Split (1)

train · 64k rows

content stringlengths 275 370k
Every fall, just as the first frost blankets Alberta, Canada, the Whooping Crane leaves its home in Wood Buffalo National Park to make the 2,500 mile journey to the balmy salt flats and marshes of Aransas National Wildlife Refuge near Rockport, Texas. Here this endangered species will spend the winter feasting on blue crab, crawfish, frogs and insects and then travel back to Canada to breed. The Whooping Crane is not the only species attracted to this region each year. Birders from around the world flock to the Texas Coast to catch a glimpse of one of the rarest birds. Birding or bird watching first gained popularity in the late 19th century with one of the most famous birders, John James Audubon, spearheading this past-time. After moving to America in the early 1800s, Audubon’s fascination with the birds on his Pennsylvania property ranged from hunting to drawing and eventually led to the first known North American bird-banding experiment. Audubon was the seminal force behind the well-established National Audubon Society. Going Beyond the Call The sounds of the Whooping Crane were once commonplace along the Gulf Coast, but with increased use of the pesticide DDT, this species’ population dwindled rapidly. After banning the harmful chemical, establishing wildlife preserves around the country, and caring for these birds in captivity, the Whooping Crane population is slowly increasing. But recent drought has devastated Texas land, including the Whooping Crane’s winter home. As water around the Arkansas National Wildlife Refuge diminished, the Crane’s source for food and water dried up. An estimated 23 birds died in 2009. Climate change is making an impact across the county and birders are taking notice. Whether it’s caused by drought in Texas, milder winters in the midwest, or warmer waters spawning bigger hurricanes along the east coast, bird populations and migratory patterns are evolving – sometimes with a little help from people. - In order to increase the odds of survival, the international Whooping Crane Recovery Team established a second migratory flock of cranes. With an ultralight aircraft taking the lead, this flock is learning a new route from Wisconsin to Florida. - In the wake of super-storm Hurricane Sandy, brown pelicans, normally found along the southern coast into the Gulf of Mexico, were spotted in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Organizations like Cape Wildlife Center and Wild Care rehabilitated the sick and injured birds. - In response to the effects climate change has on birds migratory patterns, the Audubon Society of Portland is teaming up with other local organizations to create a Backyard Habitat Certification Program. This program provides assistance and incentives to local residents who restore wildlife habitats in their own backyards. With more than 800 bird species in the United States and Canada, getting into birdwatching is as easy as grabbing a set of binoculars and stepping outside. These tips will help attract birds to your backyard: - Find out which plants are favored by local and migrant birds and plant them in your yard - Pools, birdbaths and misters set up around your home provide a good source of water for birds – heated bird baths offer a warm refuge in cold winter months - Removing invasive plant species from your yard will help native plants thrive and maintain birds habitat and food sources - Keep cats indoors; given the opportunity, cats love to hunt birds - Place bird feeders within three feet or more than 30 feet away from windows to keep birds from flying into them - Providing bird houses and sheltering plants will create a sanctuary for birds to rest and escape predators - Avoid using pesticides – they kill birds natural food sources and contaminate drinking water According to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, there are around 48 million bird watching enthusiasts in the country today. Many of these people have found that part of their hobby includes environmental preservation. You might be surprised to find that these simple measures can help the bird population: - Make the switch to compact fluorescent lightbulbs and buy local, organic produce. - Reduce carbon emissions by taking the bus, riding a bike or switching to a fuel-efficient vehicle. - Plant trees around your house. According to American Forests, a single tree can absorb up to 10 pounds of pollutants a year. - Reduce waste by composting and recycling whenever possible. By taking actions to slow down the effects of global warming, birders ensure their feathered friends’ habitat is safe for years to come.
Sexual orientation refers to someone’s attraction to a person of the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes. People who are attracted only to persons of the opposite sex are known as heterosexual or straight. People who don’t identify as heterosexual or straight might describe themselves as being lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender, or use the umbrella term LGB. An LGB person can be single, in a relationship with another person of the same sex, or of the opposite sex, such as bisexual. Some LGB people are ‘out’, which means that they openly acknowledge their sexual orientation, but many other LGB people keep their sexual orientation private, often because they are concerned about discrimination or prejudice. Under the Equality Act 2010, it is unlawful to directly or indirectly discriminate against or harass a person because of their sexual orientation. Under the Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations (NI) 2006 it is unlawful to directly or indirectly discriminate against or harass a person because of their sexual orientation. - The Justin Campaign – Campaigning against homophobia in football - EHRC monitoring sexual orientation Guidance - EHRC monitoring gender identity Guidance - Pride Sports - The Rainbow Project - European Gay and Lesbian Sport Federation - Stonewall Scotland Irish Football Association – Sexual Orientation Staff Training DOCX, 606.21 KB, 1 page NI Equality Commission – Sexual Orientation Policy Priorities PDF, 541.03 KB, 1 page Final version of a literature review of sexual orientation in sport (December 2008) PDF, 1.11 MB, 1 page Summary of a literature review of sexual orientation in sport (November 2008) PDF, 781.32 KB, 1 page
jointArticle Free Pass joint, in geology, a brittle-fracture surface in rocks along which little or no displacement has occurred. Present in nearly all surface rocks, joints extend in various directions, generally more toward the vertical than to the horizontal. Joints may have smooth, clean surfaces, or they may be scarred by slickensides, or striations. Jointing does not extend to a very great depth in the Earth’s crust, because at about 12 kilometres (7.5 miles) even rigid rocks tend to flow plastically in response to stress. In unweathered rocks, joints are relatively inconspicuous, but upon weathering they become marked, especially in a soluble rock such as limestone. Solution by water percolating through joints has led to the formation of large caves and underground rivers. Quarrying operations are facilitated by the presence of a well-developed joint system. Sedimentary rocks usually show two sets of joints at right angles to one another, each extending down perpendicular to the bedding; one set extends in the direction of dip and the other in the direction of strike (trend of the line of intersection of the bedding and the horizontal). The distance between joints varies from about two centimetres to a few hundred metres; in alternating strata the degree of jointing may vary from bed to bed and in some cases is related to the compaction of sediments during rock formation. In igneous rocks, jointing is generally quite irregular; but in granite, two vertical sets forming right angles to one another on the top surface and another set of cross joints approximately horizontal occur frequently. (These cross joints are the effect of weathering.) Intrusions of molten rock, when cooled, form sills and dikes, which, in many places, show columnar jointing. Three sets of joints perpendicular to the cooling surfaces intersect each other at angles of about 120°. These form polygonal columns of rock that range from about 7–8 centimetres (3 inches) to about 6 metres (19 feet) in diameter; the size depends on the rate of cooling of the intrusive rock—the faster the cooling, the smaller the columns. The principal cause of jointing in both stratified and igneous rocks is crustal movement, although the specific origin of the movement may not always be apparent. Contraction upon consolidation of sediment, as well as crystallization, also contributes to minor irregular jointing, as does expansion and contraction from the intrusion of hot igneous rocks. What made you want to look up joint?
Viruses are tiny organisms that may lead to mild to severe illnesses in humans, animals and plants. This may include flu or a cold to something more life threatening like HIV/AIDS. How big are viruses? The virus particles are 100 times smaller than a single bacteria cell. The bacterial cell alone is more than 10 times smaller than a human cell and a human cell is 10 times smaller than the diameter of a single human hair. Are viruses alive? Viruses by themselves are not alive. They cannot grow or multiply on their own and need to enter a human or animal cell and take over the cell to help them multiply. These viruses may also infect bacterial cells. The virus particle or the virions attack the cell and take over its machinery to carry out their own life processes of multiplication and growth. An infected cell will produce viral particles instead of its usual products. Structure of a virus A virion (virus particle) has three main parts: Nucleic acid – this is the core of the virus with the DNA or RNA (deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid respectively). The DNA or RNA holds all of the information for the virus and that makes it unique and helps it multiply. Protein Coat (capsid) – This is covering over the nucleic acid that protects it. Lipid membrane (envelope) – this covers the capsid. Many viruses do not have this envelope and are called naked viruses. Viruses are not simply taken into cells. They must ﬁrst attach to a receptor on the cell surface. Each virus has its speciﬁc receptor, usually a vital component of the cell surface. It is the distribution of these receptor molecules on host cells that determines the cell-preference of viruses. For example, the cold and flu virus prefers the mucus lining cells of the lungs and the airways. How do viruses infect? Viruses do not have the chemical machinery needed to survive on their own. They, thus seek out host cells in which they can multiply. These viruses enter the body from the environment or other individuals from soil to water to air via nose, mouth, or any breaks in the skin and seek a cell to infect. A cold or flu virus for example will target cells that line the respiratory (i.e. the lungs) or digestive (i.e. the stomach) tracts. The HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) that causes AIDS attacks the T-cells (a type of white blood cell that fights infection and disease) of the immune system. Life cycle of a basic virus There are a few basic steps that all infecting viruses follow and these are called the lytic cycle. These include: A virus particle attaches to a host cell. This is called the process of adsorption The particle injects its DNA or RNA into the host cell called entry. The invading DNA or RNA takes over the cell and recruits the host’s enzymes The cellular enzymes start making new virus particles called replication The particles of the virus created by the cell come together to form new viruses. This is called assembly The newly formed viruses kill the cell so that they may break free and search for a new host cell. This is called release.
