. Light Color Temperature The relative color from a light source, measured on the Kelvin temperature scale. Warm light is lower in color temperature (2700-3000 K) and cool, blue light is higher (5000 K). Average Rated Life The average amount time that a bulb is expected to last. CRICRI = color rendering index. This number, which can go from 0 to 100, measures the ability of a light or bulb accurately renders colors. The higher the number, the better, with most quality bulbs these days measuring at least in the 80s.
Reading a Credit Card Statement Worksheet Lesson Plan Worksheet providing a lesson on reading a credit card statement. Please sign-in to view. If you would like to gain access to our material then If you are already a member to Money Instructor, then click here to sign-in. Welcome to Money Instructor® for teaching and learning basic money skills, personal finance, money management, business education, careers, life skills, economics, and more. Our website includes lessons, lesson plans, interactive tutorials, printable worksheets, games, simulations, activities, exercises, quizzes, personal finance information, resources, ideas, money saving suggestions, tips, and helpful advice. Teacher and classroom resources include lessons and money worksheets, many of which are randomly generated and customizable. Teachers and educators may create several different versions depending on their specific students' needs. Worksheets, lessons, and lesson plans are organized into the different money, business, and life skills categories on our site's lessons page. Teach and learn money skills, personal finance, money management, and real life skills. Curriculum includes counting money, money math, banking, check writing, checkbook, checking, budgeting, spending money, saving money, taxes, jobs, careers, investing, basic economics, elementary economics, finance, and other everyday life skills. To access the Reading a Credit Card Statement Worksheet Lesson Plan click here.
Hypertension describes a condition where the sufferer's blood pressure is greater than that of most other people. It is also called, "high blood pressure ," and the, "silent killer." When the pressure of blood increases, the delicate tissues of our organs degrade faster. This causes a premature cellular breakdown and degeneration of tissue, leading to organ failure and death, if left untreated. Essential Hypertension is idiopathic, chronic high blood pressure. There is no known cause, yet it is a continual condition. This type of high blood pressure can typically be treated by diet and exercise. Secondary Hypertension is high blood pressure that is being caused by some other condition that already exists. Like kidney disease. This would be termed secondary renal hypertension . There are many different types of secondary hypertension. But in a nutshell, hypertension is high blood pressure.
This is not a homework service. Please, include your attempts at the questions. 1) In a recent winter Olympics, 59 gold medals were awarded to Canada, Austria, Norway, the Netherlands, Japan, Italy, Russia, and the United States. A journalist, in summarising the games for his editor, noted the following facts: • Norway won five times as many gold medals as did Russia. • Russia won more gold medals than did Italy. • If Japan had won four more gold medals than in fact they did, then they would have won the same number of gold medals as Canada. • The Netherlands won eight more gold medals than one-third the number of gold medals won by Austria. • If Canada had won one more than three times the number of gold medals than they did, then they would have won thirteen more gold medals than the United States. Your task is to work out the number of gold medals won by each of the eight countries. Q:a) An important part of problem solving is to first see what restrictions there are so that you do not waste time trying to construct a solution that can never work. Examine the facts above VERY CAREFULLY and list as many restrictions on the possible medal count for each country as you can, explaining your reasoning in each case. To start you off, it is worth noting that each country has won at least ONE medal. b) Give any solutions you have for the above scenario, with a clear explanation of how you reached that solution. c) Explain clearly what difference it would make to your answer to (b), if the second criterion above was changed to “Russia won exactly ONE more medal than did Italy”. 2) “LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging; or Laser Imaging Detection and Ranging) is a technology that determines distance to an object or surface using laser pulses. Like the similar radar technology, which uses radio waves instead of light, the range to an object is determined by measuring the time delay between transmission of a pulse and detection of the reflected signal.” (LIDAR - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). Your job is to write the software for a new laser ranging device and to write the user manual. The device uses “eye-safe” laser light of wavelength 750 nanometres, sending pulses 1200 times every second. The speed of light is (in round numbers) 300 000 km per second. The following questions are about some of the situations you will encounter in carrying out these tasks. (You will need to research any new terms that you do not understand). Q: a) The device relies upon a very sophisticated timing system which you must calibrate as part of the software. How long would it take a pulse of laser light to travel to a piece of reflective tape 5 m away and back again? b) The laser goes through a PULSE – NO PULSE cycle 1200 times a second. The duration of the no-pulse is the same as the duration of the pulse. You need to calculate these three things: (i) The time a single pulse lasts. (ii) The distance the pulse travels in that time = the length of the pulse. (iii) The number of complete waves in the pulse. c) The lasers are also going to be used as part of a burglar alarm system in huge museum galleries around the world for large archaeological displays. The end walls, such as CDEF in the diagram above, are 4m by 4m in size. Laser beams will stretch across from diagonally opposite corners (an example is the line BF shown). This particular laser’s distance measurements become less reliable beyond 30m. Construct a mathematical model (using Excel or otherwise) to show how the length of a diagonal increases as the length of the hall increases (eg BF compared with GF) and show your model as a graph. Use this to find the longest the museum hall could be before the laser would exceed its range. 3) Orlando Spoon has long been a fanatical developer of automated devices to enter into “Robot War” race games. (He did take one year off to play the husband of Lego Lass in the Internet movie Lord of the Pings). Two of his latest runners are shown above. They are named H (for “HARE”) and T (for “Tortoise”). H has a top speed of 1.6 ms–1 which makes him a formidable competitor. Unfortunately, a fault in one of its logic chips causes a software error that limits T’s top speed to 0.2 ms–1 . Q: a) Orlando argues that T can win any race if he is given a bit of a head start. He argues this way. “I start the race with T 80m ahead of H. When H has travelled this 80m, T will have gone 10m and still be ahead. When H has travelled this 10m, T will have gone 1¼ metres and is still ahead. When H has travelled this 1¼ m, T has travelled …” and so it goes on. Orlando thinks he has proved that H will never actually catch up with T. Explain how Orlando’s argument works and take it on two more steps. Then, try to find the flaw in the argument, giving clear reasoning b) Orlando decides to test his idea. He places T 80m ahead of H and starts them off simultaneously with a radio signal. He accidentally places T so that he is facing the wrong way. H and T hurtle towards each other at their top speeds. How far has T travelled when they crash into each other? Be sure to explain your reasoning. c) Orlando sets up the test again, T 80m in front of H and facing the same way. Once again, a radio signal starts them off. Orlando sees H catch up with T and pass him. Show the motion of H and T on the same graph (assuming they go at their top speeds throughout), showing how far each robot travels in equal intervals of time. Use this graph to discover how far T has travelled when H overtakes and to discover how much time has elapsed. Explain the reasoning. In particular, Rules #6, 8 and 11.
MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) is a way of extending the normal capabilities of internet mail (and news) by describing a format that can be used to encode more than just plain text in messages. Messages in MIME format conform to the standards use to send plain text messages (RFC 822), but are able to encode all kinds of other data, like images, sounds, text in different languages etc. It does this by converting those different data types into a plain text form. This chapter does not attempt to give comprehensive coverage of the MIME standard, but to give you enough information to understand the impact of MIME on sending and receiving messages in MT-NewsWatcher. The official MIME format is documented in the RFCs (Requests for Comments): - RFC 2045 Part One: Format of Internet Message Bodies - RFC 2046 Part Two: Media Types - RFC 2047 Part Three: Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text - RFC 2048 Part Four: Registration Procedures - RFC 2049 Part Five: Conformance Criteria and Examples Of most relevence to the format of news articles are Parts One and Three. The MIME standard describes a number of features of MIME which make it possible to describe multimedia context in a plain text form: - Standardized message headers Messages sent with MIME must contain certain headers that describe the version of MIME being used, and a description of how the contents of the message are encoded. For example, a news posting in MIME format might contain: Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset=ISO-8859-1 Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit These headers state that the message conforms to the RFC 2045, that the content is plain text using the Western Latin 1 character set, and that the contents were not transformed for sending, and may be safely transmitted over a 7-bit channel. - Media types Content-Typeheader for a section describes the contents of that section using a two-part media type description. Examples are "text/plain", "text/html", "image/jpeg", "video/quicktime". A decoding agent (like MT-NewsWatcher) can use this description to choose how to handle the contents of that section. - Encoding types MIME supplies a number of ways of transforming text and other data so that it can be safely transmitted over legacy transport systems (like email). These value are supplied in the Content-Transfer-Encodingheader. Briefly, these are: - 7bit, 8bit or binary These values indicate that no encoding was used for the section contents, but describe the nature of the enclosed data. 8bitis used for line-based text which does not, or does contain 8-bit (high ASCII) characters. A value of binaryindicates that the data is not line-based (ie. does not contain line termination characters to wrap lines of text to a reasonable width). Quoted-Printableencoding is used for text that is mostly printable ASCII text, but which may contain high ASCII characters, or unwrapped lines. Characters that need to be encoded are replaced with their value like =A0, and lines are soft-wrapped by inserting = characters. Base64encoding is used for binary data, like images, sounds etc. The binary data is encoded in a sequence of characters according to some simple rules, to give text that looks like: /9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQEBLAEsAAD/2wBDAAgGBgcGBQgHBwcJCQgKDBQNDAsLDBkSEw8UHRof HBwgJC4nICIsIxwcKDcpLDAxNDQ0Hyc5PTgyPC4zNDL/2wBDAQkJCQwLDBgNDRgyIRwhMjIyThis data can be decoded back to the original binary data on the recieving end. - Message compartmentalization To allow MIME messages to contain different types of data (text, and an image, say), the message can be broken up into sections, so that each section contains one data type as described by its Content-Typeheader. Related sections can be grouped together, or sections can contain alternative representations of the same data so that clients can choose one that they are able to best display. For example, a MIME message can contain both plain text and HTML versions of the message body, wrapped in a multipart/alternativesection. If you view this message in MT-NewsWatcher, you'll see the plain text part, whereas viewing it in Netscape Communicator would show you the HTML part. Here's an example of a message with two subsections in a multipart/mixedsection. The various parts have been color-coded, showing how each section has headers that describe its contents. This shows the text of the article as it appears on the server. MT-NewsWatcher decodes this for you, so you should never see these details.From: Simon Fraser <[email protected]> Newsgroups: alt.test Subject: Crow music image - crow-music.gif (1/1) Date: Sun, 05 Sep 1999 20:31:47 -0700 Message-ID: <[email protected]> Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------UYHRtC0I5LhA" This is a multi-part message in MIME format. --------------UYHRtC0I5LhA Content-Type: text/plain; charset=ISO-8859-1 Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit Here is a funny picture. Simon --------------UYHRtC0I5LhA Content-Type: image/gif; name="crow-music.gif" Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64 Content-Disposition: inline; filename="crow-music.gif" R0lGODlhZABkAPcAAAAAAAAAMwAAZgAAmQAAzAAA/wAzAAAzMwAzZgAzmQAzzAAz/wBmAABm MwBmZgBmmQBmzABm/wCZAACZMwCZZgCZmQCZzACZ/wDMAADMMwDMZgDMmQDMzADM/wD/AAD/ ... wOOX8EBWr7xZjkiPsYZL0FM51pGMdaI7GhW5FsiWwYZSGKybrYr4RDa27jMsiKQkPeYaSVry kpjMZCTZFpwpUoQ6VgKMJjPpxpmM8pSotKT1PskTSXaSbamMJQsKKUggthKTHZolpKzIS5EE --------------UYHRtC0I5LhA-- Note that the message is divided into sections, with the boundaries between sections marked by the string --------------UYHRtC0I5LhA. The first section is the plain text body of the message, and the second part is a Base64 encoded GIF file. When MT-NewsWatcher receives an article in MIME format, it can parse the message contents, and detect and decode the various sections as appropriate. It will decode Quoted-Printable sections, handles multiple sections with different character sets in a message, and decode Base64-encoded binaries. Horizontal divider lines are inserted between each section. Here's an example of a message with three binary attachments: multipart/alternative sections, MT-NewsWatcher chooses the section that it can best display. For the most common case, plain text and HTML, it will display the plain text. MT-NewsWatcher cannot currently display HTML. When it encounters an HTML section with no plain text alternative, it will display the raw HTML. You can view the HTML in a browser by using thecommand on the context menu. Tip: You can also view the HTML in a browser by command-clicking on the first <HTML> tag as if it were a URL. When MT-NewsWatcher encounters a MIME section that contains Base64 text, it decodes that into binary form. It then tries to find a plugin in the NewsWatcher Plugins folder that can handle this kind of binary file, by looking at the file name extension for the encoded binary. If it finds a plugin that can handle the data, it feeds the binary data to the plugin for display. If no plugin is found that can handle the data, the encoded binary shows up as a file icon in the article body (like the MP3 and Stuffit archive icons in the screenshot above). For more information about handling and saving encoded binaries, see the chapter on Binaries. When the preference is set to send messages with MIME formatting (Send with MIME checkbox in the Message options preferences panel), MT-NewsWatcher will use MIME in outgoing email and news messages. This section describes the implications of using MIME for sending. Note: It is recommended that you turn this option on, as MIME information allows other news clients to do a better job of displaying articles that you send, particularly if you send using a character set other than ISO-8859-1. When sending with MIME, you get some slightly different options when attaching files to an outgoing message. These differences are described in detail in the section on posting binaries. When MIME is on, data will be sent encoding with Base64. If you are sending a Macintosh file, and need to send the resource fork too, you also get the option of sending in AppleSingle or AppleDouble format (these formats include the resource fork of the file being attached). You can encode files with BinHex when sending MIME, but this is not recommended. When sending a message with one or more attached files, MT-NewsWatcher sends a message with a body which is a Within this, the text of the message, and your signature, is included text/plain section. Following that are one or more sections for the binaries, which will have appropriate MIME types for the type of binary being sent. The MIME type is derived from the file extension, using Internet Config file mapping settings. If you send a message with attached binaries in multiple sections, MT-NewsWatcher uses the MIME This is a way of describing content that is split across multiple messages, and allows receiving agents to reassemble the parts in the If you are sending MIME messages in a character set other than Western Latin 1 (ISO-8859-1), then MT-NewsWatcher will encode the textual headers of the message, if necessary, according to the rules described in RFC 2047. In this encoding, non-ASCII characters are encoded with either Quoted-Printable or Base64 encoding so that the headers don't get corrupted in sending. For example, a message with a subject line of would be sent encoded as This kind of encoding may not be welcome in some groups, in which case you should disable sending with MIME when posting to such groups. More information on sending with different character sets is provided in the chapter on International Language Support. - Table of Contents - Advanced features - The Interface
HEARTWORM DISEASE DIAGNOSIS, TREATMENT, PREVENTION Anatomy and function of the heart and circulatory system in health and disease Heartworm disease affects the heart and lungs; therefore, a brief introduction of the anatomy and physiology of this organ system is in order. Other common heart diseases will also be discussed as they apply to an understanding of heart disease in the typical veterinary care facility. The heart should be thought of as a very simple fluid pump. The heart is divided into two halves which function the same with regards to how the heart works as a pump. The right half of the heart pumps blood to the lungs and the left half of the heart pumps blood out the aorta to the rest of the body. Each right and left pump works in two stages; a top stage (atrium), and a bottom stage (ventricle). These two stages are separated by a trap door (valve) which opens to drop the blood from the top stage to the bottom stage to be pumped out. The bottom stage does most of the pumping and the top stage serves to hold blood waiting to be pumped. Blood flows into the top part of the heart while the bottom part is pumping. When the bottom part finishes squeezing the blood into the vessels, the trap door opens between the top and bottom. The blood in the atrium falls, and is followed by additional blood which fills the entire bottom chamber or ventricle. When this chamber is full the ventricle will pump again. Pumping closes the trap door preventing any blood from escaping the way it came in. The blood is forced out the vessels making the chamber empty for the next cycle. This process occurs simultaneously on both the left and right side of the heart. The heart beat sounds are made as the trap doors slam shut when the ventricles start to beat or contract. Blood delivers oxygen to the tissues of the body. All body cells need oxygen. When the blood cells have delivered their oxygen, they must return to the lungs for more. All blood returns to the heart through the vena cava. The vena cava (cave-like vein) is the vein that collects all the blood from the jugular veins in the neck as well as the lower body veins. The vena cava empties this blood into the right atrium. This blood is swirling around in the right atrium until the right atrium trap door (tricuspid valve) opens to drop the blood into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve closes as the right ventricle contracts to force the blood out the main pulmonary artery into the lungs. The blood travels through the lungs to eventually surround the grape-like airbags called alveoli. It is here that the blood receives the life-giving oxygen. The oxygenated blood is then collected into larger and larger pulmonary veins. These veins empty the oxygen rich blood into the left atrium. The blood swirls around in the left atrium waiting for the trap door (mitral valve) to open. The blood then drops into the left ventricle and the mitral valve closes preventing blood from escaping back into the lungs when the ventricle contracts. The left ventricle is a very strong muscle and can pump blood at a very high pressure. The left ventricle creates the blood pressure. This pressure is high enough to squirt blood across the room if an artery is cut. The left ventricle pumps its blood out the aorta. The aorta supplies blood to the brain through the carotid arteries which branch from the aorta just as it leaves the heart. Mineral and cholesterol deposits, called plaques, in the carotid arteries may cause strokes in humans when they break free and pass to the brain. Other major branches of the aorta, supply blood to the arms or front legs first. Then, as the aorta turns to go down the center of the animal along the spine, branches of the aorta feed the digestive organs and additional branches feed the kidneys, the colon, reproductive organs and the rear legs. This blood is used by the cells of the body to provide necessary nutrients and oxygen to the tissues. The blood is then returned into the veins of the tissues to eventually be collected by the vena cava which then completes the cycle of blood circulation. The kidneys act as blood pressure regulators. They filter the blood to remove impurities. The kidneys require very high pressure to function correctly, and if the pressure is not adequate the kidneys will conserve salt in order to cause water retention which results in higher blood pressure. The kidneys can also increase the blood pressure by making the arteries in the body smaller in diameter. This artery constriction is caused by a hormone system controlled by the kidneys. Smaller diameter vessels with the same fluid volume results in higher blood pressure, much like placing your thumb over the end of the water hose causes the water to spray farther. This can make the kidneys the enemy of the heart when the heart is ill. A poorly functioning heart will pump with less pressure to the kidneys, the kidneys compensate by increasing the blood volume through salt resorption while reducing the diameter of the blood vessels. The heart therefore, has more blood to pump through smaller diameter vessels, which makes it harder on the heart. This mechanism complicates heart disease. The most common cause of heart disease is valve disease. This occurs because of poorly formed valves, old age or valvular infections such as those caused by dental disease. When the mitral valve is not functioning it is easy to see why blood would back flow into the lungs. This back-flow increases the blood pressure in the lungs resulting in congestion and fluid leakage into the alveoli (airsac). The back-flow also reduces the forward flow of blood into the aorta. The kidney gets less blood pressure and begins salt conservation as well as artery constriction which makes it worse on the heart. Because the heart has an 800% reserve, it can function with a bad valve for some time before the signs of congestion are seen. If we identify a heart murmur on physical examination we should evaluate the pet for the need for a low salt diet. Also, medications that block the kidney system from constricting blood vessels have been shown to increase the life of dogs with valve disease. Once congestion occurs in the lungs, drugs are given to make the pet loose this excessive water retention. These drugs are called diuretics and cause the animal to urinate more than normal which removes the excessive fluid congestion from the lungs. Heartworms do not actually cause holes or disease of the heart. They actually block the pulmonary artery. This artery carries blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs. Because the heartworms block this blood flow, the right ventricle becomes congested with blood waiting to be pumped. When this congestion is severe it causes increased blood pressure in the vena cava. This high “caval” blood pressure will cause the abdominal organs to leak fluid. The blood cells will not leave the high pressure vessels but the water portion of the blood will leak into the abdomen. This condition of fluid accumulation in the abdomen is called ascites. Ascites is a sign of high blood pressure and right heart failure. The most common cause of ascites in the dog is heartworm disease. The lungs actually sustain the most damage from heartworms due to the irritation of the lining of the pulmonary blood vessels which will be discussed more in the following pages. Heartworm disease is a very prevalent and preventable disease of dogs, cats, ferrets and many other animals, and it is your job to make sure every pet is on heartworm prevention. Heart disease in animals is different than most heart disease in humans. Humans have cholesterol plaques that form in the carotid arteries. These plaques can break loose to form blood clots which result in strokes. These same plaques form in the coronary arteries. The coronary arteries form a “Crown” of blood vessels that surround the heart. These vessels feed the heart muscle itself. Disease of these vessels is largely due to cholesterol plaques which block blood flow to the heart muscle. Blockage eventually leads to a total loss of blood flow to a part of the heart muscle, resulting in the death of that muscle. The dead muscle cannot contract which results in a “heart attack”. Therefore, heart attacks and strokes are caused by the same culprit, namely cholesterol plaques. These plaques take about 35 years to form and are therefore, not likely to affect our pet animals. Heart disease in humans is related to genetics, poor diet, obesity, and poor exercise habits. Fat animals are not likely to have heart disease. Actually, it is my rule of thumb that “fat animals do not die of heart disease”. If we are treating fat animals for heart disease, perhaps we should reconsider the diagnosis.
When an animal is altricial, it means that it is born in a helpless state, reliant on its parents for support and protection until it matures. This is in opposition to a precocial animal, an animal which is capable of moving around on its own shortly after birth. Many species of birds are famously altricial, being born naked, blind, and totally helpless, while animals like ungulates tend to be precocial. Altricial animals develop differently from precocial animals, displaying markedly different traits later in life as well as in childhood. As a general rule, altricial animals are born to parents who might have difficulty defending themselves in the late stages of pregnancy or nesting, making it imperative for the young to be born as quickly as possible. The mothers may also be incapable of providing needed nutrition to the young while they develop. In the case of birds, for example, the mother bird may not be able to build enough egg yolk for the young to develop more fully in the egg. When an altricial animal is born, it is often blind, and it may lack the plumage or fur associated with adults of the species. Altricial animals also tend to be helpless, unable to move around like mature adults and dependent on others for support, food, shelter, and companionship. Many marsupials, for example, are born naked or blind; baby kangaroos are perhaps one of the more outstanding examples of an altricial animal, as they are born in a form which borders on embryonic. Humans are also altricial, with an extremely long period of development required before they reach maturity. The parents must therefore have a protected area for their young, and may also have to actively work to protect the babies. Mother rats, for example, are quite ferocious when threatened, and songbirds may use a variety of tricks to distract predators in the hopes of saving their nestlings. One big advantage to being born in altricial state is that the animal's brain will continue to develop and grow for years after birth, allowing altricial animals to learn more and develop wider skill sets than their precocial counterparts. There are various degrees along the scale when it comes to being born altricial. While some animals demonstrate extreme degrees of altricial or precocious traits, most fall somewhere in the middle. For example, chicks and ducklings are capable of moving around within a few hours of hatching, and they are born with their eyes open, but they are clearly dependent on their parents for warmth and shelter.
Astronomers have found the first multi-planet solar system orbiting a binary star (artist’s impression appears right). Importantly, the discovery shows that planetary systems can form and survive even in the chaotic environment around a binary star. The system, known as Kepler-47, is roughly 5000 light-years away. The discovery was detailed this week at the International Astronomical Union meeting and an accompanying study has been published in the journal Science. The new planetary system is located roughly 5000 light-years away, in the constellation Cygnus. The planets were discovered by the drop in brightness they cause when they transit (eclipse) their host stars. Precise photometric data from NASA’s Kepler space telescope allowed the transits and eclipses to be measured, which in turn provided the relative sizes of the objects. Jerome Orosz, Associate Professor of Astronomy at San Diego State University and lead author of the study said the primary star in Kepler-47 is about the same mass as the Sun. Its companion is an M-dwarf star about one-third the size of the Sun. Orosz says the stars whirl around each other every 7.5 days. An analysis of the planetary transits indicates that the inner planet is three times the size of Earth and orbits the binary star every 49.5 days, while the outer planet is 4.6 times the size of Earth with an orbit of 303.2 days. Interestingly, the outer planet’s orbit puts it in the “Goldilocks zone,” the region around a star where a terrestrial planet could have liquid water on its surface, and perhaps be habitable. While the planet is probably a gas-giant planet and thus not suitable for life, its discovery establishes that circumbinary planets can, and do, exist in habitable zones. “Kepler-47 shows us that typical planetary architectures, with multiple planets in co-planar orbits, can form around two stars,” said study co-author Joshua Carter, at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. “We’ve learned that circumbinary planets can be like the planets in our own Solar System, but with two suns.”
The word trauma comes from a Greek word meaning wound. In psychiatry, the term refers to an experience that produces psychological injury or pain. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) sometimes occurs after one has been through a traumatic situation. A traumatic event is the experience of something horrible and scary happening to oneself, or witnessing it happening to someone else. The event may involve a threat of actual death, or serious injuries; and the experience that your life, or the lives of others, may be in danger. You react to what you have experienced with fear, horror, and helplessness. After the event, if these and other feelings don’t go away or get worse, you may have PTSD. These symptoms may disrupt your life; they may disrupt the way you see yourself, your relationships, your life, and your daily activities. These traumatic events may include: child sexual or physical abuse, serious accidents, combat exposure, physical or sexual assault, natural disasters and terrorist attacks. The American Psychiatric Association in the DSM-5 diagnostic manual provides a set of criteria in the diagnosis of PTSD. Someone (for those older than 6 years) experiencing PTSD after a traumatic event may experience the following: (1) Being exposed to actual or threatened death, sexual violence, or serious injury (in one or more of the following ways): a) Direct experience of the traumatic events(s); b) Witnessing the events(s) as it happened to others; c) Learning that a close family member or friend experienced a traumatic event(s); d) Experiencing repeated exposure to aversive details of the event(s). (2) Intrusive (experiencing the traumatic event) symptoms (one of these is sufficient for the diagnosis): a) Recurrent involuntary and intrusive memories; b) Traumatic dreams related to the traumatic event(s); c) Dissociative reactions such as reliving the experience of flash backs, spacing out or zoning out, feeling numb or feeling detached; d) Intense or prolonged distress after reminders of the traumatic event(s); e) Marked bodily reactions after trauma-related internal or external triggers or stimuli that resemble aspects of the event(s). (3) Persistence avoidance of trauma-related triggers (one of these is sufficient for the diagnosis): a) Avoiding trauma-related thoughts, feelings, or memories associated with the event(s); b) Avoiding trauma-related external reminders that cause distressing feelings, thoughts or memories associated with the event(s). These may include activities, people, conversations, places, sights, smells, dates, objects, or situations. (4) Negative alterations in thoughts and mood or emotion (two or more of these are required for the diagnosis): a) Inability to recall important features of the trauma; b) Distorted and persistent negative beliefs and expectations about oneself, others, life and/or the world (e.g., “I can’t do things,” “I can’t trust anyone,” “It’s hopeless”); c) Distorted and persistent blame of yourself or others for causing the trauma or its consequences; d) Persistent trauma-related emotions (e.g. anger, chronic guilt, fear, self-blame, helplessness, shame); e) Markedly diminished interest in important activities; f) Feeling estranged or alienated from others; or g) Marked inability to experience positive emotions. (5) Marked changes or worsening in physical and emotional arousal, and reactivity associated with the event(s) (two of these are required for the diagnosis): a) Irritability or aggressive behavior towards people or objects; b) Self-destructive, reckless or risk-taking behaviors; c) Hypervigilance (being overly watchful); d) Exaggerated startle response (you feel jumpy); e) Difficulties with concentration; or f) Sleep disturbances (falling or staying asleep). To meet the diagnostic criteria for PTSD, the symptoms must have lasted for more than one month, and they must have created significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. In addition, the disturbance must not be caused by illness, medication, or substance abuse. Symptoms of PTSD are more likely to endure in the absence of emotional support, if the trauma occurred early in life, and it was prolonged and interpersonal in nature. The good news is that trauma is treatable with individual counseling or psychotherapy. Stages of Psychotherapy Stages of Support, Safety, Education, and Stability Creating a safe, accepting, caring, and supportive therapeutic relationship is essential. Before any individual counseling work can be done on the issues related to the trauma, establishing safety is the primary goal of the psychotherapist. Safety also involves being able to prevent self-injury or being injured by others, and from being abused or from re-experiencing traumatic events. Safety means that you are able to identify beliefs, feelings and actions that protect you and lead you to making good decisions about your life. The understanding, support and safety provides an environment that helps the patient tell the story about the initial trauma and its lingering effects. Education continues throughout the individual therapy and involves learning about the nature of trauma, reactions, flashbacks and memory work, trauma management, triggers, re-scripting of the trauma story, relapse prevention etc. Strengths, internal and external resources are identified and developed in order to enhance a sense of calmness, grounding, confidence, personal control, and stability which help address the helplessness, fear, and lack of integration associated with the trauma. A clinical assessment at the beginning stage of individual counseling helps identify: current functioning and stressors, self-injury, early abuse or neglect, mental, emotional and physical regulation, family and social support, history of traumatic stress, important life history patterns, familial relational patterns, relationship and interpersonal functioning, core beliefs about self, others, and the world, symptom management, life and stress coping skills, strengths, and resources. Stages of Recovery and Healing From Trauma The task in this stage is to regain ownership of yourself. Trauma hinders the integrative functioning of our being; re-integration of mind, body, emotion and soul is what repairs the trauma. The disruptions that occurred during the trauma and in memories of the trauma are manifested in our thoughts, emotions, physical reactions, and behaviors. In order to heal, the trauma needs to be revisited, but only after you feel stronger, calmer and safer so as to not be re-traumatized by the encounter. The vehicles or methods for recovery are many, but they must address your physical, emotional, mental, and at times your “spiritual” nature (the questions of meaning and purpose of your life). The importance of using and developing physical and emotional inner resources cannot be overstated. Your rational brain is not sufficient for the healing process and changing post-traumatic reactions; it cannot by itself abolish the hyperarousal, the sensations, emotions and thoughts that are triggered, and the dysregulation of the nervous system. Trauma recovery involves a better balance between the “emotional” and “rational” brains. The physical (somatic) work helps us re-inhabit our bodies; it involves the use of relaxation, breathing, imagery, grounding, and centering techniques. Body-centered psychotherapies can help you bridge the gap between your emotions, your body, and your thoughts. Adjunctive somatic methods may also include qigong, massage, body work, yoga, drumming, martial arts, or other forms of art or conscious movement that enhance your emotional regulation, and your ability to be grounded, more emotionally aware, and centered in the present. The use of awareness or body mindfulness is helpful in learning to witness or observe the transitory nature of physical and emotional reactions; our ability to observe and disengage from habitual reactions increases our tolerance for them, and helps us learn to pay attention to the sensations and feelings of well-being. Mindfulness is also helpful in recognizing erroneous beliefs, and noticing the relationship between thoughts, physical sensations, and feelings. Cognitive-emotional-behavioral approaches are also useful in addressing erroneous beliefs and assumptions. Exposure therapies for transforming memory responses can be useful in some types of trauma. Group therapy is effective for many people. Recovery is also helped by a good support network; relationships reconnect us to others and help heal shame, judgment and alienation. Relationship therapy is useful in healing the effect of trauma in intimate or family relationships. Medication may help make some feelings more manageable and less overwhelming. Religious and/or spiritual support and exploration is also essential for many people. As therapy progresses, the client is helped to restructure the trauma story and the memories. A shift happens at first where the client moves from “victim” to “survivor” role, and eventually to a “thriving” role. Religious, spiritual, or philosophical questions may gain new meaning. Restoring social, familial functioning may play a role at this point. Occupational and career concerns may need to be evaluated and addressed. In the termination phase, special attention is place in recognizing ownership for gains made, discussing relapse prevention, and arranging for booster follow-up sessions that help cement the progress made. The process of recovery from trauma is the road toward self-awareness, empowerment, integration, and life.
The Origins and Spread of Christianity I can explain how Christianity originated and spread. Section 2 Judea, the birthplace of Christianity • Where was Judea and why was it important to the Jews? Judea was a small territory on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean. It was important to Jews because it was their homeland, which had been part of the ancient kingdom of Israel. For each date on your timeline, describe how the Romans ruled Judea and how the Jews reacted to Roman rule. In 63 B.C.E., Romans had Jewish leaders that supported Roman rule, but Jews rebelled against Roman control. In 37 B.C.E., Herod ruled Rome and practiced the Jewish religion, but Jews did not trust him. In 4 B.C.E., Herod’s three sons ruled Rome, but Jews rebelled again. Judea: The Birthplace of Christianity Christianity began in Judea in the present-day Middle East. Jews there told prophecies about a messiah who would remove the Romans and restore the kingdom of David. Section 3 The Birth of Jesus What are the Gospels and who wrote them? The Gospels are accounts of Jesus’ life and teachings written by four of his followers, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Describe Jesus’ birth according to the Gospels. According to the Gospels, Jesus was born in a stable in Bethlehem because his parents had to go to Bethlehem to be counted for a Roman census, and there was no room left for them inside the inn. The Birth of Jesus What we know about Jesus’ life and his birth around 6 B.C.E., comes from the four Gospels. Not much is known about his childhood, but when Jesus was about 30, John the Baptist identified him as the Messiah. Section 4: The Life and Death of Jesus According to the Gospels, what did Jesus say were the two most important of all the Jewish laws? Jesus said that the two most important Jewish laws were, “You shall love your God with all your heart and all your soul” And “You shall love your neighbor as yourself.” Summarize the Parable of the Good Samaritan and explain its moral lesson. In the Parable of the Good Samaritan, an injured man is rescued and cared for by a Samaritan, after two people passed him by at the side of the road. Jesus was teaching us that we should be good neighbors by having mercy on others, even those who are not like us. According to the Gospels, why was Jesus condemned to die on a cross? According to the Gospels, Jesus was condemned to die on a cross because his teachings upset many people and because some feared that he might lead a revolt against Rome. Why was the belief in the resurrection important to Jesus' disciples and other Christians? Belief in the Resurrection was important to Jesus’ followers because it convinced them that he was the Son of God. The Life and Death of Jesus • Jesus preached with his disciples in presentday Israel. He emphasized love and mercy, and often taught in parables. His teachings angered some. In his early 30s, the Romans executed Jesus by crucifixion. According to the Christian Bible, three days later, he arose from the dead and appeared to his disciples. His disciples began to spread his teachings. Section 5: The Missionary Work of Paul What caused Paul to stop persecuting Christians and become a missionary? Paul stopped persecuting Christians and became a missionary because he believed he had heard the voice of Jesus in a vision. How did Paul's work help to spread Christianity? Paul helped spread Christianity by preaching throughout much of the empire. While in jail, he wrote letters to other Christians. The Missionary Work of Paul Paul of Tarsus was a Jew. He persecuted Christians. But after a vision, he became an important Christian missionary, spreading the religion around the empire. His letters to early churches are part of the Christian Bible. Section 6: Christianity Spreads Why were Christians considered a threat to Rome? Christians were considered a threat to Rome because they refused to worship other Roman gods, would not admit that the emperor was a god, preferred a life of simplicity, and refused to serve in the army. Complete the flowchart about the persecution of Christians Roman persecution of Christians included making their religion illegal and sentencing them to death. Rome’s persecution helped to spread Christianity because people admired the bravery of the Christians. Christianity also offered hope to the poor and to slaves. Describe the role of Constantine, and Roman emperors who followed him, in spreading Christianity In 313 C.E., Constantine gave Christians the right to practice their religion. The emperors who succeeded Constantine accepted the new faith, and it eventually became the official religion of the empire. Christianity Spreads • The new religion survived harsh persecution and spread across the Roman Empire. In 313 C.E., the emperor Constantine gave Christians freedom of religion in the Edict of Milan. It was the official Roman religion by 380.
Fifth grade students learn about different kinds of energy in science class. They explore how energy companies collect and store different energies for use. Teaching students about renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy gives them the necessary information to become better energy consumers. Educated consumers make better energy choices that may reduce the negative human impact on the planet. The sun produces more energy that the human population needs. Fifth-graders learn how to use solar energy to reduce the need for fossil fuels. Students compare and contrast the cost and effectiveness of different kinds of solar cells and which geographic areas offer the best conditions for building solar arrays. Students can experiment with solar power by constructing a solar water heater, solar oven or brewing tea in a glass jar sitting in direct sunlight. Students brainstorm ideas each person can implement to use solar power. Fifth-graders explore how to store energy by building any one or more of three simple batteries. Students can use brass or copper and zinc to create a simple battery from potatoes. An alternate acid battery uses a lemon, a penny and a nail. The third option uses aluminum foil, activated charcoal and salt water to power a DC battery. Students learn they can create electricity various ways to power small appliances. Sciencing Video Vault Some communities harvest electricity from water through hydroelectric dams. Fifth-graders take a virtual field trip through a hydroelectric dam using the Foundation for Water and Energy Education website. They will learn how power companies create energy from water. Additional materials on the website take them into a hydroelectric generator, hydroelectric facts and how hydroelectricity works. After the field trip, students build a miniature water power experiment of their own to experience why engineers build dams with the power plant facility at the base of the dam. Fifth grade students explore wind energy as a renewable source of energy. They learn the Beaufort Scale and utilize observation skills to determine relative wind speed over the course of a week. Students explore the school environs, a local map and satellite maps to determine local areas that could support turbine farms. Students construct a wind turbine model to explore how to harness wind energy. Students can further explore wind energy using the Foundation for Water and Energy Education website clip on “How Wind Turbines Generate Electricity.”
