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NASA announced that strong evidences of briny water have been found on mars. Thus, may be life can be possible on Mars. The water flowing on the planet is surely a step towards possible human life on Mars. Astrobiologists have always suspected that Mars was partially covered by water. Not just this, the scientists also believed (billion years ago) that the planet had a primitive ocean. The formations on the surface of Mars suggested the flow of water on the planet was for a significant period of time. [ Must read: NASA to Use Hoverboard Technology for Controlling Satellites ] It became pretty clear in the recent years that water was present on Mars in one or the other form. It existed in the form of massive glaciers near the poles, large sheets in gullies and craters and surface deposits of ice. In 2013, some scientists recognized geographic features suggesting the briny water near the equator of Mars. According to the director of planetary science at NASA, Mars was thought as a dry, arid planet in the past, but it is certainly not the dry planet. Another exciting finding is the presence of briny water, i.e. the water is a bit salty. This promotes the life on Mars even more. [ Also read: Sounds Yuck.. NASA Plans to Make Food Out of Human Waste ] It is reported that the planet also had clouds, deep ocean, fresh lakes and snowy mountain tops. All that water got dissipated. The scientists still have not found the reason that why that happened.
The costly, time-consuming process of making, distributing and administering millions of seasonal flu vaccines would become obsolete if researchers could design a vaccine that confers decades-long protection from any flu virus strain. Making such a universal influenza vaccine is feasible but licensing it may require innovation on several fronts, including finding new ways to evaluate the efficacy of vaccine candidates in clinical trials, conclude scientists from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), part of the National Institutes of Health. In a Nature Medicine commentary, authors Anthony S. Fauci, M.D., NIAID director, and Gary J. Nabel, M.D., Ph.D., director of the NIAID Vaccine Research Center, contrast the envisioned universal influenza vaccine with today's seasonal influenza vaccines. Current seasonal flu vaccines prompt immune responses that mimic those made following natural exposure to the flu virus. Both exposure and vaccination elicit antibodies directed at the roundish head portion of a lollypop-shaped flu protein called hemagglutinin (HA). But the composition of HA's head changes from year to year, gradually becoming unrecognizable to previously made antibodies. Thus, vaccination -- which induces antibodies tailored to that year's HA head region -- must be repeated annually to maintain immunity to the virus. A universal flu vaccine would have to elicit a type of immune response that rarely occurs naturally, note Drs. Fauci and Nabel. A detailed understanding of flu virus structure may make such a vaccine possible, they add. For example, scientists have identified a region of HA's stem that is shared among diverse strains, and a research group at NIAID's Vaccine Research Center recently created influenza vaccines that elicit antibodies aimed at this shared region, rather than at the quick-changing head. Animals that received the experimental vaccines were protected from a diverse array of flu virus strains. In essence, say the authors, thanks to the growing body of knowledge about flu viruses and their interactions with the cells of humans and animals they infect, it may one day be possible to make a universal flu vaccine that improves on nature. They also outline how such a vaccine might proceed through stages of clinical testing and on toward licensing. For example, they sort the 16 known influenza virus subtypes into three tiers based on their likelihood of causing widespread disease in humans. Drs. Fauci and Nabel suggest that vaccine development might be prioritized to produce first-generation universal influenza vaccine candidates that protect against multiple virus strains within the highest priority group. The above story is based on materials provided by NIH/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. - GJ Nabel and AS Fauci. Induction of unnatural immunity: Prospects for a broadly protective universal influenza vaccine. Nature Medicine, 16, 1389-1391 (6 December 2010) DOI: 10.1038/nm1210-1389 Cite This Page:
About Us \| How to Participate \| Biodiversity Modules \| 1. Everything is Connected This is an in-class activity to demonstrate the interdependence of living creatures to each other and to their environment. - Discuss with students the elements needed by all animals for survival; food, shelter, water, appropriate habitat. Students should also understand the terms herbivore, omnivore, carnivore, predator, - An example of a student drawn web - see below How did the student use the arrows? (predator to prey or energy source to user) Do you see any errors? If the Cooper's Hawk arrow to the Gopher Snake means prey to predator, then Columbian Ground Squirrel, which way should the arrow point from the hawk to gopher? - Give students reading assignments and write a summary of what they read from the Glenrose Watershed Gazette - This newsletter was produced by 130 7th and 8th graders. See a list of stories in the Glenrose Watershed Gazette >> - Have students stand in an open space. - Give each student an Ecosystem Element Card. - Give one student the ball of string. The student will tell the “element” on his/her card. This student holds the end of the string when passing the ball of string. - Other students will look at their cards to determine if they are connected. - The ball will be passed to the student holding a connecting card. ( Multiple connections are possible.) - Repeat steps 3-5 until all the element cards are connected. Here is another option: - Photocopy the ecosystem cards and pass them out to your students. - One student will go to the whiteboard and write their element on the board. - Each student will take turns going to the whiteboard and drawing lines to connect their element with an element on the board. - When students have a duplicate element, they should connect it to a different element. Student Guide » Carnivore - any animal that feeds on flesh (Example: "A lion is a large carnivore.") Herbivore - any animal that feeds chiefly on grass and other plants (Example: "Horses are herbivores") Omnivore - an animal that feeds on both animal and vegetable substances. Predator - any animal that lives by preying on other animals. Prey - animal hunted or caught for food.
A ball is thrown upward with a velocity of 30.0 m/s. Compute for: a. the time to reach the maximum height b. the maximum height reached c. the time before the ball returns to the origin d. the velocity with which the ball returns to the origin 1 Answer \| Add Yours Let's assume that the initial height is zero. If not, nothing changes but the question b.: what is the maximum height reached over the initial height? Denote the initial velocity as `V_0.` It is positive and upward. The velocity of the ball as a function of time is and the height of the ball is where `g approx 10m/s^2` is the gravity acceleration. The maximum height is reached when `V(t_1)` is zero. It is going to be negative after that moment, so the ball starts to fall. at `t_1=V_0/(g)=3(s).` This is the answer to the question a. b. The maximum height is `H(t_1)=V_0V_0/(g)-(g(V_0)^2/(g^2))/2=(V_0^2)/(2g).` In this case it is 900/20=45 (m). c. The time `t_2` when the ball returns to the origin is when `H(t_2)=0,` i.e. The root `t_2=0` corresponds to the initial moment while `t_2=(2V_0)/(g)` =6(s) is the return time. It is no surprise that `t_2=2t_1` because the path of the ball is symmetrical. d. `V(t_2)=V_0-gt_2=V_0-g(2V_0)/(g)=-V_0` =-30(m/s). This means 30m/s downwards, also no surprise. Of course all above is true if we ignore the air resistance (which is not entirely correct). We’ve answered 319,631 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
Urbanisation and land use changes have an ongoing and important effect on the evolution of organisms in these spaces. A new study led by the University of Washington has examined 1.600 instances of changes in species’ observable traits (phenotypic change), such as size and behaviour. It found that urbanisation is driving phenotypic change across a wide number of species. “We found a clear urban signal of phenotypic change — and greater phenotypic change in urbanizing systems compared to natural and non-urban anthropogenic, or human-created systems,” said Marina Alberti, professor of urban design and planning and director of the Urban Ecology Research Lab in the UW College of Built Environments. “By explicitly linking urban development to heritable traits that affect ecosystem function, we can begin to map the implications of human-induced trait changes for ecological and human well-being.” Urbanisation and loss of habitat drives relocation, adaptation or even extinction of species across the globe, the researchers found. They analysed 1,600 observations of phenotypic change across regions and ecosystems throughout the world, in an attempt to isolate those caused by urbanisation. They also assessed the impact of “urban disturbances,” such as the acidification and pollution of lake habitats, the relocation of animals, heat and effluent associated with a power plant, long-term harvesting of certain medicinal plants — even the apparent effects of global warming on the reproductive patterns of birds. “The significance of these changes is that they affect the functioning of ecosystems,” Alberti said. “They may inhibit the ability of seeds to disperse, cause exposure to infectious diseases, or even change the migratory patterns of some species.” The researchers identified many instances of human-driven changes to ecosystems, such as earlier mating seasons in 65 species of migratory birds in Western Europe, and the emergence of novel habitats near galvanised transmission towers for plants with high zinc tolerance. Alberti calls for collaboration among evolutionary biologists, conservation biologists and urban scientists to better understand how humans may affect evolutionary processes and to inform conservation strategies so that impacts on vulnerable species can be managed and better understood. Source: Seas Fire This article is culled from daily press coverage from around the world. It is posted on the Urban Gateway by way of keeping all users informed about matters of interest. The opinion expressed in this article is that of the author and in no way reflects the opinion of UN-Habitat.
Toggle: English / Spanish Muscular dystrophy is a group of inherited disorders that cause muscle weakness and loss of muscle tissue, which get worse over time. Inherited myopathy; MD Muscular dystrophies, or MD, are a group of inherited conditions. This means they are passed down through families. They may occur in childhood or adulthood. There are many different types of muscular dystrophy. They include: Muscular dystrophy can affect adults, but the more severe forms tend to occur in early childhood. Symptoms vary among the different types of muscular dystrophy. All of the muscles may be affected. Or, only specific groups of muscles may be affected, such as those around the pelvis, shoulder, or face. The muscle weakness slowly gets worse and symptoms can include: - Delayed development of muscle motor skills - Difficulty using 1 or more muscle groups - Frequent falls - Loss of strength in a muscle or group of muscles as an adult - Loss in muscle size - Problems walking (delayed walking) Intellectual disability is present in some types of muscular dystrophy. Exams and Tests A physical examination and your medical history will help the doctor determine the type of muscular dystrophy. Specific muscle groups are affected by different types of muscular dystrophy. The doctor's exam may show: Some types of muscular dystrophy involve the heart muscle, causing or abnormal heart rhythm (). Often, there is a loss of muscle mass (wasting). This may be hard to see because some types of muscular dystrophy cause a buildup of fat and connective tissue that makes the muscle appear larger. This is called pseudohypertrophy. A muscle biopsy may be used to confirm the diagnosis. In some cases, a DNA blood test may be all that is needed. Other tests may include: Heart testing: electrocardiography (ECG) Nerve testing: and electromyography () Urine and blood testing, including CPK level Genetic testing for some forms of muscular dystrophy There are no known cures for the various muscular dystrophies. The goal of treatment is to control symptoms. Physical therapy may help maintain muscle strength and function. Leg braces and a wheelchair can improve mobility and self-care. In some cases, surgery on the spine or legs may help improve function. Corticosteroids taken by mouth are sometimes prescribed to children with certain muscular dystrophies to keep them walking for as long as possible. The person should be as active as possible. No activity at all (such as bedrest) can make the disease worse. You can ease the stress of illness by joining a support group where members share common experiences and problems. The severity of disability depends on the type of muscular dystrophy. All types of muscular dystrophy slowly get worse, but how fast this happens varies widely. Some types of muscular dystrophy, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy in boys, are deadly. Other types cause little disability and people have a normal lifespan. When to Contact a Medical Professional Call your health care provider if: Genetic counseling is advised when there is a family history of muscular dystrophy. Women may have no symptoms, but still carry the gene for the disorder. Duchenne muscular dystrophy can be detected with about 95% accuracy by genetic studies done during pregnancy. Sarnat HB. Muscular dystrophies. In: Kliegman RM, Stanton BF, St Geme JW, Schor NF, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 20th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2016:chap 609. Selcen D. Muscle diseases. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman's Cecil Medicine. 25th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2016:chap 421. - Last reviewed on 2/27/2016 - Amit M. Shelat, DO, FACP, Attending Neurologist and Assistant Professor of Clinical Neurology, SUNY Stony Brook, School of Medicine, Stony Brook, NY. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- 2013 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
A catapult on a cliff launches a large round rock towards a ship on the ocean below. The rock leaves the catapult from a height H of 34.0m above sea level, directed at an angle above the horizontal with an unknown speed. The projectile remains in flight for 6.00 seconds and travels a horizontal distance of 174m. Assuming that air friction can be neglected, calculate the value of the angle (in degrees). Also calculate the speed at which the rock is launched. My brains are cooked. I'm not sure where to begin with this one.
Platforms and Sensors To provide students with information about the range of remote sensing platforms and sensors and how they are used. Ask students to come up with three examples of how the different ways energy (light) interacts with matter allows us to derive information from from our world. Discuss during class. Campbell's Introduction to Remote Sensing Fifth Edition, Chapter 6 Youtube videos: TBD A primer on many current space-based imaging systems
It's always cool when something new is discovered, especially when it's about 750 million miles away from Earth. Such is the case with one of Saturn's moons known as Iapetus. Scientist Kelsi Singer was looking over images of the celestial body, which was already known to be very icy in its composition, found something no one had previously discovered. There are massive avalanches that Singer describes as being similar to the ones that occur here on Earth. It's significant because of the vastly different composition of Iapetus. "The landslides on Iapetus are a planet-scale experiment that we cannot do in a laboratory or observe on Earth. They give us examples of giant landslides in ice, instead of rock, with a different gravity, and no atmosphere. So any theory of long runout landslides on Earth must also work for avalanches on Iapetus," Singer said. The moon was previously not given a significant amount of attention. Saturn has 62 different moons so it certainly takes something unique or unusual to make one of them stand out. As for actual actions that can be taken, obviously there's not much other than continuing to investigate images of the moon. What this mainly does is shake up our perception of friction. Professor William McKinnon chimed in to say, "You might think friction is trivial, but it's not. And that goes for friction between ices and friction between rocks. It's really important not just for landslides, but also for earthquakes and even for the stability of the land. And that's why these observations on an ice moon are interesting and thought-provoking."
Lingua Franca, also known as Sabin, was a pidgin language, meaning it was a language composed of the simplest words and grammatical structures of two or more existing languages. Pidgin languages tend to evolve when groups of people with widely differing languages find themselves in a position where communication would be greatly to their advantage, and that was certainly the case with Lingua Franca. Lingua Franca was a language of trade. It grew from the need to describe merchandise, to name prices, to count, haggle, and form commercial arrangements and relationships. As such, it was spread by the traders themselves and by the sailors who necessarily accompanied them, and it was added to by those with whom they traded and interacted. The language consisted mainly of words from Italian, Spanish, Occitan (a variety of French spoken on the Mediterranean coast), Greek, and Arabic. In addition, there were regional variations which contained words native to specific locales. As with all pidgins, it employed the very simplest rules and structures. For example, verbs were only used in the infinitive, so there were no tenses to learn. Additionally, the vocabulary was small and very directly related to the primary purpose of the language. Lingua Franca was in use from the Levant (an area which comprises the eastern Mediterranean and the Aegean from Greece to Egypt and includes Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, the Palestinian Territory, and the western half of Syria) to the Iberian peninsula (which comprises Portugal and Spain). The first record of its use is from the fourteenth century. It survived up right up until the nineteenth century, at which point it completely disappeared, most likely due to the increasingly common and widespread use of standard French. In its heyday, it was undoubtedly a dynamic and quickly evolving language, subject to additions and alterations as necessary in order to best serve its purpose. One source describes Lingua Franca as "Mediterranean Esperanto", which is certainly figuratively accurate. Of course, Lingua Franca was actually widely and usefully employed, and Esperanto never has been. Because of its very specific purpose, Lingua Franca existed as a spoken language only, and the fragments of it that survive are almost exclusively contained in the writings of travelers who recorded snippets of conversations conducted in it. Aside from those snippets and some secondary sources which appear to contain traces of it, it has all but vanished.. Its one very obvious legacy is that its name, which literally means 'Frankish Language' in Italian, is now used to mean 'something approaching a common language'. - "Extract from lecture on Lingua Franca" by Alan Corré at http://www.uwm.edu/People/corre/franca/edition3/lingua2.3.html - "Introduction to the Study of the Lingua Franca" by Charles Häberl at The page at http://www.uwm.edu/People/corre/franca/index.html contains a short glossary of words used in Lingua Franca
- When steel is reheated and then cooled in order to make it harder, this is an example of when the steel is tempered. - When you yell at someone and criticize them but then provide some positive feedback, this is an example of when you tempered your criticism. Tempered is defined as made harder by adding heat or some substance, or adjusting your temperament. - having been given the desired temper, consistency, hardness, etc.: tempered steel - modified by addition of or mixture with other qualities, ingredients, etc.: the mercy in a tempered justice - having a (specified kind of) temper: bad-tempered - Music adjusted to a temperament, esp. equal temperament - Having a specified temper or disposition. Often used in combination: sweet-tempered; ill-tempered. - Adjusted or attuned by the addition of a counterbalancing element; moderated or measured: “prepare the country to expect hard choices and to appreciate tempered values and moderation in private and public life” (Haynes Johnson). - Made appropriately hard or flexible by tempering: a sword of tempered steel. - Having the requisite degree of hardness or elasticity. Used of glass or a metal. - Music Tuned to temperament. Used of a scale, an interval, a semitone, or intonation. - Of one's disposition. - The Pyncheon Elm, throughout its great circumference, was all alive, and full of the morning sun and a sweet-tempered little breeze, which lingered within this verdant sphere, and set a thousand leafy tongues a-whispering all at once. This aged tree appeared to have suffered nothing from the gale. "” Nathaniel Hawthorne, The House of the Seven Gables, Chapter 19. - Pertaining to the metallurgical process for finishing metals. - 1851 "Not forged!" and snatching Perth's levelled iron from the crotch, Ahab held it out, exclaiming -- "Look ye, Nantucketer; here in this hand I hold his death! Tempered in blood, and tempered by lightning are these barbs; and I swear to temper them triply in that hot place behind the fin, where the white whale most feels his accursed life!" "” Herman Melville, Moby Dick. - Of something moderated or balanced by other considerations. - 1792 The downcast eye, the rosy blush, the retiring grace, are all proper in their season; but modesty, being the child of reason, cannot long exist with the sensibility that is not tempered by reflection "” Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. - (music) Pertaining to the well-tempered scale, where the twelve notes per octave of the standard keyboard are tuned in such a way that it is possible to play music in any major or minor key and it will not sound perceptibly out of tune. - Simple past tense and past participle of temper.
Taking inspiration from Mother Nature, scientists are reporting an advance toward preventing the tooth sensitivity that affects millions of people around the world. Their report on development of the substance, similar to the adhesive that mussels use to attach to rocks and other surfaces in water, appears in the journal ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. Quan-Li Li, Chun Hung Chu and colleagues explain that about 3 out of every 4 people have teeth that are sensitive to hot, cold, sweet or sour foods and drinks. It occurs when the hard outer enamel layer on teeth and the softer underlying dentin wear away, stimulating the nerves inside. Some sugar-free gums and special toothpastes can help reduce that tooth hyper-sensitivity. However, Li and Chu cite the need for substances that rebuild both enamel and dentin at the same time. To meet that challenge, they turned to a sticky material similar to the adhesive that mussels use to adhere to surfaces. They reasoned that it could help keep minerals in contact with dentin long enough for the rebuilding process to occur. They describe laboratory tests that involved bathing human teeth with worn-away enamel and dentin in liquid containing the sticky material and minerals. Teeth bathed in the sticky material and minerals reformed dentin and enamel. However, teeth bathed just in minerals reformed only enamel. The gooey substance "may be a simple universal technique to induce enamel and dentin remineralization simultaneously," they concluded. The authors acknowledge funding from NSFC RGC grant, the Outstanding Youth Fund from the Board of Education of Anhui Province and the Youth Foundation of the Anhui Provincial Natural Science Foundation. Explore further: Improper consumption of acidic foods could lead to destroyed enamel More information: Polydopamine-Induced Tooth Remineralization, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2012, 4 (12), pp 6901–6910. DOI: 10.1021/am302041b AbstractInspired by mussel bioadhesion in nature, dopamine is extensively used for biomaterial surface modification. In this study, we coated dopamine on demineralized enamel and dentin surfaces to evaluate the effect of polydopamine coating on dental remineralization. Dental slices containing enamel and dentin were first etched with 37% phosphoric acid for 2 min, followed by immersion in a 2 mg/mL freshly prepared solution of dopamine (10 mM Tris buffer, pH 8.5) for approximately 24 h at room temperature in the dark to obtain polydopamine coating. Then, the dental slices with and without polydopamine coating were immersed in the supersaturated solution of calcium and phosphate at 37 °C for 2 and 7 days. The supersaturated solution of calcium and phosphate was refreshed each day. The precipitates were characterized by SEM, XRD, FTIR, microhardness, and nanoscratch analyses. No significant difference was observed in the remineralization of enamel whether it was coated with polydopamine or not. However, a significant difference was found in dentin remineralization between dentin with and without polydopamine coating. Polydopamine coating remarkably promoted demineralized dentin remineralization, and all dentin tubules were occluded by densely packed hydroxyapatite crystals. Thus, coating polydopamine on dental tissue surface may be a simple universal technique to induce enamel and dentin remineralization simultaneously.
How to Write Paragraphs Paragraphs are made up of a number of sentences that express one key idea. In itself, a paragraph should be able to standalone and it can also be a section of a larger entity e.g. an essay. Paragraphs start with a topic sentence, which is just one sentence used to introduce a paragraph’s topic.A topic sentence can be likened to a mini thesis sentence/statement. The writer should make a claim or assertion of some type in a topic sentence. Topic sentences are the unifying element within a paragraph. Any claim made in a topic sentence must be described, expanded upon or somehow proved in the remainder of the paragraph. A topic sentence makes a point and supports that point with examples or reasons. Paragraphs are unified where the main point is further developed by every sentence that follows from the topic sentence. A paragraph should be focused on a single idea and devoid of information that is irrelevant. Each individual sentence should contribute to the overall paragraph by explaining the topic sentence and providing examples to support it. To decide if a paragraph is sufficiently well constructed, the writer should ask themselves what key idea or point they are trying to make in the topic sentence. Then they should determine whether each sentence relates clearly to and supports that idea. A new paragraph indicates to readers that the writer is introducing a new idea or point.Developing a paragraph: Any sentences that follow on from the topic sentence must develop the main topic idea. Do not forget that every sentence must relate to the topic and not digress into other subject matter. A paragraph’s last (concluding) sentence: When writing paragraphs, the concluding sentence is very important and generally reiterates the point or idea set forth in the opening (topic) sentence. The structure of a paragraph: In most essays, paragraphs are structured or made up of three parts, which are - an introduction, - a conclusion. This structure applies no matter what the type of essay e.g., whether it is an analysis, compare and contrast, descriptive or narrative essay. Each component part in a paragraph has a crucial role in terms of how the meaning is communicated to readers. - The introduction. This is the first part of the paragraph and contains the topic sentence and any additional sentences that have transitional words or phrases or convey any relevant background information. - The body. This comes after the introduction and expands on the main idea with analysis, arguments, examples, factual information and any other relevant data or information. - The conclusion: This is the last part of a paragraph and it sums up any information that connects the main idea in the topic sentence to the supporting information provided in the body of the paragraph. Building in Coherence Every sentence in a paragraph should have a clear relationship with the main idea or topic sentence. Additionally, each one should flow seamlessly into the following one without noticeable disruption. A paragraph with cohesion also emphasizes the links between old and new data or information so that arguments and/or ideas have clear structure for the reader. (In addition to smooth-flowing sentences, the coherence in a paragraph can also depend on the length. If, for example, a paragraph is long i.e. if it fills a page of double-spaced typing, it should be carefully checked to determine whether a fresh paragraph is required if it strays from the main idea. Similarly, the main idea in a short paragraph may need additional development or it may need to be merged with some other paragraph). Other coherence-building techniques: Repetition of key phrases/words: This is especially the case in paragraphs where an important theory or idea is put forward – refer to these in a consistent manner. Repetition and consistency can have a binding effect and help readers to understand any descriptions and definitions. Creation of parallel structures. These occur or can be created by building two sentences or phrases (or more than two) with the same parts of speech or grammar structure. The role of parallel structures is to make sentences more legible. Additionally, a similar pattern in a series of sentences can make the link between points/ideas clearer for the reader. Add transitional phrases or words between paragraphs and sentences. These help to link ideas and enable the reader to follow the writer’s thought process and/or see links that otherwise they could misunderstand or miss entirely. Useful Transitional Words/Phrases To add something: Also, and, additionally, in addition, again, too, besides, firstly (secondly, thirdly, etc.), just as importantly, next, furthermore, further, moreover. To provide examples: For instance, for example, specifically, in fact, to illustrate, that is. Similarly, in a similar manner to, likewise, also. At the same time, and yet, though, even though, although, however, in spite of, despite, nonetheless, still, by contrast, yet, on the other hand, contrary to. In conclusion or for summary purposes: All in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up as long as, as, afterwards, after, at last, as soon as, before, earlier, during, formerly, finally, meantime/meanwhile, later, immediately, since, subsequently, shortly, while, when, next, until, thereafter. To demonstrate direction or place: above, nearby, close by, beyond, below, here, opposite, further on, elsewhere, to the right (left, north, south, east, west). Logical relationship indicators: as a result of, accordingly, because, thus, therefore, hence, since, for this reason, consequently, otherwise, then, if, so. The above are guidelines only rather than rigid rules. As your writing experience grows, you will know when it is acceptable to digress or stick to guidelines.
Teaching plot with picture books. A shared reading lesson that includes a free printable story map. Notes: Change "Big Idea" to Theme, add protagonist and antagonist, edit "Characters" to say Major and Minor. Teach Your Child To Read - These books are some of my favorite read aloud texts and lessons for teaching problem and solution and cause and effect. Head on over to the post for some ideas on how to use each book! - Teach Your Child To Read Ivan The Remarkable True Story of the Shopping Mall Gorilla by Katherine Applegate is a narrative non-fiction picture book. With a variety of literacy activities and a flip book, this easy to use literature unit is common core aligned for and grade.
Current understanding of the co-evolution of bats and moths has been thrown into question following new research reported today in Current Biology. Dr James Windmill from the University of Bristol, UK, has shown how the Yellow Underwing moth changes its sensitivity to a bat's calls when the moth is being chased. And in case there is another attack, the moth's ear remain tuned in for several minutes after the calls stop. Dr Windmill said: "Because the moth cleverly tunes its ear to enhance its detection of bats, we must now question whether the bat in turn modifies its calls to avoid detection by the moth. In view of the vast diversity of bat calls, this is only to be expected. "To date, this phenomenon has not been reported for insects or, in fact, for any other hearing system in the animal kingdom. These findings change our understanding of the co-evolution of bats and moths and have implications for the hearing of many other animals." It has been known for over 50 years that moths can hear the ultrasonic hunting calls of their nocturnal predator, the bat. Previously it was thought that these ears were only partially sensitive to the sound frequencies commonly used by bats and that bats would make their hunting calls inaudible to moths. But now it appears that even though moth ears are among the simplest in the insect world - they have only two or four vibration sensitive cells attached to a small eardrum - moths are not as deaf as previously thought. As a bat gets closer to the moth, both the loudness and frequency (pitch) of the bat's calls increase. Surprisingly, the sensitivity of the moth's ear to the bat's calls also increases. This occurs because the moth's ear dynamically becomes more sensitive to the frequencies that many bats use when attacking moths. This multidisciplinary work involved engineers, biologists and physicists; biological measurements are accompanied by a mathematical model explaining the basis for the unconventional behaviour of the moth's ear.
But bring your medication. It might not be good for your immune system. It's so surprise that spaceflight affects immune responses but the new paper clarifies that a bit and says that being born in and growing up on the Space Shuttle weakened a key arm of the immune system in Drosophila flies, while being in a centrifuge under hypergravity conditions improved resistance. Long-term space travel would likely have a centrifuge anyway, to keep up bone and muscle mass, and this immune system finding adds to the possible benefit. The flies were sent into space as eggs on a 12-day mission aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery. The flies take about 10 days to develop into adults. After they returned to Earth, responses were tested to two different infections: a fungus, which flies fight off through a pathway mediated by the Toll receptor, and a bacterial infection that flies resist through a gene called imd ("Immune deficiency"). Both the Toll and Imd pathways have counterparts in humans and other mammals. While the response through the Imd pathway was robust, the Toll pathway was "non-functional" in space-raised flies In Earth-based experiments, the researchers found that when flies were tested in a centrifuge under hypergravity conditions, their resistance to the fungus was improved, suggesting that their Toll pathway was boosted. However, for the mutant yuri gagarin (named after the Soviet cosmonaut, first human into space), which lacks normal responses to gravitational fields, resistance was the same at normal and hypergravity, further demonstrating a link between gravity and the immune response. How does microgravity affect the immune system? They have two hypotheses in mind, which are testable both in humans and flies. Firstly, the space flies also showed high expression of genes for heat-shock proteins, which are produced in response to physiological stress. Heat shock proteins bind directly with mammalian Toll receptors, Kimbrell said, and may also moderate Toll activation in Drosophila. Another possibility is that microgravity interferes with the behavior of proteins outside the cell -- an area which is more important for Toll than for imd signaling. The team hopes to carry out future research with flies on the International Space Station.
Your muscular system is made up of approximately 650 muscles that work together to move your body. The textbook "Principles of Anatomy and Physiology" says that muscles also expand and contract to move substances, like food, through passageways and organs. Moreover, they support your skeleton and create body heat. The muscular system includes three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac and smooth. How Muscles Work Muscles function in conjunction with the nervous system to work properly. Muscle tissue has to be stimulated in order to contract. Skeletal muscle tissue is voluntarily controlled by the somatic division of the nervous system. The muscle tissue is signaled to move when your brain tells it to. Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues act differently because they are involuntarily controlled by the autonomic portion of the nervous system. In other words, they continue to work even when you are not aware of it. Skeletal muscle tissue is the most well-known because it makes up the muscles that are easily seen from the skin's surface. These muscles are attached to tendons and bones. The origin of the muscle is the point at which it is attached by a tendon to a stationary bone. The insertion is the place where a muscle is attached by a tendon to a moveable bone. An example of a skeletal muscle is the gluteus maximus, or the buttocks. Cardiac muscle tissue makes up the heart and its primary action is to pump your blood supply throughout your body. Unlike skeletal muscle, this tissue is continually stimulated through your lifetime. Under normal conditions, cardiac muscle tissue will contract and relax approximately 75 times per minute. Cardiac muscle is structured in a way that depends on a constant supply of oxygen and without it, the heart will stop working. Smooth muscle tissue is like cardiac muscle tissue in that it is stimulated involuntarily. Smooth muscle is what makes up the walls of arteries and veins and of hollow organs such as your bladder. In many instances, these muscles act by contracting in order to pass fluids through the body. Smooth muscle is able to hold a contraction for much longer than cardiac or skeletal muscle tissue. This is important as you pass food through your gastrointestinal tract. - Muscles: The Muscular System; Gillian Houghton - Principles of Anatomy and Physiology; Gerard J. Tortora, M.A. and Bryan Derrickson, Ph.D. - Goodshoot/Goodshoot/Getty Images
A binary star is two stars which orbit around each other. For each star, the other is its companion star. Many stars are part of a system with two or more stars. The brighter star is called the primary star, and the other is the secondary. Binary stars are important in astrophysics because looking at their orbits allows scientists to find out their masses. From this is got the mass–luminosity relationship, and from this is got the masses of individual stars. Binary stars are not the same as line-of-sight optical double stars, which look close together but are not connected by gravity. Optical double stars may actually be far apart in space, but binary stars are quite close together. The first person to discover and prove true binary stars was the Anglo-German astronomer William Herschel. He published the first catalogue of binary stars, and his son John Herschel found several thousand more and updated the catalogue. Modern definitions[change \| change source] By the modern definition, the term binary star is generally restricted to pairs of stars which revolve around a common centre of mass. Binary stars which can be resolved with a telescope or interferometric methods are known as visual binaries. For most of the known visual binary stars one whole revolution (complete circle) has not been observed yet, they are seen to have travelled along a curved path or a partial arc. Some stars appear to be in orbit around empty space, and appear not to have a companion. In this case, the companion star is either very small and faint, or it is a neutron star or a black hole. The best-known example of a star with an invisible companion is Cygnus X-1, in which the visible star's companion appears to be a black hole. The more general term double star is used for pairs of stars which are seen to be close together in the sky. This distinction is rarely made in languages other than English. Double stars may be binary systems or may be merely two stars that appear to be close together in the sky but have vastly different true distances from the Sun. The latter are termed optical doubles or optical pairs. Visual binaries[change \| change source] A visual binary star is one for which the separation of the two stars can be seen with a telescope. The brighter star is the primary and the fainter star is the secondary. Visual binaries take a long time to orbit one another, in the area of hundreds or even thousands of years. Spectroscopic binaries[change \| change source] A spectroscopic binary is one in which the two stars cannot be seen separately even with a telescope. They are very close together and move around each other very quickly, over a period of a few weeks or even a few days. However, they can be seen to be two separate stars by using a spectroscope, which is able to record the Doppler change in the color of the light sent out by stars moving quickly toward or away from the Earth. Eclipsing binaries[change \| change source] Some spectroscopic binaries have an orbit that is edge-on to Earth. When this happens, the stars will take turns passing in front of and eclipsing the partner star, in what is called an eclipsing binary. In this case, the amount of light we see from the double dims slightly during the time one star is in front of the other. Astrometric binaries[change \| change source] An astrometric binary is one where only one companion can be seen. For astrometric binaries fairly near the Earth (up to about 10 parsecs), it may be possible to see the visible companion "wobble" as it moves around its invisible companion. By making measurements over a long period of time, it may be possible to calculate the mass of the visible star and how long its orbit takes. This method is also used to detect the presence of large planets orbiting a star; as of 2007, over two hundred planets have been discovered in this way. System properties[change \| change source] Detached binaries[change \| change source] Most binaries are detached binaries. Except for their gravitational pull on one another, they have no effect on each other. Semidetached and contact binaries[change \| change source] Some binaries are so close to one another that one or both stars is able to pull material from the other. They may share the same stellar atmosphere, and as friction slows them down over a long period, they may merge into one star. Formation[change \| change source] Though it could be possible that binary stars may form when one star passes very close to another, it is highly unlikely (since it would actually take three stars close to one another before two could join), and would occur only in places where stars are densely packed together. Our present understanding is that almost all binaries are formed together in the dense gas clouds where stars are born. Runaways and novae[change \| change source] It is possible (though not likely) that a passing star will disrupt a binary system and provide enough gravitational force to split the binary. Such separated stars go on to live lives as ordinary single stars. Sometimes, though, enough gravitational force is involved that the two companions speed away from each other at great speeds, resulting in what is known as runaway stars. Sometimes a star is in orbit around a white dwarf star. If it is large enough and close enough to the white dwarf, the dwarf may suck gasses from its companion's atmosphere. Over a period of time, a great deal of gas may collect on the white dwarf. As this gas is compacted by the white dwarf's gravity, it will eventually undergo nuclear fusion, resulting in a very bright outburst of light, known as a nova. In some cases, the white dwarf may gather so much gas that the explosion completely destroys it, in what is called a supernova. Such an event may also result in runaway stars, as the larger star no longer has a heavy companion which keeps it in orbit. References[change \| change source] - Buttmann, Gunther 1974. In the shadow of the telescope: a biography of John Herschel. Lutterworth, Guilford. p50 & 197 - Heintz, W.D. (1978). Double stars. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company. ISBN 90-277-0885-1. - "Visual binaries". University of Tennessee. http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/binaries/visual.html. - Robert Grant Aitken 1964. The binary stars. New York: Dover, ix Other websites[change \| change source] \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Binary Star\|
Social context: group Typical strategies: guided discovery Outdoor learning extends the classroom into the great outdoors, where a wider range of activities can be undertaken, typically for team-building and leadership development. Most outdoor learning is experiential: participants are allocated to groups and are set tasks, perhaps crossing a lake or building a shelter; when the task has been completed they then review how they went about the task and make new generalisations about the process they should follow in future. Outdoor learning is: - at its best when voluntary, open in terms of outcomes, designed to suit all ages and fitness levels, facilitated by skilled trainers; - best avoided when mandatory, contrived in terms of outcomes, overly demanding physically.
Invasive lionfish may be a selective predator Invasive predators have the capacity to dramatically alter marine ecosystems. The lionfish, a voracious predator native to the Indo-Pacific and now established along the southeast coast of the U.S., the Caribbean and parts of the Gulf of Mexico, has become a growing threat to the ecological balance of Atlantic waters. To gather insight regarding its impact on reef communities, scientists at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) and collaborating institutions evaluated the predatory behaviors and diet choices of lionfish in a semi-natural environment. On the fringing reefs of Curacao, hungry lionfish were placed within artificial enclosures designed to simulate natural conditions. Three prey fish species were selected for the trials—brown chromis, bluehead wrasse and masked/glass goby—based on their relative abundance in the reefs and their prevalence in the lionfish diet in Curacao. Although the ecological consequences of invasive lionfish are often attributed to their unique predatory strategies and broad diet, the experiments revealed that most lionfish actively selected their prey species, exhibiting a strong preference for the brown chromis over the other two. This study first appeared online January 2020 and was subsequently published in the March 2020 bi-monthly issue of Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. These findings suggest that their foraging behavior is not strictly proportional to prey availability given the abundance of other equally or even more vulnerable species in the enclosure. Alternatively, the scientists noted that lionfish in poorer condition were less selective, often going for the most accessible prey. "Our study shows active discrimination by lionfish among the top three prey species on Curacao reefs, and an influence of how well-fed an individual was before hunting its prey, on the strength of its preference," said Michele Pierotti, STRI fellow and senior author of the study. "In other words, as long as they are not starving, lionfish can be very picky about their daily menu." This represents the first experimental, field-based study to provide direct evidence for active prey choice in this invasive predator. Given the considerable variation in lionfish diet across the invaded range, and the unlikelihood of controlling its continued expansion, further understanding of lionfish diet choices could provide additional insight into their impact on reefs and improve predictions of how they might affect newly invaded communities. "More researchers might consider using this experimental method—of transforming the field into a working laboratory—to obtain a more accurate representation of what is happening on coral reefs," said Amelia Ritger, who led the experiment in the field and is now a doctoral student at the University of California, Santa Barbara. "Setting up and maintaining the field enclosures is a lot of work, requiring multiple dives every day, but it certainly pays off." More information: Amelia L. Ritger et al, Diet choice in a generalist predator, the invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans/miles), Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology (2020). DOI: 10.1016/j.jembe.2020.151311 Journal information: Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology Provided by Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute
Free Research Paper On Boston Massacre, 1770 Primary sources that offer information about an historical event are often treated with a degree of trust. However, even primary sources can be portrayed in a way that serves its intended purpose. More importantly, the theme of biasness prevails when these primary sources are exhaustively evaluated. The Boston Massacre is a significant event in the history of America. In the 1760s, tension was high between the colonist and British loyalists. The lack of representation in Parliament and the high taxes imposed on the colonists emerged as the source of the resentment. In fact, 4,000 British troops had been sent to Boston by 1768 against a population of 20,000 inhabitants. However, on March 5, 1770, the tension led to a tragic conformation between the colonists and the British soldiers. As result, three colonists died on the spot while two others succumbed to the fatal injuries (Avdellas, 2013). This event has had various conflicting accounts of what transpired on this night. In this discussion, the biasness portrayed by the primary sources will be addressed, as well as the purpose of the sources and their reliability. 1. “The Bloody Massacre in King-Street, March 5, 1770.” (Engraving) Historians regard this engraving as one of the significant documents of the pre-revolutionary period. However, the purpose of the document was that it would be used as a propaganda piece (Holypark Media 2007). The event happened during the colonial period when the Americans were still under the British. Pressure was high on the American people to revolt the colonial imposition of the British in their bid to gain their independence. As such, Revere used this engraving as a channel through which the other Americans who were comfortable with the presence of the British in their land to have a negative view of the British. By depicting the Americans in Boston as the victims and the British soldiers as the oppressors, the engraving would achieve its intended purpose of rallying up the Americans against the British colony and the eventual independence. In essence, the engraving was created for the American public, big audience because it was featured in the ‘Boston Gazette’. Revere is biased in depicting this event in several ways. First, he intentionally uses a dog in his engraving so that the event the colonist can be perceived as the victims in the event. The engraving depicts the British soldiers to be shooting their rifles towards the colonists while the dog is spared. As such, Revere is demonstrating that the British soldiers treated the colonist in a more devastating manner as compared to the treatment the dogs received. Also, Revere depicts the colonist to be full of horror and panic, which is often associated with those people who are innocent and calm. On the other hand, the soldiers are depicted o have determined and cold looks as they point their rifles to the crowd of colonists (Holypark Media 2007). This disparity intensifies Revere’s biasness in describing the innocence of the colonists against the cruel and inhumane characteristics of the British soldiers. However, the source is reliable because it depicts three colonists in fatal conditions, which is in line with the information from other sources on the event. All the sources on the event concur that three civilians died on the spot while two others succumbed to the injuries. This significant information is the ground for justifying the reliability of this engraving. 2. “The Bloody Massacre in King-Street, March 5, 1770.” (Poem) Besides, the engraving, Revere wrote a poem to emphasize his sentiments in the event further. Similar to the engraving, the poem would serve as a propaganda piece to enable the American public pool their efforts against the British colony. Given this, the poem was intended for a large audience, American Public, with the aim of creating a negative attitude towards the British. It was featured in the ‘Boston Gazette’ magazine, as well. Revere is biased in the manner that he depicts the event through the poem. He says, “With murd'rous Rancor stretch their bloody Hands” (Kellogg, 1919, p. 383). This excerpt from the poem rounds up the biasness against the British soldiers as depicted by Revere in the sense that they are labeled as murderous. Besides, the use of the word “rancor” in his poem demonstrated that the British soldiers were up to no good; rather, they enjoyed oppressing the colonists. Furthermore, the phrase “bloody hands” meant that the British soldiers were brutal even in the past, and this tragic event was not in isolation. To laud the innocence of the colonists, Revere says that: “If speechless Sorrows lab'ring for a Tongue” (p. 383). In essence, he is portraying the colonists to be impeccant and that the British soldiers were capitalizing on their innocence. Furthermore, Revere recognizes the names of the colonists who were died as a consequence of this event, while he overlooks the saliency of naming the British soldiers who were hurt in the course of the event. The poem is not reliable as a source of this event because of the conflicting assertions. Revere asserts that upon trial, Captain Preston will face the wrath of the law. However, the trials turned in favor of Captain Preston, who was acquitted of the allegation of giving orders for the killings and personally shooting from a window in the Customhouse. In fact, it was ascertained that he did not give the orders for the shooting (The Massachusetts Historical Society, 1954). As such, the reliability of this source is justified. 3. An excerpt from Diary and Autobiography of John Adams (Diary and Autobiography) The Autobiography of John Adams represents a respective narration of his past life. His experiences as a youth and while serving in the purview of law are highlighted in the autobiography. However, Adams is specific in his autobiography on his intended audience. He says that rather than writing for a broad public audience, he purposes to have his children as his sole audience (The Massachusetts Historical Society, 1954). Being a defense attorney for the British soldiers and Captain Preston, Adams’s excerpt on the event is biased. Adams argues that if the British soldiers were to be issued with death sentences following the incident, the barbaric nature of the ancient America time would be portrayed. He likens the British soldiers to ‘Quakers’ (The Massachusetts Historical Society, 1954, “About the Autobiography”), which was a Christian sect in the ancient times. As such, Adams describes the British soldiers as innocent people who had the right motive and that the incident was a mistake on the side of the colonists. In the excerpt, he does not condemn the actions of the soldiers since he regards these actions as a defense mechanism. In other words, the victims who died during the incident deserved it because they posed a greater degree of danger to the soldiers. He reinforces this sentiment by saying “As the Evidence was, the Verdict of the Jury was exactly right” (The Massachusetts Historical Society, 1954). Adams was playing his role as a defense jury, and it was logical for him to defend his clients in order to triumph upon the issuing of the verdict. This primary source of the incident is reliable because the information within is in line with the assertions in other sources. Adams points out that the jury acquitted the British soldiers of their alleged crimes. Indeed, Captain Preston and other British soldiers accused of manslaughter during the incident were exculpated, according to the other sources on the event (The Massachusetts Historical Society, 1954). Given this, the up-to-dateness of this primary source presents its reliability. 4. The Boston Massacre (News Paper Article) The article in the Boston Gazette was intended for a large audience because newspapers emerge as one of the major sources of information for the general public. In this sense, this article was meant to give insight on the unfolding of events during the tragic incident. Moreover, being a featured in a Boston-based newspaper, the intention of the article was to give a perspective that favors the colonists who were involved in the incident. The purpose of a given source dictates the side that it will be biased on. This article presents several forms of biasness against the British soldiers. The article depicts the colonists as the victims by rendering the actions of the soldiers as abusive, as well as emphasizing on the wounding. The author does present the side of the British Soldiers in his analysis; rather, the British soldiers are condemned for the vengeance role they played after a young lad was attacked British soldier, and the colonists came to help and outweighed the soldier. As such, the incident would not have happened were it not he soldier who assaulted the young lad. Through such a depiction, the author tries to suggest that whereas the colonist were innocent and calm, the British took advantage of their power and oppressed them. Further, the author asserts that the British soldiers shot into the crowd of colonists following a command from Captain Preston (Hughes, 2015). The article justifies the assault on the sentry by the colonists as a good deed since they were helping the young lad who had been attacked without considering the consequence of this action on the soldiers himself. This newspaper article is not reliable because it greatly varies with the assertions of other primary sources on incident. The article asserts that the shooting orders were given by Captain Preston; however, after the trial, it is established that this was not the case, and the Preston was even acquitted of all he charges against him (The Massachusetts Historical Society, 1954). Given this, the reliability of this source is hampered. Avdellas, L. (2013). The Boston Massacre: You be the judge! Everyday Americans Exceptional Americans. Retrieved from http://chnm.gmu.edu/tah-loudoun/blog/lessons/the-boston-massacre-you-be-the-judge/ Holypark Media. (2007). Boston Massacre Engraving by Paul Revere. Paul Revere Heritage Project. Retrieved from http://www.paul-revere-heritage.com/boston-massacre-engraving.html Hughes, T. (2015). The Boston Massacre: The Definitive Report in a London newspaper. Rare & early Newspapers. Retrieved from http://www.rarenewspapers.com/view/569662?acl=781008561 Kellogg, L.P. (1918). The Paul Revere Print of the Boston Massacre. Madison, Wisconsin: The Wisconsin Magazine of History. The Massachusetts Historical Society. (1954). About the Autobiography of John Adams. Adams Family Papers. Retrieved from http://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/autobio/.