Each planet has its own orbital speed. If the orbital speed was doubled, the planet would a) enter into a closer orbit around the Sun. b) enter into a far orbit around the Sun. c) warm up. d) escape the Sun. The critical value above which a planet would escape the Sun is called the escape velocity. The formula for the escape velocity vesc = √(2GM/r) , where M is the mass of the Sun, G is the universal gravitational constant and r is the distance between the center of the Sun and the center of the planet. The orbital velocity of the planet is given by vorb = √(GM/r) From the two previous formulas we can obtain vesc = √2 vorb . Now, it is clear that if the orbital speed was doubled, the planet would escape the Sun. Image Credit: NASA
Presentation on theme: "May 15General Science Chapter 131 Work & Energy Chapter 13."— Presentation transcript: May 15General Science Chapter 131 Work & Energy Chapter 13 May 15General Science Chapter 132 Work Everyday concept of work. Scientific definition: Work is the transfer of energy through motion. A force applied, in which the object moves, to an object in the direction that the object moves. May 15General Science Chapter 133 Work In order for work to take place, a force must be exerted through a distance. In order for work to be done, there has to be motion, and the motion has to be in the direction of the applied force. If there is no motion, no work will be done May 15General Science Chapter 134 Recall “work” lab Did you do more work lifting the books to shoulder level or over your head? Greater distance means more work Did you do more work lifting 2 books or 4 books? Greater force means more work May 15General Science Chapter 135 Work Equation Work, like energy, is measured in joules. 1 J = 1 N ∙ m. May 15General Science Chapter 136 Work and Energy Work is the transfer of energy through motion. When 1 J of work is done on an object, 1 J of energy has been transferred to the object. May 15General Science Chapter 137 Example A student’s backpack weighs 10 N. She lifts it from the floor to a shelf 1.5 m high. How much work is done on the backpack? Force, F = 10 N Distance, d = 1.5 m Work = (Force)(Distance) Work = (10 N)(1.5 m) Work = 15 N ∙m = 15 J May 15General Science Chapter 138 Example #2 A dancer lifts a 400-N ballerina overhead a distance of 1.4 m and holds her there for several seconds. How much work is done on the ballerina? Work = (400 N)(1.4 m) Work = 560 J Note that the time was not important for us to determine the work done. May 15General Science Chapter 139 Example #3 A carpenter lifts a 45-kg beam 1.2 m high. How much work is done on the beam? Remember that weight equals mass times acceleration due to gravity. Weight = (45 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 ) = 441 N Work = (441 N)(1.2 m) Work = J Power May 15General Science Chapter 1310 The rate at which work is done. How much work is done in a given amount of time The ratio of work to time Watts May 15General Science Chapter 1311 Power is measured in Watts, named after James Watt, who helped develop the steam engine. 1 W = 1 J/s Very small unit, so we often use kW Watts = 1 horsepower Example May 15General Science Chapter 1312 A figure skater lifts his partner, who weighs 450 N, 1 meter in 3 seconds. How much power is required? You try May 15General Science Chapter 1313 A N elevator rises 30.0 m in 60.0 s. How much power is required? Express your answer in kW. Making Connections May 15General Science Chapter Joules = 1 calorie Joules are units for energy and work 1 Calorie = 1000 calories A Calorie is used for foods, so if a candy bar has 250 Calories it is the same as calories. Example #1 May 15General Science Chapter 1315 Tommy eats a candy bar that has 230 Calories. How many Joules is that? 1 Calorie = 1000 calories 1 calorie = Joules so 1 Cal = 4184 Joules therefore 230 Calories = Joules Example #1 continued May 15General Science Chapter 1316 How much Power can be produced with the 230 Calorie candy bar in 1 hour? 230 Cal = Joules Use the equation below Example #1 continued May 15General Science Chapter 1317 Discussion #1 May 15General Science Chapter 1318 Define work and what are the SI units? What units are used to measure Power? Why is the unit kW used more often than W? What is the conversion factor for horsepower to Watts? May 15General Science Chapter 1319 Machine A device that makes work easier By using a machine you DO NOT DO LESS work. It just makes it seems easier to do the work. May 15General Science Chapter 1320 Work and machines Work is made easier by doing 1 of 3 things Changes the size of the input force Changes the direction of the force Changes both the size and the direction of the force Opening a paint can with a screwdriver Changes size – you can use less force Changes direction May 15General Science Chapter 1321 Forces and machines Effort force (F e ) – applied to the machine The force you exert Also called input force Resistance force (F r ) – applied by the machine to overcome gravity or friction The force the machine exerts Also called output force May 15General Science Chapter 1322 Work and machines Work input (W in ) – work done on the machine Effort force times distance it moves W in = F e X d e Work output (W out ) – work done by the machine Resistance force times distance it moves W out = F r X d r May 15General Science Chapter 1323 Mechanical advantage The number of times a machine multiplies the effort force The ratio of output to input. (usually a force) May 15General Science Chapter 1324 Mechanical advantage Can be greater than 1 Opening paint can Can be equal to 1 Raising blinds Can be less than 1 Hitting a baseball May 15General Science Chapter 1325 Example A worker applies an effort force of 10 N to pry open a window that has a resistance of 500 N. What is the mechanical advantage of the crowbar? F r = 500 NF e = 10 N May 15General Science Chapter 1326 You try A jack is used to lift a 2000-N rock. The effort force is 200 N. Find the mechanical advantage. May 15General Science Chapter 1327 Discuss #2 A _____________ is a device that makes work easier. What are the 3 ways a machine can make work easier? What do we call the force applied to a machine? What do we call the force applied by a machine? May 15General Science Chapter 1328 Discussion #2 What is mechanical advantage? What does it mean when the MA value is equal to 1? How do we calculate MA? May 15General Science Chapter 1329 Simple machine A device that does work with only one movement There are six types LeversInclined Plane PulleyWedge Wheel & AxleScrew Ideal Mechanical Advantage The ratio of output to input (usually a force) disregarding friction and gravity. When the output work = the input work. Machine would be 100% efficient, which is impossible. 5/2/2015General Science Chapter 1330 May 15General Science Chapter 1331 Levers Examples Crowbars Seesaws Baseball bat May 15General Science Chapter 1332 Definitions A lever is a bar that is free to pivot, or turn, about a fixed point. A fulcrum is the fixed point of a lever. The effort arm is the part of the lever on which the force is applied. The resistance arm is the part of the lever that exerts the resistance. May 15General Science Chapter 1333 Lever fulcrum Resistance arm Effort arm Effort force Resistance force May 15General Science Chapter 1334 Mechanical advantage Review, we learned that We can also use for levers May 15General Science Chapter 1335 You try You use a crowbar 160 cm long as a lever to lift a large rock. The rock is 20 cm from the fulcrum. You push down on the other end of the crowbar. What is the length of the effort arm? The resistance arm? What is the IMA of the lever? May 15General Science Chapter 1336 First class levers The fulcrum is in the middle Seesaw crowbar fulcrum Resistance arm Effort arm Effort force May 15General Science Chapter 1337 Second class levers The resistance is in the middle wheelbarrow nutcracker fulcrum Resistance armEffort arm Effort force May 15General Science Chapter 1338 Third class levers The effort is in the middle Baseball bat broom fulcrum Resistance arm Effort arm Effort force May 15General Science Chapter 1339 Discuss #3 What is a lever? What is a fulcrum? What is the effort arm? What is the resistance arm? May 15General Science Chapter 1340 Discussion #3 What are the 3 types of levers? What is an example of each type of