The teacher makes effective use of open-ended questions to elicit student thinking. Teacher increases the frequency of open-ended questions by 50% from his or her first session in the TeachLivE simulator to the last. An open-ended question is a content question to which a number of different answers would be acceptable; an open-ended question has no parameters and does not constrain the student’s response. “What is your personal definition of technology?” “How does technology help us in our everyday lives?” “When was the first computer invented?” “What technology did the telephone replace?” “Which is more essential: a computer or a phone?” Take note: Yes-no questions that are intended as open-ended questions are still technically closed-ended questions, because they allow students to respond with a simple Yes or No. “Does anyone know what technology is?” “Do you have any ideas?” “Do you want to expand on that?” or “Is that right?” “Anything else?” or “Anybody else?” “How many of you think so?” In order to show competency in asking open-ended questions, you must plan appropriately, following the steps outlined by TeachLivE. You must complete all four planning steps and respond in writing to part 1 before beginning part 2. Part 2 (Evidence generation) will occur in the simulator and be followed by a brief written reflection in part 3. You must receive a passing score for all parts to earn the micro-credential. (200-word limit for each response) To earn this micro-credential, you must increase the frequency of your open-ended questions by 50% from the first TeachLivE session to the last. Each simulation will last approximately 10 minutes. An observer will collect data on the number of open-ended questions you ask during each session, and you will be provided with the number you asked after each session. You will earn your micro-credential when you increase your open-ended questioning by 50%. You will have one hour of TeachLivE classroom simulation to demonstrate this competency. In this portion, you will provide a thoughtful written reflection on the effectiveness of the lesson segment you taught in the TeachLivE simulation. You will be asked to make a thoughtful and accurate assessment of your ability to elicit student thinking with open-ended questions. Provide a written reflection on what you learned, using the following questions as guidance: (200 word limit for each response) Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
Genetic Algorithms (GAs) are adaptive heuristic search algorithm premised on the evolutionary ideas of natural selection and genetic. The basic concept of GAs is designed to simulate processes in natural system necessary for evolution, specifically those that follow the principles first laid down by Charles Darwin of survival of the fittest. As such they represent an intelligent exploitation of a random search within a defined search space to solve a problem. First pioneered by John Holland in the 60s, Genetic Algorithms has been widely studied, experimented and applied in many fields in engineering worlds. Not only does GAs provide an alternative methods to solving problem, it consistently outperforms other traditional methods in most of the problems link. Many of the real world problems involved finding optimal parameters, which might prove difficult for traditional methods but ideal for GAs. However, because of its outstanding performance in optimisation, GAs have been wrongly regarded as a function optimiser. In fact, there are many ways to view genetic algorithms. Perhaps most users come to GAs looking for a problem solver, but this is a restrictive view [ De Jong ,1993 ] . Herein, we will examine GAs as a number of different things: However, due to various constraints, we would only be looking at GAs as pro blem solvers and competent machine learning here. We would also examine how GAs is applied to completely different fields. Many scientists have tried to create living programs. These programs do not merely simulate life but try to exhibit the behaviours and characteristics of a real organisms in an attempt to exist as a form of life. Suggestions have been made that alife would eventually evolve into real life. Such suggestion may sound absurd at the moment but certainly not implausible if technology continues to progress at present rates. Therefore it is worth, in our opinion, taking a paragraph out to discuss how Alife is connected with GAs and see if such a prediction is far fetched and groundless. GAs were introduced as a computational analogy of adaptive systems. They are modelled loosely on the principles of the evolution via natural selection, employing a population of individuals that undergo selection in the presence of variation-inducing operators such as mutation and recombination (crossover). A fitness function is used to evaluate individuals, and reproductive success varies with fitness. The paradigm of GAs descibed above is usually the one applied to solving most of the problems presented to GAs. Though it might not find the best solution. more often than not, it would come up with a partially optimal solution. Nearly everyone can gain benefits from Genetic Algorithms, once he can encode solutions of a given problem to chromosomes in GA, and compare the relative performance (fitness) of solutions. An effective GA representation and meaningful fitness evaluation are the keys of the success in GA applications. The appeal of GAs comes from their simplicity and elegance as robust search algorithms as well as from their power to discover good solutions rapidly for difficult high-dimensional problems. GAs are useful and efficient when The advantage of the GA approach is the ease with which it can handle arbitrary kinds of constraints and objectives; all such things can be handled as weighted components of the fitness function, making it easy to adapt the GA scheduler to the particular requirements of a very wide range of possible overall objectives. GAs have been used for problem-solving and for modelling. GAs are applied to many scientific, engineering problems, in business and entertainment, including: The TSP is interesting not only from a theoretical point of view, many practical applications can be modelled as a travelling salesman problem or as variants of it, for example, pen movement of a plotter, drilling of printed circuit boards (PCB), real-world routing of school buses, airlines, delivery trucks and postal carriers. Researchers have tracked TSPs to study biomolecular pathways, to route a computer networks' parallel processing, to advance cryptography, to determine the order of thousands of exposures needed in X-ray crystallography and to determine routes searching for forest fires (which is a multiple-salesman problem partitioned into single TSPs). Therefore, there is a tremendous need for algorithms. In the last two decades an enormous progress has been made with respect to solving travelling salesman problems to optimality which, of course, is the ultimate goal of every researcher. One of landmarks in the search for optimal solutions is a 3038-city problem. This progress is only party due to the increasing hardware power of computers. Above all, it was made possible by the development of mathematical theory and of efficient algorithms. Here, the GA approach is discussed. There are strong relations between the constraints of the problem, the representation adopted and the genetic operators that can be used with it. The goal of traveling Salesman Problem is to devise a travel plan (a tour) which minimises the total distance travelled. TSP is NP-hard (NP stands for non-deterministic polynomial time) - it is generally believed cannot be solved (exactly) in time polynomial. The TSP is constrained: When GAs applied to very large problems, they fail in two aspects: To use a standard GA, the following problems have to be solved: Thus, permutation matrices are used. Two tours including the same cities in the same order but with different starting points or different directions are represented by different matrices and hence by different chromosomes, for example: tour (23541) = tour (12354) However, the ordinary genetic operators generate too many invalid solutions, leading to poor results. Alternative solutions to TSP require new representations ( Position Dependent Representations) and new genetic operators. This approach, EDAC [Valenzuela 1995], has potential for any search problem in which knowledge of good solutions for subproblems can be exploited to improve the solution of the problem itself. The idea is to use the Genetic Algorithm to explore the space of problem subdivisions rather than the space of solutions themselves, and thus capitalise on the near linear scaling qualities generally inherent in the divide and conquer approach. The basic mechanisms for dissecting a TSP into subproblems, solving the subproblems and then patching the subtours together to form a global tour, have been obtained from the cellular dissection algorithms of Richard Karp. Although solution quality tends to be rather poor, Karp`s algorithms possess an attractively simple geometrical approach to dissection, and offer reasonable guarantees of performance. Moreover, EDAC approach is intrinsically parallel. The EDAC approach has lifted the application of GAs to TSP an order or magnitude larger in terms of problem sizes than permutation representations. Experimental results demonstrate the successful properties for EDAC on uniform random points and PCB problems in the range 500 - 5000 cities. Genetic Algorithms have been used to solve many different types of business problems in functional areas such as finance, marketing, information systems, and production/ operations. Within these functional areas, GAs have performed a variety of applications such as tactical asset allocation, job scheduling, machine-part grouping, and computer network design. Models for tactical asset allocation and international equity strategies have been improved with the use of GAs. They report an 82% improvement in cumulative portfolio value over a passive benchmark model and a 48% improvement over a non-GA model designed to improve over the passive benchmark. Genetic algorithms are particularly well-suited for financial modelling applications for three reasons: Distributed computer network topologies are designed by a GA, using three different objective functions to optimise network reliability parameters, namely diameter, average distance, and computer network reliability. The GA has successfully designed networks with 100 order of nodes. GA has also been used to determine file allocation for a distributed system. The objective is to maximise the programs' abilities to reference the file s located on remote nodes. The problem is solved with the following three different constraint sets: Genetic Algorithm has been used to schedule jobs in a sequence dependent setup environment for a minimal total tardiness. All jobs are scheduled on a single machine; each job has a processing time and a due date. The setup time of each job is dependent upon the job which immediately precedes it. The GA is able to find good, but not necessarily optimal schedules, fairly quickly. GA is also used to schedule jobs in non-sequence dependent setup environment. The jobs are scheduled on one machine with the objective of minimising the total generally weighted penalty for earliness or tardiness from the jobs' due dates. However, this does not guarantee that it will generate optimal solutions for all schedules. GA is developed for solving the machine-component grouping problem required for cellular manufacturing systems. GA provides a collection of satisfactory solutions for a two objective environment (minimising cell load variation and minimising volume of inter cell movement), allowing the decision maker to then select the best alternative. Applying the well established decision processing phase model of Simon (1960), Genetic Algorithms appear to be very well suited for supporting the design and choice phases of decision making. GAs can be of great assistance for examining alternatives since they are designed to evaluate existing potential solutions as well to generate new (and better) solutions for evaluation. Thus GAs can improve the quality of decision making. The approach to learning behaviours, which lead the robot to its goal, described here reflects a particular methodology for learning via simulation model. The motivation is that making mistakes on real system can be costly and dangerous. In addition, time constraints may limit the extent of learning in real world. Since learning requirs experimenting with behaviours that might occassionally produce undesriable results if applied to real world. Therefore, as shown in the diagram, the current best behaviour can be place in the real, on-line system, while learning continues in the off-line system. Previous studies have shown that knowledge learned under simulation is robust and might be applicable to the real world if the simulation is more general ( add more noise and distortion) . If this is not possible, the differences between the real world and the simulation have to be identified. Genetic Alogrithms are adaptive search techniques that can learn high performance knowledge structures. The genetic algorithms' strength come from the implicitly parrallel search of the solution space that it performs via a population of candidate solutions and this population is manipulated in the simulation. The candidate solutions represent every possible behaviour of the robot and based on the overall performance of the candidates, each could be assigned a fitness value. Genetic operators could then be applied to improve the performance of the population of behaviours. One cycle of testing all of the competimg behaviour is defined as a generation, and is repeated until a good behaviours is evolved. The good behaviour is then applied to the real world. Also because of the nature of GA, the initial knowledge does not have to be very good. The system described has been used to learn behaviours for controlling simulate autonomous underwater vehicles, missile evasion, and other simulated tasks. Future work will continue examining the process of building robotic system through evolution. We want to know how multiple behaviours that will be required for a higher level task interact, and how multiple behaviours can be evolved simultaneously. We are also examining additional ways to bias the learning both with initial rule sets, and by modifying the rule sets during evolution through human interaction. Other open problems include how to evolve hierachies of skills and how to enable the robot to evolve new fitness functions as the need for new skill arises. In order to provide machines with the ability to interact in complex, real-world environments, sensory data must be presented to the machine. One such module dealing with sensory input is the visual data processing module, also known as the computer vision module. A central task of this computer vision module is to recognise objects from images of the environment. There are two different parts to computer vision modules, namely segmentation and recognition. Segmentation is the process of finding interested objects while recognition works to see if the located object matches the predefined attributes. Since images cannot be recognised until they have been located and separated from the background, it is of paramount importance that this vision module is able to locate different objects of interest for different systems with great efficiency. It has been shown that the genetic algorithm perform better in finding areas of interest even in a complex, real-world scene. Genetic Algorithms are adaptive to their environments, and as such this type of method is appealing to the vision community who must often work in a changing environment. However, several improvements must be made in order that GAs could be more generally applicable. Grey coding the field would greatly improve the mutation operation while combing segmentation with recognition so that the interested object could be evaluated at once. Finally, timing improvement could be done by utilising the implicit parallelization of multiple independent generations evolving at the same time. Genetic algorithms are currently the most prominent and widely used computational models of evolution in artificial-life systems. This decentralised models provide a basis for understanding many other systems and phenomena in the world. Researches on GAs in alife give illustrative examples in which the genetic algorithm is used to study how learning and evolution interact, and to model ecosystems, immune system, cognitive systems, and social systems. In the rapidly converging telecommunications industry, technology never stops changing. To assist telecom managers in adapting and prospering during this turbulent period, a business-simulation program, TeleSim, is developed, using artificial life approach. This training tool is designed to provide thought leadership and training for managers facing the challenges of a rapidly changing marketplace. A TeleSim player acts as a manager in a telecommunications company and pilots the company through a simulated marketplace testing various scenarios and the impact on operations, competitor response and customer behaviour. The player confronts with internal staff communications, regulatory penalties, natural disasters, and financial/ technological trade-offs similar to those that managers face in the real world. In this virtual telecommunications marketplace, the TeleSim player faces seven competitors, which are modelled using adaptive agent technology. The competitive agents interact, adapt to each other, and to the decisions of the player. The competitors learn to execute the best strategic moves as they adapt to the ever changing environment. This emerging and evolving world involves convergence in technology as well as changes in the market and regulations, demonstrating some self-organising behaviours. Simulations let people experience and think through the complexity of the business situation and make experiments that they could not possibly do in the real world. People learn to make decisions and gain a better understanding of what present management has been doing. TeleSim allows for a more interactive computer-based approach to scenario development and strategic planning. TeleSim simulates telecommunications businesses, designed as a tool for business planning and management training. In TeleSim, the player learns to develop strategic plans to assess market opportunities and determine an organisation's capability for pursuing the dynamics of its strategic direction. Artificial-life programmer claim that, with the help of the increasingly advanced technology, they will soon go beyond merely modelling or simulating living organisms and actually create life. The claim is not simply that one could design an artificial life with the help of a computer, and then build it out of organic molecules. They claim that one could creat living organism simply by programming a computer in a right way. If today's virus is not alive, tommorrow's will be. Computer equivalent of worm, frog would soon be rampaging in the networks. This claim is known as "strong A-life", as opposed to " weak A-life". Obviously there are two schools of thought regarding to this claim. Foes of strong-A-life argue that no matter how advance computer technology would become, life cannot be created simply by programming a computer. They put forward the arguments: A computer generated life is not a material object. When one talks about living organism, it is a kind of material object: something that takes up space and has a mass, a chemical composition, and other physical properties. Material objects are something that satisfy most proposed definitions of life: they take in matter, utilize its energy, and expel its remains in a less ordered form; they have well-defined boundaries; they can reproduce themselves with great accuracy; and so on. On the contrary computer generated life forms do not satisfy these definitions of life. It can not move about. The only movements one could detect from computer generated organism are contraction and expansion. It is not capable of dying. Computer generated life forms can not really die. Real organism is made up of molecules arranged in an extremely complex and delicate way. When an organism dies, the arrangement is destroyed. However, the life of artificial life ceases to exit when the machine on which it is running stops. But the program hardly dies since when the machine is turned back on, computer generated life "resurrects". Same individual but have different life span on different machines. When a program, regarded as the artificial life, is run on two machine, the two instances of the program are supposed to have identical attribute and thus can be assumed to be the same individual. However, clearly two instances could have different life span if one of the machine stops running before the other. This is absolutely nonsense in the context of real life. It literally means that one individual could die more than once. Supporters of strong a-life obviously think otherwise. One of the more prominent supporter, Christopher Langton , writes that the artificial life created do not live in the medium as we know. It is in a virtual medium where they reside. He further argues that models built could be so real that they would cease to be models of life and become examples of life themselves. He claims that any definition or list of criteria broad enough to include all known biological life will also include certain classes of computer processs and therefore will have to be considered as "actually alive". If the conception of a computer algorithms being based on the evolutionary of organism is surprising, the extensiveness with which this algorithms is applied in so many areas is no less than astounishing. These applications, be they commercial, educational and scientific, are increasingly dependent on this algorithms, the Genetic Algorithms. Its usefulness and gracefulness of solving problems has made it the a more favourite choice among the traditional methods, namely gradient search, random search and others. GAs are very helpful when the developer does not have precise domain expertise, because GAs possess the ability to explore and learn from their domain. In this report, we have placed more emphasis in explaining the use of GAs in many areas of engineering and commerce. We believe that, through working out these interesting examples, one could grasp the idea of GAs with greater ease. We have also discuss the uncertainties about whether computer generated life could exist as real life form. The discussion is far from conclusive and ,whether artificial life will become real life, will remain to be seen. In future, we would witness some developments of variants of GAs to tailor for some very specific tasks. This might defy the very principle of GAs that it is ignorant of the problem domain when used to solve problem. But we would realize that this practice could make GAs even more powerful. Back to my Homepage
Scientists Studying Wintry Ice in Summer Clouds Winter is here, snow is falling in many areas of the country, and some of us are already wishing for the return of hot summer days. But, would you believe that even on the hottest summer day the temperature inside some clouds remains icy and winter-like, producing temperature readings as cold as negative 70 degrees Celsius (negative 94 degrees Fahrenheit)? Would you also believe that the ice crystals that form at the top of big summertime clouds may help scientists predict next winter's snowstorm? Image right: Seen here is a profile of ice crystals, showing the diversity of their shapes. The larger crystals toward the bottom of the image occur at warmer temperatures (approximately -37 degrees Celsius, or -34.6 Fahrenheit), while the smaller images at the top occur at colder temperatures (approximately -49 Celsius, or -52.6 Fahrenheit). At nearly 150 micrometers wide, some of the largest ice crystals in this image are about as thick as three strands of human hair. Image credit: Andrew Heymsfield Last month, scientists from NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Va. and Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. published a paper in the Journal of Geophysical Research on the importance of classifying ice crystals within the big summertime clouds, or convective cloud systems, as observed during a Florida-based research campaign. In their paper, the scientists showed that their instruments can identify the ice crystals and now they can begin to classify the crystals. By learning to classify the ice crystals in clouds, these scientists hope to contribute to improving weather and climate models, the complex computer programs used to show future atmospheric conditions. Weather and climate computer models are complex because they must account for hundreds of variables, including many that seem completely unpredictable. Vincent Noel, a research scientist with Analytical Services and Materials at NASA Langley and the author of the journal article, explains, "Usually climate prediction means predicting the evolution of temperature, pressure, relative humidity, and plenty of other variables, over small (a few days) and large (a few centuries) timeframes. However, to predict all this stuff with enough accuracy, we need to take into account clouds -- and for the time being, clouds are the most important source of uncertainty in climate prediction." Recognizing that clouds represent so much scientific uncertainty, some NASA scientists and other researchers decided to study tropical convective clouds in Florida, a type of large cloud system very common in that area. Their research project, called CRYSTAL-FACE (Cirrus Regional Study of Tropical Anvils and Cirrus Layers-Florida Area Cirrus Experiment), took place in the summer of 2002 throughout the state of Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, with the immediate goal of studying all aspects of the unique convection cloud formations from aircraft, land and satellite-based instruments. Image left: Known to interrupt hot summer afternoons with almost daily thunderstorms, convective cloud systems are very common in Florida. This image shows the unique shape of these systems, often called an "anvil" because of their potential to grow quite wide at the top and bottom, remaining narrow in the middle. Image credit: NOAA If you have spent a day at Disney World in Orlando, or if you have relaxed on the beaches of South Florida, you have likely seen convective or heat-generated clouds. These clouds form when the Sun's rays warm the ground, causing hot air to rise, and condense into clouds. They are unique because they are massive in size, at times ranging from 100 to 200 km wide (62 to 124 miles); they form and dissipate very quickly, in as little as two hours; and they can be extremely thick, reaching 15 km (9.3 miles) in height, which is 6 km (3.7 miles) taller than Mt. Everest. At the top of the convective clouds are cirrus clouds made of ice crystals. These crystals effect weather and climate in two ways: first, depending on the ice crystal's shape, it affects the amount of Sun's energy reflected or trapped near Earth's surface; and second, in their relationship with ozone destruction in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere). "Because of all this solar radiation, the Earth gets hot," said Noel. "When any body is hot, it radiates infrared light." Infrared is light at one end of the spectrum, and people use infrared goggles to see things in the dark (which is how you can see people in the dark using infrared goggles). "Clouds trap this infrared radiation, absorb it, and re-emit it later; this is called the greenhouse effect." Clouds, specifically cirrus clouds, are the reason that a lot of infrared radiation stays near Earth instead of going into space. Image right: Clouds, particularly the high thin cirrus clouds, play a major role in the balance of (reflecting and absorbing) solar energy between the Earth and space. Scientists are trying to find out more about the ice crystals within the cirrus clouds and what role they play in this balance. Image credit: NASA Because of their high altitude, ice clouds touch the tropopause, the region between the troposphere (the atmospheric layer closest to Earth) and the stratosphere. When the rising air on a summer day is hot enough, it can move fast enough where it "punches through" the tropopause and into the stratosphere. This "overshooting cloud top" brings water vapor into that layer of the upper atmosphere, where it contributes to destroying the "good ozone" that protects us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Then the ozone reacts with the UV radiation, and creates oxygen again. This cycle results in less UV radiation getting to Earth. Unfortunately, water can also react with ozone, thus destroying the ozone faster than it is created. "So, if there's too much stratospheric water, the creation/destruction cycle of ozone is affected," said Noel. The size, shape and composition of the ice crystals may reveal a lot about their effects on these atmospheric processes. "The ice crystal shapes are infinite and varied. We don't know which shapes are dominant, a problem when trying to predict climate change because the shape influences the quantity of sunlight reflected back into space," said Noel. Image left: During the CRYSTAL-FACE field campaign, scientists collected samples of ice crystals like this one. The three circles define three different types of crystals, showing that within one cloud there can be many distinctly different shapes and sizes of crystals. Image credit: Paul Lawson, CRYSTAL-FACE The scientists used short pulses of laser light known as Lidar, to classify ice crystals. They compared Lidar measurements from high-flying aircraft (up to approximately 20 km, or 12.4 miles) with measurements from other instruments. In the future, they hope to use satellite data to get the information, instead of flying airplanes. One upcoming long-term study that will use a space-based instrument is the CALIPSO satellite mission (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations). CALIPSO is scheduled to be launched in June 2005, and will give us new, never-before-seen 3-D perspectives of how clouds and aerosols form, evolve and affect Earth's weather, climate and air quality. + CRYSTAL-FACE Mission Web Site + CALIPSO Mission Web Site + The JGR Article in .pdf Format NASA Langley Research Center
Jottings are a very brief recording, usually only a few sentences (or paragraph at most). It is typically written after an event occurs, focusing on a significant behaviour the child displays. They are to be written in an objective and non judgemental way. Photos and work samples can also be used in conjunction with each jotting. Jottings can be used as part of an educators observation methods when observing a child. A jotting observation can take place during every day routines as the child interacts with peers, activities and materials and during a spontaneous event. Jottings are a quick way of recording significant information about the child. This template includes: - Child's Name - Child's Age - Focus Area - Dates of each of three jottings - 3 Photo images - 3 Jotting boxes - Linking to the outcomes - Jungle theme
Southeast Asian art and architecture: Thai Art In the 13th cent. the Thai peoples began to amass their considerable power in western Southeast Asia and by the 15th cent. were the dominant force. Siamese bronze sculpture of Buddhist figures in the 14th and 15th cent. showed an interest in an exaggerated elongation of limbs, a serene countenance and an interest in the pose known as the walking Buddha. In the 16th cent. Buddhist figures adorned with jewels were widespread. Most extant Siamese paintings are of Buddhist subject matter and owe much to Chinese models, yet include a graceful linear quality and affection for brilliant color. The establishment of the capital at Bangkok and consequent increase in trade with the West brought other influences to bear on Thai art. - Early History - Khmer Art - Vietnamese Art - Thai Art - Laotian and Burmese Art - Indonesian Art The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Asian and Middle Eastern Art
Python programs for the following problems. Use the names listed below: Be sure to upload your code to Github as well. All submitted code must include appropriate comments. Problem 1: Write an infinite while loop that prints “Infinite” an infinite number of times. Problem 2: Re-write Module 6 Lab Activity Problem 1 using a while loop instead of a for loop. Remember to initialize a counter variable to keep track of how many times your loop has run. Problem 3: Write a program that takes a user input, then uses a while loop to check if that input is the letter A, B, or C. The loop should continue until a valid input is entered by the user. Bonus: Allow the input to be correct regardless of case, so either 'A' or 'a' is valid. The upper() and lower() functions should help. Problem 4: Write a program that implements the following: Imagine you're an archer in a competition. You have 10 arrows you can shoot to score the most points possible. 1. Create a variable to represent your total score. Set its initial value to 0. 2. Create a variable to represent the number of arrows you have. Set its initial value to 10. 3. Create an empty list to represent your score card. 4. While you still have at least one arrow left to shoot: a. Generate a random number between 0 and 10 to represent where on the target you managed to hit. i. Append this number to your score card list. b. If the number is 10, you got a bullseye! Increase your score by 20 points, then subtract 1 from your remaining arrows. Tell the user that they got a bullseye. c. Otherwise, if the number is between 1 and 9, increase your score by the random number you generated, then subtract 1 from the remaining arrows. d. Otherwise, if the number is 0, you earn no points, but don't lose an arrow. Tell the user that they missed. 5. Once you're out of arrows, print the final score and the score card along with a message to the user. This assignment has been answered 2 times in private sessions. © 2022 Codify Tutor. All rights reserved
Science is taught both as a body of knowledge and skills to be learnt, and by experiences. This provides children with a basis for further learning. Pupils' scientific discoveries are stimulated by closely relating science to their everyday lives and their immediate environment. Through science our children develop the skills of careful observation, correct handling and accurate practical measurement. The children also learn to make sensible predictions based on observation, look for patterns, test their predictions to see if they work and change them if they do not, all skills which promote logical thinking. Independent learning is also encouraged through their use of reference books. Scientific attitudes of curiosity, responsibility and open-mindedness are developed to support scientific thinking as well as confidence in the use of the scientific language.
Antarctic Treaty Summary Antarctic Treaty Summary Type of Government Nearly ten times the size of Alaska, the continent of Antarctica is a vast expanse of ice sheets, glaciers, and floating ice shelves. Apart from scattered scientific research stations and transient tourists, it is uninhabited. A reliable system of governance is nonetheless necessary, because its unique climactic and geographic features make it critically important to a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including climatology, geology, biology, and oceanography. To ensure that scientists of all nations are able to conduct their research in an atmosphere free of political intrigue and commercial exploitation, twelve nations signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, creating a form of governance called the Antarctic Treaty Summary. Several other nations have since joined the agreement, and a separate protocol mandating measures for the preservation of the continent’s ecology was added in 1991. The first humans to glimpse Antarctica are thought to have been a group of seal hunters in 1820. Despite heavy use of the shipping channel around Cape Horn, roughly six hundred miles away at the southern tip of South America, few sea captains were rash enough to venture farther south; even in the summer months, the risk of collision with floating ice was enormous. A few tentative explorations took place over the next hundred years, but large-scale expeditions did not become feasible until the technological advances that happened during World War I. It was, above all, the development of long-range aircraft that opened the continent to scientific study and to territorial claims by a variety of nations, including France and Great Britain. Other countries, notably the United States and the Soviet Union, conducted expeditions but generally refrained from asserting territorial claims. The most notorious claim was made in 1939, when a German aerial expedition claimed an extensive territory for Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) and the German Reich. World War II had relatively little impact on Antarctica. By the 1950s, however, cold war rivalries and a growing awareness of the continent’s scientific importance had brought new claims by Chile, Argentina, Australia, and others, as well as a wave of building activity. The culmination of this period of energy and enthusiasm was the declaration of 1957–1958 as an International Geophysical Year (IGY), an ambitious, multinational research program with a strong emphasis on Antarctica. The IGY proved a model of international cooperation in the sciences, and its success prompted widespread awareness of the need to preserve the continent for scientific purposes. In 1958 U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969) invited eleven other nations with major interests in the region to begin work on a comprehensive treaty. Negotiations began in June of that year, and the treaty was signed on December 1, 1959. Following ratification by all twelve parties (the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, South Africa, Argentina, Chile, New Zealand, Australia, Belgium, France, Japan, and Norway), the treaty became binding in June 1961. A number of other nations have since joined the agreement, including India, Poland, and Brazil. Terms of the treaty are valid for fifty years and cover all areas south of sixty degrees latitude with the exclusion of the high seas. The first provisions call for only peaceful, nonmilitary uses of the area and for cooperation in research, including the exchange of data, personnel, and equipment. The parties also agree not to obstruct or interfere with another’s research, though each has the right to inspect the facilities of the others. Disputes are to be settled through negotiation, arbitration, or, in the last resort, by appeal to the International Court of Justice. The testing of nuclear weapons and the dumping of nuclear waste are banned. There are also provisions for the review and modification of the original agreement, notably a review to be held after thirty years if one of the parties requests it. Finally, there is the matter of territorial claims. For these the treaty essentially preserves the status quo, prohibiting new claims but leaving earlier ones in place. Because these claims fall within a gray, unadjudicated area of international law, the treaty’s drafters wisely made no attempt to resolve them, instead deferring the issue to the jurists of a later generation. Political Parties and Factions Though political parties do not exist, differences of opinion do arise with some regularity. The most significant of these occurred in 1988, when thirty-three nations signed a Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities, or CRAMRA. Mining and other types of resource extraction fell outside the scope of the 1959 treaty, but technological advances in the interim had reduced the obstacles Antarctica’s forbidding environment posed to these activities. CRAMRA imposed restrictions on mining but did not prohibit it. Reaction was swift and vehement, with widespread feeling that any mining was a violation in spirit (though not in letter) of the original treaty. As a result, CRAMRA was rescinded. Superseding it in 1991 was a new protocol on environmental protection, Article VII of which bans any mineral activities unrelated to scientific research. Global climate change poses a major challenge to the treaty nations, because it threatens the unique environment the treaty seeks to preserve. Antarctica’s landscape has always been in flux, as icebergs break off into the sea and ice shelves melt and reform. Recently, however, scientists have noted a dramatic increase in melting activity. In 2005, for example, satellite photos revealed that surface snow had melted over an area the size of California. May 2007 marked the beginning of an International Polar Year (IPY), an event similar to the IGY of 1957–1958. The focus of the IPY, however, is squarely on climate change. Over the past fifty years, scientists have noted a rise of two and a half degrees Celsius in the average temperature of the Antarctic Peninsula, the continent’s most accessible region. Scientists note that this warming trend, moreover, seems to be increasing in speed and intensity. If Antarctica’s ice—roughly ninety percent of the world’s total—continues to melt into the ocean, the implications for the continent, and for plant and animal life around the globe, are ominous. Antarctic Treaty Secretariat. “Antarctic Treaty Secretariat.” (accessed May 26, 2007). International Polar Year. “IPY 2007–2008.” (accessed May 26, 2007).
\|\|This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (December 2013)\| Scattering is a general physical process where some forms of radiation, such as light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a straight trajectory by one or more paths due to localized non-uniformities in the medium through which they pass. In conventional use, this also includes deviation of reflected radiation from the angle predicted by the law of reflection. Reflections that undergo scattering are often called diffuse reflections and unscattered reflections are called specular (mirror-like) reflections. Scattering may also refer to particle-particle collisions between molecules, atoms, electrons, photons and other particles. Examples are: cosmic rays scattering by the Earth's upper atmosphere; particle collisions inside particle accelerators; electron scattering by gas atoms in fluorescent lamps; and neutron scattering inside nuclear reactors. The types of non-uniformities which can cause scattering, sometimes known as scatterers or scattering centers, are too numerous to list, but a small sample includes particles, bubbles, droplets, density fluctuations in fluids, crystallites in polycrystalline solids, defects in monocrystalline solids, surface roughness, cells in organisms, and textile fibers in clothing. The effects of such features on the path of almost any type of propagating wave or moving particle can be described in the framework of scattering theory. Some areas where scattering and scattering theory are significant include radar sensing, medical ultrasound, semiconductor wafer inspection, polymerization process monitoring, acoustic tiling, free-space communications and computer-generated imagery. Particle-particle scattering theory is important in areas such as particle physics, atomic, molecular, and optical physics, nuclear physics and astrophysics. Single and multiple scattering When radiation is only scattered by one localized scattering center, this is called single scattering, It is very common that scattering centers are grouped together, and in those cases the radiation may scatter many times, which is known as multiple scattering. The main difference between the effects of single and multiple scattering is that single scattering can usually be treated as a random phenomenon and multiple scattering is usually more stochastic. Because the location of a single scattering center is not usually well known relative to the path of the radiation, the outcome, which tends to depend strongly on the exact incoming trajectory, appears random to an observer. This type of scattering would be exemplified by an electron being fired at an atomic nucleus. In that case, the atom's exact position relative to the path of the electron is unknown and would be immeasurable, so the exact direction of the electron after the collision is unknown, plus the quantum-mechanical nature of this particular interaction also makes the interaction random. Single scattering is therefore often described by probability distributions. With multiple scattering, the randomness of the interaction tends to be averaged out by the large number of scattering events, so that the final path of the radiation appears to be a deterministic distribution of intensity. This is exemplified by a light beam passing through thick fog. Multiple scattering is highly analogous to diffusion, and the terms multiple scattering and diffusion are interchangeable in many contexts. Optical elements designed to produce multiple scattering are thus known as diffusers. Coherent backscattering, an enhancement of backscattering that occurs when coherent radiation is multiply scattered by a random medium, is usually attributed to weak localization. Not all single scattering is random, however. A well-controlled laser beam can be exactly positioned to scatter off a microscopic particle with a deterministic outcome, for instance. Such situations are encountered in radar scattering as well, where the targets tend to be macroscopic objects such as people or aircraft. Similarly, multiple scattering can sometimes have somewhat random outcomes, particularly with coherent radiation. The random fluctuations in the multiply scattered intensity of coherent radiation are called speckles. Speckle also occurs if multiple parts of a coherent wave scatter from different centers. In certain rare circumstances, multiple scattering may only involve a small number of interactions such that the randomness is not completely averaged out. These systems are considered to be some of the most difficult to model accurately. The description of scattering and the distinction between single and multiple scattering are often highly involved with wave–particle duality. Scattering theory is a framework for studying and understanding the scattering of waves and particles. Prosaically, wave scattering corresponds to the collision and scattering of a wave with some material object, for instance sunlight scattered by rain drops to form a rainbow. Scattering also includes the interaction of billiard balls on a table, the Rutherford scattering (or angle change) of alpha particles by gold nuclei, the Bragg scattering (or diffraction) of electrons and X-rays by a cluster of atoms, and the inelastic scattering of a fission fragment as it traverses a thin foil. More precisely, scattering consists of the study of how solutions of partial differential equations, propagating freely "in the distant past", come together and interact with one another or with a boundary condition, and then propagate away "to the distant future". Electromagnetic waves are one of the best known and most commonly encountered forms of radiation that undergo scattering. Scattering of light and radio waves (especially in radar) is particularly important. Several different aspects of electromagnetic scattering are distinct enough to have conventional names. Major forms of elastic light scattering (involving negligible energy transfer) are Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering. Inelastic scattering includes Brillouin scattering, Raman scattering, inelastic X-ray scattering and Compton scattering. Light scattering is one of the two major physical processes that contribute to the visible appearance of most objects, the other being absorption. Surfaces described as white owe their appearance to multiple scattering of light by internal or surface inhomogeneities in the object, for example by the boundaries of transparent microscopic crystals that make up a stone or by the microscopic fibers in a sheet of paper. More generally, the gloss (or lustre or sheen) of the surface is determined by scattering. Highly scattering surfaces are described as being dull or having a matte finish, while the absence of surface scattering leads to a glossy appearance, as with polished metal or stone. Spectral absorption, the selective absorption of certain colors, determines the color of most objects with some modification by elastic scattering. The apparent blue color of veins in skin is a common example where both spectral absorption and scattering play important and complex roles in the coloration. Light scattering can also create color without absorption, often shades of blue, as with the sky (Rayleigh scattering), the human blue iris, and the feathers of some birds (Prum et al. 1998). However, resonant light scattering in nanoparticles can produce many different highly saturated and vibrant hues, especially when surface plasmon resonance is involved (Roqué et al. 2006). Models of light scattering can be divided into three domains based on a dimensionless size parameter, α which is defined as: where πDp is the circumference of a particle and λ is the wavelength of incident radiation. Based on the value of α, these domains are: - α ≪ 1: Rayleigh scattering (small particle compared to wavelength of light); - α ≈ 1: Mie scattering (particle about the same size as wavelength of light, valid only for spheres); - α ≫ 1: geometric scattering (particle much larger than wavelength of light). Rayleigh scattering is a process in which electromagnetic radiation (including light) is scattered by a small spherical volume of variant refractive index, such as a particle, bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation. This effect was first modeled successfully by Lord Rayleigh, from whom it gets its name. In order for Rayleigh's model to apply, the sphere must be much smaller in diameter than the wavelength (λ) of the scattered wave; typically the upper limit is taken to be about 1/10 the wavelength. In this size regime, the exact shape of the scattering center is usually not very significant and can often be treated as a sphere of equivalent volume. The inherent scattering that radiation undergoes passing through a pure gas is due to microscopic density fluctuations as the gas molecules move around, which are normally small enough in scale for Rayleigh's model to apply. This scattering mechanism is the primary cause of the blue color of the Earth's sky on a clear day, as the shorter blue wavelengths of sunlight passing overhead are more strongly scattered than the longer red wavelengths according to Rayleigh's famous 1/λ4 relation. Along with absorption, such scattering is a major cause of the attenuation of radiation by the atmosphere. The degree of scattering varies as a function of the ratio of the particle diameter to the wavelength of the radiation, along with many other factors including polarization, angle, and coherence. For larger diameters, the problem of electromagnetic scattering by spheres was first solved by Gustav Mie, and scattering by spheres larger than the Rayleigh range is therefore usually known as Mie scattering. In the Mie regime, the shape of the scattering center becomes much more significant and the theory only applies well to spheres and, with some modification, spheroids and ellipsoids. Closed-form solutions for scattering by certain other simple shapes exist, but no general closed-form solution is known for arbitrary shapes. Both Mie and Rayleigh scattering are considered elastic scattering processes, in which the energy (and thus wavelength and frequency) of the light is not substantially changed. However, electromagnetic radiation scattered by moving scattering centers does undergo a Doppler shift, which can be detected and used to measure the velocity of the scattering center/s in forms of techniques such as lidar and radar. This shift involves a slight change in energy. At values of the ratio of particle diameter to wavelength more than about 10, the laws of geometric optics are mostly sufficient to describe the interaction of light with the particle, and at this point the interaction is not usually described as scattering. For modeling of scattering in cases where the Rayleigh and Mie models do not apply such as irregularly shaped particles, there are many numerical methods that can be used. The most common are finite-element methods which solve Maxwell's equations to find the distribution of the scattered electromagnetic field. Sophisticated software packages exist which allow the user to specify the refractive index or indices of the scattering feature in space, creating a 2- or sometimes 3-dimensional model of the structure. For relatively large and complex structures, these models usually require substantial execution times on a computer. - Bragg diffraction - Brillouin scattering - Characteristic mode analysis - Compton scattering - Deep scattering layer - Dynamic Light Scattering - Espresso crema effect - Kikuchi line - Light scattering by particles - Mie theory - Mott scattering - Neutron scattering - Photon diffusion - Powder diffraction - Raman scattering - Rayleigh scattering - Rutherford scattering - Small-angle scattering - Tyndall effect - Thomson scattering - Wolf effect - X-ray crystallography - Bohren, Craig F.; Donald R. Huffman (1983). Absorption and Scattering of Light by Small Particles. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-29340-7. - Colton, David; Rainer Kress (1998). Inverse Acoustic and Electromagnetic Scattering Theory. Springer. ISBN 3-540-62838-X. - Gonis, Antonios; William H. Butler (1999). Multiple Scattering in Solids. Springer. ISBN 0-387-98853-X. - Prum, Richard O.; Rodolfo H. Torres; Scott Williamson; Jan Dyck (1998). "Coherent light scattering by blue feather barbs". Nature 396 (6706): 28–29. Bibcode:1998Natur.396...28P. doi:10.1038/23838. - Roqué, Josep; J. Molera; P. Sciau; E. Pantos; M. Vendrell-Saz (2006). "Copper and silver nanocrystals in lustre lead glazes: development and optical properties". Journal of the European Ceramic Society 26 (16): 3813–3824. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2005.12.024. - Seinfeld, John H.; Pandis, Spyros N. (2006). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics - From Air Pollution to Climate Change (2nd Ed.). John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-82857-2 - Stover, John C. (1995). Optical Scattering: Measurement and Analysis. SPIE Optical Engineering Press. ISBN 0-8194-1934-6. - "Zodiacal Glow Lightens Paranal Sky". ESO Picture of the Week. Retrieved 2 December 2013. \|Look up scattering in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\|
A glider is a special kind of aircraft that has no engine. Paper airplanes are the most obvious example, but gliders come in a wide range of shapes and sizes. Toy gliders, made of balsa wood or styrofoam, are an excellent way for students to study the basics of aerodynamics. The Wright brothers perfected the design of the first airplane and gained piloting experience through a series of glider flights between 1900 and 1902. These aircraft were similar to modern hang-gliders and were launched by running down the side of a sand dune at Kitty Hawk. If a glider is in a steady (constant velocity and no acceleration) descent, it loses altitude as it travels. The glider's flight path is a simple straight line, shown as the inclined red line in the figure. The flight path is inclined to the horizontal at an angle "a" called the glide angle. we will show that the glide angle is related to the of the aircraft. The brothers used this knowledge to determine the aerodynamic performance of Determining the glide angle in flight is very difficult, so the brothers would fly their glider at a fixed height above the surface of the sand dune. In this flight condition, the flight path is parallel to the surface of the hill and the glide angle is equal to the slope of the hill. The slope of a hill can be easily measured by using a protractor to site the top of the hill from the bottom. If you then measure the distance (s) to the top of the hill by counting paces from the bottom, you can determine the height (h) of the hill The height divided by the distance along the surface is equal to the sine (sin) of the measured slope angle (a): sin(a) = h / s This equation can be solved for the height of the hill. (tan) of the glide angle (a) is equal to the change in vertical height (h) divided by the horizontal distance (d) flown. tan(a) = h / d If the glider is flown at a specified glide angle, the trigonometric equation can be solved to determine how far the glider can fly for a given change in altitude, or how far it will drop for a given distance flown. Notice that if the glide angle is small, the aircraft can fly a long distance for a small change in altitude. Conversely, if the glide angle is large it can travel only a short distance for a given change in altitude. We can think of the glide angle as a measure of the flying efficiency of the glider. The smaller the glide angle, the farther that an aircraft can fly for a given change in altitude. - Re-Living the Wright Way - Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Home Page
How can early childhood teachers, administrators, and parents translate discoveries on early brain development into strategies that nurture cognitive growth? The key is to using the information gathered from neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and child development. The Developing Brain offers brain-compatible teaching practices for parents and teachers that are linked to principles for working with young children from the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Bestselling author Marilee Sprenger covers the basic structure, vocabulary, and current research on the brain from an early childhood educatorís point of view and provides an abundance of illustrations and descriptions. This user-friendly guide includes: Background information on brain development from birth through age two Scenarios and snapshots of each year from age three through eight Reproducible development checklists Over one hundred brain-based activities for classroom or child care settings And much more! Through an understanding of the phases of language, motor, and social development at each age level, The Developing Brain will help both educators and parents create an enriching educational experience that enhances a childís growth and fosters an enduring love of learning.
On November 30, 1954, the Hodges Meteorite fell through the roof of a house in Alabama, injuring Ann Hodges. It was the first time an extraterrestrial object had injured a person in the United States, and she remains the only person confirmed to have suffered directly from a meteorite strike. Read more at National Geographic. Four more, jam-packed tidbits about meteors… A meteorite is a solid piece of matter that originates in outer space and survives the scorching trip through Earth’s atmosphere to hit the planet’s surface. A meteorite should not be confused with a meteoroid, which stays in outer space, nor with a meteor, which refers to the streak of light in the sky as a small piece of matter from outer space burns in the atmosphere. In a not-so-clear categorization system, meteorites may be stony, iron, or stony-iron, depending on their ratio of rock and metal. Large iron meteorites have been known to cause impact craters and destruction. Once such impact site is the Barringer Crater in Arizona, which dates back about 50,000 years. Most meteorites are chondrites, a type of stony meteorite that was never part of a large celestial body but a clump of dust from the Solar System’s early years. Thousands of chondrites have been collected, and they represent the oldest material on our plant. BONUS: See meteorites at the Field Museum and other museums. That collection in Chicago includes more than 7000 pieces from 1479 meteorites. And if you think you have a meteorite, the Field Museum can help you determine whether you do and what kind.