Building envelope of enclosure is created with the main function of protection the indoor spaces and occupants from external barriers. The idea of ‘shelter’ has been around since the history of mankind and the same concept applies to a building envelope. However, our needs have evolved a lot and with introduction of advanced and improved technologies, building designers and engineers are able to integrate complex materials into building enclosure. The need for an improved and sturdy building envelope comes into the picture when external factors like natural calamities or terrorism are considered. Currently, the 2 most common threats for the integrity of a building envelope are rainwater penetration and moisture infestation. The aim of this article is to familiarize you with the basic principles of building envelope design along with their definition. External Wall System: Principles and Definition - Exterior Cladding It is the protective layer attached to the exterior of building envelope. Exterior cladding, in most cases, is the first defence barrier against rainwater penetration. The term “cladding” is often used to describe many building envelope materials, components and systems. - Wet Zone This region of exterior wall system is designed to be exposed to short and long term effects of rainwater and moisture. The wet zone is located on the exterior side of the innermost drainage plane of assembly. - Dry Zone Unlike wet zone, this region of the exterior wall system is not designed to be exposed to moisture and rainwater as the materials used have low tolerance to moisture. Dry zone is located on the interior side of the innermost drainage plane of assembly. - Drainage Plane It is designed to shed rainwater and condensation downward and outward for preventing uncontrolled water infestation. The drainage plane describes any element that is exposed to the weather or is located between the wet zone and dry zone. Based on the wall specifications, the drainage plane can be specified as waterproof and vapour-impermeable or water resistant and vapour-permeable. - Air Barrier It consists of elements that are designed to control the air movements across an exterior wall system. For optimal performance, some key aspects of the air barrier are: - Must reside within the wall, and be continuous from roof to wall to foundation. - Should have high quality materials that provide high resistance to air pressure without compromising their performance. - Must be durable with ability to maintain the structural integrity throughout its life cycle. - Air Retarder and Vapour Retarder The element that resists and limits the airflow across the exterior walls system is called an air retarder. The element that controls and limits vapour flow across the exterior wall systems is called an vapour retarder. A vapour retarder must meet the building codes, and the designers must consider factors like material selection, occupancy, local climate and building location. - Insulating Element An insulating element regulates and controls the heat transfer across the exterior wall system. These elements are designed to minimize the thermal bridging in the dry zones of the assembly. - Structural Element These elements are specifically designed to withstand any live and dead loads on the structure. The loads present must be distributed effectively onto the structural frame. - Interface Condition It is the line of separation between individual façade elements of the exterior wall system. For example, the perimeter lines of window openings, plumbing lines, mechanical ventilation, etc. These elements collect, contain and divert the rainwater to the exterior sides of the building envelope. They are responsible for keeping the water away from interior spaces and the dry zone. - Moisture Management System A combination of elements that control and manage the adequate distribution of moisture through an exterior wall system. The moisture management system deals with precipitation, air flow and diffusive vapour flow. - Storage Capacity The ability of a material or element to safely absorb and hold moisture. Many materials used in exterior wall design and construction can safely hold a significant moisture level. However, some materials suffer moisture deterioration and failure over time, when exposed to repeated and prolonged wetting. - Diffusive Vapour Flow This term describes vapour transfer through the layers of an exterior wall system. The rate and direction of diffuse vapour flow are affected by the interior and exterior ambient temperatures and relative humidity. The differences in vapour pressure and vapour permeability between layers also affect flow. - Capillary Action This refers to the absorption of moisture into small voids in a material, until it reaches maximum capacity. Capillary action in wood products is a common issue that causes deterioration of exterior wall systems. - Wind-Driven Rain The process by which rainwater is driven through an exterior wall system when exposed to wind loads. Water can flow through existing voids in the system, or voids that are created by deflection under external loads. Under extreme weather conditions, the wind itself can cause deflection.
Atlantic white cedar swamps are habitat for swamp pink (Helonias bullata), a federally-threatened and state-endangered flower of the lily family, as well as many other plant species distinct to the pinelands. In addition to plants, cedar swamps are a valuable habitat for the fauna of the Pinelands. At least one member of the butterfly and moth family, Hessel’s hairstreak (Mitoura hesseli), is exclusively dependent on Atlantic white cedar swamps, and is a species of special concern in New Jersey. Cedar swamps provide winter hibernation habitat for the state-endangered Timber Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus). The microsite conditions that make cedar swamps valuable to wildlife also make these sites valuable in their provision of ecosystem services, like water quality. Wetlands in general, and cedar swamps in particular are moderated environments in comparison to the surrounding landscape. Cedar swamps provide continuous cover throughout the year, creating a cool, shaded environment in the summer, and radiative cover in the winter. Streams in the Pinelands are almost exclusively supplied by groundwater; the cedar helps to moderate base flow and acts as a filter for nutrients in water. Peat formed in the muck soils of cedar swamps removes and stores nutrients and pollutants from the water including significant quantities of carbon, providing a stable long-term carbon sink. The natural organic compounds found in the muck soils of cedar swamps contribute largely to the Pinelands region’s characteristic red-brown water color. The contribution of cedar swamps to the character of the Pinelands and its water cannot be understated. Atlantic white cedar has experienced severe decline across its range, with New Jersey being the last stronghold of the resource. However, New Jersey’s resource is extremely vulnerable with less than 25,000 acres across the State. Much of this acreage is imperiled by coastal saltwater inundation directly resulting from increasing rates of sea-level rise due to global climate change.
Strategies and Actions Reduce emissions from agricultural practices. Agriculture makes up only a small proportion of regional emissions, but farms can reduce that impact with better management of animal waste and reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizer. Support agricultural practices that sequester carbon. Agriculture land management practices like cover cropping, no-till and minimum tillage, crop rotations, soil amendments, and changes in grazing rotations have been shown to increase the rate of carbon stored in plants and soil. Increasing the use of such regenerative practices among farmers can help offset local emissions from other sectors. Preserve tree canopy and manage forests and prairies to sequester carbon. Trees and other types of plants remove carbon dioxide from the air and store it as carbon in vegetation and soil. Conserving existing tree canopy and forest areas and restoring prairies and forested areas that have been cleared can help to offset emissions from other activities, while providing many community benefits such as storing and cleaning water, providing shade to cool urban areas, space for recreation, and habitat for many sensitive species. See the full list of the agriculture, forests, and prairies strategies and actions.
Parvovirus is an extremely contagious, life-threatening condition that spreads among dogs or through contact with contaminated items including toys and bowls. Here, our vets in Stockton discuss the facts about parvovirus that all dog parents should be aware of in order to keep their furry friends in good health. The Spread of Canine Parvovirus 'Parvo' Parvovirus is a very contagious virus that causes extreme gastrointestinal symptoms in puppies and unvaccinated dogs of all ages. The virus is spread through traces of feces from infected dogs. Asymptomatic dogs that are infected but aren't showing symptoms can spread Parvo, as well as dogs with symptoms, and those that have recently recovered from the condition. The disease is so infectious that even a human that has unknowingly been in contact with an infected dog can spread the virus to puppies and other dogs just by touching them. Which means that an innocent pat on the head can become the beginning of a life-threatening condition. Other common causes of contamination include sharing toys, bowls, bedding, and leashes. The height of the Parvovirus season in California is in the spring and summer. If you are the caring owner of a young puppy you need to contact your vet immediately if your pup shows any symptoms of Parvo. How Parvovirus Attacks Your Dog's Body Parvo can be described as a disease of the stomach and small intestines. It is here where the virus starts destroying a dog's gut barrier by attacking healthy cells and blocking the absorption of essential nutrients. In puppies Parvo also attacks the bone marrow and lymphopoietic tissues which are essential parts of your dog's immune system, then the virus will often impact the heart. Why Puppies Are Susceptible to Parvo If a mother is fully vaccinated against Parvo her puppies will inherit antibodies from the mother which will protect them against the virus during the first 6 weeks of their lives. But, as the puppies begin to reach 6 weeks of age their immune systems weaken and the young pups become susceptible to the disease. Vets motivate pet parents to start vaccinating their puppies against Parvo at 6 weeks of age when the puppy begins to wean and the antibodies from the mother aren't there anymore to protect the puppy. Although, the young pooch isn't fully protected until they have gotten all 3 Parvo vaccinations. It's during this time gap, between weaning and full vaccination that the puppies are at their highest risk of catching Parvo. Your puppy should get their Parvovirus vaccines at 6, 8, and 12 weeks of age. If you are a pet owner, having your puppy vaccinated against Parvovirus is one of the best ways you can protect the health of your new friend and the health of the other dogs in your home and neighborhood. Symptoms of Parvo It's critical to know that once your dog starts displaying symptoms they are already very sick. If you find your puppy or adult dog is displaying any of the symptoms below contact your vet immediately. - Loss of Appetite - Weight loss - Bloody diarrhea Treatments for Parvovirus There is no cure for Parvo in puppies, however, your vet will offer supportive treatments to address symptoms such as vomiting and diarrhea. It's critical that your pup gets enough hydration and nutrition to recover from Parvovirus. Because secondary infections are common in puppies with Parvo (due to their weakened immune systems) your vet will monitor your pup's ongoing condition and might prescribe antibiotics to help fight any bacterial infections that could start developing. If your dog is being treated by a veterinarian and lives through the first four days after they start showing symptoms, there is a good chance that they will recover from the disease. It can take approximately a week for dogs to recover from Parvo. If your pooch is diagnosed with Canine Parvovirus you must take the steps needed to isolate them from other animals and always wash your hands thoroughly after being around your young dog. Never allow your puppy to spend time around dogs that have not been fully vaccinated against Parvovirus. While socialization is essential for young dogs it is important to know that the dogs that your puppy spends time with are fully vaccinated and do not pose a health risk to your pup. Talk to your vet about the best ways you can protect your new four-legged family member. Be sure to follow your vet's advice and have your puppy vaccinated against Parvo, rabies, and other potentially serious conditions based on a puppy vaccination schedule for your area. The Stages of ParvovirusTo help you better understand parvovirus and the facts we have shared above, we have listed the 6 stages of canine parvovirus: - Exposure: Your puppy or unvaccinated dog is exposed to the virus through contact with infected feces, and can start spreading the condition to other pups. - Incubation: During the first three to five days after being exposed to the virus your pooch won't show any symptoms. - Symptoms appear: After being infected for five to eight days, your dog will start to develop symptoms. - A diagnosis from a veterinarian: Your veterinarian diagnoses your pooch with Parvovirus. The sooner your pup is diagnosed the better odds they have to survive. - Treatment: If your dog's treatment starts early (examples of treatment are medications, IV fluids, antibiotics) they have a higher chance of surviving. - Recovery: It can take fourteen to twenty days for a puppy or adult dog to fully recover from parvovirus. You need to make sure your dog is eating and drinking enough and that they remain isolated until they are no longer infectious.
In the pursuit of sustainable agriculture, regenerative farming has emerged as a transformative approach that prioritizes the restoration of soil health and biodiversity. Unlike conventional farming practices that can deplete soil nutrients and harm ecosystems, regenerative farming aims to rejuvenate the land while maintaining productive yields. The beauty of this approach is that it scales. Whether you’re a suburban family planting a veggie garden or a small business using a grape harvester used vineyard equipment to produce wine, regenerative practices can help. In this article, we explore five effective strategies modern farmers use to implement regenerative practices. By adopting these strategies, farmers and urban gardeners can contribute to a healthier environment, more resilient farms, and a sustainable food system. 1. Rotating crops Crop rotation is a traditional farming practice that involves planting different crops in a planned sequence. This simple and long-standing strategy helps break up cycles of pests and disease while improving nutrient distribution and reducing the need for chemical inputs. By creating a variety of habitats for different plant species and associated wildlife, crop rotation also enhances overall biodiversity. Different crops have different benefits as well. For example, legumes contribute nitrogen to the soil through nitrogen fixation, which benefits crops planted later on. 2. No-till farming practices No-till or reduced tillage farming is when farmers aim to minimize or completely eliminate plowing and tilling of the soil. This approach helps reduce the risk of erosion and carbon loss by preventing soil disturbance and retaining soil structure. By leaving crop residues on the field, farmers also provide organic matter that enriches the soil and supports microbial life. Furthermore, no-till farming promotes water retention and reduces the need for synthetic fertilizers, which reduces a farm’s overall environmental impact while improving soil health. 3. Holistic pest management Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a holistic approach to pest control that minimizes the use of synthetic pesticides. Instead of using chemicals to manage pests, it does so naturally through a combination of methods such as beneficial insect release, crop rotation, and the application of trap crops. IPM preserves beneficial insects that control pest populations, which results in a balanced ecosystem. By reducing reliance on chemical pesticides, farmers can protect soil health and encourage biodiversity. 4. Cover crops Cover cropping involves planting crops specifically for the purpose of improving soil health during fallow periods. Legumes, grasses, and other cover crops work to protect the soil from erosion. They also add organic matter and fix nitrogen levels as they decompose. Cover cropping enhances biodiversity by attracting beneficial insects and microorganisms. In addition, by incorporating cover crops into their rotation, farmers can prevent nutrient runoff and improve overall soil structure. 5. Microclimate creation Agroforestry combines tree cultivation with traditional agricultural practices. Trees provide numerous benefits, such as preventing soil erosion, providing shade to crops, and contributing organic matter through leaf litter. In addition, trees also create microclimates that support diverse plant and animal species. Agroforestry systems can include alley cropping, where rows of trees are planted between crop rows, or silvopasture, where trees provide shade and forage for livestock. Regenerative farming practices offer a promising path toward restoring soil health and biodiversity while maintaining productive agricultural systems. Through strategies such as cover cropping, no-till farming, crop rotation, agroforestry, and integrated pest management, farmers can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient food production model. These practices not only enhance soil fertility and structure but also create habitats for diverse plant and animal species.
In order to ensure food security in Austria, fertile soils are required in sufficient quantities. In the course of the project, the most fertile soils in Austria were identified and presented. The influence of climate change was also taken into account, which can lead to a dramatic reduction in the yield capacity of soils, especially in the eastern production areas. The results of the project can serve as an important basis for an optimization of spatial planning and a reduction of the loss of valuable agricultural land. The unbroken high resource input of economic processes leads to a constant consumption of soils that could serve food production. There is still no information on how much soil would be required for agricultural production in Austria in order to ensure the supply of food for the Austrian population and to be largely independent of imports. The aim of this project was to develop a method to characterize and represent valuable agricultural production areas, also taking into account future climatic and demographic developments. These specifications should serve as an argumentation tool for the protection of agricultural soils and help to limit the consumption of agricultural soils, which will benefit food security. The most fertile soils in Austria play a key role in food security. The identification of these most fertile soils was based on both soil mapping and financial soil estimation data. Based on selected parameters, the yield potentials available throughout Austria (subdivided into three classes) were determined by means of queries in the overall data sets and presented in the form of maps. In addition, valuable agricultural production areas were determined at the level of small production areas. For this purpose, soil estimation data were used and a regional threshold value (regional soil climate number) was calculated as a reference value for the nomination. In parallel, yield modeling in arable land and grassland was used to record both the current and future yield situation of Austria resulting from a changing climate. Due to the effects of climate change on the production potential of soils in Austria, it can be assumed that the dependence on imports for agricultural products for food security will increase. The results obtained support the long-standing demand for a reduction of the still high consumption of soil and the definition of targets with concrete figures. In this context, the concept of valuable agricultural production areas developed on the basis of soil quality could be an important tool for spatial planning in order to also give more weight to food security. In addition to the identification and labeling of valuable agricultural production areas, a number of other measures to improve the supply situation are conceivable, although these were not scientifically addressed in this project. In any case, an adjustment of crop rotation and cultivation times, the selection of heat- and drought-tolerant varieties, the securing of water supply in arid regions, but also a possible change of nutritional habits should be mentioned. The project has underpinned the importance of soil as a resource for food security and has produced concrete solution steps to secure this production basis, such as the development of the concept or the definition of valuable agricultural production areas. The above-mentioned measures should certainly be seen in the context of the global networking of agricultural production and trade and could be considered in further studies with regard to their effectiveness potential and implementation possibilities. Irrespective of this, however, measures should urgently be taken to significantly reduce the use of agricultural land. Benefit of the project The results of the project were presented at press conferences, events and exhibitions. This has succeeded in placing the topic of "soil consumption" even more firmly in the public debate. In addition, the tools developed can be used to designate valuable soils within the framework of spatial planning measures. Project acronym: BEAT Project management AGES: Dr. Andreas Baumgarten, Institute for Sustainable Plant Production Project partners: Federal Environmental Agency, Federal Office of Water Management, Federal Research and Training Center for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Technisches Büro Rodlauer, HBLFA Raumberg Gumpenstein, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Funding: the project was funded by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Regions and Water Management. Project duration: 2015-2018 Last updated: 03.07.2023
What are rare earth elements? The term rare earths is somewhat misleading as the elements are not particularly rare in nature. What is rare is for them to be present in such abundance that they can be economically exploited. The rare earths are a moderately abundant group of 17 elements comprising the 15 lanthanides, scandium, and yttrium. The lanthanides comprise a group of 15 elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71 as shown in the periodic table below. In order of atomic number (atomic symbol) the lanthanides are: lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and lutetium (Lu). Why do we need them? Rare earth elements have become the fundamental building blocks of our modern economy. Rapid technological advances have resulted in rare earths becoming necessary components of hundreds of advanced technological products from electric vehicles to renewable energy, humanoid robotics, medical applications and digital devices. Neodymium (Nd) and Praseodymium (Pr) are two of the most high-value and important rare earth elements – both critical to powering NdFeB permanent magnets needed for the conversation of electrical energy into motion. Currently, the supply of rare earths is dominated by China, which is responsible for around 65 per cent of primary supply and 90 per cent of global processing capacity. Capitalising on a global supply deficit Fueled by the electrification trend, global demand for permanent magnets used in electric vehicles and wind turbines is forecast to growth at a compound annual growth rate of 7.8% in the next decade. Electric drivetrains and wind energy is expected to represent 59% of rare earth oxide demand for magnets by 2032, with electric vehicle demand to growth significant as governments ban the sale of the traditional internal combustion engine. In addition, wind power has been identified as the fastest growing renewable energy technology by the International Renewable Energy Agency with installed capacity to grow around two times through to 2030. Other demand sources for these magnets include the growing areas of humanoid robotics, consumer electronics, industrial applications and air-conditioning. As a result, it is expected that the demand for rare earth elements – in particular NdPr – will exceed current production rates by 2025, resulting in a sizeable supply gap growing to 2032, representing around 13 times the projected NdPr oxide output of Yangibana. New and more diversified supply sources will be vital, with long project development lead times raising questions around the ability of supply ramp up. With first concentrate from Yangibana expected in Q2 2025, the project is well-timed to start meeting this increase in demand.
Did you know, the interactions between the sun and our planet’s atmosphere, as well as other constituents of our solar system, can create a number of other visually-stunning phenomena? Here is a rundown of some of the lesser-known, and harder-to-catch, solar “special effects.” When the sun rises or sets, a green flash is nearly always lost to the naked eye. The distinctive coloration results from Earth’s atmosphere acting like a prism, splitting white sunlight into its spectrum of hues. Most of the time when the sun is near the horizon, only red and orange, longer-wavelength light makes it through to our eyes. Shorter wavelengths get refracted or bent out of sight. But for a brief moment, a band of green can make it through. In very rare cases, when atmospheric conditions are just right, a blue flash can be detected as well. Rather than risk hurting your eyes squinting at the sunset, let a camera try to capture the green flash. The odds of seeing green flashes improve when the air is stable and clear with a sharp horizon line. Gazing over the ocean provides a good vantage point for capturing the green flash. Green flashes come in several varieties. One is sometimes referred to as a green rim, seen in the above image. The green rim actually happens with nearly every sunset but is very tough to spot. Another, rarer sort of green flash reveals itself right as the sun disappears below the horizon as a fleeting verdant specter (below). Casual onlookers can often catch such a green flash, for instance, from Kauai, Hawaii. Belt of Venus You’ve likely noticed this pinkish band hugging the eastern horizon after sunset, opposite where the sun has sunk in the west. It is reddish solar light backscattered—that is, reflecting back toward where it originated from with the setting sun—by particulates in the atmosphere. This phenomenon gets its name from the fact that the planet Venus, visible at dawn and dusk, is often located within or near the colored celestial stripe. Below the Belt of Venus, the sky looks darker and purplish. This band is actually a shadow cast by Earth as its dayside rotates away from the Sun and enters night. The ancient Greeks and Romans wrote about “mock suns” following the real sun. Surely what their eyes saw is the phenomenon now called a sun dog. It manifests as a bright spot (or spots) in alignment with the sun and appears to the sun’s left, right, or on both sides. Sundogs are specifically caused by hexagonal ice crystals in the atmosphere, which refracts sunlight akin to a prism. This refraction can produce a great number of related phenomena, broadly classified as halos. For instance, sun dogs’ typical distance from the sun—22 degrees—falls on a halo of the same name. A glowing line can sometimes be seen extending from the sun to the sun dogs, called a parhelic circle. In these situations of highly refracted sunlight, a vertical luminescence may also protrude from the sun, dubbed a sun pillar. All these solar visuals are present in the above image. It’s more than likely you’ve seen rainbows before. They make this list, however, because A) rainbows are inarguably amazing, and B) can you readily explain how they work? As with other phenomena in this article, rainbows form from an interplay of reflection and refraction. Instead of ice crystals, in this case, water drops serve as the responsible prismatic party. When light enters the droplet, some of it is reflected by the drop’s far side, back the way it came in. In the process, the light gets refracted by the water, with the different wavelengths (colors) bending at different rates. As a result, when the light comes back out, it is splayed into the visual spectrum. We see all this in action when rain is falling in front of us and the sun is shining behind us. The angle of the sunlight must be just right—about 42 degrees—in order to get the spectrum-throwing effect, more common when the sun is lower in the sky in the morning and afternoon. To get a better feel for how rainbows occur, experiment with a garden hose on a sunny day. With the sun to your back, put your finger over the water flow to generate a fine mist. If you get the angle just so, you’ll generate a rainbow. Waterfalls, fog, and sea spray can also accordingly create the colorful arcs. Another stunning visage our star can offer is the so-called Omega Sun, named after the last letter of the Greek alphabet. When the bottom limb of the sun is still “touching” the horizon, a mirage effect can temporarily occur, making the sun appear to pinch in and then expand back toward the ground. Mirages occur when light passes through a layer of hot, lower-density air near the Earth’s surface. The light refracts, triggering a seeming reproduction of a part or whole of a distant object or the sky. As an optical phenomenon, we’re more familiar with mirages for fooling desperate desert travelers into believing an oasis lies ahead; instead, the apparent blue on the yonder landscape is just the refracted blue sky. To see the final optical phenomenon, you’ll need to be under an inky black, moonless sky and away from the light pollution of civilization. After nightfall or before sunup, a sizable, tapering white glow can be witnessed extending up from the horizon. Called the zodiacal light, it is actually not an interaction between the Sun and Earth’s atmosphere, like the other examples given in this article. Instead, the luminance is a reflection of sunlight from the grains of cosmic dust out in our solar system. This dust ranges in size from molecular motes to sand-like grains on up to bona fide space rocks. It is created by comets’ dusty, icy tails leaving material throughout the inner solar system, as well as the pulverizing collisions of asteroids. The zodiacal light is so named because its light appears in the celestial zone dubbed the zodiac, which extends about 8 degrees north and south of the ecliptic, the plane of the circular path followed by the sun as it moves across the sky. Year in and year out, the sun makes these laps across our firmament, producing beautiful visuals for us to experience and enjoy.
Glaucoma is a complicated disease in which damage to the optic nerve leads to progressive, irreversible vision loss. It is the second leading cause of blindness. The most common form of the disease occurs when the ocular drainage canals become clogged over time. The inner eye pressure (also called intraocular pressure, or IOP) rises when the correct amount of fluid can’t drain out of the eye. With the most common form of glaucoma, the entrances to the drainage canals are clear, and should be working correctly. However, the clogging problem occurs farther inside the drainage canals. This is like a clogged pipe below the drain of a sink. Glaucoma Symptoms & Risks Most people will not experience symptoms, nor will they have any early warning signs. Open-angle glaucoma can cause a gradual loss of vision if it is not diagnosed and treated. The disease develops slowly and sometimes without visible vision loss for many years. It usually responds well to medication, especially if caught early and treated. While anyone at any age can develop glaucoma, these conditions pose a higher risk: - A family history of glaucoma - Individuals over 40 years of age - Individuals of African or Mediterranean descent - People who’ve experienced an eye injury or trauma People of all ages are at risk for developing glaucoma, and only an eye doctor can make a diagnosis. Routine eye examinations are important to detect and identify symptoms. Please contact us to schedule your eye appointment today.
Explain at least one way that the ideals associated with the "cult of true womanhood" (i.e. Victorian gender norms) are relevant to the Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions (please quote at least one specific passage from the Declaration to support your analysis). After making a connection between the Declaration and the "cult of true womanhood," explain how Grimke and/or Stanton are critical of the cult of true womanhood--your explanation should make specific reference to at least one passage from Grimke or Stanton. Using an intersectional lens, discuss what this week’s readings tell us about different women’s experiences in the 19th century (1800s) and why this is relevant to Davis’s understanding of the origins of American feminism. How does Davis use intersectionality to counter the idea that the feminist movement in the U.S. began with Seneca Falls? What does her intersectional analysis reveal about interconnected institutions of power? How do our other assigned materials help us understand intersectional oppression in the 19th century (1800s)? Read: Angelina E. Grimke's "LETTER XII: HUMAN RIGHTS NOT FOUNDED ON SEX" from Letters to Catherine BeecherPreview the document Read: Elizabeth Cady Stanton's "Our Costume"Preview the document Read: The Declaration of Sentiments and ResolutionsPreview the document
With global warming, large parts of southern England and Wales are at risk from malaria. Scientist say the disease is most likely to arrive in river areas and low-lying wetlands. Humans become infected when bitten by a mosquito that is carrying the parasite. Researchers at Durham University in the U.K. used a mathematical model to predict how global warming will increase the threat of malaria in coming years. They studied vivax malaria, which can be transmitted by a species of mosquito commonly found in Britain, Anopheles atroparvus. A rise in temperature encourages the mosquito to breed and feed more rapidly and also speeds up the maturation of the malaria parasite. Malaria was once common in many parts of England, and was a leading cause of death in many marsh communities between the 16th and 19th centuries. At the moment, mosquitoes in the U.K. are not infected with the malaria parasite. However, if global warming continues at the current rate, some of these same areas could again become breeding grounds for malaria for up to four months each year by the end of this century. Steve Lindsay says, "Present day summer temperatures are warm enough to support the transmission of malarial parasites by indigenous mosquitoes in the warmest parts of the country for two months each year. By 2050 large parts of southern England could get malarial transmissions and the season could be increased to four months by the end of the century." Increased foreign travel has led to a sharp increase in the number of people bringing the disease back to England. Dr. Peter Chiodini, of the Hospital for Tropical Diseases in London, says malaria is a problem because the early symptoms can be confused with the flu. NOTE: This news story, previously published on our old site, will have any links removed. Subscribers, to watch the subscriber version of the video, first log in then click on Dreamland Subscriber-Only Video Podcast link.
Poison ivy, oak, and sumac facts What does poison ivy look like on the skin? Red, itchy, bumps, or blisters on the skin are typical. - Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are poisonous plants that can cause an itchy rash upon contact. - A substance called urushiol, found in these plants, causes the rash. - The rash is not contagious. - The rash usually disappears in one to three weeks. - The majority of cases can be treated at home. What are poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac? Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac (belonging to the Anacardiaceae family) are plants that can cause a rash if individuals come in contact with the oily resin found in them. Poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans -- eastern poison ivy/Toxicodendron rydbergii -- western poison ivy) typically grows as a vine or shrub, and it can be found throughout much of North America (except in the desert, Alaska, and Hawaii). It grows in open fields, wooded areas, on the roadside, and along riverbanks. It can also be found in urban areas, such as parks or backyards. Poison ivy plants typically have leaf arrangements that are clustered in groups of three leaflets (trifoiate), though this can vary. The color and shape of the leaves may also vary depending upon the exact species, the local environment, and the time of year. The plant may have yellow or green flowers, and white to green-yellow berries, depending on the season. Eastern poison ivy typically grows as a hairy ropelike vine, whereas western poison ivy tends to grow as a low shrub. Poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) grows as a vine or shrub, and it is found in the western United States and British Columbia. It also has a leaf arrangement similar to poison ivy, with clusters of three leaflets. The leaves may sometimes resemble true oak leaves. Poison sumac (Toxicodendron vernix) grows as a shrub or small tree, and it is found in the eastern/southeastern United States. It grows in very wet areas, and it can be found along the banks of the Mississippi River. Each stem contains seven to 13 leaves arranged in pairs. It has the potential to cause a more severe rash than either poison ivy or poison oak. Poison Ivy Treatment and Rash Prevention Common Myths and Truths About Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, and Poison Sumac Myth #7: Once the eruption occurs, there are a variety of treatments that easily suppress the reaction and can be performed without visiting your physician. They vary from applying human urine to the site of the eruption to drenching the skin in gasoline. Truth: For mild local reactions, it is generally necessary to apply potent topical steroids to the site for two to three weeks. What causes a poison ivy, oak, or sumac rash? Exposure to all of these plants can produce a rash, which is caused by sensitivity to an oily resin found in these plants called urushiol. This substance can be found on the leaves, stems, flowers, and roots of these plants. Interestingly, it can remain active even after the plant has died. Exposure to even very small amounts of urushiol, amounts less than a grain of table salt, will lead to the development of a rash in 80%-90% of individuals. The rash (an allergic contact dermatitis) can be caused by direct contact with urushiol by touching the plants or by indirect contact with the plant oil that may have contaminated a pet's fur, tools, clothing, or other surfaces. Airborne contact is also possible if these plants are burned and the urushiol particles land on the skin, and it can affect the lungs as well if the urushiol is inhaled. In the United States, Toxicodendron dermatitis is the most common cause of contact dermatitis. Sensitivity to urushiol occurs when individuals come into contact with it. The first time a person is exposed, they may not develop a rash. However, with repeated exposure, sensitivity develops that ultimately leads to the development of the characteristic rash. Most people (about 85%) will develop sensitivity, while a small percentage of individuals (about 15%) never develop an allergic reaction to urushiol. See a picture of poison ivy, a rash from poisonous plants as well as other various skin conditions in various degrees andf forms What are risk factors for poison ivy, oak, or sumac rash? Any individual who comes into contact with these plants is at risk for developing the rash. However, people who spend more time outdoors in geographic areas where these plants are known to grow are at higher risk. This may include certain occupations associated with outdoor work in these areas, such as gardeners, groundskeepers, farmers, forestry workers, and construction workers. Hiking enthusiasts may also be at higher risk if they venture into areas where these plants are present. What are symptoms and signs of a poison ivy, oak, or sumac rash? Picture of a poison oak rash; SOURCE: CDC Susceptible people will develop the characteristic rash after exposure to the urushiol from these plants, typically within 12-72 hours after the initial contact. The signs and symptoms can include the following: - Redness of the skin - Swelling of the skin - Itching of the skin - An outbreak of small or large blisters The rash may appear bumpy, streaky, linear, or patchy, and it will affect the areas that have come into contact with the oil resin. Areas that have been exposed to a larger amount of urushiol may develop the rash more quickly, and the rash may appear more severe. In some instances, new lesions may continue to appear for up to two to three weeks. One can spread the rash to other parts of the body if one's contaminated hands (with the oil resin) touch other areas. The fluid that sometimes oozes from the blisters does not contain urushiol and therefore does not spread the rash, and other individuals who touch this fluid will not develop the rash. In order to spread the rash to someone else, they must directly come into contact with the oil resin. Generally speaking, the rash slowly improves and disappears after one to three weeks in most individuals. Overall, the symptoms may range from mild to severe. Rarely, in extreme cases, an anaphylactic reaction can develop. If these plants are burned, the airborne particles of urushiol can be inhaled, causing respiratory difficulty from irritation of the lungs. Occasionally, this reaction can be severe. What types of doctors treat poison ivy, oak, and sumac rash? The rash produced by exposure to poison ivy, oak, and sumac is generally treated by a primary-care physician, including family physicians, internists, and pediatricians. In cases where the diagnosis is not clear, a dermatologist may be consulted. How do physicians diagnose poison ivy, oak, and sumac rashes? The diagnosis of this rash is typically made by a health-care professional after obtaining a thorough history and performing a detailed exam of the skin. While some individuals will know and report exposure to poison ivy, oak, or sumac, others may not be aware of it and may not recall any exposure. The appearance of the characteristic rash is usually all that is needed to make the diagnosis. No blood tests or imaging studies are necessary. What is the treatment for a poison ivy, oak, or sumac rash? The initial treatment for someone who has recently been exposed to any of these plants includes rinsing the affected area with copious amounts of warm water within 20-30 minutes of exposure to remove the oily plant resin. The effectiveness of rinsing decreases with the passage of time, as the oily plant resin is quickly absorbed into the skin. Some authorities recommend rinsing with rubbing alcohol, commercially available poisonous plant washes, or degreasing soaps and detergents. It is also important to scrub under the fingernails to remove any remnants of the plant resin. In addition, thoroughly clean clothing or any objects that may have come into contact with these plants. Picture of the poison ivy plant If the characteristic rash develops, initial treatment consists of symptomatic care, as in most cases, the rash will improve on its own after one to three weeks. Self-care at home is usually all that is necessary. In the meantime, the following treatments may be useful to alleviate symptoms: - Apply cool compresses to the skin. - Use topical treatments to relieve itching, including calamine lotion, oatmeal baths, Tecnu, Zanfel, or aluminum acetate (Domeboro solution). - Oral antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl), can also help relieve itching. - For a more severe rash, a health-care professional may prescribe a high-potency steroid cream or an oral corticosteroid (such as prednisone). - Over-the-counter pain medication may be necessary for pain control. - Antibiotics may be prescribed if the rash becomes infected. Avoid scratching the rash to prevent the development of a bacterial infection. - Go to the nearest emergency department or call an ambulance if experiencing an anaphylactic reaction (severe allergic reaction) characterized by difficulty breathing, difficulty swallowing, facial swelling, or if one has had a previous severe reaction to these plants. Also seek medical care if the rash involves the genitals or the face or if the rash shows signs of infection. Allergies can best be described as: Are there any home remedies for a poison ivy, oak, or sumac rash? As above, in the majority of cases, the symptoms can be controlled at home with the aforementioned medications/formulations until the rash resolves. Though different herbal folk remedies have been used in the past, no definite effective therapy can be recommended at this time. What is the prognosis of a poison ivy, oak, or sumac rash? In general, the prognosis is excellent. In the vast majority of cases, the rash will improve on its own within one to three weeks without any complications, and all that is necessary is self-care at home with treatment to relieve the itching. Is it possible to prevent a poison ivy, oak, or sumac rash? There are measures that can be taken to help prevent the rash caused by exposure to these plants, including the following: - Learn to recognize these plants in order to avoid contact with them. - Wear protective clothing that covers the skin, including gloves, long sleeves, long pants, and boots if in a high-risk area. - If the possibility of contact with these plants exists, apply commercially available barrier creams to the skin, which may help prevent or lessen the exposure to the toxic plant oils. These products usually contain bentoquatam (IvyBlock) and should be applied before going outdoors. - Do not burn these plants, as this can release urushiol into the air. - Carefully remove these plants if they are growing near one's home. Be sure to wear protective clothing and gloves. - Thoroughly wash clothing or any other objects that may have come into contact with these plants, as they can retain the plant oil and cause a rash if worn or touched. - If a pet has been exposed to these plants, wear protective gloves and give them a bath. Subscribe to MedicineNet's Allergy and Asthma Newsletter Medically Reviewed on 8/4/2020 American Academy of Dermatology. "Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac: Overview." <https://www.aad.org/public/diseases/itchy-skin/poison-ivy-oak-and-sumac#overview>. United States. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Poisonous Plants." July 7, 2016. <http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/plants/>.
Excerpt fromMars: Humanity's First Attempt on Planetary Alteration Sol: A History -Comprehensive Introduction to Modern History of Solar System- Prof. B. Russell, Faculty of History University of Cambridge / Federation Science Academy H.T. Wright, Department of Martian Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences Marineris Institute of Technology / Federation Science Academy Martian Terraforming and Colonization The terraforming of Mars began in earnest when humanity discovered subspace travel. Not only did it cut travel time and costs significantly, it also provided humanity with sufficiently advanced energy production methods to generate a magnetic field on a planetary scale. When proof-of-concept testing was completed on the Moon, magnetosphere generators were installed on the Martian surface. Once the magnetic field was established, efforts to increase the density of atmosphere could begin. Several suggestions were considered, among them shipping nitrogen from the Venusian atmosphere, which was eventually deemed too slow to produce actual results in meaningful time. Instead, genetically tailored, soil-consuming bacteria were developed. These bacteria are currently at work consuming oxygen-rich minerals in the Martian soil and releasing oxygen and traces of other gases into the atmosphere. To avoid issues with building-consuming bacteria in the future, these bacteria have an inherent extinction trigger after a set number of generations, and scientists are taking samples of the population at regular intervals to keep track of possible mutations. However, use of concrete and glass as building material is impossible during the current phase of the terraforming process. Instead, plastic, composites, steel and other metals with a better lifetime expectancy are employed. Additionally, several comets and asteroids with high water-ice composition were maneuvered to impact the vast, uninhabited deserts of Mars in order to increase the water vapour consistency of the atmosphere. After the initial impacts, these efforts were deemed a waste of resources and an unnecessary danger. Mars had large amounts of water ice under the surface already, and scientists predicted that with a warmer, denser atmosphere, that water ice would naturally humidify the planet again. It is a little known fact that the pressure at the deepest recesses of Martian geography (Vallis Marineris, Hellas Planitia and Argyre Planitia) was above the triple point of water even before terraforming attempts. This meant that liquid water could exist - but at the low atmospheric pressure that prevailed during the early stages of the terraforming process, the water would evaporate during the daytime. However, being the deepest places on Mars, these recesses collected the gases released by the terraforming bacteria. Eventually, the atmospheric pressure at the bottom of these recesses was high enough to keep water from boiling during daytime and prevent freezing over night-time, as the increased density also increased heat retention. The bodies of water would still freeze over during wintertime in Hellas Planitia and Argyre Planitia. Being closer to the equator, Vallis Marineris has no seasonal variation of this scale in temperatures. As soon as this phase was completed, water ice mining and vaporization began on several locations on Mars. Instead of transporting mined water ice to the deep areas, it was subjected to scientific research before the complete destruction of these ancient ice deposits. Surplus ice was subjected to electrolysis to increase oxygen partial pressures and the hydrogen and deuterium were stored for their various uses. The results of this research are available in a series of reports issued by the GTA Office of Human Habitation and (post-Isolation) the Federation Science Academy. The main focus, however, was to increase the rate of melting and vaporization of these deposits. This was accomplished with an orbital mirror system designed to focus radiation on large ice concentrations. As the ice would melt and almost immediately vaporize, it would increase the humidity of the atmosphere, eventually starting a weather cycle in the deep areas of higher pressure. The places where this happened first were Hellas Planitia and Argyre Planitia. First, the precipitation fell in the form of snow, creating thick white cover on the bottom of the recesses. After the atmospheric thickness further increased, heat retention increased as well, and eventually the water melted and formed large bodies of water. While liquid water was being introduced to the impact basins on the southern hemisphere, work began to construct a massive dam to cut the northeast end of Vallis Marineris from the large, recessed areas that cover much of the Martian northern hemisphere. Without this dam, introducing water to the canyon would just have let the water flow through it to this large area, where it would be spread too thin and vaporize too fast to be of any real use. This dam was named Rybolt-Urueta, in honor of the first human inhabitants of the Red Planet. Soon after the weather cycle of water was achieved at the deep recesses, aquatic plant life was introduced to the planet, starting the ongoing process of biosphere insertion.Above: an image of Mars in its current phase of terraforming. Notable features visible are portions of Valles Marineris and the Capri Delta, where water streaming over the Rybolt-Urueta dam complex forms rivers and ponds before eventually evaporating.Life on the Red Planet At stage one of biosphere insertion, algae from the arctic regions of Earth were introduced to the accumulated bodies of water. After several decades of oxygen production with negligible oxygen consumption, sufficient amounts of oxygen concentrations in the water and atmosphere of Mars was reached to support aquatic animal life and land plantation. Arctic fish, crustaceans and algae-consuming animal plankton, as well as thick-leaved bushes, subshrubs and small conifer species were inserted to the Red Planet in this second stage of biosphere insertion, and green patches started to develop around the lakes in the impact basins as well as along the steep edges of Vallis Marineris. By the time stage two of biosphere insertion was complete, the majority of the carbon dioxide in the old Martian atmosphere had been converted into biomass and oxygen. Because of the high oxygen concentration, the partial pressure of O2 was at level similar to high-altitude environments on Earth, such as the Himalayas on the Tibetan Plateau, or the Andes on South America. This meant that, while very unpleasant for new colonists, exposure to the Martian atmosphere would no longer be immediately lethal, and acclimatization would be possible with long term exposure to lower oxygen partial and absolute pressure. However, it is typical for habitats to be pressurized to roughly 3000 metres of Earth equivalent altitude, with a more traditional nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere. These conditions provide a slightly higher partial pressures of oxygen than the Martian atmosphere, but due to higher total pressure, they are also significantly gentler on soft tissues such as eyes, ears, nasal and oral cavities, pharynx and lungs. Prolonged exposure to the thin Martian air still requires the use of safety equipment to prevent dehydration. As a result of these harsh conditions, the Martian population has already developed some limited traits similar to peoples living at high altitudes, such as Sherpas and Peruvian or Chilean indigenous people. Similar to these peoples, Martian people do not develop significantly higher red cell concentrations, but their bodies are instead otherwise acclimated to lower absolute pressure as well as lower partial pressure of oxygen. Most of the changes are still basic acclimation to the environment, which is not caused by the genotype - there has simply not been enough time for significant evolutionary differences to develop. Medical statistics do show that people who have high-altitude ancestry do tend to acclimate faster and better to the conditions on Mars.Harsh life Surface colonies on Mars faced many problems during their development. As the water levels are projected to rise and eventually cover the majority of the deepest parts of the planet, it would have made little sense to build a lot of static infrastructure. Instead, semi-mobile housing units were designed using existing cargo containers as a basis. These units each have individually functioning power, life support and social engineering systems. As the water levels slowly rise, settlements will re-locate to higher ground. Domed settlements were established in more permanently habitable areas, establishing the first Martian cities. Main logistical facilities on Mars include heavy-duty space ports on the high shield volcanoes of Olympus Mons, Ascraeus Mons, Pavonis Mons and Arsia Mons. These space ports are equipped to handle all atmospheric-capable ships in the United Earth Federation fleet. They are located on top of the high mountains for several reasons, which are all tied to a single factor: altitude. The high altitude of these locations reduces atmospheric interference with operations, decreases the energy requirements of hauling cargo into orbit, and reduces the stresses of atmospheric re-entry on the ships operating from these bases. These bases function as the main cargo and personnel routes to the planet. The mountain bases are connected to the population centres mainly via atmospheric transportation. In addition to this, some amounts of cargo and passengers are sometimes transported from Tharsis Mons bases to Vallis Marineris via monorail trains. The heaviest cargo is hauled to its destination with Chronos and Kadmos class spacecraft. Passenger traffic to Hellas and Argyre locations further from the space ports are usually conducted with ballistic-atmospheric shuttles. Short range traffic within the inhabited areas is usually managed with VTOL craft, though land transportation vehicles also exist.Time of Troubles Despite the initial successful phases of the terraforming process, the expansion of human life into the universe ironically began to undercut Martian colonization. More immediately habitable planets were discovered and colonized as a result of space exploration and the discovery of new subspace nodes. As a result, the priority of terraforming Mars diminished, and political pressure began to mount to abort the project as a waste of resources and effort. Due to this, the funding for the Martian colonies was reduced, effectively halting the biosphere insertion process. The active terraforming of Mars was put on a back burner, and the existing colonies were practically left to their own devices. And, indeed, for a while it looked like the critics had been correct; it was easier, faster, more convenient, less dangerous and much, much more pleasant to land on an immediately habitable planet and start full scale colonization. What could go wrong? The short-sightedness of this policy was fatally exposed due to first contact with Vasudans. The subsequent fifteen-year-war was followed by the Great War, which culminated in the separation of Sol from its colonies in other star systems. Suddenly, Mars could no longer be considered the backwater colony it had become during the expansion phase of the GTA. The subsequent economic and political collapse of the Sol system left Mars in a unique position, because they had already lived decades on their own. By the time of the funding and resource cuts, they had already achieved a degree of self-sufficiency, and continued their lifestyle, slowly building, expanding and gathering more resources. A socialist/neo-Marxist ethos conflated with radical ecoconsciousness began to ferment in the Martian colonies, eventually leading to radical offshoots like the Gaian Effort. In the mainstream, the colonies developed very advanced models to predict societal development and to maximize their productivity. There are rumours that these simulations were based on a 21st century program that simulated dwarves living in fortresses; however, these are only unsubstantiated rumours, no more. Regardless of their origins, these models were very accurate and effective, and some claim that they formed a significant backbone to the models used by Ubuntu to guide the development of the society and economy throughout the Sol system.New Glory for the God of War The formation of the UEF marked a significant upturn in the history of Martian colonization. Population increased rapidly, tripling since the end of the Great War. 250 million Martian citizens now live on the surface, and several hundred thousand more make their lives on orbital installations, in the Phobos and Deimos docks, and in the inner portion of the asteroid belt - technically part of Martian territory. Although Mars is significantly less populous than Earth, its military - the Second Rim Fleet - is much larger than Earth's First Home Fleet. This is because of both tradition and necessity. The population of Mars considers space flight to be part of their heritage and culture. Additionally, 2nd Fleet is required to patrol larger distances between a much larger amount of celestial bodies than the 1st Fleet, as the majority of the Asteroid belt and the activity there falls within 2nd Fleet's jurisdiction. 3rd Jovian Rim Fleet has similar reasons for its size, as their jurisdiction area also covers the small outposts beyond the orbit of Saturn and the tumultuous Kuiper territories. In addition to large increase in population, the production levels of Mars and its surrounding facilities have skyrocketed in the past three decades. The main orbital employer now are the UEF shipyards, which are responsible for much of the combat vessel production for the UEF military. The Martian industrial complex also hosts the Oxys-Ultor Threat Workshop, a major R&D and military production venture. Mars is also notable for the presence of the Solus Lacus Internment Facility, which became a processing site for GTVA captives and defectors during the opening stages of the Federation-Alliance war.Above: A map of notable locations and inhabited areas of Mars in 2382.Below: A rare wide angle image of Mars taken from medium altitude orbit. Notable locations visible are eastern parts of Valles Marineris and parts of Argyre Planitia to the South. COPYRIGHT 2385 UNITED EARTH FEDERATION SCIENCE ACADEMY REPRODUCTION OF ABOVE MATERIAL ENCOURAGED AS LONG AS SOURCES ARE CITED BLUE PLANET PUBLISHING IS NOT IN ANY WAY, SHAPE OR FORM AFFILIATED WITH BRITISH PETROLEUM PLC IN EXCHANGE FOR THIS INFORMATION WE ONLY CLAIM YOUR IMMORTAL SOUL TRANSACTION WILL BE COMPLETED IN DUE TIME HAVE A NICE DAY
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important : Prelims level : Delimitation Commission Mains level : Delimitation of constituencies Lok Sabha speaker has nominated 15 MPs to assist the Delimitation Commission in redrawing the Lok Sabha and the Assembly constituencies of the northeastern states and the Union Territories. Practice question for mains: Q. What is the Delimitation of Constituencies? Discuss its significance. What is Delimitation? Why is it needed? - Delimitation is the act of redrawing boundaries of Lok Sabha and state Assembly seats to represent changes in population. - In this process, the number of seats allocated to different states in Lok Sabha and the total number seats in a Legislative Assembly may also change. - The main objective of delimitation is to provide equal representation to equal segments of a population. - It also aims at a fair division of geographical areas so that one political party doesn’t have an advantage over others in an election. - Delimitation is carried out by an independent Delimitation Commission (DC). - The Constitution mandates that its orders are final and cannot be questioned before any court as it would hold up an election indefinitely. How is delimitation carried out? - Under Article 82, the Parliament enacts a Delimitation Act after every Census. - Once the Act is in force, the Union government sets up a DC made up of a retired Supreme Court judge, the Chief Election Commissioner and the respective State Election Commissioners. - The Commission is supposed to determine the number and boundaries of constituencies in a way that the population of all seats, so far as practicable, is the same. - The Commission is also tasked with identifying seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes; these are where their population is relatively large. - All this is done on the basis of the latest Census and, in case of difference of opinion among members of the Commission, the opinion of the majority prevails. - The draft proposals of the DC are published in the Gazette of India, official gazettes of the states concerned and at least two vernacular papers for public feedback. - The Commission also holds public sittings. - After hearing the public, it considers objections and suggestions, received in writing or orally during public sittings, and carries out changes, if any, in the draft proposal. - The final order is published in the Gazette of India and the State Gazette and comes into force on a date specified by the President. How often has delimitation been done in the past? - The first delimitation exercise in 1950-51 was carried out by the President (with the help of the Election Commission). - The Constitution at that time was silent on who should undertake the division of states into Lok Sabha seats. - This delimitation was temporary as the Constitution mandated redrawing of boundaries after every Census. Hence, delimitation was due after the 1951 Census. Why more independence to DC? - Pointing out that the first delimitation had left many political parties and individuals unhappy, the EC advised the government that all future exercises should be carried out by an independent commission. - This suggestion was accepted and the DC Act was enacted in 1952. - DCs’ has been set up four times — 1952, 1963, 1973 and 2002 under the Acts of 1952, 1962, 1972 and 2002. - There was no delimitation after the 1981 and 1991 Censuses. Why postponed till 2026? - Although the freeze on the number of seats in Lok Sabha and Assemblies should have been lifted after the 2001 Census, another amendment postponed this until 2026. - This was justified on the ground that a uniform population growth rate would be achieved throughout the country by 2026. - So, the last delimitation exercise — started in July 2002 and completed on May 31, 2008 — was based on the 2001 Census and only readjusted boundaries of existing Lok Sabha and Assembly seats and reworked the number of reserved seats. Back2Basics: History of Delimitation in J&K - Delimitation of J&K’s Lok Sabha seats is governed by the Indian Constitution, but the delimitation of its Assembly seats (until special status was abrogated recently) was governed separately by its Constitution and J&K Representation of the People Act, 1957. - As far as the delimitation of Lok Sabha seats is concerned, the last DC of 2002 was not entrusted with this task. Hence, J&K parliamentary seats remain as delimited on the basis of the 1971 Census. - As for Assembly seats, although the delimitation provisions of the J&K Constitution and the J&K RP Act, 1957, are similar to those of the Indian Constitution and Delimitation Acts. - They mandate a separate DC for J&K. In actual practice, the same central DC set up for other states was adopted by J&K in 1963 and 1973. - While the amendment of 1976 to the Indian Constitution suspended delimitation in the rest of the country till 2001, no corresponding amendment was made to the J&K Constitution. - Hence, unlike the rest of the country, the Assembly seats of J&K were delimited based on the 1981 Census, which formed the basis of the state elections in 1996. - There was no census in the state in 1991 and no DC was set up by the state government after the 2001 Census as the J&K Assembly passed a law putting a freeze on fresh delimitation until 2026.