lever? Which type usually has a IMA value < 1? May 15General Science Chapter 1341 Pulleys Pulley – grooved wheel with a rope or chain running along the groove Acts like a lever The two ends of the rope are the effort arm and the resistance arm The wheel acts like the fulcrum May 15General Science Chapter 1342 Fixed pulley Attached to something that doesn’t move Change the direction of a force IMA of 1 LeLe LrLr FrFr FeFe May 15General Science Chapter 1343 Movable pulley Attached to the object being moved IMA greater than 1 Effort distance must be greater than resistance distance LeLe LrLr FrFr FeFe May 15General Science Chapter 1344 Block and tackle System of fixed and movable pulleys Has IMA equal to the number of ropes that support the resistance weight Count every rope coming off the movable pulleys that supports or moves the resistance force. May 15General Science Chapter 1345 Examples of Block & Tackle May 15General Science Chapter 1346 Example of Block & Tackle #2 May 15General Science Chapter 1347 Wheel and axle Consists of two wheels of different sizes that rotate together The effort force is usually applied to the large wheel The small wheel, or axle, exerts the resistance force Examples: doorknob, water faucet, gears, pencil sharpener May 15General Science Chapter 1348 Wheel and axle Can be thought of as a lever attached to a shaft Radius of wheel is effort arm Radius of axle is resistance arm Center of axle is fulcrum May 15General Science Chapter 1349 Inclined plane A ramp Lifting something along an inclined plane means you cover more distance than lifting it straight up, but you get to use a smaller force May 15General Science Chapter 1350 Screw An inclined plane wrapped in a spiral around a cylindrical post. As you drive in a screw, the inclined plane slides through the wood. May 15General Science Chapter 1351 Wedge An inclined plane with one or two sloping sides Examples Chisels Knives Axe blades The material stays in place while the wedge moves through it. May 15General Science Chapter 1352 Wedge Thickness, T Side, S May 15General Science Chapter 1353 Variations All six kinds of simple machines are variations of two basic machines The lever The inclined plane May 15General Science Chapter 1354 Compound Machine A machine that is made up of 2 or more simple machines. Examples of compound machines Fishing rod, pencil sharpener, an axe May 15General Science Chapter 1355 Discuss #4 What kind of simple machine is a ramp? What is an inclined plane wrapped in a spiral around a cylindrical post? What kind of simple machine are chisels, knives, and axes? May 15General Science Chapter 1356 Discussion #4 What type of pulleys have a MA = 1? What is the difference between a fixed pulley and a movable pulley? What is a block and tackle? What two groups can simple machines be broken into? What is a compound machine? May 15General Science Chapter 1357 Energy Scientific definition: Energy is the ability to cause change. Ability to do work Any sample of matter has energy if it can produce a change in itself or in its surroundings. Energy comes in many forms and will be classified as either Kinetic or Potential. May 15General Science Chapter 1358 Energy continued Kinetic Forms Radiant (solar), thermal, electrical, wind, sound Potential Forms Gravitational, mechanical, chemical, and nuclear Energy is measured in joules (J). Named after a British scientist. May 15General Science Chapter 1359 Kinetic energy Energy in the form of motion Amount depends on the mass and velocity of the object. Greater mass at the same velocity OR greater velocity with the same mass will have greater kinetic energy KE = ½ mv 2 5 Types (STEWS or SHEWS) May 15General Science Chapter 1360 Solar Energy (Radiant) Electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Energy from the sun May 15General Science Chapter 1361 Thermal Energy Heat energy, the internal energy in a substance. Caused by the vibration and movement of atoms/molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is a good example of this type of energy. May 15General Science Chapter 1362 Electrical Energy Energy produced by the movement of electrons. Lightning and electricity are good examples of this form of energy. May 15General Science Chapter 1363 Wind Energy (Motion) Energy produced from the movement of objects from one place to another. Do not need to see this movement, we just know there is a change in position. Wind and some forms of hydropower are good examples of this form of energy. May 15General Science Chapter 1364 Sound Energy Movement of energy through substances using longitudinal or compressional waves. Obviously this is how we hear “things” A compressional wave is like the movement of an inch worm or an accordion. May 15General Science Chapter 1365 Potential energy Stored energy Depends on its position/condition/height, mass and gravity 4 Types (GECN) PE = mgh m = mass, g = gravity, h = height May 15General Science Chapter 1366 Gravitational Energy (Hydro) Potential energy of an object due to height above the earth’s surface. The higher the object is, the more potential energy it has. May 15General Science Chapter 1367 Elastic Potential Energy (Stored) Energy stored in a spring or rubber band or anything else that stretches. The farther it is stretched, the greater its potential energy. Energy based on the position May 15General Science Chapter 1368 Chemical Energy The energy stored in foods, fuels, and batteries. There must be a chemical reaction to get the energy out. May 15General Science Chapter 1369 Nuclear Energy Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. Fusion and Fission are two examples Mechanical Energy The sum of potential and kinetic energy in a system is called mechanical energy. Think about a roller coaster or bungee jumping. May 15General Science Chapter 1370 May 15General Science Chapter 1371 Discuss #5 Energy Review Define energy What units are used to describe energy What are the 2 main forms of energy List 3 of the 4 subsets of stored energy List 3 of the 5 subsets of moving energy What is Mechanical energy? May 15General Science Chapter 1372 Discussion #5 Why is the first hill of a roller coaster ride the highest? Where would a roller coaster be moving fastest? May 15General Science Chapter 1373 Discussion #5b Why can you not travel in a circular loop when on a roller coaster? Is it possible for the second hill to be taller than the first hill? Explain why? When does a coaster have the most PE? When does a coaster have the most KE? May 15General Science Chapter 1374 Conservation of Energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can change from one form to another. Example – Swing Why does it stop? May 15General Science Chapter 1375 Conservation of energy You can never get more work out than you put in If force increases, distance must decrease. May 15General Science Chapter 1376 Internal energy The total energy of all the particles that make up a sample of matter. Includes both kinetic and potential energy of the particles. The more mass a material has, the more internal energy it has. May 15General Science Chapter 1377 Internal energy Different materials have different internal energies even when they have the same mass and temperature. This is because the particles in the materials are arranged differently. May 15General Science Chapter 1378 Separate energies Internal energy of a material depends on the total energy of its particles. Mechanical energy (kinetic and potential) of the material itself has no effect on internal energy. 1 st Law of Thermodynamics The net change in energy equals the energy transferred as work and heat. Q = Heat W = Work ΔU = Internal energy May 15General Science Chapter 1379 May 15General Science Chapter 1380 Efficiency Measure of how much of the work put into a machine is changed to useful work put out by the machine. May 15General Science Chapter 1381 Efficiency Can it ever be more than 100%? How can we increase efficiency? May 15General Science Chapter 1382 example A worker pushes a 1500 N chair up an inclined plane that is 4.0 m long and 1.0 m high. The worker exerts a force of 500 N. What is the efficiency of the inclined plane? 1 m 4 m May 15General Science Chapter 1383 You try Using a fixed pulley, you pull the rope down 1.0 m with a force of 72 N. A 65-N object is raised 1.0 m. What is the efficiency of the pulley?