Parents are hearing more that play is good for young children. However, there remains a sense of ambivalence – How much can a child learn through play? Does the child need both play and rote learning? Is my child getting smarter or less smart by playing? Indeed these are difficult questions to tackle. Parents are rightly concerned on how they have to prepare their young children given the increasingly competitiveness in primary school with a more demanding curriculum. If play is truly important, parents ought to understand better what play is all about! This article explores a child’s learning through play, with the help of Ms Polene Lam, Founder & Director of Gifted Academy and Gifted Learners Student Care. What is Play Play is active, enjoyable and at the heart of it, having fun while navigating life. There are many different types of play, for instance: - Having fun running, jumping or dancing, also grouped as active play - Playing indoors on board games, puzzles or play dough, broadly termed manipulative play - Playing alone, e.g. activity books - Playing with others, e.g. in pretend play or games that involve more players How does playing help a child learn? After all, playing hide-and-seek is not going to help the child learn more difficult vocabulary. Herein comes the concept of Multiple Intelligence – that there are more intelligences other than being word smart or mathematical smart, but instead encompass being intelligent at interpersonal skills, motor skills, art, music and self-perceptiveness. Ms Polene Lam, who is an experienced educator, gave an example of how a toddler can learn and develop intelligences in various areas. For example, listening to music and dancing connects the movement and sound with the inner world of feelings for toddlers. It also provides an opportunity for them to talk about feelings such as “Does this song sound happy or sad? (Intra-personal intelligence). Music and dance helps toddlers to learn about patterns, rhythm and differences in sounds, thus, expanding their imagination (Musical and Mathematical Intelligence). Dancing is also good for developing physical fitness, balance, coordination and movement abilities (kinesthetic intelligence). Finger plays and other nursery rhymes are also beneficial in developing language skills (Linguistic Intelligence). Is Screen-time Playtime? Children view what is play differently as the lifestyle and toys they have access to evolve. Today, play may mean playing on smartphone, tablet or video games. However, screen time is not advised for children below the age of 2 years. Too much screen time has been linked to childhood obesity, aggressive behavior, inability to concentrate and even physical issues like back and eye pain. Thus, parents should not view play for young children as providing them with an electronic device. Parents’ Role in Play Parents play an important supportive role in play. Apart from being the provider of the resources (be it toys, puzzles or driving to zoo), parents are involved during playtime. First and foremost, parents themselves have to be conscious of their own screen time; children who are being ignored by their parents who are always on the phone may themselves decide to be hooked onto their own phone and ignore their parents! Parents can be involved by being a playmate, without being an instructor. Ms Polene explained a few practical tips for how parents can be an effective play mate: - Provide sufficient time for play. Children need time to explore an activity, make up a story and be with their playmates. They become frustrated if play is interrupted often. Inventing a game takes time. Parents should allow your children to play in sufficiently large blocks of time for imagination to develop and interactions to take place. - Arrange for variety in play experiences. Different kinds of play lead to different kinds of learning experiences. Story books can help with concentration. Kicking a ball helps to develop coordination and motor skills. Role play provides for creativity development and social interaction. - Explore play with children. Children enjoy directing their own play much of the time but they also benefit and gain ideas from parents’ suggestions. For example, introduce your child to novel activities such as hopscotch or help your child build a pyramid out of building blocks. Your child will most likely enjoy your involvement as you play with them. - Respond to a child’s invitation to play. Say “yes” when your child asks you to play. - Help children have positive play interactions with others. Parents can help their child learn to have positive play interactions with other children by encouraging the child to engage with each other. Provide guidance if needed and help them in resolving concerns or disagreements if necessary. Play indeed is important for children to learn and develop multiple intelligences and skills. Should parents find it hard to carve out ‘play’ time, try taking a creative and playful approach to find play in everyday’s activities instead! *please note that pictures have been added by us to enhance the delivery of the message.
\|Meta. Home \| Alpha. \| Simp.Class. \| Intro. \| Glos. \| Kinds \| Classify \| Texture \| Keys \| Barrovian \| Tect. \| Self Tests\| Metamorphisms are not all alike. A variety of metamorphisms occur depending on temperature and pressure (T/P) conditions. The variety of metamorphic processes can be summarized in a T/P phase diagram (below). Observe that temperature increases across the top from " normal" earth surface conditions to nearly 1000 degrees C. Pressure is plotted down the side of the diagram. The earth's surface is at the top of the diagram, so the further down you go the greater the pressure. Pressure is measured in bars. A bar is one atmosphere of pressure, about 14 pounds per square inch. The scale on the phase diagram is in kilobars, thousands of atmosphere of pressure. We have also plotted depths in kilometers along with the pressure. [Note that this is drawn the opposite of a technical phase diagram where pressure increases from the bottom to the top of the diagram. We have chosen this diagram to allow easy reference to pressure and depth, which naturally increases as one descends deeper.] Note also the diagonal red arrow, the geothermal gradient, the average increase in temperature with depth. Observe on the phase diagram above the five kinds of metamorphism: Hydrothermal, Contact, Barrovian (sometimes called " regional" ), Blueschist, and Eclogite. Each is introduced below. >>>Low Temp./Low Pressure >>>Typical Rocks: pegamatites, serpentinite, soapstone Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs when hot, chemically active, mineral laden waters interact with a surrounding preexisting rock (called the country rock). Most hydrothermal metamorphism takes place at low pressures and relatively low temperature, as the phase diagram shows. It is one of the most pervasive and widespread types of metamorphism, although most of it cannot be seen easily. There are also several distinctly differnt types of hydrothermal metamorphism. IGNEOUS FLUIDS AND PEGMATITES: The most spectacular hydrothermal metamorphism takes place as an after effect of igneous activity. Magmas have lots of water with dissolved minerals, but as the magma crystallizes the mineral laden water is driven off into the surrounding country rock where it seeps into cracks and pores precipitating the minerals. The most spectacular result of this is a pegmatite, a very coarse grained felsic igneous rock. Pegmatites commonly have single crystals measured in feet in size, as well as a host of exotic minerals, including some of the most important gem minerals. Hydrothermal deposits of this type also produce many important mineral deposits, from silver and gold to copper. OCEANIC HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPHISM: A second type of hydrothermal metamorphism takes place at oceanic rift centers (divergent plate boundaries). Here magma ozzes out onto the ocean floor to form pillow basalts. While the rock is still hot sea water carrying all its salts percolates into the rocks where a lot of chemical reactions take place. Minerals are leached out of the rock and carried to the surface where they often form smokers, gysers on the ocean floor (see Vents Program, or ocean chimneys, or vents video clips). >>>High Temp./Low Pressure >>>Typical Rocks: hornfels, quartzite, marble, skarn Contact metamorphism occurs in the " country rock" (the rock intruded by and surrounding an igneous intrusion). Rocks are " baked" into a ceramic from heat escaping from intrusives, often enhanced by hydrothermal fluids. The intensity of metamorphism decreases with distance from the intrusion, until at some distance away the rock is unaltered country rock. The metamorphism often occurs in aureoles, or zones surrounding the intrusion. Close to the intrusion is the hydrothermal (or metasomatic) aureole where minerals from the hot fluids have their greatest effect. Further away is the thermal aureole where heat is the primary effect. The dimensions of the aureoles are dependent on the size of the intrusive body and the amount of water present. In the absence of fluids, the aureole is very small. The assemblage of new minerals that grow in the country rock depend on the composition of the country rock. For a complex sedimentary parent of sandstones and shales, anhydrous (without water) minerals such as garnet and pyroxene occur closest to the intrusion, then hydrous (water rich) minerals such as amphibole and epidote, and at the lowest intensity, chlorite and serpentinite occur. When an magma intrudes into carbonates such as limestone and dolostone the carbonate reacts with silica from the hydrothermal fluids to form SKARN. Many special lime-bearing silicate minerals form here. Low-High Temp./Intermediate Pressure Typical Rocks: slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, migmatite; quartzite, marble This is a common, widespread, large scale metamorphism typically ssociated with major orogenic (mountain building) events. Sometimes this is referred to as " regional metamorphism" but since it is not the only metamorphism to take place on a regional scale Barrovian is a more precise name. Barrovian metamorphism produces some of the most common metamorphic rocks, many of which are spectacularly beautiful and thus used as building stones. There is much to explore to understand these rocks and so we will deal with them at another page. Low Temp./High Pressure Typical Rocks: blueschist Blueschist metamorphism occurs at convergent plate boundaries in subduction zones, either under volcanic arcs, or under continents (cordilleran type). Here cold oceanic crust and sediment is rapidly subducted. Pressure increases quickly because of depth, but the temperature lags behind because the rock is being buried faster than it can heat up. Rocks in outcrop appear blue from amphibole mineral glaucophane. Moderate Temp./Very High Pressure Typical Rocks: eclogite Eclogite metamorphism takes place in the mantle. The parent rock is ultramafic mantle material, such as peridotite. Eclogite is characterized by a pale green sodic pyroxene (omphacite) and a red garnet (almandine-pyrope), making it a striking rock. Associated minerals are rutile, kyanite, and quartz, and it is not unusual to have retrograde amphibole in the rock too. Since eclogite forms so deep, outcrops are not common. Go on to: Classification of Metamorphic Rocks \|Last Update: 10/25/00\|\|
Pictocuentos are stories that use pictures or symbols to support the meaning of the text. The pictures, or pictographs, are useful for learners who comprehend images more easily than text and can also be used with second language learners. The website Pictocuentos is putting Spanish stories for kids like these online. They have illustrations, text, audio and pictographs (also called pictograms). It is a relatively new endeavor, but their first story, Ricitos de Oro, or Goldilocks and the Three Bears, is complete and there are more stories on the way. This Spanish story for kids has features that make it especially effective for language learners. For young learners who do not read yet, it is an audio story with simple language and good illustrations. For children who are learning to read or who already read, the text is supported in several ways that help them learn Spanish. Ricitos de oro is also a familiar story, and that helps them understand new words. There are animated illustrations for each sentence of the story. The illustrations correspond closely to the text, and the words appear just below story scene. I am not referring to the pictographs; those appear on the lower half of the screen. The audio on this Spanish story for kids is excellent. It is clear and the rate of speech is not too fast. There is an important option – you can turn off the background music by clicking on the music icon on the top left of the story window. I would suggest turning off the music so that children can focus on the language. There is also an options icon that will let you configure the font size and placement of the text with the pictographs. If you would like to hide the story text below the illustration, you can also do that. In addition to the illustrations and the audio, the pictographs provide another level of support for Spanish language learners as they listen to Ricitos de oro. Each word in the story is represented by a pictograph, so kids can refer to them to decipher individual words that they do not know. Pictographs capture the essence of the meaning of a word rather than trying to represent its form in the story. For example, this pictograph represents the word día. This pictograph represents the verb llamarse. This pictograph represents the word pequeño. The form of the word as it is used in the story appears above the pictograph. Because the same pictograph is repeated each time any form of the word is used, it becomes a quick reference to the meaning of the word, ideally without having to translate. Associating an image with a word also makes it much easier to learn and remember. Pictographs are a natural and effective way to support language acquisition. This Spanish story for kids is an excellent example of how carefully designed symbols can be used with language learners. Link to Spanish Story for Kids You may also be interested in this post: Online Spanish Stories from We Give Books
This post assumes you already know the basics of how to use Twitter. You know what a hashtag is and what purpose an @mention serves. If you need a general overview of how Twitter works and why it’s useful for teachers, we recommend starting here. You can also consult our review of Twitter, as well as the many Teacher Reviews. 1. Use Twitter Lists to engage with people and topics of interest. From TeachHub’s 50 Ways to Use Twitter in the Classroom” ask students to “set up Twitter lists following feeds relevant to their career goals and to keep a daily journal on any trends that crop up along the way.” A step further would be to have them reach out and ask an expert a question. 2. Participate in KQED’s weekly Twitter activity, DoNow. Students are encouraged to read about an issue or watch a video on KQED’s website, and then respond using a specified hashtag. By learning about a current topic and responding to it publicly, students have an opportunity to practice civic engagement and learn valuable digital citizenship skills simultaneously. 3. Create a chat between multiple classrooms at school. Carrie Kamm reported on the TeachingChannel blog how teachers in Chicago Public Schools are using Twitter creatively. One teacher reported that her elementary school students used hashtags to carry on a multi-classroom and multi-grade level conversation. “We had a great [chat] going this year between our first and fourth graders: both have hermit crabs in their classrooms and they discussed the behaviors they observed!” 4. Host a live chat during a significant news event. “I have hosted live tweet discussions during significant events with my students,” writes high school teacher Kyle M. in our Twitter field notes. “The state of the union addresses and presidential debates were great opportunities for students to engage in a dialogue with each other about what they were hearing/watching on the TV.” Kyle goes on to explain that for students who are accustomed to using Twitter socially (about 26 percent of teens) that using it in an academic way requires an adjustment. 5. Have students write for their peers. Reaching out to other students beyond classroom walls is exactly what over 50 classrooms are doing in New Zealand through @KidsEdChatNz. Every Wednesday from 2 to 3 p.m., elementary school kids respond to questions using their classroom’s account and a specific hashtag. Sometimes using TweetDeck, they then watch as other students’ responses pop up in real time, responding and collaborating about interesting topics. 6. Use Twitter as an opportunity for critical thinking and analysis. This infographic from TeachThought includes some novel ideas for Twitter-based activities. For example, ask students to “identify five ways tone can be conveyed in a Tweet” or to “analyze a popular tweet for bias.” Ask them what they think sponsored Tweets are for? Have they ever been misled by a tweet? Why do rumors spread so fast on Twitter? Encouraging analysis of tweets turns students into educated users and spurs critical thinking about social issues along the way. 7. Use Twitter to write a Short Story Think 140 characters are too few for creative writing? Think again. “There is also a very specific activity I like to do with Twitter [called] ‘Twisters,’ which are short (very short) stories that are written in 140 characters or less,” writes Silas B. Silas shows students a few examples like @Arjunbasu, @Veryshortstory, and @Gumballfiction, and then encourages them to try their hands at writing their own. “It's a great way to get students to think about what they DON'T need.” Twitter’s super-short format doesn’t mean it's short on learning potential. Using it as a tool to engage students in the ever-changing world lets them become part of the conversation, and is one small way to make their voices heard. Just make sure that your students are taught the relevant Digital Literacy and Citizenship skills if you are inviting them to use social media at school.
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The migration of the planet Jupiter as the solar system formed may have kept Mars the planetary runt, smaller than its rocky neighbors Earth and Venus, that it is today, a new study suggests. Mars is only about half the size of Earth and one-tenth the mass of our planet — a fact that has so far perplexed scientists. But in the new study, researchers calculated that Jupiter's movement might have been responsible for the odd setup. "This work not only solves a difficult problem in solar system formation, it shows that the solution lies in the giant planets of our solar system undergoing significant early migration, which was generally thought to only have occurred in extrasolar planetary systems," said David P. O'Brien, a researcher at the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson, Ariz. [The Solar System To Scale (Infographic)] Previous simulations of the formation process of the four inner planets in the solar system — Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars — generally produced a version of Mars far more massive than the real planet. "We tried a large variety of simulation parameters to solve this problem, but nothing seemed to work," O'Brien said in a statement. A 2009 study by Brad Hansen from UCLA offered a new clue: Hansen showed that if the initial distribution of solid material in the solar system was assumed to have an outer boundary at 1 astronomical unit (the distance from the sun to Earth, about 93 million miles or 150 million kilometers), a smaller Mars could form. But the presence of a sharp outer boundary at 1 AU required in Hansen's work was difficult to explain, given the existence of the asteroid belt between 2 and 4 AU, the giant planets between 5 and 30 AU and the Kuiper Belt beyond that. Jupiter's shifting migrations However, previous simulations over the past decade have shown that Jupiter and Saturn could drift around in the early solar system when gas was still present, and in some cases could move inward and then back outward to roughly their current locations. "Rapidly the pieces of the story came together," said Kevin J. Walsh, leader of the new study, who began work on the project at the Observatoire de la Cote d'Azur in Nice, France and is now at the Southwest Research Institute in Boulder, Colo. "If Jupiter had moved inwards from its birth place down to 1.5 AU from the sun and then had turned around because of the formation of Saturn, eventually migrating outward toward its current location, it would have truncated the distribution of solids in the inner solar system at about 1 AU, as required to explain the small mass of Mars." Jupiter now orbits the sun at 5.2 AU — about 483.7 million miles (778.4 million km). "The problem was to understand whether the inward and outward migration of Jupiter through the 2 to 4 AU region could be compatible with the existence of the asteroid belt today," Walsh said. "So we started to do a huge number of simulations." "The result was fantastic," Walsh said. "The simulations showed that the migration of Jupiter was consistent with the existence of the asteroid belt, but it also explained properties of the belt never understood before." A Jovian 'Grand Tack Scenario' The passage of Jupiter depleted then re-populated the asteroid belt region, with inner-belt bodies originating between 1 and 3 AU and outer belt bodies originating in a very distinct region between and beyond the giant planets, naturally producing the significant compositional differences existing today across the belt. The collaborators call their simulation the "Grand Tack Scenario," from the abrupt change in the motion of Jupiter at 1.5 AU, like that of a sailboat tacking around a buoy. The migration of the gas giants is also supported by observations of many extrasolar planets found in widely varying ranges from their parent stars, implying migrations of planets elsewhere in universe. Walsh and his colleagues detail their findings this week in the journal Nature.
In their waterproof orange overalls, Hannah Perlkin and Emily Tucker look like commercial fishermen or storm-ready sailors. But they are biologists on their way to tide pools along a remote stretch of northern California coast. There they are searching for the cause of a mysterious and unprecedented die-off of sea stars along North America’s Pacific shores. The syndrome took marine scientists by surprise this summer, when sick and dying sea stars — also known as starfish — appeared in a host of locations between Alaska and southern California. Predatory species were the first to succumb, but now the mysterious ailment is appearing in species once thought to be resistant to its effects. The progression is predictable: white lesions appear on an animal and become infected. Within hours or days the sea star becomes limp, and its arms may fall off. Necrosis eventually takes over and the animal dies. “It’s like a zombie wasteland,” says Tucker, who is, like Perlkin, a field technician employed by the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC). “You'll see detached arms crawling away from their body.” Among the animals now affected are the scavenger bat star, Asterina miniata; some species of sea urchin, an important source of food for threatened sea otters; and recreational and commercially fished species such as the California spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) and sheephead fish (Semicossyphus pulcher). Scientists worry about the long-term ecological consequences of the outbreak, which has affected a larger area and more species than episodes that occurred in 1983 and 1997. Sea-star populations took decades to return to their former numbers after those episodes, which were associated with warmer waters caused by El Niño. The latest outbreak began despite relatively cold surface waters along the Pacific coast for the past 15 years. Sea-star wasting disease has also been reported at sites along the US eastern coast this year, but researchers say that it is too early to link the outbreaks. Searching for probable cause Pinning down the cause of the outbreak is a high-stakes detective game for researchers such as Pete Raimondi, an ecologist at UCSC. He leads a marine-monitoring programme that has received special funding from the nonprofit organization Ocean Science Trust, based in Oakland, California, to search for the source of the outbreak. Raimondi is working to map the presence and severity of the wasting disease along the Pacific coast, using observations by Perlkin and Tucker, long-term monitoring data and reports from researchers and interested citizens, to map the outbreak’s ebb and flow. “Once we can determine if there are multiple points of initiation or just one,” Raimondi says, “we can look for links to reasons why sea stars are suddenly susceptible.” Other researchers are working with sea stars to determine whether wasting is an autoimmune condition or caused by an infectious agent. At UCSC, disease ecologist Marm Kilpatrick is beginning a series of experiments in which sick stars are separated from apparently healthy ones by various types of barrier, in hopes of characterizing the disease culprit and how it spreads. Among the possible causes scientists have suggested for the wasting syndrome are low oxygen levels in coastal waters, localized areas of warm water and environmental toxins. Some researchers have suggested that ocean acidification is a possible factor, but Raimondi says that is unlikely, given that acidification is pervasive but the disease outbreak is occurring in patches. Farther north, at Western Washington University in Bellingham, biologist Benjamin Miner is collecting sick and healthy sea stars from sites along the coast to be analysed by Ian Hewson, a microbial oceanographer at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. Hewson is comparing the colonies of viruses, bacteria and protozoa that live in and on diseased and normal sea stars, looking for a common ‘fingerprint’ that identifies the disease. Perlkin and Tucker plan to continue surveying the Pacific coast until the end of next May. “I’m pretty confident we’ll soon figure out what this is,” says Perlkin. “It just takes a while for all the right people to start working together.”
Fibonacci tree game Problem 400Published on Saturday, 27th October 2012, 02:00 pm; Solved by 298; Difficulty rating: 55% A Fibonacci tree is a binary tree recursively defined as: - T(0) is the empty tree. - T(1) is the binary tree with only one node. - T(k) consists of a root node that has T(k-1) and T(k-2) as children. On such a tree two players play a take-away game. On each turn a player selects a node and removes that node along with the subtree rooted at that node. The player who is forced to take the root node of the entire tree loses. Here are the winning moves of the first player on the first turn for T(k) from k=1 to k=6. Let f(k) be the number of winning moves of the first player (i.e. the moves for which the second player has no winning strategy) on the first turn of the game when this game is played on T(k). For example, f(5) = 1 and f(10) = 17. Find f(10000). Give the last 18 digits of your answer.
The renowned psychologist, Jean Piaget, spent his life studying how a child’s intelligence develops from infancy through to adolescence and into adulthood. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development charts the four stages of cognitive development and plots them in an ages and stages child development chart. Stage 1: Sensori motor Intelligence Stage one is the sensori-motor intelligence stage that relates to a baby and toddler’s behavior between 0 and 2 years of age. According to Piaget, a newborn baby has a very limited interaction with his environment and is largely restricted to learning via simple reflexes such as sucking, crying, seeing, and touching. Intelligence develops as the newborn experiences new sensations through his reflexes and the baby slowly learns to communicate his needs through different cries. By the age of 2, a toddler learns that objects can still exist even when hidden from view. Toddlers soon learn to imitate others and use a simple form of creativity to solve problems. Stage 2: Pre Operational Thought Stage two is the pre-operational thought stage between the ages of 2 and 7 years of age. By this stage of cognitive development, a child has progressed from using his senses and movement to learn about the environment to learning how to think in a conceptual-symbolic way. Most children have mastered language skills by the age of four, although conversations tend to be rather one-sided. Piaget uses the terms “centration” and “egocentrism” to describe children in this stage of development. Centration refers to the ability to think operations through in a logical fashion. Egocentrism is a narcissistic tendency whereby the child is unable to understand another’s point of view, although this has normally disappeared by the end of stage two. Stage 3: Concrete Operations of Cognitieve Development Stage three is the concrete operations stage of cognitive development, roughly between the ages of 8 and 10. By this stage, children are able to use logic to solve hands-on, or “concrete” problems. They have also moved on from the egocentric stage and are able to take on board viewpoints of other people, plus they are able to use reversibility to think backwards. Stage 4: Formal Operations Stage four in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is the formal operations stage between 11 and 15. By the time a child has progressed to this stage of his development, he has developed a wide range of cognitive skills and is able to solve abstract problems, understand concepts, and draw conclusions. It is during this stage that a different type of egocentric behavior develops as the ability to imagine what others are thinking often leads to a critical self awareness and concerns over identity and social issues. Thinking ability continues to develop throughout the formal operations stage of cognitive development and stage four marks the beginnings of the journey towards independence as teenagers begin to question the authority of adults and move away from their parents. Stage 5: Modifications of Operations Stage five is the modifications to operations stage of Piaget’s cognitive development chart and this relates to young adults aged 16 and older. At this point in a teenager’s development, Piaget believes operational thought is fully developed and the ages and stages of child development chart have finally been completed.
Gastroenteritis caused by a virus is very common. Viruses can be passed from one person to another, and some spread rapidly. Symptoms include diarrhoea and vomiting. Whilst there is no cure for gastroenteritis, you can help speed your recovery by: - Staying at home - Avoiding contact with others - Staying well hydrated. Dioralyte™ is an oral rehydration therapy, designed to combat dehydration caused by diarrhoea. Two common gastroenteritis viruses causing stomach bugs in the UK are: - Norovirus (also known as Winter Vomiting Bug), which affects between 600,000 and one million people in the UK each year. Find out more at www.nhs.uk/conditions/norovirus - Rotavirus (common during winter and spring), which is most common amongst children. Find out more at www.nhs.uk/conditions/rotavirus-gastroenteritis Fed up with winter tummy bugs? Read our tips on how to avoid catching and spreading them around. - About Dioralyte - About Diarrhoea - Kids and Diarrhoea - Travellers Diarrhoea - Buy Online
What’s fieldwork really like? And how do scientists decide where to go and how to search? Field Museum scientist, curator, and millipede expert Petra Sierwald describes a recent expedition. We went on a collecting trip to Vietnam hoping to find a rich diversity of millipedes, centipedes, and arachnids. Most organism groups have their greatest species diversity in the tropics. But the tropical regions of our planet are also the most poorly known. While mammals and birds are a bit better known, expeditions in tropical regions often yield specimens that belong to undescribed species—ones we didn’t even know existed. For my purposes, targeting millipedes in particular, I traveled with fellow researchers to the pristine forests of northern Vietnam. This area is especially rich in millipede species of the order Polydesmida, which produce cyanide to scare away potential predators. But where do you start looking for these small creatures? Knowing something about the biology and life habits of these arthropods, we can use a variety of methods to catch them: most millipedes live among their food, which is decomposing leaf litter. So, we rake through leaf litter on the forest floor. Some millipedes consume rotting wood, so turning logs and breaking rotten logs apart often yields specimens. Catching centipedes requires speed—since they’re predators, they move swiftly, often hiding under logs and rocks. Many arachnids also live in leaf litter, and as predators, they’ll typically move swiftly as well. Since a lot of spider species hunt in the vegetation, we use sweep nets and beating sheets to shake them from the branches. The overarching goal of doing fieldwork like this is to better understand our planet’s biodiversity—meaning, to discover which species live where on Earth. Every species evolved special adaptations to its environment in order to make a living, by securing and using resources in its habitat. Such resource use provides ecosystem services: the organism’s activities contribute to the overall balance of the habitat’s community of plants, animals, and microbes. For example, millipedes chew down the leaf litter and support the nutrient cycling in forest soils. By digging deep into the soil during droughts and cold temperatures, millipedes create tunnels for air and water to percolate through the soil. We examine the characters of as many different species in a group we can find. Using these features, which include molecular, morphological, behavioral and other characters, we assemble a “tree of life.” This shows us which species are related to each other and how their characters changed through evolutionary time. The sheer number of different arthropod species—over one million described species and many more to be discovered!—is one of the most astounding phenomena of life on our planet. Each species is different, with slightly different lifestyles and adaptations to some particular resources in the habitat. Sure, arthropod specimens are small, but what they lack in body size, they make up for in abundance. Video produced by Greg Mercer and Laurel Tilton.
This photograph shows many contrails in the sky near Sutherland, NE (November 2004). Click on image for full size Courtesy of Susan Gallagher The white streaks you see coming off high-flying jet airplanes are called contrails, which is short for condensation trail. Contrails are clouds that form when water vapor condenses and freezes around small particles (aerosols) that exist in aircraft exhaust. The water vapor comes from the air around the plane and the exhaust of the aircraft. Some contrails evaporate quickly while others stay in the sky for a long time after the airplane is gone. These contrails can become human-made cirrus clouds. Contrails last longer when there is a greater amount of water in the air; they last until the water in the clouds evaporates. There are three types of contrails: short-lived, persistent non-spreading, and persistent spreading. The study of contrails addresses important scientific questions, as they are clouds whose formation is a direct result of human activities. A change in the amount of high-level cloudiness resulting from contrails may impact our climate. Contrails can be seen over virtually all parts of the world as white streaks across the sky. This image shows widespread contrails over the southeastern United States. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!Cool It! is the new card game from the Union of Concerned Scientists that teaches kids about the choices we have when it comes to climate change—and how policy and technology decisions made today will matter. Cool It! is available in our online store You might also be interested in: One process which transfers water from the ground back to the atmosphere is evaporation. Evaporation is when water passes from a liquid phase to a gas phase. Rates of evaporation of water depend on factors...more Cirrus (weather symbol - Ci) clouds are the most common of the High Cloud (5000-13000m) group. They are composed entirely of ice and consist of long, thin, wispy streamers. They are commonly known as...more As turboprop and jet aircraft climb or descend under certain atmospheric conditions, they can inadvertently "seed" mid-level clouds, causing narrow bands of snow or rain to develop and fall to...more Altocumulus clouds (weather symbol - Ac), are made primarily of liquid water and have a thickness of 1 km. They are part of the Middle Cloud group (2000-7000m up). They are grayish-white with one part...more Altostratus clouds (weather symbol - As) consist of water and some ice crystals. They belong to the Middle Cloud group (2000-7000m up). An altostratus cloud usually covers the whole sky and has a gray...more Cirrocumulus clouds (weather symbol - Cc) are composed primarily of ice crystals and belong to the High Cloud group (5000-13000m). They are small rounded puffs that usually appear in long rows. Cirrocumulus...more Cirrostratus (weather symbol - Cs) clouds consist almost entirely of ice crystals and belong to the High Cloud (5000-13000m) group. They are sheetlike thin clouds that usually cover the entire sky. The...more
The Canadian horse was first introduced to New France in 1663. The first load of twelve horses was sent via ship by King Louis XIV. There is no record of the breed or region of France from hence they came; some writings mentioned the Royal Stud Farm, and it is believed that most of the horses came from similar ancestries as the Belgian, Percheron, Breton and Dales Pony. What is known for certain is that shipments arrived on a regular basis. (Check out this unique research that Texas A&M University completed in 2014 – The Legend of the Canadian Horse ~ Genetic Diversity and Breed Origin) The first ones were given to religious orders and to gentlemen who had an avid interest in agriculture (although they remained the property of the king for three years). A notarized contract obliged the new owners to breed the animals, maintain them, and return a foal after three years to the Attendant. This foal was then entrusted to someone else who was then bound by the same conditions of care and reproduction. In case of breach of contract, there were provisions for fines of one hundred pounds. This much regimented breeding system allowed for their rapid development in the French colony. The horses thrived despite low comfort, hard work, bad roads, and eventually developed the nicknames “the little iron horse” and “the horse of steel”. From 1665 to 1793, the horse population in New France grew from 12 animals to 14,000 animals. To the end of the French regime in 1760, the horses sent from France are the only ones to be developed in the colony. Contact with the English to the South was forbidden because England and France were at war. The topography of the Appalachian Mountains was also a formidable obstacle to outside communication. At that time there were no roads and the only means of long distance travel was by foot or by canoe. For almost one hundred years, these horses multiplied in a closed environment without the benefit of other blood lines. Their common source, lack of cross breeding, and their rapid reproduction created a particular genetic group giving rise to a unique breed: the Canadian horse. During the 19th century, breeders bred different types of Canadian crosses such as the Canadian Pacer, an amalgamation with the Narragansett Pacer, the “Frencher”, a Thoroughbred cross with hotter blood used as saddle horses or roadsters, and the “St. Lawrence”, a much heavier draft type, in order to meet a variety of needs. Later, thousands of horses were exported to the United States for both the Civil War and also to use as breeding stock to create roadsters leading to new breeds such as the Saddlebred, Standardbred, Missouri Fox Trotter, and the Morgan. These mass exports lead to a huge drop in the breed population in Canada in the 1870s, and the stud book was opened in 1886 to preserve the breed and prevent possible extinction. In 1895, veterinarian Dr. J.A. Couture set breeding standards for the Canadian Horse and founded the Canadian Horse Breeders Association which still operates today. In 1913, the Canadian government began a breeding center in Cap Rouge, Quebec. In 1919, this facility was outgrown so the breeding program was transferred to St. Joachim, Quebec, where it was operated jointly by the Canadian and Quebec governments. In 1940, World War II brought an end to the federal breeding program at St. Joachim. At that time, the Quebec government purchased several of the horses and created their own provincial breeding program at Deschambault. In the 1960s, they worked to breed a taller, more refined horse, which would be suitable for English disciplines. During this time, other private breeders worked to preserve the original type, the Henryville line being an example of this. Eventually the Deschambault herd was sold at auction in 1981. The breed was in danger of disappearing for a second time, with less than 400 horses in the breed register, and fewer than 50 new registrations being recorded per year. However, dedicated breeders rescued the Canadian Horse. New registrations were around 50 per year in 1980 and rose to over 500 new registrations per year in 1999–2000. Since 2000, the new registrations are stable at 450-500 per year. There are now more than 6,000 horses registered. Today, Canadian Horses can be found in just about every discipline. Be it English, Western, or Driven; Competition, Leisure, or Working; there is a Canadian Horse for everyone. In addition to the Beaver, the Canadian Horse is commonly seen as an animal symbol representing Canada, especially in connection with images of the Mounties. On April 30, 2002, a bill was passed into law by the Canadian Government making the Canadian Horse an official symbol of Canada. As the Canadian Horse is also “closely associated with the historical origins and the agricultural traditions of Québec”, a similar law was passed by the provincial legislature in November 2010, recognizing the breed as a “heritage breed of Quebec”. Why Canadian? Because in 1867, the year of Canada’s confederation, the generic term ‘Canadien’ solely referred to French speaking. At that time, it was natural for the horse, being originally from France and having started its spread through the French colonial area of the St. Lawrence Valley, to be named ‘Canadian’. Have a read through this unique treasure, shared by Ilene Christensen. This manuscript, was a book of her father’s written back, long ago in 1861. Have a read through and enjoy the unique style of writing and language this author wrote in to describe the Canadian Horse so long ago! (Click on Page to Read) Page 1 Page 2 Page 3 Page 4 Page 5 The scale of points for Canadian horses is divided into eight parts or groups, seven of which correspond to the horse’s chief anatomical regions : the head ; the neck and shoulders; the body; the fore-quarter, the hind-quarter; the lower parts of the legs (with the exception of the foot); the foot. The eighth group consists of what is more specially considered by horsemen as the exterior: -the skin, weight, action, height. Finally the nervous system and general appearance are noted. The greatest number of points (20) is allotted to the body. The body (chest, back loins, belly) is by far the most important region of the horse. It contains the chief organs of the circulation of the blood, those of respiration, digestion, nutrition, etc. If those organs have plenty of room, if they are well supported, they work perfectly and this condition is accompanied, by health, strength, vigour and endurance. Moreover the other parts will be in harmony with the body both as regards their development and their fitness. On the contrary, if the body is defective the remainder of the animal will be more or less so. The quarters occupy the second place from the standpoint of the importance of the regions. We have allotted them 13 and 14 points respectively. The fore-foot comes thirdly.” No foot, No horse,” Nothing can be truer. We have allotted 10 points for this. Then comes the lower part of the legs and the hind foot to each of which 5 points are allotted. The other portions of the body are, comparatively, accessory. The practical application of the scale is made easy by the fact that the points allotted to a region are distributed among the various parts constituting such regions. The only exception is in the case of the head. Registered Name of a Canadians Horse What’s in a name? You can tell a lot about a Canadian Horse just from its name. Each name contains three parts which must be included in the following order – the herd name, the sire’s name and the horse’s given name. The Herd Name Canadian Horse breeders register a herd name with the Canadian Horse Breeders Association to use when naming all foals born to mares they own or lease. This herd name must be unique as it identifies your breeding program from all other breeders of Canadian horses. This herd name may be your farm name, your last name or any unique name that has not already been registered. This name can also be a compound name. The same herd name in two horse’s name does not necessarily mean that both horses are related to each other, for example: “Maple Lane Thomy Ellie” and “Maple Lane Duc Athena” are not related at all, but “Maple Lane” (herd name) means that both mares were owned or leased by the same individual/farm at the time they were bred. The Common Sire’s Name The sire’s name is the second portion of the horse’s full registered name. For example: “Maple Lane Rebel Windsor” and “Maple Lane Rebel Sally” were both sired by the same stallion “Maple Lane Duc Rebel”. The Horse’s Given Name The horses’ given name forms the last part of its full registered name. For example: “Maple Lane Thunder Legacy” where “Legacy” is the given name. Assignment of Letters A different letter of the alphabet is assigned to each year and foal’s name must start with the assigned letter of the year the foal is born. For example, the letter ‘S’ was assigned for 2006, the letter ‘T’ for 2007 and the letter ‘U’ for 2008. The next letter in the alphabet is used the following year. There are some letters that are not assigned, they are: I, O, Q and V. These unassigned letters were thought to cause confusion with other existing alphabetical letters when tattooing a horse. Tattooing is no longer used and has been replaced with microchip technology. This naming procedure has been enforced in recent years, but that has not always been the case. Many older horses do not have names beginning with the letter assigned to the year of their birth. Conditions and Restrictions At the time of registration the herd name must be the one of the owner or leaser of the mare at the time the breeding took place. All stallions’ given name must be unique. This is to ensure that when looking at a horses name there will be no confusion on who sired the horse in question. Multiple geldings and /or mares can have the same given name as long as the combination of herd name and stallion name is different for every identical given name. This is possible as their names are not used in future genealogical reference to any offspring. Once the year letter comes around again and an owner wishes to register a stallion with a given name that has already been used, said name must be followed by a 2nd, 3rd, etc… The subject must be: for a stallion, the only one registered with said name and for a mare or gelding, the only one registered with said complete name. There is also a length limitation for the full registered name of a horse. It cannot exceed 30 characters including spaces. Care must be taken not to choose too lengthy a herd or stallion name given the 30 character limit which includes the allotted number of available characters for the new given name of a foal. Future Letter Assignments Ranch Work, Mounted Patrol, Logging, Carriage Driving, Combined Driving, Wagon Rides, Western or English Pleasure, Jumping, Eventing, Barrel Racing ….. There’s a Canadian for Everyone!