The carbonation reaction primarily involves metal/mineral oxides, hydroxides and silicates, principally those of calcium and magnesium, reacting with CO₂ gas. If the reaction conditions are controlled, carbonation can be achieved in minutes instead of in the years taken for the natural reaction. Calcium and magnesium carbonates, on account of the environmental impact and stability, are the favoured reaction products, and are simply represented as Ca in the reactions below CaO + CO₂ -> CaCO3 Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ -> CaCO3 + H2O The reaction pathways involved are more complicated than shown, as there are options to produce more than one valuable product from a carbonation step. The first carbonation experiments involved the use of cement to bind heavily contaminated metalliferous wastes. Exposure of the cement to CO₂ shown as the bright grains in the SEM image right, rapidly de-calcifies the calcium silicates in the cement and precipitates the calcium as calcium carbonate needles in the pore space on the outside of the grains of cement. This process leaves the grey rims in the cement grains and the needles of carbonate lock together to harden the waste and lock up the metals.
What Is Digital Signal Processing? Not to be confused with actual digital systems, DSP is a slightly more abstract system. Whereas actual digital systems involve hardware, binary code, or digital domain, DSP can be defined quite simply as the processing of a signal in the digital domain to analyze, measure, and manipulate said signal using mathematical calculations. In even simpler terms, DSP involves the interchanging of information in a headset so that said information can be observed, analyzed, or transformed into a separate form of digital signal. Considering how critical DSP is, the whole process happens very quickly and is not even noticeable by the headset user. DSP can be done on just about any digital platform; however, some systems are designed specifically for DSP. There are a handful of components that make up a successful DSP system: - Input and Output \|This is the interface to the physical world and other devices. In short, analog signals are converted to digital, processed, and then converted back to the analog domain to interact once again with headset users. - Digital Signal Processor chip \| The “brain” of a DSP system. All the necessary calculations and algorithms are performed here. - Memory \| This is where DSP algorithms are stored. - Program memory \| Like any memory program, the program memory of a DSP stores the programs needed for data to be translated. - Computer Engine \| This is the part of DSP that computes all the mathematical functions that take place during communication. - Data memory \| Storage space for any information that may need to be processed. Why Is DSP Important and Where is it Used? DSP is important because it creates the ability to process audio inputs and separate speech from noise while suppressing the unwanted noise without blocking the speech signal and actually enhances the speech. This increases the overall value of hearing protection and protects users from unhealthy noise exposure without compromising communication. Obviously, this is very important for protecting a user’s hearing when immersed in a high-noise industrial work environment. More reasons DSP is valuable: - Power \| Real-world signals are converted into a domain where abstract scientific and mathematical models are then applied. The result is a powerful processing system. - Information \| Information can be used to enhance or improve desired aspects of a signal or even to reduce undesirable aspects. - Adaptation \| DSP processes information adaptively. This concept is imperative in a dynamic application such as sound and speech, especially when applied in industrial environments. - Flexibility \| DSP creates flexibility. Changes, updates, customizations, and many other features are available with the implementation of DSP systems. - Efficiency \| DSP allows users to get the job done efficiently, practically, and cost-effectively. DSP is used everywhere, but primarily it is used in audio signal, speech processing, RADAR, seismology, audio, SONAR, voice recognition, and some financial signals. At Sensear, we use DSP to create a safe, quality communication experience with our SENS® Technology, filtering the analog signals in real-time. DSP is a critical aspect of our Noise Suppression and Speech Enhancement communication technology. To learn more about Digital Signal Processing and SENS® Technology, contact one of our high-noise communication specialists. Follow Sensear and always be in the know.Follow @HearSensear
Early childhood education in some public schools is turning to a play-based curriculum for learning in kindergarten and first grade. This education method is not dissimilar to one of the learning methods of the effective Montessori Method that has been around for many years. This instructional method is an educational practice partially based on collaborative play in conjunction with hands-on learning and self-directed activities. Play has been proven to be significant in the development of young children’s cognitive abilities. It helps to shape the structural design of the brain by building and strengthening pathways. During play, children often explore ideas, go down new avenues of thought, and even take risks as they create meaning. Furthermore, those children who participate in meaningful play experiences have been shown to develop stronger memory skills and language development. They also learn to regulate their behavior since children love to make “rules” as they create games and play with each other. One educational authority who underscores the learning benefits of play is Temple University’s Professor Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, who holds a doctorate in human development from the University of Pennsylvania. Dr. Hirsh-Pasek asserts that the child who plays develops listening and speaking skills, skills necessary for nearly every subject in schools. She adds that, in innovative and creative acts of play, a child also develops critical thinking skills along with confidence as peers accept his or her ideas. This building of self-confidence is essential for children if they do experience failures in their lives because they will realize that not only have they had success in the past, but they have also overcome previous failures. In doing so, they can regain their confidence and learn more. Teacher-directed, or purposeful play, has also proven to be successful in learning centers. This type of interaction with peers involves more direction from the teacher who selects the materials to be used. The teacher also observes activities more closely and provides students with feedback. Research has shown that this form of play-based learning is more effective than other teaching styles such as direct-instruction. One study discovered that a curriculum involving play has a positive influence on the acquisition of grammatical skills, as well as reading and math skills. Professor Hirsh-Pasek points out that engaging in activities with one another also lends young learners confidence, an attribute that significantly assists further learning.
Writing Text Files This chapter explains Java's FileWriter class and how you can use it to store data in files. 1. Writing Text Files This chapter explains how to create a text file on the hard disk and how to write character data to it. Chapter 21 used redirection to write text files. Redirection is when output that would normally go to the monitor is sent to a disk file. The program has no control of this. In this chapter your program creates a file and writes output to it. - Creating a disk file - Closing a disk file - Catching I/O exceptions (Review: ) What is the ancestor class of all streams that do character-oriented output? Source: Bradley Kjell, https://chortle.ccsu.edu/Java5/Notes/chap83/ch83_1.html This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License.
Communication is the process of sharing info. We discuss of the several types of communication like verbal, non-verbal, interpersonal and so forth. We discuss of developing communication abilities and styles. 6. communications The expertise employed in transmitting messages. It is physique language, eye contact, the grinning, the little signals that go on between individuals. Opposite to fashionable belief, signed languages of the world (e.g., American Signal Language ) are considered to be verbal communication as a result of their signal vocabulary, grammar, and different linguistic structures abide by all the required classifications as spoken languages. B : a verbal or written message The captain obtained an essential communication. Nonverbal cues are closely relied on to specific communication and to interpret others’ communication and can substitute or substitute verbal messages. Places of work with great communications expertise require fewer individuals to accomplish the identical duties, are far more environment friendly, and supply exemplary customer support as a result of there isn’t a lag in communicating needs. forty The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Mannequin of communication separated the mannequin into clear elements and has been expanded upon by other scholars. Most of the 1000’s of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. Language follows phonological rules (sounds that seem in a language), syntactic rules (arrangement of words and punctuation in a sentence), semantic guidelines (the agreed upon meaning of words), and pragmatic guidelines (meaning derived upon context).
The definition of the verb “to include” is not the same as the definition of the verb “to be.” By definition, if we use the word include or including before a list, we are telling the reader that the list is not exhaustive. What the Dictionaries Tell Us The American Heritage states that include means “to take in or comprise as a part of a whole or group.” Likewise Merriam-Webster’s emphasizes that “Include suggests the containment of something as a constituent, component, or subordinate part of a larger whole.” Examples to Make the Point Consider the following sentences that preface a list with include: - Committee meetings will focus on the four central components of systemic reform, which include leadership, policy, delivery infrastructure and networks, and employee performance. - The six steps in the process of formatting text as small capital letters in MS Word include the following: (1) typing the text in all lowercase letters, (2) selecting (i.e., highlighting) the text, (3) clicking the “Format” menu, (4) clicking “Font” in that menu, (5) clicking the “Small caps” box in the “Effects” list, and (6) clicking the “Close” button. In sentence 1, the statement “the four central components of systemic reform include” is illogical if there are four components and the sentence lists all four of them. Since the list in this sentence is exhaustive, the sentence should read “The four central components of systemic reform are . . . .” Sentence 2 is also confusing and illogical. Because the sentence lists all six steps, the logical verb choice is are: “The six steps in the process . . . are the following.” These next two sentences illustrate how the meaning of a sentence changes when we switch from a form of to include to a form of to be: - The crucial elements of the proposal include the statement of the purpose of the project and a description of the specific ways in which the funds are to be spent. - The crucial elements of the proposal are a statement of the purpose of the project and a description of the specific ways in which the funds are to be spent. In the first sentence, the point made by the verb include is that the proposal has many “crucial elements” and that these two specific ones are merely two examples. In the second sentence, the verb are tells us that the proposal has exactly two “crucial elements,” and they are both described in this sentence. Here is a third set of examples: - Keynote speakers for the conference will include Barkley Amos, president of the National Center for Animal Rescue, and Dr. Gooding Brown, chairman of the College of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Pawtucket. - Keynote speakers for the conference will be Barkley Amos, president of the National Center for Animal Rescue, and Dr. Gooding Brown, chairman of the College of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Pawtucket. The first sentence suggests that the conference will have more than two keynote speakers. The second sentence tells us that the conference will have only these two keynote speakers. What about the Phrase “including but not limited to” in Legal Writing? Adding the phrase “but not limited to” to include or including creates a redundancy: the idea that a list is not limited to the examples provided is inherent in the meaning of the word include. We see the phrase “including but not limited to” especially in legal documents, which are often intentionally and excessively redundant in their attempt to prevent any conceivable misreading. Since many people wrongly believe that a list following the word include is exhaustive, attorneys resort to redundancy to forestall even the remote possibility of a misinterpretation. That said, since we first published this article more than a decade ago, we have had attorneys and judges write to tell us that good writing is the same in any field and that even legal writing should avoid redundancies. Attorneys, judges, and other professionals in the field of law are frequent attendees of our seminars, and many of them concur as well. In every other professional context, however, we should avoid the redundant phrases “includes but is not limited to” and “including but not limited to,” just as we should take care to use including and includes only when offering a few examples and not an exhaustive list. Elsewhere on this site we provide guidelines for handling vertical lists (a.k.a. numbered or bulleted lists). The items in any list should be grammatically and logically parallel, and a colon is not always appropriate before every list. Copyright 2008 Get It Write. Revised 2020.
Electric current speed Let’s do this thought experiment. Imagine that there is a certain village at a distance of 100 kilometers from the city, and that a wire signal line about 100 kilometers long with a light bulb at the end is laid from the city to this village. Two-wire shielded line, it is laid on supports along the road. And if you now send a signal along this line from city to village, then after what time will it be received there? Calculations and experience tell us that a signal in the form of an illuminated light bulb will appear at the other end in at least 100/300000 seconds, that is, in at least 333.3 μs (without taking into account the inductance of the wire) a light will light up in the village, which means that a current will be established in the conductor (for example, we use direct current from a charged capacitor). 100 is the length of each of the veins of our wire in kilometers, and 300,000 kilometers per second is the speed of light. the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum. Yes, the “motion of electrons” will propagate along the conductor at the speed of light. But the fact that electrons begin to move one after another at the speed of light does not mean at all that the electrons themselves move in the conductor at such a tremendous speed. Electrons or ions, in a metal conductor, in an electrolyte or in another conducting medium, cannot move as fast, that is, charge carriers do not move relative to each other at the speed of light. The speed of light in this case is the speed with which the charge carriers in the conductor begin to move one after another, that is, this is the speed of propagation of the translational motion of charge carriers. The charge carriers themselves have a “drift velocity” at a steady current, say in a copper conductor, only a few millimeters per second! Let us explain this point. Let’s say we have a charged capacitor, and we connect long wires to it from our light bulb, installed in a village at a distance of 100 kilometers from the capacitor. Connecting wires, that is, closing the circuit, we carry out the switch manually. What will happen? When the switch is closed, charged particles begin to move in those parts of the wires that are connected to the capacitor. Electrons leave the negative plate of the capacitor, the electric field in the dielectric of the capacitor decreases, the positive charge of the opposite (plus) plate decreases. electrons from the connected wire run into it. So the potential difference between the plates decreases. And since the electrons in the wires adjacent to the capacitor began to move, other electrons from distant places of the wire come to their places, in other words, the process of redistribution of electrons in the wire begins due to the action of the electric field in a closed circuit. This process spreads further and further along the wire and finally reaches the filament of the signal lamp. So, the change in the electric field propagates along the conductor at the speed of light, activating the electrons in the circuit. But the electrons themselves move much slower. Before we go any further, consider a hydraulic analogy. Let mineral water flow from the village to the city through a pipe. In the morning, a pump was started in the village, and he began to increase the pressure of the water in the pipe to force water from the village source to move into the city. The pressure change spreads through the pipeline very quickly, at about a speed of 1400 km / s (depends on the density of water, on its temperature, on the magnitude of pressure). A split second after starting the pump in the village, the water began to move in the city. But is this the same water that is currently moving in the village? No! The water molecules in our example push each other, and they themselves move much more slowly, since the speed of their drift depends on the magnitude of the pressure. The crush of molecules among themselves spreads many orders of magnitude faster than the movement of molecules along a pipe. So it is with an electric current: the speed of propagation of an electric field is similar to the propagation of pressure, and the speed of movement of electrons that form a current is similar to the movement of water molecules directly. Now let’s return directly to electrons. The speed of the ordered movement of electrons (or other charge carriers) is called the drift speed. Its electrons acquire due to the action of an external electric field. If there is no external electric field, then the electrons move chaotically inside the conductor only in thermal motion, but there is no directed current, and therefore the drift velocity on average turns out to be zero. If an external electric field is applied to a conductor, then depending on the material of the conductor, on the mass and charge of charge carriers, on temperature, on the potential difference. charge carriers will start moving, but the speed of this movement will be significantly less than the speed of light, about 0.5 mm per second (for a copper conductor with a cross section of 1 mm2, through which a current of 10 A flows, the average drift velocity of electrons will be 0.6–6 mm / c). This speed depends on the concentration of free charge carriers in the conductor n, on the cross-sectional area of the conductor S, on the particle charge e, on the magnitude of the current I. As you can see, despite the fact that the electric current (front of the electromagnetic wave) propagates along the conductor at the speed of light, the electrons themselves move much more slowly. It turns out that the speed of the current is a very low speed. Electric scooter speed: what happens and what depends on? The scooter has been considered the preserve of children and adolescents for decades. With the emergence and development of electric scooter models, amid growing concern for the environment in the form of abandoning private cars and even public transport in favor of eco-friendly bicycles and electric scooters, this two-wheeled iron horse gradually became a popular means of getting to work. Of course, this is a purely urban vehicle, and you can’t go too far on it without recharging, but sometimes you have to wind many kilometers even around the city, and you want to spend as little time as possible on it. In addition, fans of fast driving are ready to test almost anything as a racing mechanism, therefore many people are interested in how much this unit accelerates. Unfortunately, there is no officially recognized speed record for an electric scooter, if only because an ordinary unit of this type is not equipped with a speedometer. In addition, manufacturers usually do not strive to create a truly fast electronic assembly, and they have two good reasons for this. - Danger to the passenger. It is difficult to come up with such a form of transport, on which the rider would be even less protected than on a scooter. The maximum that can be thought of for safety is the minimum “set of a cyclist” made of a helmet and elbow pads with knee pads, but at high speed they will certainly not save you from injury. In addition, a scooter with a motor, unlike the same bike, is noticeably more difficult to control on steep turns, therefore manufacturers prefer to set a relatively low maximum speed for the device. - Increase in mass with increasing speed. An ordinary mechanical scooter is quite light transport, it is convenient to overcome obstacles and move up stairs with it, but in the electric version the battery is a priori the heaviest part. Unfortunately, in most cases there is a direct relationship between the battery capacity and the power supplied by the motor, and the latter determines how well the vehicle picks up speed. Accordingly, the existing high-speed models weigh quite a lot and are therefore inconvenient, but you can make them even faster, but then they will become completely inconvenient. However, in our country there are enough folk craftsmen who want to remove the software speed limit and increase it through some modernization of the device, thanks to which more serious 80 and 90 km / h are already achieved. An unofficial record and generally recognized benchmark for each modernized scooter can be considered 100 km / h, but the owner can accelerate so much only if he 100% trusts both the quality of the road, which should be perfectly flat, and his ability to drive a vehicle in such conditions. What factors affect the maximum speed of a scooter? The concept of the maximum speed for a particular model is somewhat arbitrary. usually it means the average maximum speed, which is relatively easy to achieve, but it happens that the manufacturer deliberately overestimates the numbers, and the declared maximum can be achieved only under ideal conditions. To understand how to squeeze everything out of an electric scooter, let’s consider what the speed of movement depends on. - Motor characteristics. This is almost the main criterion, which is one of two consistently affecting speed. Power and torque are the reserve of transport power, they do not change under any circumstances (except for modernization with the replacement of parts). Expecting to drive as fast as possible, in any case, you should pay attention to those models that have the best indicators of these characteristics. - Wheel diameter. The engine spins the wheels up to a certain number of revolutions per second. It is clear that a scooter with small wheels will have a shorter distance covered than a model with a larger diameter. Of course, the larger the wheels, the heavier they are, and the more difficult it is to rotate them, however, the factory manufacturer usually takes this moment into account and makes the engine power appropriate. - Vehicle and passenger weight. The total mass of a moving vehicle greatly affects the speed of movement. if it is high, the friction force with the road surface increases, and you will not go so fast. A fast electric scooter should be light on its own, without losing the rest of the ride. - Features of the road surface. If the road is perfectly smooth, the scooter literally slides along it without experiencing much resistance, and this, of course, is a huge plus for transport. Whether the case is a viscous coating, which allows for some subsidence of the scooter and the wheels sticking in at least minimal holes formed under its own weight. In addition, the slope also matters. as it is much harder to go uphill than downhill, so the electric motor will spend much more effort when climbing. - Headwind. Even this seemingly insignificant factor affects speed as it creates additional drag. By itself, it is usually not as powerful, but coupled with imperfect road surface and climbing uphill, the result can be depressing for someone in a hurry. What speed is needed? The reasons why manufacturers do not produce truly racing scooters have been described above. it remains to understand how to choose a specific model for their tasks, because even the declared 60 km / h is quite a lot for short trips around the city. There is a special classification of electric scooters in the context of who is driving. it also contains information about the normal power of such a vehicle. Experts advise the following. - Children. It is generally accepted that 5-10 km / h is the ceiling for them. In fact, this is an adult’s walking or a leisurely run, but for a student who is just learning, more is definitely not needed. For such an indicator, a motor with a power of about 100 W is enough. - Teenagers and adult beginners. For both of them, requests may be more serious than simple “pokatushki” around the yard. for them this is already an option for personal transport. At the same time, such drivers usually lack experience and endurance, because a speed above 15 km / h is not necessary for them, which in watt terms is 150-250 W. - For adults for everyday life. If you do not surprise you with a scooter, and you need an electric scooter every day, since it replaces a car or public transport, focus on the speed barrier of about 35 km / h. after all, you need not just go to the same job, but hurry. You can expect such agility from a 250-350 W model. - Racers. If you consider yourself a lover of fast driving and are not simply afraid to accelerate such a fragile structure to such speed, you should pay attention to models that can accelerate to 40-60 km / h. In such scooters, manufacturers often emphasize that they do not lose their cruising speed even in adverse conditions, and therefore their power is impressive. usually it is from 700 to a mind-blowing 2000 watts. How to upgrade a vehicle? No matter how hard you try to choose the most advanced electric scooter, it is very likely that the declared characteristics are somewhat exaggerated. For example, with a power reserve of 90 km, the battery is really only enough for 60-70 km, the unit does not necessarily reach the maximum speed at least 2-3 km / h, and with a half-discharged battery, problems begin in any driving mode. To increase the “endurance” of the scooter, you must purchase and install a more powerful battery for it. The difficulty lies in the fact that many models have individual dimensions, and it is extremely difficult to find a model of the same capacity, but the same dimensions. It is good if the configuration of the case involves the installation of additional batteries in special cells. in this case it will be much easier to experiment. As for the engine, in almost all cases it will normally survive an acceleration of about 1.5 or even 2 times higher than the factory standard, especially if you don’t mock your homemade product, riding it uphill on rubble and in the opposite wind. Another thing is that the wheel motor controller has certain limitations, which do not allow the scooter to accelerate more than the “normal” speed set by the factory. Therefore, the essence of the modification is either to replace the controller with another, or you will have to thoroughly re-solder the original board. You will learn more about the speed of an electric scooter by watching the following video. Electric scooter for the city: testing the Ninebot KickScooter E22 The 300W Ninebot KickScooter E22 engine is capable of accelerating to 20 km / h (during the test, by the way, the scooter gave out 21 km / h), which for driving on the sides of city highways, sidewalks or specialized paths (which, unfortunately, are far from everywhere) will be enough. It is worth clarifying right away that in order to reach the maximum speed, before the first race, you will need to activate the scooter in the Segway-Ninebot proprietary application. You just register, connect the scooter to your phone via Bluetooth (you may still need to update the firmware, but this will take a couple of minutes) and you can ride. After that, the Ninebot KickScooter E22 will be able to rush you around the city without any restrictions. Large power reserve The battery capacity of the electric scooter is 216 Watt-hours, which is equivalent to 22 kilometers of autonomous driving. In principle, these indicators are enough to get to work in the morning and back home in the evening on one battery charge. Even if your place of permanent deployment is more than a dozen kilometers from the office and you are worried that the ninebot will not withstand the return journey, you can just take a charger with you. I am glad that it is very compact and will not squeeze things in your backpack. But this may not be necessary either, since the Ninebot KickScooter E22 has 3 riding modes: - energy saving (lower speed at long distances); - standard (recommended speed 20 km / h); - sporty (maximum speed up to 22 km / h). In total, when combining these modes, you can get up to 45 kilometers of autonomous travel. Also, this scooter is equipped with the updated Smart-BMS battery management system, which maintains an optimal charge mode, protects the battery from overcharge / overdischarge / overload and allows you to extend its life. Good cross-country ability Thanks to its high ground clearance and massive 9-inch wheels, the ninebot feels confident enough on broken asphalt and other surfaces that were once a road. Pits, potholes and other irregularities do not make you jump and lose control, since the scooter has quite good shock absorption. The Ninebot KickScooter E22 also handles small tiles well, with little to no vibrations when driving at seams. The engine has enough power to successfully overcome inclines up to 15 degrees. Not to mention the ramps and other slopes that the scooter just flies by. And this is with a 90 kilogram person on board (by the way, the maximum permissible load is 100 kilograms). It is also worth noting the softness with which the scooter enters corners, almost without losing speed. With this indicator, the electric scooter is also all right. It is equipped with two brakes: one mechanical over the rear wheel and the other electric on the steering wheel, which is activated by pressing a lever. The front one is intended, rather, for emergency braking, as it is rather harsh. But it practically guarantees that you will not run over someone inadvertently. The Ninebot KickScooter E22 also has a useful function for setting the minimum speed at which the electric drive is activated. You can set the indicator from 0 to 5 km / h and either start, as they say, from a place or first push off with your foot, and then step on the gas. as it is convenient. But the reliability of the scooter does not end with only driving characteristics. The frame is made of lightweight and durable aircraft-grade aluminum alloy, and the handlebars are fixed to the column with 6 bolts that can be easily screwed in with the included hexagon. You shouldn’t worry about the visibility of the scooter at night either: there are two brake lights on the sides at the rear, and a powerful, but not dazzling reflector with a 13.5-meter visibility zone in front. Also included is a mechanical bell, loud enough to announce the arrival of yawning passers-by. It would seem, what functions can an electric scooter have, in addition to the main one? Ninebot KickScooter E22 is quite a technological thing. On the steering column, it has a digital display showing the current speed and battery capacity, as well as pairing with the phone in the app. Here you can also set up lighting effects (continuous glow of the headlight or periodic flickering). In the program itself, you can block the wheels of the ninbot if you leave it on the street unattended, and also select driving modes. For example, there is a quite attractive cruise control mode that turns on on the smartphone screen and is activated when you press the throttle for 5 seconds continuously. Great feature for straight routes without sharp turns. Also noteworthy is the recirculation of energy when braking using the front brake. By blocking the electric impulse in the front wheel, the braking distance is only 5 meters (at maximum speed), and the energy of this impulse does not disappear without a trace, but returns to the battery. In physics, this is called recuperation. Ease of use In addition to the thoughtful technological filling, the Ninebot KickScooter E22 boasts good ergonomic performance. The aluminum foldable design allows you to carry the scooter by hand without much hassle. After all, the weight of the product is only 13.2 kilograms, which is lighter than many brothers from the electric scooter family. Also, the dimensions of the scooter easily fit into the trunk of a car that is far from the most spacious and do not take up much space in passenger elevators, where space is usually sharply limited. All this makes the Ninebot KickScooter E22 a perfectly adapted solution for life in the big city.
What Is Cross-Tolerance? The term cross-tolerance refers to the state when an individual builds a level of resistance against the effects of a drug or substance that subsequently transpires to building a tolerance to other substances or drugs. Cross-tolerance tends to occur among drugs that have similar effects due to them effecting the same cell-receptors. Separating these drugs into their own categories is known as drug classification and can be useful for identifying the risks and effects associated with each substance. Drugs are often categorised into various types by analysing their biological compound, the effects or the associated risks. Due to there being several possibilities of how to categorize these substances, there is often much overlap causing the same drug to occur in one or more types. As a result, there is not a conclusive way to structure the different categories of drugs and substances. Find a list below of some of the most popular occurrences of cross-tolerance among different drug classifications. Often referred to as, ‘downers’, depressants include a series of substances including alcohol, opioids and benzodiazepines. Contrary to popular belief, depressants do not make you feel depressed, but slow down messages sent to and from the central nervous system. These effects result in a reduction of concentration and when consumed in small doses, causes the user to feel more at ease. A study conducted by the European Journal of Pharmacology found that severe consumption of ethanol resulted in a cross-tolerance to the hypothermic effect of morphine. Inhalants are substances that are inhaled to induce a psychoactive effect on the brain. Often referred to as huffing, the most common examples of inhalants used are paint thinners, nail polisher remover and gasoline. Cross tolerance among inhalants is rare but can be seen specifically between paint thinners and nail polisher. Alcohol and benzodiazepines: are one of the most common combinations seen among cross-tolerance. These two substances often come into close contact with one-another due to benzodiazepines being used to treat those suffering from severe alcoholism. Benzodiazepines are effective at treating alcohol-dependent users, as research suggests that minor amounts of benzodiazepines caused a severe reduction in the quantity of alcohol consumed. On the other hand though, benzodiazepines also pose a known threat of increasing cravings for alcohol. Heroin and other opioids drugs: is another common example of cross-tolerance among drugs. Users of heroin often discover when using other opioids, a tolerance has been built up towards other opiate drugs, again due to these drugs all affecting the same receptors in the brain. The cross-tolerance of heroin and other opioids often leads to treatment of similar drugs including methadone in an attempt to side-track withdrawal but this methodology can often lead to a higher chance of becoming addicted to the supposed treatment instead. The Dangers of Cross-Tolerance The dangers of cross-tolerance can lead to taking other drugs in either higher dosages or higher quantities in order to reach the original levels of euphoria needed to get high. As a result, cross-tolerance can be extremely dangerous and anyone suffering from cross-tolerance or drug withdrawal in general should need professional medical help. Speaking to a sober living provider in your local area can dramatically increase your chances of overcoming cross-tolerance and providing you a route to sobriety. A supportive community and around the clock care with a structured program helps increase recovery rates from drug and alcohol use substantially. Need a sober living home in San Diego? Call us today:
A woman who is blind puts on a pair of glasses that contain a camera. The image from the camera is sent to a small device about the size of a postage stamp that sits on her tongue. She feels a sensation like soda bubbles on her tongue—this is the camera signals being sent to electrodes on her tongue. This information then goes either to the visual cortex or to the part of the brain that processes taste signals from the tongue. The scientists who developed this technology say they aren’t sure which part of the brain is actually receiving the information from the tongue in this situation.The taste buds are seeing — The experience of the woman when her brain receives the signals from her tongue is that she sees shapes. The vision is not the same as normal sight, but she can see enough that she can better navigate her environment. People who are totally blind can find doorways and elevator buttons when they use the device, called a BrainPort. They can read letters and numbers and pick up everyday objects, for example, a fork at the dinner table. The brain is learning — When someone uses the BrainPort at first, they don’t see anything. It takes fifteen minutes for them to start to interpret the signals as visual information. Interestingly, it’s not that they have to “learn” anything —it’s not that they are conscious of practicing. The brain is unconsciously learning to interpret the information as vision. Design to augment — According to the World Health Organization, over 39 million are blind and 246 million have moderate to severe visual impairment.Over 360 million have disabling hearing loss. Until now, designing devices for people with visual, auditory, or other physical impairments has been an area that a small number of designers have worked on. The rest of the designers have been told to make their designs “accessible” so that the special devices (such as screen readers) are compatible and can use the mainstream technologies. Keeping accessibility in mind is always important, but now more designers will be directly designing devices that are specifically created to augment the impaired sense. What do you think? Will these devices become more common? If you are a designer would you like to work in this field? If you liked this article, and want more info like it, check out my newest book: 100 MORE Things Every Designer Needs To Know About People.
The American Heart Association (AHA) and the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) recommend restricting egg consumption based on the hypothesis that egg intake will result in an increase in blood cholesterol levels, which, in turn, is associated with increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risks. However, several studies have shown that dietary cholesterol from eggs has little, if any, effect on plasma cholesterol or the risk for heart diseases after adjustment for other potential risk factors. Further, eggs are known to be a good source of high quality protein, B vitamins and folate, fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, and E, and essential minerals (iodine, zinc, calcium, and iron). Eggs also contain lutein and zeaxanthin, which might be involved in the prevention of cataracts and age-related macular degeneration, and rich in choline, which may have a role in normal development of memory. Hence, wide-sweeping recommendations to restrict egg consumption to avoid CVD risk may be misguided when nutritional contributions from eggs are not considered. A relative risk study was conducted to evaluate and quantify the relative risks of CVD associated with dietary cholesterol and eggs compared to other factors including BMI, dietary, lifestyle, or drugs, etc. on cardiovascular disease and the health benefits of egg consumption. Estimates of egg contribution to dietary cholesterol and nutrition are developed based on consumption data from nationwide food consumption survey. A report card to communicate the relative risks of egg cholesterol and the nutritional benefits is explored in this paper Tran N, Barraj L, Mink P et al. (2007) FASEB Journal 21:677.6
The Cherokee hunted much of their food. How was the Cherokee to give up their land and travel west on a journey called the Trail of Tears? The U. S. Government Who forced the Cherokee to give up their land and travel west on a journey called the Trail of Tears? The Spanish colony of St. Augustine in present-day Florida Which is the permanent European settlement in the area that is now the United States? The two sides disagreed about how much authority the national government should have. Which is one cause of the Civil War? Diseases spread through army camps Which of the following did not occur in the Southeast during Reconstruction? Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Who was the main leader of the civil rights movement in in the 1950's and 1960's? Many people are moving there from colder northern climates. What is one reason why cities in the Southeast are growing quickly? It has an aquarium in its harbor. Which is NOT a reason why many people have moved to Chapel Hill, North Carolina? Yes; because everyone gets a say in major decisions; it probably takes a long time to reach a consensus, and sometimes it may be impossible. The Cherokee governed by consensus. Do you think that coming to a consensus is a good way to make decisions? Why or why not? What problems might you face with this method of decision making. Explain. Many Cherokee built farms. They went to school to learn English. They also learned how to read and write their own language. Write three details to support the main idea: Many Cherokee changed to fit in with the surrounding culture.
Physical exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and can contribute to maintaining a healthy weight, regulating the digestive system, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system. Some studies indicate that exercise may increase life expectancy and the overall quality of life. People who participate in moderate to high levels of physical exercise have a lower mortality rate compared to individuals who by comparison are not physically active. Moderate levels of exercise have been correlated with preventing aging by reducing inflammatory potential. The majority of the benefits from exercise are achieved with around 3500 metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes per week, with diminishing returns at higher levels of activity. For example, climbing stairs 10 minutes, vacuuming 15 minutes, gardening 20 minutes, running 20 minutes, and walking or bicycling for transportation 25 minutes on a daily basis would together achieve about 3000 MET minutes a week. A lack of physical activity causes approximately 6% of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 10% of breast cancer and 10% of colon cancer worldwide. Overall, physical inactivity causes 9% of premature mortality worldwide.
Peter West: Mammoth Cave and Racial Imagination In the middle decades of the nineteenth century, Kentucky's Mammoth Cave was a popular tourist destination for travelers from around the United States and beyond. The cave also functioned during these years as a dynamic symbol in the national imagination, appearing in travel books, lyric poems, private diaries, love letters, gothic novels, and even a moving panorama. Peter West examines this diverse body of cultural artifacts against the backdrop of Mammoth Cave as a site of American slavery. As this essay reveals, black slaves such as Stephen Bishop were the cave's most popular guides and its most celebrated explorers. While writers have often depicted Bishop and his fellow guides as heroic figures of slave self-determination and power, West complicates this interpretation by revealing how the symbolic authority of the Mammoth Cave slaves served the white imagination. The theatricality of antebellum cave tourism — which included costumes, optical illusions, sing-alongs, and complex games of racial and sexual role-playing — emerges here as a way of containing the haunting spectacle of black authority and reaffirming conventions of white domination.... Geologically, Mammoth Cave is a network of underground caverns in central Kentucky believed to be the world's largest cave system. Understanding Mammoth Cave as a social and political space, however, means grappling with its singular place in the history of American slavery. During the War of 1812, the cave was an important source of saltpeter (used in the manufacturing of gunpowder), and African American slaves provided the principal labor for its mining and extraction. Following the war, when the price of saltpeter dropped dramatically, mining became unviable. In the decades that followed, as the cave emerged as a popular tourist destination for U.S. and European travelers, its economic value continued to depend on slave labor. Though it was by no means unusual that male and female slaves worked as cooks, laundresses, porters, and chambermaids in the hotel located near the cave entrance, Mammoth Cave slavery was noteworthy: the guides who led visitors on tours of the cave during the antebellum era were black men either owned by the cave's proprietor or leased out by a neighboring slaveholder. In a compelling racial scenario largely overlooked by historians, these slaves were responsible for the conduct and well-being of the many white men and women who journeyed through the cave in the decades leading up to the Civil War. By far the most famous of these cave guides was Stephen Bishop, who began working at Mammoth Cave when his owner, Franklin Gorin, purchased the property above the cave in 1838. The next year, in 1839, Gorin sold the property, along with Bishop and another slave, to Louisville physician Dr. John Croghan. Until his death in 1857, Bishop accompanied thousands of visitors on cave tours, explored miles of the cave's passages and chambers, and produced detailed maps of the caverns still lauded for their accuracy. In the dozens of first-hand cave narratives that appeared in the 1840s and 50s, Bishop was often celebrated for his handsome and exotic appearance, his extensive knowledge of the cave's topography and history, and his bravery and winsome personality. Today, Bishop continues to capture the imagination, appearing as a central figure in a 2000 Yale Younger Poets volume of poetry, a 2004 children's novel, and a work of historical fiction.... comments powered by Disqus - History will be trailing Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe during his visit to the United States. - Former foes honour Gallipoli's fallen on 100th anniversary - Website exhibit unveiled for the first gay sit-in - Climate Change Contributed Towards the Collapse of the Maya - Armenia debuts website devoted to genocide - How did common people mourn Lincoln after his passing? - Stanford historian uncovers the dark roots of humanitarianism - Historian hailed for offering a history of the culture wars - Scholars to set the West straight about "Apocalyptic Hopes, Millennial Dreams and Global Jihad" - Why Eugene Genovese’s 2 sentences about Vietnam went viral in 1965
Now for the good stuff! See unprecedented views of Venus crossing the sun. On June 5-6, 2012, NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) captured beautiful, high-definition images of an astronomical event that occurs only twice every hundred years or so: the transit of Venus, when the planet passes directly between the sun and Earth. Such images could not have been envisioned when a ground telescope was first used to see the transit in 1639. Indeed, the imagery even improves on that captured during the last transit in 2004, before SDO was in orbit. During the event, scientists used the precise details about the position of Venus and the sharpness of its edges to help calibrate space telescopes, ensuring even better observations in the future. In the videos below, watch Venus dance across the face of the sun, as viewed by SDO in multiple wavelengths, and see the planet's approach leading up to the transit.
This is the October pack in a monthly series called “Print – that’s it!” It contains printable math and literacy activities that are little to no prep and are geared toward beginning kindergarten students. This pack is also part of a money saving bundle Kindergarten Math and Literacy Printables BUNDLE You can view a sample of this pack in this blog post This edition of “Print-That’s It!” contains the following printables: Pumpkin Printing – Roll the dice and trace the uppercase letters in that row. Pumpkin Printing – Roll the dice and trace the lowercase letters in that row. Pumpkin ABC – Cut and paste the pumpkins in order from A-Z Missing Letters – Fill in the missing letters of the alphabet (uppercase) Missing Letters – Fill in the missing letters of the alphabet (lowercase) Rhyme Time – Cut out the pumpkin seeds and glue them under their rhyming pumpkins. Falling sounds – look at the pictures on the leaves. Write the letter of their beginning sound in the boxes. Leafy Syllables – look at the pictures on the leaves. Write the number of syllables in the boxes. Spin and Color Beginning Sounds (2 pages) use a paperclip and pencil to make a spinner. Say the sound of the letter you land on and color the pictures that start with that sound. (m,s,r,t,p,c,g,b) Ending Sounds – Say the name of each picture. Write the ending sound. Read the word! CVC Candy Corn (2 pages) – Use the code to color the candy corns. Read the words! (short a word families -ap, -at, -am, -ad) Pumpkin Patterns – Color the pumpkins in the patterns shown (AB, ABB, AAB, ABC) Pumpkin Printing – Roll the dice and trace the numbers in that row. Ten Frame Pumpkin Patch. Read the numbers on the pumpkins and fill in the 10 frames to match. Count the Seeds – Count the pumpkin seeds in each row and write the number on the pumpkins (sets to 10) Order the Pumpkin Seeds – Cut and glue the pumpkin seeds in order 1-10. Color by Number (2 pages) color the leaves by their number 1-10 Let’s Count! Count the fall items and write the totals (sets to 20) Candy Corn 10 Frames – Count the dots in the ten frames and write the totals on the candy corns. Counting On – Start at the number on the pumpkins and write the next numbers. 20 Frame Pumpkin Patch – Look at the numbers on the pumpkins and fill in the twenty frames to match. Candy Corn 20 Frames – Count the dots in each twenty frame and write the total on the candy corns. Pumpkin Count by 10’s – Cut and glue the pumpkins in order 10-100 Colorful Pumpkins – Read the color words and color the pumpkins Number Spin – Use a paperclip and a pencil to make a spinner. Read the number. Find and color the matching number word on the leaves. 10 frame addition – add the ten frames and write the total on the leaves. Pumpkin Addition – Add the dice and write the total on the pumpkins. Roll, Add, and Color – Roll 2 dice, find and color the sum. More or Less -Circle the sets that have more, and circle the sets that have less. Order the Leaves – Cut and paste the leaves in number order 1-20 Fall Graphing – Count and graph the fall items Tally Marks – Count the tally marks and write the totals in the leaves. Emergent Reader – “October” Contains seasonal themes. Simply print 2 sided, cut in half and staple! This book is for very early readers and contains repetitive simple phrases “a scarecrow, a pumpkin, etc.”
Hand-foot-mouth disease is a common viral infection that most often begins in the throat. Coxsackievirus infection; HFM disease Hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) is most commonly caused by a virus called coxsackievirus A16. Children under age 10 are most often affected. Teens and adults can sometimes get the infection. HFMD usually occurs in the summer and early fall. The virus can spread from person-to-person through tiny, air droplets that are released when the sick person sneezes, coughs, or blows their nose. You can catch hand-foot-and-mouth disease if: - A person with the infection sneezes, coughs, or blows their nose near you - You touch your nose, eyes, or mouth after you have touched something contaminated by the virus, such as a toy or doorknob - You touch the stools or the fluid from blisters of an infected person The virus is most easily spread the first week a person has the disease. The time between contact with the virus and the start of symptoms is about 3 to 7 days. Symptoms include: - Loss of appetite - Rash with very small blisters on the hands, feet, and diaper area that may be tender or painful when pressed - Sore throat - Ulcers in the throat (including tonsils), mouth, and tongue Exams and Tests A history of recent illness and a physical examination, demonstrating the characteristic vesicles on the hands and feet, are usually sufficient to diagnose the disease. There is no specific treatment for the infection other than relief of symptoms. Antibiotics do not work because the infection is caused by a virus. (Antibiotics treat infections caused by bacteria, not viruses.) To relieve symptoms, the following home care can be used: - Over-the-counter medicines, such as acetaminophen (such as Tylenol) or ibuprofen can be used to treat fever. Aspirin should not be used in viral illnesses in children under age 18. - Salt water mouth rinses (1/2 teaspoon of salt to 1 glass of warm water) may be soothing. - Drink plenty of fluids. Extra fluid is needed when there is a fever. The best fluids are cold milk products. Do not drink juice or soda because their acid content causes burning pain in the ulcers. Complete recovery occurs in 5 to 7 days. When to Contact a Medical Professional Call your health care provider if there are signs of complications, such as pain in the neck or arms and legs. Emergency symptoms include convulsions. You should also call if: - Medicine does not lower a high fever - Signs of dehydration occur, such as dry skin and mucus membranes, weight loss, irritability, decreased alertness, decreased or dark urine Avoid contact with people with HFMD. Wash your hands well and often, especially if you are in contact with people who are sick. Also teach children to wash their hands well and often. Abzug MJ. Nonpolio enteroviruses. In: Kliegman RM, Stanton BF, St. GemeIII JW, Schor NF, Behrman RE, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 19th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Saunders; 2011:chap 242. Habif TP. Exanthems and drug eruptions. In: Habif TP, ed. Clinical Dermatology. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Mosby; 2009:chap 14.
\|Lesson Plan ID: Tongue Twisters: Teaching Alliteration and Reviewing Parts of Speech Students will review the four basic parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and create tongue twisters using alliteration with their names. This is a College- and Career-Ready Standards showcase lesson plan. \|ELA2015(9) \|\|40. Demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuances in word meanings. [L.9-10.5] \| \|ELA2015(9) \|\|41. Acquire and use accurately general academic and domain-specific words and phrases, sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and listening at the college and career readiness level; demonstrate independence in gathering vocabulary knowledge when considering a word or phrase important to comprehension or expression. [L.9-10.6] \| \|Primary Learning Objective(s): - Students will review nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. - Students will gain knowledge and understanding of the figurative language device alliteration. - Students will create a tongue twister using their names. \|Additional Learning Objective(s): \|Approximate Duration of the Lesson: \|\| 31 to 60 Minutes\| \|Materials and Equipment: Paper and Pencil \|Technology Resources Needed: Internet access for teacher to search for examples of tongue twisters - Teacher must have examples of tongue twisters. Examples may include: "Silly Sally sold seashells by the seashore," "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers," etc. Teacher may use Internet to search for newer or unfamiliar examples. - Students must have prior knowledge of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 1. Bellringer: Create a four-column chart heading the four columns nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Write the first letter of your first name at the top of the chart. (If student's name begins with a vowel, have them use middle or last name.) Complete the chart with words that begin with the first letter of the first name. Noun column must include student's name. For example, if my name is Lauren, my noun column may include Lauren, lollipop, London, etc. Each column must have five words in it. An example of a completed chart is attached. 2. Students may need scaffolding for this activity. I like to remind students that colors and flavors are easy adjective examples. - Teacher will introduce and define alliteration. Teacher will provide examples of tongue twisters. (You can really get the students engaged by seeing who can say them the fastest, etc.) - Students will use their charts from their bellringers to create coherent sentences. Each student should create at least one tongue twister from the words in his/her chart. It is important to explain to students that while the sentence needs to be composed of words from the chart, it will probably be necessary to add conjunctions and/or articles for the sentence to make sense. An example of a tongue twister from a chart is included on the chart attachment. - Students will create hard copies of their tongue twisters on cardstock paper using markers/colored pencils/crayons, etc. Teacher will display student samples in the classroom. \|Attachments:**Some files will display in a new window. Others will prompt you to download. - Teacher may get students to provide examples for class for bellringer chart or come to the board and fill in an example chart. This helps gauge student understanding. - Chart must be filled out with five words in each of the four columns. - Final tongue twisters must include at least one word from each column and must be an original sentence that makes sense. Higher-level students may be required to create compound or complex sentences. Struggling learners may be provided with definitions for the parts of speech. Students may also be provided with blank copies of the chart. A couple of examples may or may not be filled in, depending on the ability level of the students. If there is a significant number of lower-level students, teacher may allow students to work with partners. Each area below is a direct link to general teaching strategies/classroom for students with identified learning and/or behavior problems such as: reading or math performance below grade level; test or classroom assignments/quizzes at a failing level; failure to complete assignments independently; difficulty with short-term memory, abstract concepts, staying on task, or following directions; poor peer interaction or temper tantrums, and other learning or behavior problems. \|Presentation of Material \|\|Using Groups and Peers \|Assisting the Reluctant Starter \|\|Dealing with Inappropriate Be sure to check the student's IEP for specific accommodations. \|Variations Submitted by ALEX Users:
Getting the Most from the Internet This module is meant to summarize and expand upon the previous three, which were Privacy and You, The Internet and Chet, and Say? Cheese!. After explaining some of the possible dangers and downsides of the Internet, we aim to show positive aspects of the Internet, including research, social interactions, learning, commerce, and fun. Students will be able to: - Recognize that the Internet is a valuable tool in most pursuits. - Identify how they can use the Internet for their own enrichment. - Handout: Use Your Tools Wisely - Video: Getting the Most from the Internet, http://brk.mn/148 - Parent Handout: Getting the Most from the Internet - Internet Use Brainstorm: 15 min - Use Your Tools Wisely: 10 min Whenever you encourage or require students to go online while teaching this or other material, please make sure any online activity is consistent with any school, district, or other applicable policies, as well as any applicable privacy laws and regulations. Internet Use Brainstorm Note: this can be turned into a multi-day activity by asking students to monitor and reflect on their own Internet use at home over the days before the activity. ASK students to think about how the Internet allows them to do things they wouldn’t have been able to do before its invention. Digital natives may have difficulty imagining what life was like without constant and instant connectivity. Some questions to get them started: - “How do you talk with your friends outside of school? How would you do that without a smartphone or computer?” - “When you have a question your parents can’t answer? How would you find the answer without a smartphone or computer?” Watch video: http://brk.mn/148 ASK “Which uses of the Internet did Ruff mention that we hadn’t listed?” - We list all the uses Ruff lists in the video. - Make stuff. - Learn stuff (e.g., sweater knitting, baseball hitting, etc.). - Buy stuff. – Keep in touch with friends. - Share things about yourself. - Watch cat videos. - Keeping in touch with your friends. Use Your Tools Wisely Pass out “Use Your Tools Wisely” handout (p. 62-63), and have students work in pairs, discussing the pros and cons of each solution out loud. Debate the answers as a class. There are some circumstances where the Internet would prevent learning, but it can also provide many easily accessible resources. - Have students break into groups of 3-4 and write their own song for Ruff’s musical (featured in the video “Getting the Most from the Internet”: http://brk.mn/148). It should involve a use for the Internet that Ruff hasn’t yet mentioned. For younger groups, print out copies of the existing lyrics, and have students write extra verses, elaborating on uses already mentioned. - Have students choose an interesting use of the Internet (research for school project, shopping for a sibling’s birthday gift, helping a family member find a restaurant, making new friends and making an art project together), and develop a project showcasing what the Internet can do. Depending on what you’ve recently covered in class, this could range from writing a research report to making a poster to giving a short presentation. This can be a good opportunity to discuss how to cite sources and what makes a good example for an argument. - Parent Handout: Getting the Most from the Internet (p. 64) - Distribute to students and ask them to discuss healthy technology usage habits with their family members.