New in the Lesson Bank... The Lesson Bank is a user-supported clearinghouse for on-line lesson plans. Over 2000 lessons have been submitted by teachers around the world. Contribute your favorite lesson ideas and help support teachers everywhere! Lesson #2035. Greater Than - Less Than Posted by Alice Chrostowski, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, PA (US) Mathematics, level: Elementary; Materials Required: counter chips Activity Time: 30-45 minutes; Concepts Taught: Greater Than and Less Than Students should be able to tell if a number is greater than or less than another number. This concept is used in every day life and would serve as a great skill to them. Following a class on greater than and less than, the students will be able to demonstrate their understanding of the greater number by writing the symbol associated with the number with 90% accuracy. - Motivate the students, by choosing a group to come to the front of the room. They will be separated into two uneven groups. "How many are in each group?" They will then count the groups. "Which group has more students in it?" Discuss that one group is greater than the other group. - Next give all the students a bag of counter chips. Have them pair up with the person beside them. Each person will set out any amount of chips they would like, without looking at the other person. They will then compare their counter chips. "Which pile has more?" If the piles are even, have one student add or subtract from their pile. - Draw the Greater Than and Less Than symbols on the board. Have the students imagine that each is a mouth, pointing in a different direction. "If you were hungry, would you choose a plate with a lot of food on it or with little food on it? The symbol feels the same way. It wants to eat the bigger amount. So if you have 10 chips in one pile and 8 chips in the other pile, the mouth would open to the pile of 10 chips." While explaining this, you will draw it out on the board. You will then draw more chips on the board and have volunteers come up and draw the symbols for the rest of the class. - The students will then take out a piece of paper. On partner will draw the Greater Than symbol while the other draws the Less Than symbol. They will set out two piles of chips and put the symbols between the piles to show which is greater and which is less. Make sure they are getting the concept by walking around and checking their work. - Symbolic numbers will follow. Write two single-digit numbers on the board. Have one of the students come up and draw the correct symbol. Have him or her explain why they used that symbol. Do a few more like this, and then increase difficulty by using double-digit numbers. - To evaluate on an individual basis, give the students a short quiz. This can be used for a grade or just an activity. RECENT LESSON PLANS SUBMITTED... 2083. Travel Brochure (Senior,Language) 2082. Opposite Vocabulary Development (Antonyms (Pre-School,Language) 2081. Film adaptations (Senior,Literature) 2080. Film adaptations (Senior,Literature) 2079. Understanding WH Question Forms (Elementary,Language) 2078. Book Projects: The Cay (Elementary,Reading/Writing) 2077. Teaching Fractions Easily (Elementary,Mathematics) 2076. I didn't know know that you can Jump higher on the moon? (Elementary,Science) 2075. Fun with Greater or less in Math (Elementary,Mathematics) 2074. My Pet (Elementary,Reading/Writing) 2073. Building Blocks of a Story (Elementary,Language) 2072. Speechreading (Middle,Language) 2071. Create Your Own COMMUNITY (Middle,Literature) 2070. Healthy Eating (Elementary,Health) 2069. Fire Safety (Elementary,Health) 2068. The Solar System (Elementary,Science) 2067. "Dear Zookeeper" (Elementary,Language) 2066. Understanding the Elements (Middle,Science) 2065. Narrative Therapy (Elementary,Language) 2064. animal farm (Middle,Literature) 2063. The Food Guide Pyramid (Middle,Health) 2062. Maps In Our Everyday Lives (Elementary,Social Studies) 2061. Insects and Spiders of Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Elementary,Science) 2060. Insects and Spiders of Great Smoky Mountains National Park (all,other) 2059. Stress Management (Elementary,Health) 2058. floating fruits (Pre-School,Science) 2057. The Meanines (other,Literature) 2056. The Meanines (other,Literature) 2055. The Meanines (other,Literature) 2054. The Meanines (other,Literature) 2053. mission map (Middle,Social Studies) 2052. Natural Selection (all,) 2051. Christmas idea (Pre-School,other) 2050. Rain Dance (Elementary,Music) 2049. Recognizing High and Low Pitch (Elementary,Music) 2048. Clean-up (Pre-School,Music) 2047. Macbeth final project (Senior,Literature) 2046. Prepositions (Elementary,Reading/Writing) 2045. How Different Are We from Other Students (Elementary,Mathematics) 2044. Zoo animal facts (Elementary,Reading/Writing) 2043. Rain Dance (Elementary,Music) 2042. Using Borland C++ Builder (Advanced,Computer) 2041. Target Kicking (Elementary,Phys Ed) 2040. Exploring Japanese Culture (Middle,Social Studies) 2039. Alphabet Lesson Plan Intro and "A" (Pre-School,Reading/Writing) 2038. Georges Seurat, The "Maria" at Honfleur (Middle,Art) 2037. Chemical bonding (Elementary,Science) 2036. Adding Calories (Middle,other) 2035. Greater Than-Less Than (Elementary,Mathematics) 2034. "Here Comes the Train" (Elementary,Music) More Lesson Plans...
Prove that at any time there are two opposite points along the Equator, which have exactly the same temperature. Assume the temperature function varies continuously as you move along the Equator. Counterargument: This is patently impossible. If there are such points on the Equator, there must also be similar points on any circle around the Earth, such as a meridian. But in that case, we'd have one point in the north hemisphere, in winter, and the other in the south, in summer; that doesn't make sense! What's wrong with this reasoning? What is wrong with having two identical temperatures with one in summer and one in winter? There are many other factors, such as night and day, bodies of water, and the latitude. Near the equator, winter and summer hardly make a difference. If we were to say that in December every point in the southern hemisphere is strictly warmer than every point in the northern hemisphere, then the equator must be a single constant temperature. In this case, there doesn't need to be any match in temperature between the northern and southern hemispheres. If the equator only varies slightly, then the matching temperatures will probably be very near the equator. Posted by Tristan on 2005-03-27 20:27:49
Vitamin B12 is a water soluble vitamin. It cannot be made synthetically, but must be grown, like penicillin, in bacteria or mould. Animal protein contains the highest level of naturally occurring B12, with liver being the best source and kidney, muscle meats, fish and dairy products being other good sources of this essential vitamin. Because of this, vegans and vegetarians have an increased risk of developing a B12 deficiency. Vitamin B12 is unique, in that it is the first cobalt-containing substance found to be essential for longevity and it is the only vitamin that contains essential mineral elements. Vitamin B12 is necessary for normal metabolism of nerve tissue and is involved in protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism. It also helps iron function better in the body and aids folic acid in the synthesis of choline. B12 helps the placement of Vitamin A into body tissues by aiding carotene absorption or Vitamin A conversion. It also aids in the production of DNA and RNA, the body's genetic material. Vitamin B12 is prepared for absorption by two gastric secretions. It is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract unless the "intrinsic factor", a muco-protein enzyme, is present. Autoimmune reactions in the body can bind to the intrinsic factor, preventing vitamin B12 absorption. The intrinsic factor itself may not even be made because auto immune reactions prevent the cells ability to produce it. A defect in the molecule that transports Vitamin B12 from the blood to the tissues can cause a deficiency - even when a normal serum blood test is read. People who are deficient in Vitamin B12 usually lack one or more of these gastric secretions, necessary for its absorption. Many people lack the ability to absorb Vitamin B12 at all. The highest concentrations of B12 in the body are found in the liver, kidneys, heart, pancreas, testes, brain, blood and bone marrow. These body members are all related to red blood cell formation. A deficiency of Vitamin B12 is usually caused by an absorption problem caused by a lack of the intrinsic factor. In those who have prolonged gastritis, a condition where the mucous lining of the stomach becomes irritated and inflamed, the stomach walls become very thin, secreting almost entirely mucus and very little digestive acid. In this condition, the stomach is unable to produce the intrinsic factor, a muco-protein enzyme, necessary for the absorption of Vitamin B12 - which is essential for the formation of red blood cells. Because of this, a gastritis sufferer is in danger of developing pernicious anaemia. A vitamin B12 deficiency can also be the result of parasites, such as a fish tapeworm. A lack of B12 can also be caused by an excessive overgrowth of bacteria in the stomach and intestines. Symptoms of a Vitamin B12 deficiency: Pernicious anaemia is a condition characterised by insufficient red blood cells in the bone marrow. Pernicious anaemia probably arises from an inheritable inability of the stomach to secrete intrinsic factor, necessary for the intestinal absorption of vitamin B12. Injections, rather than an oral dose of Vitamin B12 is given, to bypass the absorption defect. B12 helps the red blood cells to mature up to a certain point, and after than, protein, iron, vitamin A and folic acid help to finish the development of the cells so that they can mature. Vegetarians and Vegans are particularly susceptible to this type of anaemia, due to their lack of animal protein consumption. In addition to this, the high level of folic acid contained in a vegetarian diet can mask a B12 deficiency. Weakness and gastrointestinal disturbances causing a sore tongue, slight yellowing of the skin and tingling of the extremities. In addition, disturbances of the nervous system such as partial loss of coordination of the fingers, feet and legs, some nerve deterioration and disturbances of the digestive tract such as diarrhoea and loss of appetite may occur. Homocysteine is a sulphur-containing amino acid, present in the cells of our body, generally in only small amounts. Homocysteine is a product of methionine metabolism. Methionine is one of the eleven "essential" amino acids in the body. In healthy cells, homocysteine is quickly converted to other products. Vitamins B6, B12, and folic acid are necessary to metabolize homocysteine. People who are deficient in these vitamins may have increased levels of homocysteine. Some information states that high levels of homocysteine cause nerve and blood vessel damage, promoting the risk of a stroke and cardiovascular disease. Supplementation with Vitamin B12, B6 and Folate can help to lower these levels. Homocystinuira is a disorder caused by an alteration to 1 or more genes, preventing the normal breakdown of methionine in the body. Because of this, homocysteine and methione levels increase in the body. A baby with homocystinuira will appear normal at birth but within a few years will begin to develop signs such as a dislocated lens in the eye, a long slender build, long thin fingers, skeletal abnormalities, osteoporosis, and a greatly increased risk of thromboembolism and of atherosclerosis that can lead to premature cardiovascular disease. The buildup may also cause progressive mental retardation, behavioral disorders, and seizures. Rich sources of Vitamin B12 include: Win a $25 shopping voucher Make a personal invitation.... to visit healthyonline