Lipids are one of the major constituents of foods, and are important in our diet for a number of reasons. They are a major source of energy and provide essential lipid nutrients. Nevertheless, over-consumption of certain lipid components can be detrimental to our health, e.g. cholesterol and saturated fats. In many foods the lipid component plays a major role in determining the overall physical characteristics, such as flavor, texture, mouth feel and appearance. For this reason, it is difficult to develop low-fat alternatives of many foods, because once the fat is removed some of the most important physical characteristics are lost. Finally, many fats are prone to lipid oxidation, which leads to the formation of off-flavors and potentially harmful products. Here I am giving the detailed practical observation and Download the Practical Protocol here (it is completely Free). Before downloading see the snap shot images of the protocols. Download this “Color reactions of Lipids” Practical General Procedure in PDF format. In this document we have designed with general procedure and Observation sheets for students. See the given images to understand about the document. (which is attached below) Qualitative Analysis : Color Reactions of Lipids The test is based on the property of solubility of lipids in organic solvents and insolubility in water. PRINCIPLE: The oil will float on water because of lesser specific gravity. TEST: Take 3ml of solvents in each test tube and add 5 drops of sample. For water and ethanol, it is insoluble and for chloroform and ether, it is soluble and hence the given sample is lipid. TRANSPARENCY TEST: All the lipids are greasy in nature. Therefore the test may be taken as group test for lipids. PRINCIPLE: The oil does not wet the paper. TEST: Take 3ml of ether in a test tube and dissolve 5 drops of oil in tit. Put a drop of the solution on the filter paper and let it dry. A translucent spot on the filter paper was observed and this indicates the greasy character of the lipid. EMULSIFICATION TEST: When oil and water, which are immiscible, are shaken together, the oil is broken up into very tiny droplets which are dispersed in water. This is known as oil in water emulsion. The water molecule due to the high surface tensions has a tendency to come together and form a separate layer. This is why the oil and water emulsion is unstable in the presence of substances that lower the surface tension of water. Eg: Sodium carbonate, soap, bile salts etc. The tendency of the water molecule to coalesce is decreased and the emulsion becomes stable. Since bile salts cause the greatest decrease in surface tension they are best emulsifying agents. TEST: Take 3ml of water and add 5 drops of sample. In another test tube 10ml of water is added to ethanolic solution of lipid contents and are mixed and two layers of are observed and this confirms the presence of lipids. TEST FOR UNSATURATION: The unsaturated fatty acids absorb iodine at the double bonds until all the double bonds are saturated with iodine. Hence the amount of iodine required to impart its color to the solution is a measure of the degree of the fatty acids. TEST: Take 1ml of of chloroform and add a methanol and one drop of oil. to this add 1drop of iodine. Chloroform dissolve sample give red color which decolorizes the iodine giving brown color. This indicates the presence of fatty acids Video Tutorial on Physical and Chemical Properties of Fats and Oils
The Middle Ages were long centuries of stability in the intellectual world. All scientific and philosophical expression was monitored extensively by, and most often produced from within, the Church. During the Middle Ages, the Church ruled conclusively on a number of truths about the natural world, which it claimed were undeniable. These alleged truths were produced by Biblical study and the widely accepted Aristotelian system, which became official Church doctrine. The Aristotelian system defined the laws of physics erroneously in many cases. It claimed that the rate of fall of an object was determined by its weight, held that matter was constructed out of four possible elements, with different matter containing different combinations of these four, and described the universe as the Greek astronomer Ptolemy had described it, as a static and finite thing in which the Earth occupied the central position, with the sun and planets in revolution and the distant stars inhabiting its farthest edges. The physicians of the period considered that the human body contained four different kinds of liquid and that illness was caused by the imbalance of these 'humors.' These truths went generally unquestioned for years, backed up by the teachings of the Church and the common teaching of the educational institutions of the era. With the rise of the Renaissance, new interest sparked in reference to the physical world. In part boosted by the spirit of geographical exploration, which dominated Europe and provided many new specimens for study and experimentation, the artists and thinkers of the Renaissance were infused with the desire to know and portray reality, prompting a dramatic rise in scientific exploration. Botany and biology flourished, as artists sought to better understand their subjects. This focus on the investigation of reality naturally began to create questions regarding the accepted Aristotelian norms. However, learning institutions continued to preach the Aristotelian system and the Church reinforced the dependence on past authority, thus, to an extent, drowning out the spirit of inquiry and doubt. The Protestant Reformation, begun by Martin Luther in 1517, radically transformed the theological and political landscape of Europe. Many Europeans began to question the authority of the Church. Indeed, a large faction broke away from the Church, in doing so breaking free from the restriction of intellectual progress. The fierce censorship of the Church's response to the Reformation, the Counter- Reformation, further pushed people from the Catholic fold and appeared to many as foolishly protective of it's outdated doctrines. In this atmosphere the Scientific Revolution blossomed, and the Aristotelian system fell. By breaking the hold of the Aristotelian system, the Scientific Revolution opened the door to modern science. Much of the work done during the latter sixteenth and seventeenth century is still considered the foundation of the major fields of modern science, including physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy. The Scientific Revolution left the world with a more logical description of physics, in which the laws of motion and gravity were well understood, setting the stage for many future breakthroughs and inventions. In the field of biology, where much had been left to mysticism until the seventeenth century, thinkers of the Scientific Revolution made great strides, pushing understanding of the human body to unprecedented heights. Out of this knowledge sprung the advancement of prevention and treatment for illness, a field that grew markedly after the Scientific Revolution. Perhaps the largest advance of the Scientific Revolution occurred in astronomy. Fueled by better understanding of physics and math (Isaac Newton's explanation of the motions of heavenly bodies relied heavily on his development of the mathematical field of calculus), astronomers unlocked the door to the universe. Born out of the Scientific Revolution was the Enlightenment, which applied the scientific method developed during the seventeenth century to human behavior and society during the eighteenth century. The Scientific Revolution influenced the development of the Enlightenment values of individualism because it demonstrated the power of the human mind. The ability of scientists to come to their own conclusions rather than deferring to instilled authority confirmed the capabilities and worth of the individual. The power of human beings to discern truth through reasoning influenced the development of the Enlightenment value of rationalism. Such influences, combined with the decreasing reliance on the traditional teachings of the Church, led to a period of philosophical activity unparalleled in modern times. Take a Study Break!
We are seeing more and more stories about floods recently. There are two contributing causes of floods. Storms cause floods, and the floods are made worse because of rising sea levels. Most scientists agree that the increase in storms we are experiencing is due to changing weather patterns, and that these changing weather patterns are caused by global warming. The rising sea levels are primarily the result of melting ice. There is a lot of ice on land surfaces. Some of it is in glaciers, and some of it is in ice caps on land. The ice caps are where the largest amount of ice that can melt into the oceans is located. This ice is slowly melting. This is causing some of the sea level rise. If all of the ice that is now frozen in ice caps on land were to melt, that would result in a sea level rise of about 200 feet. We do not expect this to happen, but a lot of ice has already melted. We can see the results of that in more frequent floods in areas near the seas. For example, in the city of Miami Beach, Florida, high tides regularly flood roads near the shore. More alarmingly, ocean fish often come out of the storm drains onto the road. The Warming of Oceans Another cause of rising sea levels is that the oceans are getting warmer. Warmer water expands, and that is part of the reason for sea level rise. The warmer water also results in more storms such as hurricanes. The water vapor evaporated from warm water is actually what supplies the energy for hurricanes and some other storms. The main reason that global warming is happening is because of greenhouse gasses in our atmosphere. The main greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide. As you can see from this graph, the level of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere is rapidly increasing. When we burn fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, carbon is released in the form of carbon dioxide into the air. Carbon dioxide prevents heat in the Earth’s atmosphere from escaping into space. Most scientists think that this causes global warming, but not all people agree. However, even if the cause is not clear, the fact is that the world is getting warmer, and the sea levels are rising. So what can we do to protect our shore cities and other environments near the oceans? Can we protect our shores? There are some examples of how people have built structures that protect them from high water levels. For example, much of the country of Netherlands is actually below sea level and the water is kept off the land by an elaborate system of dykes and massive pumps to control the water. This has worked so far, but the sea level continues to rise. There may come a time when a storm surge causes the dikes to fail. The, the country could be flooded and suffer major destruction. Other places have installed protective devices to control rising water. For example, London, England, has installed a tide barrier to keep the water in the Thames River from rising too high during high tides. All of these things provide some protection, but if the sea levels continue to rise, there will be large areas that will be flooded. It will not be possible to protect the many miles of low lying land that are near the oceans. Many of our largest cities are close to sea level, and large parts of them will be flooded. Since many people like to live close to the shore, when there is a storm that results in a large tidal surge, they will experience a lot of flooding and damage. We have already experienced the damage from more than one major hurricane. If there are many damaging storms, people will need to move to higher ground and not continue living near the current sea level. Of course, not all people agree with the scientists. However, if the scientists are correct, we must try to limit the increase in the carbon dioxide level by not burning as many fossil fuels. In order to avoid large increases in carbon dioxide, we will want to use renewable, green energy that will not change the carbon levels. We cannot reverse the damage already done, but we can try to prevent more damage from occurring. There are books and magazine articles in both Readorium Rising Reader and in Readorium Scholar that help students understand this complex issue.
Referencing is the process of acknowledging historians, writers or sources you have relied on for information and evidence. References are integrated into your own writing, either within the text, as footnotes (at the bottom of the page) or as endnotes (at the very end of your piece). Referencing is used by academics and students across many subjects and disciplines, not only history. In most college or university courses referencing is a compulsory requirement; work that is submitted without referencing is either marked down, failed or not assessed. It is therefore essential for students to learn how to reference and to begin incorporating referencing into their own writing. Why is referencing so important? There are several reasons but here are three of the most pressing: Before referencing your own work, the first step is to know which form of referencing to use. There are several different methods of referencing in common use. Most schools, colleges and faculties specify a preferred method; you can find this out by checking your course handbook or asking your teacher or assessor. Two of the most common referencing systems are named for prominent universities: Oxford (UK) and Harvard (US). The Oxford method is also known as ‘documentary note referencing’ or simply ‘footnoting’. The main feature of Oxford referencing is its use of footnotes at the bottom of each page. Where a section of your text uses quotes, ideas or information from another source, a small superscript number (like this1) is added at the tail of the phrase, sentence or paragraph. If you have used more than one source then multiple superscript numbers can be used (like this1,2). Each of these superscript numbers refers to a numbered citation at the bottom of the page, for example: 1. Jones, S., Oxford Referencing for Beginners, Academic Books: London, 2002, p.12. 2. Smith, W., Referencing the Easy Way, Columbia Books: New York, 2007, p.33. Most high end word processing programs, like Microsoft Word and Pages, contain automatic features for Oxford footnoting. They allow you to insert footnotes without having to reorganise or reformat your page. Check the ‘Help’ feature of your software for information on how to do this. When adding footnotes, be aware that the Oxford system requires them to be organised and formatted in a certain way. The following links contain examples of Oxford footnoting for particular types of source: e.g. Brown, Alexander, The History of Nazi Germany. London: Brown Books, 1975, p.94. Books with two or more authors can be referenced by listing all authors. If this is too long or unwieldy you can list the first or lead author, followed by the Latin abbreviation et al (“and others”). First author surname and first name, et al, Title of Book [italicised]. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year, Page number. e.g. Brown, Alexander et al. The Complete History of Nazi Germany. London: Brown Books, 1975, p.211. Some books, such as sourcebooks or compilations, have an editor rather than an author. In this case, reference using: Editor surname and first name (ed.) Title of Book [italicised]. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year, Page number. e.g. “Brown, Alexander (ed.) The Encylopedia of Nazi Germany. London: Brown Books, 1976, p.60. e.g. Brown, Alexander, “Hitler’s rise to power” in German History Monthly, vol. 9. no. 3, June 1977, p.544. e.g. “American Revolution” in Encyclopedia Britannica. 42nd edition. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1991. vol. 1, p.98. e.g. R. Smith, “Adolf Hitler appointed Chancellor”, New York Gazette, January 31st 1933, p.4. Where the writer is not named, use as above but omit the author: “Article headline”, Name of Newspaper, Date of publication, Page number. e.g. “War declared”, San Diego Tribune, December 8th 1941, p.1. e.g. “The Fall of the Bastille”, http://www.frenchrevolutionfacts.org, 2013 (accessed March 3rd 2014). For a website where the author is known, use the above method but precede with the author’s (or authors’) details: Author name(s), “Page name or title” [in quotation marks] at Website name [italicised], URL Address, Year of publication [if known], accessed [date of last access]. e.g. J. Llewellyn and S. Thompson, “History referencing” at Alpha History, http://alphahistory.com/history-referencing/, 2014, accessed October 1st 2014. Using ibid, op. cit. and loc. cit. Ibid., op. cit. and loc. cit. are three Latin abbreviations that often appear in Oxford referencing. They allow you to refer to the same source multiple times, without needing a full citation for each reference. This can be invaluable when writing a piece that focuses intently on one source, such as a book review. Just be careful that you understand the meaning of each abbreviation, as they can be confusing and are often incorrectly used. 1. Brown, Alexander, The History of Nazi Germany. London: Brown Books, 1975, p.94. 3. Ibid. p.156. In this case, both the first and second citations refer to page 94 of Brown’s book, while the third citation refers to page 156 of Brown’s book. 1. Brown, Alexander, The History of Nazi Germany. London: Brown Books, 1975, p.22. 2. White, John, Nazi Germany in Focus. New York: Imprint Books, 1992, p.104. 3. Brown, op. cit., p.81. In this case, the first citation refers to page 22 of Brown’s book, while the third citation refers to page 81 of the same book. 1. Brown, Alexander, The History of Nazi Germany. London: Brown Books, 1975, p.103. 2. Loc. cit. 3. White, John, Nazi Germany in Focus. New York: Imprint Books, 1992, p.221. 4. Brown, loc. cit. In this case, the first, second and fourth citations all refer to page 103 of Brown’s book. The Harvard method of referencing uses in-text citations rather than superscript numbering. In the Harvard system, references are added in parentheses within the text, immediately after the relevant statement or quotation. Harvard references are usually very brief, listing just the author’s surname and the date of publication. A page number is sometimes added, when referring to a specific quote or piece of information. If the author’s surname is already mentioned within your writing, it does not need to be included within the parentheses. Full citations for each reference are then added to a reference list, at the end of the text. This paragraph contains three examples of how Harvard quotations can be used (note: they are dummy references and do not refer to actual sources): Historians disagree about the level of authority Hitler wielded within both party and state. Some suggest Hitler’s image as a totalitarian mastermind was the work of a propaganda campaign dating back to the early 1920s (Smith, 2002). According to Brown (2007), Hitler’s inability to rein in the SA was evidence of his limited authority within the NSDAP. One historian describes the Nazi leader’s power as “much more public myth than party reality” (White, 1995, p.188). As you can see, the Harvard method is quite flexible. It can be used for referencing a historian’s argument or summary, paraphrased information or a direct quotation. Harvard referencing should always conclude with a reference list, containing full citations for all sources referenced in your work. In a Harvard reference list the citations are listed alphabetically, not in the order they appear in your writing. Harvard citations should use a similar format to Oxford citations (see above). This page was written by Jennifer Llewellyn and Steve Thompson. To reference this page, use the following citation: J. Llewellyn and S. Thompson, “History referencing” at Alpha History, http://alphahistory.com/history-referencing/, 2014, accessed [date of last access].
Linear Equation vs Quadratic Equation In mathematics, algebraic equations are equations which are formed using polynomials. When explicitly written the equations will be of the form P(x) = 0, where x is a vector of n unknown variables and P is a polynomial. For example, P(x,y) = x4 + y3 + x2y + 5=0 is an algebraic equation of two variables written explicitly. Also, (x+y)3=3x2y – 3zy4 is an algebraic equation, but in implicit form. It will take the form Q(x,y,z) = x3 + y3 + 3xy2+3zy4= 0, once written explicitly. An important characteristic of an algebraic equation is its degree. It is defined to be the highest power of the terms occurring in the equation. If a term consists of two or more variables, the sum of the exponents of each variable will be taken to be the power of the term. Observe that according to this definition P(x,y) = 0 is of degree 4 while Q(x,y,z) = 0 is of degree 5. Linear equations and quadratic equations are two different types of algebraic equations. The degree of the equation is the factor that differentiates them from the rest of the algebraic equations. What is a linear equation? A linear equation is an algebraic equation of degree 1. For example, 4x + 5 = 0 is a linear equation of one variable. x + y + 5z = 0 and 4x = 3w + 5y + 7z are linear equations of 3 and 4 variables respectively. In general, a linear equation of n variables will take the form m1x1 +m2x2 +…+ mn-1xn-1 + mnxn = b. Here, xi’s are the unknown variables, mi’s and b are real numbers where each of mi is non-zero. Such an equation represents a hyper plane in the n-dimensional Euclidean space. In particular, a two variable linear equation represents a straight line in Cartesian plane and a three variable linear equation represents a plane on Euclidean 3-space. What is a quadratic equation? A quadratic equation is an algebraic equation of the second degree. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0 is a single variable quadratic equation. x2 + y2 + 3x= 4 and 4x2 + y2 + 2z2 + x + y + z = 4 are examples of quadratic equations of 2 and 3 variables respectively. In the single variable case, the general form of a quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0. Where a, b, c are real numbers out of which ‘a’ is non-zero. The discriminant ∆ = (b2 – 4ac) determines the nature of the roots of the quadratic equation. The roots of the equation will be real distinct, real similar and complex according as ∆ is positive, zero and negative. The roots of the equation can be easily found using the formula x = (- b ± √∆ ) / 2a. In the two variable case, the general form would be ax2 + by2 + cxy + dx + ex + f = 0, and this represents a conic (parabola, hyperbola or ellipse) in Cartesian plane. In higher dimensions, this type of equations represents hyper-surfaces known as quadrics. What is the difference between linear and quadratic equations? • A linear equation is an algebraic equation of degree 1, whereas a quadratic equation is an algebraic equation of degree 2. • In the n-dimensional Euclidean space, the solution space of an n-variable linear equation is a hyper plane while that of an n-variable quadratic equation is a quadric surface.
Scientists from the University of Manchester have discovered a material which combines graphene, a one-atom thick layer of graphite, with the transition metal dichalcogenides. Something straight out of a science fiction film is fastly becoming an exciting reality as scientists from the University of Manchester have discovered a material which combines graphene, a one-atom thick layer of graphite, with the transition metal dichalcogenides. The material is thin and flexible, and it can absorb sunlight to produce electricity at the same rates of existing solar panels. This could be potentially used to coat the outside of buildings to generate power required to run appliances inside. The material is composed of transition metal dichalcogenides layers sandwiched between the two outer layers of graphene. The graphene acts as an extremely efficient conductive layer, and the TMDC acts as a very sensitive light absorber. Researchers have found that the 'light absorption characteristic' of the material can be increased when the graphene layer is sprinkled with gold particles. The material has a quantum efficiency of 30%. Researchers believe that entire buildings could be powered by coating their exposed surfaces with the panels. Further, the energy produced by the panels could be used to alter the transparency and reflectivity of windows and fixtures. This type of graphene material could be used to form on the outside of the buildings to generate power required to run the appliances inside. It is flexible and easy to use. Not only can graphene paint be used to power objects, the material will also be able to chaneg color. Researchers also believe that the graphene base substance has the ability to create a new generation of hand-held devices such as smartphones that can be powered using sunlight. These devices can be made ultra-thin, transparent and flexible. Research suggests that there can be a high level of optimism regarding the development of graphene in the near future. They hope that the material can be used for a wide range of industrial and day-to-day applications, providing potential technological breakthroughs in the areas, right from electronics to telecommunications and energy generation. Via Dr. Stefan Gruenwald
The History of Submarines 332 BC Aristotle described a type of submersible chamber used by the sailors of Alexander the Great during the Blockade of Tiros. 200 BC There is evidence that there was a primitive submarine in China that was able to move by the bottom of the sea. 1578 AD Much later in time, the first actual design for a submarine was presented by William Borne. In this design was the concept of ballast tanks (I will go into more depth on these later) used to submerge and surface. This design, however, was never actually built. 1620 AD A Dutchman, named Cornelis Drebel, built the first successful submarine with a wooden frame that was encased in leather. This craft was able to carry 12 rowers and eight additional people, totaling the people in the craft to 20. This vessel was capable of diving to depths of 20 meters and could travel 10 kilometers at a time. This submarine was tested in the Thames River, and would often remain submerged for hours. This submarine was the first to address the problem of oxygen shortage. 1775 AD David Bushnell, an engineering student at Yale, invented the “Turtle”. This egg shaped submarine was driven by two, hand-cranked screw propellers; one controlling forward movement, and the other for side-to-side motion. This submarine only held one person, and was intended to be used in warfare. This craft was equipped with a detailed system of valves, air vents, ballast pumps, lead weights to keep upright, and a mine that was to be attached to enemy’s ships with a detachable screw. This was the first combat submarine and on September 6, 1776 it was put to test against a British flagship, HMS Eagle in New York Harbor. When the “Turtle” attempted to attach the mine to the ship, it was deflected by the copper sheathing on the ship. 1798 AD Robert Fulton used the same concepts exercised in the design of the “Turtle” to build his own submarine, the “Nautilis”. It used two forms for power for movement, diving planes, shape, armament, and air replenishment. There was a sail to use while on the surface, and a hand-cranked propeller to use while submerged. This craft was streamline to increase agility and featured diving planes to control the angle of descent. It was 24 feet long and carried a crew of four. It had one weapon, called the torpedo; which at the time, existed as a box of dynamite. It is unclear how long this vessel could stay submerged (somewhere around 12 hours). The “Nautilis” was the first submarine to experiment with compressed oxygen. 1850 AD Germans constructed a submarine called the “Sea Devil”. This craft made over a hundred diving’s and held a crew of 14. 1864 AD Overlooked during the civil war is the fact that the first successful use of a submarine in battle was executed during this time. The confederates built four submarines, the Hunley being the most famous for its adventure. This Submarine rammed into USS Housatonic in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. A torpedo on the Hunley exploded, consequently sinking both vessels. After the war was over, two men began to work with submarines. Simon Lake came up with the idea of submersing and surfacing using buoyancy, which is used in today’s submarines. John Philip Holland worked on developing adequate means of propulsion. Both of these men also worked with compressed air, steam, and electricity as means of power in the submarine. 1870 AD A man by the name of Whittehead contributed to the rapid success of submarines in major country’s navy’s, when he invented the first automobiled torpedo, giving submarines a lethal weapon. 1886 AD The naval country of Greece acquired a submarine built by the Swiss. The “Nordenfelt” was steam powered and could travel as fast as nine knots. This craft measured 33 meters in length and weighed 160 tons. The submarine was equipped a torpedo and was not retired from use until 1901. 1898 AD The United States Navy’s first submarine, the USS Holland, built by J.P. Holland, was launched. This craft was 53 feet long and weighed 75 tons. The USS Holland used a gas-powered engine while on the surface and an electric motor once submerged. United States was involved in World War I, partly due to the German’s unruly use of submarines. They would use their vessels to sink any allied ships, including passenger and merchant ships. The use of a periscope and self-propelled torpedoes allowed submarines to play a major role in In between wars, submarines were improved, and given a thicker hull, allowing them to increase depths by 100 feet. There was 122 submarines of this class built. 1943 AD During World War II, the German Navy invented a snorkel mast. This feature allowed the submarines to run on diesel power while slightly submerged, while recharging their batteries. The Germans were also able to come up with an alternative power source; which they found to be hydrogen peroxide. The U.S. Navy remodeled their submarines by streamlining them more, and increasing battery power, so they could run longer and faster. During this war submarines proved to play a key role in the Navy, as they were credited with sinking 50% of Japanese naval and merchant ships. 1953 AD A new submarine with a hull resembling a blimp was launched called the USS albacore. The hull design on this craft was so successful that nearly all submarines built afterward followed in its footsteps. 1954 AD The USS Nautilus was launched an was the most technologically advanced submarine of its time. It was the first nuclear powered submarine. It could travel 20 knots while submerged and remained underwater for an indefinite period of time. 1960 AD Submarines began using solid-propellant ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads in the US. These missiles were capable of reaching targets 2500 miles away when launched from a submerged submarine. 1970 AD A new class of submarines were built with 24 launching tubes for ICBMs (inter-continental ballistic missiles), each having a range of 4600 miles!
UM Researchers Study Vast Carbon Residue of Ocean Life Study advances understanding of massive ocean carbon reservoir and its impact to marine food web October 18, 2016 MIAMI—The oceans hold a vast reservoir—700 billion tons—of carbon, dissolved in seawater as organic matter, often surviving for thousands of years after being produced by ocean life. Yet, little is known about how it is produced, or how it’s being impacted by the many changes happening in the ocean. Think of dissolved organic carbon, or DOC, in the ocean as tree leaves and other dead organic matter falling to the forest ground—a portion of this natural carbon sustains life while the remainder remains hidden in the soils, being sequestered for many years. As is true in the forests, this vital, residual carbon reservoir is necessary to sustain life in the ocean, and to sequester vast amounts of carbon in its great depths. To better understand this important pool of ocean carbon, researchers at the University of Miami (UM) Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science used data collected over the past 15 years on several international scientific cruises to map the distribution of this material in the Atlantic Ocean. From the analysis, they found that this major basin contributes one third of the global ocean net production of dissolved organic carbon. “Carbon is involved in all aspects of our life,” said Dennis Hansell, UM Rosenstiel School professor of ocean sciences and coauthor of the study. “We need to understand the carbon cycle on Earth especially as we add more from the burning of fossil fuels.” Dissolved organic carbon is the primary food source at the base of the marine food chain. It is produced by phytoplankton during photosynthesis, and it is mostly consumed by microbial life. The remainder that is not consumed by microbes accumulates in the ocean. The researchers discovered that the production of dissolved organic carbon at the ocean’s surface could be accurately predicted by measuring the amount of nutrients arriving into the euphotic, or sunlit, zone. The nutrients arrive there mostly by winter mixing and upwelling, and in turn support the growth of ocean plant life. From the arrival of nutrients to the surface ocean, they estimated the resulting plant growth and the production of residue, the DOC, from that growth. From those estimates, they built a map of DOC at the surface of the entire Atlantic Ocean. “In our work, we found that the production of dissolved organic carbon depends on the quantity of nutrients that reach the euphotic zone from deeper layers,” said Cristina Romera-Castillo, a former postdoctoral researcher at the UM Rosenstiel School and lead author of the study. “In future scenarios, how climate change will affect the nutrient arrival to the surface ocean will determine the inventory of dissolved organic carbon in the ocean.” This inventory in turn affects the cycling of carbon on Earth, which has important roles in climate. The paper, titled “New nutrients exert fundamental control on dissolved organic carbon accumulation in the surface Atlantic Ocean,” was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The study’s authors include: Cristina Romera-Castillo, who conducted the work while a postdoctoral researcher at the UM Rosenstiel School, UM Rosenstiel School Professor of Ocean Sciences Dennis Hansell, and Robert T. Letscher from the University of California Irvine. The study was funded by grants from the National Science Foundation, Grant# OCE1436748 and the U.S. Department of Energy's Scientific Discovery through Advanced Computing program, Grant# DE-SC0012550 # # # About the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School
A detailed and engaging lesson presentation (41 slides) that looks at the key details of the process of gene therapy as well as some of the issues with this treatment. The lesson links the potential treatment to the disease Cystic fibrosis, so that students can envisage how it will work. Students are guided through the steps of the process and links are made to other topics, such as genetic engineering, so that students are challenged to recall the specifics of restriction enzymes. Time is taken to look at some of the issues involved with the treatment, including the problem of cells being replaced by untreated cells naturally by the body. Students will come to understand the difference between somatic gene therapy and germ-line gene therapy and be able to describe why the latter is currently not allowed in the UK. There are regular progress checks throughout the lesson so that students can assess their understanding as well as a number of competitions, to maintain engagement and motivation. This lesson has been designed for GCSE students but is challenging enough to be used with A-level students who are beginning this topic.
There are several different components of the blood that can be transfused. Red blood cells are the most common type of transfusion. If your child's health care provider has decided your child might need a transfusion of blood, or blood products, he or she will explain the reasons for the transfusion. There are several reasons why your child may require a blood transfusion, including the following: Human blood is made of a fluid called plasma that carries red and white blood cells and platelets. Each part of blood has special functions and can be separated from each other. The bone marrow is the soft, spongy material in the center of the bones that produces about 95 percent of the body's blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to other body organs and carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs. A certain number of these cells are needed for the body to function. Bleeding due to trauma, surgery, or disease may cause a low red blood cell count. White blood cells fight infections by destroying bacteria, viruses, and other germs. White blood cells are rarely transfused. They are usually reserved as a temporary measure for children who have a low white cell count and severe infection that is not responsive to antibiotic therapy. Platelets help control bleeding by making clots in the blood vessels opened by injury or surgery. The body may not be able to make enough platelets because of bone marrow disorders, increased destruction of platelets, or medications such as chemotherapy. Platelets may be transfused before a procedure that may cause a child with a low platelet count to bleed. Plasma carries the blood cells throughout the body and contains proteins, vitamins and minerals. Some of the proteins help the blood to clot. Plasma or fresh frozen plasma can be transfused in children who have a severe deficiency of certain clotting components of the blood and are expected to recover soon. The blood used at most hospitals is from volunteer donors. Donors are not paid for giving blood or blood products. Each blood donor must answer medical history questions and be given a limited physical examination before being accepted as a donor. The donated blood is carefully tested for hepatitis viruses B and C, syphilis, Chagas disease, West Nile virus, and antibodies to two immunodeficiency viruses, including HIV. These tests decrease the chances of transfusion-related infections. Blood is collected and stored in sterile bags. The bags are used once and then thrown away. Before blood is given to your child, it is typed and crossmatched with his or her own blood to make sure it is compatible. The blood will be given through a needle or catheter placed in the vein. Your child's temperature, blood pressure, and heart rate will be checked many times while the blood is being given. It may take a few hours to complete the process. A directed (or designated) blood donation is one in which a person donates blood that is reserved (at the time of donation) for the transfusion of a specific patient at a later date. The donor is usually a family member or a close friend that has been chosen by the patient's family. Consult your child's health care provider if you are interested in learning more about directed donation. It is recommended that families donate in the child's name versus directed donation, because if directed blood is not needed, it is wasted. Blood must be donated within a month of the surgery. If not used, it will be released. An autologous donation is blood collected from the patient in advance of planned surgery. There is no proof that directed donors are safer than volunteer donors. Not all directed donor blood will be compatible with the patient's blood. Most transfusions are performed without any problems. Mild side effects may include symptoms of an allergic reaction such as headache, fever, itching, or rash. This type of reaction can usually be treated with medication, should your child require additional transfusions. Serious side effects are rare and may include difficulty breathing and sudden drops in blood pressure. Transfusion reactions can occur even if the donated blood is the correct blood type. Transfusion with blood of the wrong type can be fatal, but this is unlikely to occur because all blood is checked multiple times by medical personnel. Click here to view the Online Resources of The Child Having Surgery
Materials needed for Elementary "I" 18 x 24 inch or larger paper in black, browns, grays, and white Various size pieces and scraps of paper in black, browns, grays, (Collect paper from all sorts of places--paper bags, typing paper, Small pieces of brightly colored paper (These can also be textured or patterned papers.) White, gray, black, and brown--markers, pencils, chalk, crayons School glue (or acrylic medium) with a paste brush or glue sticks (Could put a little Horace Pippin thumbnail heresee Artists LOOK AT ART (see Artists chapter) <?> Consider interior scenes created by artists such as Horace Pippin, Hollis Sigler, and Jacob Lawrence. The goal is to help students to observe, analyze, and appreciate why artists choose to represent space in various ways. Its important to note the ease with which a few diagonal lines or changes in value in the background suggest space to the human eye. Consider with students the cultural, psychological, or metaphorical implications of only depicting space by means of classic European linear perspective. Look at drawings or paintings of people by artists such as Paul Klee or Xul Solar. Consider in what ways these artworks look like the work of children. In what ways are the drawing styles different from the work of children? Conrast the words "childish" and "childlike?" What do artists hope to gain by eschewing naturalistic styles of drawing the human figure? Take some time for quiet reflection. Remember a vivid incident that happened at your elementary school. Think about the experience of being in school during that year. Some questions to spur your memory: What was it like to walk to school? What did you do when you got to school? How did you enter the building? Where did you sit? What did you wear? Who sat next to you? Where did the teacher stand or sit? Remember being praised by the teacher. Remember being criticized by the teacher. Do you remember interacting with your peers during class. During recess or lunch? After school? What kind of desk did you sit in? What did you keep inside your desk? What color was the classroom floor? Were there windows in the classroom? Could you see out of them? What decorated the walls? Was student work displayed on the walls? Was your work displayed? Where was the door? How big were you in relationship to the door? Did you ever spend time in the hall? What was your favorite classroom activity? What activity did you most dislike? Do you remember any holiday celebrations? Do you remember bringing any personal belongings into the class? Do you remember thinking about things that happened at home or in the community while you were in school? There is aMemory Worksheet file for downloading in the Process Chapter. Look at drawings by children of various ages. (Emphasis Art by Frank Wachowiak and Robert Clements has an attractive 2 page spread showing figure drawings by children of from first through eighth grade.) Make sketches of people and objects that are important parts of your story. Draw in the style you drew in at the age the events Cut out these pictures. Use scissors, x-acto knife, and rulers to cut and tear paper. Do not pre-draw. Do not use a pencil until later in the project. Begin with an 18 x 24" or larger paper in black, gray, or dark brown. Use only grays, white, black, and shades of brown papers. First put down a few large pieces to create floors and walls. Note how laying a diagonal line instantly creates the illusion of depth. Allow yourself to create conceptual (not necessarily) realistic space. For example, you may be able to see the side and top of a table at the same time. After making the basic space, add doors, windows, large pieces of One great way to shape papers for your collage is to tear them, either free hand or against a ruler to create a straight, but soft Add the characters and objects you created in your child style sketching. ADD DETAILS & CREATE TEXTURES AND PATTERNS After you have created the basic spaces and large and small shapes, you can begin adding detail to your picture with white, black, and brown markers, pencils, and chalk. The details may be small objects such as equipment, posters, plants, clocks, loudspeaker, etc. Consider adding actual or symbolically significant posters, pictures, maps, and charts to the wall. Added details should include creating the patterns and textures you associate with various surfaces. When the picture is nearing completion, you may take a small scrap of colored paper (about 4 by 6 inches) and use bits of it in places around the picture as an accent color. As you make visual art, you will often find that your memories of places, people, and events become more vivid. Jot down words to help describe your experience. Write: things you remember people saying, questions you thought or asked that were not answered, opinions you had about teachers and peers. Describe a time you got in trouble. In your judgement today was it justified or unjustified. What did you worry about? What stories do you remember reading? What did you learn? What didnt you learn? Describe something you thought was wonderful or impressive. Choose from your writing notes: sentences, phrases, and words that will enhance your drawing. Write words on your drawing. Layer over images or write in negative space. Add any information that helps to "paint a portrait" of the discursive space in your COMMUNICATE & RESPOND Post the finished artwork on the walls. Assign or let each student choose a work (not his of her own). Use the Elementary I Response Form (below) to stimulate each students consideration of his or her chosen artwork. Have students write in answer to all the questions that seem applicable. Use the thoughts stimulated by the worksheets as the basis for classroom discussion. Share the Response Forms with the artist.
What Are Fractions? Learn what fractions are and how they are related to integers. Do you frequently find yourself at restaurants with friends fumbling to figure out how to split the bill and calculate the tip? Have you ever resorted to seeking advice from your “smart” phone? Don’t worry, we all have. Heck, a whole industry of iPhone Apps has emerged to help answer these very questions. But you shouldn’t really need them. As we’ll soon find out, the key to freeing yourself from your silicon assistant and figuring these questions out by yourself is understanding how to calculate with percentages. But in order to do that, you first have to have a solid understanding of fractions. So with that in mind, today we’re kicking things off by answering the question: What are fractions? Are There Numbers Between the Integers on the Number Line? All the positive whole numbers: 1, 2, 3, and so on, their negative counterparts: -1, -2, -3, etc., and the neither positive nor negative number 0. We also talked about how to visualize adding and subtracting positive and negative integersby mentally walking step-by-step along the number line. But what would happen if you were joined on your imaginary stroll along the number line by two imaginary friends: one much taller than you, and another who’s a bit shorter? For every step you take—from zero to one, one to two, and so on—your taller friend takes a longer step and your shorter friend takes a smaller step—and they both continually fall between the integer marks. Let’s say you and your friends all walk ten steps in the positive direction, after which you stop squarely at the mark on the number line labeling the integer “10.” Your tall friend has traveled further than you and has stopped somewhere between “12” and “13,” and your shorter friend has stopped somewhere just shy of “8.” How far have your friends traveled? Are Fractions Integers? Well, sadly, there aren’t any integers that can answer this question because integers are whole numbers—like “12” and “13.” But surely there must be numbers between each of the integers—we know your friends have traveled some numerical distance. And, of course, there are numbers there. The apparently empty spaces between the integers on the number line are actually teeming with infinitely many fractional numbers—that is, numbers that have a fractional (or non whole number) part. You might know them better as fractions. Are fractions integers? No, they’re all the numbers between the integers. What are Fractions? The easiest type of fractions to understand are built by turning the integers on their heads. Every integer has what’s called a reciprocal which is obtained by dividing one by that integer. For example: the reciprocal of 1 is 1/1, the reciprocal of 2 is 1/2, the reciprocal of 3 is 1/3, and so on. You could conceivably create a list of all such fractions by walking positive integer steps along the number line and calling out the reciprocal of the integer at each position. Eventually, you’d start getting to big numbers: 1/99, 1/100, and then eventually even bigger: 1/999, 1/1000, and then even bigger, and bigger, forever. You can think of all these fractions as pieces of a pie, or portions of a mile, kilometer, lifetime, or whatever. Adopting the pieces of pie analogy, the reciprocal of the integer 1 is 1/1, which is equivalent to 1—representing one whole pie. The reciprocal of the integer 2 is 1/2 which represents one piece of a pie that is evenly divided into two—in other words one-half a pie. Similarly, the reciprocal of the integer 3 represents 1/3 of a pie, and so on. The bigger the integer we start with, the smaller the reciprocal—and therefore the smaller the fraction. For example, a slice that’s 1/3 of a pie is much bigger than a slice that’s 1/12 of a pie. And a slice that’s 1/99 of that pie would be miniscule. No matter how small a fraction is, you can always find smaller fractions by taking the reciprocal of yet larger integers! What are Common Fractions? I must admit I’d never heard the term “vulgar fraction” until I started preparing to write this article; and since quirky and vibrant terms like this are rare in math, I couldn’t help but introduce it to you. The word “vulgar” here is used as a synonym for “common,” so the term “vulgar fraction” simply refers to common fractions. But what are these common fractions? Well, common fractions are all the numbers that have an integer in their numerator (the top number) and a non-zero integer in their denominator (the bottom number). The fractions we’ve dealt with so far like 1/3 and 1/4 certainly are common, but fractions like 2/3, 3/4, and 63/72 with numbers other than 1 in their numerator are common too. Also, all the fractions we’ve talked about so far have been smaller than one, but there’s no reason fractions can’t be larger than one too. So fractions like 4/3, 7/4, and an infinite number of others are all perfectly common too. That’s all the math we have time for today. But rest assured we’ll be talking a lot more about fractions and how to interpret and work with them in upcoming articles (next week we'll cover numerators and denominators). In the meantime, here’s a problem for you to think about: Why can’t the denominator (that is, the bottom number) of a fraction be zero? Look for my explanation in the weekly “solutions” video posted each week to the videos section of the Math Dude’s Facebook page and to YouTube. Please join our growing community of social networking math fans on Twitter and Facebook, ask questions, and chat with other math enthusiasts. Check it out! You can also submit a question to me at [email protected].
This course uses the lives, ideals and achievements of Theodore, Franklin, and Eleanor Roosevelt to create the idea of a Rooseveltian century. It is about doing research, analyzing primary sources, and connecting all this information with a coherent and logical interpretation. It is an invitation to think critically and historically, and it wants to give you a glimpse of what it means to be a historian at work. We are convinced that the three Roosevelts – the 3Rs, as we will refer to them throughout this course – profoundly shaped the twentieth century. This course shows you why we think so and which paradigms, ideas, and sources we use to uphold our claim. But this course also asks you to give your opinion, and ground it on your own research findings. The structure of the course is straightforward: - An introductory module gives you the biographical information you need to connect the personal stories of the 3Rs with the major events of the twentieth century; - Module 2 explains how the 3Rs reframed our thinking on security, broadening its meaning and reconfiguring the government’s role in providing it; - Module 3, focusing on equality, shows how the 3Rs changed the relationship between leaders and led, rejected laissez-faire economics, and supported a politics of intervention to overcome the inequalities that undermined social cohesion; - Module 4 describes how the 3Rs promoted and protected the freedom of ordinary citizens, and communicated that as one of their central political goals; - Module 5 summarizes the long-lasting legacies of the 3Rs, and asks for your opinion on the Rooseveltian century. Do you agree with this interpretation of our recent past – and our possible futures? The five modules contain quizzes to test your knowledge and understanding, discussion prompts to stimulate your creativity, and research guidance and assignments to sharpen up your historical skills. We hope you will enjoy this intellectual journey!