The name the Europeans gave to the continents may come from Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian explorer, but there is also a school of opinion that they were named by a family of fishermen and merchants from Bristol known as Ameryck (ap Meryck) who may have visited the seas off Newfoundland in 1481. They may have visited the Caribbean area also to bring back plants native to the area. (Evidence is based on Customs records from the British National Archives.) The Portuguese may have visited the northern waters even earlier. Columbus is believed to have traveled in a Portuguese ship to Greenland in 1477. The history of European contacts with the Americas is disputed, with Viking contacts the most likely, and there are signs that Columbus might not have been the first to reach the Caribbean, but was the first to make a politically significant contact. The Americas contain the three main cultural strands of: the native Americans; the Europeans who arrived in the 15th century; and the Africans they brought as slaves. The native cultures of the Americas included all human possibilities from the city cultures of Central America to hunter gatherers. Were there contacts between the New and Old worlds before Columbus? Viking contacts from the 9th to 14th centuries seem very likely. Earlier contacts are more problematic with disputed evidence leading to no conclusion. (See Speculations) The Americas have been profoundly affected by the European invasion which began soon after Columbus's arrival in 1492. The native cultures remain but often almost invisible. They may have affected the political system in some Central American countries, such as Mexico. The Federal system of the United States may be an imitation of or inspired by the Iroquois political system. In 1494 to prevent war between Spain and Portugal the Pope persuaded them by the treaty of Tordesillas to divide the world! between them. The Portuguese were supposed to get the east and the Spaniards the west. But they didn't know about the bulge of Brazil. The English, a fringe people, and the French were of course not supposed to get anything. But the move of European interest from the east to the new lands to the west made England no longer a fringe. The English colonies in North America were comparatively close together with communications between them. On independence they found it easier to cooperate than to remain separate. The people tended to be small farmers rather than aristocrats (except in the slave owning south). The Spanish colonies in the south developed from many different centers. They often had no communications between each other. Communications had tended to be directly with Spain. Thus it was not surprising that when they became independent during the 19th century they remained separately independent. The Spaniards planted imitations of their own aristocratic society in which the rich had a contempt for trade and useful work and the majority were poor peasants kept in ignorance and powerlessness. This may be the biggest difference from the English colonies which produced the United States. In New England settlers tended to be small and medium sized farmers who did their own work. Costa Rica is the example which shows this, as it was the only Spanish colony which was settled by small farmers, and is the only Latin state with an old functioning and peaceful democracy. Another difference was that the English colonies inherited English law, administered by juries of citizens rather than by judges appointed by an absolute monarch. African culture is as pervasive as the first two. The influence of African religion, traditional beliefs and language, especially Yoruba, can be detected in all the countries to which Africans were brought. Much of the popular music of the United States, for example, can be decoded as derived from Yoruba religion. Was there contact with Africa before the European arrival? The evidence is patchy and ambiguous. The Olmec heads of Central America look, superficially, African but nothing at all is known about the people who made them, or how they were made in very hard stone. Here is an article hinting at some connections. Peter Watson - The Great Divide The Great Divide: Nature and Human Nature in the Old World and the New Great Divide: History and Human Nature in the Old World and the New Last revised 18/03/12 Return to the top
Bonding and attachment are both cornerstones of human development. They are essential to a childâ€™s stable functioning as she grows. Bonding and attachment are terms that are often used interchangeably. However, the stages of infancy and toddlerhood are more accurately portrayed by distinguishing bonding from attachment. Bonding is the basic link of trust between the infant and the caretaker, usually the mother. It develops from repeated completions, particularly during the first six months, of the following cycle: infant need> crying> rage reaction> parental action to meet need> satisfaction> relaxation. Successful bonding results in an infant acquiring a basic trust in others as responsive, in the world as a benign place, and in self as able to communicate needs. As infants approach toddlerhood, they begin to encounter parental limits for the first time. This initiates a second bonding cycle: child behavior> adult limit> frustration and shame> adult restates intention to keep child safe. As a result of this cycle, a child develops trust in adult authority and limits. However, for this second cycle to be successful, the shame that is a natural part of the young toddlerâ€™s reaction to limits needs addressing. Usually a parent-initiated, positive interaction shortly after the limit-setting is all that is required to protect both bonding and attachment from the disruptive effects of shame. These two bonding cycles form the foundation out of which attachment grows. While bonding is about trust, attachment is about affection. Attachment can be defined as a person-specific relationship that is dominated by affectionate interchanges. It is not a prisoner of immediate time and space, but extends beyond that. Attachment initially grows out of many instances of a young infant experiencing her parent as reflecting her emotional state. As a child grows, other mutually satisfying interactions add to the parent-child attachment. The quality of an infantâ€™s initial attachment is enormously important because it influences all subsequent development. Attachment has been identified as playing a vital role in all of the following: maintaining the bonds of trust; attaining full intellectual potential; acquiring a conscience; developing relationships with others; gaining identity and self-esteem; learning to regulate feelings; and developing language, brain structures, and organization of the nervous system. Attachment at Different Ages The indications that bonding and attachment are progressing in a healthy manner vary as an infant grows. In the first month of life, an infant experiences herself as one with the surrounding environment. The basic developmental task is for an infant to achieve a physiological balance and rhythm. This balance evolves out of numerous completions of the infant bonding cycle and prepares the way for bonding and attachment. From months two to six, an infantâ€™s experience shifts from feeling merged with her environment to feeling “one” with the parent. There now appear a number of signs of an infantâ€™s developing attachment to his primary caretaker: smiling, making eye contact that expands from a few seconds to a few minutes during this period, a preoccupation with the parentâ€™s face, and making happy noises. By the sixth month, an attaching infant is showing the full range of emotions, is responsive to parental wooing, and initiates wooing exchanges. By month six or seven, an infant has usually begun to experience stranger anxiety. Paradoxically, stranger anxiety testifies to the strength of an infantâ€™s attachment to her parent. It is this attachment that defines everyone else as strangers. Without an attachment, there are no strangers; everyone is of equal emotional importance or unimportance. Behaviorally, this anxiety manifests as distress in the presence of strangers and a checking back in with the parent for reassurance. Over the next two to three months, stranger anxiety intensifies before fading into its successor: separation anxiety. Separation anxiety usually begins at 9 to 10 months, peaks between 12 and 15 months, and can last until somewhere between 24 and 36 months. Separation anxiety emerges from the infantâ€™s growing awareness of separateness from her parent. It is yet further testimony to the strength of the infantâ€™s attachment. There is a range of behavioral reactions to separation anxiety. Some children cry in protest and cling to the parent; others withdraw from the world until the parent returns; still others protest by becoming angry and aggressive. While these behaviors may seem troublesome at the moment, they are proof that the work of attachment has proceeded well to this point. The period of 10 to 18 months comprises the well-known “love affair with the world.” The fundamental developmental task is exploring the world while refining blossoming motor skills. Attachment shows up here as repeated “checking in” with the parent amid the childâ€™s explorations. A child will go to the edge of her comfort zone and return to check in with her parent before venturing out farther. At this age, children begin to invest significant emotional energy in the father and other family members. Indicating the value of the initial attachment, the child naturally begins to multiply her attachments. Despite this change, a child generally turns to his mother when hurt, tired, or sick– an indication that this attachment still predominates. Other signs of healthy attachment at this age include: experiencing joy in accomplishments; accepting comfort; and beginning self-comforting skills with the aid of transitional objects, such as the well-known blanket. A childâ€™s exploration of the world increases her awareness of being separate from mother. For the 15-to 24-month-old, this greater awareness gives rise to wooing and coercion as well as shadowing and darting. Wooing is solicitous behavior designed to draw motherâ€™s attention. Wooing behaviors usually intensify with time; and at some point, a mother usually comes to experience wooing as a coercive demand rather than an invitation. Like wooing, shadowing and darting are attempts by the toddler to reconcile the seeming impossible dilemma of extending autonomy while preserving attachment. Shadowing refers to a childâ€™s following the parents practically everywhere while darting refers to rapidly moving towards and away from the parent. Both are signs of healthy attachment. The final building blocks of bonding and attachment are put in place between 24 and 36 months with the accomplishment of self and object constancy. Self constancy is the childâ€™s experience that she is the same person across different emotional states and situations. Object constancy is the childâ€™s experience of others as predictable and available. Much of object constancy comes from a childâ€™s mental images of others. Self and object constancy serve to quiet separation anxiety as well as strengthen a childâ€™s ability to delay gratification and accept discipline. When all goes well, the foundations for bonding and attachment are laid by 36 months. However not all children successfully negotiate these steps. The results can range from mild developmental delays to a diagnosable attachment disorder. The good news is that what work has been missed by a child can sometimes be “made up” later. Lawrence B Smith L.C.S.W. – C., L.I.C.S.W. Lawrence Smith is a child, adolescent, adult, and family therapist in private practice in Silver Spring, MD. 9305 Mintwood Street Silver Springs, MD 20901 Fax 301 588-1933 Used with permission
Voronoi & Delaunay Diagrams Tessellation & Triangulation GEOMETRIES curve responsive grid responsive surface mesh brep ANALYSIS topography solar geospatial AGGREGATION DATA STRUCTURE Ö... Six triangles fit around each 'point' of the tessellation. At each point, there are six corners, consisting of two copies of each corner of the triangle ó three on one side of a line and three on the other side. OpenGL 4 Tessellation Codeflow Hey guys, I really like Rhinoceros software and I wouldnít change it for any other, but I canít get over issue with triangle surfaces. Maybe itís silly, maybe Iím thinking about it in wrong way, maybe answer is just one sentence, but for sure: Iím trying, but canít get over it for a week.... A tessellation tutorial: make a circular (concentric rings) tessellation. This lesson contains the basic principles, method, and geometry of tessellation. This lesson contains the basic principles, method, and geometry of tessellation. Generative Algorithms using Grasshopper by Zubin Issuu Fish Tessellation. by Kathleen Barbro posted in: 4th Grade, 5th Cut one equilateral triangle from the bottom of the shape. It is slid to the top, aligned with the front of the fish and taped in place. 6. Place your fish on at least a 9? x 12? drawing paper, and trace. Itís best to make one row going across the paper first, and then add rows on top, always interlocking the shapes how to make turmeric latte with fresh turmeric Take a triangle and students use a ruler to mark the midpoint of each of the three sides of the triangle Then they proceed to make a snip from one corner to the marked midpoint of a side of the triangle. Do-It-Yourself tessellations Line method 1 This is the first of a two-part article on tessellation shaders with OpenGL 4.0+. This entry gives an overview of tessellation and walks through an example of simple triangle subdivision; in the next entry, weíll focus on quad subdivision. how to make an isosceles triangle on geogebra 3 Tessellations by One Regular Polygon A regular polygon is a shape with all sides equal and all angles equal. Some regular polygons tessellate. How long can it take? Geometry Gym Tessellation in Grasshopper (Beijing - Tessellations by Squares Rectangles and other Polygons - Triangle surface in Rhinoceros McNeel Forum - How to Make a Tessellation From a Triangle Arts - Fish Tessellation ∑ Art Projects for Kids How To Make Triangle Tesselations On Grasshopper As with most compound data types in Grasshopper meshes can be deconstructed - that is broken out into the parts which make them up: Vertices, Faces, Colors, and Normals. Delaunay and Voronoi It's also possible to generate meshes from a set of points. - Once you create your tessellation, you can use various colors to make your pattern. As you can see in the above, you can use two colors or more. Even if you used just two colors and one shape, you - Fish Tessellation. by Kathleen Barbro posted in: 4th Grade, 5th Cut one equilateral triangle from the bottom of the shape. It is slid to the top, aligned with the front of the fish and taped in place. 6. Place your fish on at least a 9? x 12? drawing paper, and trace. Itís best to make one row going across the paper first, and then add rows on top, always interlocking the shapes - Grasshopper Exploration 2 Ė Triangle Box For this pattern, I combine 2 different shapes (triangle and rectangle) and form the tessellation. Because of the way it Ö - To see this, take an arbitrary triangle and rotate it about the midpoint of one of its sides. The resulting parallelogram tessellates: The resulting parallelogram tessellates: The picture works because all three corners (A, B, and C) of the triangle come together to make a 180į angle - a straight line.
The steam power plant water going through the condensing unit requires cooling so that liquid condensate can be pumped back into the boiler. Cooling for the condenser may be supplied by once through cooling, a wet cooling tower, dry (air) cooling, a hybrid (wet/dry) system, or a cooling pond. The condensing unit is a crucial part of a steam power plant water circulation system . The condenser must have cooling in order to convert low pressure steam leaving the turbine to liquid condensate that can be pumped into the boiler. The typical options for this cooling are cooling water that is discharged back to the source body of water at an elevated temperature (once through cooling), a wet cooling tower that provides evaporative cooling, an air cooled condenser (dry cooling), a hybrid wet/dry cooling system (primarily air cooled with evaporative cooling use as needed), or a cooling pond. The Condenser as part of the Power Cycle The part that the condensing unit plays in a Rankine cycle steam power plant is shown in the diagram at the left. High pressure steam from the boiler passes through the turbine, thus causing it to rotate and generate electricity. The low pressure steam leaving the turbine must be converted to liquid condensate that can be pumped into the boiler to keep the cycle going. The diagram shows the simplest type of cooling system, once through cooling, whereby cooling water is withdrawn, typically from a surface water body, with heated water from the condenser discharged back to the surface water body. This type of condenser cooling withdraws water from the source water body at a very great rate. It returns almost all of that water to the source water body, but at an elevated temperature. This type of steam power plant water cooling system is used in most U.S. plants built before 1970. (Bistline, 2008) Wet Cooling Tower Cooling An alternative cooling method that requires much less cooling water withdrawal from the source water body is the wet cooling tower. The diagram at the right shows the general flow patterns. The heated water leaving the condenser passes through a cooling tower and is cooled by evaporative cooling. This type of cooling system withdraws much less water from the source water body, but it consumes much more water than the once through system, due to evaporation into the atmosphere. This type of steam power plant water cooling system is used in many U.S. plants built since 1970. (Bistline, 2008) Dry Cooling with an Air Cooled Condenser Dry cooling, utilizing an air cooled condenser, is illustrated in the diagram at the left. The air cooled condenser, often referred to as 'dry cooling,' eliminates the need for steam power plant water use for cooling. There has been increasing interest in dry cooling/air cooled condenser use, because of increased concern about and regulation of water use for electric power production. The dry cooling option, however, comes at an increased initial cost, increased operating cost and increased heat rate (decreased efficiency), leading to increased cost for production of electricity. Recently hybrid wet/dry systems are being developed and put into use, with less cost and less efficiency penalty than strictly dry cooling. Use of a Cooling Pond A final option is use of a cooling pond as shown in the diagram at the right. The water consumption is about the same as for a wet cooling tower, because the cooling in the pond is primarily due to evaporation. Based on information from a Department of Energy Report, cooling ponds are used by about 15 % of U.S. electric steam power plant generating capacity as the primary method of cooling for their condensing unit. (DOE/NETL, 2008) 1. Bistline, John, 2008, Impacts of Electric Generation Portfolio on Water Resources, Presented at Carnegie Mellon Electric Industry Seminar Series, March 26, 2008. 2. DOE/NETL, 2008, Estimating Freshwater Needs to Meet Future Thermoelectric Generating Requirements - 2008 Update, DOE/NETL-400/2008/1339, Sept. 30, 2008. About the Author Dr. Harlan Bengtson is a registered professional engineer with 30 years of university teaching experience in engineering science and civil engineering. He holds a PhD in Chemical Engineering.
Over the years the world has encountered numerous catastrophes that have ravaged our environment and left several dead: Hurricane Katrina, the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, the Chernobyl disaster, the Fukushima meltdown amongst others. At the center of each of these disasters, there has been engineers involved in these projects. Some of the toughest jobs in the world. While some engineering jobs require staff to be placed in an office, others require them to work under possibly dangerous conditions that may put their very own lives at risk: 1. Mining Engineer Mining engineers are concerned with the safe, economic and environmentally responsible recovery, processing, marketing and financial management of mineral resources to meet the constant global demand for mineral commodities. They extract and produce oil, gas, coal, minerals, and metals for manufacturing purposes, design underground mines and work in underground operations to supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels. Furthermore, they are held responsible for any flaws or accidents that occur in mining operations. Working in mines is a hazardous job dealing with a set of challenges from explosive material, dangerous gas or collapses that may result in a huge massacre. In 2010 a San Jose mine in Chile left 33 miners trapped 2,297 feet underground for 69 days after the entrance to the mine collapsed. A colossal rescue mission was instigated involving NASA, a number of international corporations, and nearly all the country’s government ministries. 2. Chemical Engineer Chemical engineering jobs are concerned with the design, construction, and operation of machines and plants that perform chemical reactions to solve practical problems or make useful products. Chemical engineers are responsible for the conception and design of processes for the purpose of production, transformation and transportation of materials. They work with specific types of chemicals to produce a certain effect. Chemical engineers are also concerned with pioneering valuable materials and related techniques – which are often essential to related fields such as nanotechnology, fuel cells and biomedical engineering. Typically they work in environments such as a pharmaceutical lab, medicine research center where they work with different types of chemicals which may be harmful. Chemical engineers often have to exercise great caution when handling these chemicals as some are highly flammable and may result in an explosion if the right measures are not implemented. 3. Aerospace Engineer Aerospace engineers design, test and supervise the manufacture of aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles. They also supervise ongoing space productions and ensure there are no defects in the products. While they develop new technologies for use in aviation, defense systems, and space exploration, they often specialize in areas such as structural design, guidance, navigation and control, instrumentation and communication, and production methods. They also may specialize in a particular type of aerospace product and become experts in aerodynamics, thermodynamics, celestial mechanics, propulsion, acoustics, or guidance and control systems. The job of an aerospace engineer can be very dangerous, especially those in the aviation industry as they may be exposed to excessive noise and potentially dangerous materials. A good example is the work that was involved in developing Convair X-6, a proposed experimental aircraft that was to develop and evaluate a nuclear-powered jet aircraft. While it was eventually cancelled the aerospace engineers who worked on the project faced constant challenges of developing a viable model and working with nuclear materials. 4. Petroleum Engineer Petroleum engineers design methods for extracting oil and gas from deposits below the earth while operating on a minimal cost and limiting potential risks and hazards to people and the environment. They work with geologists and drilling operators to determine the best drilling methods to extract oil and gas, and they design equipment based on those requirements. They also supervise the extraction of oil by either drilling or injecting chemicals, water or steam into the earth and improve the techniques by which petroleum is captured. Petroleum engineers often work in remote or inhospitable environments, working long hours at drilling sites. While a lucrative profession, this job is challenging as engineers are involved in extracting oil in increasingly difficult situations as most of the world’s oil fields have already been found or depleted. On July 6, 1988 the offshore platform Piper Alpha, which was located in the British sector of the North Sea oil field and operated by Occidental Petroleum, was engulfed in a catastrophic fire. This led to the death of 165 men on board of the platform itself. Another disaster was the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, the biggest oil spill in U.S. history, where more than 200 million gallons of crude oil was pumped into the Gulf of Mexico for a total of 87 days and killed 11 people. 5. Marine Engineer Marine engineers are involved in the design and construction of seagoing vessels and structures right from the operation, maintenance and repair of all major mechanical and engineered equipment on board a marine vessel. They may work on certain types of vessels from sailboats, cruise ships, submarines or military battleships and aircraft carriers. They often oversee the construction of prototypes and help to test the finished vessels. The construction, operations and maintenance of the engine room are the main obligation of a Marine engineer. They are the overall in charge of the engine and its crew, and ensure the safety and standards of the marine vessel. The risk of human error is an ever present danger in the working environment of a marine engineer, often resulting in personal injury, disability or the tragic loss of life along with the staggering costs associated with such incidents. Marine engineers may also work in harsh weather conditions, often during severe storms, and can run the risk of falling overboard. 6. Nuclear Engineer In 2011, a major earthquake and tsunami in Japan resulted in the death of thousands as well as much damage to coastal ports and towns.It also disabled the power supply and cooling of three Fukushima Daiichi reactors, causing a nuclear accident. This incident spurned interest globally and shed light on the dangers involved in nuclear engineering jobs. A nuclear engineer researches and develops the processes, instruments, and systems used to get benefits from nuclear energy and radiation. They find industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials—such as, in equipment used in medical diagnosis and treatment. Nuclear engineers run the risk of an accident or exposure, not only to themselves but the community and environment as well. This could lead to deaths, infertility, heath problems and deadly cancers.
Language is defined as a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meanings.2 Learning a new language can be challenging, difficult, and fun. The process starts with a vocabulary of common objects and everyday activities. The goal is to achieve fluency in order to effectively communicate among ourselves. Since breathing is an unconscious act, individuals only become aware of its existence when something is wrong. The experience of dyspnea is unfamiliar or foreign, thus making it difficult to describe “what this unusual experience feels like.” Nearly 20 years ago, Simon and colleagues3 developed a list of 19 statements based on reports of healthy subjects who had breathlessness induced by various respiratory stimuli. These descriptors provide a vocabulary to facilitate communication between patient and physician/investigator.
This article does not cite any sources. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mucor is a microbial genus of approximately 40 species of moulds commonly found in soil, digestive systems, plant surfaces, some cheeses like tomme de savoie, rotten vegetable matter and iron oxide residue in the biosorption process. Colonies of this fungal genus are typically white to beige or grey and fast-growing. Colonies on culture medium may grow to several centimetres in height. Older colonies become grey to brown in colour due to the development of spores. Mucor spores or sporangiospores can be simple or branched and form apical, globular sporangia that are supported and elevated by a column-shaped columella. Mucor species can be differentiated from moulds of the genera Absidia, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus by the shape and insertion of the columella, and the lack of stolons and rhizoids. Some Mucor species produce chlamydospores. They form mold with irregular non-septate hyphae branching at wide angles (>90°). Mucor mucedo (genus species) uses asexual reproduction. When erect hyphal sporangiophores are formed.The tip of the sporangiophore swells to form a globose sporangium that contains uninucleate, haploid sporangiospores. An extension of the sporangiophore called the columella protrudes into the sporangium. The sporangium walls are easily ruptured to release the spores, which germinate readily to form a new mycelium on appropriate substrates. During sexual reproduction, compatible strains form short, specialized hyphae called gametangia. At the point where two complementary gametangia fuse, a thick-walled, spherical zygosporangium develops. The zygosporangium typically contains a single zygospore. Nuclear karyogamy and meiosis (sexual recombination) occur within the zygospores, which are thought to be long-lived and resistant to adverse conditions. They may germinate to form hyphae or a sporangium. Mucor includes both homothallic (self-compatible) and heterothallic species. Most species of 'Mucor' are unable to infect humans and endothermic animals due to their inability to grow in warm environments close to 37 degrees. Thermotolerant species such as Mucor indicus sometimes cause opportunistic, and often rapidly spreading, necrotizing infections known as zygomycosis. - M. amphibiorum - M. circinelloides - Mucor ellipsoideus - M. hiemalis - M. hiemalis f. silvaticus - M. indicus - M. mucedo - M. paronychius - M. piriformis - M. plumbeus - M. racemosus - Mucor velutinosus - Mucormycosis (a rare infection caused by the sole member of a different genus of the Mucoraceae family, Apophysomyces elegans).
In a qualitative manner, we can describe the temperature of an object as that which determines the sensation of warmth or coldness felt from contact with it. It is easy to demonstrate that when two objectsof the same material are placed together (physicists say when they are put in thermal contact), the object with the higher temperature cools while the cooler object becomes warmer until a point is reached after which no more change occurs, and to our senses, they feel the same. When the thermal changes have stopped, we say that the two objects (physicists define them more rigorously as systems) are in thermal equilibrium . We can then define the temperature of the system by saying that the temperature is that quantity which is the same for both systems when they are in thermal equilibrium. If we experiment further with more than two systems, we find that many systems can be brought into thermal equilibrium with each other; thermal equilibrium does not depend on the kind of object used. Put more precisely, if two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they must also be in thermal equilibrium with each other, and they all have the same temperature regardless of the kind of systems they are. The statement in italics, called the zeroth law of thermodynamics may be restated as follows: If three or more systems are in thermal contact with each other and all in equilibrium together, then any two taken separately are in equilibrium with one another. (quote from T. J. Quinn's monograph Temperature) Now one of the three systems could be an instrument calibrated to measure the temperature - i.e. a thermometer. When a calibrated thermometer is put in thermal contact with a system and reaches thermal equilibrium, we then have a quantitative measure of the temperature of the system. For example, a mercury-in-glass clinical thermometer is put under the tongue of a patient and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in the patient's mouth - we then see by how much the silvery mercury has expanded in the stem and read the scale of the thermometer to find the patient's temperature.
THERE IS A common belief, especially among Californians, that direct democracy is a California phenomenon, invented in the Progressive Era to battle the power of the railroads. But millions of people around the world have used the initiative and referendum process over several centuries, dating to the Mayflower Compact of 1620. In the late 1700s, Jean-Jacques Rousseau lent intellectual credence to the idea when he wrote "The Social Contract," in which he described popular sovereignty as a counterweight to the absolute power of kings and emperors. These words inspired the French revolutionaries of 1793 to introduce a new constitution that included -- for the first time in history -- the right of citizens to introduce new laws through the initiative process and the requirement that any constitutional changes be approved by the voters in a national referendum. From revolutionary France, where the old, undemocratic order was soon re-established by Napoleon Bonaparte, the idea of initiatives and referendums moved to nearby Switzerland. The first nationwide referendum there took place in 1802, and a popular referendum process -- similar to California's -- was added to the constitution in 1874. The Swiss and French experiences were soon being discussed around the world. Progressives and populists in the U.S. began advocating for similar actions, and in 1898 it was not California but South Dakota that became the first state to add the initiative process to its constitution. Between 1898 and 1912, at least 22 state constitutions -- including California's in 1911 -- were modified to include the initiative process.
A little history: From the beginning of the Roman Empire in 27 BC until about 285 AD, it had been ruled by one Emperor. There were times when there was a Co-Emperor, but usually only when the senior Co-Emperor was much older. In 284 AD Diocletian came to power. Some say he was the son of a freedman, a former slave. He rose through the ranks to become a cavalry commander under Carus. When Carus and his son Numerian died in Persia, he was proclaimed Emperor. However, Carus’ other son Carnius was also proclaimed Emperor. After their armies battled each other Diocletian won. It is thought that Diocletian looked at recent history and saw that a sole ruler did not help the stability of the Empire, as the competing claimants fought against each other and not the enemies of Rome. At this time, around 285 AD Diocletian named Maximian as Caesar or Junior Co-Emperor, while Diocletian retained the title Augustus or Senior Co-Emperor. A year later Maximian is elevated to Augustus with Diocletian and is given command of the Western half of the Empire while Diocletian takes command of the Eastern half. Later two Junior Co-Emperors are named, one for each Emperor. It is thought that this is the pre-cursor to the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Roman Empire. In my time line, everything is good until Diocletian takes power. At this point he still sees the problem of only one ruler and the stability of the Empire, however, he sees that this could lead to the fracturing of the Empire, causing it to fall faster. Divide the Empire, divide both your military strength and your tax income. This is where the timeline split. If the Empire did not split into two, then there was enough money coming in from taxes, and enough Legions to help defend the Empire.
Long Vowel U Words Worksheet This printable long vowel U words worksheet is perfect for kids that learning to recognize the long vowel U sound. This worksheet lists 24 words and asks kids to circle the words that contain the long vowel U sound. This worksheet gets kids to say different words out loud (or at least in their head) and be able to recognize the long vowel U sound. Make sure to check out the rest of our long vowel worksheets This long vowel u words worksheet and the others on this site are all free to print and use. Use as many copies as you like at home or in a class room, but don't reproduce them on another website or other media. You are more than welcome to link to us from a website you have, but we have worked hard to create these worksheets, so please don't take our content to use as your own.
Definition of Book of Haggai 1. Noun. An Old Testament book telling the prophecies of Haggai which are concerned mainly with rebuilding the temples after the Babylonian Captivity. Generic synonyms: Book Group relationships: Old Testament, Nebiim, Prophets Book Of Haggai Pictures Click the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term: Book Of Haggai Images Lexicographical Neighbors of Book Of Haggai Literary usage of Book of Haggai Below you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and/or classical literature: 1. The Book of the Twelve Prophets Commonly Called the Minor by George Adam Smith (1898) "CHAPTER XVII THE Book of Haggai THE Book of Haggai contains thirty-eight verses, which have been divided between two chapters.1 The text is, ..." 2. The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General by Thomas Spencer Baynes (1888) "To this consummation, with its necessary accompaniment in the extinction of prophecy, the book of Haggai already points. ..." 3. Works by Jean Calvin, Calvin translation society (1848) "A TRANSLAT ION OF CALVIN'S VERSION OF THE Book of Haggai. CHAPTER I. 1 IN the second year of Darius the king, in the sixth month, on the first day of the ..." 4. Historic Notes on the Books of the Old and New Testaments by Samuel Sharpe (1858) "ON THE Book of Haggai. HAGGAI wrote in the second year of Darius Hystaspes, king of Persia, BC 520, when Zerubbabel was governor of Judea under the Persians ..." 5. A popular introduction to the study of the holy Scriptures by William Carpenter (1826) "The Book of Haggai. This prophet lived about 520 years before Christ. He was raised up for the purpose of stimulating Zerubbabel, Joshua, and the people, ..." 6. A Commentary on the Book of Daniel by Moses Stuart (1850) "It is proper to remark, here, that the book of Haggai, also a prophet of the exile-period, is a very short one, and has only one specific object in view. ..."
Researchers from Heriot-Watt University in Edinbugh and Roslin Cellab in the UK describe a method for producing uniformly sized spheroids composed of human embryonic stem cells in the Feb. 4, 2013 issue of the journal Biofabrication. According to the authors, creation of uniformly sized spheres is essential to controlling differentiation of stem cells. Previous attempts to use 3-dimensional bioprinting to automate the process and thereby produce structures of more consistent size have been unsuccessful because of poor cell viability. Human stem cells, they say, are particularly fragile and often do not survive the printing process. In the current study, they use a valve-based cell printer to deposit two layers of liquid, or “bio-ink.” One layer consisted of cell-culture medium containing human embryonic stem cells, and a second layer contained medium alone. The volume of each ink droplet could be controlled independently, and varying the volume allowed control of the size of the resulting droplet and the number of cells contained within. A large-bore nozzle was used to reduce shear stress on the cells. After deposition into a microwell, the droplets were inverted, and the stem cells adhered to each other to form uniformly sized, spherical aggregates with cell viability of greater than 89% after 72 hours. The authors suggest that the combination of speed, reproducibility, and the high degree of cell viability afforded by the process make it a promising system for production of stem-cell derived tissue for in vitro drug development, toxicity testing, or as clinical trial material.
The potential for economic development on reservations differs widely depending on the reservation’s location and access to resources. Great Lake tribes have been able to take full advantage of the federal government’s support for tribal sovereignty because they had a history of participation in the regional economy and treaty-guaranteed access to significant natural resources that could be developed commercially. Compared to tribes that do not have this tradition—and the upland Plains tribes are a good example—the Great Lakes tribes have a higher living standard and better employment history. In 2000, the median per capita household income for reservations in Montana, Wyoming, and South Dakota was $21,302. On Minnesota reservations, the median was $26,250, and on Wisconsin reservations, $26,842 (higher for tribes in the more urbanized southern part of these states). And a comparison of unemployment rates in 2005 shows that the median unemployment rate was 73% on the Plains reservations. In Minnesota, the median unemployment rate on reservations was between 26% and 39%, and on Wisconsin reservations the median was 62%. Why has economic development been more difficult for Plains tribes? First, both the Plains subsistence and commercial economy was based on buffalo-hunting, and, when the buffalo became virtually extinct in the last quarter of the 19th century, the Plains tribes had little option but to rely on rations and provisions provided by treaties and agreements with the United States. Second, the upland plains is very arid (which makes farming very difficult), and it is remote from major population centers that could support businesses or offer employment. Here, Indian casinos, for example, are small, minimally profitable enterprises. Still, the large reservations had grazing land, so a transition to ranching was the best hope for self-sufficiency. Tribal members worked with determination to make this transition to ranching, building on their knowledge of herding and skills as horsemen. But they faced overwhelming obstacles. The policy of the federal government vacillated between supporting and discouraging ranching. Indian ranchers in the 1890s built up their herds and sold beef to the agencies and to the eastern markets. But in the 20th century, federal policy encouraged the leasing of reservation grazing land to non-Indian cattlemen. Sometimes virtually all the reservation grazing land was leased, and at below market prices. Indians worked as cowboys and farm laborers for low wages. During this time federal policy also promoted the allotment of reservation land to individuals and the sale of unallotted land to non-Indians at below market value. Federal agents encouraged allottees to lease their allotments, and many allottees were given fee patents on their land, which they then sold. Indian and non-Indian owned land was “checkerboarded,” so that Indians could not accumulate sufficient pasture to raise cattle. By the time of the New Deal, there was little grazing land left for Indian operators. From 1934 through the 1940s, federal policy encouraged ranching, even helping to purchase land and set up loan programs. But during the “termination” era of the 1950s, many of the gains were lost. So despite high interest in ranching and efforts by tribal governments to promote cattle operations, today only a minority of tribal members own ranches, which often are not large enough to support a family. In the early 20th century, Plains tribes began to advocate for control over the management of the mineral resources on their reservations and over the disposition of the mineral income. They struggled to retain subsurface mineral rights and to persuade the government to promote energy development and obtain market value prices for their oil, gas, and coal. After the Indian Reorganization Act, tribal leaders had some success in gaining control over mineral income, especially in obtaining per capita payments to mitigate poverty. In 1938, in response to tribes’ complaints that their mineral lands were leased at below market value, Congress passed legislation that required competitive bidding. In the 1970s, complaints about air and water pollution led Congress to grant the tribes authority in 1986 to set air and water quality standards. Aided by the Council for Energy Resource Tribes (organized in 1975 with mostly Plains and Southwest tribes), tribal leaders developed expertise in environmental and monitoring issues. Partly in response to the tribes’ discovery of energy company thefts of tribal minerals, Congress passed the Indian Mineral Development Act in 1982, which authorized tribes to develop their minerals through regulation, negotiation (for jobs, environmental quality, monitoring and accounting), and joint ventures with energy companies. Also that year, the Supreme Court authorized tribes to tax mineral production on their lands. Leases, royalties, bonuses, and taxes have been the major source of income for Wind River, Blackfeet, Crow, Northern Cheyenne, and Fort Peck, and these reservations continue to struggle to defend their resources. That said, the members of the “energy tribes” are not “rich Indians”: the reservation populations are large enough so that the per capita shares of the income are small and few energy jobs go to Indians. How do reservations that lack mineral wealth, like Pine Ridge and Rosebud, try to improve economic conditions? These Sioux (or Lakota) live as members of large households of relatives who pool their labor and income. A household may have only one or two people working full-time for wages, but the other members contribute income from part-time wages, social security or pensions, or public assistance, and possibly a little income from ranching or a small business. Others hunt and fish, babysit or do housework, and in over 80% of the households people engage in microenterprises. These businesses, run out of the home, bring in income or goods in exchange. The Pine Ridge Sioux and the Rosebud Sioux have very limited funds for economic development, but both work to obtain contracts and grants so they can hire tribal members. Programs provide low-rent housing and educational grants, and health care is available from the Indian Health Service. Of course, tribes with money from oil and gas wells and coal mines have more income to hire their members, support education, and offer services to mitigate the effects of poverty. All the Plains tribes and their members pursue the sovereignty agenda of self-rule and self-sufficiency in various kinds of social activities and programs that affirm identity. Some tribes have historically resisted assimilation to Western values and customs, so the sovereignty era has meant that they can openly practice their traditions. Others, who experienced a significant decline in Native ceremonies, language, and sharing customs, embarked on a process of cultural revival. The American Indian Movement was very active on the Plains, especially at Pine Ridge and Rosebud, and AIM’s advocacy for sovereignty and Native culture had a major influence on Indian youth in the late 1960s and 1970s. Generally, identity in these Plains communities is reaffirmed (and often reinterpreted) in several ways. Skill in horsemanship is important and often is expressed in rodeo participation. The reintroduction of buffalo herds is widespread, with some tribes primarily using the buffalo for food, others for commercial sale, and others to reinforce community unity through ceremonial feasts. Native religious ritual has undergone a revival. In the case of the Crow, that revival began during the New Deal. For others, such as Fort Belknap, the revival process began in the 1970s. Powwows are always vehicles for the expression of individual and tribal identity, the revitalization of music traditions, understandings about kinship, and the occasion for “giveaways,” in which the values of generosity and sharing are reinforced. The tribalization of education also is widespread, with reservation communities asserting control of the schools on the reservation and establishing tribal colleges and Native language programs. And rituals that reinforce collective memory are important, especially in respect to massacres (such as Wounded Knee, Sand Creek, or Baker) or in relation to sacred sites (such as the Black Hills). In metropolitan areas, Native people generally are integrated into the wider economy. Their tribally-owned businesses in these urban areas are often very successful enterprises that hire large numbers of tribal members, and non-Indians as well. In contrast, in sparsely populated, rural America, tribal members have more difficulty finding permanent employment and tribal businesses are marginally profitable or have only a small number of employees. The Northeast, Southeast, California, Pacific Northwest, and Southwest are metropolitan sectors of the United States, which are heavily populated and densely settled areas with centers of commerce, finance, and industry. In the NORTHEAST, the members of Native communities have been integrated into the wider economy for generations, often working in towns and cities within commuting distance from their communities. Some states have established reservations, and there are also a few federally recognized tribes with trust land—two in Connecticut, one in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, five in Maine, and nine in New York (including reservations for the Seneca, Oneida, Onondaga, Mohawk, and Tuscarora). The two tribes in densely populated Connecticut (Pequot and Mohegan) are economic powerhouses employing thousands of non-Indians as well as tribal members in their resort-casinos. Some of the New York tribes in urban areas (Buffalo, Niagara Falls, Syracuse) have businesses, including profitable casinos. Scattered through the SOUTHEAST are small, rural Native communities that historically were disadvantaged by a racial hierarchy and whose members are integrated into the wider economy, many employed in urban areas. Some tribes have small reservations established by states. The few that are federally recognized (one in North Carolina, Alabama, South Carolina, Mississippi; three in Texas; four in Louisiana; and five in Florida) have some trust land and can operate businesses and services. The Seminole in Florida have very profitable resort-casinos and other businesses. In eastern Oklahoma are tribes with large populations and significant economic development, including all sorts of tribally-owned businesses in addition to casinos and resorts (the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole). In CALIFORNIA the many Native communities are small in size and population after a long history of dispossession and genocide. These communities have been integrated into the wider economy, where metropolitan areas offer a variety of employment opportunities and where, in rural communities, Indians had low-paying jobs. The state rejected the idea of treaty reservations, so few groups had reservations before the 1930s. In the New Deal era, the federal government established 117 Indian communities but terminated (removed the trust status of their land) about half in the 1950s. In 1963 there were over 65,000 Indians in California and, due to a class action lawsuit in 1983, many communities were restored. Now there are over 113 federally recognized Indian reservations or rancherias (very small reservations) in California. Few have more than 500 members. Federal recognition and a land base, however small, make it possible for tribal governments to succeed at economic development, provide social services, and support cultural renaissance. In rural areas, distant from metropolitan areas and interstates, the tribes work on small projects, often agricultural. In metropolitan areas—such as the vicinity of San Diego, Los Angeles, or Palm Springs—and near interstate highways, the tribes have developed many profitable businesses, including resort-casinos, and have become major employers, for non-Indians as well as Indians. The SOUTHWEST has 45 federal reservations. The Arizona and New Mexico region is a metropolitan area, although there are some rural areas where there are large reservations on which the tribe is the major employer and there is high unemployment. On small reservations near urban areas tribal members work for wages on and off their reservations and unemployment is low. In Arizona near Flagstaff is the large Hopi reservation (villages atop mesas surrounded by farm land) where the tribal government earns a high income from oil, gas, and coal, and Hopis work mostly for the coal company and in the tourist industry. Also in Arizona are the mostly small “Yuman” and the Pima and Papago reservations, where many tribal members obtain jobs in Phoenix and Tucson, and tribal governments operate profitable casinos near cities and interstates, as well as support agriculture and other jobs. There are 19 Pueblo (villages surrounded by agricultural lands) reservations in New Mexico that have small land bases and serve as ceremonial centers for their members who work in nearby Albuquerque or Los Alamos. On most, tribal governments operate resort-casinos and tribal members also work in the flourishing tourist industry. In New Mexico and Arizona are four large Apache reservations that are more remote and largely agricultural. Unemployment (up to 68%) is a problem despite the tribes’ ownership of casinos or other businesses. The 17 million acre Navajo reservation (one-fourth of the state of Arizona, part of New Mexico, and a small section of Utah) has a huge enrolled population (upwards of 180,000). In this vast rural region are small, sparsely settled communities where Navajos raise corn, sheep, and manufacture jewelry and other items to sell. The tribe has a high income from oil and gas, coal, and uranium but cannot create nearly the number of jobs needed, so unemployment is high (52% in 2005). Navajos work for the coal mines, tribally-owned shopping centers, and tribal forestry. Navajos have a long history of working for wages in the region, and a large sector of the membership lives and works off the reservation. In the Pacific Northwest Coast and Columbia River system in Washington and Oregon, there are 39 federal reservations. These have small memberships—most number less than 1,000. Along the coast tribal members do both subsistence and commercial fishing, as they have for generations. These activities grew in importance after the Boldt decision in 1974, in which the federal courts established treaty rights to half the fish for treaty signatories. Native fishermen may still face difficulties due to lack of capital and environmental degradation. Cultural renaissance is built on the fishing rights struggle and tribal involvement in commercial fishing and protection of the environment. Near the urban areas of Seattle, Spokane, Tacoma, and Portland some tribes have resort-casinos that are profitable. The median unemployment in Washington is comparable to that in the Great Lakes, and in Oregon it is a little lower than in the Great Lakes area. In both regions, the median unemployment is considerably lower than in the Plains, which is more rural and lacks a strong commercial economy. The region most comparable to the upland Plains is the Desert area of Nevada and Utah—a sparsely populated, rural area. Here there are 32 federal reservations for Shoshones, Washoes, Utes, and Paiutes. Most are very small settlements with small populations, where tribal members have worked for ranchers or townspeople for low wages for many generations. Many also do subsistence hunting, fishing, and gathering. After tribal governments began contracting programs, more jobs were available but in these remote, sparsely populated areas, most did not have casinos or other businesses with large numbers of employees. These desert reservations have been the target of efforts to dump nuclear and other hazardous waste. The Paiute settlements in Las Vegas and the Moapa reservation near there have a profitable resort and casino, respectively. The large, remote Walker River reservation in Nevada has 77% unemployment and little tribal income. The large Pyramid Lake reservation in Utah attracts vacationers, especially fishermen, and some tribal members ranch but there is relatively high unemployment here even though the reservation is within commuting distance of Reno. The largest reservation is the one- million- acre Uintah Ouray in northeast Utah, which has a very large income from oil, but 77% unemployment. The 3,000 tribal members hunt and fish and do some ranching, and the tribe has invested in manufacturing and other businesses. So the contrast between metropolitan and rural regions in the U. S. is an extremely important factor in how successful tribes can be in developing businesses and reducing unemployment in their homelands. A comparison of the Great Lakes and upland Plains unemployment and median household income is a good example. To understand the disparity between the tribes, one must understand the relative urbanization of their respective regions. For example, the population of Montana in 2000 was 902,195 (and the population density was 6.2 persons per square mile), while the population of Wisconsin was 5,363,675 and the population density, 98.8. Marjane Ambler. Breaking the Iron Bonds: Indian Control of Energy Development, 1990. The author discusses the history of Indian attempts to gain control of their energy resources: obtaining ownership, the right to negotiate the terms of leases and royalties, and the authority to distribute the proceeds of mineral income and to tax energy companies. Donald J. Berthrong. The Southern Cheyenne, 1963. Historian Berthrong provides a history of the Southern Cheyenne from the late 17th century to 1875. Thomas Biolsi. “Deadliest Enemies”: Law and the Making of Race Relations On and Off Rosebud Reservation, 2001. Anthropologist Biolsi discusses the history of Indian-White relations on and around Rosebud Reservation and how legal decisions have shaped these relations. He considers jurisdictional issues about highway policing, liquor sales, and reservation boundaries. Sebastian Felix Braun. Buffalo Inc.: American Indians and Economic Development, 2008. Anthropologist Braun did fieldwork at Cheyenne River reservation during 2000-2001. His book focuses on the efforts of the Cheyenne River Sioux to develop a commercial buffalo enterprise and the repercussions of the project. Raymond J. DeMallie, ed. Handbook of North American Indians: Plains, v. 13, 2 pts., 2001. This volume provides sketches of the histories and cultures of the Plains tribes up to the present. Raymond J. DeMallie, ed. The Sixth Grandfather: Black Elk’s Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt, 1984. Black Elk’s narratives about his life in prereservation and Pine Ridge reservation times are given commentary by editor and anthropologist DeMallie. Hugh A. Dempsey. Big Bear: The End of Freedom, 1984. This is a biography of Big Bear, born in 1825. He was a leader of the Plains Cree in Canada who tried to achieve peace with the Canadian government. He was arrested and died in 1888. His descendants live on Rocky Boy Reservation. John C. Ewers. The Blackfeet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains, 1958. Anthropologist Ewers provides a history of the Montana Blackfeet from the late 18th century to the early reservation years. John C. Ewers. The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture with Comparative Material from Other Western Tribes, 1955. Ewers’s study is a detailed look at how the horse diffused through the plains and how its introduction changed Plains Indian societies. Loretta Fowler. The Arapaho, 2006 (rev. ed.). This book is written for a general audience and compares Northern and Southern Arapaho history, culture, and social organization up to the present. Loretta Fowler. Arapahoe Politics, 1851-1978, 1982. Anthropologist Fowler examines changes in Northern Arapaho leadership in the 19th and 20th centuries as leaders coped with economic and other changes. Loretta Fowler. The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Great Plains, 2003. The author provides an introduction to the archaeology and an overview of the cultures and histories of upland and prairie Plains tribes, with chapters on trade relations, treaties and American expansion, reservation life, and the self-determination or sovereignty era. Fowler, Loretta. Shared Symbols, Contested Meanings: Gros Ventre Culture and History, 1778-1984, 1987. Anthropologist Fowler provides an overview of Gros Ventre history, including economic activity, and a discussion of relations between the Gros Ventres and Assiniboines on Fort Belknap reservation. The book also discusses political and ritual revivalism in the 1970s and 1980s. Loretta Fowler. “Tribal Sovereignty Movements Compared: The Plains Region,” in Beyond Red Power: American Indian Politics and Activism since 1900, eds. Daniel M. Cobb and Loretta Fowler, 2007. The author compares the ways sovereignty agendas are implemented in the upland plains reservations of South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, and in western Oklahoma. Rodney Frey. The World of Crow Indians, 1987. Anthropologist Frey studied contemporary Crow life. He focuses on ritual and kinship. Elizabeth S. Grobsmith. Lakota of the Rosebud, 1981. Anthropologist Grobsmith did fieldwork on Rosebud reservation in 1973-74. Her focus is on political organization and politics during the American Indian Movement’s activity there, economics, community ritual and religion, language and education. William T. Hagan. United States-Comanche Relations: The Reservation Years, 1976. Historian Hagan provides a history from 1867 through the early reservation years when cattle leasing influenced reservation politics. Frederick E. Hoxie. The Crow, 1989. Written for a general audience, this book by historian Hoxie covers the early 19th century to the 1980s. Sharon O’Brien. “Cheyenne River Sioux” in American Indian Tribal Governments, by Sharon O’Brien, 1989. Anthropologist O’Brien gives an overview of the history of these Sioux from the treaty era through the early reservation years, the New Deal, and the Oahe Dam settlement. She provides information on economic development and tribal government. Peter Iverson. When Indians Became Cowboys: Native Peoples and Cattle Ranching in the American West, 1994. Historian Iverson discusses the efforts of western tribes to raise cattle and the obstacles they faced from United States policy. He focuses on the northern plains and the Southwest, and he explains how cattle ranching became a way of life that was socially and culturally rewarding for Indians. Alice Beck Kehoe. The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory and Revitalization, 1989. Anthropologist Kehoe provides a history of the Ghost Dance movement, a discussion of the massacre at Wounded Knee, and an overview of other social and religious movements aimed at revitalization of the way of life of oppressed people (including AIM’s Wounded Knee occupation in 1973). Michael L. Lawson. Dammed Indians Revisited: The Continuing History of the Pick-Sloan Plan and the Missouri River Sioux, 2009. Historian Lawson documents the struggle of leaders at Cheyenne River and Standing Rock to prevent the flooding of their reservations from the Oahe Dam, then for adequate compensation for the rehabilitation of their communities once the project was complete. Allison Fuss Mellis. Riding Buffaloes and Broncos: Rodeo and Native Traditions in the Northern Great Plains, 2003. Historian Mellis explores how 19th and 20th century rodeo was a vehicle to strengthen Indian identity and social ties and reinforce Native values. She focuses on Crow, Pine Ridge, Rosebud, and Northern Cheyenne reservations. Mindy J. Morgan. The Bearer of This Letter: Language Ideologies, Literacy Practices, and the Fort Belknap Indian Community, 2009. Anthropologist Morgan did fieldwork on Fort Belknap, where she assisted the Assiniboines in the development of a language program for the teaching and preservation of the native language during 1996-97. James Mooney. Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians, 1898. Mooney sketches Kiowa history in the 19th century. James C. Olson, Red Cloud and the Sioux Problem, 1965. Historian Olson discusses Red Cloud’s leadership during the treaty negotiations of the 1860s and subsequent negotiations over reservation boundaries and conditions. Red Cloud’s story helps illuminate relations between Sioux and the United States. Olson also discusses internal Sioux politics and rivalries. Kathleen Ann Pickering. Lakota Culture, World Economy, 2000. Anthropologist Pickering did fieldwork on Pine Ridge and Rosebud during 1991-93. She studied the contemporary economy, focusing on household consumption and various kinds of household production, and showing how Lakota identity shaped and was shaped by the reservation economy. She gives detailed information on microenterprises. Willard H. Rollings. The Comanche, 1989. Historian Rollings writes for a general audience and covers Comanche history from the 18th century to the 1980s. Paul C. Rosier. Rebirth of the Blackfeet Nation, 1912-1954, 2001. Historian Rosier gives a detailed history of the business committee leaders’ efforts to gain control over tribal resources, including oil. Mary Jane Schneider. “Standing Rock Reservation” in North Dakota’s Indian Heritage, 1990. Anthropologist Schneider gives an overview of the history of the Sioux of Standing Rock. Henry E. Stamm, IV. People of the Wind River: The Eastern Shoshones, 1825-1900, 1999. Historian Stamm provides a history of the Eastern Shoshone in prereservation times and during the early years of reservation settlement. Sam Stanley, ed. American Indian Economic Development, 1978. Though dated now, these essays and the editor’s comparative analysis provide good background on the issue of economic development in American Indian communities. The tribes discussed are Navajo (Arizona and New Mexico), Lummi (Washington), Morongo (California), Pine Ridge Sioux, Oklahoma Cherokee, Passamaquoddy (Maine), and Papago (Arizona). Orlan J. Svingen. The Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation, 1877-1900, 1993. This book provides a history of reservation political and economic life in the late 19th century. Veronica E. Velarde Tiller. Tiller’s Guide to Indian Country, 2005. The guide profiles all the federally recognized tribes in the country. It provides information on land status, enrollment, government, economic development, education, and infrastructure, and gives a brief overview of each tribe’s history. Paula L. Wagoner. “They Treated Us Just Like Indians”: The Worlds of Bennett County, South Dakota, 2002. Anthropologist Wagoner did fieldwork in Bennett County (an area ceded by the Pine Ridge Sioux in 1910 where there still were Sioux living on allotments) during 1997. Her focus is on the meaning of Fullblood, Mixedblood, and White identities and the relations between people who define themselves thus. She considers land issues and conflict over the Indian mascot at the high school. Richard White. “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West, 1991. Historian White describes the American West as a series of urban enclaves (California, for example) and marginalized rural areas, all with a history of dependence on the federal government. The rural region (South Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming, for example) is arid, has a declining population, and has an economy based on extractive industries. Minorities are exploited and large scale, capital-intensive agriculture crowds out small farms and ranches. The demand for energy from the urban centers calls for dams and strip mining in the rural West. Non-Indians here are economically marginalized; Indians even more so. John R. Wunder. The Kiowa, 1989. This book is written for a general audience and provides an overview of Kiowa history from the 18th century to the 1970s.