The scientific revolution is a concept used by historians to describe the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature. The scientific revolution took place in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance period and continued through the late 18th century, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment. While its dates are debated, the publication in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is often cited as marking the beginning of the scientific revolution. The concept of a scientific revolution's taking place over an extended period emerged in the eighteenth century in the work of Jean Sylvain Bailly, who saw a two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new. The beginning of the scientific revolution, the Scientific Renaissance, was focused on the recovery of the knowledge of the ancients; this is generally considered to have ended in 1632 with publication of Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. The completion of the scientific revolution is attributed to the "grand synthesis" of Isaac Newton's 1687 Principia, that formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, and completed the synthesis of a new cosmology. By the end of the 18th century, the scientific revolution had given way to the "Age of Reflection." Great advances in science have been termed "revolutions" since the 18th century. In 1747, Clairaut wrote that "Newton was said in his own lifetime to have created a revolution". The word was also used in the preface to Lavoisier's 1789 work announcing the discovery of oxygen. "Few revolutions in science have immediately excited so much general notice as the introduction of the theory of oxygen ... Lavoisier saw his theory accepted by all the most eminent men of his time, and established over a great part of Europe within a few years from its first promulgation." In the 19th century, William Whewell described the revolution in science itself -- the scientific method -- that had taken place in the 15th–16th century. "Among the most conspicuous of the revolutions which opinions on this subject have undergone, is the transition from an implicit trust in the internal powers of man's mind to a professed dependence upon external observation; and from an unbounded reverence for the wisdom of the past, to a fervid expectation of change and improvement." This gave rise to the common view of the scientific revolution today: - "A new view of nature emerged, replacing the Greek view that had dominated science for almost 2,000 years. Science became an autonomous discipline, distinct from both philosophy and technology and came to be regarded as having utilitarian goals." The scientific revolution is traditionally assumed to start with the Copernican Revolution (initiated in 1543) and to be complete in the "grand synthesis" of Isaac Newton's 1687 Principia. Much of the change of attitude came from Francis Bacon whose "confident and emphatic announcement" in the modern progress of science inspired the creation of scientific societies such as the Royal Society, and Galileo who championed Copernicus and developed the science of motion. In the 20th century, Alexandre Koyré introduced the term "scientific revolution", centering his analysis on Galileo. The term was popularized by Butterfield in his Origins of Modern Science. Thomas Kuhn's 1962 work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions emphasized that different theoretical frameworks—such as Einstein's relativity theory and Newton's theory of gravity, which it replaced—cannot be directly compared. The period saw a fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across mathematics, physics, astronomy, and biology in institutions supporting scientific investigation and in the more widely held picture of the universe. The scientific revolution led to the establishment of several modern sciences. In 1984, Joseph Ben-David wrote: Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which has characterized the development of science since the 17th century, had never occurred before that time. The new kind of scientific activity emerged only in a few countries of Western Europe, and it was restricted to that small area for about two hundred years. (Since the 19th century, scientific knowledge has been assimilated by the rest of the world). Many contemporary writers and modern historians claim that there was a revolutionary change in world view. In 1611 the English poet, John Donne, wrote: [The] new Philosophy calls all in doubt, The Element of fire is quite put out; The Sun is lost, and th'earth, and no man's wit Can well direct him where to look for it. Mid-20th century historian Herbert Butterfield was less disconcerted, but nevertheless saw the change as fundamental: Since that revolution turned the authority in English not only of the Middle Ages but of the ancient world—since it started not only in the eclipse of scholastic philosophy but in the destruction of Aristotelian physics—it outshines everything since the rise of Christianity and reduces the Renaissance and Reformation to the rank of mere episodes, mere internal displacements within the system of medieval Christendom.... [It] looms so large as the real origin both of the modern world and of the modern mentality that our customary periodization of European history has become an anachronism and an encumbrance. The history professor Peter Harrison attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the scientific revolution: historians of science have long known that religious factors played a significantly positive role in the emergence and persistence of modern science in the West. Not only were many of the key figures in the rise of science individuals with sincere religious commitments, but the new approaches to nature that they pioneered were underpinned in various ways by religious assumptions. ... Yet, many of the leading figures in the scientific revolution imagined themselves to be champions of a science that was more compatible with Christianity than the medieval ideas about the natural world that they replaced. Ancient and medieval backgroundEdit The scientific revolution was built upon the foundation of ancient Greek learning and science in the Middle Ages, as it had been elaborated and further developed by Roman/Byzantine science and medieval Islamic science. Some scholars have noted a direct tie between "particular aspects of traditional Christianity" and the rise of science. The "Aristotelian tradition" was still an important intellectual framework in the 17th century, although by that time natural philosophers had moved away from much of it. Key scientific ideas dating back to classical antiquity had changed drastically over the years, and in many cases been discredited. The ideas that remained, which were transformed fundamentally during the scientific revolution, include: - Aristotle's cosmology that placed the Earth at the center of a spherical hierarchic cosmos. The terrestrial and celestial regions were made up of different elements which had different kinds of natural movement. - The terrestrial region, according to Aristotle, consisted of concentric spheres of the four elements—earth, water, air, and fire. All bodies naturally moved in straight lines until they reached the sphere appropriate to their elemental composition—their natural place. All other terrestrial motions were non-natural, or violent. - The celestial region was made up of the fifth element, aether, which was unchanging and moved naturally with uniform circular motion. In the Aristotelian tradition, astronomical theories sought to explain the observed irregular motion of celestial objects through the combined effects of multiple uniform circular motions. - The Ptolemaic model of planetary motion: based on the geometrical model of Eudoxus of Cnidus, Ptolemy's Almagest, demonstrated that calculations could compute the exact positions of the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets in the future and in the past, and showed how these computational models were derived from astronomical observations. As such they formed the model for later astronomical developments. The physical basis for Ptolemaic models invoked layers of spherical shells, though the most complex models were inconsistent with this physical explanation. It is important to note that ancient precedent existed for alternative theories and developments which prefigured later discoveries in the area of physics and mechanics; but in light of the limited number of works to survive translation in a period when many books were lost to warfare, such developments remained obscure for centuries and are traditionally held to have had little effect on the re-discovery of such phenomena; whereas the invention of the printing press made the wide dissemination of such incremental advances of knowledge commonplace. Meanwhile, however, significant progress in geometry, mathematics, and astronomy was made in medieval times, particularly in the Islamic world as well as Europe. It is also true that many of the important figures of the scientific revolution shared in the general Renaissance respect for ancient learning and cited ancient pedigrees for their innovations. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), Kepler (1571–1630), Newton (1642–1727), and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) all traced different ancient and medieval ancestries for the heliocentric system. In the Axioms Scholium of his Principia, Newton said its axiomatic three laws of motion were already accepted by mathematicians such as Huygens (1629–1695), Wallace, Wren and others. While preparing a revised edition of his Principia, Newton attributed his law of gravity and his first law of motion to a range of historical figures. Despite these qualifications, the standard theory of the history of the scientific revolution claims that the 17th century was a period of revolutionary scientific changes. Not only were there revolutionary theoretical and experimental developments, but that even more importantly, the way in which scientists worked was radically changed. For instance, although intimations of the concept of inertia are suggested sporadically in ancient discussion of motion, the salient point is that Newton's theory differed from ancient understandings in key ways, such as an external force being a requirement for violent motion in Aristotle's theory. Under the scientific method as conceived in the 17th century, natural and artificial circumstances were set aside as a research tradition of systematic experimentation was slowly accepted by the scientific community. The philosophy of using an inductive approach to obtain knowledge — to abandon assumption and to attempt to observe with an open mind — was in contrast with the earlier, Aristotelian approach of deduction, by which analysis of known facts produced further understanding. In practice, many scientists and philosophers believed that a healthy mix of both was needed — the willingness to question assumptions, yet also to interpret observations assumed to have some degree of validity. By the end of the scientific revolution the qualitative world of book-reading philosophers had been changed into a mechanical, mathematical world to be known through experimental research. Though it is certainly not true that Newtonian science was like modern science in all respects, it conceptually resembled ours in many ways. Many of the hallmarks of modern science, especially with regard to its institutionalization and professionalization, did not become standard until the mid-19th century. The Aristotelian scientific tradition's primary mode of interacting with the world was through observation and searching for "natural" circumstances through reasoning. Coupled with this approach was the belief that rare events which seemed to contradict theoretical models were aberrations, telling nothing about nature as it "naturally" was. During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in respect to nature, the value of evidence, experimental or observed, led towards a scientific methodology in which empiricism played a large, but not absolute, role. By the start of the scientific revolution, empiricism had already become an important component of science and natural philosophy. Prior thinkers, including the early 14th century nominalist philosopher William of Ockham, had begun the intellectual movement toward empiricism. The term British empiricism came into use to describe philosophical differences perceived between two of its founders Francis Bacon, described as empiricist, and René Descartes, who was described as a rationalist. Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, and David Hume were the philosophy's primary exponents, who developed a sophisticated empirical tradition as the basis of human knowledge. The recognized founder of empiricism was John Locke who proposed in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) that the only true knowledge that could be accessible to the human mind was that which was based on experience. He argued that the human mind was created as a tabula rasa, a "blank tablet," upon which sensory impressions were recorded and built up knowledge through a process of reflection. The philosophical underpinnings of the scientific revolution were laid out by Francis Bacon, who has been called the father of empiricism. His works established and popularised inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today. Bacon proposed a great reformation of all process of knowledge for the advancement of learning divine and human, which he called Instauratio Magna (The Great Instauration). For Bacon, this reformation would lead to a great advancement in science and a progeny of new inventions that would relieve mankind's miseries and needs. His Novum Organum was published in 1620. He argued that man is "the minister and interpreter of nature", that "knowledge and human power are synonymous", that "effects are produced by the means of instruments and helps", and that "man while operating can only apply or withdraw natural bodies; nature internally performs the rest", and later that "nature can only be commanded by obeying her". Here is an abstract of the philosophy of this work, that by the knowledge of nature and the using of instruments, man can govern or direct the natural work of nature to produce definite results. Therefore, that man, by seeking knowledge of nature, can reach power over it – and thus reestablish the "Empire of Man over creation", which had been lost by the Fall together with man's original purity. In this way, he believed, would mankind be raised above conditions of helplessness, poverty and misery, while coming into a condition of peace, prosperity and security. For this purpose of obtaining knowledge of and power over nature, Bacon outlined in this work a new system of logic he believed to be superior to the old ways of syllogism, developing his scientific method, consisting of procedures for isolating the formal cause of a phenomenon (heat, for example) through eliminative induction. For him, the philosopher should proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to physical law. Before beginning this induction, though, the enquirer must free his or her mind from certain false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. In particular, he found that philosophy was too preoccupied with words, particularly discourse and debate, rather than actually observing the material world: "For while men believe their reason governs words, in fact, words turn back and reflect their power upon the understanding, and so render philosophy and science sophistical and inactive." Bacon considered that it is of greatest importance to science not to keep doing intellectual discussions or seeking merely contemplative aims, but that it should work for the bettering of mankind's life by bringing forth new inventions, having even stated that "inventions are also, as it were, new creations and imitations of divine works".[page needed] He explored the far-reaching and world-changing character of inventions, such as the printing press, gunpowder and the compass. Bacon first described the experimental method. There remains simple experience; which, if taken as it comes, is called accident, if sought for, experiment. The true method of experience first lights the candle [hypothesis], and then by means of the candle shows the way [arranges and delimits the experiment]; commencing as it does with experience duly ordered and digested, not bungling or erratic, and from it deducing axioms [theories], and from established axioms again new experiments.— Francis Bacon. Novum Organum. 1620. William Gilbert was an early advocate of this method. He passionately rejected both the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy and the Scholastic method of university teaching. His book De Magnete was written in 1600, and he is regarded by some as the father of electricity and magnetism. In this work, he describes many of his experiments with his model Earth called the terrella. From these experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses point north. De Magnete was influential not only because of the inherent interest of its subject matter, but also for the rigorous way in which Gilbert described his experiments and his rejection of ancient theories of magnetism. According to Thomas Thomson, "Gilbert['s]... book on magnetism published in 1600, is one of the finest examples of inductive philosophy that has ever been presented to the world. It is the more remarkable, because it preceded the Novum Organum of Bacon, in which the inductive method of philosophizing was first explained." Galileo Galilei has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the "father of modern physics", the "father of science", and "the Father of Modern Science". His original contributions to the science of motion were made through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics. Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...." His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy. He displayed a peculiar ability to ignore established authorities, most notably Aristotelianism. In broader terms, his work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning. Galileo showed a remarkably modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galilei further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of friction and other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola, but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would be only very slight. Scientific knowledge, according to the Aristotelians, was concerned with establishing true and necessary causes of things. To the extent that medieval natural philosophers used mathematical problems, they limited social studies to theoretical analyses of local speed and other aspects of life. The actual measurement of a physical quantity, and the comparison of that measurement to a value computed on the basis of theory, was largely limited to the mathematical disciplines of astronomy and optics in Europe. In the 16th and 17th centuries, European scientists began increasingly applying quantitative measurements to the measurement of physical phenomena on the Earth. Galileo maintained strongly that mathematics provided a kind of necessary certainty that could be compared to God's: "...with regard to those few [mathematical propositions] which the human intellect does understand, I believe its knowledge equals the Divine in objective certainty..." Philosophy [i.e., physics] is written in this grand book—I mean the universe—which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth. The mechanical philosophyEdit Aristotle recognized four kinds of causes, and where applicable, the most important of them is the "final cause". The final cause was the aim, goal, or purpose of some natural process or man-made thing. Until the scientific revolution, it was very natural to see such aims, such as a child's growth, for example, leading to a mature adult. Intelligence was assumed only in the purpose of man-made artifacts; it was not attributed to other animals or to nature. In "mechanical philosophy" no field or action at a distance is permitted, particles or corpuscles of matter are fundamentally inert. Motion is caused by direct physical collision. Where natural substances had previously been understood organically, the mechanical philosophers viewed them as machines. As a result, Isaac Newton's theory seemed like some kind of throwback to "spooky action at a distance". According to Thomas Kuhn, Newton and Descartes held the teleological principle that God conserved the amount of motion in the universe: Gravity, interpreted as an innate attraction between every pair of particles of matter, was an occult quality in the same sense as the scholastics' "tendency to fall" had been.... By the mid eighteenth century that interpretation had been almost universally accepted, and the result was a genuine reversion (which is not the same as a retrogression) to a scholastic standard. Innate attractions and repulsions joined size, shape, position and motion as physically irreducible primary properties of matter. Newton had also specifically attributed the inherent power of inertia to matter, against the mechanist thesis that matter has no inherent powers. But whereas Newton vehemently denied gravity was an inherent power of matter, his collaborator Roger Cotes made gravity also an inherent power of matter, as set out in his famous preface to the Principia's 1713 second edition which he edited, and contradicted Newton himself. And it was Cotes's interpretation of gravity rather than Newton's that came to be accepted. The first moves towards the institutionalization of scientific investigation and dissemination took the form of the establishment of societies, where new discoveries were aired, discussed and published. The first scientific society to be established was the Royal Society of England. This grew out of an earlier group, centred around Gresham College in the 1640s and 1650s. According to a history of the College: the scientific network which centred on Gresham College played a crucial part in the meetings which led to the formation of the Royal Society. These physicians and natural philosophers were influenced by the "new science", as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library. On 28 November 1660, the 1660 committee of 12 announced the formation of a "College for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematical Experimental Learning", which would meet weekly to discuss science and run experiments. At the second meeting, Robert Moray announced that the King approved of the gatherings, and a Royal charter was signed on 15 July 1662 which created the "Royal Society of London", with Lord Brouncker serving as the first President. A second Royal Charter was signed on 23 April 1663, with the King noted as the Founder and with the name of "the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge"; Robert Hooke was appointed as Curator of Experiments in November. This initial royal favour has continued, and since then every monarch has been the patron of the Society. The Society's first Secretary was Henry