If you’ve ever had a fear of dinosaurs, you’ve probably wondered how easy it is for them to hear you. While you probably won’t be hiding from a raptor ever in your life, it’s interesting to think about just how well they could hear their prey. [sc_embed_player fileurl=”mp3 file url”] Understanding the hearing of dinosaurs is complicated. When it comes to hearing, there are a lot of internal and external things happening all in a matter of seconds. All we have of dinosaurs are their skeletons, so we unfortunately won’t ever have an exact answer to this question. However, there are definitely things that we can look at to get an educated guess. One of the most important things we can do—and something that researches do all of the time already—is compare animals that we already know to dinosaurs. By comparing the anatomy of these animals, we can figure out how well dinosaurs might have been able to hear. Most of this comparison is going to come from skull structure, but that skull structure does have a purpose. How Do We Hear? To actually understand why things like skull structure and comparisons matter, we have to have a general understanding of how hearing works. Hearing is a physiological process that all animals experience in some way and in most cases, it is very similar across the board. To make things simple, though, we will start with the physiological processes behind human hearing. In humans, hearing starts at the outer ear. Our outer ears are a cone shape, made specifically to direct sound into the ear canal. At the end of that canal is the eardrum, which starts the middle ear. Sound waves hit the eardrum, which moves tiny bones on the other side called ossicles. These bones move to the vibrations of the sound waves against what is commonly called the oval window but is medically named the fenestra ovalis. The oval window is a membrane that connects those bones to the cochlea or inner ear. Through that membrane, the vibrations from the ossicles create waves in the cochlear fluid. The movement in the fluid is sensed by hair cells in the cochlea that send messages to the brain. These are the basic physiological processes behind hearing for humans and, in general, most animals. Almost every animal has the ability to hear, but the strength of that ability depends on a few key factors. If the animal has an outer ear, the size and shape of it determine how much sound information is being funneled into the inner ear. If they do not have an outer ear, however, the size of the ear canal and eardrum are what determined the amount of information gotten. What This Means: There is one massively important fact about hearing that this involves this physiology. The bigger the eardrum, the lower the frequencies heard. The smaller the eardrum and ossicles, the higher. This is because heavier eardrums and bones are not going to be able to move fast enough to send messages to the brain about high-frequency sounds. If the bones and drum are light, they can move at a higher speed. These are what qualify any organism as having good or bad hearing. If we are attempting to hypothesize about the hearing of dinosaurs, a long-extinct species, we must look at the hearing of their modern descendants. First, we can take a look at reptile hearing. Reptiles do not have what we would think are outer ears. Instead, they have holes in the skull covered by a membrane called the tympanum. These holes are usually found on either side of the skull where you would think outer ears should be. These holes lead directly into their ear canal. Reptile hearing usually depends on the individual animal. For the most part, reptiles have pretty standard hearing. Turtles and snakes, however, have notoriously bad hearing for animals. While turtles do actually have outer ears, snakes have no outer ears at all. Their inner ears are very sensitive to ground vibrations (called subsonic sounds), moving the fluid in their inner ears. Turtles can also sense subsonic sounds, though not as well due to their additional outer ears. Arguably the closes reptilian descendant of the dinosaurs is the alligator. Alligators ears are very similar to other reptiles, but instead of sitting on the sides of the face by the eyes they are placed on the top of the head. These holes are referred to as the upper temporal fenestra. Alligators and crocodiles are known for having good hearing on both land and in water. The much closer descendant of dinosaurs are birds, which have an equally variant range of hearing between each of them. Unlike reptiles, birds’ outer ear does involve a small funnel shape with no membrane between it and the ear canal. If you are wondering if you just forgot what bird ears look like, don’t worry. Birds’ ears are covered by a layer of feathers called auricular that protect them from damage. Most birds have a lower frequency range than humans, so they’re not particularly great at it. This is not true, however, for owls who are some of the best hearing terrestrial animals. While birds do have a great hearing range, the frequencies that they do pick up are heard very precisely. Some birds, like the pigeon, can even hear frequencies so low that they can tell when storms are on their way. So, while we can quantify hearing by the range of frequencies that are heard, there are many different ways to be good at hearing. Evidence for Dinosaur Hearing Now that we understand how some of the dinosaurs’ descendants can hear things, we can start to look at how they are similar and why certain dinosaurs might be better or worse. When it comes to the anatomy that we need to compare, we obviously need to look no further than the skull. We’ll use three of the most popular dinosaurs—T. Rex, V. Raptor, and Brachiosaurus—as examples of dinosaur skulls. As you will see when comparing all of these skulls, even with their vast differences, they all include at least two fenestrae on the skull. As you might remember, in human ear anatomy that oval window that begins the inner ear is called the fenestra ovalis. Fenestra, essentially, means small hole. It is a word used to recognize any holes in the skull of dinosaurs that have not been identified as serving a specific physiological purpose. They can be assumed, however, to do so. Especially depending on the placement. On all of the dinosaurs used as examples, one of the fenestrae is located in an area that is reminiscent of either bird or reptile ear anatomy. In the T. Rex, there are two fenestrae: a larger one behind the eye and a smaller one on the top of the head. Due to the average size of the fenestrae on the modern animals that were discussed, the smaller holes seem more accurate. Though, there is something very interesting about the larger fenestrae. At the top of the larger fenestra is a bone formation that caves into a smaller area. This formation in the skull suggests that the ear did, in fact, begin behind the eye instead of on top of the head for most terrestrial dinosaurs. This formation can be seen most prominently in the lateral fenestra of the brachiosaurs. The forms of these fenestrae are also reminiscent of the human ear shape, strengthening the theory for it being the hole in which sound is sent to the ear canal. If we are to go off of the assumption that this is the entry to the ear canal for dinosaurs, by the shape of it we might assume that instead of the outer membrane of the reptile, the dinosaur had a visible outer ear. This outer ear could mean that dinosaurs have a similar hearing to larger birds, like owls. There is an equally good chance that dinosaurs might have a lower range but a great reaction time and understanding of sounds like pigeons. What We Know The best assumption that we might decide on, though, is that hearing was just as vastly different between each individual dinosaur as it is between individual animals today. Overall, experts believe that dinosaurs probably had exceptional low-frequency hearing. This means that they were probably more pigeon than owl, but it’s important to note that this is all just theory. Unfortunately, we will probably never know how any dinosaur’s hearing was for sure due to a lack of middle or inner ear to look at. Based off of what we think, though, you can rest easy knowing that velociraptors probably didn’t have supersonic hearing.
Some Spanish words have written accent marks over one of the vowels. That mark is called “acento”. It means that the syllable containing the accent vowel is stressed when the word is pronounced, as in the word “papa”, for example. Then, the written accent mark is used in the following situations: - All words that are stressed on the third-to-last syllable must have a written accent mark, regardless of which letter they end in. Bo-lí-gra-fo ma-trí-cu-la ma-te-má-ti-cas - When two consecutive vowels do not form a diphthong, the vowel that receives the spoken stress will have a written accent mark. This pattern is very frecuent in words end in –ía Ma-rí-a po-li-cía as-tro-no-mía dí-a bio-lo-gía - Some one-syllable words have accents to distinguish them from other words that spund like them. For example: él (he) / el (the) sí (yes) / si (if) tú (you) / tu (your) mí (me) / mi (my) - Interrogative and exclamatory words have written accent on the stressed vowel. PRÁCTICA: practice what you just learned with the following words, the rules you have learned will help you pronounce them correctly. Don’t worry about the meaning of the words you haven’t heard before! Welcome to Top Language's free learning tools. We want you to enjoy learning Spanish as we love teaching it. Here we share some tips and tools to help you improve your Spanish and to make the process much more fun. ¡Que lo disfrutes!
The Reading Like a Historian curriculum engages students in historical inquiry. Each lesson revolves around a central historical question and features a set of primary documents designed for groups of students with a range of reading skills. This curriculum teaches students how to investigate historical questions by employing reading strategies such as sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating, and close reading. Instead of memorizing historical facts, students evaluate the trustworthiness of multiple perspectives on historical issues and learn to make historical claims backed by documentary evidence. To learn more about how to use Reading Like a Historian lessons, watch these videos about how teachers use these materials in their classrooms.
When clothes are worn for a long time, due to friction the yarn thinning, the… Table of Contents Today’s consumers are savvier than ever. They not only focus on the ornamental and comfort of textiles, but also on the durability and safety of textiles. They need high-quality products. Market research shows that most of the time consumers buy textiles based on color. Therefore, the ability of the fabric to maintain primary color is one of the most important properties of textiles. What does Color Fastness Mean? Color Fastness definition is that the ability to keep original dye color under the influence of other kinds of external factors in the use processes of dyeing textiles. Or we can define color fastness like this: Color fastness refers to the resistance of color to fade or bleed of a dyed or printed textile materials to various types of influences e.g. water, light, rubbing, washing, perspiration etc. It is an important indicator to measure the quality of dyeing products. Classification of Colour Fastness Due to the use of chemicals in the late processes of dyeing and finishing, like acid, alkali, oxidants, reductants, etc., and when using in washing, sunlight, rubbing, sweat, high temperature and so on, dyeing textiles may fade or discolor. Therefore, dye color fastness is diverse, including washing fastness, light fastness, rubbing fastness, perspiration fastness, chlorine fastness, ironing fastness, etc. The color fastness requirement of textiles is different because of their different use and process. For example, the curtain which is less washed requires low Color Fastness, but due to exposure to the sun for a long time, it needs high lightfastness. Summer clothing fabrics should have higher light fastness, washing fastness and perspiration fastness for the reason that they always expose to sun and human body always sweats. Different countries have set different standards for the different Color Fastness requirements of different textiles. The main standards for Color Fastness are as follows 1. AATCC (American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists) technical manual: Describes 66 numbers of different Color Fastness tests. 2. SDC (Society of Dyers and Colorists): In 1927, SDC (Europe) made fastness test committee. 3. ISO(International Organization for Standardization): In 1947, ISO made color sub committee. ISO also grades the fastness: For light fastness: 1~8 For other fastness: 1~5 Factors Affecting the Color Fastness Properties The chemical nature of the fiber. For example, cellulosic fibers dyed with reactive or vat dyes will show good fastness properties. Protein fibers dyed with acid mordant and reactive dyes will achieve good fastness properties and so on. That is to say compatibility of dye with the fiber is very important. The molecular structure (e.g.) of a dye molecule: If the dye molecule is larger in size, it will be tightly entrapped inside the inter-polymer chain space of a fiber. Thus the fastness will be better. In addition, the actual situation during use and so on will also have varying degrees of impact on the Color Fastness of textiles. Research shows that: As for different types of dyes, we can handle moderately when doing the dyeing process, to improve dye Color Fastness. For example, after dyeing textiles, direct dye reacting with a metal salt or cationic fixing agent gives rise to insoluble compounds, so that it can improve direct dye’s wet fastness. After dyeing with disperse dye, polyester fabrics can achieve to remove surface floating color and improve color fastness through a reductive clearing of reductant and an alkaline agent. After dyeing with reactive dye, textiles can improve color fastness to some degree through soap-washing. In addition, different uses and environmental conditions of textiles determine main point and requirement of Color Fastness test. How to Test Color Fastness? Because the conditions and the requirements of fabric processing and use are very different, most of the current test methods are simulated according to the working environment and conditions, so the testing methods of color fastness are very extensive. But the international standard organization (ISO), American dyestuff and chemist association (AATCC), Japan (JIS), Britain (BS) and so on many standards, most commonly used tests are wash resistance, light resistance, friction resistance and sweat resistance, ironing resistance, weather resistance and so on. In the actual work, the testing items are mainly determined according to the final use of the product and the product standard. For example, the wool textile product standard stipulates that the light fastness must be tested, and the knitted underwear, of course, has to be tested for perspiration fastness. Outdoor textiles (such as umbrellas, lampbox cloth, canopy materials) are naturally tested for weather fastness. Here is an example of how to test washing Color Fastness. If you want to know more about color fastness testing, please contact us. Definition and Measurement of Washing Color Fastness 1.Washing Color Fastness It refers to the situation of fade and discoloration of dye textiles when soaping. The main machines used in washing color fastness are Washing Color Fastness Testers. Generally, there are two indicators measured in washing Color Fastness test, including testing fade of original sample and staining of white cloth. Fade of original sample is the color change of dyed textiles before and after soaping. Staining of white cloth is the situation of staining of white cloth which it is soaping together with dyed fabrics. In the testing, dyed sample is stitched together with one or two specified woven fabrics, placed in a soap solution, mechanically stirred at a specified time and temperature, then rinsed and dried. At this moment, dyed sample fades and contaminates the white adjacent fabric. Discoloration of dyed sample and staining of adjacent fabric are measured by gray cards. Water color fastness is divided into 5 grade and 9 files, among which the best is grade 5 while the worst is grade 1. 2. Washing Color Fastness Test (1) Laboratory equipment and materials Washing Color Fastness Tester (Figure 1), Gray Cards of Evaluating Discoloration, Gray Cards of Evaluating Staining, Beaker, Anhydrous Sodium Carbonate (C.P.), Standard Soap Sheet, Standard Multi-Fiber Patch Cloth (consist of wool, polyacrylonitrile fiber, polyester, polyamide fiber, cotton, vinegar fiber) or Single Fiber Patch Cloth, Sample to be tested. Figure 1 Washing Color Fastness Tester 1-Drain Pump 2-Heating Protector 3-Passive Gear 4-Motor 5-Reducer 6-Motor Vice Gear 7-Drainage Interface 8-Active Gear 9-Rotating Frame 10-Test Cup 11-Studio Temperature Controller 12-Time Relay 13-Buzzer 14-Preheating Room Temperature Controller 15-Drainage Switch 16-Door Cover 17-Power Switch 18-Insulation 19-Temperature Sensor 20-Tubular Heater 21-Drainage Pipe 22-Drain Pipe Interface 23-Water Pipe 24-Wheel (2) Testing Methods a) Preparation of Sample ① Fabric sample. Taking a 40mm100mm sample, then its positive is stitched together with a 40mm100mm multi-fiber patch cloth, along a short edge, to form a combined sample; or placing the sample into two 40mm100mm single fiber patch cloth, and the first single fiber patch cloth is made from same fiber as the sample, the second is made from corresponding fiber of the first piece woven fabric in Table 1. If the sample is mixed textile or intertwined fabric, the first piece is made from fiber of main content and the second piece is made from fiber of secondary content. ② Yarn or scattered fiber sample. Taking yarn or scattered fiber approximately equal to half the total quality of adjacent fabric is embedded between a 40mm100mm multi-fiber adjacent fabric and a 40mm100mm fabric that is unable to dye (such as polypropylene fiber ), sewing them along four edges to form a combined sample. Or Taking yarn or scattered fiber approximately equal to half the total quality of adjacent fabric is embedded between two 40mm100mm single fiber adjacent fabrics, sewing them along four edges to form a combined sample. If the sample is yarn, you can weave it as a woven fabric and test it according to textiles testing method. Table 1 Choices of Adjacent Fabric When Testing Washing Color Fastness \|First Piece\|\|Second Piece\|\|First Piece\|\|Second Piece\| \|Cotton\|\|Wool\|\|Sticky Fiber\|\|Vinegar Fiber\|\|Sticky Fiber\|\|Sticky Fiber\| \|Linen\|\|Wool\|\|Sticky Fiber\|\|Polyacrylonitrile Fiber\|\|Wool/Cotton\|\|Cotton\| b) Operating Procedure ① According to types of product and requirements, the parameters of washing color fastness should be set as Table 2. If fabric raw material is silk, viscose fiber, wool, nylon, you can adopt method 1; if raw material is cotton, polyester, nitrile, you can adopt method 3. Table 2 Color Fastness to Washing Test Parameters \|Conditions\|\|Temperature (℃)\|\|Time (min)\|\|Soap Composition (bath ratio)\|\|Steel Ball\| \|Standard Soap Sheet (g/L)\|\|Anhydrous Sodium Carbonate (g/L)\| ③ Switch on Washing Color Fastness Tester. ④ Combined sample is taken out in a certain time and washed by grade 3 water for twice. Then it is rinsed cleanly in flowing cool water, squeezed excess water. Finally separated, the sample is linked with adjacent fabric in a short side stitching, hung and dried in air of no more than 60℃. ⑤ Discoloration of original sample and staining of adjacent fabric is evaluated by gray cards. For more information on our products, contact our technical team: [email protected]
Emily Marie Jones Download Project (1.4 MB) Bacteria have steadily developed defenses against antibiotics since the world’s first fleet of antibacterial drugs was introduced. One strategy that bacteria can use to become multi-drug resistant involves the overexpression of large, membrane-embedded efflux pumps, such as the AcrAB-TolC pump found in Escherichia coli (E. coli) and other Gram-negative bacteria. This large efflux pump gives the bacterium the capability of transporting a wide variety of compounds out of the cell, including antibiotics that we use to combat bacterial infections. The overexpression of these bacterial efflux pumps renders our antibiotics ineffective. I have determined that Yerba mate extract causes accumulation of a fluorescent dye in live bacterial cells and might, therefore, also cause accumulation of clinically relevant antibiotics. I tested the Yerba mate extract for efflux pump inhibition in the presence of antibiotics and found that the extract has antibacterial effect on the bacteria. Further testing should be done to determine the effect of the extract on other cell types. This research could open up a new avenue in the treatment of multi-drug resistant bacterial infections. Matthew E. Lopper Primary Advisor's Department Stander Symposium project, College of Arts and Sciences United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Good Health and Well-Being "Combating Antibiotic Resistance Using Plant-Derived Compounds" (2020). Stander Symposium Projects. 1905.
Many people aren’t exactly sure what a comet is. You might hear about a comet that’s passing Earth that you’ll be able to see in the next days or weeks – but what exactly is a comet? And how does it differ to the other objects up there in the night sky? The truth is that although comets look like they may be quite a complex object, they’re quite simple. So, let’s look at that and more in these facts about comets. Facts about Comets - A comet is made up of rock, ice, dust and some frozen gases like carbon dioxide. - As a comet gets closer and closer to the Sun, obviously the ice on it will start to melt away, as well as dust. This dust then created what is called a coma, which is a cloud around the center of the comet. - The solar winds released from the Sun then push against the comet, which is why a comet forms a tail behind it. - We generally credit Gottfried Kirch as the first person to discover a comet with his telescope. - However, it wasn’t until the late 1800s that American astronomer Edward Emerson Barnard became the first person to take a picture of a comet. - The name comet comes from the Latin word Cometa, which literally means “long-haired” – this is in reference to the long tail of the comet. - As of 2020, there are more than 6,600 different known comets within our solar system. - Comets come in all different shapes and sizes. Whilst some of them are only a few meters in diameter, some comets are more than a few kilometers! - The majority of comets are named after the person that discovers them. They may also be named by year. - We generally split comets but the amount of time they take to orbit the Sun. A short period comet is less than 200 years, whereas a long period comet could take a million years! How Comets Work Essentially, comets are just balls of ice and gas that are orbiting the Sun, like us, just at a greater distant. All comets originate beyond Neptune, so you can imagine how cold it is out there. That means that they are originally a trans neptunian object, though to become a comet, they don’t stay that way forever. But whereas a planet orbits the Sun in a more spherical shape, a comet will orbit the Sun in a much more oval pattern. This means that they continue their orbit in a oblong fashion, and when they get closer to the Sun, they begin to burn and create a tail and a coma, which is the gas surrounding the comet. However, although some comets repeat their same orbital pattern, if a comet gets too close to the Sun, it can get overwhelmed by its gravitational pull. This comet will then go hurtling towards the Sun, to its death. Common Questions about Comets Do comets orbit the Sun? Yes, comets do actually orbit the Sun like the planets and other objects within the Sun’s region of gravitational pull. However, comets typically have a more elongated, oval shaped orbit in comparison to the planets, which orbit the Sun in a more spherical manner. Comets vs Asteroids – What’s the difference? Whilst comets are typically made of ice and rock, an asteroid is made up of primarily rock and metals. Comets originate further out in the solar system, whereas asteroids are located in the Asteroid belt, which lies between Mars and Jupiter. What is the name of the most famous comet? The name of the most famous comet is called Halley’s comet. This comet is visible to the Earth every 75 years, with the last time being in 1986. Ancient recordings of this comet have been noted throughout the past thousands of years, within many different cultures from the Chinese to the Babylonians. It takes it’s name from English astronomer, Edmond Halley. What are the four parts of a comet? When we’re examining a comet, we generally split the comet into four different parts. This is it’s nucleus at it’s center, it’s coma (the gas surrounding it), it’s gas tail and it’s dust tail – this is why you’ll see astronomers say that a comet has two tails, one of dust and one of gas. Where do comets come from? Comets generally come from two different places. Some of them are located in the Kuiper belt, which is a ring around the Sun that is just past the planet Neptune. Other comets come from the Oort cloud, which is even further out than the Kuiper belt. In conclusion, whilst some comets may continue for a long time in the same elliptical orbital pattern, many comets will come in just too close to the Sun. This will then pull them out of the orbital pattern, and the comet will get sucked into the Sun and die! Hopefully you’ve learned some interesting facts about comets.
Many children and young people use the internet every day for things including education, social media and playing online. The internet can an amazing tool if used safely and appropriately. Unfortunately, not everyone respects this and so it is imperative that children understand how to keep safe. What are the risks online? There are many risks to children and young people on the internet including, cyber bullying, access to pornography, sending, receiving and viewing indent images and videos, online grooming, illegal downloading and file sharing, information sharing and posting on social media. How do I keep my child safe online? - Maintain an open dialogue with your child and encourage them to talk to you about their internet use: for example who they’re talking to, services they’re using, and any issues they may be experiencing. - Create a family agreement to establish your children’s boundaries, and your expectations, when on the internet - Give your child strategies to deal with any online content that they are not comfortable with – such as turning off the screen, telling an adult they trust and using online reporting facilities - Consider using filtering software to block unwanted content. In addition to filtering, remember that discussion with your child, and involvement in their internet use, are both effective ways to educate them about the internet - Encourage your children to ‘think before you post.’ Online actions can impact not only yourself but the lives of others. Content posted privately online can be publicly shared by others, and may remain online forever - Understand the law. Some online behaviour may break the law, for example when downloading or sharing content with others. - Familiarise yourself with the privacy settings and reporting features available on popular sites and services - If your child is being bullied online, save all available evidence and know where to report the incident, for example to the school, service provider, or the police if the law has been broken - Familiarise yourself with the age ratings for games and apps which can help to indicate the level and suitability of the content. Also see if online reviews are available from other parents as these may be helpful - Set up a family email address that your children can use when signing up to new games and websites online - Encourage your children to use nicknames (where possible) instead of their full name online, to protect their personal information, and create strong passwords for every account - Set up a PIN or password on devices to help protect personal information Where can I get help and advice? Internet Matters – What issues could be affecting your children? Get to grips with what they may come across on the internet and how to get help if you need it. Find out what to do if you’re worried about anything you or your child has seen online. ThinkUknow – ThinkUknow has launched #Liveskills – a popular online activities for children and young people. Apps such as Musical.ly, Live.me, Periscope and YouNow are all soaring in popularity, which has seen other well established apps such as Facebook adding live streaming functions.#LiveSkills explores the nuanced features of live streaming and the specpackage of resources focusing on live streaming. Live streaming is increasingly becoming one of the most ific risks children and young people can face. Childnet – A non-profit organisation working with others to help make the internet a great and safe place for children. CEOP – Has someone acted inappropriately towards your child online? It may be sexual chat, being asked to do something that made them feel uncomfortable or someone being insistent on meeting up. You can report it to the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP). Revenge Porn Helpline – Call the Revenge Porn Helpline for free, confidential advice and support. Whilst they cannot guarantee removal of all images online, their exceptional partnerships with internet industry partners allows them to minimise the reach, and some of the harm caused by revenge porn.
Juneteenth and our post-emancipation fight for liberation By Kristen Adaway As June 19th approaches, or Juneteenth as it is often known, many African-Americans across the United States will celebrate the day that marked the end of slavery in the states. On this day in 1865, General Gordon Granger, leader of the Union soldiers, gave the executive order that “all slaves were free.” Yet, it is important to note that this order was given two and half years after President Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, thus showing how slow the United States and its people are to executing progressive change. While this newfound freedom seemed like a breath of fresh air to those that had been abused in every way possible for over two centuries, becoming adjusted to independent living was not an easy task. Many obstacles, both legislative and social, proved to be sizeable barriers to free movement and social mobility. These factors combined created what I have come to describe as the “Black ceiling.” Drawing its roots from the famous term “glass ceiling”, the Black ceiling consists of every hurdle and disadvantage Black people specifically face as a result of slavery and its aftermath. Despite Merriam Webster’s definition of the glass ceiling stating that it is “an intangible barrier within a hierarchy that prevents women or minorities from obtaining upper-level positions,” when used in cultural context, the emphasis is usually placed on women while minorities’ experiences and attempts at creating inclusive environments are criticized. When Black people’s experiences post-slavery are analyzed within this context, it becomes clear that the Black ceiling has shaped financial and educational opportunities for this group for more than a century. Sharecropping and the limitations of Economic Freedom For the first time since 1619, freed slaves were faced with the full responsibility of finding and obtaining their own living arrangements for their families. According to a Washington Post article, some chose to stay on their former slave owner’s land and work as sharecroppers, while others fled to larger cities to pursue the previously unattainable idea of success. This idea would eventually be coined by James Truslow Adams as the “American Dream”. There were also some freed slaves, specifically the men and fathers, who worked together to gather any money they could to buy land from their white former slave owners. Although the latter approach seems like it would have been the most sought after, sharecropping was a more popular option for many Black Americans in the South. HISTORY describes sharecropping as a method where “black families would rent small plots of land in return for a portion of their crop, to be given to the landowner at the end of each year.” Some sociologists and researchers have called this system of survival “neoslavery,” due to its structural similarities with the slave master to slave dynamic apparent pre-1865. Pulitzer-winning writer and journalist Douglas Blackmon wrote in his book Slavery By Another Name that “the slavery that survived long past emancipation was an offense permitted by the nation.” Blackmon argued that slavery did not in fact end with the 1865 order and that it actually continued on for decades after during what he called the “Age of Neoslavery.” Sharecropping was one of the most explicit exploitive practices that took advantage of freed slaves. With no cash or credit system available to freed Black people, sharecropping resulted in sharecroppers owing more to the landowner for the use of tools and other supplies than they were able to repay, according to HISTORY. In turn, this sent many Black sharecroppers into debt with poverty or violence hovering over them if they refused to sign unreasonable contracts that would ultimately leave them with less money than they worked for. This unfortunate situation was not shared by all Black people during this time, however. Some were able to earn enough money over several years to rent or buy their own portion of land. Learning While Black: Education after emancipation In an age where the phrase “reading is fundamental” is casually dropped in everyday conversation, and there are entire campaigns focused on the literacy crisis, it can be hard to imagine what life would be like without the ability to read. Unfortunately, being able to read or having the opportunity to learn how has not been a reality for all Black people in the states. According to Heather Andrea Williams, a professor of Africana Studies at Harvard University “white southerners’ fear of an educated Black population did not dissipate” upon emancipation. Williams is the author of Self-Taught: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom, a book on how freed slaves educated themselves throughout the Reconstruction era. In the book, Williams goes into great detail about the different ways that freed slaves managed to seek out education, including them building their own schools. The first Black public high school was Paul Laurence Dunbar High, which opened its doors in Washington, D.C. in 1870. The school came about after failed attempts at integrating in nation’s capital. However, even though the school originally provided educational services for over 40 Black students, it received little funding for this very reason. According to Blackpast.org, there were “ongoing teacher shortages, insufficient classroom space with poor maintenance, and lack of athletic facilities” as years passed. The Freedmen’s Bureau is often credited with providing the greatest amount of educational resources for freed slaves. In March 1865, Congress created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, popularly known as the Freedmen’s Bureau. It was created in order to help former slaves and poor whites in the south after the end of the Civil War. According to the Georgia Encyclopedia,even though the bureau did not actually hire teachers or operate the schools, it played a vital part in establishing schools for former slaves. The Freedmen’s Bureau was responsible for renting buildings for schoolrooms and providing books were. Military protection for the students and teachers was also provided by the Bureau to fend off opponents of Black literacy and angry white supremacists. The Freedmen’s Bureau was officially shut down in 1872 as the Ku Klux Klan violence intensified and by Congress’s refusal to renew the legislation that kept it running. Turning toward the present Black Americans today have been surmounting these obstacles. Non-Hispanic Black people make up roughly 13 percent of the United States’ population according to a 2015 report from the United States Census Bureau. Although this percentage is small, the contributions made by Black people, both credited and uncredited, have resulted in an everlasting impact on the United States. Despite every trial and tribulation forced upon such a resilient group, Black Americans have prospered in the same areas that were once completely out of reach. Examples of this success can be seen on various social media platforms through the hashtag “#BlackExcellence.” This hashtag has broadened to include not only college-related achievements but also any accomplishment that contradicts negative stereotypes that have been attributed to Black people. So while the anniversary of Juneteenth can be seen as a time for celebration, it should also be a time where we reflect on the great lengths taken and bravery that Black people as a whole have shown, and look ahead at how far we have to go as a nation. Photo via Wiki Commons Kristen Adaway is a senior at the University of Georgia pursuing a degree in journalism and a minor in sociology. She has a passion for writing about social justice, mental health, and culture. Her work has been featured in Her Campus, Elite Daily, and HelloGiggles.
The mold consists of pouring molten metal into the mold (same as ingot process), and the mold cavity provides the final useful shape, after which only processing and welding are required according to specific application. Molds are usually classified according to the methods of making molds, the materials of making molds or the methods of entering molds. There are four basic types of casting processes:, permanent casting, die casting and centrifugal casting. Considering its economy, rationality and technology, sand casting is adopted in this design. There are four types of sand casting mold: wet mold, dry mold, surface dry mold and self hardening mold. The selection of each mold needs to be determined according to the casting weight, structure and quality requirements, production batch and workshop production conditions and other factors. Wet mold is the most widely used mold. The basic characteristic of wet casting is that the sand mold does not need to be dried and there is no hardening process. Its main advantages are high production flexibility, high productivity, short production cycle, easy to organize flow production, easy to realize mechanization and automation in the production process, and low material cost. Generally, the medium and small-sized castings should choose the wet type as much as possible. Therefore, the design adopts the wet casting method. Due to the high moisture content and low strength of the wet casting method, the defects such as scab, rat tail, sand sticking, air hole, sand hole and sand expansion are easy to occur in the casting. The following situations should be paid attention to when using the wet casting method: 1.When the casting has a large horizontal wall during pouring, sand inclusion defects are easily caused by using wet mold. Other sand mold shall be considered. 2.When the casting is too high and the static pressure of metal exceeds the compressive strength of wet mold, dry sand mold or self hardening sand mold shall be considered. 3.When too much cold iron is placed in the mold, wet mold should be avoided. Because the cold iron is rusted or cooled, the “water drop” will condense, which will cause pore defects after pouring. If it is necessary to use cold iron, the cold iron shall be preheated in advance, and the mold shall be closed and poured in time after being put into the mold. 4.The sand mold with a long molding process or a long time to wait for pouring should not be wet mold, because the wet mold will be air dried if placed for a long time, which will reduce the surface strength and prone to sand washing defects. The parts of the support table are of rotary structure and have flat parting surface, so it is suitable for parting modeling. Due to its small production batch, it adopts manual molding and core making. To sum up, the design adopts wet sand manual parting molding.
Select a picture book that the students are familiar with. Read the book to the students paying attention to both the text and the images. Discuss the story structure and the five elements that make a story: characters, setting, plot, conflict and resolution. Discuss how all of these components work together to tell the story. Ask the students to write down the five elements and identify them in relation to the book selected. Look at the illustrations and discuss whether the words and images are symmetrical interactions or enhancing interactions. Ask the students to draw a picture from the book and decide if the picture tells the same story as the words, or if the picture tells more of the story than the words. Discuss narrative style and ask the students if the story that was read was written in first-person narrative, second-person narrative, third-person narrative or alternating-person narrative. It may be helpful to show students examples of each narrative style. We are told that we should not judge a book by its cover, but we all do! Ask students to think about why a book cover is so important. Discuss what it is that a book cover does: such as telling the reader what the book is about, giving an example of the illustration style and setting the tone for the story inside the book. Explain what a synopsis is and ask students to write a synopsis for this book.
Use knowledge of 2-D shapes and right angles to solve the mystery in this fun, logic-based activity. Can we trust those triangles?! Read the statements made by the characters and use logic and reasoning to eliminate ‘red herring’ characters who are trying to trick you! By combining the statements made by the characters with the Cold Hard Facts at the bottom of the page, students then decide which key opens the door. Right Angles and 2D Shapes Worksheet: Scaffolding and Extension Tips This teaching resource can be an engaging maths warm-up exercise, a fast finishers task, or even a fun indoor break activity. Students must use their knowledge of 2D shapes and right angles to help solve the mystery. In addition to individual student work time, use this 2D shapes worksheet as a: - Maths rotation activity - Post-lesson exit ticket - Homework assignment - Whole-class review (via smartboard) Not only does this mini-mystery activity help your students with their memory and logical thinking, but it also provides learners with an opportunity to read between the lines. In addition to solving the worksheet, students can also colour it. A Variety of Ways to Prepare This Resource Because this resource includes an answer sheet, we recommend you print one copy of the entire file. Then, make photocopies of the blank worksheet for students to complete. You can also turn this teaching resource into a sustainable activity! Print a few copies on cardstock and slip them into dry-erase sleeves. Students can record their answers with a dry-erase marker, then erase and reuse. Additionally, project the worksheet onto a screen and work through it as a class. Before You Download Use the dropdown icon on the Download button to choose between the PDF or Google Slides version of this resource. An answer key is also included with this download. Don’t Stop There We’ve got more 2-D Shapes Teaching Resources to cut down on lesson planning time: A set of 36 tangram task cards separated into three levels, along with two tangram cut-out templates. A sorting game to use in the classroom when identifying the properties of 2D shapes and 3D objects. 30 different bingo cards using 2D shape pictures and names. A set of 36 tangram task cards separated into three levels, along with two tangram cut-out templates. A sorting game to use in the classroom when identifying the properties of 2D shapes and 3D objects. 30 different bingo cards using 2D shape pictures and names.
When a person swallows, the muscular walls of the esophagus (which is located just behind the trachea [windpipe]), contracts to push food into the stomach. Glands in the lining of the esophagus produce mucus, which keeps the passageway moist and makes swallowing easier. Cancer that begins in the esophagus is divided into two major types, squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma, depending on the type of cells that are malignant. - Squamous cell carcinoma occurs in the squamous cells lining the esophagus and usually occurs in the upper and middle parts of the esophagus - Adenocarcinoma occurs in glandular tissue, most often in the lower part of the esophagus near the stomach. An estimated nine out of 10 malignant stomach tumors are adenocarcinomas Early esophageal cancer usually does not produce symptoms. However, as the cancer grows, symptoms may include: - Difficult or painful swallowing - Severe weight loss - Pain in the throat or back, behind the breastbone or between the shoulder blades - Hoarseness or chronic cough - Coughing up blood These symptoms may be caused by esophageal cancer or by other conditions. It is important to check with a doctor. The exact causes of cancer of the esophagus are not known. However, studies show that any of the following factors can increase the risk of developing esophageal cancer. The risk is increased when two or more of the factors are present: Age: Esophageal cancer is more likely to occur as people get older; most people who develop esophageal cancer are over age 60 Sex: Cancer of the esophagus is more common in men than in women Tobacco use: Smoking cigarettes or using smokeless tobacco is one of the major risk factors for esophageal cancer Alcohol use: Chronic and/or heavy use of alcohol is another major risk factor for esophageal cancer. People who use both alcohol and tobacco have an especially high risk of esophageal cancer. Scientists believe that these substances increase each other's harmful effects Barrett's esophagus: Tissues at the bottom of the esophagus can become irritated if stomach acid frequently backs up into the esophagus — a problem called gastric reflux. Over time, cells in the irritated part of the esophagus may change and begin to resemble the cells that line the stomach. This condition, known as Barrett's esophagus, is a pre-malignant condition that may develop into adenocarcinoma of the esophagus Other types of irritation: Other causes of significant irritation or damage to the lining of the esophagus, such as swallowing lye or other caustic substances, can increase the risk of developing esophageal cancer Medical history: Patients who have had other head and neck cancers have an increased chance of developing a second cancer in the head and neck area, including esophageal cancer A few lifestyle changes are suggested as a way to prevent or reduce the risk of developing esophageal cancer. The good news is that most of these esophageal cancer prevention tips will also help prevent many other types of cancer. - If you smoke, stop! This may be the single most important thing you can do to prevent this cancer and improve your overall health. Smoking causes acid reflux and also damages cell DNA of the esophagus - Limit alcohol consumption. Many esophageal squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas result from heavy alcohol consumption over a period of years. Abstaining from alcohol or drinking in moderation — no more than one drink daily for women or two drinks daily for men — can greatly reduce your risk - Eat a healthy diet. Eating healthy foods is a good way to reduce your risk factor for many diseases. Fresh fruits and vegetables, especially those that are dark green or yellow in color, are great for cancer prevention - Keep a healthy weight. Being significantly overweight increases your risk of developing esophageal cancer, as well as other serious health problems, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and stroke. Talk to your family physician about developing a plan to lose weight by eating well and exercising regularly - Don't let heartburn go untreated. Chronic heartburn raises your risk factor. If you experience heartburn often, see your doctor The Lung and Esophageal Center The team at the Lung and Esophageal Center at MedStar Georgetown Cancer Institute uses a breadth of novel and traditional diagnostic and surgical tools to care for patients. Diagnosis and treatment Using a thin, lighted tube called an esophagoscope, your doctor can examine your esophagus and remove tissue to be examined later in the lab for potential signs of disease. As with any cancer, treatment depends on a number of factors, including the size, location, extent of the tumor, and the general health of the patient. At MedStar Health, an individualized plan of care is made for each patient, and may include surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation. Patients are often treated by a team of specialists, which may include a gastroenterologist (a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the digestive system), a surgeon, a medical oncologist (a doctor who specializes in treating cancer), and a radiation oncologist (a doctor who specializes in using radiation to treat cancer). Because cancer treatment may make the mouth sensitive and at risk for infection, doctors often advise patients to see a dentist for a dental exam and treatment before cancer treatment begins. Esophagectomy is the surgical removal of the esophagus. Two types exist: - Transhiatal esophagectomy is performed on the neck and abdomen at the same time. - Transthoracic esophagectomy involves opening the chest. In most cases, your doctor will use the stomach to create a new esophagus. Your doctor will give you very specific instructions about how to prepare for this procedure. Please follow those directions exactly. Benign esophageal disorders The esophagus can develop many benign disorders, including: - Gastroesophageal reflux - Benign esophageal strictures that can cause swallowing problems - Benign tumors, such as leiomyoma - Esophageal cysts - Esophageal diverticula - Esophageal spasm These functional disorders can often be improved with surgery. However, it is critical that your surgeon understands the disease process and has experience in diagnosing and treating these conditions. MedStar Health thoracic surgeons are experienced in diagnosing and treating esophageal disorders using state-of-the-art surgical techniques.
We, humans, like to act as if we are the most sophisticated beings on the planet, we exaggerate our qualities of helping others and take pride in doing so, however, in reality, we are nothing like this. There is a saying that, if you want to do something right, do it yourself but when it comes to actually do it most of just stand still and wait for others to do it. This becomes truly problematic in situations where immediate action is required. What is the Bystander Effect? During situations of emergency, if one happens to be alone, they’d act naturally to help others without any second thoughts, however, this changes drastically when more people are present. The term Bystander Effect or Bystander Apathy implies that the more the number of individuals are present, the less likely any of them are to help a victim in need, the idea behind this being that each one of them has this idea that somebody else will initiate the action. Additionally, no single person has to take responsibility for the lack of action. This idea was popularised by two social psychologists, John M. Darley, and Bibb Latané upon publishing their classic experiment in a laboratory. In the experiment, participants were asked to give an exam and they were observed on how they react to smoke in the room in three separate conditions, in the first scenario only one participant was present in the room at a time, in the second situation they were accompanied by two other participants, and lastly, two confederates who were present acting like participants. John and Bibb observed that when they were alone around 75% of the participants reported about the smoke, while 38% reported about the smoke when they were sitting with participants, and surprisingly when confederates noticed the smoke and ignored it only 10% of the participants informed the examiners about it. Though this was conducted in a controlled environment, upon observing actual cases John and Bibb said that there are certain factors that affect bystanders’ mentality. - Emergencies that require immediate help. - Emergencies that involve real threats. - Contemplating if the victim deserves help or not (depending on the victim’s appearance). - The relationship between the victim and the bystander. - Ability to inform the authorities. Real-life Examples of the Bystander Effect - Kitty Genovese: This case has almost become synonymous with the bystander effect as it is cited each and every time it is talked about. On 13 March 1964, a bartender named Catherine Genovese was walking home at 3 AM in Queens, New York. As she approached her apartment she was attacked by a man later identified as Winston Moseley. Genovese was stabbed and around 38 witnesses were present at the time but none intervened. It was noted that the initial attack began at 3:20 AM and it was not until 3:50 AM that someone first called the police to report the incident. But this case also comes with a lot of speculations as the newspapers seem to have exaggerated about the event and later it was noted that the witnesses could not actually see the attack. Nonetheless, it has become the prime example. - The Business Crowd: This did not happen exactly but psychologists conducted an experiment in the real world to see how people reacted and if the bystander apathy was true. Two actors were acting to be severely ill and in excruciating pain followed by unconsciousness, people did notice these actors passed out or were in pain but didn’t stop to help as they thought somebody else will. Some people were concerned but did not want to be stood out of the crowd and ultimately walked away, it took over 30 minutes for someone to actually help the actors. However, another strange phenomenon was noticed when one of the actors dressed in formal attire, he was helped within six minutes. So it is safe to say that we do judge others based on their appearances. - Raymond Zack: Another classic case of this effect, on a memorial day a 53-year-old man named Raymond Zack walked towards Robert Crown Memorial Beach and stood in neck-deep water for almost an hour. His foster mother called 911 stating that he was trying to drown himself, firefighters and police responded quickly and arrived at the situation. However, none of them entered the waters thinking the other authority might do it and even though many people were present at the location, none of them intervene because they were thinking the emergency services would save the man. In the end, a good samaritan entered the waters and pulled Zack to the shore, however, Zack passed away shortly after due to hypothermia. In the end, we need to educate people about how to help others despite being in public or alone as it could mean the difference between life and death. As for these examples, it goes to show despite claiming how we humans are we act completely different and just like to follow a sheep mentality.