A cyst is a closed, saclike structure, an abnormal pocket of fluid, similar to a blister that contains liquid, gaseous, or semi-solid material. A cyst is located within the tissue, can develop anywhere in the body and may vary in size – some are so tiny they can only be observed through a microscope, while others may become so large that they displace normal organs. If the sac is filled with pus it is an abscess. Some cysts are solid and may be called tumours. An ovarian cyst is an accumulation of fluid within an ovary that is surrounded by a very thin wall. Any ovarian follicle that is larger than about 2cm is an ovarian cyst. These can range widely in size, from being as small as a pea to larger than an orange. In rare cases, ovarian cysts can become so large that the woman looks pregnant. The majority of ovarian cysts are benign. Most premenopausal women and up to 15% of postmenopausal women are found to have ovarian cysts, but they typically occur most frequently during the childbearing years. In some cases, ovarian cysts cause pain and bleeding. If it is over 5cm in diameter, it may need to be surgically removed. There are two main types of ovarian cysts: -Functional ovarian cysts – the most common type. These harmless cysts form part of the menstrual cycle and are short-lived. -Pathological cysts – these are cysts that grow in the ovaries. They may be harmless (benign) or cancerous (malignant). There is no definite way of preventing ovarian cyst growth. However, regular pelvic examinations, which allow for early treatment if needed, usually protect the woman from complications. As most ovarian cysts present no signs or symptoms, they frequently go undiagnosed. This also makes it difficult to estimate incidence and prevalence of the condition. Sometimes, even without symptoms, a cyst may be diagnosed during an unrelated pelvic examination or ultrasound scan. The causes are different for each type of ovarian cyst, so we have to look at them one type at a time. FUNCTIONAL OVARIAN CYSTS There are two types of functional 1. Follicular cysts Follicular cysts are the most common type of ovarian cyst. A female human has two ovaries which release an egg every month. The egg moves into the uterus (womb), where it can be fertilised by a male sperm. The egg is formed in the follicle, which contains fluid to protect the growing egg. When the egg is released, the follicle bursts. In some cases, the follicle either does not shed its fluid and shrink after releasing the egg, or does not release an egg. The follicle swells with fluid, becoming a follicular ovarian cyst. Typically, one cyst appears at any one time and normally goes away within a few weeks (without treatment). 2. Luteal ovarian cysts These are less common. After the egg has been released it leaves tissue behind (corpus luteum). Luteal cysts can develop when the corpus luteum fills with blood. In most cases, this type of cyst goes away within a few months. However, it may sometimes rupture, causing pain and internal bleeding. Dermoid cysts are the most common type of pathological cyst for women under 30 years of age. Cystadenomas are more common among women aged over 40 years 1. Dermoid cysts (cystic teratomas) Dermoid cysts are usually benign. They develop from a totipotential germ cell – in other words, the cell can give rise to all orders of cells necessary to form mature tissues. Dermoid cysts contain hair, skin, bone and other tissues (sometimes even teeth). A totipotential germ cell can develop in any direction. They are formed from cells that make eggs. These cysts need to be removed surgically. 2. Cystadenomas Cystadenomas are ovarian cyststhat develop from cells that cover the outer part of the ovary. Some are filled with a thick, mucous substance while others contain a watery liquid. Rather than growing inside the ovary itself, cystadenomas are usually attached to the ovary by a stalk. By existing outside the ovary, they have the potential to grow considerably. Although they are rarely cancerous, they need to be removed surgically. The following conditions may increase the risk of developing ovarian cysts: Endometriosis is a condition in which cells that are normally found inside the uterus (endometrial cells) are found growing outside of it. That is, the lining of the inside of the uterus is found outside of it. Endometrial cells are the cells that shed every month during menstruation, and so endometriosis is most likely to affect women during their childbearing years. Women with this condition have a higher risk of developing ovarian cysts. -Polycystic ovarian syndrome In this condition, many small and harmless cysts develop on the ovaries, caused by a problem with hormone balance produced by the ovaries. There is also a higher risk of developing ovarian cysts. -Pelvic pain -A ruptured ovarian cyst may present similar signs and symptoms to those of appendicitis or diverticulitis. In the vast majority of cases, ovarian cysts are small and benign; there will be no signs or symptoms. Even if there are symptoms, they alone cannot determine whether a patient has an ovarian cyst. There are several other conditions with similar signs and symptoms, including endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy or ovarian cancer. A ruptured ovarian cyst may present similar signs and symptoms to those of appendicitis or diverticulitis. -Irregular menstruation – periods may also become painful, heavier or lighter than normal -Dyspareunia – pelvic pain during sexual intercourse. Some women may experience abdominal pain and discomfort after sex -Pain when passing a stool (doing a poo) -Pressure on the bowels -Pregnancy symptoms, including breast tenderness and nausea -Bloating, swelling, or heaviness in the abdomen -Problems fully emptying the bladder Pressure on the rectum or bladder – the patient may have to go to the toilet more often, either to urinate or pass a stool -Hormonal abnormalities – in rare cases, the body may produce abnormal amounts of hormones, resulting in changes in the way the breasts and body hair grow. -Torsion – the stem of an ovary can become twisted if the cyst is growing on the stem, blocking the blood supply to the cyst and causing severe pain in the lower abdomen. -Bursting – if the ovarian cyst bursts, the patient will experience severe pain in the lower abdomen. If the cyst is infected, pain will be worse. There may also be some bleeding. – Cancer – in rare cases, an ovarian cyst may be an early form of ovarian cancer. When an ovarian cyst is suspected from history and examination, the following diagnostic tests may also be ordered: -Ultrasound An ultrasound will be carried out to help the doctor make a diagnosis. A probe (transducer) is placed on the abdomen, over where the ovaries are. Sometimes the probe may be placed inside the vagina. In both cases, the doctor is observing the ovaries on a video screen. This test can help the doctor determine whether there is a cyst, and whether it is solid, filled with fluid (or both). -Blood test If there is a tumour present, blood level of CA125 will be elevated. High CA125 levels could also mean the patient has ovarian cancer. Pregnancy test A positive pregnancy test result may suggest a corpus luteum cyst. Laparoscopy A thin, lighted instrument called a laparoscope is inserted into the patient’s abdomen through a small incision (skin cut). If the doctor spots an ovarian cyst, they may remove it there and then. Sometimes watchful waiting is recommended, especially if the woman is premenopausal, and she has a small functional cyst (2cm-5cm). An ultrasound scan will be carried out about a month or so later to check it, and to see whether it has gone. Postmenopausal women are monitored with ultrasound scans, as well as blood tests to check their CA125 levels. The approach depends very much on the size of the cyst and whether it has changed over time. – Oral contraceptives The doctor may prescribe them to reduce the risk of new cysts developing in future menstrual cycles. -Surgery If the cyst is growing or persists through three menstrual cycles, the doctor may recommend that it be surgically removed. -Cancer treatment If the cyst is cancerous, the patient may need to have more organs and tissue removed, including the ovaries, uterus, the omentum and some lymph nodes.
Sedimentary Structure Shows a Young Earth by John D. Morris, Ph.D. * Sedimentary rock, which makes up most of the surface cover of the continents, is by definition deposited by moving fluids. Normally, the sediments contain evidence of their waterborne history in what is called sedimentary structure. These features may be in the form of cross bedding, paleo-current markers, graded bedding, laminations, ripple marks, etc. If the hardening conditions are met (presence of a cementing agent and pressure to drive water from the matrix), the sediments soon harden into sedimentary rock, making the "structure" somewhat permanent, although erosion will eventually destroy even hard rock features. Rocks abound with such markings, virtually frozen in place in the solid rock. Today when we drive through a road cut, we can observe these reminders of past sedimentary processes and discern many things about the moving fluids, including their direction, velocity, chemistry, etc. Geologists have traditionally surmised that the deposits are typically the results of the calm and gradual, uniformitarian processes currently in operation. Conversely, more recent geologic models recognize that processes of the past acted at rates, scales, and intensities far exceeding those of today. They were the same basic processes, but were acting at catastrophic levels, accomplishing much depositional work in a short time. Continuing catastrophic action would quickly deposit a second layer, and then more. The question remains: How long ago did this rapid depositional sequence of events take place? While the muddy sediments are still fresh and soft, the ephemeral sedimentary structure within the deposits is in jeopardy of being obliterated by the action of plant and animal life. We know that life proliferates in every near-surface layer of soft sediment. This is true on land and especially true underwater. Plant roots penetrate through the soil. Animals such as worms, moles, clams, etc., burrow through the sediment, chewing up and turning it over in search of food or shelter through a process called bioturbation. This obviously destroys the sedimentary structure. But how long does it take? A recent study undertook to determine just how much time was required to destroy all remnants of water action.1 Numerous recent storm deposits, dominated by sedimentary structure, were investigated in a natural setting. It was observed that within months, all sedimentary structure was destroyed, so intense is the bioturbation in soft sediments. As long as the sediments are still soft, they will be bioturbated and the structure lost. Yet the geologic record abounds with such sedimentary structure. This comprises a good geologic age indicator, and in fact points to a young earth. Consider the total picture. Virtually all sediments required only a short time to accumulate in various high energy events. Hardening of sediments into sedimentary rock itself normally takes little time, if the conditions are met. Soft at the start, the sediment's internal character would necessarily be subjected to the rapid, destructive action of plant and animal life. Within a relatively short time (months or years), all sedimentary structure would disappear through their action. The surface of each layer would be exposed to bioturbation until the next layer covered it and until hardening was complete. Sedimentary structure is fragile and short-lived, yet such features abound in nearly every sedimentary rock layer. Each layer was laid down in a short period of time. The deposit could not have been exposed for long before the next deposit covered it, isolating it from destructive bioturbation. Thus the length of time between the layers could not have been great. The total time involved for the entire sequence must have been short. Of course, Scripture specifies that the time elapsed for all of creation and earth history has not been very long. Geology confirms it. - Gingras, M. K. et al. 2008. How fast do marine invertebrates burrow? Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 270 (3-4): 280-286. * Dr. Morris is President of the Institute for Creation Research. Cite this article: Morris, J. 2009. Sedimentary Structure Shows a Young Earth. Acts & Facts. 38 (7): 15.
Timeless themes that run through the course of history forms the structure of our Key Stage 3 curriculum; within this, there is a clear chronology that allows pupils to develop their sense of time. In Year 7, the first theme studied is ‘ordinary lives’. This unit sees the study of: The second theme for our year seven pupils is focused on ‘why were people willing to die for their beliefs’. This includes the importance of religion in Medieval life and the turbulent changes in Tudor England that arose from England’s dramatic break with Rome in the 16th century and the consequences of this. Finally, the theme of ‘power’ is studied. This follows the changes in kingship from Medieval to Tudor England and then the subsequent progress and change from monarchy to a democratic system that we have today. Our Year 8 programme of study looks at how democracy and civil rights were won and lost in Britain and Germany in the 20th century, including Hitler’s rise to power and a depth-study on the Holocaust. The second term focuses on modern history with the focus on conflict in the nineteenth and twentieth century. In this unit, pupils’ research key developments and events that have shaped our society today; this includes In addition, pupils will have the opportunity to investigate their local history to help them connect with a more personal history and help them to understand the immediate world around them. Key Stage 4 students are currently completing a three year course in GCSE History. Paper 1 focuses on Crime and Punishment over the course of a thousand years, starting in 1000AD. Within this topic, there is a section solely focused on the historic place of Whitechapel during the late 19th century which includes the crimes of Jack the Ripper. Paper 2 Section A is a unit on Superpower Relations 1941-1991 which examines the nuclear stand-off between the USA and Russia that dominated international affairs in the latter part of the 20th century. Section B of this paper is Elizabethan England 1558-1588 is the depth study of choice, studying the problems she encountered in her long reign and how these were dealt with. Paper 3 solely focuses on a modern depth study of Weimar and Nazi Germany, examining Hitler’s rise to power and how life changed for ordinary people in this period. This varied and thought-provoking curriculum is designed to give pupils both depth and breadth of a range of areas to allow them to truly value the lessons from the past and enjoy their learning.
Keeping upright in a low-gravity environment is not easy, and NASA documents abound with examples of astronauts falling on the lunar surface. Now, a new study by an international team of researchers led by York University professors Laurence Harris and Michael Jenkin, published today in PLOS ONE, suggests that the reason for all these moon mishaps might be because its gravity isn't sufficient to provide astronauts with unambiguous information on which way is "up." "The perception of the relative orientation of oneself and the world is important not only to balance, but also for many other aspects of perception including recognizing faces and objects and predicting how objects are going to behave when dropped or thrown," says Harris. "Misinterpreting which way is up can lead to perceptual errors and threaten balance if a person uses an incorrect reference point to stabilize themselves." Using a short-arm centrifuge provided by the European Space Agency, the international team simulated gravitational fields of different strengths, and used a York-invented perceptual test to measure the effectiveness of gravity in determining the perception of up. The team found that the threshold level of gravity needed to just influence a person's orientation judgment was about 15 per cent of the level found on Earth -- very close to that on the moon. The team also found that Martian gravity, at 38 per cent of that on Earth, should be sufficient for astronauts to orient themselves and maintain balance on any future manned missions to Mars. "If the brain does not sense enough gravity to determine which way is up, astronauts may get disoriented, which can lead to errors like flipping switches the wrong way or moving the wrong way in an emergency," says Jenkin. "Therefore, it's crucial to understand how the direction of up is established and to establish the relative contribution of gravity to this direction before journeying to environments with gravity levels different to that of Earth." This work builds upon results obtained in long-duration microgravity by Harris and Jenkin and other members of York's Centre for Vision Research on board the International Space Station during the Bodies in the Space Environment project, funded by the Canadian Space Agency. - Laurence R. Harris, Rainer Herpers, Thomas Hofhammer, Michael Jenkin. How Much Gravity Is Needed to Establish the Perceptual Upright? PLoS ONE, 2014; 9 (9): e106207 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106207 Cite This Page:
Concrete is composed of aggregates, which can be any or a combination of sand, gravel or rocks that is held together by cement. The cement itself, when mixed with water, serves as a paste that holds all the components of the concrete together once the cement sets and hardens.Continue Reading One of the earliest evidence of manmade concrete were the floors of royal palace of Tiryns in Greece, which was constructed around 1400 to 1200 B.C. The ancient Romans were one of the most prolific users of concrete, using the material for their architectural and other construction works. During a 700-year period between 300 B.C. to 476 A.D., the Romans used a concrete material called opus caementicium that was made from pumice as an aggregate with pozzolana and quicklime as cement. Modern-day analysis show that opus caementicium had similar compressive strength to modern Portland cement. However, since the Romans did not use any reinforcements, opus caementicium had significantly lower tensile strength compared to modern reinforced cement. The proportions of the materials used for making modern-day concrete varies according to its application. For example, the proportions used on concrete for floors, driveways and sidewalks is ideally one part cement, two and half parts sand and three parts gravel. On the other hand, the recommended concrete mix proportions for high strength floors and columns is one part cement, one part sand and two parts gravel.Learn more about Building Materials
The stupa is the oldest Buddhist religious monument. In prehistoric times, stupas were simply mounds of earth and stones (tumuli) – places to bury important kings away from the village. Twenty-five-hundred years ago, at the time of Shakyamuni Buddha’s death, a change came about in the way stupas were regarded. The Buddha requested that his relics be placed in a familiar stupa, but with a shift in emphasis. Instead of being just a place of honor where the bones or relics of a cremated king were placed, the stupa was to be located at four corners (i.e., a crossroads), to remind people of the awakened state of mind. So, the stupa evolved from a mound of dirt (stup, Skt., “to heap up, pile, raise aloft, elevate”), to a king’s burial tomb, to a religious monument. After the Buddha’s death, stupas evolved from being used as shrines to the dead and into places to honor the living. They were erected to remind people far into the future that they, while living, had the seed of enlightenment. A stupa is intended to stop you in your tracks. It is an architectural representation of the entire Buddhist path. The body, speech and mind of an enlightened teacher is contained therein – a reminder of a timeless quality which one senses in old monuments. The Tibetan word for “stupa” is choten, meaning a receptacle for offerings and implying support for lay people to express devotion and connection to the Buddha mind. Breathing Life into North American Buddhadharma There are three basic reasons for building stupas. Burial stupas hold relics from the funeral pyre. Commemorative stupas mark the place of an event or occasion in the Buddha’s life. And, votive stupas are erected to make a dedication of good will or to accumulate merit. The latter type is a perfect outlet for lay people to connect with the Buddhadharma; in the past, it was primarily the laity who were involved in constructing stupas. A fundamental significance of stupas in the West lies in the contrast between modern and ancient worldviews, specifically in how matter is viewed. Ancient people, living close to nature, viewed matter as living and fecund, as an accumulator of spirit. Modern people, cut off from nature, often view matter as dead, something mechanical to be used or manipulated. The stupa is monumental architecture, emphasizing our connection to the spiritual by both its mass and symbolic shapes. The two most fundamental and enduring shapes in all stupas are the hemisphere (mound) and the cone, or spire. The hemisphere symbolizes an egg, womb or the fertile earth. This traces back to lunar religions, where the creative force of the earth (soil) as mother of all life was worshipped in caves and subterranean sanctuaries, and where the mysteries of life and creation were the center of religious attention. In this lunar type of worship, the mounds were placed away from the village. The cone shape is symbolic of solar worship, wherein altars were placed inside the village as an important reference point for daily life. It seems natural to erect a vertical post, such as a May pole or flagpole, to mark the Sun’s zenith. It ties together earth with heaven and represents a unifying element – a center, the life force, an axis-mundi, the lingam, or gathering place. The combining of the lunar and solar elements into the Buddhist stupa lies at the heart of the Buddha’s instructions to place his burial stupas at four corners. It represents a combining of opposites: night and day, matter and mind, earth and sky, unconscious and conscious, inner and outer, mysterious and obvious, female and male. A square box called a harmika (Skt.) is placed on top of the hemisphere and below the cone. It is said to be the “dwelling place of the gods” and symbolizes a transcendent aspect of mind or aspiration – a transformation potential. In the earliest stupas, relics were found here. The harmika reflects the idea that stupas are a place where offerings can be made, blessings received and devotion practiced, such as by walking around the stupa in a clockwise direction. Circumambulating stupas is a very ancient practice that reflects the movement of the Sun, of ever-revolving seasons and the rotation of planets. If you look down on a stupa from the sky, it always reveals a directional orientation such as South, West, North and East – a mandalic square shape. It has a central axis, the center of the universe, the axis-mundi. Two basic shapes – the circle and the square – are apparent, representing water and earth respectively, while the vertical shape – a triangle – represents fire. The vertical shape of a Tibetan stupa evolved into a representation of the body of a Buddha seated upon a square throne. The pole inside some stupas represents the spine, an obelisk-shaped pillar made from a special tree that is inserted when construction is nearly complete. From the very earliest days of stupas, Buddhists placed both scripts of dharani (prayers which energize the speech element, creeds, or mantra) and numerous miniature images of the stupa (tsa-tsas) inside these monuments. Vessels containing hair, fingernails, relics, and ashes of enlightened teachers were buried there along with jewels, seeds, herbs, and other earth-symbolic items.
Researchers from IBM’s Zurich Research Lab have devised a way to print particles as small as 60 nanometers in diameter with single-particle resolution. The technique lets researchers arrange tiny particles of various materials into well-defined structures on a surface–a step necessary for the mass production of devices such as nanowire transistors, biomedical sensors, and flexible, ultrasmall lenses capable of bending light. “This is a very precise and efficient technique for taking nanoparticles with interesting properties and arranging them in an orderly fashion onto a surface,” says Tobias Kraus, a researcher on the IBM nano-patterning team. The group details its findings in a paper published in the journal Nature Nanotechnology. To create an imprint, the IBM team first makes a template with grooves or holes only tens of nanometers deep and shaped in a desired pattern. Then the researchers move a liquid suspension containing nanoparticles over the template; the particles fill the shallow grooves or holes. After the liquid dries, the team takes the template and presses it onto a substrate that has been prepared with a strong adhesive on its surface. The key step in the process is to ensure a difference in the strength of adhesives on the two surfaces: since the particles adhere better to a polymer layer on the substrate, they don’t stick to the original template once it’s removed. The result is a printed structure composed of single nanoparticles on the substrate. Other researchers have previously shown that nanoparticles suspended in a liquid can be guided into patterns on a substrate. But, says Stephen Chou, head of the NanoStructure Laboratory at Princeton University, this is the first time he’s seen someone devise a way to print the structures onto the surface of another substrate with great precision. “The novelty here is that they’re able to print these particles onto another substrate,” Chou says. “The authors describe a very clever way to use nanoparticles as ‘inks’ in a soft lithographic printing process,” says John Rogers, a professor of engineering at the University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign. Rogers’s own team has also recently devised a novel nanoscale printing technique. (See “Nanoscale Inkjet Printing.”) Along with other recent research in the area, he says, these techniques represent a new and powerful direction in nano printing. The IBM team demonstrated the precision and versatility of the method by printing a nanoscale version of Robert Fludd’s 17th-century image of the sun. The image is composed of 20,000 gold particles, each of them only 60 nanometers in diameter. Before any useful applications result from the research, Kraus says that his team will have to devise a way of increasing the long-range accuracy of the method–that is, a way to make sure that each particle along a long line is exactly where the researchers want it to be. They will also have to develop strategies for particles smaller than the 60-nanometer size. For IBM’s method to get below that size, the researchers will have to find the right balance between the depth of the grooves on their templates and the size of the particle. If the particle is too small and the depth too great, the particle will sit in the well and never adhere in the transfer. Still, Kraus says, the IBM fabrication process applies to a wide range of materials–they include metals, polymers, and semiconductors–and is very reliable.
Like most things, food production in many parts of the world took a serious hit following Doomsday. While in some places rationing was enough to avert disaster, in others the food shortage was severe enough to lead to violence and social collapse. Cases of cannibalism were not uncommon. Although the actual figures are unknown, it is estimated that the number of people worldwide killed by starvation exceeds the number who died as a result of exposure to radiation, both directly and by cancer. While the majority of nations have since mostly recovered, food shortages are still all too common while rationing is still present to some degree in a number of countries, with even those countries who’s food production is generally more than adequate having rationing of certain goods. Additionally, the collapse of world-wide trade networks and the changed climate has lead to other changes in diet around the world. Prior to Doomsday, a sizable percentage of the food consumed in the majority of the Western world was imported; now all that has changed. Today, almost all of the food supply in most nations is home produced, with some food stuffs being traded between immediate neighbors. Many foods, such as cocoa, tea, coffee, tropical fruits, etc, are either extremely rare or altogether unavailable outside the areas where they are cultivated. After Doomsday rationing of food and other goods was virtually universal amongst targeted countries, although the degree of rationing varied greatly, ranging from WWII-style ration books to the extreme system once employed in Thunder Bay. Even today, over a quarter of a century after Doomsday, rationing is still a fact of life in many places, with the most widely rationed foods being sugar, meat, milk and other dairy produce, fat (vegetable and/or animal), and eggs. In all times, the major need for maintenance of the human body is calories - a measure of the energy used by the body to burn the fuel to run its systems. Trace nutrients from the soil and proteins from both plant and animal sources are added for optimum health, but the calories from grains, beans, and other fleshy vegetables are essential. As was the case before Doomsday, the most common staple foods are grains (rice, wheat, barley, oats, rye and maize) and tubers (sweet potatoes, yams, cassava and, especially, potatoes). Pulses, particularly beans and chickpeas, are also important staples. The main changes have been in the ratios of the consumption of the various staples in different countries. For instance, the amount of rice consumed in Europe has greatly decreased since Doomsday due to the loss of imports while the amount of barley consumed has increased, partly because of its adaptability and ability to cope with a wide range of climate conditions. Potatoes are as widely consumed now as they were pre-Doomsday and due to their ease of cultivation, the fact that it is possible to get a sizable crop from a small area of land, and the lack of a need for processing, are widely regarded as being lifesavers in the years immediately following Doomsday. As was the case in Britain during World War II, they also found their way into foods that do not usually involve potatoes, such as bread with mashed potatoes being used to ‘stretch’ the limited supply of flour. The most common grain on earth after doomsday was rice, the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. It had been second to maize, Zea mays, which was largely wiped out, or cut off from distribution in targeted areas of the northern hemisphere. However, in the wetlands of southeast Asia rice flourished as it had for ages. As China fell apart and began to rebuild, its rice fields became a chief part of that effort. The ANZC made the distribution of the commodity a prime foreign policy priority. In North America, as the city-states and small regional nations rose from the chaos, most had little to no access to this grain many had come to prefer in the days before Doomsday. However, the economies of Louisiana and its allies in the former state of Mississippi, as well as those of the Commonwealth of Kentucky (including its ally and dependent city-state Cape Gerardo) were greatly enhanced by trade of surplus rice to neighboring nations in the temperate eastern half of North America. Also, the rice fields of the California Republic produced an abundance once that nation began to trade with its neighbors. Before that, most of these fields had been replanted in other produce to feed the surviving population with more nutritious foods. In Europe, the moderate rice fields of the Iberian Peninsula had been largely abandoned as Spain broke up into various factions. However, as stability returned to northern Italy the successor nations there, formed into the Italian Peninsula Alliance, used its rice production as leverage in trade with other nations in Europe and around the Mediterranean. In Asia, the collapse of China greatly lowered its rice production, and in this regard, it was replaced by India and Southeast Asia. Many of these Chinese fields remain contaminated in some regard today. Having its origin on the slopes of Mount Karaca in the Sultanate of Turkey, wheat (genus triticum) became the most widely grown crop in the world. As such, even the worst hit areas of the northern hemisphere were left with some wheat growing in fields outside the ruins. Unfortunately for the world, though, most the silos of North America were hidden in the midst of the "bread basket of the world." As a result, many nations in the southern hemisphere lost the distribution of this staple grain. Locally, the struggling nation states of America's mid-section coped to re-establish the wheat fields in the years following the devastation. However, the nation of Asinobia flourished after the single destruction of Winnipeg in its southern region. Its plentiful wheat fields more than sufficed for its small population, making wheat a valuable medium of exchange with the neighboring nations as it came out of its isolation. In Europe, the wheat fields that had once fed millions lay covered in irradiated ash from the bombardment of NATO bases and major capital cities. The "bread basket" of Europe, in the western client states of the Soviet Union, was also lost to the destruction. Meanwhile, the early formation of the Nordic Union was sustained by its ample supply of largely unaffected wheat from Denmark. These fields became essential in the Union's efforts to re-establish order in northern Europe. In Asia, the "bread basket" of China, known as the North Chinese Plain, was once covered with large wheat fields. Those fields that once fed the enormous population of China were poisoned and irradiated by Doomsday. Barley, Hordeum vulgare, is almost as old as wheat as a cultivated food grass. However, it is hardier than wheat in adverse climate. Possibly because wheat was more suitable for the changing diets of Europeans, this originally Mid-Eastern grain did not see the world-wide spread that wheat did. Stigmatized, perhaps, as food for animals - and stock for strong drink - barley remained a secondary crop. However, in the days before Doomsday the most prolific producers of the grain were in fact the nations of Europe. After the dust rose, the hardy grass pushed its way back into the diets of Europeans starving for carbohydrates. In North America, Mexico resorted to a larger use of barley in the production of feedstock for its livestock. Even when imports from the American nations of maize returned, barley maintained this niche. Meanwhile, in Kentucky and Virginia, barley became a popular grain in the production of new varieties of beer and hard liquor. With export of barley cut off for at least a decade, the nations of the southern hemisphere depended upon the production of the grain in the United American Republic of the SAC and the moderate production in both Australia and New Zealand of the ANZC. Fields in northern India also continued to produce, providing food for the poorest among those of that sub-continent. Oat, Avena sativa, commonly spoken of in the plural, like wheat and barley, saw its beginning near the cradle of civilization, now Kurdistan and the chaos of what remains of former Iran. However, the most cultivated areas for this grain is in more temperate areas in a band around the earth that includes all of Europe and, in North America, Canada. Grown mostly as food stock before Doomsday, the widespread oat fields began to be cultivated as one of many local grains in use for humans as well in the aforementioned areas. Unlike most other grains, though, oats lost popularity in areas outside of the production zone, and still are not widely exported. One notable exception is the production of toasted oats breakfast cereals in Australia. The American diaspora, in fact, demanded that the crunchy o's be produced for their children. Various brands of o-shaped cereals continue to be the most exported food product from the ANZC states in Australia. Rye, (Secale cereale, is closely related to wheat and barley, having an origin in the same "fertile crescent" of modern day Turkey and Turkestan. However, the grain thrives best in colder climates and was widely cultivated in Central and Eastern Europe. Russia and Germany were by far the top producers of rye before Doomsday. Even then, though, the grass was grown mostly as fodder or alcoholic beverages. After the catastrophe, with much of Europe destroyed, the production of rye fell far down the list of things to grow to sustain the population. However, many of the fields were retained as a source of food stock for cattle, swine, and horses. Almost unknown outside of ethnic communities, rye is practically unknown even in most civilized nations of the southern hemisphere. Fields that used to produce the grain in the UAR, the only notable producer, are gone, the victim of the climate change that has reduced the cold weather drastically in that South American country. Maize, Zea mays, commonly called "corn" the English language, began in what is now Mexico. It is still widely used there, now being produced in larger quantities since imports have dried up from the vastly productive "bread basket" of the America Midwest. Once the most widely exported grain, even in 2011 exporting of local grains is rare from the heart of what used to be the USA. As with wheat, corn was a major product of the sparsely populated middle of the United States. What population centers that were there, in fact, were targets for Soviet weapons in 1983. The same was the case in Europe, where the "corn belt" stretched south of the "wheat belt", and China, where in the North Chinese Plain, wheat and corn grew side by side. As a result, the local maize production around the world became mostly for local use. Since practically no maize was grown in Australia or New Zealand, corn products gradually disappeared from ANZC shelves. Only since 2009 has demand returned for certain products, which are now being imported from either Mexico or the SAC nations that are the major exporters of the grain to this day. The only corn fields that were fairly unscathed were those in South America, making Brazil the top corn producer in the world today. Whereas grains grasses are harvested for their seeds, tubers are vegetables harvested for their stems and/or roots. Among the most popular of these is the potato (Solanum tuberosum). This plant was original cultivated in Peru, but spread to Europe and back to North America as Spanish explorers returned their ports of departure. Widely cultivated in Europe and China, these affected areas became far more dependent on this starchy stem tuber than on any other source of calories and nutrients. In North America, cultivation of the potato was encouraged in most of the surviving communities as an alternative to grains. In the northwest, the US states of Lincoln, Idaho and Kootenai became more influential than their size would indicate due to their abundance of the fruit. Meanwhile, the SAC became a major exporter of potatoes to the ANZC as the western slopes of the Andes produced the number one food export in the world. Other tubers, plants whose roots stored ample nutrients underground, are more common in tropical and subtropical lands outside of Europe. The most prolific of these is the so-called "sweet potato" (Ipomoea batatas) which is only remotely related to the common potato. Like the potato, though, the sweet potato originated in the Americas, perhaps a far north as the Yucatan peninsula. Brought to Europe by the Spanish, it had earlier traveled by more primitive mariners across the Pacific to Polynesia (as far north as Hawaii) and the mainland of China. Of the survivors of the destruction of doomsday, the survivor states of the American Southeast appreciated the sweet potato the most. Rivaling the potato in popularity, Ipomoea batatas was easier to cultivate and more nutritious. Programs from Delmarva to Louisiana promoted it from early on. It became so common in these nations that hunger among the poor became extremely rare even in the worst of times. Commonly called "beans," the pulses are a large group of vegetables cultivated for their seeds. Before Doomsday, the large population of India, and neighboring Pakistan, were the largest consumers of pulses. The nations of Canada and the United States were significant exporters to these countries, and the loss of that trade was sorely felt. Second to Canada in such exports had been neighboring Burma (Myanmar), which used this to its political advantage. The ANZC, its largest member Australia to be exact, used its exports of legumes to counter the Burmese regime. Meanwhile, back in North America, the successor states took full advantage of lost exports to feed the survivors in the harsh years following Doomsday. Many of the legumes stored extremely well as "dried beans" as long as they could be kept dry. Processing of beans into flour, in fact, proved to be an effective way to extend their shelf life - again, if kept dry. Due to the high nutrition in legumes, and the relative ease in transport, they were first privately and then publicly (government sanctioned) used as a primary barter item between cities and nations. The historical dependence on grains, though, kept local grains (especially maize, but regionally wheat as well) as the primary crops grown on a large scale. No home garden, though, was complete without at least two varieties of "beans" growing amongst the leafy greens and other vegetables. Meat and Fish Unfortunately for the carnivores of the world, the amount of meat consumed decreased dramatically after Doomsday. Animals are every bit as vulnerable to radiation as humans and large numbers were killed by radiation poisoning or cancer. Their numbers were further decreased by the widespread food shortages that followed as any food that was produced went to feed humans with little left over for livestock. The shortages also led to potential breeding stock being slaughtered for food, undermining future meat production. Ironically, in many areas the amount of meat consumed in relation to other foods briefly increased, partly because of the slaughter of livestock that there wasn’t food for and partly because of the consumption of foods that would usually be regarded as taboo such horse meat, cat meat and dog meat, practices which generally ceased once other food sources became available. Today, although the worst food shortages are long over in most of the world, the amount of meat available is still limited in many countries due to the loss of breeding stock and a shortage of fodder, and is one of the most commonly rationed foodstuffs. Meals in affected nations are generally based around staples (see above) and vegetables, with a very small amount of meat being added for protein and flavor. Additionally there have been changes in the types of meat consumed. Offal has become more widely eaten, often because it is less tightly rationed than muscle meat. Sheep and Goats The first of animals to be domesticated for their meat, and later for their milk (see below), sheep and goats have continued there prominence even in the hard-hit British Isles. As food, sheep meat is called different things according to the age of the animal when slaughtered. Lamb is for the youngest animals, hogget for yearlings and mutton for the older sheep. Mutton has outstripped lamb in popularity, particularly in the northern English survivor states, initially because of the greater amount of meat available off a grown animal rather than a juvenile one, but now also because people have acquired a taste for it. While not as popular as a food source, domesticated goats are popular in many places where the grazing sources are not as favorable. Also, while sheep are often kept alive for their wool, female goats are the number one source of dairy in the world. This is due to the fact that far less food is needed to produce a gallon of goat milk than for cows milk (see "Dairy" below.) Sheep production was hardest hit in the British Isles and in China, and saw a reduction when organizational oversight was disrupted when Australia's major cities were destroyed. However, survivors in these areas and in other areas less affected, quickly returned to farming these animals as they sought to return to a semblance of order. With the destruction of population centers all across the Northern Hemisphere, especially in North America and China, large herds of cattle, both for dairy and for beef, was greatly disrupted. In the ensuing months, as it became clear that feed was going to be scarce, animals were being slaughtered in large numbers. This meat was subject to rationing by authorities where they existed and gorging where no restraints were put on the populace. Many of the carcasses, however, were burned to keep wild animals from invading the farms. Many animals, especially in the less populated plains of North America, were released into the wild, to be hunted in the coming years as a continuing source of animal protein. In the North American Union nations, these wild cattle and the native bison were mated to produce a "better burger" with a meat called "beef-a-lo" which is lower in fat (and thus cholesterol) than regular beef. The Buffalo, or bison, though, has remained as a new symbol of for the nations of the NAU, being protected from wide-spread hunting. Cattle were abundant enough, though, to survive the famines in population centers around the world. Within five or six years the animals became domesticated and used once again for numerous products and by products, be they food or clothing, or even transportation. Dairy cattle began to be cultivated once again in stricken areas as grains and other feed stock began to be restocked. In some countries of the world, like Brazil, cattle production managed to survive almost entirely intact. Pigs and Hogs Due to their size and ease of production, hogs were ideal as food for survivors. However, large pig farms, such as those in America and China, had been abandoned and feral pigs roamed bombed out streets in nations throughout the northern hemisphere. Nevertheless, the re-domestication of these animals had proven easier than raising cattle, so pork, bacon, and sausage proved just as popular as ever in the post-Doomsday world. Chicken, and their eggs, had once been the most popular source of animal protein in the world. However, in the Northern Hemisphere, the thousands of nuclear explosions on that September day in 1983 changed priorities. Commercial chicken farming had made use of methods that were feed intensive to produce meat-bearing chickens in short periods of time. That feed had become the emergency rations of tens of thousands of survivors of Doomsday. The processing plants having lost electricity and personnel (if not having been destroyed), hundreds of millions of birds were either slaughtered and burned or given unprocessed to whoever thought they could use them. Others were released into the wild to fend for themselves. The "Egg farms" had met with the same problems. Free-range and some most barn-yard chickens survived to become the basis for a new smaller scale industry. Of these, egg producers became preferred, and a "chicken in ever pot" became a concept practically unknown north of the equator. Other poultry, the most popular being turkeys, became the standard meat sources among birds. Others, like ducks and geese, also began to be commercially cultivated for their meat as well. Even then, though, the amount of animal protein consumed has not approached mid twentieth century levels to this day. One of the newest and most widely accepted addition to North American diets is rabbit. Though a rodent, the animal is easy to raise and produces offspring early and often. Though mostly domesticated for meat, the pelts of market sized bucks (males) are also valuable additions to the economy. Females (does) are kept for breeding for several years before they too are slaughtered. Since this is the case, though, their meat is usually used as the base for dog and cat food. Their pelts, though, have a ready market as well. In times when ammunition is plentiful, some hunters harvest several wild rabbits an outing, protecting the cultivated crops from infestation. However, most hunters are after the "big game" - primarily deer and wild boar - which can be killed easier even with primitive weapons such as the bow, or even spears. Wild cattle are often harvested on the edge of grain fields to this day, though "hunting" them has been seen as not as productive as with deer or even wild sheep and goats. Fish and Seafood The lakes and rivers of many nations suffered greatly from the effects of nuclear fallout. In many areas where fish once were abundant, many of them have died out, and in some cases, some kinds have gone extinct, though others have increased in number. The same was the case for some of the shorelines. A particularly notable example comes from the Duchy of Lancaster, where cockles collected from Morecombe Bay were used to supplement the rather limited rations available after Doomsday, despite concerns about contamination from the bomb that detonated at Barrow-in-Furness. These concerns were justified when it was found that the Morecombe area had an unusually high number of cases of oral and gastric cancer. It didn’t take long for the blame to fall on the cockles and a ban on collecting them was imposed and enforced by the authorities. Though lakes and rivers suffered from fallout, within a decade formerly dead rivers were once again alive with fish. Game fishermen had become commercial fishermen, demanding stock from unaffected areas to be transferred whenever possible. Meanwhile, salmon returned to spawn as usual in Victoria and Alaska. Trout began once again to thrive in the mountain streams of the USA. The Missouri River, with its headwaters in Montana, continued to feed life-giving waters downstream in Lakota, the Dakotas, and western Kentucky. The Mississippi River, joining the Missouri from its headwaters near Superior, made fishing a major industry in Kentucky and its ally Cape Girardeau. Downstream, in Louisiana and Natchez, met the rising demands for fish as a staple in the diets of their citizens. In southern Louisiana, the bayous produce an abundance of crayfish, for years shunned because of fear of radioactive material having been ingested from fallout. By 1998, though, these animals had proven virtually isotope free. Meanwhile, they had grown to near lobster size! This condition, though, was by natural aging and once these older crayfish had been harvested, none near that size were found in the wild. Among the nations of the American Southeast, catfish became immensely popular after they, too, had been shunned due to radioactive contamination for over a decade. The largest of these fish, though, had been found to be inedible due to a build up of contaminates in their flesh. Game fishermen, though, continue to catch and release these animals as they produce a fight equal to most deep sea fish. In Europe, freshwater fishing has only just begun to return in the landlocked nations there. The Alpine Federation leads the nations of Europe in take of perch as the member states have co-operated in keeping the lakes and rivers stocked. Fishing for food in these states is a regulated industry to assure that the population has a good supply of protein and omega 3 fats. Freshwater fishing in the Amazon basin has made the SAC country of Brazil a world leader in fish production. Neighboring United American Republic has also increased its fishing of its rivers in recent years. For the most part, the amount of fish and seafood being eaten has increased around the world. Since the world’s oceans were a lot less affected by Doomsday than the land, for nations and survivor communities on or near the coast the sea acted as a giant larder, providing fresh, protein-rich food all year round. Given that fish and seafood has become a larger part of many people’s diets since Doomsday, it may come as a surprise to learn that fish stocks have increased. The reason for this are quite simple, for although the fishing industry has become more important, most countries lack the resources to maintain fleets of large scale trawlers (which prior to Doomsday efficiently harvested whole shoals of fish) and instead usually employ smaller vessels which use smaller nets. The drastic decrease in global population also led to less intensive fishing in northern seas and there was a period of several years after Doomsday where deep-sea fishing there stopped altogether due to the lack of fuel for the boats. Consequently the fish stocks had a chance to recover, with experts saying that they are now at levels that haven’t been seen since the beginning of the twentieth century, and due to the greatly reduced human population, it is doubtful that there will be any danger of overfishing for several decades, despite the booming fishing industry in many countries. The vast coastlines of South America and Australia lent to increased fishing by both the SAC and the ANZC after Doomsday as imports from the more productive north came to an end. ANZC affiliates Hawaii and Alaska picked up their deep-sea operations when war-torn Japan and China had been forced to cut to local fishing only. The international seas of the North Pacific became the theater for heightened tension, though, as Siberian fisherman vied for the same fishing grounds. In the English successor states, fish and chips are just as widely available as they were before Doomsday and are often the only form of ‘fast food’ on offer. The dish is particularly strongly associated with Cleveland, with the Cleveish port of Whitby triumphantly reclaiming its title of Cod Capital of Britain. In addition to cod, the town is also famed for its kippers which are much in demand both elsewhere in the country and abroad, a fact which keeps a number of smokehouses in business. Though cow's milk remains the primary source of dairy products in the southern hemisphere and Africa, goat's milk (and in some places sheep's milk) have become more prevalent in the war-torn north. Because cows had been so common in the western world, large numbers fell victim to nuclear radiation, forcing other alternatives. Pound for pound easier to feed, goats produce a surprisingly large amount of milk. In rural settings, in fact, a single goat can provide a family with more than enough milk and cheese while producing young for meat and other products (leather, for instance). In the early days after Doomsday, with chronic power shortages, milk production became reduced to personally milked animals for immediate consumption. All other dairy product would be converted into cheese and yogurt. Along with eggs, of course, milk would be used in baking - both in bakeries and in homes - as civilization slowly returned to a semblance of order. Milk, as it had become promoted throughout much of the twentieth century, would become instead a condiment, or an ingredient cooked into the food. By the time refrigeration became common again, liquid milk had become a rarity. In new nations around the world cow's milk would return to its former popularity, but the tastes of the new generation generally preferred the alternatives. Fruit and Vegetables Fruit, both botanically and as a culinary term, refers to the end product of a plant's productivity. In most cases, though, a "fruit" that is to be eaten must be sweet, as with an apple or pear. More correctly, a "fruit" is the seed bearing ripe ovary of a plant. Berries, are a significant subset of fruit that includes everything from the grape to the tomato (a fruit often called a "vegetable"). On the whole, "fruit" is appreciated by young and old, though fresh fruit is commonly not as available as fresh "vegetables." In post-doomsday society, as "snack foods" loaded with added sugar practically disappeared, the eating of fruits - either fresh or dried - became much more popular. The apple (Malus domestica) has spread to all parts of the world, growing in cool climates often in the shadow of the world's mountains. It is a descendant of the alma (Malus sieversii) still found growing in the foothills of the Altai Mountains of Uyghristan. Usually cultivated from cuttings to assure a consistency of flavor and color, many of the myriad of varieties became rare after Doomsday. However, the fruit survived providing local survivors a ready "fast food" as well as a source of a refreshing beverage (often fermented as cider). The climate of the British successor states and Europe proved almost universally favorable to the growing of apples. In the American Successor states, Victoria, Oregon and the USA inherited apple orchards in the Pacific Northwest. Elsewhere, the foothills of Appalachia provide a continuing supply, locally and for export in recent years, for Blue Ridge, East Tennessee, and Virginia. Elsewhere in America, local growers in many areas supplement the diets of friends and family. The world's leading exporter of apples had been China, and the survivor nations there have since developed a cuisine that uses the abundant fruit far more than ever before. In the southern hemisphere, the ANZC state of New Zealand provides apples for most of the Commonwealth. However, the state of Australia still does not allow imports of unprocessed apples due to a quarantine that protects its own domestic crops. In southern Asia, shortages of the fruit was a problem as the Indian subcontinent suffered upheaval for years. In Africa, New Britain has resumed exports that once came out of the old nation of South Africa. In South America, the orchards in Chile have become the world's most productive, while neighbors Argentina and Brazil round out the top three. The pear (Genus: pyrus) is a cousin to the apple, being of the same biological "family." Its cultivation is mostly in the same areas as the apple, and its origin in the same region as well. Known in the ancient Greece, the writers of the Roman empire mention it as well. Though varieties abound, three species amount for most of the world's edible pears: the European Pear (P. communis), the Chinese white pear (bai li) (P. ×bretschneideri) and the Nashi pear (P. pyrifolia). Suffering much of the same disruption as with the apple, local growers tended to continue producing the fruit for private use and local consumption. Ever since Doomsday, the leading exporters of pears have been Argentina (to the SAC) and New Britain (to the ANZC). The banana, or plantain (different varieties of the same species) are "seedless" fruit taken from cuttings descended from two wild plants: Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana or hybrids of the two. Originating in Papua New Guinea, the plant was spread first by Islamic traders and then by Portuguese sailors to tropical plantations spanning the globe from the Philippines to Mexico. The largest producer of bananas in the southern hemisphere is the Indian subcontinent, from which the League of Nations has secured public and private contracts to build the region into a regional power base once again. Meanwhile, the ANZC has traded with the Philippines since renewed contact in 1992. In the northern hemisphere, trade in the fruit outside of Texas (with Mexico) and the East Caribbean Federation (with Costa Rica), is still unheard of. Nuts are the dry fruit which do not separate from the hardened ovary wall (shell) from which they developed. There are many different seeds that are normally considered "nuts" that are widely used for food. For the purpose of this article, the difference need not be stressed. In fact, most food "nuts" do not meet the botanical definition. Almonds are the seed of the almond (prunus dulcis) fruit, closely related to the peach. Grown almost exclusively in the northern hemisphere, the primary producers of the trees are in the nation states of southern Europe. The most productive nation for this popular "nut" is the Republic of Spain. Other producers include the former world leader just now coming onto the world scene, the California Republic. Cashews are the seeds of a cashew (anacardium occidentale) tree that are taken from a large heart-shaped fruit. Still grown near its origin in South America, the tree has been cultivated in Africa and southern Asia. Today, the ANZC controls the world market through its contracts with large producers in India, Malaysia and Vietnam. The SAC, however, has made the seed a priority as markets in North America have opened up. As a food crop, only two of the species, Macadamia integrifolia and Macadamia tetraphylla, are of commercial importance. This fruit is a true nut of these small evergreen trees, grown primarily in ANZC associated states, are lower in protein than any other nut. However, their content of Omega-7 fats make them both tasty and nutritious. Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) or ground nuts are a legume, or "bean" that originated in Peru in ancient times. By modern times it has become perhaps the best known "nut" in the world. India and Indonesia are the primary producers of peanuts in the world today, though there are reports of attempts to export the product from some of the nations that make up the former nation of China. Argentina attempts to supply its neighboring SAC members with enough of the popular nut as do various nations in Africa for their part of the world. In the northern hemisphere, the nations of Texas, Neonotia and Virginia lead in production. The peacan (Carya illinoinensis) is a species of hickory that grows widely in the southern nations of the former United States as well as in Mexico. It is the seed of a fruit that forms a hard husk which dries to release a seed which itself contains a fleshy interior. Though known in Europe from colonial times on, this species has never been cultivated there. For this reason, Mexico became the primary producer of the product until trade opened up with the American nations in recent years. Nowadays, though, the Republic of Texas and the Commonwealth of Kentucky vie for prominence to the opening markets of the world. The pistachio (Pistacia vera), in the Anacardiaceae family, is closely related to the cashew. Originally from Persia (modern Iran), the tree grows in dry climates common in the area. Top producers today remain Iran and Turkey, though the Greek Federation is competitive. English walnuts (Juglans regia) originated in Persia (Iran) and are the most common form of this seed. Like the pecan, it is produced from a thick husk from which it must be extracted. A related species, the Eastern black walnut (Juglans nigra) is native to North America. Today, the primary producers of English walnuts (or hybrid walnuts) are Turkey and India. In North America, Mexico by far produces more than the former leader in the area, the state of California. The California Republic, however, has begun to reclaim some of the walnut groves south of its present borders in hopes of augmenting its crops of fruits and vegetables. Berries are a fruit produced out of one ovary. What is best known about berries is their fleshy inside, such as grapes, which are surrounded by a ovary covering known as an edible pericap. Botanical berries contain seeds in the center, while other fruit called "berries" do not. Such so-called berries come in many varieties and provide some of the best known "berries" in the world. Included among the botanical berries are every thing from the tiny blueberry to the giant watermelon. That which is called a vegetable as a culinary term is edible portions of a plant that does not include the "fruit." As a rule, especially in the latter half of the twentieth century, "vegetables" were the parents' challenge in getting nutrition into children. Children, and as the west became more "modern" even many adults, seemed to dislike almost anything "green" - especially "green leafy" vegetables. This often would include green stems and fruit ("green beans"). However in the days since 1983, vegetables came to make up a major part of most diets. In fact, Doomsday caused major poisoning effects from radiation on animals like cows, pigs, and sheep, forcing many people to temporarily exclude animals from their diets in order to survive. Cabbage is but one of many cultivars of Brassica oleracea, of what historically is called the cruciferous vegetables, bred for different flavors and appearance. They are all varieties of the "wild cabbage" that grows in southern Europe along the Mediterranean Sea. Known since ancient times as a garden vegetable B. oerecea is known in modern times as not only cabbage, but broccoli, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and kale (collard greens). The base for many dishes in Europe and Britain, local cooks can still get the vegetable locally, but not in abundance. Historically, the largest producers were also large consumers of the vegetables, so the loss of imports has not caused much of a loss to tables across the northern hemisphere. However, in the southern hemisphere, among the developed nations of the ANZC and the SAC imports from Indonesia and Vietnam are the main source of this vegetable. In the Chinese survivor nations and in India, the continued production of cabbage and its siblings has often been a matter of life and death to hundreds of millions. The carrot (Daucus carota) is domesticated from its wild ancestors in Iran and Afghanistan, and as with most vegetables is a major crop in both the nations of the former China. As with cabbage, production of carrots seems to have been as much for domestic use as for export, for the top producers were the superpowers largely destroyed on Doomsday: China, Russia, and the United States. As a result, the much of developed world of the southern hemisphere had to rely on crops grown in India, Indonesia, and to a lesser extent Australia. Production in western South America has risen significantly, as exports have gone all over the SAC. Squash plants (Genus: Cucurbita) include four main species cultivated for the fruit: C. maxima (hubbard, buttercup, some pumpkins), C. mixta (cushaw squash), C. moschata (butternut squash), and C. pepo (most pumpkins, acorn squash, summer squash, zucchini). A native of Mexico and Central America, squash has been cultivated in North America since its earliest days. Unlike many vegetables, though, those of genus Curcurbita have not spread widely around the world. Consequently, the export to markets around the world ceased on Doomsday, and American diaspora gets most of its squash from Mexico to this day. In the American successor states, local production meets the need and trade between the nations assures no shortage. The Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is of the same genus as, and thus a "cousin" of, the potato. However, it is the fruit of the plant rather than the stem. A native of South America, the plant spread back to Europe with the Spanish. The top producer of the tomato is, as with most other edible plants, the populous nations of former China. However, the plant is grown widely in the Americas and Europe. As a result, there was no shortage of the vegetable after the destruction in 1983. Local producers adapted across the Northern Hemisphere, and cuisine as varied as Mexican and Italian continued to be enjoyed in North America and Europe. Sparse production in the southern hemisphere, though, brought increased production in Indonesia and Australia, as well as in New Britain. Mexico also increased production to augment the production in Cuba and the SAC. After Doomsday, common practice in some countries was to devote most large scale agriculture to the production of staples, with the cultivation of fruit and vegetables being left to small gardens and allotments. Somewhat surprisingly, places that had adopted such a system rather than having all food production be large scale and communal were later found to have better morale amongst the general population. This was later put down to the way that having something that was 'theirs' which they could take pride in and, most crucially, be in control of, helped take their mind off larger problems that were outside their control and gave many people a reason to keep going. Even today, gardening remains extremely popular, with many people around the world choosing to grow as much fruit and vegetables as possible themselves rather than buy them in shops or trade for them. Like everything else however, there have been changes. The produce being eaten in any given area is generally only things which can be cultivated there, and many things are seasonal. The harsh winters and late frosts in places like northern Europe, for example, tend to make fruit production somewhat problematic, particularly when there are frosts late enough to kill off blossom. However, human ingenuity should never be underestimated and various solutions have been developed, particularly for larger scale fruit production. One of the most successful of these is simply the good old-fashioned walled garden, an ancient innovation popular in the British Isles, but having spread throughout Europe since Doomsday. Since the shelter of walling can raise the ambient temperature within the garden by several degrees, a micro-climate is created that permits plants to be grown that would not survive in the unmodified local climate. Some walled gardens even have one or more heated wall to provide additional heat when needed. Although most walled gardens were constructed pre-Doomsday, with some requiring a fair bit of restoration, many new ones have been constructed in recent years. With changing weather patterns all over the world have made the rivers once more the savior of many a city and even some countries. With the loss of electricity in the early years, water systems became useless, and many large farms literally "dried up." Forests and even cities along rivers began to be utilized as farm land. As time went on, aqueducts designed to work on gravity alone were constructed, allowing for larger farms down hill from many rivers. In many places, greenhouses were used from the earliest days after doomsday. These ranged from sun rooms in individual homes to large commercial structures designed for accelerated and year-long production. Sugar, Honey and other Sweeteners Sugar production in North America and Europe had provided about 30% of the world's granulated sugar - mostly from sugar beets. With doomsday, export of this sugar obviously came to a halt. When production was restored, sugar production became a local enterprise in most places. The farming and processing of sugar cane in the deep southern former U.S. (especially in South Florida) picked up when imports from the Caribbean islands and Brazil abruptly stopped. As the crisis passed in middle America, the production of corn syrup became a minor industry to augment the rebounding honey industry in North America. Radioactive fallout across the northern hemisphere had adversely affected the bee population, as it had most animal life, and only slowly did beekeeping become a viable industry. By the turn of the century, though, as communities began to reach out to the world around them, products such as honey became popular to populations long deprived of such luxury. By the time that sugar producers in Brazil and the Caribbean had begun to trade with North America and Europe, the demand for cane sugar had actually dried up to nothing among many of the survivors. The alternatives had become far more affordable in economies that even in modern times are extremely volatile. The southern hemisphere, however, had become a ready market as the Brazilian economy became one of the most stable in the world. Cane sugar fields also helped provide a boost to the fledgling economies of the various Texan survivor nations and that of Louisiana. Mexican investors drew from their nation's sugar cane market to help start soft drink and candy companies in Texas and Louisiana. Among the most notable of these industries is the Dublin Dr. Pepper Bottling Company, headquartered in Graham, northern Texas; Dublin Dr. Pepper (commonly referred to as Dr. Pepper, after the pre-Doomsday soft drink) is extremely popular not only in the various Texas republics but in survivor nations from Dinetah to Hattiesburg, and also in Mexico itself. - See main article: Alcohol Due to the nature of sweet juices, they will ferment if not consumed soon after being extracted from their source. In the case of the grape (genus: vitis), the balance of natural sugars promotes fermentation without any added sugar. As a result, wine became a beverage of convenience since the earliest of times. Beer, a beverage made from grain mixed with sugar and water, soon followed as mankind sought the pleasure that consumption of alcohol brought. The destruction of Doomsday brought a disruption of production facilities, but not of production, of alcoholic beverages. Exports would plummet, but areas no longer importing would soon improvise to meet what many consider an age old vice. Throughout the northern hemisphere vineyards were laid waste in the aftermath of Doomsday. Even in the fertile foothills of Southeastern Australia, production was disrupted when Sidney and Melbourne burned from the nuclear firestorms of Soviet bombs. In all it is estimated that production of wine fell by 70% for the better part of a decade in all of the northern hemisphere. In Europe, the Alpine Confederation maintained vineyards in what had been the second largest wine producing nation - Northern Italy. In North America, the wineries of the famous Napa Valley (whose wines as recently as 1976 beat out French wines in blind taste tastes in Paris) lay destroyed. Survivors in the rest of wine-producing California struggled with other crops for almost 20 years before venturing back into the wine industry. In 2010 the largest producers of wine are in the United American Republic (Argentina), followed closely by the ANZC which bounced back in the 1990's to become a contender. Chile joins its South American neighbor in providing wine for all of the SAC. International wine exports have begun to come out of the successor states in former France and Spain as those areas begin to expand contact with Asia and Africa. Throughout the American survivor states, local wines have become a valuable commodity in trade as well, though most such wines don't meet the standards set by the industry in the days before Doomsday. With a history rivaling that of wine, beer is the product of fermented grains and yeast. This fact, has led many to speculate that beer predates bread as a food. In producing beer, the grain is first converted from a mostly starch to a sugar called maltose, or "malt." Malt is generally barley, a very hardy grain grown widely throughout the world, that has been sprouted and dried. These dried sprouts are then mashed and added to water, heated, and processed with yeast, literally becoming "liquid bread." Beginning in the earliest civilizations, the brewing of beer spread across Europe to become as common as water as a drink. The addition of hops in the tenth and eleventh centuries AD, gave it the flavor that it is most known by today. As with wine, beer production and, especially, export was adversely affected by the destruction on Doomsday. Though locally produced hops allowed European successor nations to continue to produce beers similar to what they had known before, the production of beers in some areas began to take on a different taste based on substitute ingredients to give it the characteristic bitterness preferred by most beer drinkers. "Malt" liquors, known for their sweetness, became more popular among the general populace where beer had become a less alcoholic alternative to wine to ward off pathogens lurking in drinking water in many survivor communities. In North America, the shortage of hops in the east and south resulted in the decline of favorite beers among the various nations. Meanwhile, across the continent, the citizens of Victoria and the United States enjoyed hops-rich brews as their crops of the hops plant were restored to pre-Doomsday levels. Because of this commodity, in fact, trade has recently been restored among many of the nations to return to the traditional beers that once dominated the shelves in stores everywhere. In the Southern Hemisphere, the presence of cultivated hops in the ANZC member state of New Zealand assured that English-speaking populations from Alaska to New Britain could enjoy a cold beer along with friends - be they in a restaurant or at home. In the SAC, where the culture was more geared to wine, beer remained on the periphery of society. Whiskey and "Hard Drinks" Whiskey (or whisky) is a distilled alcoholic beverage that characteristically is aged in an oak cask or keg. The introduction to storage and aging produced a beverage that had a smoother taste than earlier distilled beverages that had taken on the name "whiskey." The term, drawn from the Latin aqua vitae (literally "water of life"), demonstrates an ancient history, though not as old as either wine or beer. The process of distillation heats the fermented mixture to separate the pure alcohol and water, and then returning the alcohol to the mixture. This process produces an alcohol content far greater than the natural fermentation would give a beer made from the same ingredients. Historically, Scotland had been a top producer of whiskey, and for part of its history was forbidden by its masters in London from openly producing its prized beverage. Undeterred by the official sanction, the Scots continued to produce and store whiskey out of sight. Production, out of doors and at night to disguise the rising smoke and steam in darkness, gave rise to the name "moonshine" for the product. When finally allowed to produce openly again, the Scots once again produced a quality product which is widely known as Scotch. In North America, especially in the eastern states in the mountains, this clandestine production of illegal whiskey, notably from corn, took the same name. In the days after Doomsday, brought an increase of this potent beverage, and an eventual acceptance of corn whiskey as a standard in Kentucky and Blue Ridge. Famous whiskeys of the area, having lost distilleries to the chaos, eventually contracted with private distillers to make versions of their barley and wheat whiskeys. While whiskey is from grain, other distilled "spirits" are produced in similar fashion. The most notable of these is Vodka, historically linked with Russia and now the "national drink" of Siberia. The base for this beverage is the potato, and the concentrate of alcohol in this colorless liquid has resulted in its being substituted for grain alcohol as a solvent in production of flavorings and extracts. The luxury of coffee in North America and tea in Europe became even more so after Doomsday. From colonial times on, tea from China and Southeast Asia had been a major import. Coffee from South and Central America had the same place in the society of North America. The luxury food "chocolate" from South America had become a popular substitute in the sweetened drink known as cocoa in much of the northern hemisphere as well. Coffee beans and tea bags, however, became the first "currency" among the leaders and more wealthy survivors in the American survivor nations. The same was true in most of Europe for loose tea (processed tea leaves). Though grown in small amounts in Europe and North America, tea (Camellia sinensis) was mostly a valued import in most of the northern hemisphere (especially in "the West"). A product of China and Southern Asia, the plant was processed all over the world. Tea had become the most consumed drink besides water in the world. With the significant exceptions of the Sultanate of Turkey and Georgia, Europe had no easy access to its most demanded drink. In North America, the case was even worse, for no imports were to come from Asia for well over two decades to most of these nations. In the American states, the common man began to cope, finding substitute plants whose leaves produced aromatic and in most cases tasty drinks when soaked in hot water. Leaves, though, were not the only parts of plants used, for a drink made from the sassafras root and bark. Because of a 1976 ban on essential oils used to make "root beer" - extracts from the bark of the sassafras tree (Sassafras albidum) - some people have used only the leaves, for a less satisfying drink. The use of the whole root and/or bark has been shown to be absolutely safe. Just about any leaf, berry, or bark has been used in making alternatives to tea. In the American nations "teas" are usually sweetened with honey or corn sugar (see below). By the time imports from Turkey, Georgia and the far east began to come into the ports of North America in the late 2000's, only the rich (the very few) even cared for traditional tea. It is thought, though, that older Americans will begin to acquire a taste for it once again. From its discovery in Ethiopia in the 15th century, coffee (Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora) spread to be cultivated in the tropics around the globe. From Southeast Asia to Central America, coffee trees grow in wet and perpetually warm environments. Second only to tea as a flavored beverage, coffee was more popular in North America than in Britain and Northern Europe. The loss of the import was therefore more keenly felt in the American states. But as with tea, adjustments were made. However, due to the psychological dependence many had for caffeine, coffee became highly valued and rationed in the decades before regular trade began to the scattered American states. Most coffee in 1983 was in sealed cans or cooked beans waiting to be ground. Much of the coffee in stores awaiting grinding was lost in the chaos, as was that in warehouses. Canned prepared coffee, and jarred "instant coffee" became even more precious as the loss of the beans. As early as 1990, though, boats began running coffee to the Floridas from Puerto Rica and the United States Atlantic Remnant. The most prized coffee was from America-friendly Jamaica, though Cuba had begun trading with Puerto Rica by 2000. The finer coffees from Colombia on the other hand are just beginning to reach North America in early 2011. African and Asian coffees are traded throughout the ANZC, and have reached both Hawaii and Alaska, but it is not known if the USA or other western American nations have received any. Trade with Mexico, though, has brought the prized Costa Rican coffee to Texas and the NAU. Cocoa, Theobroma cacao, is the rarest of the hot beverages and disappeared almost completely from the stores and homes of North America and Europe. The cocoa tree, originally cultivated by the Olmec, an early civilization in Central America three millennia before the arrival of Europeans, only grows in a thin band of 20 degrees north or south of the equator. Having been introduced by Europeans to plantations along the equator of central Africa, 70% of the cocoa in 1983 came from that area. Consequently, most hot cocoa and much-loved chocolate candy disappeared with the turmoil there. Minor production in Mexico, however, provided cocoa and chocolate to the Texas nations and the USA as early as 1990. Negotiations with growers in the Dominican Republic by Puerto Rica, though politically uneasy, was able to begin providing the precious import to east coast nations in 1998. The ANZC, with nearby Indonesian plantations providing moderate crops, has been able to keep its member states in pricey, but available cocoa products. In addition, the ANZC has been working through the League of Nations to provide the Alpine Confederation with cocoa to revive the world-renowned "Swiss Chocolate" industry. Meanwhile, the SAC has managed to increase production of its cocoa to replace some of that lost with the instability in Africa. Cocoa, in fact, has begun to rival coffee as the drink of the multitudes in the growing nations of South America. Soft drinks are also known as "soda pop" or, more accurately "carbonated beverage," is a non-alcoholic alternative to "hard" drinks (see above). The addition of carbonated water to flavorings and sweetener produce a drink with a "kick" that stimulates the mouth and throat while not affecting the persons other senses like alcohol does. Created as a way to administer a drugged syrup (Coca Cola), the strongest ingredient in modern soft drinks is caffeine. Coca Cola gave rise to competing carbonated cola drinks and eventually other flavored drinks as well. However, the production of such drinks became extravagance in post-war America and Europe, leading to the disappearance of professionally prepared carbonated beverages in much of the Northern Hemisphere. Some large scale production continued in the southern hemisphere as multinational production centers continued producing the products. However, when the ingredient distribution chains broke down, smaller companies such as Bundaberg Brewed Drinks in Australia became larger competition. In the northern hemisphere, however, soft drinks have been replaced by assorted home-made beverages, most of which are fruit-based. In some places however it is possible to find a few street vendors, particularly during the summer months. The drinks sold by such vendors are almost always locally produced, often by the vendors themselves, and tend to be traditionally associated with that area, prime examples being kvass, a low alcohol fermented beverage made from black or regular rye bread and often flavored with fruit or herbs such as strawberries or mint which is sold in many of the USSR's successor states, and dandelion and burdock which is found throughout the British Isles but particularly in Lancaster due to Blackpool's tourist industry. The original Coca Cola formula was apparently recovered from the ruins of Atlanta in the former US state of Georgia by an expedition from Cuba in 2007. Local residents in Darien, Neonotia, report that Cuban explorers had come through the area that year. In 2008, Cuban marketers introduced a new product known as Kola Grande to local consumers, and all but replaced local competitors. As marketing expanded beyond the borders of the nation, taste tests and finally chemical analysis demonstrated that the new drink was definitely based on the formula thought lost forever. The multi-national company had closed its last distribution center in Australia in 1986 due to the loss of the formula. It is said that the secretive and exclusive production of the syrup within the old United States had doomed the continued operations of the company oversees. Its chief competitors, however, Pepsi and Royal Crown Cola , had moved in to fill the void in the developed nations of the ANZC and SAC. By 2009, Cuban had worked with the USSR to promote the re-introduction of the product as the preferred drink of committed communists everywhere. Most observers outside of the Socialist bloc, though, doubt if Siberian vodka has lost that spot. The first soft drink to take off in post-Doomsday America was Dr. Pepper, based on the formula of the Dublin Dr. Pepper soft drink. The formula was discovered amongst the ruins of the Dublin Dr. Pepper Bottling Company in the abandoned town of Dublin by explorers from Graham in 1991. The formula helped jump-start a new Dr. Pepper Bottling Company formed in Graham (with financing from Mexican and West Texan entrepreneurs), and Dr. Pepper quickly became a popular drink throughout the Texas survivor nations. It has since spread into Mexico and into survivor nations from Dinetah to Hattiesburg. In the South American Confederation, economic trade has resulted in the soft drink industry being dominated by giants such as Inca Kola in Peru, which has installments worldwide and is a favorite both in South America and is quickly spreading into the Mediterranean. Other major South American soft drink companies include Guaraná Antarctica of Brazil and Colombiana La Nuestra of Colombia.
Nonviolence has two (closely related) meanings. (1) It can refer, first, to a general philosophy of abstention from violence because of moral or religious principle (e.g. "She believes in nonviolence.") (2) It can refer to the behaviour of people using nonviolent action (e.g. "The demonstrators maintained their nonviolence.") Much of the general philosophy of nonviolence has 'active' or 'activist' elements, in that they accept the need for a means of struggle to achieve political and social change. Thus, for example, the Gandhian ahimsa is a philosophy and strategy for social change that rejects the use of violence, but at the same time sees nonviolent action (also called civil resistance) as an alternative to passive acceptance of oppression or armed struggle against it. In general, advocates of an activist philosophy of nonviolence use diverse methods in their campaigns for social change, including critical forms of education and persuasion, mass noncooperation civil disobedience and nonviolent direct action and social, political, cultural and economic forms of intervention. In modern times, nonviolent methods of action have been a powerful tool for social protest and revolutionary social and political change. There are many examples of their use. Fuller surveys may be found in the entries on civil resistance, nonviolent resistance and nonviolent revolution. Here certain movements particularly influenced by a philosophy of nonviolence should be mentioned, including Mahatma Gandhi leading a decades-long nonviolent struggle against British rule in India, which eventually helped India win its independence in 1947, Martin Luther King's adoption of Gandhi's nonviolent methods in the struggle to win civil rights for African Americans, and César Chávez's campaigns of nonviolence in the 1960s to protest the treatment of farm workers in California. The 1989 "Velvet Revolution" in Czechoslovakia that saw the overthrow of the Communist government is considered one of the most important of the largely nonviolent Revolutions of 1989. Most recently the nonviolent campaigns of Leymah Gbowee and the women of Liberia were able to achieve peace after a 14-year civil war. This story is captured in a 2008 documentary film Pray the Devil Back to Hell. In an essay, "To Abolish War," evolutionary biologist Judith Hand advocated for the use of nonviolent direct action to dismantle the global war machine. The term "nonviolence" is often linked with or even used as a synonym for pacifism; however, the two concepts are fundamentally different. Pacifism denotes the rejection of the use of violence as a personal decision on moral or spiritual grounds, but does not inherently imply any inclination toward change on a sociopolitical level. Nonviolence, on the other hand, is most often associated with the intent to achieve social or political change. Indeed, the desire to pursue change effectively may be a reason for the rejection of violence. Also, a person may advocate nonviolence in a specific context while advocating violence in other contexts. October 2, the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi is observed as International Day of Non-Violence. Advocates of non-violence believe cooperation and consent are the roots of political power: all regimes, including bureaucratic institutions, financial institutions, and the armed segments of society (such as the military and police); depend on compliance from citizens. On a national level, the strategy of nonviolence seeks to undermine the power of rulers by encouraging people to withdraw their consent and cooperation. The forms of nonviolence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs and political analysis. Religious or ethically based nonviolence is sometimes referred to as principled, philosophical, or ethical nonviolence, while nonviolence based on political analysis is often referred to as tactical, strategic, or pragmatic nonviolence. Commonly, both of these dimensions may be present within the thinking of particular movements or individuals. Love of the enemy, or the realization of the humanity of all people, is a fundamental concept of philosophical nonviolence. The goal of this type of nonviolence is not to defeat the enemy, but to win them over and create love and understanding between all. According to Mark Kurlansky, "all religions discuss the power of nonviolence and the evil of violence." Such principles or tenets can be found in each of the major Indian religious traditions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism) as well as in the major Abrahamic religious traditions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam). The Chandogya Upanishad, which is part of the Upanishads, one of the principal scriptures of Hinduism that dates to the 8th or 7th century BCE, bars violence against "all creatures" (sarva-bhuta) and establishes nonviolence as a code of conduct for Hindus. Examples of nonviolence found in religion and spirituality include the Sermon on the Mount in which Jesus urges his followers to "love thine enemy," in the Taoist concept of wu-wei, or effortless action, in the philosophy of the martial art Aikido, in the Buddhist principle of metta, or loving-kindness towards all beings; and in the principle of ahimsa, or nonviolence toward any being, shared by Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Additionally, focus on both nonviolence and forgiveness of sin can be found in the story of Abel in the Qur'an; liberal movements within Islam have consequently used this story to promote Jewish ideals of nonviolence. Nonviolence is also part of modern pagan traditions. American author Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) had a major impact on the philosophy of nonviolence. Leo Tolstoy, Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. were influenced by Thoreau. The fundamental concept of pragmatic (or tactical or strategic) nonviolence is to create a social dynamic or political movement that can effect social change without necessarily winning over those who wish to maintain the status quo. In modern industrial democracies, nonviolence has been used extensively by political sectors without mainstream political power such as labor, peace, environment and women's movements. Lesser known is the role that nonviolence has played and continues to play in undermining the power of repressive political regimes in the developing world and the former eastern bloc. Susan Ives emphasizes this point by quoting Walter Wink: "In 1989, thirteen nations comprising 1,695,000,000 people experienced nonviolent revolutions that succeeded beyond anyone's wildest expectations ... If we add all the countries touched by major nonviolent actions in our century (Korea, the Philippines, South Africa ... the independence movement in India ...), the figure reaches 3,337,400,000, a staggering 65% of humanity! All this in the teeth of the assertion, endlessly repeated,that nonviolence doesn't work in the 'real' world." — Walter Wink, Christian theologian As a technique for social struggle, nonviolence has been described as "the politics of ordinary people", reflecting its historically mass-based use by populations throughout the world and history. Perhaps the first instance of a nonviolent campaign with major political impact was the March 1 Movement in Korea, which was a catalyst for the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai in April 1919 and influenced nonviolent resistance in India and many other countries. Struggles most often associated with nonviolence are the non-cooperation campaign for Indian independence led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the movement to attain civil rights for African Americans, led by Rev. Dr Martin Luther King and James Bevel, and the People Power Revolution in the Philippines. Also of primary significance is the notion that just means are the most likely to lead to just ends. When Gandhi said that "the means may be likened to the seed, the end to a tree," he expressed the philosophical kernel of what some refer to as prefigurative politics. Martin Luther King, a student of Gandhian nonviolent resistance, concurred with this tenet, concluding that "nonviolence demands that the means we use must be as pure as the ends we seek." Proponents of nonviolence reason that the actions taken in the present inevitably re-shape the social order in like form. They would argue, for instance, that it is fundamentally irrational to use violence to achieve a peaceful society. People have come to use nonviolent methods of struggle from a wide range of perspectives and traditions. A landless peasant in Brazil may nonviolently occupy a parcel of land for purely practical motivations. If they do not, the family will starve. A Buddhist monk in Thailand may "ordain" trees in a threatened forest, drawing on the teachings of Buddha to resist its destruction. A waterside worker in England may go on strike in socialist and union political traditions. All the above are using nonviolent methods but from different standpoints. Likewise, secular political movements have utilized nonviolence, either as a tactical tool or as a strategic program on purely pragmatic and strategic levels, relying on its political effectiveness rather than a claim to any religious, moral or ethical worthiness. Respect or love for opponents also has a pragmatic justification, in that the technique of separating the deeds from the doers allows for the possibility of the doers changing their behavior, and perhaps their beliefs. Martin Luther King said, "Nonviolence means avoiding not only external physical violence, but also internal violence of spirit. You not only refuse to shoot a man, but you refuse to hate him." Finally, the notion of Satya, or truth, is central to the Gandhian conception of nonviolence. Gandhi saw truth as something that is multifaceted and unable to be grasped in its entirety by any one individual. All carry pieces of the truth, he believed, but all need the pieces of others’ truths in order to pursue the greater truth. This led him to believe in the inherent worth of dialogue with opponents, in order to understand motivations. On a practical level, the willingness to listen to another's point of view is largely dependent on reciprocity. In order to be heard by one's opponents, one must also be prepared to listen. Nonviolence has obtained a level of institutional recognition and endorsement at the global level. On November 10, 1998, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the 21st century and the third millennium, the years 2001 to 2010, as the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World. For many, practicing nonviolence goes deeper than withholding from violent behavior or words. It means caring in one's heart for everyone, even those with whom one strongly disagrees. For some, this principle entails a commitment to restorative or transformative justice and prison abolition. By extrapolation comes the necessity of caring for those who are not practicing nonviolence, who are violent. Of course no one can simply will themselves to have such care, and this is one of the great personal challenges posed by nonviolence - once one believes in nonviolence in theory, how can the person live it? It requires an opening of the heart and mind to all of existence, and a deep love for all that is. Because we are all interconnected, to love oneself is to love everyone; to hate another is to hate oneself. Because violence is learned, it is necessary to unlearn violence by practising love and compassion at every possible opportunity.[original research?] Nonviolence, for many, involves a respect and reverence for all sentient and non-sentient beings. This might include abolitionism, the practice of not eating animal flesh (vegetarianism or veganism), spiritual practices of non-harm to all beings and caring for the rights of all beings. Mohandas Gandhi, James Bevel, and other nonviolent proponents advocated vegetarianism as part of their nonviolent philosophy. Buddhists extend this respect for life to animals, plants, and even minerals. Nonviolent action generally comprises three categories: Acts of Protest and Persuasion, Noncooperation, and Nonviolent Intervention. Acts of protest Nonviolent acts of protest and persuasion are symbolic actions performed by a group of people to show their support or disapproval of something. The goal of this kind of action is to bring public awareness to an issue, persuade or influence a particular group of people, or to facilitate future nonviolent action. The message can be directed toward the public, opponents, or people affected by the issue. Methods of protest and persuasion include speeches, public communications, petitions, symbolic acts, art, processions (marches), and other public assemblies. Noncooperation involves the purposeful withholding of cooperation or the unwillingness to initiate in cooperation with an opponent. The goal of noncooperation is to halt or hinder an industry, political system, or economic process. Methods of noncooperation include labor strikes, economic boycotts, civil disobedience, sex strike, tax refusal, and general disobedience. Compared with protest and noncooperation, nonviolent intervention is a more direct method of nonviolent action. Nonviolent intervention can be used defensively—for example to maintain an institution or independent initiative—or offensively- for example, to drastically forward a nonviolent struggle into the opponent's territory. Intervention is often more immediate and effective than the other two methods, but is also harder to maintain and more taxing to the participants involved. Gene Sharp, a political scientist and nonviolence activist, has written extensively about methods of nonviolence. In his book Waging Nonviolent Struggle he describes 198 methods of nonviolent action. In early Greece, Aristophanes' Lysistrata gives the fictional example of women withholding sexual favors from their husbands until war was abandoned. Other methods of intervention include occupations (sit-ins), blockades, fasting (hunger strikes), truck cavalcades, and dual sovereignty/parallel government. Tactics must be carefully chosen, taking into account political and cultural circumstances, and form part of a larger plan or strategy. Successful nonviolent cross-border intervention projects include the Guatemala Accompaniment Project, Peace Brigades International and Christian Peacemaker Teams. Developed in the early1980's ,and originally inspired by the Gandhian Shanti Sena, the primary tools of these organizations have been nonviolent protective accompaniment, backed up by a global support network which can respond to threats, local and regional grassroots diplomatic and peacebuilding efforts, human rights observation and witnessing, and reporting. Another powerful tactic of nonviolent intervention invokes public scrutiny of the oppressors as a result of the resisters remaining nonviolent in the face of violent repression. If the military or police attempt to repress nonviolent resisters violently, the power to act shifts from the hands of the oppressors to those of the resisters. If the resisters are persistent, the military or police will be forced to accept the fact that they no longer have any power over the resisters. Often, the willingness of the resisters to suffer has a profound effect on the mind and emotions of the oppressor, leaving them unable to commit such a violent act again. Certain individuals (Barbara Deming, Danilo Dolci, Devere Allen etc.) and party groups (e.g. Committees of Correspondence for Democracy and Socialism, Pacifist Socialist Party or War Resisters League) have advocated nonviolent revolution as an alternative to violence as well as elitist reformism. This perspective is usually connected to militant anti-capitalism. Many leftist and socialist movements have hoped to mount a "peaceful revolution" by organizing enough strikers to completely paralyze the state and corporate apparatus, allowing workers to re-organize society along radically different lines. Some have argued that a relatively nonviolent revolution would require fraternisation with military forces. Leon Trotsky, Frantz Fanon, Reinhold Niebuhr, Subhash Chandra Bose, George Orwell, Ward Churchill and Malcolm X were fervent critics of nonviolence, arguing variously that nonviolence and pacifism are an attempt to impose the morals of the bourgeoisie upon the proletariat, that violence is a necessary accompaniment to revolutionary change, or that the right to self-defense is fundamental. "The concept of nonviolence is a false ideal. It presupposes the existence of compassion and a sense of justice on the part of one's adversary. When this adversary has everything to lose and nothing to gain by exercising justice and compassion, his reaction can only be negative." Malcolm X also clashed with civil rights leaders over the issue of nonviolence, arguing that violence should not be ruled out where no option remained: - "I believe it's a crime for anyone being brutalized to continue to accept that brutality without doing something to defend himself." Lance Hill criticizes nonviolence as a failed strategy and argues that black armed self-defense and civil violence motivated civil rights reforms more than peaceful appeals to morality and reason (see Lance Hill's "Deacons for Defense"). In his book How Nonviolence Protects the State, anarchist Peter Gelderloos criticizes nonviolence as being ineffective, racist, statist, patriarchal, tactically and strategical inferior to militant activism, and deluded. Gelderloos claims that traditional histories whitewash the impact of nonviolence, ignoring the involvement of militants in such movements as the Indian independence movement and the Civil Rights movement and falsely showing Gandhi and King as being their respective movement's most successful activist. He further argues that nonviolence is generally advocated by privileged white people who expect "oppressed people, many of whom are people of color, to suffer patiently under an inconceivably greater violence, until such time as the Great White Father is swayed by the movement's demands or the pacifists achieve that legendary 'critical mass.'" The efficacy of nonviolence was also challenged by some anti-capitalist protesters advocating a "diversity of tactics" during street demonstrations across Europe and the US following the anti-World Trade Organization protests in Seattle, Washington in 1999. American feminist writer D. A. Clarke, in her essay "A Woman With A Sword," suggests that for nonviolence to be effective, it must be "practiced by those who could easily resort to force if they chose." This argument reasons that nonviolent tactics will be of little or no use to groups that are traditionally considered incapable of violence, since nonviolence will be in keeping with people's expectations for them and thus go unnoticed. Such is the principle of dunamis (from the Greek: δύνάμις or, restrained power). - Nonviolence organizations - Christian anarchism - Christian pacifism - Civil disobedience - Civil resistance - Conflict Resolution - Consistent life ethic - Department of Peace - Direct action - Non-aggression principle - Nonviolent Communication - Nonviolent resistance - Nonviolent revolution - Social defence - Transformative justice - Turning the other cheek - War resister - ^ A clarification of this and related terms will appear in Gene Sharp, Sharp's Dictionary of Power and Struggle: Language of Civil Resistance in Conflicts, Oxford University Press, New York, forthcoming (2012?). - ^ Ronald Brian Adler, Neil Towne, Looking Out/Looking In: Interpersonal Communication, 9th ed. Harcourt Brace College Publishers, p. 416, 1999. "In the twentieth century, nonviolence proved to be a powerful tool for political change." - ^ Lester R. Kurtz, Jennifer E. Turpin, Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict, p.557, 1999. "In the West, nonviolence is well recognized for its tactical, strategic, or political aspects. It is seen as a powerful tool for redressing social inequality." - ^ Mark Kurlansky, Nonviolence: The History of a Dangerous Idea, Foreword by Dalai Lama, p. 5-6, Modern Library (April 8, 2008), ISBN 0812974476 "Advocates of nonviolence — dangerous people — have been there throughout history, questioning the greatness of Caesar and Napoleon and the Founding Fathers and Roosevelt and Churchill." - ^ Stanley M. Burstein and Richard Shek: "World History Ancient Civilizations ", page 154. Holt, Rinhart and Winston, 2005. As Chavez once explained, "Nonviolence is not inaction. It is not for the timid or the weak. It is hard work, it is the patience to win." - ^ RP's History Online - Velvet Revolution - ^ a b Ives, Susan (19 October 2001). "No Fear". Palo Alto College. http://salsa.net/peace/article38.html. Retrieved 2009-05-17 - ^ Chris Graham, Peacebuilding alum talks practical app of nonviolence, Augusta Free Press, October 26, 2009. - ^ Hand, Judith L. (2010) "To Abolish War." Journal of Aggression, Conflict, and Peace Research 2(4): 44-56. - ^ Adam Roberts, Introduction, in Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present, Oxford University Press, 2009 pp. 3 and 13-20. - ^ Sharp, Gene (1973). The Politics of Nonviolent Action. Porter Sargen. p. 12. ISBN 9780875580685. - ^ Two Kinds of Nonviolent Resistance ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans - ^ a b Nonviolent Resistance & Political Power ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans (U.S.) - ^ Tähtinen p. 2-5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631. - ^ Mark Kurlansky, Nonviolence: The History of a Dangerous Idea, p. 7-13, p. 33. - ^ Kristen Madden, Raven Grimassi, Starhawk, Exploring the Pagan Path: Wisdom from the Elders, p. 259, Career Press, 2005 ISBN 1-56414-788-6 - ^ http://www.koreafocus.or.kr/design2/layout/content_print.asp?group_id=102423 - ^ United Nations International Day of Non-Violence, United Nations, 2008. see International Day of Non-Violence. - ^ a b c Sharp, Gene (2005). Waging Nonviolent Struggle. Extending Horizon Books. pp. 50–65. ISBN 0875581625. - ^ Sharp, Gene (1973). The Methods of Nonviolent Action. Peace magazine. http://peacemagazine.org/198.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-07 - ^ Network in Solidarity with the People of Guatemala - ^ "PBI's principles". Peace Brigades International. PBI General Assembly. 1992, 2001. http://www.peacebrigades.org/about-pbi/how-we-work/. Retrieved 2009-05-17. - ^ "Christian Peace Maker Teams Mission Statement". Christian Peacemaker Team. CPT founding conference. 1986. http://www.cpt.org/about/mission. Retrieved 2009-05-17. - ^ Sharp, Gene (1973). The Politics of Nonviolent Action. P. Sargent Publisher. p. 657. ISBN 9780875580685. - ^ Sharp, Gene (2005). Waging Nonviolent Struggle. Extending Horizon Books. p. 381. ISBN 0875581625. - ^ Dan Jakopovich: Revolution and the Party in Gramsci's Thought: A Modern Application. - ^ Churchill, Ward et al. Pacifism as Pathology. Arbeiter Ring, 1998. - ^ Jackson, George. Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson. Lawrence Hill Books, 1994. ISBN 1-55652-230-4 - ^ Walters, Wendy W. At Home in Diaspora. U of Minnesota Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8166-4491-8 - ^ X, Malcolm and Alex Haley:"The Autobiography of Malcolm X", page 366. Grove Press, 1964 - ^ The Deacons for Defense:Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement By Lance Hill, The University of North Carolina Press - ^ Gelderloos, Peter. How Nonviolence Protects the State. Boston: South End Press, 2007. - ^ Ibid., p.7-12. - ^ Ibid., p.23. - ISBN 9780850663365 Making Europe Unconquerable: the Potential of Civilian-Based Deterrence and Defence (see article), by Gene Sharp - ISBN 0-87558-162-5 Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice And 21st Century Potential by Gene Sharp with collaboration of Joshua Paulson and the assistance of Christopher A. Miller and Hardy Merriman - ISBN 0-8166-4193-5 Unarmed Insurrections: People Power Movements in Non-Democracies by Kurt Schock - OCLC 03859761 The Kingdom of God Is Within You by Leo Tolstoy - ISBN 1-930722-35-4 Is There No Other Way? The Search for a Nonviolent Future by Michael Nagler - ISBN 1-57766-349-7 Nonviolence in Theory and Practice, 2nd edition, edited by Robert L. Holmes and Barry L. Gan - ISBN 0-85283-262-1 People Power and Protest since 1945: A Bibliography of Nonviolent Action, compiled by [April Carter], Howard Clark, and [Michael Randle], online at with updates. - ISBN 978-0-903517-21-8 Handbook for Nonviolent Campaigns, War Resisters' International - ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6 Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present, ed. Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash, Oxford University Press, 2009. (hardback) . - Nonviolent activism at the Open Directory Project - Nonviolence in philosophy at the Open Directory Project - Nonviolence International - international organization focused on promoting nonviolence worldwide - Waging Nonviolence - Popular news blog on nonviolent movements occurring around the world. - Nonviolence Blog - Popular blog discussing philosophy and applications of nonviolence. - Living Nonviolence - Blog discussing nonviolent movements and events. Anti-war topics Opposition to wars or aspects of war Agents of opposition Related ideologies Media Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
Problems of the ear, nose and throat are usually considered to be predominantly winter illnesses but this is not necessarily the case. Although more common through the months of October to February, infections of the ENT system can occur at any time and a GP probably sees more patients with these types of ailments than any other comparable illnesses over the course of a year. Also, children are particularly prone to ENT problems and this last winter, owing to the extended mild weather, has been an unusually fertile period for these types of viruses. Ears, noses and throats are incredibly complex and are designed to moisten air being inhaled and also to remove irritant particles such as dust and pollen. The ear is divided into three parts. The outer ear, pinna, is the portion of the ear that can be seen. At the innermost part of the pinna is the tympanic membrane, eardrum, and behind that, the middle ear. The inner ear contains the balance mechanism, the cochlea, and connects directly via the auditory nerve to the brain. If the middle ear becomes inflamed due to an infection, then the resulting illness is called acute otitis media (AOM). Symptoms come on suddenly and AOM is diagnosed by the combination of earache, usually accompanied by a high temperature and general malaise plus signs of fluid in the middle ear. The usual indication of AOM seen by a doctor when looking into the external ear is that the eardrum, normally grey, dull and opaque like a piece of greaseproof paper, is red, shiny and bulging, because of increased pressure. If the fluid stays in the middle ear, it may thicken and lead to the condition known as “glue ear”. AOM is common and in the UK, about 30 per cent of children under three visit their GP with this each year. Until recently, the vast majority were prescribed antibiotics. However, without antibiotics, AOM symptoms improve in 24 hours in about 60 per cent of children and in 80 per cent within three days. If antibiotics are not given, about one in a thousand children will perforate their eardrum, a condition known as supperative otitis media. The evidence for the effectiveness of antibiotics in this condition is very limited despite their hitherto widespread use. The most effective conventional treatment has shown to be painkillers such as ibuprofen or paracetamol which relieve the discomfort of the earache. Nowadays, GPs tend towards giving “delayed prescriptions” of antibiotics. This means the parent is given a suitable prescription with instructions about how long to wait for the condition to settle spontaneously and what signs and symptoms would indicate a worsening of the problem and necessitate giving the medication. This simple measure is reducing the number of unnecessary antibiotics given to children and so decreasing the numbers of GP consultations for medication side-effects, such as diarrhoea and skin rashes. In respect of AOM, there are familiar homeopathic remedies that can be used to treat it. Earache that comes on very suddenly, particularly after exposure to a dry, cold wind which is worse at night and with a high temperature but without sweating does well with Aconite. Ear pain with a less sudden onset but with hot, dry skin, as with the case with Aconite, but without restlessness and fear may need Belladonna. Both of these remedies can be given in 30c strength every 30 minutes for three to four doses. However, if the child does not respond after two hours, a change of remedy should be made. A word of caution; it is important that if the child becomes very hot or very drowsy, a medical opinion must be sought urgently. If the child suffering with AOM is miserable and whining, with ears which are hot to the touch, and they respond to cuddling and affection, then Pulsatilla may help. A cross, irritable child would probably respond better to Chamomilla. As previously mentioned, perforation of the eardrum can occur and if this happens, the discharge is usually thick, sticky yellow-green, not offensive to smell and is often described as bland. Pulsatilla 6c given three times a day until improvement is a good first choice whilst if the discharge is more watery and yellow in colour, it is worth trying Hepar sulph 6c at the same dose. The passages of the nose are not simple tubes but consist of a complex arrangement of ridged “turbinates”. These have evolved to act as a very effective mechanism for cleaning the air we breathe in but are not without their problems. The nose links into large air spaces in the skull located above and below the eyes and behind the base of the nose. Normally these sinuses, as the spaces are known as, are filled with air and lined with a thin layer of skin (mucosa). The latter produces a thin mucus, or slime, which keeps the inside of the sinuses moist and healthy. If the sinuses become inflamed as a result of infection or irritation, the mucosa swells and produces more mucus which can become very thick and sticky. This viscous mucus tends to drain poorly from the sinuses which then become full; this causes an increase in pressure and results in facial pain. The pain of sinusitis is typically worse on leaning forward, as the fluid in the sinuses acts like a spirit level, and tapping over the inflamed sinuses with a finger increases the pain also. The discharge from the nose via the sinuses may be green if there is only inflammation, but in the case of infection, usually with bacteria, blood or pus-stained nasal discharge may result. Sinusitis can be very difficult to treat conventionally. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs), the “gold standard” of medical research, have failed to show significant benefit or effectiveness in prescribing penicillin-based antibiotics to sufferers of acute sinusitis (symptoms lasting less than four weeks). Neither are there any RCTs which show antihistamines, decongestants or steroid nose sprays to be particularly effective but these are still prescribed regularly by doctors wishing to help their patients. Nearly six million working days are lost in the UK every year due to sinusitis which gives an idea how extensive this problem is. Simple measures like steam inhalations can help the symptoms of acute sinusitis but it is important to note that if used alongside homeopathy, strong odours such as camphor or eucalyptus can antidote homeopathic remedies. As stated, acute sinusitis is defined as having symptoms for less than four weeks but chronic sinusitis sufferers will have symptoms for more than that, and therefore, a more personalised remedy based on the patient as a whole is usually more effective. A remedy that historically has been used for sinusitis is Kali bich, and although recognised to be one of the most effective treatments, the exact mechanism by which it works is unclear. It is prescribed where there are thick, sticky discharges, especially from mucous membranes, such as those of the nose, throat and lungs, hence its application in acute sinusitis. The nasal discharge is green, yellow or bloodstained and difficult to blow out and there may be sticky crusts in the nose or even ulceration. Hydrastis is a remedy used where the sinus discharge tends to go down the back of the throat rather than down the nose. It is often felt as a lump in the throat and this is technically known as post-nasal drip and together this combination is known as catarrh. Catarrh is a troublesome discharge and, like sinusitis, difficult to treat conventionally. There is anecdotal evidence that avoiding dairy products in one’s diet can reduce the incidence of sinusitis and post-nasal drip but no firm evidence as yet. Throat and tonsils From the nose, we will now consider the throat and the tonsils. The latter consist of lymphoid tissue and play a part in the immune response to infection in babies and children but are usually inactive by adulthood. The decision to remove tonsils surgically to prevent recurrent attacks of tonsillitis has been a fiercely debated issue between ENT surgeons over the years. Currently tonsillectomy is avoided unless a patient is suffering from at least four severe attacks of tonsillitis per year, requiring antibiotics to settle the symptoms each time and resulting in significant time off school or work, which is a far cry from the fifties when tonsillectomy was a relatively common procedure. Another distressing ailment of the throat is quinsy, which is an abscess on or around the tonsil. It is very painful and, if left, can be potentially serious. Anne, an elegant, well-groomed 75 year old whose looks defy her years, came to see me as she had become unwell following an earlier viral infection which she seemed unable to throw off. She developed a persistent cough and felt generally debilitated which resulted in quinsy and, despite prompt action by her GP with antibiotics, had to be admitted to hospital for incision and drainage of the abscess. Seemingly, she made a full recovery and so was distressed to develop a second quinsy two months later. Fortunately this one burst on its own but it left her very apprehensive about it reoccurring again. Anne is an anxious person who tends to worry about her health and she has had a series of serious illnesses over the years that have added to her apprehension. Now, after two attacks of quinsy, she was frightened to go on holiday in case she became ill again. It seems that Anne has always been of a nervous disposition although, paradoxically, she is able to perform on the stage, something she has done since childhood. However, with regard to her throat, she had reached the stage where she felt she had to look at it every day to see if another quinsy was developing and also needed to keep seeing her GP for reassurance. In addition, she was also troubled by asthma and irritable bowel syndrome, both of which were made worse by anxiety and an impending sense of anticipation. Other symptoms which led me to choose a remedy for this woman included her general activity described by her husband as “always running around”, a particular thirst for cold drinks and the fact that she did not sleep well and frequently woke around 4am. Despite being such a worrier, she still enjoyed a busy social life and had many friends. Occasionally, she would become tearful if one of her friends was upset. On the basis of a cancer operation in the past and her general sensitivity and fastidiousness plus her physical throat, lung and bowel symptoms, I prescribed Carcinosin as a single dose of 30c, followed by a twice daily dose of Phosphorus 12c. Phosphorus is a remedy with an affinity for throat and other respiratory problems, especially tonsillitis, chest infections and asthma. Patients who do well with Phosphorus are often described as being slim, pale-skinned and either dark or red-haired but this is very much a generalisation and should not be used as an exclusion factor from treating with this remedy. They have a lively disposition but a tendency to catch colds and coughs, suffer from bowel or liver complaints and to bleed easily. Chilliness is a feature of this remedy and a desire for cold drinks. They actively seek company and reassurance but can be surprisingly confident when asked to perform. Phosphorus is a homeopathic medication which often helps actors and musicians. Fears of thunderstorms and of being in the dark are two of the factors that make this remedy beneficial to patients who suffer from these anxieties. One question that is useful to ask when deciding whether or not to use this remedy in a child, is to enquire if the child needs to go to sleep with a light on. If the answer is a resounding “yes”, from either the child or the parent, then Phosphorus should be considered as an effective medication, particularly if the other symptoms fit the remedy picture. With Anne, I felt that her sympathetic nature combined with her sensitivity, social habits, nervousness and love of the stage, together with her physical symptoms fitted well with the prescription of a low dose of Phosphorus. To her delight, within a few weeks, Anne was feeling much more confident and had even managed to stop looking at her throat on a daily basis and was less aware of her asthma and had an increased sense of wellbeing. She continued with the remedy for several months before tailing it off and has had no recurrence of her quinsy to this day (almost seven years later) but takes the occasional short course of Phosphorus when she feels the anxiety is worsening or her throat feels a little sore, usually through the winter months. One ENT condition that can affect all three organs is hay fever, or seasonal allergic rhinitis to give it its technical term. It can affect a wide range of age groups from primary school-age children to middle-aged adults and appears to be increasing in prevalence, although the reasons for this are still not clear. The most popular theory at present is that the infantile immune system is less challenged by severe infections these days, due to immunisation and better health in general. This means that the body reacts more strongly against what should be a minor trigger, such as pollen, resulting in hay fever symptoms. The condition is diagnosed by a combination of sneezing, itching in the nose and throat, a blocked feeling in the nose and a profuse watery nasal discharge. Other symptoms may include itchy, watery eyes, coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, tiredness and a sensation of pressure in the head. Hay fever can vary greatly, depending on local fauna, as these are the main triggers, but fungal spores in the autumn can also cause an attack. The season is usually said to start in the early spring with the emergence of tree pollens such as that of silver birch and finish with moulds in October. However, it most commonly affects sufferers between the months of May and August. A family history of allergy increases the risk of developing hay fever. The peak age of onset is in adolescence but it is increasingly common to find people developing symptoms in their 20s and 30s. Hay fever can be treated successfully with antihistamines but side-effects, such as sleepiness, may make that particular treatment less than perfect. Although there is a good selection of so-called non-sedating antihistamines, even these can cause drowsiness in susceptible patients. Therefore, because of its lack of side-effects, homeopathy can really come into its own in treating this distressing condition. One of the most successful pieces of homeopathic research examined the treatment of hay fever sufferers with a remedy based on a combination of hay fever triggers called Mixed pollens and grasses 30c. Dr David Reilly of the Glasgow Homeopathic Hospital looked at the effect on hay fever symptoms of giving a daily dose of the above remedy and compared it to giving a placebo. The result of the study showed that homeopathy was significantly better than placebo in relieving the symptoms of hay fever and is a very powerful piece of evidence for the effectiveness of homeopathy in general. Mixed pollens and grasses 30c can be given on a daily basis at the first signs of hay fever and continued throughout the season. Jenifer Worden MBChB MRCGP MFHom is a part-time NHS GP in Ringwood, Hampshire and has a private homeopathic practice in Highcliffe, Dorset. She treats patients with a wide range of conditions and across the complete age range.