A communication(s) channel (also called a circuit or line) is - "a medium by which data is transmitted (e.g., physical via Universal Serial Bus (USB), wireless, wired, verbal, etc.)." Basic properties, assumptions, recommendations, and general statements about communication channel include: - 1. Communication channels move data between computing, sensing, and actuation. - 2. Since data is the "blood" of a NoT, communication channels are the "veins" and "arteries", as data moves to and from intermediate events at different snapshots in time. . . . - 3. Communication channels will have a physical or virtual aspect to them, or both. Protocols and associated implementations provide a virtual dimension. Wires provide a physical dimension. - 4. Communication channel dataflow may be unidirectional or bi-directional. There are a number of conditions where an aggregator might query more advanced sensors, or potentially recalibrate them in some way (e.g., request more observations per time interval). - 5. No standardized communication channel protocol is assumed; a specific NoT may have multiple communication protocols between different entities. - 6. Communication channels may be wireless. - 7. Communication channels may be an offering (service or product) from third-party vendors. - 8. Communication channel trustworthiness may make sensors appear to be failing when actually the communication channel is failing. - 9. Communication channels can experience disturbances, delays, and interruptions. - 10. Redundancy can improve communication channel reliability. There may be more than one distinct communication channel between a computing primitive and a sensing primitive. - 11. Performance and availability of communication channels will greatly impact any NoT that has time-to-decision requirements. . . . - 12. Security and reliability are concerns for communication channels. - "Overview" section: NIST Special Publication 800-183, at 7-8.
Martian soil does not, of course, have the nutrients required to sustain Earth-life like plants; if it did, we’d be much more likely to, you know, have found plants on Mars. But there are plenty of Earth soils, like rainforest soil, that’s deficient in key nutrients as well, and humans have long found ways to enhance it. The bigger problem, one addressed finally by new research from Dutch scientists at Wageninger University, is not whether we can technically grow produce on Mars, but whether the fruits and vegetables grown there would be safe to eat. Martian soil is dense in heavy metals like cadmium and lead, which can be absorbed by plants, and can make their fruits and vegetables toxic. The new research found scientists growing rye, tomatoes, radishes, and peas in an artificial Mars-like soil, a soil created with identical concentrations of those heavy metals as is found on Mars. According to a press release from the university, testing of those crops found no unsafe levels of those heavy metals in the edible harvest. Researcher Wieger Wamelink looks at the plants grown in “Martian” soil, at the Wageninger University in the Netherlands. Food for Mars and Moon, Facebook This isn’t the end of the research; there are other factors, like Mars’s gravity levels, which could impact the way vegetables absorb and interact with various chemicals, including the heavy metals. And the team is still working on growing some other crops (the potatoes seem to be taking awhile). From the release: If we are certain it is safe to eat the potatoes, peas, carrots, garden cress, green beans, radish, rye and tomatoes then we will organize a meal for the sponsors of our research. They will be the first to eat the ‘Martian’ tomatoes and taste if they have a different flavour from the normal earth tomatoes. Our ticket seems to have been lost in the mail.
Grades: Elementary (4-6) Subject Area: History Made Possible By: Twentieth Century Fox Get a behind the scenes look at some of our nation’s most inspiring historical treasures with this study guide to the hit film Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian. Students trace the history of flight with Amelia Earhart, explore the Smithsonian’s many museums along the National Mall, and bring the film’s historical figures to life in the classroom. Bonus activities invite students to interview a character from the past, profile famous historical figures in rap-biographies and bio-poems, and claim their own place in history by creating a class museum.
Follow your child's lead and have fun while enhancing language development! In this fun and user-friendly course for parents, teachers, and caregivers, you will discover how children learn to process language and how they become proficient speakers and thinkers. This course will help you enrich your child's life by stimulating his or her continued speech, brain, and language development in an enjoyable, age-appropriate, and natural way. - Learn about language from the aspect of listening and understanding, rather than speaking. - Learn how you can positively impact brain development and the way a baby learns. - Develop an understanding of the sequence in which a young child's sentences change and become more complex. - Learn how the tongue, jaw and lips work to produce sounds of speech. - Learn how to use sounds in order to help a child increase awareness of what their mouth is doing and also what they hear when they talk. - Learn about the critical links between language development and learning to read and write. "I appreciated the knowledge the instructor was able to give in the course. I learned quite a bit of information. I also very much appreciated her writing style, it was not over my head and she kept my interest throughout with her examples. Thank you for making my first on-line class experience a good one." - Anonymous, Alpharetta, GA View full course syllabus For our online course refund policy, click here. Requirements: Internet access, e-mail, Firefox or Internet Explorer web browser. You will need to create a login for your online classroom. Go to www.ed2go.com/ksuconed. Find your course by browsing the catalog or using the search bar. Click the 'Add to Cart' button. Select your start date and then create a Username and Password. You must make an 80 or higher on the final exam (online) to successfully complete the course. You may only take the exam once. If you have questions about this course, please contact the online coordinator at 470-578-6693 or [email protected].
The Difference Between Descriptive Vs Prescriptive Grammar Approaches As its name indicates, prescriptive grammar suggests what people should do with language and descriptive grammar is about describing the language as it is used. (Thornbury, 1997:145) It is closely related to the Standard English (SE), and the descriptive grammar concerns linguists most. Prescriptive grammar approach is the norm in language teaching classes, and it is adopted widely all around the world. On the other hand, the descriptive grammar is able to present various uses of the language peculiar to different situations or people, which may seem questionable at first from a prescriptive grammarian approach. "The difference between descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar is comparable to the difference between constitutive rules, which determine how something works (such as the rules for the game of chess), and regulatory rules, which control behavior (such as the rules of etiquette). If the former are violated, the thing cannot work, but if the latter are violated, the thing works, but crudely, awkwardly, or rudely." (Laurel J. Brinton and Donna Brinton, 2010:29). Both approaches to grammar do not seem to contradict in theory as they appeal to different professions whose approach to language differs in many ways. Although their distinctive implementations seem to work smoothly, in practice the prescriptive grammar approach sometimes makes the English grammar a highly controversial topic in ELT classes among students. The Prescriptive Grammar and Standard English From a prescriptive grammarian, we should never say “he don’t like to cook” as it won’t be SE because it’ll be regarded as ungrammatical (Finegan, 2012:16). It is widely acknowledged in language classes that a lexical phrase or sentence should be used in SE in order to be considered as a grammatically correct language item. This widespread quick and easy evaluation of grammar is applied in language classes without any doubt. However, when a language item is not in the scope of SE, it doesn’t necessarily mean it is wrong. In fact, “he don’t” is accepted by some varieties of English. To those who use those dialects, it’s not ungrammatical or illogical. It’s just an unmarked third-person verb. “The number of English speakers who say he don’t is almost certainly greater than the number who say he doesn’t”, (Trask, 1995:141) However, they don’t happen to get into the privileged group of speakers, and we have "he doesn’t" on the plate. The Prescriptive Grammar in Language Classes When it comes to learning a language, we have a pedagogical grammar which is “a kind of descriptive grammar designed for teaching and learning purposes” (Thornbury, 2006:92). It’s very close to prescriptive grammar as it is also based on SE. It’s the language prescribed in grammar boxes of main course books, which does not include other accepted uses according to various dialects. It has an indisputable contribution to learning atmosphere as “language learners don’t want choices; they want rules” (Thornbury, 2012: ELT Journal Volume 66/2 April 2012:242) It also offers a simplification to language use, which is also very popular with learners and teachers as well. A teacher who approaches teaching a language from a descriptive grammarian’s perspective, nothing can be unexplained. So, when a student comes and asks the rationale of “he don’t know he is safe…” in the lyrics of the pop song Rockabye, a descriptive grammarian can say that the third singular person is not marked in some regional dialects and it is correct for those people who live there; on the other hand a prescriptive grammarian can stay on the question a bit more. When a teacher takes on the role of a prescriptive grammarian, he, inevitably, starts to become very authoritative and always tells what to do with the language. So, it’s not always easy to respond to a student who starts by saying: “but, teacher you’ve said that we use does with he…” The reflection of pedagogical grammar or prescriptive in ELT classes is far from its purpose in teaching English. As learners want rules, simplifications and try to get ready for tough exams, some “grammar rules” unique to language classes occur. Such as, using “will” not “be going to” after “I think” phrases, matching always “when” with “past simple” and “while” with “past continuous”, or “always” goes with “present simple” not “present continuous”. These suggestions to the usage of language become life-savers for most students. Here are some correct sentences below which are usually not covered in language classes in order to give simplifications. Instead of giving examples like these, teachers present simple rules which tell students what they can do with language. - I think we’re going to have a sunny day tomorrow. (When we’re predicting from evidence we can possibly collocate “be going to” with “I think”. The use of the modal verb “Will” with “I think” is not only choice that students have for expressing predictions.) - The phone rang when Peter was sleeping. (The conjunction “while” isn’t the only choice with past continuous tense. It’s possible to use “when” here.) - My brother’s always borrowing my car at the weekends. (Here, it won’t be appropriate to use present simple if we’re talking about annoying habits. Nevertheless, an elementary student probably won’t consider that this sentence is correct as it is not written in present simple tense.) These examples contradict with some of the simplifications that teachers make in language classes. In most cases, students who are accustomed to prescriptive grammar lessons do not even read the sentences and do not even attempt to extract any meaning but answer the questions according to what’s prescribed for them. I think the learners who are accustomed to this style of teaching are making more drastic generalisations by themselves as they can be traced in many exam papers. The prescriptive grammar approach is a habit of creating shortcuts in the interlanguage of learners in ELT classes, which also inevitably brings the risk of making wrong assumptions about the language. In classes, when it becomes very hard to explain coach as another type of transportation, it becomes much harder to explain “must expresses intrinsic necessity” and “have to expresses extrinsic necessity”. After you’ve introduced the modal verb must in a unit whose topic is talking about rules, explaining the differences between must and have to will be a burdensome task for a teacher whose learners are tightly glued to prescriptive grammar. The students will not easily come to terms with a teacher who wants to guide them to get the meaning first instead of giving quick formulas to get high scores in exams. Apart from prescriptive grammar’s pedagogical importance, the straightforwardness it provides is irresistible for learners. However, a cautious teacher should also balance his/her lessons with a descriptive grammarian approach, in my opinion. Otherwise, we’ll leave many doubts to our learners when they see various dialects of English or contradictory examples and moreover they will move towards a grammar which excludes meaning but includes forms or patterns only. Any comments, personal experiences in your classes to share appreciated. Thornbury, S. (1997). About Language –Tasks for Teachers of English. Cambridge University Press Finegan, E. (2012) Language: Its Structure and Use, 6th ed. Wadsworth Laurel J. Brinton and Donna Brinton, (2010) The Linguistic Structure of Modern English. John Benjamins Trask, Larry. (1995). Genderless languages: Basque. Electronic publication, Linguist List (ISSN 1068-4875) issue 6.822 'Genderless languages'. Thornbury, S. (2006) An A-Z of ELT: A Dictionary of Terms and Concepts Used in English Language Teaching. Oxford, UK.: Macmillan Education. Thornbury, S. (2012). ELT Journal Volume 66/2 April 2012:242
Perhaps, children have seen these amazing creatures resting on leaves. Or, sometimes, children may see them flying around parks and gardens. Some children may even hold them in their hands. Ladybugs are spectacular wonders of nature. They like to feed on particular insects called aphids. Aphids can destroy plants. But ladybugs can eat about 5,000 of these pests and other insects. Ladybugs or Coccinella septempunctata are considered beetles more than anything else. In fact, they have their traditional spots and 2 sets of wings. However, some ladybugs = mariquitas may have a few spots, one spot, or no spots at all. Some ladybugs can be orange, yellow or the typical red color. But how do ladybugs emerge as tiny little insects of nature? Ladybugs have typical characteristics of insects. They have 6 legs and 3 main body parts – - the head = cabeza, - the thorax = tórax, and - the abdomen = abdomen. It also has a head, eyes and antenna. Sets of 2 pair of wings = alas are connected to the thorax. But ladybugs have to undergo a physical transformation to become the typical beetle. Ladybugs have 4 stages in their lifecycle: egg, larva, pupa and adult. In the egg stage, adult ladybugs can lay up to 1000 eggs in nearby leaves. In a protected environment of shrubs or hidden leaves, these eggs will begin to hatch in about a few days. At this point, they do not look at all like a typical ladybug and they start to eat their eggshells. If the plants have aphids, they will begin to eat these microscopic pests. Now, the larva will begin to consume as much insects or aphids as possible. Its mission is to feed and ingest as many insects as it can. Within the larva stage, a molting process occurs. Molting is the shedding of the skin as an animal increases in size. Ladybugs will molt = muda 3 or 4 times in their lifecycle. Ladybugs will stop eating and seek a place to form a pupa. At the pupa stage, ladybugs will find a secluded and safe place to attach itself to the branch or leaf. Here, the pupa will form a hardening case. In this casing, the pupa will remain there for about 7 days. Its wings will begin to develop and all the other physical characteristics of an insect will take form. At the adult stage, a tiny spotless ladybug emerges from its casing. It will develop its spots, if any, in about a few hours. Most ladybugs will also use their wings to explore their surroundings. By having 2 sets of wings, it allows them to fly from plant to plant in search of aphids very quickly. However, they do have predators. As a matter of fact, the defense mechanism of ladybugs is their red color and obnoxious smell. To some predators, the red color indicates toxic or dangerous. They can release an intolerable smell when they feel threaten. Also, ladybugs like to play dead by turning upside down when predators approach. Another amazing fact is ladybugs are able to swim, if needed to escape a predator. Ladybugs can actually live for many years. They thrive during the spring and summer seasons. And, during winter, they tend to either migrate to warmer climate or find refuge underneath rocks or trees. But no matter where they are, children and adults are always amazed about these fascinating tiny little insects.
The Butterworth filter is a type of signal processing filter designed to have a frequency response as flat as possible in the passband. It is also referred to as a maximally flat magnitude filter. It was first described in 1930 by the British engineer and physicist Stephen Butterworth in his paper entitled "On the Theory of Filter Amplifiers". - 1 Original paper - 2 Overview - 3 Example - 4 Transfer function - 5 Filter implementation and design - 6 Comparison with other linear filters - 7 References Butterworth had a reputation for solving "impossible" mathematical problems. At the time, filter design required a considerable amount of designer experience due to limitations of the theory then in use. The filter was not in common use for over 30 years after its publication. Butterworth stated that: "An ideal electrical filter should not only completely reject the unwanted frequencies but should also have uniform sensitivity for the wanted frequencies". Such an ideal filter cannot be achieved but Butterworth showed that successively closer approximations were obtained with increasing numbers of filter elements of the right values. At the time, filters generated substantial ripple in the passband, and the choice of component values was highly interactive. Butterworth showed that a low pass filter could be designed whose cutoff frequency was normalized to 1 radian per second and whose frequency response (gain) was where ω is the angular frequency in radians per second and n is the number of poles in the filter—equal to the number of reactive elements in a passive filter. If ω = 1, the amplitude response of this type of filter in the passband is 1/√ ≈ 0.707, which is half power or −3 dB. Butterworth only dealt with filters with an even number of poles in his paper. He may have been unaware that such filters could be designed with an odd number of poles. He built his higher order filters from 2-pole filters separated by vacuum tube amplifiers. His plot of the frequency response of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 pole filters is shown as A, B, C, D, and E in his original graph. Butterworth solved the equations for two- and four-pole filters, showing how the latter could be cascaded when separated by vacuum tube amplifiers and so enabling the construction of higher-order filters despite inductor losses. In 1930, low-loss core materials such as molypermalloy had not been discovered and air-cored audio inductors were rather lossy. Butterworth discovered that it was possible to adjust the component values of the filter to compensate for the winding resistance of the inductors. He used coil forms of 1.25″ diameter and 3″ length with plug-in terminals. Associated capacitors and resistors were contained inside the wound coil form. The coil formed part of the plate load resistor. Two poles were used per vacuum tube and RC coupling was used to the grid of the following tube. The frequency response of the Butterworth filter is maximally flat (i.e. has no ripples) in the passband and rolls off towards zero in the stopband. When viewed on a logarithmic Bode plot, the response slopes off linearly towards negative infinity. A first-order filter's response rolls off at −6 dB per octave (−20 dB per decade) (all first-order lowpass filters have the same normalized frequency response). A second-order filter decreases at −12 dB per octave, a third-order at −18 dB and so on. Butterworth filters have a monotonically changing magnitude function with ω, unlike other filter types that have non-monotonic ripple in the passband and/or the stopband. Compared with a Chebyshev Type I/Type II filter or an elliptic filter, the Butterworth filter has a slower roll-off, and thus will require a higher order to implement a particular stopband specification, but Butterworth filters have a more linear phase response in the pass-band than Chebyshev Type I/Type II and elliptic filters can achieve. A transfer function of a third-order low-pass Butterworth filter design shown in the figure on the right looks like this: A simple example of a Butterworth filter is the third-order low-pass design shown in the figure on the right, with C2 = 4/3 F, R4 = 1 Ω, L1 = 3/2 H, and L3 = 1/2 H. Taking the impedance of the capacitors C to be 1/(Cs) and the impedance of the inductors L to be Ls, where s = σ + jω is the complex frequency, the circuit equations yield the transfer function for this device: The magnitude of the frequency response (gain) G(ω) is given by and the phase is given by The group delay is defined as the derivative of the phase with respect to angular frequency and is a measure of the distortion in the signal introduced by phase differences for different frequencies. The gain and the delay for this filter are plotted in the graph on the left. It can be seen that there are no ripples in the gain curve in either the passband or the stop band. The log of the absolute value of the transfer function H(s) is plotted in complex frequency space in the second graph on the right. The function is defined by the three poles in the left half of the complex frequency plane. These are arranged on a circle of radius unity, symmetrical about the real s axis. The gain function will have three more poles on the right half plane to complete the circle. By replacing each inductor with a capacitor and each capacitor with an inductor, a high-pass Butterworth filter is obtained. A band-pass Butterworth filter is obtained by placing a capacitor in series with each inductor and an inductor in parallel with each capacitor to form resonant circuits. The value of each new component must be selected to resonate with the old component at the frequency of interest. A band-stop Butterworth filter is obtained by placing a capacitor in parallel with each inductor and an inductor in series with each capacitor to form resonant circuits. The value of each new component must be selected to resonate with the old component at the frequency to be rejected. Like all filters, the typical prototype is the low-pass filter, which can be modified into a high-pass filter, or placed in series with others to form band-pass and band-stop filters, and higher order versions of these. The gain of an n-order Butterworth low pass filter is given in terms of the transfer function H(s) as - n = order of filter - ωc = cutoff frequency (approximately the -3dB frequency) - is the DC gain (gain at zero frequency) It can be seen that as n approaches infinity, the gain becomes a rectangle function and frequencies below ωc will be passed with gain , while frequencies above ωc will be suppressed. For smaller values of n, the cutoff will be less sharp. We wish to determine the transfer function H(s) where (from Laplace transform). Because and, as a general property of Laplace transforms at , , if we select H(s) such that: then, with , we have the frequency response of the Butterworth filter. The n poles of this expression occur on a circle of radius ωc at equally-spaced points, and symmetric around the negative real axis. For stability, the transfer function, H(s), is therefore chosen such that it contains only the poles in the negative real half-plane of s. The k-th pole is specified by The transfer( or system) function may be written in terms of these poles as Where is the product of a sequence operator. The denominator is a Butterworth polynomial in s. Normalized Butterworth polynomials The Butterworth polynomials may be written in complex form as above, but are usually written with real coefficients by multiplying pole pairs that are complex conjugates, such as and . The polynomials are normalized by setting . The normalized Butterworth polynomials then have the general form To four decimal places, they are The normalized Butterworth polynomials can be used to determine the transfer function for any low-pass filter cut-off frequency , as follows - , where Transformation to other bandforms are also possible, see prototype filter. Assuming and , the derivative of the gain with respect to frequency can be shown to be which is monotonically decreasing for all since the gain G is always positive. The gain function of the Butterworth filter therefore has no ripple. The series expansion of the gain is given by In other words, all derivatives of the gain up to but not including the 2n-th derivative are zero at , resulting in "maximal flatness". If the requirement to be monotonic is limited to the passband only and ripples are allowed in the stopband, then it is possible to design a filter of the same order, such as the inverse Chebyshev filter, that is flatter in the passband than the "maximally flat" Butterworth. Again assuming , the slope of the log of the gain for large ω is Filter implementation and design There are several different filter topologies available to implement a linear analogue filter. The most often used topology for a passive realisation is Cauer topology and the most often used topology for an active realisation is Sallen–Key topology. The Cauer topology uses passive components (shunt capacitors and series inductors) to implement a linear analog filter. The Butterworth filter having a given transfer function can be realised using a Cauer 1-form. The k-th element is given by The filter may start with a series inductor if desired, in which case the Lk are k odd and the Ck are k even. These formulae may usefully be combined by making both Lk and Ck equal to gk. That is, gk is the immittance divided by s. These formulae apply to a doubly terminated filter (that is, the source and load impedance are both equal to unity) with ωc = 1. This prototype filter can be scaled for other values of impedance and frequency. For a singly terminated filter (that is, one driven by an ideal voltage or current source) the element values are given by The Sallen–Key topology uses active and passive components (noninverting buffers, usually op amps, resistors, and capacitors) to implement a linear analog filter. Each Sallen–Key stage implements a conjugate pair of poles; the overall filter is implemented by cascading all stages in series. If there is a real pole (in the case where is odd), this must be implemented separately, usually as an RC circuit, and cascaded with the active stages. For the second-order Sallen–Key circuit shown to the right the transfer function is given by We wish the denominator to be one of the quadratic terms in a Butterworth polynomial. Assuming that , this will mean that This leaves two undefined component values that may be chosen at will. Digital implementations of Butterworth and other filters are often based on the bilinear transform method or the matched Z-transform method, two different methods to discretize an analog filter design. In the case of all-pole filters such as the Butterworth, the matched Z-transform method is equivalent to the impulse invariance method. For higher orders, digital filters are sensitive to quantization errors, so they are often calculated as cascaded biquad sections, plus one first-order or third-order section for odd orders. Comparison with other linear filters Properties of the Butterworth filter are: - monotonic amplitude response in both passband and stopband - Quick roll-off around the cutoff frequency, which improves with increasing order - Considerable overshoot and ringing in step response, which worsens with increasing order - Slightly non-linear phase response - Group delay largely frequency-dependent Here is an image showing the gain of a discrete-time Butterworth filter next to other common filter types. All of these filters are fifth-order. - In Wireless Engineer (also called Experimental Wireless and the Wireless Engineer), vol. 7, 1930, pp. 536–541 – "On the Theory of Filter Amplifiers", S. Butterworth - Giovanni Bianchi and Roberto Sorrentino (2007). Electronic filter simulation & design. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 17–20. ISBN 978-0-07-149467-0. - Matthaei et al., p. 107 - US 1849656, William R. Bennett, "Transmission Network", published March 15, 1932 - Matthaei, pp. 104-107 - Matthaei, pp. 105,974
Module 11 - Microwave Principles 1−1 to 1−10 1−11 to 1−20 1−21 to 1−30 1−31 to 1−40 1−41 to 1−50 1−51 to 1−60 1−61 to 1−68 2−1 to 2−10 2−11 to 2−20 , 2−21 to , 2−31 to 2−40 2−41 to 2−50 2−51 to 2−60 2−61 to 2−66 3−1 to 3−10 3−11 to 3−20 AI−1 to AI−6 Index−1 to Index−2 Assignment 1 - 1−8 Assignment 2 - 9−16 APERTURE - See slot. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS - The two conditions that the E-field and H-field within a waveguide must meet before energy will travel down the waveguide. The E-field must be perpendicular to the walls and the H-field must be in closed loops, parallel to the walls, and perpendicular to the E-field. BEARING - An angular measurement that indicates the direction of an object in degrees from true north. Also called azimuth. BUNCHER CAVITY - The input resonant cavity in a conventional klystron oscillator. BUNCHER GRID - In a velocity-modulated tube, the grid which concentrates the electrons in the electron beam into bunches. CATCHER GRID - In a velocity-modulated tube, a grid on which the spaced electron groups induce a signal. The output of the tube is taken from the catcher grid. CAVITY RESONATOR - A space totally enclosed by a metallic conductor and supplied with energy in such a way that it becomes a source of electromagnetic oscillations. The size and shape of the enclosure determine the resonant frequency. CHOKE JOINT - A joint between two sections of waveguide that provides a good electrical connection without power losses or reflections. COOKIE-CUTTER TUNER - Mechanical magnetron tuning device that changes the frequency by changing the capacitance of the anode cavities. COPPER LOSS - Power loss in copper conductors caused by the internal resistance of the conductors to current flow. Also called I2R loss. CROWN-OF-THORNS TUNER - See Sprocket Tuner. CUTOFF FREQUENCY - The frequency at which the attenuation of a waveguide increases sharply and below which a traveling wave in a given mode cannot be maintained. A frequency with a half wavelength that is greater than the wide dimension of a waveguide. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT - The ratio of a given dielectric to the dielectric value of a vacuum. DIELECTRIC LOSSES - The electric energy that is converted to heat in a dielectric subjected to a varying electric field. DIRECTIONAL COUPLER - A device that samples the energy traveling in a waveguide for use in another circuit. DIRECTIVITY - The narrowness of the radiated beam from an antenna. DOMINANT MODE - The easiest mode to produce in a waveguide, and also, the most efficient mode in terms of energy transfer. DRIFT SPACE - In an electron tube, a region free of external fields in which relative electron position depends on velocity. DUMMY LOAD - A device used at the end of a transmission line or waveguide to convert transmitted energy into heat so no energy is radiated outward or reflected back. E-FIELD - Electric field that exists when a difference in electrical potential causes a stress in the dielectric between two points. E-TYPE T-JUNCTION - A waveguide junction in which the junction arm extends from the main waveguide in the same direction as the E-field in the waveguide. ELECTRIC FIELD - See E-field. ELECTRONIC TUNING - In a reflex klystron, changing the frequency and output power of the tube by altering the repeller voltage. ELECTROLYSIS - Chemical changes produced by passing an electrical current from one substance (electrode) to another (electrolyte). ELECTRON ORBITAL MOVEMENT - The movement of an electron around the nucleus of an atom. ELECTRON SPIN - The movement of an electron around its axis. ELEVATION ANGLE - The angle between the line of sight to an object and the horizontal plane. FARADAY ROTATION - The rotation of the plane of polarization of electromagnetic energy when it passes through a substance influenced by a magnetic field that has a component in the direction of propagation. FERRITE - A powdered and compressed ferric oxide material that has both magnetic properties and resistance to current flow. FERRITE SWITCH - A ferrite device that blocks the flow of energy through a waveguide by rotating the electric field 90 degrees. The rotated energy is then reflected or absorbed. GRID-GAP TUNING - A method of changing the center frequency of a resonant cavity by physically changing the distance between the cavity grids. GROUP VELOCITY - The forward progress velocity of a wave front in a waveguide. H-FIELD - Any space or region in which a magnetic force is exerted. The magnetic field may be produced by a current-carrying coil or conductor, by a permanent magnet, or by the earth itself. H-TYPE T-JUNCTION - A waveguide junction in which the junction arm is parallel to the magnetic lines of force in the main waveguide. HELIX - A spirally wound transmission line used in a traveling-wave tube to delay the forward progress of the input traveling wave. HORIZONTAL PLANE - An imaginary plane tangent to and touching the Earth's surface as established by a stable element, such as a gyroscope. HORN - A funnel-shaped section of waveguide used as a termination device and as a radiating antenna. HOT CARRIER - A current carrier, which may be either a hole or an electron, that has relatively high energy with respect to the current carriers normally found in majority-carrier devices. HOT-CARRIER DIODE - A semiconductor diode in which hot carriers are emitted from a semiconductor layer into the metal base. Also called a hot-electron diode. An example is the Schottky-Barrier diode. HYBRID JUNCTION - A waveguide junction that combines two or more basic T-junctions. HYBRID RING - A hybrid-waveguide junction that combines a series of E-type T-junctions in a ring configuration. IDLER FREQUENCY - In a parametric amplifier, the difference between the input signal and the pump signal frequency. Also called the lower-sideband frequency. INTERACTION SPACE - The region in an electron tube where the electrons interact with an alternating electromagnetic field. INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCE - The capacitance between the electrodes of an electron tube. I2R LOSS - See Copper Loss. IRIS - A metal plate with an opening through which electromagnetic waves may pass. Used as an impedance matching device in waveguides. LEAD INDUCTANCE - The inductance of the lead wires connecting the internal components of an electron tube. LOAD ISOLATOR - A passive attenuator in which the loss in one direction is much greater than that in the opposite direction. An example is a ferrite isolator for waveguides that allows energy to travel in only one direction. LOOP - A curved conductor that connects the ends of a coaxial cable or other transmission line and projects into a waveguide or resonant cavity for the purpose of injecting or extracting energy. LOOSE COUPLING - Inefficient coupling of energy from one circuit to another that is desirable in some applications. Also called weak coupling. MAGIC-T JUNCTION - A combination of the H-type and E-type T-junctions. MAGNETIC FIELD - See H-field. METALLIC INSULATOR - A shorted quarter-wave section of transmission line. MICROWAVE REGION - The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from 1,000 megahertz to 100,000 megahertz. MODULATOR - A device that produces modulation; i.e., varies the amplitude, frequency, or phase of an ac signal. NEGATIVE-RESISTANCE ELEMENT - A component having an operating region in which an increase in the applied voltage increases the resistance and produces a proportional decrease in current. Examples include tunnel diodes and silicon unijunction transistors. NONDEGENERATIVE-PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIER - A parametric amplifier that uses a pump signal frequency that is higher than twice the frequency of the input signal. PHASE SHIFTER - A device used to change the phase relationship between two ac signals. POWER GAIN - The ratio of the radiated power of an antenna compared to the output power of a standard antenna. A measure of antenna efficiency usually expressed in decibels. Also referred to as POWER RATIO. POWER RATIO - See Power Gain. PROBE - A metal rod that projects into, but is insulated from, a waveguide or resonant cavity and used to inject or extract energy. PUMP - Electrical source of the energy required to vary the capacitance of a parametric amplifier. RANGE - Distance, as measured from a point of reference, such as a radar, to a target or other object. REACTANCE AMPLIFIER - A low-noise amplifier that uses a nonlinear variable reactance as the active element instead of a variable resistance. Also called a parametric amplifier. RECIPROCITY - The ability of an antenna to both transmit and receive electromagnetic energy. REFLEX KLYSTRON - A klystron with a reflector (repeller) electrode in place of a second resonant cavity to redirect the velocity-modulated electrons back through the cavity which produced the modulation. REFRACTIVE INDEX - The ratio of the phase velocity of a wave in free space to the phase velocity of the wave in a given substance (dielectric). REPELLER - Sometimes called a reflector. An electrode in a reflex klystron with the primary purpose of reversing the direction of the electron beam. ROTATING JOINT - A joint that permits one section of a transmission line or waveguide to rotate continuously with respect to another while passing energy through the joint. Also called a rotary coupler. SKIN EFFECT - The tendency for alternating current to concentrate in the surface layer of a conductor. The effect increases with frequency and serves to increase the effective resistance of the conductor. SLOT - Narrow opening in a waveguide wall used to couple energy in or out of the waveguide. Also called an aperture or a window. SPROCKET TUNER - Mechanical tuning device for magnetron tubes that changes the frequency of the cavities by changing the inductance. Also called a crown-of-thorns tuner. STAGGER TUNING - A method of klystron tuning in which the resonant cavities are tuned to slightly different frequencies to increase the bandwidth of the amplifier. STANDING WAVE RATIO - The ratio of the maximum to the minimum amplitudes of corresponding components of a field, voltage, or current along a transmission line or waveguide in the direction of propagation measured at a given frequency. SYNCHRONOUS TUNING - In a klystron amplifier, a method of tuning which tunes all the resonant cavities to the same frequency. High gain is achieved, but the bandwidth is narrow. TRANSIT TIME - The time an electron takes to cross the distance between the cathode and anode. TRANSVERSE ELECTRIC MODE - The entire electric field in a waveguide is perpendicular to the wide dimension and the magnetic field is parallel to the length. Also called the TE mode. TRANSVERSE MAGNETIC MODE - The entire magnetic field in a waveguide is perpendicular to the wide dimension ("a" wall) and some portion of the electric field is parallel to the length. Also called the TM mode. TUNNELING - The piercing of a potential barrier in a semiconductor by a particle (current carrier) that does not have sufficient energy to go over the barrier. TUNNEL DIODE - A heavily doped junction diode that has negative resistance in the forward direction over a portion of its operating range. See NEGATIVE-RESISTANCE ELEMENT. VARACTOR - A PN-junction semiconductor designed for microwave frequencies in which the capacitance varies with the applied bias voltage. VARIABLE ATTENUATOR - An attenuator for reducing the strength of an ac signal either continuously or in steps, without causing signal distortion. VELOCITY MODULATION - Modification of the velocity of an electron beam by the alternate acceleration and deceleration of electrons. VERTICAL PLANE - An imaginary plane that is perpendicular to the horizontal plane. WAVEGUIDE - A rectangular, circular, or elliptical metal pipe designed to transport electromagnetic waves through its interior. WAVEGUIDE MODE OF OPERATION - Particular field configuration in a waveguide that satisfies the boundary conditions. Usually divided into two broad types: the transverse electric (TE) and the transverse magnetic (TM). WAVEGUIDE POSTS - A rod of conductive material used as impedance-changing devices in waveguides. WAVEGUIDE SCREW - A screw that projects into a waveguide for the purpose of changing the impedance. WINDOW - See Slot. WOBBLE FREQUENCY - The frequency at which an electron wobbles on its axis under the influence of an external magnetic field of a given strength. NEETS Table of Contents - Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Direct Current - Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers - Introduction to Circuit Protection, Control, and Measurement - Introduction to Electrical Conductors, Wiring Techniques, and Schematic Reading - Introduction to Generators and Motors - Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies - Introduction to Solid-State Devices and - Introduction to Amplifiers - Introduction to Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping - Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas - Microwave Principles - Modulation Principles - Introduction to Number Systems and Logic Circuits - Introduction to Microelectronics - Principles of Synchros, Servos, and Gyros - Introduction to Test Equipment - Radio-Frequency Communications Principles - Radar Principles - The Technician's Handbook, Master Glossary - Test Methods and Practices - Introduction to Digital Computers - Magnetic Recording - Introduction to Fiber Optics
How do hair follicles grow? A Yale-led study untangles the science An outstanding question in dermatology that researchers have studied for decades is: How do hair follicles emerge from a sea of seemingly uniform skin cells during embryonic development? New research findings from a Yale-led team offer answers to that question, which may lead to strategies for regenerating lost hair follicles in adults. To gain insight into early hair follicle development, the research team combined the study of genetically engineered mouse models with single-cell RNA methods to examine the molecular and cellular events that occur prior to visible evidence of hair follicle formation — a process that was nearly impossible to decode by conventional methods. Using this combined approach, the research team was able to predict and validate key molecular changes that occur within a subpopulation of dermal progenitor cells as they differentiate and mature into cells uniquely capable of inducing hair follicles. The scientists found that these dermal progenitor cells can be found spatially within a specific reservoir just peripheral to the forming hair follicle. In their study, they identified a cell signaling pathway that controls this differentiation process and the induction of hair follicles. By modulating this signal in mice, they were able to regulate hair follicle size during the early skin development. Although several questions remain, the findings give researchers clues that can be utilized to potentially stimulate skin to regenerate hair follicles that have been lost, said senior author Peggy Myung, assistant professor of dermatology. “The hair follicles you have as an adult are the ones you were born with, and hair follicles that are lost by injury or inflammation generally cannot be recovered,” she said. But with this study, Myung said, she and her team now have a molecular handle to begin to determine the signals that can instruct adult skin cells to regenerate what was lost. It also provides a paradigm to elucidate how other appendages that follow similar mechanisms of development, such as teeth, first emerge and grow, she said.
Dr. Rosalind Franklin: DNA legend What do viruses, DNA, and coal have in common? They were all studied by Dr. Rosalind Franklin. Though she considered herself a chemist, Dr. Franklin was a multitalented researcher whose work required her to be a skilled engineer, mathematician, physicist, and biologist. Many know her as a driving force behind the discovery of DNA’s double-helix shape, but she had a wide and varied career that led to many scientific discoveries. Dr. Franklin started her science career in the midst of World War II, when she published five research articles describing the molecular properties of coal. Dr. Franklin’s findings had significant applications in the wartime effort not only because coal was a major source of fuel, but also because it was used as a filtration system in gas masks. Some types of coal seemed to allow larger chemical molecules to pass through, while others didn’t. In the course of working on her PhD, Dr. Franklin figured out why this was by describing the molecular structure of coal and observing that the carbon density (the amount of carbon in the coal) and the temperatures the coal is exposed to can affect what passes through it. Of course, this impressive start to her scientific career is often overlooked because of the groundbreaking work she did at King’s College in London, where she helped describe the physical structure of the DNA double helix. In the 1950s, scientists were still learning about DNA’s basic properties, and its physical structure was a mystery before Dr. Rosalind Franklin came along. She had expertise in a technique known as x-ray crystallography, which made her particularly valuable in biomolecular research. This technique traps molecules in a crystal which is then blasted with x-rays. These x-rays bounce off of the trapped molecules in a unique pattern that allows researchers to determine the shape of the molecules in the crystal. X-ray crystallography is notoriously difficult and required Dr. Franklin to be a skilled mathematician—she typically had to do hundreds of calculations by hand in order to interpret the results. Using this technique, Dr. Franklin produced a picture of DNA—which at that time had never been seen before—and proved that it had a helical structure. This discovery is often attributed to Dr. Francis Crick and James Watson because they published a theoretical paper describing the helical nature of DNA just months before she could. Unbeknownst to her, Watson and Crick had been given information about Dr. Franklin’s unpublished findings earlier that year. Without her results, they would not have been able to publish their famous paper describing the structure of DNA. For this work, Watson and Crick were given the Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962; they did not acknowledge Dr. Franklin’s role in their finding until many years later. Dr. Franklin later went on to publish more than 21 papers describing the structure and properties of viruses. Her work allowed us to see biology at the molecular level and gave us a glimpse into the microscopic world. While only 17 years elapsed between the start of her PhD work and her death from ovarian cancer in 1958, she managed to publish more than 40 articles on the molecular properties of carbon, DNA, and viruses. Her work was pivotal to the advancement of science—and she remains a role model in many senses of the word.
Anger and Children – Apologies Genuine apologies are relationship healers. Given that children learn by example, it is essential for parents to apologize when they have messed up. Apologies should not be bandied around like confetti but offered sincerely when appropriate. Equally, children need to be taught the importance of apologizing for unreasonable actions and behavior. Therefore, apologies should be given on reflection and not during the heat of a drama. Young children can be told that when they have calmed down and thought about the way they have behaved, you would like them to give you an apology. This straightforward approach will help enable the child to consider their actions and understand what the boundaries of acceptable behavior are. It will also avoid the issue of where a parent demands an apology during a tantrum or argument only to receive a half-hearted, insincere reply. In such cases, the child intuitively knows that the demand is in effect a verbal punishment. If applied consistently and from a young age, developing a culture of sincere apologizing will help the child to control their surges of anger through being aware what constitutes reasonable behavior. Anger and Children – Compassion Have your child take care of a pet or a plant, every day. The process of investing time and nurturing another life will develop compassion in the child, and in turn, compassion will help quell the fires of anger. Furthermore, there are also therapeutic and social benefits applicable to all age groups (in particular people who live alone or who are elderly) associated with owning a pet and companionship. Benefits noted in various scientific studies related to owning a pet includes having healthier blood chemistry, a stronger immune system as well as lower incidences of depression and blood pressure. In fact, statistics reveal that heart patients who own a pet survive longer than those without one. Furthermore, taking care of a pet can be a great conversational icebreaker. Although debate is still ongoing concerning keeping pets and allergies in children, a growing number of studies seem to indicate exposure in early years, particularly around newborn, decreases or has no increased effect on the risk of developing allergic disease e.g. Lodge et al. 2012, Carlsen et al. 2013. Anger and Children – Forgiveness By nature, most adults have a innate hierarchy of forgiveness: they find it easiest to forgive the actions of a child, less easy regarding a teenager and hardest when dealing with other adults. For example, most people acknowledge that: - The best way to teach a child the concept of forgiveness is through their parents setting a good example and demonstrating it to them on a daily basis throughout their life. However, - When considering older age groups and especially adults, forgiveness is not usually foremost in ones mind when they have been mistreated and deeply hurt. For many people the instinct is to exact some form of retaliation and retribution. Although it may not be easy, being able to forgive is very necessary for one’s own well-being. By not forgiving, you will suffer more than you need to through being consumed by bitterness, resentment and festering anger or rage. As Elizabeth Kenny says, “He who angers you conquers you.” You will continue to be hurt long after the actual offense took place and in so doing, will continue to empower the offender. Unfortunately, many people struggle with the concept of forgiveness and are often confused about their feelings. For example, one of the most commonly faced dilemmas related to this issue involves, “If I forgive the person this time, will they just see me as being weak or someone whom they can ‘walk all over’?” Therefore, to help clarify the concept of forgiveness, it is sometimes helpful to consider general misconceptions about it. Please bear in mind though, that some of the following points may be more applicable to teenagers/adults rather than young children. General Misconceptions About Forgiveness - Forgiving means that you forget about the offense. Nothing could be further from the truth. Even though you forgive, you may never forget (and maybe shouldn’t) what happened to you. However, you can tell that you have truly forgiven an offense when you can remember it without experiencing the emotional pain connected with it. - Forgiving means that you are saying that what occurred was OK. Quite the opposite. We can forgive, but still see what happened to us as being unjust, unfair or unacceptable. For example, there are many things that our partners can do to us that we don’t deserve or that violate the contract, covenant or agreement you have with them. Yet, we can forgive by realizing that perhaps they were misguided or flawed and thus worthy of another chance. - In order to forgive, you need to tell the person that you forgive them. Actually, it can sometimes backfires if you go up to someone and say “I forgive you”, especially if they see themselves as the victim. Fact is, forgiveness occurs in your heart and not in the telling someone that you forgive them. There are exceptions to this, however, and circumstances under which you might want to discuss your forgiveness of them – but only if you think that it will not cause further harm. For example, your 12 year old child asks you for forgiveness following a series of reckless acts which has put the family in financial peril. After a sensible period of ‘rehabilitation’ and a clean record, you tell them that you now forgive him. - Once you forgive someone you will trust them again immediately. Forgiveness and trust do not necessarily equate. Even though one might be able to forgive a misdemeanor, it does not mean that one automatically trust the perpetrator. Trust is a precious item that is built over time and can be shattered in a moment. To trust the person immediately after being violated may indicate you are suffering from low self-esteem. Doing this may also send a message to the person that they may continue to violate your trust with little fear of actually having to suffer the consequences. Trust must be re-earned after an offense, based on good behavior – not just smooth words or empty promises. - After forgiving, you will automatically feel positive feelings again toward the offender. The opposite of anger is not love. When feelings of anger dissipate, we may be left with neutral ones and not those of a fuzzy, warm nature. In certain cases and depending on the gravity of the misdemeanor, it may prove impossible to ever rekindle the love feelings – even after forgiveness. This is common with ex-partners who learn to let go of the anger connected with the divorce issues, but never love each other again. - Forgiveness occurs all at once. Not necessarily. Maybe you can start by forgiving only 10% – just open the door – and then see how the person behaves. After a period of time, you might open the door a little wider and let go of a little more anger until you are truly able to forgive 100%.
Since the terrorist attacks on New York's World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, American Muslims have experienced challenges to their religion and their civil rights and have drawn together in many ways to meet these challenges. Yet internal diversity is great and opinions vary about the beliefs, practices, and organizational strategies that Muslims are following in the U.S. Leaders of Sunnī, Shīʿah, and other Muslim sectarian backgrounds have built strong community and religious organizations. Islamic legal scholars, including progressive Muslims and feminists, and laypeople without Islamic legal training all offer opinions about the role of shariʿah (Islamic law) and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) in the U.S. Some Muslim leaders are building political coalitions across sectarian and national-origin lines, seeking places in American mainstream politics; others emphasize political issues in Muslim homelands, especially in the Middle East. The one certainty is that, in the twenty-first century, American Muslims are working to establish themselves and their religion in American society. While some scholars argue for a pre-Columbian Muslim presence in the Americas, as well as for early West African explorations in the Caribbean, the major early movement of Muslims to America took place from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries: perhaps one-fifth of the Africans brought in the slave trade were Muslim. Few records remain of these Muslim slaves aside from a few narratives and a Qurʿān apparently written down from memory; given the conditions of slavery and racism, most African slaves became Christians. Yet the virtual disappearance of African Muslims in America was reversed in the twentieth century as many African-Americans turned to Islam, developing distinctive versions of it to suit their needs, and as African Muslims began coming as immigrants. Indigenous African-American Muslims were arguably the first in the U.S. to mobilize on the basis of the religion of Islam, and they did so in the early twentieth century, building new and separate religious and socioeconomic communities. Looking for alternatives to white and Christian domination, African-American migrants from the American south to the north created new and syncretistic religions. The earliest movements of African-Americans toward Islam, the Moorish Science Temple (1913) and the Nation of Islam (1930), both asserted “Asiatic” racial identities, explicitly rejecting slave, Negro, and/or African identities. Here American racism was an important factor, for although African-Americans were citizens after the Civil War and by birth, they felt disenfranchised and looked for roots elsewhere. Noble Drew Ali proclaimed his followers to be “Moorish Americans” and Asiatics, and Elijah Muhammad of the Nation proclaimed his followers to be “Asiatic-Blacks.” In both cases contact with early Arab Muslim immigrants may have influenced these movements, but there was little significant interaction between indigenous African-American Muslims and Muslim immigrants. The arrival of a few dedicated Ahmadiyya missionaries from British India in the 1920s did give both movements access to the Ahmadi English language translation of the Qurʿān and some of the “old World” teachings. Second to mobilize on the basis of Islam in North America were Arab Muslims, the descendants of immigrants arriving since the late nineteenth century along with foreign students coming to study in the 1950s and 60s. Christian and Muslim Arabs, the great majority of them Christian, had begun migrating to the eastern and midwestern United States in the late nineteenth century, and initial scholarly work on American Muslims, much of it by Yvonne Haddad, Jane Smith, and Earle Waugh, focuses on them. The first wave of immigrants came around 1875 from what was then Syria (and was later divided into Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine). These relatively unskilled and uneducated peasants hoped to become financially successful in America, but they faced limited opportunities. Most became mine, factory, or migrant workers or peddlers, while others became grocers, shopkeepers, and petty merchants. Early centers were Detroit and Dearborn, in Michigan, and Toledo, Ohio. Coming from the Ottoman Empire in the late nineteenth century, the Arab immigrants were called “Turks” by others but called themselves Lebanese or Syrian Lebanese. As Turks, they were “Asiatics” (Turkey was then called Asia Minor) and were treated in contradictory fashion in terms of eligibility for citizenship. Asians or Asiatics did not then qualify for naturalization—only whites or blacks could be naturalized citizens until a series of federal acts extended naturalization rights to various national origin groups starting in the 1930s. People from the Middle East were “white” in successive census racial classifications, but in 1910 the Census Bureau classified them as “Asiatic” by nativity. Thus Arabs were twice denied citizenship, when they were declared not to be “free white persons” in 1909 and 1914. Both of these decisions were reversed on appeal, the second of them in 1923 (George Dow, 1923), so Arabs were ultimately classified as Caucasian and white and could become naturalized citizens. Early Arab immigrants who did well encouraged compatriots to follow them. Arabs coming between the mid-1940s and the mid-1960s were pushed more by political than economic circumstances in their homelands and many were much better educated than the earlier immigrants. They included Palestinians leaving after the creation of the state of Israel, Egyptians whose property had been confiscated as a result of Gamal Abdel Nasser's nationalization policies, Iraqis leaving after the revolution of 1948, and Muslims from Eastern Europe escaping the ravages of World War II or of communist rule. These Arab Muslims first mobilized on the basis of national origin, together with the far more numerous Arab Christians. By the 1950s, Arab Muslims were organizing on the basis of Islam, although they continued to work with other Arabs on issues of civil rights. Arab Muslims founded the early North American Islamic movements: the Federation of Islamic Associations or FIA in 1953, the Muslim Student Association or MSA in 1963, and the Islamic Society of North America or ISNA, growing out of the MSA in 1982. Under ISNA's umbrella, other organizations developed, like the Islamic Medical Association, the Association of Muslim Scientists and Engineers, and the Association of Muslim Social Scientists; the MSA continues to be active on American college and university campuses. These organizations worked to maintain and transmit Islam, in Canada as well as the U.S.; their focus was inward, on their own families and communities. After 1965, when the Immigration and Naturalization Act spurred increasing immigration to the U.S., new Muslim immigrants began to arrive from all over the world. Reversing decades of discrimination against immigrants from most of the world save northwestern Europe, the American government set quotas that favored nations previously discriminated against and set new qualifications for immigration, preferring highly skilled professionals and the relatives of those already citizens. Muslims moving to the U.S. after 1965 have for the most part have been well educated, westernized, and fluent in English. Twice-migrant professionals from the former British colonies of Uganda and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), the U.K., and Canada have also settled in the U.S., along with groups of less educated and less skilled workers from Yemen, Palestine, and Lebanon. Many fled conditions in their home countries—Iranians leaving as a result of the overthrow of the shah, Kurds, Kuwaitis, and Palestinians fleeing after the Gulf War of 1990–1991, and Afghans and Somalis escaping civil war or famine. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq in the first years of the twenty-first century will send more refugees and immigrants to the U.S. Also after 1965, American Muslims began to form political coalitions on the basis of religion and to encourage participation in national politics. Coming for reasons of professional advancement and often escaping from conditions in their nations of origin, the majority of these late-twentieth-century Muslim immigrants initially sought economic and social status in the U.S., but eventually they sought citizenship as well. By the 1980s, South Asian Muslims from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh had become the third major group of American Muslims. These predominantly well-educated professional Muslim immigrants arrived after the Luce-Celler Act of 1946 reversed the 1923 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court to deny citizenship to people from India; the 1923 decision had termed Indians “non-white” although admittedly Caucasian. (Early-twentieth-century South Asian immigrants, including Muslims from India [earlier Hindustan], were termed “Hindus,” a geographic rather than religious designation.) Diversity among American Muslims increased as Islamic movements proliferated within the African-American community and immigrants came from more countries and more sectarian backgrounds. A brief survey of some of the major groups shows the challenges facing American Muslims who want to unite the community either religiously or politically. African-American Muslim movements have been studied most often in the context of American religious history. The founder of the Moorish Science Temple, Timothy Drew (1886–1929), changed his name to Noble Drew Ali and began to preach that Christianity was the religion for whites and that Islam was the true religion for “Asiatics” (blacks). Unable to read Arabic and without an English translation of the Qurʿān, he wrote his own very different Koran and drew upon symbols, rituals, and followers from Freemasonry and the Shriners. The movement spread from Newark, New Jersey, to major cities like Detroit and Philadelphia; remnants of the community remain today in over seventy cities. The founder of the Nation of Islam, a man of mysterious origin named W. D. Fard, began preaching in Detroit in 1929, calling African-Americans real Muslims who had become separated from their homeland, “The Lost-Found Nation of Islam in the Wilderness of North America.” Fard's preaching was heard by Georgia-born Elijah Poole (1897–1975), who took the name Elijah Muhammad and became the leader of the movement, its “Messenger of God,” after the disappearance of Fard. Muhammad emphasized self-respect, ethical integrity, and economic independence from whites. He also taught that the blacks were the first and last makers and owners of the universe, the chosen people of Allah, and that the white man was fathered by the devil; blacks, he said, had to separate themselves from their longtime oppressors. He too drew on Masonic rituals and symbols, and he encouraged followers to give up their slave names, taking X as a last name. The center of Nation of Islam activity has been Chicago, but temples were established in many economically depressed city-centers, and the message appealed to many imprisoned blacks. By the 1960s internal difficulties were plaguing the Nation. Malcolm X (1925–1965), who had converted to Islam in prison, had become a prominent and articulate leader of the Nation and deeply committed to Elijah Muhammad. Malcolm's personal disillusionment with Muhammad, however, and his inspiring experience of an all-inclusive, universal Islam while on pilgrimage to Mecca led Malcolm X to break with the Nation of Islam. He was assassinated by two Nation of Islam members at a religious rally in 1965. When Elijah Muhammad died in 1975, his son Wallace, or Warith Deen Mohammed, became leader and led the community away from the separatist teachings of his father and closer to the egalitarian and other basic teachings of Sunnī Islam. Having received a classical Islamic education, Warith Deen Mohammed assumed the title of mujaddid (renewer of faith); he has renamed the movement many times—the American Bilalian Community, the World Community of Islam in the West, the American Muslim Mission, the Muslim American Society, and finally the American Society of Muslims in 2001, following the terrorist attacks of September 11. Mohammed's community has a network of mosques, educational institutions (the Sister Clara Muhammad Schools), and radio and print media. A national survey of mosques done in 2000 showed his community was based in the American south and included over half of African-American mosques. Warith Deen Mohammed (d. 2008), however, unexpectedly gave up his leadership position in 2003, leaving the direction of this major African-American Muslim Sunnī community with some 1000 mosques unclear. Other Muslim groups have attracted African-Americans to Sunnī Islam, including the Darul Islam movement, which perhaps peaked in the 1960s, was reformed under Imam Yahya in the 1970s, and then fell under Ṣūfī influence in the 1980s. Other African-American Sunnī organizations include the Ḥanafī movement, the Islamic Party of North America, the Union of Brothers, and the Islamic People's Movement, the latter centered in the Caribbean. The sectarian Ansaru Allah Community, a black nationalist new religion with Islamic overtones, was founded in 1970 by Isa Muhammad, born Dwight York. Influenced by the black power movement of the 1960s, York has consistently opposed American racism, taking new names as his teachings develop in different directions. With its headquarters in Brooklyn, the community has branches in several major cities and maintains an active ministry in the penal system. There are also small groups of black Shīʿah, drawn primarily by the actions and teachings of the Iranian Revolution of 1979. The original Nation of Islam has continued as a separate group led by Minister Louis Farrakhan (b.1933), perpetuating many of its early teachings and working to establish economic self-sufficiency for urban blacks. Nation of Islam members lead local community efforts to keep neighborhoods free of drugs and drug-related crime. Farrakhan's movement is based in Chicago, but other groups also claim to be the authentic Nation of Islam, under leaders in Baltimore, Detroit, and Atlanta. The Five Percenters, a Nation splinter group formed in 1964 under Clarence “Pudding” 13X, believes that its members are the chosen 5 percent of humanity living a truly righteous Islamic life, manifesting the divine nature of the black man, and identified with Allah. The headquarters is in Harlem, and the Five Percenters have branches in major U.S. cities and in many prisons. Five Percenters are among the leading performers of “Muslim rap” and “Islamic hip hop.” Although most American converts to Islam are African-American men who convert while in prison, Islamic leaders in the U.S. also point to white and Hispanic converts, estimating them at more than 100,000. Among the earliest of these was Alexander Russell Webb (d. 1916), U.S. consul to the Philippines at the end of the nineteenth century. Disenchanted with Christianity, Webb corresponded with Mirzā Ghulām Aḥmad (d. 1908), leader of the Aḥmadīyah in Lahore, and eventually became an articulate spokesperson for Islam, publishing a journal called The Moslem World and some texts about Islam. The majority of white and Hispanic converts to Islam seem to be women married to Muslim men, adopting the faith sometimes before and sometimes after the marriage. Immigrant Muslim communities have also increased in both numbers and diversity. The Aḥmadīyah movement, a South Asian missionary movement translating the Qurʿān into the world's major languages and sending agents to the Americas in the early twentieth century, was instrumental in providing English-language materials and basic Islamic teachings to early African-American Muslim movements. Now headquartered in London—Pakistan having declared the Aḥmadīs non-Muslims in 1974—this movement's two divisions have had substantial Pakistani congregations in the U.S. since the 1960s, the Qādiānī based in Washington, D.C. and the Lāhorī based in California. Muslim immigrants settling in the U.S. after 1965 seem to be more committed to their religion. In the mid-twentieth century, Arab Muslim immigrants generally were strongly committed to Arab socialism or nationalism. More recently, however, religion has infused political conflicts throughout the world, and the growing numbers of immigrants from South and Southeast Asia and the Arab world identify more with Islam. These Muslims, led by well-educated professionals, want to establish a strong religious community in their new country. Mosque-building has increased substantially, drawing on the resources of the new immigrants and donations from oil-rich Gulf countries for the construction of mosques and Islamic centers in America. Sunnī immigrants dominate the American Muslim scene, leading the national coalition organizations, the religious ones like ISNA (above) and ICNA (the Islamic Circle of North America, founded by Pakistanis in 1971) and the political ones founded in the 1980s and 1990s (below). A shūrā or mutual consultation council formed under ISNA auspices was and remains dominated by scholars of the Sunnī legal schools, although Shīʿī and female scholars were added in the first few years of the twenty-first century. A Graduate School of Islamic and Social Sciences (SSIS) in Herndon, West Virginia, trains imams for the U.S. armed forces and the prison system. Most of the over 2,500 mosques in the U.S. are Sunnī, and a survey of them in 2000 showed that only 13% had been founded before 1970 while half were founded after 1980. Immigrant mosques tend to employ imams trained abroad, and the sermons are given in the language of the congregation, Arabic, Farsi (Persian), Urdu, Punjabi, Bengali, and so on. In mixed congregations, for example where Arab and South Asian Muslims mingle, sermons may be given in English (as they are in African-American mosques). Although most Muslim immigrants to America are Sunnī, the number of Shīʿah is growing. In earlier decades Shīʿī Muslims were too few to establish separate mosques and often worshipped with their Sunnī brethren. The 1979 revolution in Iran and the Iran–Iraq war sent many Iranians to the U.S., as did the Lebanese civil war and the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. Dearborn, Michigan, is a center for displaced Shīʿah. Many of the more recent Shīʿī immigrants from Iran are well-educated, middle and upper-class secular people, almost all of them from the Ithnā ʿAsharī (Twelver) branch of Islam. They believe that the twelfth imam disappeared in the tenth century and will return at the end of time to establish justice in the world; in the meantime, they acknowledge the authority of religious scholars in Iran and Iraq. Substantial numbers of Iranian Shīʿah have settled in Texas and southern California. The Twelver Shīʿah operate an Islamic seminary in Medina, New York, which provides a four-year course of Islamic instruction for male students studying to be imams and reportedly for female students as well. In the early twenty-first century, 10 to 15 percent of the American Muslim population is thought to be Shīʿī. ShīʿAh have mosques of their own, and in 2002 they established a national organization called the United Muslims of America or UMA. Other Shīʿī groups in America include the Ismāʿī-līyah (Seveners), who believe that Prince Karim Aga Khan (b. 1936) is the forty-ninth hereditary imam. They have established a thriving community in Canada and have small communities scattered throughout the United States, especially in New York and California. Ismāʿī-līs place a high premium on education and have a strong organization in the United States. There are also small pockets of ʿAlawīs from Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey and Zaydīs from Yemen. Many different Ṣūfī movements, mystical schools of thought in Islam, have been established in the U.S., the earliest of them drawing young American converts in the 1960s. Not all of these movements espouse classical Islamic doctrines and practices and some do not require a commitment to Islam. Among the most influential is the Qādirīyah Ṣūfī order, embodied in the Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship in Philadelphia. The fellowship has several thousand converts, primarily from the highly educated middle and upper classes. The burial site of their leader, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, is considered by some immigrants a walī (saint) shrine. Ṣūfī convert groups are also based in New York, California, Texas, Michigan, and New Mexico; in the last, the tomb of Samuel Lewis is also considered a shrine. Some immigrants have perpetuated the Ṣūfī orders (ṭarīqahs, literally “ways”) of their countries of origin. These include the Bektāshīs, whose most thriving location is Detroit's Albanian tekke (a building for Ṣūfī activities) with its resident Ṣūfī sheikh; the Shādhilīyah; the Ishrāqīyah (among Iranians); and the Naqshbandīyah (among Syrians and Turks). The small Druze community in the United States is of largely Lebanese origin, with some members from Syria, Palestine, and Jordan. The Druze grew out of Ismāʿīlī Shiism centuries earlier, and while some Druze in America identify themselves as Muslims, others do not. The Druze are concentrated in Los Angeles, with American Druze Society chapters in several other cities. Another offshoot of Islam in America is the Bahāʿī religion, founded by Bahāʿ Allāh in Iran in the mid-nineteenth century and first brought to the United States in 1892. The largest community is in the Chicago area, with the temple and national Bahāʿī archives in Wilmette, Illinois. Citizenship, Religion, and the Nation: Before and After 9/11 With respect to citizenship and the nation, Muslims in America have taken different positions over time. Of the two early important African-American Muslim movements, the Moorish Science Temple and the Nation of Islam, the first counseled loyalty to the nation, but the second and more powerful movement explicitly encouraged members to reject citizenship and duties like voting and service in the military. The boxing champion Muhammad Ali was imprisoned for his refusal to serve in the military. The early Arab Muslim immigrants became citizens and engaged successfully (where they were numerous) in local and state politics. Many of the large numbers of recent (post-1965) Muslim immigrants took several decades to decide whether or not to become American citizens. Once the decision to take citizenship and participate in American politics at all levels was made in the late 1980s by key national Muslim leaders, however, it was enthusiastically implemented. Now, the several national American Muslim religious and political coalitions argue for the inclusion of Islam as part of Western civilization and the American mainstream religious scene, positioning Islam as a partner with Judaism and Christianity and emphasizing the religious teachings and values shared by the three monotheistic religions. By the end of the twentieth century, both religious and political American Muslim groups were building professionally organized movements, sometimes in competition with each other. The national political organizations developed in the 1980s and 1990s—the Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC) of 1988, the American Muslim Alliance or AMA of 1989, the American Muslim Council (AMC) of 1990, the Council on American–Islamic Relations (CAIR) of 1994—were all immigrant-led. Critiques of American foreign policy and orientations to nations of origin dominated the early goals of many of these organizations, but a shift was underway well before 9/11, toward the rights and responsibilities of Muslims in the U.S. Although Arab and South Asian leaders made efforts to involve some African-American Muslim groups, immigrant alliances with African-American Muslims were relatively weak. The renamed Nation of Islam led by Warith Deen Mohammed was moving close to mainstream Sunnī beliefs and practices, and Warith Deen Mohammed participated in some national coalition activities, notably as a member of the Islamic Society of North America's governing council. All of the American Muslim organizational efforts of the 1990s reflected great optimism about the place of American Muslims in the nation and in the world. The immigrant leaders of American Muslim politics, most of them Western-educated professional men, spoke confidently about representing the Islamic umma not only in America but internationally. Yet in the separate organizations and coalitions they were building and in the surveys they were taking (2000–2001), they were defining the American Muslim community in ways that excluded those they considered marginal: the Aḥmadīs, the Ismāʿīlī followers of the Aga Khan, Ṣūfīs, and the Nation of Islam (led by Louis Farrakhan). Most noticeably, African-American Muslims were minor players in these national political coalition efforts. For example, the coalition formed for the presidential election in 2000, the American Muslim Political Coordinating Council or AMPCC, supported the Bush-Cheney ticket in 2000 and urged Muslims to vote Republican, their primary consideration being the Israel–Palestine issue. African-American Muslims resented this commitment and the lack of consultation with them when making it. After the traumatic attacks of September 11, 2001, on the Pentagon and the World Trade Center, these self-appointed immigrant Muslim national leaders were challenged and often set aside as President Bush, other politicians, and the media looked for Muslim leaders who were less insistently negative about American foreign policy, more willing to criticize Islamic extremism, and more “American” in appearance and accent. They found such “more congenial” leaders among those marginalized by the American Muslim political organizations: Ṣūfīs, Ismailis, African-American men and white women converts, and academics, scholars of Islamic law and civilization. Newly in the spotlight were people like Sheikh Hamza Yusuf, a white convert, a Ṣūfī, and Islamic law teacher; Ali Asani, an Ismāʿīlī and a Harvard professor; Khaled Abou El Fadl, UCLA professor of Islamic law; Ingrid Mattson, a white woman convert and professor of religion; and Siraj Wahaj, a powerful African-American Sunnī orator and imam of a mosque in Brooklyn. These new spokespeople ably represented and defended Islam to the American public. Warith Deen Mohammed, leader of the Muslim American Society, the largest African-American Muslim community, spoke to his group about being American and blending in. Again, he changed the community's name, from the Muslim American Society, with Islam first, to the American Society of Muslims, with America first, as Mohammed said. African-American Muslim efforts to seize the initiative and regroup after 9/11 have widened the split between immigrants and indigenous Muslims, and African-American Muslims have experienced further divisions within their own ranks. On the one hand, members of Warith Deen Mohamed's American Society of Muslims felt that its American roots entitled it to a greater leadership role; they argued that African-American Muslims were well suited for interfaith activities, that their Christian backgrounds had remained relevant after conversion because Islam includes Abraham, Jesus, and others in its line of prophets before Muhammad. On the other hand, a new African-American–led group organized separately from the immigrant-led Sunnī Muslim groups and also from Warith Deen Mohammed, calling itself MANA, the Muslim Alliance of North America. MANA, led by Siraj Wahaj, justified this split-off or necessary additional organization by stating that the existing national organizations did not adequately reflect the concerns of indigenous Muslims. They accused those organizations not only of continuing to focus on overseas agendas but of trying to become part of the dominant white culture. The leaders of MANA also charged Warith Deen Mohammed's community with ignoring the problems facing black Americans, with talking about Arabic and traditional Islam, and trying to join the American middle-class. MANA called for maintaining a critical attitude toward American society and defined “indigenous” as “anyone who is native to America,” thus potentially including all second generation immigrant Muslims. This African-American Muslim separatist initiative is also reflected in academic battles, as a respected African-American Muslim scholar of Islamic law, Sherman Jackson, has strongly attacked Khaled Abou El Fadl, professor of Islamic law at UCLA and part of a newly emergent “progressive” Muslim group of academics. Jackson claims Abou El Fadl and other immigrant intellectuals are accepting white America's claims to “false universalisms” and are overlooking the justifiably different African-American interpretations of Islam and African-American needs for social justice. Immigrant Muslims are accused of being “American Muslim romantics” who try to appease the dominant culture by presenting an acceptable “universal” and progressive version of Islam. Asserting that there are not only New and Old World realities but different realities within the New World, Jackson sees Islam's pluralistic legal traditions as enabling interpretative communities to adapt Islam to their circumstances. Jackson grounds African-American Islam firmly in American, not Middle Eastern, religious history. Yet race, always of crucial concern to African-Americans, has become crucial to immigrant Muslims (though in a new way), as many immigrant Muslims see themselves as being “racialized” as Muslims. While African-American Muslim legal scholars are seeking more radical reinterpretations of Islamic law in America to highlight the needs of poor black Americans or of women, middle- and upper-class immigrant Muslims are mastering and using American law for their own security and protection, turning from concerns of social conservatism to civil rights, justice, and freedom of speech. An important strand of cosmopolitan or progressive Islam—one that might be called feminist—has acquired a high profile in the U.S. since 9/11. The range of spokespeople is broad, including people of all Islamic backgrounds, and it includes Muslim women who are immigrants, African-American, and Euro-American, some of them Ṣūfīs. A major component of this emerging progressive Islam in America is the “gender jihād” (Wadud, 2006), and here too, we see divisions emerging between immigrant and indigenous communities and also based on ideas of social justice. In the early decades, the energy and activity of women among Arab Muslims were crucial to establishing major mosques in Detroit and Toledo, and American Muslims are beginning to recognize that early history and the key role Muslim women play today. The Muslim feminists writing about Islamic history, law, and jurisprudence include indigenous and immigrant Muslim women, with academics Leila Ahmed (an Egyptian), Amina Wadud (an African-American), and Kecia Ali (a white convert) leading the way. They call for a continuing radical rethinking of the Qurʿān and hadīth (traditions), asserting that much of what is now considered divine and immutable sharīʿah (Islamic law) is the result of a long, male-dominated intellectual process. A 2004 “march on a mosque” by six Muslim women (Arabs, South Asians, and one African-American) attracted media attention, and since then, in an even more widely-reported event, Amina Wadud gave the sermon and led men and women in Islamic prayer in New York City on March 18, 2005. Perhaps most significant was the election in the summer of 2006 of Dr. Ingrid Mattson to head the Islamic Society of North America, the largest umbrella Islamic organization in the U.S. and one generally viewed as conservative. Despite the highly negative impact of 9/11, it can be argued that there has been an opening up of the political arena to American Muslims, as reflected in the election of Keith Ellision in 2006 as the first Muslim in the U. S. House of Representatives. This is accompanied by a growing realism and openness on the part of Muslims about differences among Muslims. Muslims have begun to organize to provide reliable information about Islam, producing television programs, publishing magazines, books, and audio- and videotapes, inviting the public to visit mosques, and initiating conversations with Christian and Jewish representatives. The stances of immigrant Muslims and indigenous African-American Muslims on integration into the nation have changed with time. The new organizational efforts and the new and diverging interpretations of Islamic law reflect sharp differences in national origin, race, and class in America. American Muslim political organizations were previously more conspicuous on the conservative end of the political spectrum, with groups at both local and national levels talking about Muslim family values, American immorality, and issues like homosexuality, marriage, and divorce. But now the liberal end of the political spectrum is gaining prominence as American Muslims emphasize civil rights, justice, and the freedom of speech and assembly. Discussion of the new “racialization” of immigrant Muslims usually traces it to political events in the Middle East and Iran and their repercussions in the U.S. rather than to the older American racism against African-Americans. Immigrant Muslims are thus taking up issues of civil rights and social justice concerned with the “war on terror” but are less concerned with race relations in the United States. African-American Muslims are now strongly claiming their American roots, no longer arguing for separation from America but from immigrant or “old world” Islam and from immigrant Muslim leadership. Immigrant Muslims are no longer talking as much about the international ummah or emphasizing connections to Muslims outside the U.S.; indeed, most groups have moved to disassociate themselves from foreign donors and influences. Immigrant Muslims now emphasize their U.S. citizenship and accommodations of Islamic and American law that will grant them justice and liberty. Both groups are increasingly engaged in American society and politics despite their differences, more engaged than has been true historically for either the immigrant or indigenous Muslim communities. - Abou El Fadl, Khaled. Speaking in God's Name: Islamic Law, Authority, and Women. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2001. - Abou El Fadl, Khaled. The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. - Abraham, Nabeel, and Andrew Shryock, eds. Arab Detroit: From Margin to Mainstream. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2000. - Allen, Ernest, Jr. “Identity and Destiny: The Formative Views of the Moorish Science Temple and the Nation of Islam.” In Muslims on the Americanization Path?, edited by John L. Esposito and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, pp. 163–214. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998. - Ali, Kecia. Sexual Ethics and Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qurʿan, Hadith, and Jurisprudence. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2006. - Austin, Allan D., ed. African Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook. New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1984. - Bagby, Ihsan A. “A Profile of African-American Masjids: A Report from the National Masjid Study 2000.”Journal of the Interdenominational Theological Center, 29, nos. 1–2 (2001–2002): 205–241. - Bagby, Ihsan, Paul M. Perl, and Bryan T. Froehle. “The Mosque in America: A National Portrait.”Washington, D.C.: Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), 2001. - Ba-Yunus, Ilyas, and M. Moin Siddiqui. A Report on the Muslim Population in the United States. New York: CAMRI, 1999. - Barboza, Stephen. American Jihad: Islam after Malcolm X. New York: Doubleday, 1994. - Curtis, Edward E., IV. Islam in Black America: Identity, Liberation, and Difference in African-American Islamic Thought. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002. - Dannin, Robert. Black Pilgrimage to Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. - Gardell, Mattias. In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996. - Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, and Jane I. Smith. Mission to America: Five Islamic Sectarian Communities in North America. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993. - Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, and Jane I. Smith, eds.Muslim Communities in North America. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. - Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, Jane I. Smith, and Kathleen M. Moore. Muslim Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. - Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, and John L. Esposito, eds. Muslims on the Americanization Path? Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998. - Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, ed. Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. - Hermansen, Marcia K. “In the Garden of American Sufi Movements: Hybrids and Perennials.” In New Trends and Developments in the World of Islam, edited by Peter B. Clarke, pp. 155–178. London: Luzac Oriental, 1997. - Jackson, Sherman A. Islam and the Blackamerican: Looking Toward the Third Resurrection. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. - Leonard, Karen Isaksen. Muslims in the United States: The State of Research. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2003. - McCloud, Aminah Beverly. African American Islam. New York: Routledge, 1995. - Moore, Kathleen M. Al-Mughtaribūn: American Law and the Transformation of Muslim Life in the United States. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995. - Numan, Fareed H. The Muslim Population in the United States: A Brief Statement. Washington D.C.: American Muslim Council, 1992. - Nuruddin, Yusuf. “African-American Muslims and the Question of Identity: Between Traditional Islam, African Heritage, and the American Way.” In Muslims on the Americanization Path?, pp. 215–262, edited by Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998. - Rouse, Carolyn Moxley. Engaged Surrender: African American Women and Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. - Safi, Omid, ed. Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003. - Schmidt, Garbi. Islam in Urban America: Sunni Muslims in Chicago. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004. - Smith, Jane I. Islam in America. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - Wadud, Amina. Qurʿan and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text From a Woman's Perspective. 2d ed.New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. - Wadud, Amina. Inside the Gender Jihad: Women's Reform in Islam. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2006. - Webb, Gisela, ed. Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2000.
The flashcards below were created by user on FreezingBlue Flashcards. Bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold, silver. Have a relative permeability of less than one Certain areas on an atom that are aligned such that their electrons tend to spin in the same direction The process of combining metals and chemicals to produce electrical energy. The magnitude of the induced voltage depends on two factors: The number of turns in a coil How fast the conductor cuts across the magnetic lines or force, or flux Faraday’s law of induced voltage Iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, alnico and peralloy. Nonmagnetic but have the ferromagnetic properties of iron. Made of ceramic material and have relative permeabilities that range from 50 to 200. commonly used in the coils for RF transformers. The concentration of the magnetic lines of force depending on the length of the coil. A lagging behind. When magnetic flux lags behind the magnetizing force in an iron core The group of magnetic field lines emitted outward from the north pole of a magnet The amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a section, perpendicular to the direction of flux Magnetic flux density The process of moving a conductor through a magnetic field to produce a potential difference. The result of electrons spinning on their own axis around the nucleus The strength of a magnetic field in a coil of wire Magnetomotive force (MMF) Aluminum, platinum, manganese, chromium. Have a relative permeability of slightly more than one When a light beam strikes the surface of a material, they release their energy and transfer it to the atomic electrons of the material. By applying pressure to certain crystals or certain ceramics, electrons can be driven out of orbit in the direction of the force. When the pressure is released, the electrons return to their orbits. Opposition to the production of magnetic flux in a material Electrons removed from the atoms due to friction The placing of two electrodes in a vacuum and heating one electrode causing electrons to flow Application of heat to the junction of two dissimilar metals causing electrons to flow from one to the other DESCRIBE the following materials as they relate to permeability, including an example and an approximate permeability ratio: a. Ferromagnetic materials b. Paramagnetic materials c. Diamagnetic materials Ferromagnetic Materials: Some of the ferromagnetic materials used are iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and the commercial alloys, alnico and peralloy. Ferrites are nonmagnetic, but have the ferromagnetic properties of iron. Ferrites are made of ceramic material and have relative permeabilities that range from 50 to 200. They are commonly used in the coils for RF (radio frequency) transformers. Paramagnetic Materials: These are materials such as aluminum, platinum, manganese, and chromium. These materials have a relative permeability of slightly more than one. - Diamagnetic Materials: These are materials such as bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold, and silver. These - materials have a relative permeability of less than one. EXPLAIN the cause of hysteresis losses Hysteresis is defined as “a lagging behind”. The magnetic flux in an iron core lags behind the magnetizing force. When current in a coil reverses direction thousands of times per second, hysteresis can cause considerable loss of energy. DESCRIBE Faraday’s Law of Induced Voltage, including factors used in calculation and the calculation. The magnitude of the induced voltage depends on two factors: (1) the number of turns of a coil, and (2) how fast the conductor cuts across the magnetic lines of force or flux. The ability of a material to concentrate magnetic lines of flux. The current times the number of turns of the coil is expressed in units called
Children's participation in CCI for CCL This section provides information on Children's participation in CCI for CCL Child participation is defined as an ongoing process of children‘s expression and active involvement in decision - making at different levels in matters that concern them. It requires information-sharing and dialogue between children and adults, based on mutual respect and full consideration of children‘s views in the light of their age and maturity. Child Participation is a Right The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1989, introduced the right of all children to be heard and to be taken seriously. It acknowledged that children are social actors in their own right and are entitled to be actively involved in matters that affect their lives. The provision, outlined in Article 12 of the Convention, states that: - States Parties shall assure to the child who is capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child. - For this purpose the child shall in particular be provided the opportunity to be heard in any judicial and administrative proceedings affecting the child, either directly, or through a representative or appropriate body, in a manner consistent with the procedural rules of national law. Right to participation as outlined in Article 12 of the UNCRC is closely linked to freedom of expression. It is also related to fulfilling the right to information, a key pre-requisite for children's participation to be relevant and meaningful. It is in fact essential that children be provided with the necessary information about options that exist and the consequences of such options so that they can make informed and free decisions. Providing information enables children to gain skills, confidence and maturity in expressing views and influencing decisions. Child participation requires space and time in which children can be heard. This poses a profound challenge to the traditional attitudes towards children, which tend to deny them any meaningful opportunities to be heard – for example, in the courts, in school, in the family or in public policy - making. In many societies, it is particularly difficult for girls to express their views. It is necessary to create safe ̳spaces‘ for both girls and boys where they are afforded the time, encouragement and support to enable them to develop and express their views. With the expression of the child‘s views comes the responsibility for adults to listen and learn from them, to understand and consider the child‘s point of view and re-examine adults‘ own opinions and attitudes, be willing to change them and to envisage solutions which address children‘s ideas. For adults, as well as for children, participation is a challenging learning process and cannot be reduced to a simple formality. Participation cannot be genuine if children have no opportunity to understand the consequences and the impact of their opinions — such non - genuine 'participation' often merely disguises what is actually the manipulation of children, or tokenism. The key to genuine participation is ensuring respect for children's views. In addition to facilitating and supporting activities to foster child participation, it is important to consider how to ensure follow-up of children's recommendations and concerns. Why is Children’s Participation Important? Children possess knowledge and opinions about their lives and experiences that may differ from those ascribed to them by adults. However, on too many occasions they are not consulted. Adults often assume that they know what children are thinking and feeling and so do not ask for their input when making decisions about matters that concern them. Adults need to listen to children in order to claim to speak on their behalf. If not, the decisions they make for children may have negative rather than positive consequences. When participation is done properly and children are effectively engaged, they develop new skills, increase their confidence and knowledge and see that their views are valued and respected. Adults learn both as individuals and in organizations that working in collaboration with children brings a fresh perspective to their work as well as greater credibility and potentially, better outcomes. One of the best examples of the children‘s participation in a CCI is the setting up of children‘s committees. As per rule 40 of the JJ Model Rules 2016, Person-in-charge of every institution for children shall facilitate the setting up of children‘s committees for different age groups of children, that is in the age group of 6 to 10 years, 11 to 15 years and 16 to 18 years and these children‘s committees shall be constituted solely by children. Such children‘s committee shall be encouraged to participate in following activities: - improvement of the condition of the institution; - reviewing the standards of care being followed; - preparing daily routine and diet scale; - developing educational, vocational and recreation plans; - respecting each other and supporting each other in managing crisis; - reporting abuse and exploitation by peers and caregivers; - creative expression of their views through wall papers or newsletters or paintings or music or theatre; - management of institution through the Management Committee. The Person-in-charge shall ensure that the children‘s committees meet every month and maintain a register for recording their activities and proceedings and place it before the Management Committee in their monthly meetings. The Person-in-charge shall ensure that the children‘s committees are provided with essential support and materials including stationary, space and guidance for effective functioning. The Person-in-charge may, as far as feasible, seek assistance from local voluntary organisations or child participation experts for the setting up and functioning of the children‘s committees. Benefits to Children - Children gain a sense of achievement and an increased belief in their own ability to make a difference. - Children learn how to be active and responsible citizens. - Children incorporate responsible decision making into their daily life, which is an important skill they need throughout their lives. - Participation nurtures leadership skills among children. - Working together helps develop positive relationships between children and adults; it promotes a positive image of children within their communities, among professionals and among their peers. - Children are given authority to hold duty bearers to account , to ensure adults think and behave in a way that respects children and childhood. - Children who are used to expressing themselves may be more vocal about abuse or exploitation. - They gain political and social knowledge and awareness of their rights and responsibilities. - Child participation leads to the fulfillment of their rights. - Involving children in our work provides a means of protecting them from harm and preventing them from being invisible when discussing plans, shaping policies and designing services or making decisions that affect their lives. Children’s Participation in Institutional Care Settings Every institutional care facility has its own set of objectives & guidelines for care to be provided to children during their period of stay in a particular institution. Institutions are closed settings which provide a set of services for the care, protection and development of children. There are rules of the institution which children have to abide by. Yet, there are a number of ways that children both individually as well as in groups can actively participate in decisions towards their own individual development as well as to make the services provided by the institution more effective and beneficial. Observation Homes, Special Homes and Places of safety are institutional care settings in which children alleged to be or found to be in conflict with law are sent for care, reformation and rehabilitation. Such institutions are challenging settings to work in. The young people in these institutions are often seriously troubled, have behavioural problems and many times have been neglected and abused. Recognizing these children as young people capable of making decisions for themselves, as well as contributors and partners of the institution, would contribute to their self - esteem and self-concept, nurture leadership among them, help them learn problem solving, conflict resolution, decision making, make efforts towards their rehabilitation more effective and overall would contribute to a more harmonious and open environment within the institution. Making space for children to meaningfully participate, in child care institutions for children in conflict with law would fulfill the principles and objectives of the juvenile justice legislation. Systematization of children‘s participation in CCI would require investment in capacity building of care - givers and orientation of children in the institutions. Approach and Beliefs that care-givers / staff / administration must imbibe to facilitate meaningful participation of children in conflict with law in child care institutions: Meaningful children‘s participation in a child care institution, should be set on the fundamental principles of juvenile justice outlined in Section 3 (i - xvi) under the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015. The care-givers must: - Not equate a CCI for children in conflict with law as a prison for children. - Believe that children are not to be perceived and treated as ̳criminals‘ just because they did something wrong no matter how grave their actions were. - Believe that children‘s participation in CCI has potential to positively impact rehabilitation of children and the management and running of the institution and commit to making efforts to ensure the same. - Believe that every child has the ability to take accountability for his/her actions and reform. - Create an environment in which children feel safe and secure, that they will be accepted, that the juvenile justice system is on their side, and will help them take accountability for their actions, and help them undergo reformation and rehabilitation. - In all individual or group interactions with children, listen to what they say, acknowledge their voices, incorporate their views, requests and opinions as far as is possible in all decisions with regard to care, reformation and rehabilitation of children, as well as in the management and running of routine operations in the CCI. - Make appropriate inquiries, seek assistance from experts, in order to provide children with factual information and provide as many options as possible, explain consequences and outcomes to be expected, which would help them understand their circumstances fully, weigh out options in a logical manner, and make informed decisions about matters that will affect their life. This would include matters related to education, vocational training, careers building , lifestyle choices and habitual drinking, smoking, sexual behaviour among others. - Invest in systematization of children‘s participation in all processes related to rehabilitation, reformation, management and running of the institution. - Maintain and accumulate records and evidence of children‘s participation in the in situation against which it can be assessed. - The concerned authorities should believe in the need to invest in and prioritize capacity building of staff/care givers at all levels to facilitate children‘s participation in all decisions concerning their reformation, rehabilitation and development as well as the governance of the CCI. - Concerned authorities within the CCI and in the administration should make space for addressing concerns, issues of care - givers with the CCI in order to support them, and create a healthy environment where children and care - givers can engage effectively. Spaces to encourage and facilitate children's participation in individual interactions - At the time of Reception / receiving the child in the institution - Setting expectations at the time of receiving the child in a CCI - Orientation of child to the institution rules and regulations - Formulation of Individual Care Plan - Case conference - Case review meetings - During production before the Board/Children‘s Court - Family meetings Spaces to encourage and facilitate children’s participation in group interactions - Children‘s committees for effective running and management of the CCI - Fortnightly Open House Meetings between care - givers and children - Peer Support Groups - Grievance Redressal Mechanisms Managing expectations of children in institutional care From the time a child enters the juvenile justice system, it is critical for him or her to understand what the purpose of the system, what its procedures are, what limitations and boundaries of institutional care are. Similarly, when a child is received in to an institution it is critical for him/her to understand the purpose of institutional care, the procedures of the institution, the rules and regulations he or she would need to abide by, what opportunities he/she should expect in terms of rehabilitation and reformation, while in institutional care. The Superintendent/Person-in-charge/Receiving Officer shall at the time of reception explain all these aspects to the child. The child‘s own expectations of institutional care also must be heard. Care must be taken to present the child with realistic, factual and appropriate explanations because at times a child‘s idea of a residential care in a home and what the institution is capable of delivering is very different. Outcomes of discussions on setting expectations and boundaries should be documented and be taken into consideration during formulation of Individual Care Plans, Case Conferences, Case Reviews and Grievance Redressal. Setting and managing expectations while working with children in groups is vital for achieving the objectives of the group and making the group interactions beneficial for children, staff and the functioning of the institution as a whole. The home staff may have to negotiate with children and come to a consensus, but it is important that everyone‘s views are taken into consideration and incorporated wherever appropriate. The home staff should set time aside to explain to children when their suggestions and concerns cannot be incorporated. Monitoring of children’s participation Ensuring children‘s participation in CCI will always remain a work in progress. Keeping it alive and active in spirit and practice will also require that it‘s monitoring and assessment would need to be built into all spaces of monitoring/evaluation in the CCI. Such spaces would include: - Children‘s committee meetings - Open House meetings - Monitoring and inspection visits of senior management of the institution - Monitoring and inspection visits conducted by external agencies - Appraisal of staff - Case review discussions with children Indicators to assess whether children and staff feel that children’s participation is being practiced - Children feel that staff listen to them. - Children feel that staff respect them and do not judge them. - Children feel that staff respond positively to their requests. - Children feel that staff support their decisions and try as much as possible to incorporate their views and requests. - They are able to take up activities individually and in groups for their development and as per their wishes. - Children feel that staff take time to provide information, explanations, and dialogue and counsel them. Indicators to assess whether children have been able to achieve positive outcomes in the CCI - Activities/projects around the home increase — projects/activities as collaboration between children and staff for development, recreation (eg. Developing play spaces, recreational activities, academic projects etc.) - Incidents of fights disagreements in the institution reduce. - Complaints and grievances of children are addressed transparently. - Information is made accessible to children using child friendly tools and methods. - There is a balance between children‘s expectations and services provided by the institution. - Children‘s report give positive feedback about the institution. - The nature and manner in which records are maintained of children‘s participation across all reporting mechanisms of the institution. Evidence of children’s participation should be found in records in the institution which include - Case files of children. - Manner in which information made accessible to children about their rights, responsibilities, entitlements. - Reports of development/recreational/academic activities/projects conducted by children in groups in collaboration with staff. - Registers and records of peer support group discussions. - Registers and records of staff meetings. - Registers and records of Open House meetings with children. - Registers and records of children‘s committee meetings.