Difference Between Adrenaline and Noradrenalin Adrenaline vs Noradrenalin There are number of things that are known by different names but are more or less the same. The most confusing thing is that what the world knows as adrenalin is known as epinephrine by most people in the US. Noradrenalin is known as norepinephrine in the US. What is the difference between the two? Lets us find out: For starters, adrenalin and Noradrenalin are different from each other chemically. Adrenalin is actually produced by the body when the body modifies noradrenalin. This is what makes it chemically different. The two substances are used in different areas of the body. The post ganglionic neurons of the nervous system use the Noradrenalin. It is basically used as a neurotransmitter, that is, it is generated by the neurons in the brain. Adrenaline on the other hand, is mainly produced by the adrenal medulla. Though this structure also produces some Noradrenalin, the main output of the gland is actually adrenaline. Adrenaline and Noradrenalin also differ in their functions. There areÂ number of receptors for adrenaline. For example, the Î±1 receptors are found in the blood vessels and when stimulated, result in a constriction. However, the Î²1 receptors located in the heart result in a rise in the force and the rate of the heart contractions. Noradrenalin on the other hand, has a dominant Î± effect. It always acts as a stimulator on the brain and increases arousal and alertness. Noradrenalin and adrenaline are called catecholamine because they have a catechol group. They are derived from the amino acid called tyrosine. When Noradrenalin acts as a drug, it increases the blood pressure by increasing upon its vascular tone. However, it does not have a direct stimulatory effect on the heart. A major difference between adrenaline and Noradrenalin is that adrenaline or epinephrine contains a methyl group that is attached to the nitrogen. This is replaced by a hydrogen atom where norepinephrine or Noradrenalin is concerned. Both adrenaline and noradrenalin are an important part of the fight or flight syndrome in the body that is activated when a person is either too angry or too excited. It prepares the body for a rush of blood through the system. Unfortunately, both these substances are under the direct control of the central nervous system and is therefore not under voluntary control. 1. Adrenaline and Noradrenalin are chemically different from each other. 2. They are also used by different parts of the body. 3. Adrenaline has a very weak beta effect, but a strong Î± effect. NorAdrenaline on the other hand has a less sensitive Î± effect. 4. Adrenaline has a methyl group attached to the nitrogen. In Noradrenalin, it is replaced by a hydrogen atom. Search DifferenceBetween.net : Email This Post : If you like this article or our site. Please spread the word. Share it with your friends/family.
Scientists unravel mystery of humongous squid eyeballs Living at extreme ocean depths, the colossal squid and its cousin, the giant squid, has unusually large eyes. A group of researchers say they now know what accounts for the animals' huge peepers. The basketball-sized eyeballs of the colossal squid are good for more than just staring down Captain Nemo. A new study suggests that they evolved to keep a lookout for sperm whales. Despite being the largest known invertebrate, the colossal squid, which lives 2,000 feet below the surface of the Antarctic Ocean, has long eluded scientific observation. Until 1981, the only evidence of the giant cephalopod's existence could be found in the stomachs of what is thought to be its chief predator, the sperm whale. Since then, four complete specimens have been captured, the largest being hauled aboard by a New Zealand fishing boat in 2007. This squid, which measured over 30 feet and weighed half a ton, was frozen, thawed and examined by Dan-Eric Nilsson, a marine vision expert at the University of Lund in Sweden. He confirmed that the squid's eyeballs, which measured 11 inches across, were the largest of any known animal. Indeed, they were so big that they presented a puzzle. Other squids had eyes that were much smaller in proportion to the rest of their bodies, and no other animal, regardless of its size, had eyes that were even close to those of the colossal squid, and its slightly smaller cousin, the giant squid. The eyes of swordfish and whales, for instance, tend to top out at about 3.5 inches in diameter. "You can find everything up to the size of an orange, which are in large swordfish," Nilsson told BBC News's Richard Black. "So you find every small size, then there's a huge gap, then there are these two species where the eye is three times as big – even though squid are not the largest animals." Bigger eyes tend to do a better job of detecting light, but in the ocean there are diminishing returns once eyes reach a certain size. Once you get to about the size of an orange, bigger eyes seem to confer no benefit. Plus, as Nilsson points out, large eyes are metabolically expensive to maintain. "Walking flies spend about 20 percent of their electricity bill on their eyes, so to speak, just running the neurons,” he said in an interview with Wired. “We don’t know what the costs are for giant squid, but they could cause some significant drag. They are just these massive things." So why the huge peepers? By measuring the squid's eyes' components and gathering data on the clarity of the waters it inhabited, Nilsson's team concluded that the colossal squid is extremely farsighted; it was lousy at examining objects up close, but could see underwater about the length of a football field, or "freakishly long distances," in the words of a Duke University biologist who collaborated with Nilsson. Just as important, the eyes' large diameter also gives the squids' an ability to detect tiny changes in contrast. These abilities are not, by themselves, enough to spot an incoming sperm whale. But they do help detect glowing plankton and other tiny bioluminescent organisms that sparkle as they are jostled in the whale's wake. The faint pinpoints of light can give the squid just enough advance warning to avoid becoming the whale's lunch. In other words, the squids' extraordinarily large eyeballs are the result of an arms race against another extraordinary long-distance detection mechanism: sonar. Nilsson's teams' findings appear in the March 15 issue of Current Biology.
If your confidence interval is too wide, you cannot be very certain about the true value of a parameter that you have estimated, such as the mean. However, you can use several strategies to reduce the width of a confidence interval and make your estimate more precise. The size of the sample, the variation of the data, the type of interval, and the confidence level all affect the width of the confidence interval. Often, the most practical way to decrease the margin of error is to increase the sample size. Usually, the more observations that you have, the narrower the interval around the sample statistic is. Thus, you can often collect more data to obtain a more precise estimate of a population parameter. You should weigh the benefits of increased precision with the additional time and resources required to collect a larger sample. For example, a confidence interval that is narrow enough to contain only the population parameter requires that you measure every subject in the population. Obviously, such a strategy would usually be highly impractical. The less that your data varies, the more precisely you can estimate a population parameter. That's because reducing the variability of your data decreases the standard deviation and, thus, the margin of error for the estimate. Although it can be difficult to reduce variability in your data, you can sometimes do so by adjusting the designed experiment, such as using a paired design to compare two groups. You may also be able to reduce variability by improving the process that the sample is collected from, or by improving your measurement system so that it measures items more precisely. A one-sided confidence interval has a smaller margin of error than a two-sided confidence interval. However, a one-sided interval indicates only whether a parameter is either less than or greater than a cut-off value and does not provide any information about the parameter in the opposite direction. Thus, use a one-sided confidence interval to increase the precision of an estimate if you are only worried about the estimate being either greater or less than a cut-off value, but not both. For example, a beverage company wants to determine that the amount of dissolved solids in their drinking water. The fewer dissolved solids they have, the better. When they calculate a two-sided confidence interval, the upper side of the interval is 18.4.t. However, because the company only cares about the upper bound, they can calculate a one-sided confidence interval instead. The one-sided confidence interval shows that the upper bound for the amount of dissolved solids is even lower, 17.8 mg/L. The advantage of a lower confidence level is that you get a narrower, more precise confidence interval. The disadvantage is that you have less confidence that the confidence interval contains the population parameter you are interested in. So lower the confidence level only if, in your situation, the advantage of more precision is greater than the disadvantage of less confidence.
\|Dominant Cropland Irrigation Water Source, 1997\| \|Source: Natural Resources Conservation Service\| This shaded polygon map shows the dominant water source for irrigated cropland for each 8-digit hydrologic unit. Water sources are categorized by 1) Well, 2) Pond, Lake, or Reservoir, 3) Stream, Ditch, or Canal, 4) Lagoon or Wastewater (not tailwater), and 5) a combination of water sources. The dominant water source is defined as the water source that is the most common in that hydrologic unit. Areas with 95% or more Federal area are shown as gray. Areas without irrigated cropland are left white. Cautions for this Product: In many areas shown on this map as irrgated, non- irrigated cropland may be more common than any type of irrigated cropland. The total amount of irrigated cropland may be small. Irrigation of land uses other than cropland is not included. Data are not collected on Federal land. Data are not available for Alaska, and the Pacific Basin. Data for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are shown by 6-digit hydrologic unit. For Further Information:
By Lise Alves, Contributing Reporter MIAMI BEACH, FLORIDA – A new study released by international researchers and led by the University of Bristol (UK) reveals sobering results. It suggests that if the ice sheets continue to melt, seas could rise submerging coastal cities around the world and displacing as many as 200 million people by the end of the century. Using a technique called structured expert judgment (SEJ), the 22 researchers found that current sea level rising forecasts could be dangerously underestimated and much higher than projected. “We find it plausible that SLR [sea level rising] could exceed two meters by 2100 for our high-temperature scenario, roughly equivalent to ‘business as usual’. This could result in land loss of 1.79 M km2, including critical regions of food production, and displacement of up to 187 million people,” notes the study. These new estimates are more than twice as high as the upper limit predicted in a 2013 U.N. climate assessment and according to researchers, a SLR of this magnitude would ‘clearly have profound consequences for humanity’. In 2013, the United Nation’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimated that, in the worst-case scenario, sea level rising levels would to total less than a meter (0.98m) by 2100. “It really is pretty grim,” study co-author, Jonathan Bamber, and a professor of physical geography at the University of Bristol in England told CNN. “Two meters is not a good scenario.” Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the study measures the sea level rise by obtaining experts’ opinions on how much ice the world is likely to lose this century due to higher temperatures. One of the things these researchers found is that the behavior of ice melting rates in places such as Antarctica and Greenland is much more uncertain than previously believed, and that this uncertainty has, instead of decreasing, grown. Since the meltwater from ice sheets in those regions are the greatest factor contributing to sea level rise, the uncertainty in their behavior makes SLR estimates also very unpredictable. “With all the new research, data and knowledge, you might expect the uncertainties around how much ice sheet melting will contribute to sea level rise to have got smaller,” stated Bamber in a recent article written by him and Princeton Professor, Michael Oppenheimer. “Unfortunately, that’s not what we found. What we did find was a range of future outcomes that go from bad to worse,” concluded the researcher. According to the study, officials from cities near oceans, like New York, Miami and Mumbai (India), know that the waters surrounding them will eventually rise but these new predictions may make coastal cities scramble to adopt emergency measures in a shorter timeline. “Sea level rise driven by migration of this size might threaten the existence of nation states and result in unimaginable stress on resources and space. There is time to change course, but not much, and the longer we delay the harder it gets, the bigger the mountain we have to climb,” concluded Bamber.
A team of researchers has developed advanced quantum simulation by devising an algorithm that can more efficiently calculate the properties of molecules on a noisy quantum computer. For today’s noisy quantum computers, the problem has been that so much noise would accumulate within a circuit that the computation would degrade and render any subsequent calculations inaccurate. Scientists have had difficulty designing circuits that are both shorter and more accurate. The team addressed the noise issue by developing a method that grows the circuit in an iterative way. They start with a minimal circuit, then grow it as we add on the logic gate after the logic gate in short circuits until the computer finds the solution. A second major benefit of the algorithm is that researchers designed it to adapt itself based upon the molecular system being simulated. Different molecules will dictate their own circuits, uniquely tailored to them.
In a closed flask of 5 litres, 1.0 g of H2 is headed from 300 to 600 K. Which statement is not correct 1Â° C rise in temperature is equal to a rise of Equal amounts of two gases of molecular weight 4 and 40 are mixed. The pressure of the mixture is 1.1 atm. The partial pressure of.. Assertion : Effusion rate of oxygen is smaller than nitrogen. Reason : Molecular size of nitrogen is smaller than oxygen. A weather ballon filled with hydrogen at 1 atm and 27Â° C has volume equal to 12000 litres. On ascending it reaches a place wher.. A particular solid is very hard and has a high melting point. In solid state it is a non conductor and its melt is a conductor of .. A pure crystalline substance, on being heated gradually, first forms a turbid looking liquid and then the turbidity completely dis.. Assertion : 4.58mm and 0.0098Â°C is known to be triple point of water. Reason : At this pressure and temperature all the three s.. Molecules/ions and their magnetic properties are given below Assertion : All molecules in a gas have same speed. Reason : Gas contains of different size and shape Assertion : We air is heavier than dry air. Reason : The density of a dry air is more than density of water. Which one of the following Statements is not correct about the three states of matter i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous The characteristic features of solid are The root mean square speeds at STP for the gases H2 , N2 ,O2 and HBr are in the order Which one of the following is good conductor of electricity Davy and Faraday proved that A compound is formed by elements A and B. This crystallises in the cubic structure where the A atoms are at the corners of the cub.. The 8 : 8 type of packing is present in A solid compound contains X , Y and Z atoms in a cubic lattice with X atom occupying the corners. Y atoms in the body centred posi.. At constant temperature,in a given mass of an ideal gas A crystalline solid have In a cubic structure of diamond which is made from X and Y, where X atoms are at the corners of the cube and Y at the face centres.. Which of the following relations for expressing volume of a sample is not correct For orthombic system axial ratios are a#b#c and the axial angles are In the solid state, MgO has the same structure as that of sodium chloride. The number of oxygens surrounding each magnesium in MgO.. Dulong and Petits law is valid only for Pressure remaining the same, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas increases for every degree centigrade rise in temperature .. If the pressure and absolute temperature of 2 litres of CO2 are doubled, the volume of CO2 would become The temperature and pressure at which ice, liquid water and water vapour can exist together are Which one of the following metal oxides is antiferromagnetic in nature The number of carbon atoms per unit cell of diamond is Quartz is are crystalline variety of With which one of the following elements silicon should be doped so as to give p-type of semiconductor A crystalline solid Crystalline solids are A solid has a structure in which, atoms of W, O and Na are located respectively at the corners, centre of edge and at the centre o.. Pressure of a gas in a vessel can be measured by The ability of a given substance to assume two or more crystalline structure is called Which type of solid crystals will conduct heat and electricity Connect With Answers We are available 24x7 to answer. TestprepKart [Answers] is a global answer platform for all students, teachers and contributors to help community grow and share knowledge. TestprepKart [Answers] is primarily focused on School Exam Preparation, Entrance Exam Preparation, UG Admissions Worldwide. Share your doubts and help others getting their answers is the spirit of TestprepKart [Answers].
\|Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus)\|\|Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi)\|\|Planococcus halocryophilus\| \|Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus)\|\|Arctic Willow (Salix arctica)\| \|Narwhal (Monodon monoceros)\| \|Ribbon Seal (Histriophoca fasciata)\| \|Greenland Shark (Somniosus microcephalus)\| Mosaic of images of the Arctic by MODIS. Jeff Schmaltz - NASA Earth Observatory The Arctic, otherwise known as the north pole, is the northernmost region of Earth. Most of the Arctic region consists of the Arctic Ocean and it's adjacent seas, but it also contains lands associated with eight countries: The United States, Canada, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Greenland, and Iceland. The warmest month in the Arctic is July, and average temperatures are below 50F (10C). During the winter months, average temperatures are sometimes as low as -40F (-40C).1 This region is currently being threatened by climate change. Increasing Arctic sea-ice melt and sea-ice shrinkage causes the release of methane from the ice in the permafrost regions of the Arctic. Methane, a potent greenhouse gas, further contributes to the rising temperatures in the region due to the greenhouse effect. While there are large variations in the predictions of Arctic sea-ice loss, about half of all analyzed models show almost complete loss of Arctic sea-ice in September by the year 2100.2 Electron microscope image of Planococcus halocryophilus Nadia C S Mykytczuk et al Bacteria are everywhere! The Arctic is no exception. One of the many Arctic bacteria is particularly interesting, as it has been observed dividing at 5F (15C) and remains metabolically active at 25C. Lyle White, an environmental microbiologist from the McGill University team that isolated this bacteria, said: "We believe that this bacterium lives in very thin veins of very salty water" ... "The salt in the permafrost brine veins keeps the water from freezing at the ambient permafrost temperature ~(-16ºC), creating a habitable but very harsh environment." This discovery gives clues to where life might exist in other parts of the solar system such as Mars or Saturn's moon Enceladus, both of which have regions with similar environments to the enviornment where Planococcus halocryophilus was found.3 Although an environment as cold and harsh as the Arctic might seem like a place where plants would be completely unable to grow, life found a way! Many plant species grow in the Arctic, but there are some definite characteristics that most have evolved to adapt with this harsh environment. Two great examples of these hardy plants are: Bearberrys (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), and the Arctic Willow (Salix arctica). Bearberry were appropriately named so, as they are a favorite of bears after coming out of hibernation. These plants do, however, have a significant place in folk medicine. Some folk tales suggest that Marco Polo stumbled across the plant in China, and thought that they were using it as a diuretic. In the summer time, the leaves are sometimes picked and dried for use in various folk medicine preparations.4 While generally regarded as safe, Bearberrys do have the potential for adverse side effects such as nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, back pain and tinnitus, and should not be used during pregnancy, breast feeding, or in children or patients with kidney disease.4 5 6 Native American tribes use bearberrys and the leaves of the bearberry shrub along with tobacco and other herbs in their religious ceremonies. This preparation is used as a type of incense or is smoked in a sacred pipe which carries the smokers prayers to the Great Spirit. When this preparation is mixed with tobacco and other herbs, it is referred to as kinnikinnick, from an Algonquian word for "mixture".7 8 The Arctic Willow (Salix arctica) is not what you would typically think of when you imagine a willow. This willow is a short-growing shrub that rarely grows above 6 inches (15cm) high, and has adapted to the harsh conditions of the cold and rocky lands surrounding the Arctic ocean.9 Salix arctica is an extremely slow-growing but long-lived species, with the oldest known Arctic Willow, found in eastern Greenland, being 236 years old. Arctic Willows serve as a food source for Muskoxen, caribou, Arctic hares and lemmings, who feed on the bark and twigs, and for the ptarmigan, which feeds on the buds. The plant has also been used by the Gwich’in and Inuit people for medicinal purposes, such as for relieving toothache, helping to stop bleeding, curing diarrhoea and indigestion, and used as poultice on wounds.10 The Arctic is home to many different animals, from birds to sharks and everything in between! In order to maintain life in such a harsh environment, it is important that animals have evolutionary adaptations to withstand the cold temperatures and other unique challenges such as food scarcity. The white fur of the Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus), Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus), and the Arctic Fox (Vulpes lagopus) is an excellent example of an adaptation that allows these animals to remain camouflaged in the snowy environment of the Arctic. In addition to the land animals, the Arctic is home to a large marine ecosystem. Some of the animals in this ecosystem include: the Narwhal (Monodon monoceros), Ribbon Seal (Histriophoca fasciata), and the Greenland Shark (Somniosus microcephalus), all of which have unique adaptations to allow them to be successful in their respective environments. Three Polar bears approach the starboard bow of the Los Angeles-class fast attack submarine USS Honolulu (SSN 718) while surfaced 280 miles from the North Pole. Chief Yeoman Alphonso Braggs, US-Navy No article about the Arctic would be complete without including the mighty Polar Bear(Ursus maritimus)! Technically, these bears are considered marine mammals due to the fact that they spend most of their time on the sea ice.11 Polar Bears(Ursus maritimus) primarily hunt for their preferred food source, seals , from the edge of the sea ice. In the absence of sea ice, Polar Bears are unable to hunt and live off fat stores. Currently, these animals are considered vulnerable due to the increasingly shrinking sea ice as a result of climate change, with three of the nineteen Polar Bear subpopulations currently in decline.12Polar Bears rarely live beyond 25 years old, with the oldest wild Polar Bear on record having lived to 32 years old.13These animals are also known for their superb swimming and diving skills; sometimes swimming more than 200 miles over ten days with dives that can last over 3 minutes when approaching prey. In contrast to the carnivorous Polar Bear(Ursus maritimus), the Arctic Hare(Lepus arcticus) is a much smaller herbivore.14 15 The Arctic Hare, while closely related to rabbits, is different in several ways. The Arctic Hare is one of the largest living lagomorphs, growing to an average size of about 23 inches (about 26 inches including the tail). Typically, these animals weigh between 6 and 12lb, although some can grow to be over 17lbs.16 By far, the Arctic Hare's most successful predator is the Gray Wolf.16 While Arctic Hares in the more northern longitudes of the Arctic keep their white fur year round, individuals in the southern Arctic regions shed their coat in the summer to a grey or brown color in order to better camouflage with their surroundings.17 Greenland shark Somniosus microcephalus NOAA Okeanos Explorer Program Although the Arctic biome is home to many land species, one must not forget the diverse marine life that thrives in this inhospitable region. The Narwhal (Monodon monoceros) is a very interesting looking marine mammal , males sporting a long helical tusk, sometimes reaching over 10 feet in length. While the largest tusks appear in male Narwhals, some females do grow shorter tusks with a less defined helical pattern. The tusk is actually considered a canine tooth, and grows from the left side of their upper jaw, protruding through their lip. While extremely rare, in about 0.2% of male Narwhals, both the left and right canine can grow in this fashion, forming two tusks on the animal. While the Narwhal tusk might look like a weapon, it actually is a sensory organ that takes in sea water and tells the animal about it’s environment. Another interesting looking species is the >Ribbon Seal (Histriophoca fasciata), which sports two white circles and stripes in it's black or dark brown fur. These seals spend most of their lives in the water, rarely coming ashore, especially during the summer and fall months.18 During this time, there is very little known about their habitat, as they spend most of their time in open water.19 One other particularly interesting species is Somniosus microcephalus, the Greenland Shark. By far, the most incredible thing about this species is it's long lifespan. The oldest known Greenland Shark was estimated to be roughly 400 years old, making it the oldest living vertebrate on record.20 This species of shark is very large, averaging about 12 feet in length, weighing almost 900lb! Notably, there are reports that very large Greenland Sharks can grow up to 3,100lb, with a length of about 24 feet.21 22 These dimensions rival that of a Great White Shark, but the Greenland Shark is a far slower, and therefore less terrifying species. Indeed, the average maximum speed for a Greenland Shark is about 1.6mph, about half of the maximum cruising speed of the seals on which it often preys, and about 7% of the maximum cruising speed of a Great White Shark. Due to the fact that this species spends most of it's time in very deep water, the Greenland Shark has adapted to increase it's buoyancy by accumulating high concentrations of Urea and TMAO (trimethylamine oxide) in it's tissues. TMAO is toxic and can cause a "drunken effect" in those who consume the meat of the Greenland Shark. 23 Extremophiles are organisms that live in environments that would ordinarily be inhospitable to life. The origins of the word extremophile come from the Latin word extremus , meaning “extreme”, and the greek word philo , meaning “love.” As you might expect, these organisms love the extremes.What are some examples? Lets take the Thermophiles (thermo:heat; philo:love), for example. Thermophiles are organisms, most of which are from kingdom Archea, that can only live in extremely hot temperatures. These organisms can only live in temperatures between about 106°F and 252°F (41°C and 122°C).1Lets compare this to humans (link), where a fever of 108°F can lead to seizures and even death2As we said before, Archea take up a large portion of the thermophiles, but eubacteria also represent a small portion of the extremophiles. In fact,thermophillic eubacteria are considered by some biologists to be among the earliest form of bacteria, and therefore one of the earliest forms of life on earth!3 Thermophiles are not the only types of extremophiles, though. Extremophiles, as the name implies, refer to a very large group of organisms that have only one thing in common; they love the extremes. Another group of extremophiles, also mostly consisting of Archea are the Acidophiles. Acidophiles, although mostly consisting of Archea, also includes regular bacteria and eukaryotes. Acidophiles are organisms that can only live in acidic environements with a pH (measure of acidity, lower being most acidic and higher being most basic) of 2. To put this into perspective, we should compare this pH to water. Most organisms on earth (besides extremophiles) require water at a normal pH to survive. Water, for the most part, has a pH of about 7. This means that Acidophiles can only live in environments that are about 1,000,000 times more acidc than the water that we drink every day. One of our most exciting future features is the implementation of mapping data throughout the website. The implementation of this data throughout our website will allow for us to display locational data alongside the already rich data that we already display. This is just the tip of the iceberg, though. Implementing this data will allow us to customize the content that we provide to each user and create new map-centric features that allows our users to explore our tree of life in yet another way. We plan to implement extinct species into the LifeMap in the near future. In order to do this, we need to effectively curate extinct species taxonomic datasets and integrate them with our current system. Once we have completed this daunting task, you will be able to browse through dinosaurs and other extinct species the same way that you would browse anything else on the LifeMap. With the implementation of extinct species, our capacity to show evolutionary relationships improves. In the future, we plan to implement a view that allows the user to browse through life over time, showing both extant and extinct species at different poitns throughout time - effectively creating a "timeline of life." Although the LifeMap Explorer is already an extraordinarily powerful and rich tool for gathering information, we plan to perpetually increase the amount of information that we provide to our users. Whether that be by implementing features that display data that we gather from outside sources such as conservation and population data from IUCN Redlist and trait information from The Encyclopedia of Life's TraitBank; or by generating original content in the form of articles and featured stories. In the future, we plan on implementing challenges that users can complete for points and achievements. We hope that this feature will support our goal of making exploring the tree of life fun and interesting. Our goal is to engage users in a way that presents them with challenges that both entertain and inform. In addition to expanding our database to include extinct species, we also plan to expand upon our already large taxonomic database to ensure that users have a comprehensive experience. Our current plans are to more than double our taxonomic database entries to over 2 million individual entries (eg. species, phylum, class, etc.). Although we do tend to look forward here at LifeMap Explorer, we recognize the value in maintaining our current features by constantly working to improve the user experience on any features that we make available to our users. A few examples of things that we plan to further develop are: LifeMap Animations, search accuracy, account integration, social media integration, mobile optimization (potentially standalone mobile apps), and the quick links sections. Your Name (Optional) Your Email (Optional) What would you like to see? LifeMap Explorer aims to provide free access to the information that we provide, but running a website costs money. The most effective and simplest way to help is by considering giving a small contribution to LifeMap Explorer. All contributions go to improving our user experience; from optimizing our servers to introducing new features. Currently, we are unable to accept donations, but check back soon to find out how to contribute! Welcome to LifeMap Explorer! LifeMap Explorer is a modern interactive exploring and reference tool. Explore the entire taxonomy of registered species, or search/select a specific node to get started. We aim to provide information from many different sources in a way not possible with any other tool. The LifeMap is a tool designed to allows users to effortlessly browse the tree of life. This tool consists of two primary components: the tree panel and the information panel. The tree panel (left-hand side of the LifeMap) contains clickable nodes that either represent a species or another taxonomic rank. Starting from the left, the tree of life is drawn from the animal kingdoms, through the categories, down to the individual species. Select an item by clicking on it, or open or close it's children by double clicking. Items with white borders have children, and black borders do not. Items in the same group that are drawn wider have more extensive families than slimmer items in the same group. The information panel provides a picture and a description for the selected item if available. You can also expand the information panel to see more and different types of information. The expanded information panel has a more complete description, taxonomic information, images, geospatial information and a section to save notes. Exploring is easy! Open the tree and click around to explore. You can also use the Quick Links button for suggested starting points, then browse endlessly through it's connections in the tree panel. Or use search bar to look through all of our registered items. Learn about the Arctic and it's inhabitants; from an over 200 year old shark to an other-worldly bacteria (quite literally)! Dive into this LifeMap Explorer original article featuring comprehensive integration with the LifeMap.
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a mental health disorder that can affect anyone regardless of ethnicity, age, or gender. It is often misunderstood due to the inappropriate over-use of the term “OCD” in society (for example, a highly organized person might say: “I’m so OCD about keeping my things organized”). OCD is not about having exceptional organizational skills and having OCD is not a quirky character flaw. OCD is a serious highly distressing disorder that seriously and adversely affects the lives of those who have it and, oftentimes, the people who are close to the sufferer. OCD has two main components: obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are “unwanted, intrusive thoughts, images, or urges that trigger intensely distressing feelings” . Oftentimes the uncomfortable feeling is fear or terror, but it can also be disgust or simply a “not right” feeling. It is important to note that not all obsessive thoughts are an indicator of OCD. Obsessive thoughts are associated with other disorders, such as drug or behavioral addiction, eating disorders, and personality disorders. Non-clinically, the word “obsession” often refers to a strong interest or attraction, which is quite the opposite of it’s meaning in the context of OCD. Compulsions are repeated behaviors or mental acts an individual performs in an attempt to escape, minimize, or avoid the obsessions and/or the associated distress . Obsessions and compulsions tend to be irrational. Therefore, it is important to recognize that these thoughts and behaviors may not have any logical explanation. It can be tempting to rationalize obsessions and compulsions, but trying to do so doesn’t benefit or ultimately help the sufferer, and it may actually make things worse. The goal of overcoming OCD is simply learning how to handle these irrational thoughts without giving into the disorder. Obsessions, or intrusive thoughts, come into one’s mind naturally, without the individual intending to have that thought. It’s important to note that virtually everyone experiences an unwanted, intrusive thought on occasion. The difference between someone with OCD and someone without OCD is that the person without OCD is able to become aware of the thought, consider it only briefly, and let it go. The person without OCD may be alarmed or even horrified by the thought, but can ultimately understand it is an unwanted thought, differentiate the thought from their own desires, and turn their attention to other things. The person with OCD, however, reacts by engaging in mental and behavioral compulsions in order to understand the thought (and therefore gain a sense of mastery or control) and to reduce distress associated with the thought. It is actually the compulsive thinking (i.e., rumination or mental rituals) and compulsive behavior (i.e., repeated acts or behaviors performed in attempt to escape or avoid discomfort) that “feeds” OCD and makes it so much worse. Ironically, the more a person actively tries NOT to think about something, the more difficult it is to stop or avoid thinking about it. In addition, the more a person tries to avoid or escape unwanted feelings by doing compulsions, the more a person believes they need to continue these compulsions (and do more and more of them) in order to feel okay. As child therapist Natasha Daniels states: “Our brains are like gears. They’re always moving our thoughts and our behaviors along… When you have OCD your brain gears get stuck so all of those thoughts that are upsetting….continue to grow and get bigger in your brain and in your awareness.” What is OCD? (n.d.). International OCD Foundation. Retrieved January 13, 2021, from https://iocdf.org/about-ocd/ Natasha Daniels. (2017, July 13). What is OCD? Explaining Child OCD to Kids [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1kjw0kmMds&list=PLPqeklypAExtiGgccK3mStL041TpGMQxK&index=1
Born in or around 1753, a little girl in the region of Senegambia in West Africa was captured and enslaved. She survived the torturous journey to America on a slave ship and was sold to a British American living in Boston named John Wheatley. Wheatley and his wife, Susanna, named this little girl Phillis, the name of the ship that had carried her to North America. The Wheatleys were members of a Congregational church. Their daughter Mary taught Phillis about the Christian faith as well as lessons in Latin, Greek, and English literature. Phillis Wheatley had an emerging talent for writing poetry and was the first Afro-British woman to have her writing published, beginning in 1767, the year of her baptism at Old South Church. She wrote scores of poems on numerous subjects, including race and slavery. In one poem from her 1773 collection On Being Brought from Africa to America, Wheatley wrote about God’s providence and God’s electing mercy and grace, particularly toward an African person: ‘Twas Mercy brought me from my Pagan land, Taught my benighted soul to understand That there’s a God, that there’s a Saviour too: Once I redemption neither sought nor knew. Some view our sable race with scornful eye, “Their color is a diabolic die.” Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain, May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train. Well aware that racism undergirded the entire American slave system, Wheatley’s poems combatted the explicit racism directed against all Africans during the 18th century. For Wheatley, Africans, or “Negros,” as she termed them, were recipients of saving grace as much as their British-American counterparts were. As a Reformed Puritan, Wheatley used her intelligence and talent to draw attention to the injustice of race-based slavery and to African equality in the sight of a merciful God. European colonialists—Puritans in New England and Dutch Reformed people in New York and New Jersey—brought Reformed traditions to North America during the 17th century. As Congregational and Reformed churches dotted the landscape in colonial America, English slave traders dropped off their cargoes of enslaved Africans. Over time, enslaved Africans became baptized members of these churches and became part of the covenant community. As early the 1660s, Dutch Reformed congregations in America included enslaved Africans. Their Puritan neighbors in New England were sure to include their enslaved persons in family devotions and, in their churches, in catechesis and baptism. From this context of slavery, African-American voices emerged within the Reformed tradition. The most prominent African-American Presbyterian during the 19th century was arguably Henry Highland Garnet, born into slavery in New Market, Maryland, on December 23, 1815. In 1824, Garnet’s family escaped from slavery, eventually settling in New York City. Educated in African schools in New York City, Garnet entered the Presbyterian Oneida Theological Institute to study theology and classics in 1836. After graduating in 1840, Garnet moved to Troy, New York, where he became an elder of the newly founded African American Presbyterian Church. He then studied under African-American ministers who were members of the Presbytery of Troy and became a licensed preacher in 1842. The following year, Garnet received his ordination and a call to the pastorate of Liberty Street Presbyterian Church in Troy. In his famous 1843 “Address to Slaves,” a speech he gave in Buffalo, New York, directed to an imaginary audience of enslaved persons, Garnet encouraged enslaved people to overthrow slavery with the words “Let your motto be Resistance!” Few people realize that one of the most prominent late 19th-century civil rights advocates and organizers of African-American women served in a Presbyterian church in Chicago. Ida B. Wells-Barnett was a member of Sixth Presbyterian Church (now Sixth-Grace Presbyterian Church) and taught Sunday school. Wells-Barnett was born an enslaved girl in 1862 in Holly Springs, Mississippi. After emancipation, she would eventually earn her degree from Fisk University in Nashville. Wells-Barnett is noted for her groundbreaking journalism exposing incidents of lynching in the South. In her 1892 book Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases, Wells-Barnett argued that white men lynched African Americans for fear of African-American economic progress, not in defense of white women’s honor and purity as they claimed. Sometime in the 1890s, Wells-Barnett joined Sixth Presbyterian, an all-African-American church founded in 1888 in the Bronzeville neighborhood of Chicago. There her Sunday school class with young men eventually blossomed into the Negro Fellowship League. She also founded the Frederick Douglass Center, a literary society. With Wells-Barnett’s service, Sixth-Grace Presbyterian became a community hub lifting up members of the African-American community. In 1951 Eugene Callender, who possessed the spirit of Henry Garnet’s Reformed theology, became the first African-American pastor in the Christian Reformed Church. Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1926, Callender was the first African-American student to attend Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia in 1947. In Philadelphia, Callender experienced discrimination at a downtown restaurant that refused to serve him. He told fellow student Lewis Smedes of the incident. What followed was the mobilization of the entire student body and faculty in protest of that restaurant. Upon graduating in 1950, Callender connected with Peter Eldersveld, longtime host of the CRC’s evangelistic radio program The Back to God Hour, when Eldersveld spoke at Westminster’s commencement. Eldersveld hired Callender to contact African Americans in New York City who were avid listeners of the program. Before long, Callender’s mission resulted in a church plant in Harlem in 1951, which became the Mid-Harlem Community Parish. In 1959, Callender accepted the call to Church of the Master (Presbyterian Church (USA)). During his longtime ministry there, Callender established “street academies” that educated African-American and Latinx high school dropouts. In addition, Callender was active in the civil rights movement, serving as executive president of the New York Urban League for a time. His Reformed witness was directed toward the whole person, with special attention to the African Americans and Latinx people on the margins of New York City. Today, in a popular Christian podcast called Truth’s Table, three Reformed Christian women of African descent approach issues such as colorism, “gender apartheid,” and misogynoir—defined in a recent episodeas “anti-black misogyny aimed at black women exclusively.” During the course of the podcast, the three women—Christina Edmondson, Michelle Higgins, and Ekemini Uwan—draw attention to how this affects African-American women mentally, emotionally, and personally. The women of Truth’s Table unapologetically target African-American women as their primary audience. They are among many African-American Reformed Christians who through their perspective and their application of Reformed theology engage a whole host of topics relevant to African Americans. For African-American Reformed Christians, this has also been a service to the whole church. The tradition within Reformed and Presbyterian churches has always been to engage with dominant theologies and historical narratives, speaking truth to power. From Phillis Wheatley to Eugene Callender to the women of Truth’s Table, African-American Reformed Christians have done so, ministering from the margins to the margins.