HONEYBEES have been busy – spreading diseases to insects that pollinate crops. It seems imported honeybees are an important reservoir for viruses that kill wild pollinators, which could lead to a meltdown in the planet’s pollination services. World trade in honeybee colonies contributes to honey production and also plays a vital role in agriculture – in some cases there would be no crop without the pollinators. Honeybee colonies in Europe and North America have suffered recent mysterious declines. But now it seems the colonies could be just as much of a threat to wild pollinators such as bumblebees and the many species of “solitary” bees. Matthias Fürst of Royal Holloway, University of London tracked the geographical prevalence in the UK of a non-native parasite called deformed wing virus (DWV) that is often found in both honeybees and bumblebees. The virus is spread by a mite and typically kills bees within 48 hours. The pattern of spread showed that imported honeybees are the major source of infection for the wild pollinators, and that emerging diseases spread by those colonies could be a major cause of mortality in the wild (Nature, DOI: 10.1038/nature12977). “This is a previously unrecognised threat,” says Fürst. While his study looked mainly at how diseases move from honeybees to bumblebees, he warned that the problem “may well play a particularly significant role for already rare and vulnerable pollinator species”. The UK alone is home to around 250 different species of wild solitary bees. Previous studies in the US have found that honeybees carry a range of viruses, including DWV, Israeli acute paralysis virus, black queen cell virus and sacbrood virus, all of which may be passed on to other pollinators. Disease spread by honeybees is one more in a growing list of threats to wild pollinators, says Matt Shardlow, head of UK NGO Buglife. “Pollinators are suffering declines as a result of several linked factors including habitat loss, pesticides and disease.” But, he says, “this study adds to a developing picture that diseases are a major risk to wild pollinators, and strongly suggests that imported honeybees are the main reservoir for diseases”. Trade in honeybees is controlled by the World Organisation for Animal Health, which has rules to promote free trade while restricting the spread of diseases. But Shardlow says governments must introduce strict hygiene regulations to protect wild pollinators, worth an estimated £500 million a year to the UK economy alone. Fürst says there is no immediate threat to individual crops, since most are pollinated by a variety of insects. “But to keep it that way we need to protect our bees and keep populations healthy and diverse.” This article appeared in print under the headline “Honeybee trade is hotbed for disease” More on these topics:
At Boughton-under-Blean & Dunkirk, we feel mathematics is an important and integral part of our everyday lives, therefore a key aspect of the children’s futures. Maths is seen as a hugely enjoyable, yet challenging part of the day for the majority of children. The staff team try hard to make maths as varied, practical and fun as possible, whilst still ensuring that key skills are taught. The National Curriculum for mathematics aims to ensure that all pupils: Mathematics is an interconnected subject in which pupils need to be able to move fluently between representations of mathematical ideas. The programmes of study are, by necessity, organised into apparently distinct domains, but pupils should make rich connections across mathematical ideas to develop fluency, mathematical reasoning and competence in solving increasingly sophisticated problems. They should also apply their mathematical knowledge to science and other subjects. The expectation is that the majority of pupils will move through the programmes of study at broadly the same pace. However, decisions about when to progress should always be based on the security of pupils’ understanding and their readiness to progress to the next stage. Pupils who grasp concepts rapidly should be challenged through being offered rich and sophisticated problems before any acceleration through new content. Those who are not sufficiently fluent with earlier material should consolidate their understanding, including through additional practice, before moving on. With mathematics, the way children solve or ‘calculate’ a problem changes according to the number operation involved and its complexity. The methods/strategies these use get progressively more complicated. This is what we call ‘Progression in Calculation’ (PiC). As a school, we feel that developing children's ability to solve calculations mentally is incredibly important. We have placed a real emphasis on learning our multiplication and division facts and other number facts. Years 1-6 use Big Maths Beat That! as one way of supporting this along with regular time table practise (homework and in class). Any support you can give your child at home is both beneficial and appreciated. However, Maths is ever changing and you may well be unfamiliar with some of the strategies we use in school to teach calculations. Feel free to discuss any aspect of the curriculum with class teachers – we are always happy to help where we can.
Kate Lyman gives examples of classroom experiences when she explored the idea of gender stereotypes among her 2nd and 3rd grade students. - Women and body image: pursue to look like the models in magazines. - Male and females still have the same gender expectation of 60 years ago: women have the major responsibility to take care of the children and the house while men get higher pay in their jobs. Barbie manufacturers made her with tiny waist and big boobs, long and skinny legs, arms, and neck, and tiny feet. Barbie advertising sends this hidden message that a woman should look like barbies and that women want to look like her, hoping that men would like them better. Ads on women's magazines also have a hidden message: If you consume a product (cosmetics, perfume, cigarettes, weight loss) you will look like a model. ** Lyman created an old fashioned school day in her classroom where boys and girls were treated differently: girls wore dresses and boys wore slacks and shirts with collars; chairs and desks were in rows; students followed an "old-fashioned" schedule (hand writing, spelling bees, rote math, and textbook science); lines were divided based on gender; boys were treated differently from girls when it came to classroom participation and work. This exercise made the boys and girls alike to think critically about their treatment: girls were upset at how Lyman treated them and the boys enjoyed all the attention and slack they received. In addition, boys and girls could learn how to be aware of other forms of gender discrimination in other situations.
A Close-Up Look at Worms under the Microscope In this microscope lesson, we will be performing an interesting simple science experiment and activity using the microscope. First of all, we will be using both a low power and a high power microscope. Unlike some microscope experiments wherein we only have to raid our kitchen for samples, this time we are going to dirty our fingers in obtaining our next sample. We are going to dig for worms as part of our field nature experiment. First, we are going to look for a tubifex. A tubifex is a thread-like worm that measures from half an inch to one and a half inches in length. They live at the mud floor of ponds. To obtain one, we have to look carefully at the mud on the bottom of the pond. You will notice that there seem to be a red tinge among the brown. If you look at it closely, you will see that these are actually numerous tubifex. The tubifex builds and lives in a tube. It buries its head inside the tube while its tails sticks up to the surrounding mud. This worm feeds on the decaying organic matter in the bottom of the mud and ejects its waste from its tail. Let us gather the mud where a tubifex lives and separate it from its habitat. We can observe a tubifex under low power binocular stereo microscope and we will see that the worm is actually colorless and transparent. The bright red hue that we see is due to the worm’s blood. If there are a lot of tubifex gathered together, it will give the mud a colored appearance. Tubifex are under the same group as earthworms. Like earthworms, they are divided into rings or segments that can be more clearly seen under a simple child microscope. On each segment, we can see a short hair-like bristles that arranged in a single row on the sides of the worm’s body. They also have curved spines that the worms use in locomotion and are called foot spines. These foot spines may be hard to spot because they retract so it is advisable to compress the worm between a microscope slide and it cover slip. If we look at them under a high power compound light microscope, we will see that these foot spines appear to be curved or forked. There are also aquatic worms that have so many bristles that they are called bristleworms. A species of these is called Nais that are commonly found in mud, algae, or on the leaflets of water plants. Under a low power microscope, they look like yellowish or whitish in color and we can see how the bristles aid it in moving about. Another species that can be observed under a kid microscope is the Dero. The dero measures not more than quarter of an inch and with an end that is broad and looks like a funnel. There are many more worms that we can observe by using a child microscope. One of the most common ones that we can find over submerged stems and leaves are flatworms. Flatworms belong to the group of Turbellaria because the turbulent lashing of their cilia that is responsible for their movement. In viewing the cilia, however, we will need a high power compound microscope. If we only need to know the impact of the cilia’s movements, a one inch objective lens can be used to observe the currents in the water that is created by the cilia’s motion. We will see small objects being swept away because of the rapid motion. One of the most common flatworms goes by the name of Planaria. If we look at these leech-like creatures under a student microscope, we will see that they are velvety black in color and with slender bodies. They have broad heads and a pointed tail and measure about a quarter of an inch long. Another kind of tapeworm is the Dendrocoelum. Under a child educational microscope, they look smaller compared to the planaria and have a creamy white color. These worms are among the many other worms that we can obtain and observe under a child microscope. While they are interesting as well as educational to examine, we have to be reminded that these are still dirty little creatures that can harm our health. Let us remember to wash our hands after the experiment.
For this fact family worksheet, students examine a blank math cube with 10 squares. Students color some cubes red and some blue, then write a fact family for the numbers. 1st - 2nd Math 3 Views 16 Downloads Why Do We Need Measurement Tools? Why do we need standard measurement? Youngsters will listen to How Big is a Foot? by Rolf Myller, compare family member footprints cut out of paper, and conclude why standard measurement is important. They will also participate in a... K - 2nd Science CCSS: Designed A Fictional History of Place Value Your class can explore standard and expanded notation, as well as computation with regrouping. They listen to a make-believe story about cavemen and the origin of numerals and place value. Then apply what they learned about renaming and... 2nd - 4th Math CCSS: Adaptable What Members Say - Shireen A., Teacher
The usual treatment is surgical excision, and the survival rate is 95% if diagnosis is early. The prognosis is worse for those with large lesions, since the disease is more easily able to spread to other organs. There are four kinds of melanoma: (a) superficial spreading melanoma, a small lesion with irregular borders and red, white, blue or blue-black spots on the trunk or the limbs, occurring in about 70% of cases irrespective of age; (b) nodular melanoma, typically a shiny, firm pearl to black bump or lesion anywhere on the skin and comprising roughly 15% of cases, usually in people between the ages of 20 and 60; (c) acral lentinginous melanoma, being a dark lesion on the palms, soles, tips of fingers and toes or mucous membranes, occurring in about 10% of cases and more common in old age; (d) lentigo maligna melanoma, which is a large brownish spot with darkish speckles, especially on skin overexposed to sun and occurring in about 5% of case, frequently in the elderly. Melanomas can also be found on eye tissue. There does not appear to be much mutation-related evidence in the incidence of the disease (unlike other skin cancers). In particular, exposure to ultra-violet light is not transparently related to melanoma; melanomas rarely occur on face and hands, which skin is most exposed to the sun; they occur in ocular tissue that the sun cannot reach; and farmers are not especially prone to melanomas. This stands in stark contrast to the well-established findings tying sun exposure to the less deadly skin cancers, the basal and squamous cell carcinomas. The risk to fair-skinned people is not necessarily above average, although those who tan easily are at a lower-than-average risk. A recent American study found no protection afforded by sunscreens against melanoma. The scientists warn that the use of sunscreens could actually increase the incidence of melanoma by encouraging prolonged exposure to UV radiation. The oldest tumour registry in the USA traces the increase back to 1934, and a doubling of the rate every 10 to 12 years. The incidence in American blacks has remained fairly stable and below 1 per 100,000. It is estimated there will be 32,000 new cases of melanoma diagnosed in the USA in 1994. Australia has the highest incidence in the world: 35 to 40 new cases annually for every 100,000 people. Among Asians, the incidence is low: 0.4 per 100,000 people in Japan. Two out of five Australians will develop skin cancer during their lives. Melanoma (cancer of pigmented tissue such as moles and one of the most serious forms with respect to fatal outcome) is the fifth most common cancer in South Australia and worldwide has been increasing over recent decades by 3 to 7% per year. Between 1980 and 1986, there was a 50% rise in malignant melanomas in the UK (1,827 cases in 1980 and 2,635 in 1986). The more common, though seldom fatal, forms of skin cancer increased from 19,000 to 25,000 over the same period. Skin cancer is the most common cause of cancer in women between twenty-five and twenty nine. 5 to 10% of melanoma patients have a close family member with the disease. People who have had a melanoma have an increased risk of twofold to tenfold of getting another one. People with large numbers of moles, more than 100, are at increased risk as well. One mole in 200,000 becomes cancerous.
Anxiety disorders are serious medical illnesses that affect approximately 19 million American adults. These disorders fill people's lives with overwhelming anxiety and fear. Unlike the relatively mild, brief anxiety caused by a stressful event such as a business presentation or a first date, anxiety disorders are chronic, relentless, and can grow progressively worse if not treated. Effective treatments for anxiety disorders are available, and research is yielding new, improved therapies that can help most people with anxiety disorders lead productive, fulfilling lives. If you think you have an anxiety disorder, you should seek information and treatment. Click on the links below to learn more about these anxiety disorders: - Panic Disorder - Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - Social Phobia (Social Anxiety Disorder) - Specific Phobias - Generalized Anxiety Disorder Each anxiety disorder has its own distinct features, but they are all bound together by the common theme of excessive, irrational fear and dread. For more information on treating anxiety disorders, see:
Instead of generating electricity, power plants could be used as homes, offices and even parks. This conceptual design, named Cypher CO2ling Plant, proposes a future wherein habitable spaces are embedded into the walls of cooling tower structures and use their waste heat to regulate temperatures during winter months. The proximity of the residential units to the actual source of energy would also eliminate various inefficiencies of transferring electricity across long distances, which is a common issue accompanying power plant operation. Designers Kawan Golmohamadi, Shilan Golmohamadi, and Soad Moarefi have come up with an interesting way of making power plants as green as possible, both in terms of energy efficiency and through the presence of vegetation. Large concrete towers of power plants are meant to handle heat rejection, and can be up to 200 meters high. The team envisioned repurposing the structures by relocating the power generating functions underground and eliminating noise and visual pollution by turning the sides of the towers into landscaped hills. This innovative and sustainable solution is a mixed-use urban setting that aims to tackle the issue of environmental pollution and carbon emissions associated with the modern ways of generating electricity. It combines disparate functions in order to create the proximity of living and working spaces and reduce the need for cars.
UNICEF's State of the World's Children Report 2011 was released in February 2011. The report shows that strong investments during the last two decades have resulted in enormous gains for young children up to the age of 10. The 33 per cent drop in the global under-five mortality rate shows that many more young lives have been saved, in most of the world's regions girls are almost as likely as boys to go to primary school, and millions of children now benefit from improved access to safe water and critical medicines such as routine vaccinations. On the other hand, there have been fewer gains in areas critically affecting adolescents. More than 70 million adolescents of lower secondary age are currently out of school, and on a global level girls still lag behind boys in secondary school participation. Without education, adolescents cannot develop the knowledge and skills they need to navigate the risks of exploitation, abuse and violence that are at height during the second decade of life. In Brazil for example, the lives of 26,000 children under one were saved between 1998 and 2008, leading to a sharp decrease in infant mortality. In the same decade 81,000 Brazilian adolescents aged 15-19 were murdered. Adolescence is a critically important age. It is during this second decade of life that inequities and poverty manifest starkly. Adolescents face numerous global challenges both today and in the future, among them the current bout of economic turmoil, climate change and environmental degradation, explosive urbanization and migration, aging societies, the rising costs of healthcare, and escalating humanitarian crises. Young people who are poor or marginalised are less likely to make the transition to secondary education during adolescence, and they are more likely to experience exploitation, abuse and violence such as domestic labour and child marriage – especially if they are girls. In the developing world, (excluding China), the poorest adolescent girls are roughly three times as likely to be married before the age of 18 than their peers in the richest quintile of households. The vast majority of today’s adolescents (88 per cent) live in developing countries. Many face a unique set of challenges. Although adolescents around the world are generally healthier today than in the past, many health risks remain significant, including injuries, eating disorders, substance abuse and mental health issues; it is estimated that around 1 in every 5 adolescents suffers from a mental health or behavioural problem.
The Historical Thesaurus of English The Historical Thesaurus of English contains almost 800,000 words from Old English to the present day arranged into detailed semantic hierarchies. It is primarily based on the second edition of the Oxford English Dictionary and its Supplements, incorporating material from A Thesaurus of Old English. The online version enables users to view the meanings of a word through time, their synonyms, and their relationship to words of more general or more specific meaning. The Thesaurus is an unparalleled resource for research on the English language including its social and cultural history, showing the development of concepts through their associated vocabulary.
'If you were a sailboat' by Katie Melua is a perfect song to practise 2nd conditional. Print out the worksheet and fold it along the lines, so that your students can focus only on the first part of the song. In this part students fill in the gaps using the verbs in brackets for controlled practice. Play the first part of the song and let the students check their answers. Then ask students to predict the ending part of each verse and write their guesses in the (g) gaps. Listen to the song to check if their predictions were right - students write the correct answers in the (a) gaps. Have fun predicting with the remaining parts of the song.
Where to find wildlife-rich places Trees and shrubs potentially grow in just about every situation imaginable on land (except in the most extreme environments) – given the chance. They are not confined to ‘woods’ and so it follows that wood-decay invertebrates can occur in any situation where trees and shrubs grow and where they have survived long enough to produce dead woody tissues which are then available for fungal decay. In the wildwood, even the least mobile species could find suitable habitat from one generation to the next. Nowadays, mobility– the ability to colonise between fragmented and isolated areas of suitable habitat – is a key factor in determining the presence or absence of species. Species with low mobility have mostly become confined to sites which have remained suitable for long periods of time and which are connected to suitable habitat. Fragmentation and increasing isolation leads to attrition, as species-abundance fluctuates and occasionally drops enough for local extinctions to occur. The sites which appear to have the richest assemblages of rare and threatened fungi (according to sightings of fruit bodies) are more or less the same sites that are known to be richest in wood decay invertebrates and epiphytic lichens. We are far from understanding the reasons for this but it is believed that limited mobility is a key factor, as with invertebrates, even though fungal spores are mainly wind-dispersed. These ecologically species-rich sites tend to be the classic old growth areas, where a long and continuous history of land management which favours the development of ancient and veteran trees has been demonstrated. In Britain, these include: - Medieval forests and chases, such as Windsor, Epping, Hatfield, Savernake, Sherwood and the New Forest; - Deer parks having their origins in the medieval period, such as Dunham, Moccas, Petworth, Richmond and Staverton; - Wooded common land, such as Aldbury, Ashtead, Burnham Beeches; - Rough pasturelands where leaf-foddering and/or pollarding have had a long history, such as Bredon Hill and other sections of the Cotswold escarpment, as well as certain floodplain areas; - Traditional orchards, especially where lying within former medieval forest areas. See our section on Ancient tree sites to visit for a full list of sites in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
If I had a do-over, I might like to have studied neuroscience. The brain is an amazingly complex and marvelous wonderland. So much has been discovered about how it functions, and yet there is so much more to explore and understand. That’s why the ANI article “Musical Ability Biologically Linked to Reading Ability” caught my eye. It detailed a study published recently in BioMed Central’s Behavioral and Brain Functions journal, which correlated reading proficiency and musical skill. Researchers from Northwestern University’s Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory in Chicago tested children’s ability to hear and remember words. These findings were compared to reading ability and musical aptitude. “Both musical ability and literacy correlated with enhanced electrical signals within the auditory brainstem,” said research team leader Dr. Nina Kraus*. “These results add weight to the argument that music and reading are related via common neural and cognitive mechanisms and suggests a mechanism for the improvements in literacy seen with musical training.” Children in the study listened to a sequence of numbers and then were asked to repeat them in reverse order. Electrical activity in their brains was measured during this auditory testing. Researchers found that “poor readers” had reduced brainwave response to auditory stimulation as compared to “good readers.” Musical rhythm aptitude appeared to reflect these findings as well. I’m sure these biological findings come as no surprise to Big Universe blogger Elizabeth Peterson, who is an advocate for arts integration in the classroom. Her Oct. 12th post, “The Connections Between Music and Reading,” does a good job of explaining how motivating music can be to an emerging reader. You can also read about Active Listening Snack Time in her post “Using Music to Help Teach Visualization Strategies.” She is the author of the book “Inspired by Listening.” Other Articles You May Like: - “Musical Ability May Help Hone Mental Ability – Study” - “Making Music Boosts Brain’s Language Skills” - “Anatomically Distinct Dopamine Release during Anticipation and Experience of Peak Emotion to Music” - “The Effects of Music Instruction on Emergent Literacy Capacities among Preschool Children: A Literature Review” Big Universe Books for the Budding Neuroscientist - The Brain, (Teacher Created Materials Publishing), Interest Age: 6-12. - The Nervous System, (Bellwether Publishing) Interest Age: 9-12. Note: Dr. Nina Kraus is a Northwestern University professor of neurobiology, physiology and otolaryngology. She investigates the neurobiology underlying speech and music perception and learning-associated brain plasticity. Dr. Kraus studies normal listeners throughout the lifespan, clinical populations (poor readers, autism, hearing loss), musicians and animal models. Her method of assessing the brain’s encoding of sounds has been adapted as BioMARK (biological marker of auditory processing), a commercial product that helps educators and clinicians better diagnose learning disabilities.
FC: Design an Ecosystem: \| By: Ashlee Shoup, Sam Barbier, Kayla Morgan, and Jacob Ramsey \| Hotnesstopia 4: Climate \| -Extremely hot during the day. -Cold temperatures during the night. -Very little rainfall. -Extreme environments. -High pressure. 5: -Sandy. -Little vegetation. -Dry. -Clear skies. -Bright sun. -Rarely cloudy. -Uncommon rain clouds. \| Geography 7: Biological Community 8: Producers \| Common Name: Prickles Scientific Name: Prickley Holdernum Description: Able to hold water within its walls and contain it for a good amount of time to ensure its and other species survival. Habitat: Near wildflowers and other shrubbery. Population Size: Less then one hundred of these exist to preserve resources. Usefulness: Animals can go into it this with special adaptations and take the water. Sensitivity to Environment: Need some rainfall to be operational. Only few animals have the ability to get into the plat because of its protective prickly characteristics. 9: Nutrition for producers come from photosynthesis. \| Common Name: Pretty flower Scientific Name: Parasitis Flowerae Description: This wildflower produces food for others as the other producer but can be poison to small lizards because their pollen kills them. Habitat: Away from the rest of wildflowers because it is a very dominant producer and kills anything that shares its space. Population Size: Only 5 in the environment. Usefulness: Produces food for other animals and manages lizard population. Sensitivity to Environment: Kills lizards but can be eaten by coyotes and other animals is done so carefully to avoid toxic pollen. 10: Common Name: Small thing. Scientific Name: Hotnesstopia Mouseness. Nutrition: Eats wildflowers and has claws that allows it to enter Prickleys. Description: Big eyes for seeing at night, sharp claws for going into Prickleys, and able to function on low amounts of water. Habitat: Lives in rock formations during the day to hide from the intense temperatures and at nights roams for food. Population Size: About 200. Usefulness: Eats producers, secondary consumers eat it. Herbivore Sensitivity to Environment: Can not come out during the day because the temperature is too much for it so it has adapted to coming out at night. \| Primary \| Common Name: Turtley Scientific Name: Hotnesstopia Turtlness Nutritions: Eats primary producers like wildflowers because its pollen has no affect on it. Description: Large shell for storing water, can hide in ground till cooler temperatures appear. Habitat: Under ground or in tumbleweeds. Population Size: About 150 exist. Usefulness: Keep the amount of wildflowers in control. Herbivore. Sensitivity to Environment: Alergic to the Giant Yucky so it dies when its near it, and can eat the wildflowers with no problem. 11: Common Name: Lizardy Scientific Name: Lizardy Hotness Nutrition: Eats mainly wildflowers but can eat prickley if it needs too. Description: About 10 feet long, Habitat: The entire sandy part of the desert, likes to reside nears Prickleys so it can rest its head in the shade it produces. Population Size: About 75. Usefulness: People like its skin because it makes nice clothes designs, also helps creepy crawlys because it can hide on top of it and the lizardy doesnt care less. Herbivore. Sensitivity to Environment: Its massive size makes it an eating machine so food is sometimes hard to satisfy. Nutrition: \| Consumers 12: Common Name: Slitherer Scientific Name: Slitherying Serpant. Nutrition: Eats primary consumers mainly. Description: Fast reflexis to be able to chase after its favorite prey the Small thing. Un-lockable jaw to swallow it whole as well. Habitat: It stalks in the low shrubbery so its prey can not see it coming. Population Size: About 25. Usefulness: Keeping the population of primary consumers to a minimum and its skin is popular amongst humans for clothing and fashion. Omnivore. Sensitivity to Environment: Blood changes with temperature so during the cold nights the Slitherer has to hide and keep warm. \| Secondary 13: Common Name: Creepy crawly. Scientific Name: Slitherer helper. Nutrition: Eats mainly the same thing as the Slitherer and whatever left overs the lizard has because it is an omnivore. Description: Multiple legs for catching its prey and sharp teeth to bite its prey. Habitat: Lives on the backs of lizardys because they have a commensalistic relationship. Population Size: About 15. Usefulness: Kills unnecessary excesses of populations. Sensitivity to Environment: Alot of the tourists that come through are afraid of this creature so they are often stepped on and murdered. \| Consumers 14: Common Name: Woofie. Scientific Name: Woof Devourer. Nutrition: Eats any small animals it can get its hands on. Description: Very sharp teeth for tearing apart small animals, large ears to be able to hear just he slightest of footprints, and an active nose that smells everything. Habitat: Stays in the shades of buildings built by the humans. Population Size: About 7. Usefulness: Keep lower population in check and attract tourists to come and see its adorable beauty. Carnivore. Sensitivity to Environment: Light coat that allows it to stay cool in the heat. \| Tertiary 15: Common Name: Killer. Scientific Name: Beakus Breakus. Nutrition: Is capable of pecking animals twice its size to death but mainly feeds on small lower level animals. Description: Large curved beak for shadering bones in its prey so it lays helpless in its path. Habitat: Stays in Prickleys. Population Size: 2 in existance. Usefulness: Ultimate predator, king of the food chain. Sensitivity to Environment: Feathers allow air to get to the bird so it does not overheat. \| Consumers 16: Common Name: Poopy bug. Scientific Name: Beetles Wastus. Nutrition: Can eat any of the dead matter in the Hotnesstopia ecosystem. Description: Very small but fast acting, can smell dead organisms for 100 miles away then it swiftly disposes of the problem. Can be considered a relationship with the environment in general because it doesn't allow waste to sit around and pollute the environment. Habitat: Roams around the ecosystem and only really stops when no food can be found when it then recides in the ground. Population Size: 1000. Usefulness: To get rid of waste and negative items. Sensitivity to Environment: Easily eaten by many of the consumers by mistake but taste very nasty. \| Decomposer 17: Common Name: Birdie. Scientific Name: Volturess Eatanytiss. Nutrition: Eats any dead animal and even picks at those that are living but appear as easy targets. Description: Sharp break for pecking and getting meat out from between bones, sharp claws, and powerful eyes to be able to see the sand from great heights. Habitat: Resides in nests that they make on top of Prickley's because their prickles do not hurt them. Population Size: About 10. Usefulness: Eating useless matter. Sensitivity to Environment: Is a very weak bird so has to go for simple prey, if simple prey die off he has no source of food unless more dominant animals die. \| Scavenger 18: Food Web \| Producers: Pretty Flowers Prickley \| Primary Consumers: Small thing. Turtley. Lizardy. \| *arrows represent the flow of energy from the producers through the consumers to the eventual flow to a scavenger or decomposer (which can consume any of these creatures) 19: Secondary Consumers: Slitherer Creepy Crawly \| Tertiary Consumers: Woofie. Killer. \| Scavengers and Decomposers: Poopy bug. Birdie. 20: Symbiosis \| Parasitism: The pretty flowers have a toxic pollen in them that causes the small thing to die off. The Small thing can not handle this substance but the wildflower grows stronger with ashes from the small thing. Make one side benefit and one side have a negative consequence. 21: Mutualism: The creepy crawly and the slitherer both kill primary consumers but never can finish the whole things so they give the remains to the other, both benefiting in this relationship. \| Commensalism: The lizardy's massive size allows the creepy crawly to hitch a ride from place to place, the lizard does not care at all but the creepy crawly is benefited. 22: Environmental \| Our natural disaster consisted of a really long dry period, even more severe then our ecosystem is accustomed too. All of the plants died off because the water was not being delivered, but then humans came and discovered the land and solved the problem. They decided to put in a giant swimming pool as a tourist attraction that allows the plants to be able to take from the pool when it needs water and allow money to be raised for awareness of the interesting Hotnesstopia landscape. The Prickly was completely whiped out by the 23: Impact \| disaster, that is all except for one. When humans came they saved the last of the species and repopulated it genetically and programmed it to be able produce its own water. The mousey could not survive on the water from the prickley like it had used to so it had to start trying to eat the wildflower and eventually caused the dramatic decrease in that population. Our ecosystem will just have to recover with the new watering programs implemented in. A law was made to make sure no one misused the Hotnessopia land so it will always be safe.
Reaching the North Pole From the start, the grueling race to the top of the world was based on math. The potential for a shorter trade route between Europe and the Orient – and thus, the joys of amped-up profits – pushed the first explorers north in the 15th and 16th centuries. But the mythical Northwest Passage turned out to be mostly that – mythical – so later explorers turned their focus to another number: 90°N, the planet's northernmost point, which promised only glory. A British sailor named Constantine John Phipps made one of the first attempts in 1773; he reached 80°48' before the weather (Arctic temps can plunge to -90°F) sent him packing. Subsequent expeditions yielded harrowing outcomes. Adolphus Greely's 1881 effort saw its few survivors subsisting on boiled rope and boot soles, and an 1879 attempt resulted in a desperate, mostly fatal struggle to get back to civilization, with survivors rowing and wading through mazes of ice and frozen marsh. The beached relics of that attempt inspired a young Norwegian named Fridtjof Nansen, who surmised from the wrecks' locations that a previously unknown current might get him within sledging distance of the pole. With a ship designed to freeze safely into the ice and ride the floe toward the pole, Nansen got within 200 miles – though he only survived thanks to a lucky encounter with another expedition. An attempt led by the Duke of Abruzzi followed in 1899; the Italian team opted to trek rather than ski, wearing reindeer hide boots insulated with dried grass. They made it closer still, setting the stage for two dramatic – and possibly successful – American quests. In 1909 Admiral Robert Peary, along with an African-American explorer named Matthew Henson and four Inuit men, claimed to have reached the pole. Notorious hoaxer Frederick Cook claimed to have reached it one year earlier. Experts are still hashing out each claim. In any case, the equation was ultimately solved. Humans had finally stood, chattering, at that point on the grid where every step leads southward. And it was cold.
Click to view slide show Vocal Folds (also called Vocal Cords) “Fold-like” soft tissue that is the main vibratory component of the voice box; comprised of a cover (epithelium and superficial lamina propria), vocal ligament (intermediate and deep laminae propria), and body (thyroarytenoid muscle) Glottis (also called Rima Glottides) Opening between the two vocal folds; the glottis opens during breathing and closes during swallowing and sound production Understanding Voice DisordersKnowing how normal voice is produced and the roles the voice box and its parts play in speaking and singing helps patients understand their voice disorders Voice “As We Know It” The “spoken word” results from three components of voice production: voiced sound, resonance, and articulation. - Voiced sound: The basic sound produced by vocal fold vibration is called “voiced sound.” This is frequently described as a “buzzy” sound. Voiced sound for singing differs significantly from voiced sound for speech. - Resonance: Voice sound is amplified and modified by the vocal tract resonators (the throat, mouth cavity, and nasal passages). The resonators produce a person’s recognizable voice. - Articulation: The vocal tract articulators (the tongue, soft palate, and lips) modify the voiced sound. The articulators produce recognizable words. Speaking and singing involve a voice mechanism that is composed of three subsystems. Each subsystem is composed of different parts of the body and has specific roles in voice production. \|Subsystem\|\|Voice Organs\|\|Role in Sound Production\| \|Air pressure system\|\|Diaphragm, chest muscles, ribs, abdominal musclesLungs\|\|Provides and regulates air pressure to cause vocal folds to vibrate\| \|Vibratory system\|\|Voice box (larynx)Vocal folds\|\|Vocal folds vibrate, changing air pressure to sound waves producing “voiced sound,” frequently described as a “buzzy sound”Varies pitch of sound\| \|Resonating system\|\|Vocal tract: throat (pharynx), oral cavity, nasal passages\|\|Changes the “buzzy sound” into a person’s recognizable voice\| Key Function of the Voice Box The key function of the voice box is to open and close the glottis (the space between the two vocal folds). - Role in breathing: Open glottis - Role in cough reflex: Close, then open glottis - Role in swallowing: Close glottis - Role in voice: Close glottis and adjust vocal fold tension (plus additional functions for singing) - Vocal folds Breakdowns can occur in any one or all three subsystems of voice production. This patient education series focuses on voice disorders, specifically breakdowns in the vibratory system.
Sjögren's (pronounced "show grins") syndrome is a chronic (or lifelong) condition that causes dry mouth and dry eyes. The syndrome also can affect any of the body's glands, including those that secrete sweat, saliva and oil. Sjögren's syndrome is an autoimmune disorder, meaning the body's immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own cells and organs. In this case, the immune system attacks the organs that normally produce lubricating fluid, including the salivary glands in the mouth and the lacrimal glands in the eye. This leads to scarring and, eventually, a marked reduction in tear and saliva production, which causes dryness of the eyes and mouth. Dry mouth and dry eyes can lead to tooth decay, periodontal disease, poorly fitting dentures, salivary gland stones, infection of the salivary glands, oral fungal infections (thrush), mouth sores, weight loss, malnutrition, bacterial conjunctivitis (a bacterial infection of the conjunctiva), corneal damage and vision loss. Named after Swedish eye doctor Dr. Henrik Sjögren, this syndrome can affect people of all ages and races. However, 90% of all cases involve women, most commonly between the ages of 45 and 55. The condition affects between 2 million and 4 million people in the United States. The cause of this disease is unknown. Research is ongoing, including recent discoveries that certain genes may make a person more prone to developing Sjögren's syndrome. About half of people with Sjögren's syndrome also have another connective-tissue disease such as rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE or lupus). In these people, Sjögren's syndrome is referred to as a secondary condition. In people without another connective-tissue disease, Sjögren's syndrome is called a primary condition.
1. Estimate the molecular structure: - The unique atom is often central. - Hydrogen is usually terminal (can bond only to one other atom). - Connect all atoms by at least one bond. 2. Add up all valence electrons (never make a mistake here). - If the molecule has a net positive or negative charge, adjust accordingly by subtracting or adding electrons. 3. Subtract the number of valence electrons used in bonds from the total number of valence electrons. The remaining number of electrons are distributed according to the octet rule. (Hydrogen is an exception, of course, as might be Li, Be, and B.) Realize that electrons do not belong to any element; they can go where needed. Use multiple bonds (double or triple bonds) if necessary, that is, if you do not have enough electrons, share them by making multiple bonds. - Any unpaired electrons can be joined to form multiple bonds as - Prefer to distribute electrons onto more electronegative atoms over less electronegative atoms. 4. For the major contributing form, prefer a form with the lowest formal charges on its atoms (the minimum charge separation). In the formula below, for Groups from 13-18, use 3-8) 5. The formal charge of the ion or molecule is the sum of the formal charges of all of the atoms. 6. The octet rule takes precedence over choosing the lowest formal charge guideline, i.e., do not prefer a lower formal charge atom if the atom must become electron deficient to do so. Disregard this guideline if dealing with an element which is often electron deficient, as Li, Be, or B. 7. For the major contributing form, if you have a choice, put the negative charge on the most electronegative element and the positive charge on the least electronegative element. 8. If an atom has N valence electrons, it often forms 18-N covalent bonds. Elements found in Groups 14 -17 are most likely to obey the "18-N rule." It is more of a guideline than a rule. Generally halogens have 1 bond, O has 2 bonds, N has 3 bonds, and C has 4 bonds. The 18-N “rule" won't work when a coordinate covalent (donor-acceptor) bond exists.

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