Send to a friend [NEW YORK] Repeated logging can deplete the soil of phosphorus, nitrogen and other valuable soil nutrients and limit conditions for successful regrowth of forests, says a new study. Re-growing forests, after logging operations, is a recognised strategy — under international initiatives such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) and the Convention on Biological Diversity — to enhance biodiversity conservation and mitigate climate change. “Many of these forests have been lost in the last 40 years, making way for plantations of oil palm in the lowlands, and most of the easily accessible forests have been logged” David Coomes, University of Cambridge Conservation Research Institute According to the study, published December in Global Change Biology, selective logging is being carried out across millions of hectares of forest in the tropics, resulting in degraded forests that are now more widespread than primary, old-growth forests. David Coomes, director, University of Cambridge Conservation Research Institute and one of the study’s authors, says the results of the study suggest that each consecutive harvest reduces the level of nutrients in the system, and newly established trees have to adapt to conserve the scarce resources available to them. Coomes says the researchers chose Borneo because it “harbours some of the most diverse tropical forests in the world, but many of these forests have been lost in the last 40 years, making way for plantations of oil palm in the lowlands, and most of the easily accessible forests have been logged”. The researchers studied how leaf function changes in response to logging, created high-definition images of a forest landscape in north-eastern Borneo using LIDAR-guided imaging spectroscopy from an aircraft. They combined this information with nutrient measurements from 700 individual trees to map nutrient concentrations in tree leaves in an area containing repeatedly logged forest and old-growth forest. The researchers said trees of recovering tropical forests were found to have tougher leaves, with lower concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen — both essential for plant and tree growth. This suggests that multiple cycles of logging and recovery irreversibly remove phosphorus from the forest system and are pushing the nutrient content towards ecological limits, the researchers point out. "Phosphorus limitation is a really serious global issue — it's one of the areas where humans are using a vital resource beyond sustainable levels,” Coomes stresses. “We found that differences from old growth forest become more pronounced as logged forests grow larger over time, suggesting exacerbated phosphorus limitation as forests recover.” He adds: “We were interested in how logging had affected ecosystem services — the economic/society values that nature delivers which don't usually get included in economic valuation of land use.” Coomes says the research does not imply that plantation forestry, or commercial forestry should be stopped. “Well-managed plantations focused on small parts of tropical landscapes may help protect our dwindling biodiversity. Any forestry needs to be ‘sustainable’ in the long term and removing hard-to-replace nutrients from natural ecosystems is clearly not sustainable.” He believes future generations will regret the careless way in which their ancestors mismanaged tropical soils. “They will wonder why we allowed millions of tonnes of topsoil to be washed away when converting tropical forests into oil palm plantations, and why we were oblivious to the implications of removing trees from natural forests.” Coomes says a total ban on logging mature tropical forest and restoration of degraded natural forests would benefit nature and help mitigate climate change because regenerating forests takes carbon out of the atmosphere and into wood. “Plantations are the alternative alongside a reduction in wood consumption through less wasteful use.” Nonetheless, land-use change is known to damage soils, clog rivers get washed into the sea, says Coomes. “The loss of nutrients in timber is already recognised as important for yields in temperate boreal plantations, and managers add mineral nutrients to compensate for the loss.”L. Roman Carrasco, an associate professor in the department of biological sciences, National University of Singapore, says the study “demonstrates how using air-borne hyperspectral imagery can offer new insights in phosphorus dynamics after logging. The notion that repeated logging is sustainable and that the forest can spring back to its original form is questioned by this and other recent studies.” This piece was produced by SciDev.Net’s Asia & Pacific desk.
Subject: ESL/ELL (English Language Learning) Lesson Length: 30 - 45 mins Topic: Action Verbs Grade Level: 3, 4, 5, 6 Brief Description: Students will practice using action verbs to describe what is happening in the present tense. Know Before You Start: Students should be familiar with common action verbs. This lesson is a great way to reinforce adding -ing to the end of a verb to show present tense. Use this as a check for understanding sentence structure and spelling patterns. Hook: Ask students: What am I doing right now? Have students name the action. You are ______. Student answers may include talking, standing, looking. Explain that action verbs are words to explain the action of someone or something. - Read and discuss the comic. After reading each panel, ask: which word tells us what the person is doing in the sentence? Which word is the subject- the person doing the action? - Guide students to understand that we can add -ing on the end of verbs to show they are happening right now, in the present. - Discuss how each sentence starts with a subject and then the correct form of -be. Then we add -ing to the end of the verb to show the action. - Practice reading aloud or acting out the sentences to promote understanding of the present tense. - Have students role play to show what they are doing while the other children have to guess what the action is using the correct form of the present-tense verb. - Tell students to create a comic to show their action while focusing on using the correct sentence structure. Closure: Have students share their comic with the whole group or in partners. Emphasize the importance of conjugating the verb correctly to show present tense. - Provide sentence stems as needed. - Allow students to us.e the speech to text feature - Allow students to work with a peer model. - Provide a list of common verbs. - Provide visuals for students.
- Project plans - Project activities - Legislation and standards - Industry context - Specialist wikis Last edited 10 Aug 2021 Fire in buildings Buildings need to be designed to offer an acceptable level of fire safety and minimise the risks from heat and smoke. The primary objective is to reduce to within acceptable limits the potential for death or injury to the occupants of a building and others who may become involved, such as the fire and rescue service, as well as to protect contents and ensure that as much as possible of a building can continue to function after a fire and that it can be repaired. The risk to adjoining properties also needs to be considered, as well as possible environmental pollution. Fire occurs as a result of a series of very rapid chemical reactions between a fuel and oxygen that releases heat and light. For combustion to occur, oxygen, heat and a fuel source must all be present; this is the ‘fire triangle’. Flames are the visible manifestation of combustion. The 'spontaneous ignition temperature' is the temperature at which these vapours ignite spontaneously without the application of an external flame. Once ignition has begun and the vapours ignited, flames will in turn heat the fuel and increase the rate of production of flammable vapours. A critical stage occurs when the flames reach the ceiling. The radiant heat transferred back to the surface of the fuel is dramatically increased. This usually occurs when the temperature at the ceiling has reached about 550°C. This sudden transition is called a flashover. If there is inadequate ventilation during the growth period, a fire may fail to flashover. It may die out or continue to smoulder. This can be extremely hazardous as a new supply of oxygen may be ‘supplied’, for example, by a door or window being opened. During the stable phase which follows flashover, flaming occurs throughout the enclosed space. This is when the highest temperatures are reached. The fire resistance of the elements that form the enclosure will have to take account of the maximum temperatures likely to be reached as well as the length of time they are likely to be sustained. The quantity of potential fuel within a building is described as its 'fuel load'. This includes the fabric of the building and its contents. Estimating fuel load can give an indication of the likely heat production and so fire severity, but fuel load is difficult to establish due to: - The multiplicity of different materials in buildings. - The arrangement of potential fuels. - The density of the arrangement of potential fuels. The rate of burning and so heat produced in a compartment is dependent upon the fuel and ventilation available. Both the oxygen supply to feed the fire and the possible removal of heat by air are significant. Ventilation is affected by the size and shape of a building’s windows and other openings. Affects of heat on building materials - Steel will have lost two-thirds of its strength by the time it has been heated to 600°C. - Timber burns at a constant rate - members can be oversized to provide fire resistance, as they tend to char on their surface, but then burn relatively slowly. - Concrete fairly resistant to fire, but reinforced concrete must have sufficient insulation to protect the steel reinforcement. - Bricks are one of the most fire resistant materials. Smoke is the general term for the solid and gaseous products of combustion in the rising plume of heated air. Smoke may contain both burnt and unburned parts of the fuel, as well as any gases given off by the chemical degradation of the fuel. All smoke should be considered dangerous and attempts should be made to limit its production and control its movement. The majority of deaths in fire are due to smoke either by the inhalation of toxic gases, or carbon monoxide poisoning. The Building Regulations Part B: Fire Safety, addresses the precautionary measures necessary to provide safety from fires for building occupants, persons in the vicinity of buildings, and firefighters. Requirements cover means of escape, fire detection and warning systems, the fire resistance of structural elements, fire separation, protection, compartmentation and isolation to prevent fire spread, control of flammable materials, and access and facilities for firefighting. - Approved Document B - Fire Safety: Volume 1 - Dwellinghouses. - Approved Document B - Fire Safety: Volume 2: Buildings other than dwellinghouses. The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 provides the minimum fire safety standards for non-domestic premises. The Order designates a person, usually the employer or the owner as the “Responsible Person”. They are required to carry out certain fire safety duties, including ensuring that general fire precautions are satisfactory and conducting a fire risk assessment. Fire engineering makes use of engineering principles to safeguard individuals, property and the environment from the destructive damage that can be caused by fire. This is achieved through the application of established rules together with an in-depth knowledge of the phenomena and effects of fire and the reaction and behaviour of people to fire. Fire protection engineers will identify risks, and design safeguards that help prevent and control the effects of fire. - Prevention: Controlling ignition and fuel sources so that fires do not start. - Communication: If ignition occurs, ensuring occupants are informed and any active fire systems are triggered. - Escape: Ensuring that occupants of buildings and surrounding areas are able to move to places of safety. - Containment: Fire should be contained to the smallest possible area, limiting the amount of property likely to be damaged and the threat to life safety. - Extinguishment: Ensuring that fire can be extinguished quickly and with minimum consequential damage. The spread of fire can be restricted by sub-dividing buildings into a number of discrete compartments. These fire compartments are separated from one another by compartment walls and compartment floors made of a fire-resisting construction which hinders the spread of fire. An escape route as ‘that part of the means of escape from any point in a building to a final exit’ where a final exit is ‘the termination of an escape route from a building giving direct access to a street, passageway, walkway or open space and sited to ensure the rapid dispersal of persons from the vicinity of a building so that they are no longer in danger from fire and/or smoke.’ Most fire detection and alarm systems operate on the same basic principles. If a fire is detected, then an alarm is triggered. This warns building managers and occupants that there may be a fire and that evacuation may be necessary. Some systems include remote signalling equipment which can alert the fire brigade or a remote monitoring centre. - Promote fire safety and enforce fire safety regulation. - Undertake fire fighting. - Ensure national resilience. - Offer other special services, such as rescuing people from road traffic accidents. In certain buildings, it can be difficult for the fire and rescue service to safely reach and work close to fires. Under such circumstances additional facilities are required to ensure that there is no delay and to provide a secure operating base. This might include: Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki - ACM cladding. - Approved document B. - Automatic fire detection and alarm systems, an introductory guide to components and systems BR 510. - Automatic fire sprinkler systems: A good practice guide. - BS EN 3. - BS 7974. - BS 9999. - BS EN 13501-1. - Common principles of International Fire Safety Standard introduced. - Design benefits of automatic sprinkler systems granted under approved document B. - Dry riser. - Evacuating vulnerable and dependent people from buildings in an emergency FB 52. - External fire spread, Supplementary guidance to BR 187 incorporating probabilistic and time-based approaches. - External fire spread: building separation and boundary distances (BR 187). - Fire and rescue service. - Fire authority. - Fire blanket. - Fire damper. - Fire detection and alarm system. - Fire detector. - Fire door. - Fire engineer. - Fire extinguisher. - Fire fatalities in Scotland. - Fire inspector. - Fire performance of external thermal insulation for walls of multistorey buildings, third edition (BR 135). - Fire prevention on construction sites. - Fire protection engineering. - Fire resistance. - Fire retardant. - Fire risk in high-rise and super high-rise buildings DG 533. - Fire safety certification from CIOB. - Fire safety design. - Fire safety information. - Fire safety officer. - Fire (Scotland) Act 2005. - Fire spread. - Fire stopping. - Firefighting route. - Grenfell Tower fire. - HSG 168 Fire safety in construction. - Installing fire doors and doorsets (GG 86). - Ionisation smoke alarm. - Joint fire code. - Leading built environment bodies call for sprinklers in all schools. - Making the case for sprinklers and dispelling myths. - Managing fire risk in commercial buildings: A guide for facilities managers. - Means of escape. - Optical smoke alarm. - Protected escape route. - Protected lobby. - Scottish Advice Note addresses fire risk in multi-storey residential buildings. - Smoke detector. - The Building Safety Bill and product testing. - The causes of false fire alarms in buildings. - The impact of automatic sprinklers on building design. - The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005. - Underwriters Laboratories UL. - Visual alarm devices - their effectiveness in warning of fire. - Wet riser. External references Featured articles and news Actuate UK issues stark warning. Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities replaces MHCLG. Protecting heritage from disasters. Book review. Three structures forever changed people's lives for the better. ECA comments on findings of BEIS Green Jobs Task Force. Why government can't support public transport forever. Government introduces the Information Management Mandate. Designing and building for the future. Fabricating mystical connections between nature and architecture. IHBC issues responses to ECO4 and PAS 2035.
“Most people think the rise of oxygen was linked to cyanobacteria, and they are not wrong,” said James Eguchi, a NASA postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, Riverside who led a new study suggesting that the first burst of oxygen was added by a spate of volcanic eruptions brought about by tectonics. “The emergence of photosynthetic organisms could release oxygen. But the most important question is whether the timing of that emergence lines up with the timing of the Great Oxidation Event. As it turns out, they do not.” “It looks like Earth’s history is calling for tectonics to play a big role in habitability, but that doesn’t necessarily mean that tectonics is absolutely necessary for oxygen build up,” said Rajdeep Dasgupta, the principal investigator on a NASA-funded effort called CLEVER Planets that is exploring how life-essential elements might come together on distant exoplanets. He said better understanding how Earth became habitable is important for studying habitability and its evolution on distant worlds. “There might be other ways of building and sustaining oxygen, and exploring those is one of the things we’re trying to do in CLEVER Planets.” The study by geoscientists at Rice University offers a new theory to help explain the appearance of significant concentrations of oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere about 2.5 billion years ago, something scientists call the Great Oxidation Event (GOE). The research appears this week in Nature Geoscience. “What makes this unique is that it’s not just trying to explain the rise of oxygen,” said Eguchi,who conducted the work for his Ph.D. dissertation at Rice. “It’s also trying to explain some closely associated surface geochemistry, a change in the composition of carbon isotopes, that is observed in the carbonate rock record a relatively short time after the oxidation event. We’re trying explain each of those with a single mechanism that involves the deep Earth interior, tectonics and enhanced degassing of carbon dioxide from volcanoes.” Eguchi’s co-authors are Dasgupta, an experimental and theoretical geochemist and professor in Rice’s Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, and Johnny Seales, a Rice graduate student who helped with the model calculations that validated the new theory. Scientists have long pointed to photosynthesis — a process that produces waste oxygen — as a likely source for increased oxygen during the GOE. Dasgupta said the new theory doesn’t discount the role that the first photosynthetic organisms, cyanobacteria, played in the GOE. Cyanobacteria were alive on Earth as much as 500 million years before the GOE. While a number of theories have been offered to explain why it might have taken that long for oxygen to show up in the atmosphere, Dasgupta said he’s not aware of any that have simultaneously tried to explain a marked change in the ratio of carbon isotopes in carbonate minerals that began about 100 million years after the GOE. Geologists refer to this as the Lomagundi Event, and it lasted several hundred million years. One in a hundred carbon atoms are the isotope carbon-13, and the other 99 are carbon-12. This 1-to-99 ratio is well documented in carbonates that formed before and after Lomagundi, but those formed during the event have about 10% more carbon-13. Eguchi said the explosion in cyanobacteria associated with the GOE has long been viewed as playing a role in Lomagundi. “Cyanobacteria prefer to take carbon-12 relative to carbon-13,” he said. “So when you start producing more organic carbon, or cyanobacteria, then the reservoir from which the carbonates are being produced is depleted in carbon-12.” Eguchi said people tried using this to explain Lomagundi, but timing was again a problem. “When you actually look at the geologic record, the increase in the carbon-13-to-carbon-12 ratio actually occurs up to 10s of millions of years after oxygen rose,” he said. “So then it becomes difficult to explain these two events through a change in the ratio of organic carbon to carbonate.” The scenario Eguchi, Dasgupta and Seales arrived at to explain all of these factors is: A dramatic increase in tectonic activity led to the formation of hundreds of volcanoes that spewed carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The climate warmed, increasing rainfall, which in turn increased “weathering,” the chemical breakdown of rocky minerals on Earth’s barren continents. Weathering produced a mineral-rich runoff that poured into the oceans, supporting a boom in both cyanobacteria and carbonates. The organic and inorganic carbon from these wound up on the seafloor and was eventually recycled back into Earth’s mantle at subduction zones, where oceanic plates are dragged beneath continents. When sediments remelted into the mantle, inorganic carbon, hosted in carbonates, tended to be released early, re-entering the atmosphere through arc volcanoes directly above subduction zones. Organic carbon, which contained very little carbon-13, was drawn deep into the mantle and emerged hundreds of millions of years later as carbon dioxide from island hotspot volcanoes like Hawaii. “It’s kind of a big cyclic process,” Eguchi said. “We do think the amount of cyanobacteria increased around 2.4 billion years ago. So that would drive our oxygen increase. But the increase of cyanobacteria is balanced by the increase of carbonates. So that carbon-12-to-carbon-13 ratio doesn’t change until both the carbonates and organic carbon, from cyanobacteria, get subducted deep into the Earth. When they do, geochemistry comes into play, causing these two forms of carbon to reside in the mantle for different periods of time. Carbonates are much more easily released in magmas and are released back to the surface at a very short period. Lomagundi starts when the first carbon-13-enriched carbon from carbonates returns to the surface, and it ends when the carbon-12-enriched organic carbon returns much later, rebalancing the ratio.” Eguchi said the study emphasizes the importance of the role that deep Earth processes can play in the evolution of life at the surface. “We’re proposing that carbon dioxide emissions were very important to this proliferation of life,” he said. “It’s really trying to tie in how these deeper processes have affected surface life on our planet in the past.” The research was supported by the National Science Foundation (OCE-1338842), NASA (80NSSC18K0828) and the Deep Carbon Observatory. The Daily Galaxy via Rice University
- What are the basic principles of logic? - How can I get logical thinking? - What is an example of logic? - What is the reasoning question? - What is pure logic? - What are the 4 types of reasoning? - What are the 2 types of reasoning? - How many types of reasoning questions are there? - What are the two main types of logic? - What are the types of reasoning questions? - Who is father of reasoning? - How do you teach reasoning? - What is the ideal of logic? - What are the types of reasoning? - What are 3 types of reasoning? - What is formal and informal logic? - What is fallacious reasoning? - What is the important of logic? What are the basic principles of logic? Laws of thought, traditionally, the three fundamental laws of logic: (1) the law of contradiction, (2) the law of excluded middle (or third), and (3) the principle of identity. The three laws can be stated symbolically as follows.. How can I get logical thinking? Here are a few methods you might consider to develop your logical thinking skills: Spend time on creative hobbies. Practice questioning….Try to anticipate the outcome of your decisions.Spend time on creative hobbies. … Practice questioning. … Socialize with others. … Learn a new skill.More items…• What is an example of logic? The definition of logic is a science that studies the principles of correct reasoning. An example of logic is deducing that two truths imply a third truth. An example of logic is the process of coming to the conclusion of who stole a cookie based on who was in the room at the time. What is the reasoning question? The logical reasoning questions can be verbal or non-verbal: In verbal logical reasoning questions, the concepts and problems are expressed in words. … The candidates are required to read and understand the given text or paragraph and according choose the right answer from the given options. What is pure logic? Pure Logic, a phrase often used, but to which no distinct conception can be attached. [—] Perhaps we may say that pure logic is a logic deduced from hypotheses (which some will look upon as axioms) without any inquiry into the observational warrant for those hypotheses. Citation. ‘Pure Logic’. What are the 4 types of reasoning? These are the four types of reasoning.Deductive Reasoning.Inductive Reasoning.Critical Thinking.Intution. What are the 2 types of reasoning? Though there are others, there are two basic forms of logical reasoning most associated with mathematical thinking: induction and deduction.Inductive reasoning is based on observed patterns.Deductive reasoning uses logic to form a conclusion from given statements. How many types of reasoning questions are there? For most competitive exams, the Reasoning Ability section comprises two variety of questions. These two types include logical reasoning and analytical reasoning. What are the two main types of logic? Types of logicPhilosophical logic is an area of philosophy. … Informal logic is the study of natural language arguments. … Formal logic is the study of inference with purely formal content.More items… What are the types of reasoning questions? Each stimulus takes the form of an argument – a conclusion based on evidence. You will need to understand the stimulus to answer the questions based on it. Common types of questions include weakening, strengthening, assumption, main point, inference, and parallel logic. Who is father of reasoning? The Greek philosopher Aristotle, who is considered the father of deductive reasoning, wrote the following classic example: P1. All men are mortal. How do you teach reasoning? Perhaps the most effective way to foster critical thinking skills is to teach those skills. Explicitly.analyze analogies.create categories and classify items appropriately.identify relevant information.construct and recognize valid deductive arguments.test hypotheses.recognize common reasoning fallacies.More items… What is the ideal of logic? Definition 3.17 A ¬-paraconsistent logic L is called ideal, if it is normal (i.e., ¬-contained in classical logic and has a proper implication), maximal relative to classical logic, and maximally paraconsistent. What are the types of reasoning? Three types of reasoning are inductive, deductive, and causal. Inductive reasoning refers to arguments that persuade by citing examples that build to a conclusion. Examples should be sufficient, typical, and representative to warrant a strong argument. What are 3 types of reasoning? Reasoning is the process of using existing knowledge to draw conclusions, make predictions, or construct explanations. Three methods of reasoning are the deductive, inductive, and abductive approaches. What is formal and informal logic? Usually formal logic can also be called deductive logic because the form of thinking allows one to deduce it’s conclusion from its premises (as in the Chris process of elimination example argument described just above). Informal logic is usually called inductive logic. What is fallacious reasoning? Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim. What is the important of logic? Logic is important because it influences every decision we make in our lives. Logical thinking allows us to learn and make decisions that will affect our lifestyle. If no one thought logically, we would all be running around like chickens with our heads cut off, and nothing would make any sense.
Course Code: ntn In the first lesson, you'll learn about the concept of a network stack. After a succinct review of essential network and networking terms, you'll compare the theoretical structure of a network stack—commonly called the OSI model—to real-world networking. You'll then trace how data travels through the computer for transmission on the network. You'll pick up right where the last lesson left with a discussion on how a unit of computer data—called a packet—gets from one computer to another. You'll learn all about how packets are formed, how packets are sometimes chopped then reassembled to go across WAN links, and how the receiving computer handles packets upon arrival. You'll also learn why the network's most important device is the router. This lesson is dedicated to helping you understand how routers operate. You'll learn all about how routers create a virtual map of the entire Internet. You'll also see how routers connect to different network types—an Ethernet segment and an ATM link, for example—and transmit data across those different mediums. The lesson will then discuss why routers have their own special languages, called routing protocols. In this lesson, you'll learn the language of routers: routing protocols. You'll learn why some routing protocols are appropriate for smaller networks, and why very large networks require specialized routing protocols. You'll also learn about the two most revealing measurements of a router's capability: latency and packets per second (pps). You've heard of TCP/IP, but its details may seem mysterious. After you complete this lesson, those mysteries will be banished forever! You'll learn about IP addressing, the four primary IP address classes, and all about the various protocols that come packaged within TCP/IP. Prepare to demystify TCP/IP! Security is on everyone's mind these days, so in this lesson, you'll learn the fundamentals of how computers enforce security. You'll learn what a security descriptor is and how it can allow some people to only read a document, while others can delete or modify the document as much as they like. You'll also learn the difference between a security implementation and security protocols. Finally, you'll find out how security operates in a Windows environment, including exactly what happens during log on, authentication, and authorization. In this lesson, you'll explore encryption, a method used to secure data for transmission over the Internet. You'll learn about various encryption schemes and get firsthand knowledge of how a chunk of data gets encrypted, how it gets decrypted on the receiving end, and how this process can be made secure. You'll also learn how Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) makes it safe for you to order merchandise online, and how SSL ensures that your connection to the seller's website is secure. The Internet is a great public network, but what if you need it for private communication? For example, what if a salesman needs to make a private connection to her company's network to check on special bulk pricing? In this lesson, you'll learn how you can create a virtual private network out of your Internet connection. You'll get a hands-on view of how these private connections are made, and why they're so useful. The Internet, and almost every other network today, uses Domain Name System (DNS) to translate human-readable names (like www addresses) into IP addresses that computers can use. It's important to understand how this system works, so in this chapter you'll learn details about how DNS operates. You'll learn how resource records are the building blocks of DNS, and how DNS scales to the entire Internet by being broken into zones. This lesson will expand on the discussion of DNS. Here you'll learn about the most important types of resource records, including A records, SOA records, and others. You'll also learn about the two types of DNS queries: recursive and iterative. There are many other resource record types, and you'll learn about those as well. By the end of the lesson, it'll be clear just how important DNS is to people's daily lives! In this lesson, you'll learn how Internet servers operate, including how a web page is requested and transmitted to your computer, then displayed on your screen. You'll also learn about the two primary Web protocols—HTTP and HTML. There are other Internet-based services, such as email servers, news servers, and instant messaging, and you'll investigate those in this lesson, too. Have you ever wondered about the difference between a desktop computer and a server? Have you heard of cloud computing, but don't know exactly what it means? The final lesson will go over the differences between server-class operating systems and server-class computers and go in-depth about the various hardware components that comprise a true server-class computer. Understanding why a desktop computer shouldn't be used as a departmental server is important! You'll also learn what cloud computing is, why it's such a compelling platform, and how data centers provide all that computing power. David Iseminger is an author and technology veteran, with expertise in computing, networking, wireless and cloud technologies, data and analytics, artificial intelligence, and blockchain. While with Microsoft, David worked on early versions of Windows and its core networking infrastructure, and on transmission protocols, security, data visualizations, and multiple emerging cloud technologies. David is passionate about education, serving as a School Board director for over 10 years, advocating at state and federal levels for increased learning standards, and has taught over 40,000 students through multiple technology courses. He has an awarded patent in Artificial Intelligence (AI) object detection and social posting methodologies and is the founder and CEO of the blockchain company that created IronWeave, the unlimited scale blockchain platform, based on his patent-pending blockchain innovations and inventions. Completion of the Introduction to Networking course (or equivalent experience). The instructional materials required for this course are included in enrollment and will be available online. Instructor-Led: A new session of each course begins each month. Please refer to the session start dates for scheduling. Self-Paced: You can start this course at any time your schedule permits. Instructor-Led: Once a session starts, two lessons will be released each week, for the 6 week duration of your course. You will have access to all previously released lessons until the course ends. Self-Paced: You have three-month access to the course. After enrolling, you can learn and complete the course at your own pace, within the allotted access period. Instructor-Led: The interactive discussion area for each lesson automatically closes 2 weeks after each lesson is released, so you're encouraged to complete each lesson within two weeks of its release. Self-Paced: There is no time limit to complete each lesson, other than completing all lessons before your three-month access expires. Instructor-Led: The Final Exam will be released on the same day as the last lesson. Once the Final Exam has been released, you will have 2 weeks plus 10 days to complete the Final and finish any remaining lessons in your course. No further extensions can be provided beyond these 10 days. Self-Paced: Because this course is self-paced, no extensions will be granted after the start of your enrollment. Another wonderful class. David made this difficult subject accessable and understandable. The course and the lessons were very well organized and interesting. I thoroughly enjoyed this class and would recommend it to anybody. The online format was great for me too, perhaps even better than going to a class. I felt I received much more personal attention than I would have in a class room! I look forward to many more classes by David." David does a great job communicating a very difficult subject. I highly recommend him as an instructor." Instructor is very personable and encouraging in the discussion. Guess you could say that he has a "good website manner"! The text flows comfortably and the reference materials are generally very useful." I really enjoyed this course. The instructor's use of concepts we are already familiar with to make the Networking concepts more understandable was great!" The instructor has a great teaching style and I found myself learning and retaining concepts I would have previously believed would be beyond my grasp." This course has helped me prepare for the Networking exams I have to take in the next few months. Thank you." This course was presented in such a way that a network novice like myself could fairly easily grasp the fundamentals. I liked the instructor's use of every day models as examples to teach a concept. I learned more about networking in this class and the preceding one than I ever did anywhere else. I enjoyed it very much!" This has been a fantastic experience, David Iseminger is a great teacher. He knew how to keep it interesting and informative at the same time. I look forward to possibly taking another of his courses if I can!" Your humor, analogies and expertise made this a very enjoyable and worthwhile course to participate in. Thank you!"
The following five categories will help your student solve words while reading or writing: · Sound: You can read or write some words by thinking about the sounds. · Look: You can read or write some words by thinking about the way they look. · Meaning: You can read or write some words by thinking about what they mean. The wind blew my hat off. My shirt is blue. · Connect: You can use what you know about a word to figure out a new word. · Inquire: You can use materials to learn more about words. dictionary, adult, computer Prompts to help students solve (read or write) words: · What do you hear first? Next? Last? · Do you know a word that starts with those letters? Ends with these letters? · Read the part you know. · Check to see if it looks right. · Write the part you know. What sounds do you hear in the word? · Do you have a period at the end of you sentence? · Are you proper nouns capitalized? · Is your writing focused? Writing about one specific topic? · Look for patterns · Look for word parts · Try several ways to spell a word · Write the sounds they hear in a word · Write a vowel in each word and each syllable · Think about words that sound the same · Think about words that look the same · Check to see if words look right · Think about what words mean · Practice words · Ask someone if they can’t figure it out or look in a dictionary Oh nooo! I have writers' block. What should I do? - Writer's block is typically caused by conflicted feelings. We want the writing to be perfect and we want to write the essay or story as soon as possible. We know how the essay or story should sound, but we don't have all the facts or ideas we need. We know what we have to say but we are afraid that it won't be good enough. - All of these feelings are natural and normal. Everyone finds writing a challenge. - Using trial and error Since our short-term memory is limited, trying to juggle in your head all the possible ways to phrase something usually means we repeat the same rejected sentences over and over. One way to avoid this is to make a quick list of alternative sentences. - lnsisting on a perfect paper or draft This is the surest way to writer's block. Expecting everything to come together at once leads to nowhere. Doing this is really much slower than writing several quick drafts focusing on different goals. - Waiting for great ideas Sometimes it works, sometimes it doesn't. What seems like great ideas are usually the result of hard work. - Taking notes Jot down ideas and sentences as they come to you. Free yourself from paragraphs and sentences for the moment--use charts, arrows, boxes, outlines, even pictures. Right now, you are only worried about getting things down before you forget them. When you're not just blocked, try freewriting. Sit down for ten minutes and write down everything you can think of about your topic. The object is to write without stopping for the whole ten minutes. If you can't think of anything to say, write "blah, blah, blah" over and over. If other things come to you as you write, go ahead and write them, even if they are not directly related to your topic. These distractions may be part of what is keeping you blocked. - Freewriting is good for uncovering ideas--it's a good way to create great ideas and sentences. But the main idea of freewriting is to get you moving! Most of what you write in those ten minutes will go in the recycling bin, but you'll be warmed up and your serious writing should go more smoothly. - Brainstorming resembles freewriting but is more goal-directed. You start not only with a topic, say Sports, but also with a goal: What is the best sport?Why? Then allow yourself to write down ideas for a set amount of time without stoping any ideas and without wanting prefection. When the "storm" has passed, you can rearrange ideas, put thoughts into complete sentences, edit, and smile. Sometimes, starting at the beginning induces Perfect Draft Syndrome. It may be easier to get started if you approach the task sideways. If you've got a plan for story or essay, choose a section from the middle or a point you know well and start there. Then do another section. After you've gained some confidence, you can work on the opening and smooth out the transitions. - Satisficing (satisfy + suffice) You "satisfice" when you take the write what comes to you instead of searching endlessly for just the right word or sentence. If you're unhappy with the choice, you can bracket it and promise yourself you'll fix it later. Adapted from the University of Illinois Center for Writing Studies, www.english.uiuc.edu on September 5th, 2008
According to a study published this Monday in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, a group of researchers from the Duke University might have discovered the explanation of one of the rarest creatures present in the deep ocean: the “Cockeyed” squid. It is known among the scientific community that the deep sea is the home of the rarest and oddest creatures of the planet. The “Cockeyed” squid might be one of the most accurate examples of these unique animals. This sea creature features a set of different eyes that even have different biological functions. Also, the size and color of both organs are considerably distinct. Until the latest study, researchers in many investigation centers were not able to determine the real reason to explain this odd feature present in the “Cockeyed” squid. This sea creature, officially known as Histioteuthis heteropsis, has intrigued the whole investigation community since its discovery over 100 years ago, as the answer was somehow achieved by the researchers at the Duke University. ‘Cockeyed’ squid anomaly: A rare functional feature The research team went over hundreds of pieces of records and data that could explain the mismatched eyes in the “Cockeyed” squid. They analyzed video registers from more than 150 footages of the squids swimming in the Monterey Submarine Canyon in Monterey Bay, Calif. Over the last 30 years, a variety of this species populations had undergone over investigations regarding, for example, its rare “up-side down” swimming method. According to the results presented in the publication, the researchers determined that each eye had different characteristics as each one of them must comply a different task in the squid’s biological system. After analyzing every video and conducting light and simulation testing, the scientists concluded that the bigger eye located on the top of the animal is in charge of recognizing any shadows from fish nearby while the smaller one located downward is in charge of localizing any potential risks in the squid’s perimeter. “Eyes are really expensive to make and maintain,” lead study researcher Kate Thomas, a graduate student of biology at Duke University, said in a statement. “You want eyes just big enough to do what you need to do, but you don’t want to have any bigger eyes, because then you are just wasting resources.” According to the study, each eye cannot fulfill the other eye’s responsibility. This is because every eye possesses different features and organical compositions. For example, the smaller eye cannot detect the shadows from the fish that are beneath the squib itself. These organs are able to detect, instead, bioluminescence. This particular light is chemically produced, which comes from specific animals like deep sea fireflies and fish, and can be detected by the smaller eye thanks to its specialized visual structure. The scientists defined that bigger eyes don’t translate into more chances of detecting several types of lights, unlike the smaller eye abilities. However, the investigations showed how the bigger eye is considerably more efficient on catching the sunlight that creates the fish’s shadows. So, even when this particular squid’s structure and appearance might look weird, the study was able to prove how these unusual characteristics are the ones that make life easier for this sea animal. “The eye looking down really only can look for bioluminescence,” Sönke Johnsen, the study’s senior author and a professor of biology at Duke University, said in a statement. “There is no way it is able to pick out shapes against the ambient light. And once it is looking for bioluminescence, it doesn’t really need to be particularly big, so it can actually shrivel up a little bit over generations. But the eye looking up actually does benefit from getting a bit bigger.” Living in the Twilight Zone? Time to adapt According to the researchers, this unique visual feature might be the consequence of the environment in which this animal was forced to live due to its specific characteristics and system. The “Cockeyed” squid’s rare visual structure is the factor that actually makes possible for the animal to live in the extreme conditions of the Twilight Zone. This area is located about 660 feet to 3,200 feet (200 to 1,000 meters) under the water’s surface. Since the sunlight that reaches this zone is barely enough to illuminate, the environment is dyed in a monochromatic dark blue color. A considerable number of species have adapted to this conditions by developing what is called “bioluminescence,” or the ability to glow in the dark. According to Johnsen, this kind of creatures help all the current investigations enormously regarding eye functions and mechanisms. As the animals present in those areas must develop a different visual system, their adaptability allows the creation of a different eye structure, giving valuable information to scientists. And species that have developed the two different types of eye structures are the most interesting ones to study. Source: Christian Science Monitor
The ground under our feet matters more than we often admit. It’s a precious gift from nature. Healthy fertile soil provides homes for plants and it’s important for many natural cycles—from recycling nutrients to purifying water. Learn more about soil in this week’s featured book: Mighty Mole and Super Soil Below your feet, Mighty Mole is on the move. Like a swimmer in dirt, she strokes through the soil. Her tunnels are everywhere! She finds food, eludes a predator, has a family, and helps to make Super Soil. “Vivid illustrations give a genuine sense of living in the underground. Kids will feel like they’re with the moles—in a comfortable way,” said one reader. Moles live almost everywhere yet are rarely seen. Similarly, soil is a largely invisible ecosystem and yet is vital to the health of the world. Following the story, two “Explore More for Kids” pages offer a matching challenge and a review of some of the remarkable traits that make moles “mighty.” Two additional pages of “Explore More for Teachers and Parents” offers activities in visual and language arts, science, technology, and math. Featured Lesson: Thank You, Soil! Mighty Mole and Super Soil introduces children to an under-ground ecosystem. What creatures live in the ground and how do they help make the soil healthy? These underground happenings are largely invisible to humans but vital to the health of the planet. Suggested Grade Level: 1-3 - The book Mighty Mole and Super Soil - Index cards, 2 per child - Pencils, 1 per child - Scotch tape, 1 piece per child In this activity, children explore the many things in our lives that depend on soil. Download the free pdf Thank You, Soil! to read the directions for this lesson and the Common Core Standards it addresses.
A job cost sheet breaks down a manufacturing project into three types of costs: direct materials, direct labor and manufacturing overhead. Direct materials are the costs of all the materials needed to manufacture the product. Direct labor is the amount of labor used to complete the project. Manufacturing overhead is the indirect costs associated with creating the product. The job cost sheet then summarizes the costs by each classification. Add all the costs of materials needed to complete the project. For example, a company manufactures widgets. To produce 100 widgets, the business requires $20 of metal, $4 in screws and $8 in wood. The total cost of direct materials is $32. Calculate the amount of labor costs. In our example, the company pays $15 an hour to the two employees who create the widgets. The two employees work a total of 10 hours to produce 100 widgets. Therefore, the company's total direct labor costs are $150. Calculate the amount of manufacturing overhead. Manufacturing overhead is normally determined as a percentage of hours worked. For example, the company estimates that overhead is 125 percent of labor costs. Therefore, there is $187.50 in manufacturing overhead costs from the equation $150 x 1.25. Add the costs calculated in Steps 1 through 3. In our example, $32 + $150 + $187.50 = $369.50. This is the total cost of the project. Divide the total cost of the project by the number of units produced to determine cost per unit. In our example, $369.50 / 100 units = $3.695 per unit.
The Five Paragraph Argumentative Essay Structure - YouTube The first step to writing an argument essay is together evidence of both sides of the topic, then put both sides into consideration, before taking a stand. This means that you will have to present both sides of the argument while assessing each side individually. The argumentative essay structure is as follows: introduction, presentation of both sides of controversy, then reinstating your position in the last paragraph. Argumentative Essay Basic Structure If you want to get the highest marks for your well-written argumentative essay and be the best in persuasion, first of all, check out the argumentative essay structure. But firstly we want to define what it this and what does it stands for. Argumentative essay is a kind of a college paper that is used to explain one’s position and persuade others that this opinion is correct.
Habitat loss may soon mean half the world’s insects, and many plants and animals as well, could find themselves without their familiar home ranges. Right now, climate scientists warn, global planetary temperatures are on course to rise 3.2°C above the average for most of human history. They have already risen by about 1°C in the last 100 years. And if they do, then 49% of insects, 44% of plants and 26% of vertebrates could lose more than half of their ranges. If the 195 nations that agreed in Paris in 2015 to take steps to restrict global warming to a target of 1.5°C keep their pledges, only 6% of insects, 8% of plants and 4% of vertebrates will experience severe reductions in their ranges. Even half a degree makes a huge difference. ”We could literally move the world back 20 to 30 million years in the space of a century. It is like moving ecosystems backwards in time at the speed of light” “Insects are particularly sensitive to climate change. At 2°C warming, 18% of the 31,000 insects we studied are projected to lose more than half their range. This is reduced to 6% at 1.5°C. But even at 1.5°C, some species lose larger proportions of their range,” said Rachel Warren of the University of East Anglia, who led the study. “The current global warming trajectory, if countries meet their international pledges to reduce CO2, is around 3°C. In this case, almost 50% of insects would lose half their range.” These figures are projections based on a sample of animal and plant studies: the sample is however one of the largest undertaken. Professor Warren and colleagues from Australia report in the journal Science that they studied data involving 34,000 insects and other invertebrates, 8,000 birds, 1,800 reptiles, 1,000 amphibians and 71,000 plants, and took into account the capacity of each species to move to new habitat as the world warms. Pattern of alarm Such studies build on evidence assembled piecemeal, sometimes over many decades, about the impact of humanity on its fellow citizens of the planet. This evidence confirms a consistent pattern of alarm. Researchers have established repeatedly that ecosystems already under pressure from human invasion are made more vulnerable by global warming and climate change. More precisely, German scientists have established that the sheer numbers of insects that used to make a living around European farmlands have fallen dramatically, and even those insects that seem to survive almost everywhere could be under threat. The new study found that a small number of species will extend their range in a warming world. Most will not. Many will have fewer places to go. “This is really important because insects are vital to ecosystems and for humans,” said Professor Warren. “They pollinate crops and flowers, they provide food for higher-level organisms, they break down detritus, they maintain a balance in ecosystems by eating the leaves of plants, and they help recycle nutrients in the soil.” Humans depend on plants, insects and other animals to deliver water quality, soil conservation, flood prevention, crop pollination and natural pest control. All this is now threatened, not just by the clearing of forests and the growth of the cities, but by the profligate use of fossil fuels which release greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, to drive global warming. Researchers know, through a detailed study of the geological past, what higher concentrations of carbon dioxide can do to global climate. “There is way too much debate about the issue of climate change and whether or not it is real. What we really need to be doing is debating how we solve this problem,” said Professor Midgley. “Those very high CO2 concentrations could well change the ecosystems of the world irrevocably. If we increase CO2 to over a thousand parts per million, over the next fifty to sixty years, which we are quite capable of doing if we fail to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels, we could literally move the world back 20 to 30 million years in the space of a century. It is like moving ecosystems backwards in time at the speed of light.” Source:By Tim Radford – Climate News Network
Zumf makes spectacles for the residents of the planet Zargon, who have either 3 eyes or 4 eyes. How many lenses will Zumf need to make all the different orders for 9 families? This problem is based on the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. Investigate the different numbers of people and rats there could have been if you know how many legs there are altogether! This magic square has operations written in it, to make it into a maze. Start wherever you like, go through every cell and go out a total of 15! Suppose we allow ourselves to use three numbers less than 10 and multiply them together. How many different products can you find? How do you know you've got them all? In the multiplication calculation, some of the digits have been replaced by letters and others by asterisks. Can you reconstruct the original multiplication? Find the product of the numbers on the routes from A to B. Which route has the smallest product? Which the largest? There are 44 people coming to a dinner party. There are 15 square tables that seat 4 people. Find a way to seat the 44 people using all 15 tables, with no empty places. Using the statements, can you work out how many of each type of rabbit there are in these pens? Cherri, Saxon, Mel and Paul are friends. They are all different ages. Can you find out the age of each friend using the information? On my calculator I divided one whole number by another whole number and got the answer 3.125. If the numbers are both under 50, what are they? Can you arrange 5 different digits (from 0 - 9) in the cross in the way described? Use your logical-thinking skills to deduce how much Dan's crisps and ice-cream cost altogether. The Scot, John Napier, invented these strips about 400 years ago to help calculate multiplication and division. Can you work out how to use Napier's bones to find the answer to these multiplications? Watch this animation. What do you notice? What happens when you try more or fewer cubes in a bundle? There is a clock-face where the numbers have become all mixed up. Can you find out where all the numbers have got to from these ten statements? Find out what a Deca Tree is and then work out how many leaves there will be after the woodcutter has cut off a trunk, a branch, a twig and a leaf. Try adding together the dates of all the days in one week. Now multiply the first date by 7 and add 21. Can you explain what happens? There are over sixty different ways of making 24 by adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing all four numbers 4, 6, 6 and 8 (using each number only once). How many can you find? What is the sum of all the three digit whole numbers? There were chews for 2p, mini eggs for 3p, Chocko bars for 5p and lollypops for 7p in the sweet shop. What could each of the children buy with their money? We can arrange dots in a similar way to the 5 on a dice and they usually sit quite well into a rectangular shape. How many altogether in this 3 by 5? What happens for other sizes? In a Magic Square all the rows, columns and diagonals add to the 'Magic Constant'. How would you change the magic constant of this square? The clockmaker's wife cut up his birthday cake to look like a clock face. Can you work out who received each piece? A group of children are using measuring cylinders but they lose the labels. Can you help relabel them? What do you notice about the date 03.06.09? Or 08.01.09? This challenge invites you to investigate some interesting dates yourself. Where can you draw a line on a clock face so that the numbers on both sides have the same total? On the table there is a pile of oranges and lemons that weighs exactly one kilogram. Using the information, can you work out how many lemons there are? Skippy and Anna are locked in a room in a large castle. The key to that room, and all the other rooms, is a number. The numbers are locked away in a problem. Can you help them to get out? How would you count the number of fingers in these pictures? If the answer's 2010, what could the question be? Here is a chance to play a version of the classic Countdown Game. This problem is based on a code using two different prime numbers less than 10. You'll need to multiply them together and shift the alphabet forwards by the result. Can you decipher the code? This challenge asks you to investigate the total number of cards that would be sent if four children send one to all three others. How many would be sent if there were five children? Six? Find the next number in this pattern: 3, 7, 19, 55 ... Use your logical reasoning to work out how many cows and how many sheep there are in each field. Use the information to work out how many gifts there are in each pile. This number has 903 digits. What is the sum of all 903 digits? If you had any number of ordinary dice, what are the possible ways of making their totals 6? What would the product of the dice be each time? What is happening at each box in these machines? Number problems at primary level that require careful consideration. Here are the prices for 1st and 2nd class mail within the UK. You have an unlimited number of each of these stamps. Which stamps would you need to post a parcel weighing 825g? Mr McGregor has a magic potting shed. Overnight, the number of plants in it doubles. He'd like to put the same number of plants in each of three gardens, planting one garden each day. Can he do it? Number problems at primary level that may require resilience. Rocco ran in a 200 m race for his class. Use the information to find out how many runners there were in the race and what Rocco's finishing position was. Go through the maze, collecting and losing your money as you go. Which route gives you the highest return? And the lowest? If the numbers 5, 7 and 4 go into this function machine, what numbers will come out? Can you score 100 by throwing rings on this board? Is there more than way to do it? Look on the back of any modern book and you will find an ISBN code. Take this code and calculate this sum in the way shown. Can you see what the answers always have in common? On a calculator, make 15 by using only the 2 key and any of the four operations keys. How many ways can you find to do it? Put a number at the top of the machine and collect a number at the bottom. What do you get? Which numbers get back to themselves?

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