Oldenburg. Its early meetings included experiments performed first by Robert Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their subject area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The society began publication of Philosophical Transactions from 1665, the oldest and longest-running scientific journal in the world, which established the important principles of scientific priority and peer review. The French established the Academy of Sciences in 1666. In contrast to the private origins of its British counterpart, the Academy was founded as a government body by Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Its rules were set down in 1699 by King Louis XIV, when it received the name of 'Royal Academy of Sciences' and was installed in the Louvre in Paris. As the scientific revolution was not marked by any single change, the following new ideas contributed to what is called the scientific revolution. Many of them were revolutions in their own fields. For almost five millennia, the geocentric model of the Earth as the center of the universe had been accepted by all but a few astronomers. In Aristotle's cosmology, Earth's central location was perhaps less significant than its identification as a realm of imperfection, inconstancy, irregularity and change, as opposed to the "heavens", (Moon, Sun, planets, stars) which were regarded as perfect, permanent, unchangeable, and in religious thought, the realm of heavenly beings. The Earth was even composed of different material, the four elements "earth", "water", "fire", and "air", while sufficiently far above its surface (roughly the Moon's orbit), the heavens were composed of different substance called "aether". The heliocentric model that replaced it involved not only the radical displacement of the earth to an orbit around the sun, but its sharing a placement with the other planets implied a universe of heavenly components made from the same changeable substances as the Earth. Heavenly motions no longer needed to be governed by a theoretical perfection, confined to circular orbits. Copernicus' 1543 work on the heliocentric model of the solar system tried to demonstrate that the sun was the center of the universe. Few were bothered by this suggestion, and the pope and several archbishops were interested enough by it to want more detail. His model was later used to create the calendar of Pope Gregory XIII. However, the idea that the earth moved around the sun was doubted by most of Copernicus' contemporaries. It contradicted not only empirical observation, due to the absence of an observable stellar parallax, but more significantly at the time, the authority of Aristotle. The discoveries of Johannes Kepler and Galileo gave the theory credibility. Kepler was an astronomer who, using the accurate observations of Tycho Brahe, proposed that the planets move around the sun not in circular orbits, but in elliptical ones. Together with his other laws of planetary motion, this allowed him to create a model of the solar system that was an improvement over Copernicus' original system. Galileo's main contributions to the acceptance of the heliocentric system were his mechanics, the observations he made with his telescope, as well as his detailed presentation of the case for the system. Using an early theory of inertia, Galileo could explain why rocks dropped from a tower fall straight down even if the earth rotates. His observations of the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the spots on the sun, and mountains on the moon all helped to discredit the Aristotelian philosophy and the Ptolemaic theory of the solar system. Through their combined discoveries, the heliocentric system gained support, and at the end of the 17th century it was generally accepted by astronomers. This work culminated in the work of Isaac Newton. Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the cosmos. This work also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles. His prediction that the Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by other scientists. His laws of motion were to be the solid foundation of mechanics; his law of universal gravitation combined terrestrial and celestial mechanics into one great system that seemed to be able to describe the whole world in mathematical formulae. As well as proving the heliocentric model, Newton also developed the theory of gravitation. In 1679, Newton began to consider gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Robert Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions. Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed. After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum). Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum, in 1684. This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia. The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not to be improved upon for more than 200 years. Many of these advancements continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic technologies in the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation. Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science. Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression "hypotheses non fingo"). Biology and MedicineEdit - Medical discoveries The writings of Greek physician Galen had dominated European medical thinking for over a millennium. The Italian scholar Vesalius demonstrated mistakes in the Gaelic's ideas. Vesalius dissected human corpses, whereas Galen dissected animal corpses. Published in 1543, Vesalius' De humani corporis fabrica was a groundbreaking work of human anatomy. It emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called the "anatomical" view of the body, seeing human internal functioning as an essentially corporeal structure filled with organs arranged in three-dimensional space. This was in stark contrast to many of the anatomical models used previously, which had strong Galenic/Aristotelean elements, as well as elements of astrology. Besides the first good description of the sphenoid bone, he showed that the sternum consists of three portions and the sacrum of five or six; and described accurately the vestibule in the interior of the temporal bone. He not only verified the observation of Etienne on the valves of the hepatic veins, but he described the vena azygos, and discovered the canal which passes in the fetus between the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since named ductus venosus. He described the omentum, and its connections with the stomach, the spleen and the colon; gave the first correct views of the structure of the pylorus; observed the small size of the caecal appendix in man; gave the first good account of the mediastinum and pleura and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain yet advanced. He did not understand the inferior recesses; and his account of the nerves is confused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the fifth and the fifth as the seventh. Further groundbreaking work was carried out by William Harvey, who published De Motu Cordis in 1628. Harvey made a detailed analysis of the overall structure of the heart, going on to an analysis of the arteries, showing how their pulsation depends upon the contraction of the left ventricle, while the contraction of the right ventricle propels its charge of blood into the pulmonary artery. He noticed that the two ventricles move together almost simultaneously and not independently like had been thought previously by his predecessors. In the eighth chapter, Harvey estimated the capacity of the heart, how much blood is expelled through each pump of the heart, and the number of times the heart beats in a half an hour. From these estimations, he demonstrated that according to Gaelen's theory that blood was continually produced in the liver, the absurdly large figure of 540 pounds of blood would have to be produced every day. Having this simple mathematical proportion at hand – which would imply a seemingly impossible role for the liver – Harvey went on to demonstrate how the blood circulated in a circle by means of countless experiments initially done on serpents and fish: tying their veins and arteries in separate periods of time, Harvey noticed the modifications which occurred; indeed, as he tied the veins, the heart would become empty, while as he did the same to the arteries, the organ would swell up. This process was later performed on the human body (in the image on the left): the physician tied a tight ligature onto the upper arm of a person. This would cut off blood flow from the arteries and the veins. When this was done, the arm below the ligature was cool and pale, while above the ligature it was warm and swollen. The ligature was loosened slightly, which allowed blood from the arteries to come into the arm, since arteries are deeper in the flesh than the veins. When this was done, the opposite effect was seen in the lower arm. It was now warm and swollen. The veins were also more visible, since now they were full of blood. Various other advances in medical understanding and practice were made. French physician Pierre Fauchard started dentistry science as we know it today, and he has been named "the father of modern dentistry". Surgeon Ambroise Paré (c.1510–1590) was a leader in surgical techniques and battlefield medicine, especially the treatment of wounds, and Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) is sometimes referred to as a "father of physiology" due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and his textbook Institutiones medicae (1708). Chemistry, and its antecedent alchemy, became an increasingly important aspect of scientific thought in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries. The importance of chemistry is indicated by the range of important scholars who actively engaged in chemical research. Among them were the astronomer Tycho Brahe, the chemical physician Paracelsus, Robert Boyle, Thomas Browne and Isaac Newton. Unlike the mechanical philosophy, the chemical philosophy stressed the active powers of matter, which alchemists frequently expressed in terms of vital or active principles—of spirits operating in nature. Practical attempts to improve the refining of ores and their extraction to smelt metals was an important source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them Georg Agricola (1494–1555), who published his great work De re metallica in 1556. His work describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. His approach removed the mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could build. English chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) is considered to have refined the modern scientific method for alchemy and to have separated chemistry further from alchemy. Although his research clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. Although Boyle was not the original discover, he is best known for Boyle's law, which he presented in 1662: the law describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system. Boyle is also credited for his landmark publication The Sceptical Chymist in 1661, which is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry. In the work, Boyle presents his hypothesis that every phenomenon was the result of collisions of particles in motion. Boyle appealed to chemists to experiment and asserted that experiments denied the limiting of chemical elements to only the classic four: earth, fire, air, and water. He also pleaded that chemistry should cease to be subservient to medicine or to alchemy, and rise to the status of a science. Importantly, he advocated a rigorous approach to scientific experiment: he believed all theories must be tested experimentally before being regarded as true. The work contains some of the earliest modern ideas of atoms, molecules, and chemical reaction, and marks the beginning of the history of modern chemistry. Important work was done in the field of optics. Johannes Kepler published Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy) in 1604. In it, he described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent). Willebrord Snellius (1580–1626) found the mathematical law of refraction, now known as Snell's law, in 1621. Subsequently René Descartes (1596–1650) showed, by using geometric construction and the law of refraction (also known as Descartes' law), that the angular radius of a rainbow is 42° (i.e. the angle subtended at the eye by the edge of the rainbow and the rainbow's centre is 42°). He also independently discovered the law of reflection, and his essay on optics was the first published mention of this law. Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) wrote several works in the area of optics. These included the Opera reliqua (also known as Christiani Hugenii Zuilichemii, dum viveret Zelhemii toparchae, opuscula posthuma) and the Traité de la lumière. Isaac Newton investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as Newton's theory of colour. From this work he concluded that any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours. The interest of the Royal Society encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour (later expanded into Opticks). Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles and were refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium, but he had to associate them with waves to explain the diffraction of light. In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?" Dr. William Gilbert, in De Magnete, invented the New Latin word electricus from ἤλεκτρον (elektron), the Greek word for "amber". Gilbert undertook a number of careful electrical experiments, in the course of which he discovered that many substances other than amber, such as sulphur, wax, glass, etc., were capable of manifesting electrical properties. Gilbert also discovered that a heated body lost its electricity and that moisture prevented the electrification of all bodies, due to the now well-known fact that moisture impaired the insulation of such bodies. He also noticed that electrified substances attracted all other substances indiscriminately, whereas a magnet only attracted iron. The many discoveries of this nature earned for Gilbert the title of founder of the electrical science. By investigating the forces on a light metallic needle, balanced on a point, he extended the list of electric bodies, and found also that many substances, including metals and natural magnets, showed no attractive forces when rubbed. He noticed that dry weather with north or east wind was the most favourable atmospheric condition for exhibiting electric phenomena—an observation liable to misconception until the difference between conductor and insulator was understood. Robert Boyle also worked frequently at the new science of electricity, and added several substances to Gilbert's list of electrics. He left a detailed account of his researches under the title of Experiments on the Origin of Electricity. Boyle, in 1675, stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum. One of his important discoveries was that electrified bodies in a vacuum would attract light substances, this indicating that the electrical effect did not depend upon the air as a medium. He also added resin to the then known list of electrics. This was followed in 1660 by Otto von Guericke, who invented an early electrostatic generator. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction with an electrostatic generator, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity. The first usage of the word electricity is ascribed to Sir Thomas Browne in his 1646 work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica. In 1729 Stephen Gray (1666–1736) demonstrated that electricity could be "transmitted" through metal filaments. New mechanical devicesEdit As an aid to scientific investigation, various tools, measuring aids and calculating devices were developed in this period. John Napier introduced logarithms as a powerful mathematical tool. With the help of the prominent mathematician Henry Briggs their logarithmic tables embodied a computational advance that made calculations by hand much quicker. His Napier's bones used a set of numbered rods as a multiplication tool using the system of lattice multiplication. The way was opened to later scientific advances, particularly in astronomy and dynamics. At Oxford University, Edmund Gunter built the first analog device to aid computation. The 'Gunter's scale' was a large plane scale, engraved with various scales, or lines. Natural lines, such as the line of chords, the line of sines and tangents are placed on one side of the scale and the corresponding artificial or logarithmic ones were on the other side. This calculating aid was a predecessor of the slide rule. It was William Oughtred (1575–1660) who first used two such scales sliding by one another to perform direct multiplication and division, and thus is credited as the inventor of the slide rule in 1622. Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) invented the mechanical calculator in 1642. The introduction of his Pascaline in 1645 launched the development of mechanical calculators first in Europe and then all over the world. Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), building on Pascal's work, became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators; he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator, in 1685, and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the binary number system, foundation of virtually all modern computer architectures. Denis Papin (1647–1712) was best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the steam engine. The first working steam engine was patented in 1698 by the inventor Thomas Savery, as a "...new invention for raising of water and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill work by the impellent force of fire, which will be of great use and advantage for drayning mines, serveing townes with water, and for the working of all sorts of mills where they have not the benefitt of water nor constant windes." [sic] The invention was demonstrated to the Royal Society on 14 June 1699 and the machine was described by Savery in his book The Miner's Friend; or, An Engine to Raise Water by Fire (1702), in which he claimed that it could pump water out of mines. Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729) perfected the practical steam engine for pumping water, the Newcomen steam engine. Consequently, he can be regarded as a forefather of the Industrial Revolution. Abraham Darby I (1678–1717) was the first, and most famous, of three generations of the Darby family who played an important role in the Industrial Revolution. He developed a method of producing high-grade iron in a blast furnace fueled by coke rather than charcoal. This was a major step forward in the production of iron as a raw material for the Industrial Revolution. Refracting telescopes first appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. The spectacle makers Hans Lippershey, Zacharias Janssen and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar all contributed to its invention. Galileo was one of the first scientists to use this new tool for his astronomical observations in 1609. The reflecting telescope was described by James Gregory in his book Optica Promota (1663). He argued that a mirror shaped like the part of a conic section, would correct the spherical aberration that flawed the accuracy of refracting telescopes. His design, the "Gregorian telescope", however, remained un-built. In 1666, Isaac Newton argued that the faults of the refracting telescope were fundamental because the lens refracted light of different colors differently. He concluded that light could not be refracted through a lens without causing chromatic aberrations From these experiments Newton concluded that no improvement could be made in the refracting telescope. However, he was able to demonstrate that the angle of reflection remained the same for all colors, so he decided to build a reflecting telescope. It was completed in 1668 and is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope. 50 years later, John Hadley developed ways to make precision aspheric and parabolic objective mirrors for reflecting telescopes, building the first parabolic Newtonian telescope and a Gregorian telescope with accurately shaped mirrors. These were successfully demonstrated to the Royal Society. The invention of the vacuum pump paved the way for the experiments of Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke into the nature of vacuum and atmospheric pressure. The first such device was made by Otto von Guericke in 1654. It consisted of a piston and an air gun cylinder with flaps that could suck the air from any vessel that it was connected to. In 1657, he pumped the air out of two conjoined hemispheres and demonstrated that a team of sixteen horses were incapable of pulling it apart. The air pump construction was greatly improved by Robert Hooke in 1658. Evangelista Torricelli (1607–1647) was best known for his invention of the mercury barometer. The motivation for the invention was to improve on the suction pumps that were used to raise water out of the mines. Torricelli constructed a sealed tube filled with mercury, set vertically into a basin of the same substance. The column of mercury fell downwards, leaving a Torricellian vacuum above. People and key ideas that emerged from the 16th and 17th centuries: - First printed edition of Euclid's Elements in 1482. - Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres in 1543, which advanced the heliocentric theory of cosmology. - Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) published De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body) (1543), which discredited Galen's views. He found that the circulation of blood resolved from pumping of the heart. He also assembled the first human skeleton from cutting open cadavers. - Franciscus Vieta (1540–1603) published In Artem Analycitem Isagoge (1591), which gave the first symbolic notation of parameters in literal algebra. - William Gilbert (1544–1603) published On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth in 1600, which laid the foundations of a theory of magnetism and electricity. - Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) made extensive and more accurate naked eye observations of the planets in the late 16th century. These became the basic data for Kepler's studies. - Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) published Novum Organum in 1620, which outlined a new system of logic based on the process of reduction, which he offered as an improvement over Aristotle's philosophical process of syllogism. This contributed to the development of what became known as the scientific method. - Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) improved the telescope, with which he made several important astronomical observations, including the four largest moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and the rings of Saturn, and made detailed observations of sunspots. He developed the laws for falling bodies based on pioneering quantitative experiments which he analyzed mathematically. - Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) published the first two of his three laws of planetary motion in 1609. - William Harvey (1578–1657) demonstrated that blood circulates, using dissections and other experimental techniques. - René Descartes (1596–1650) published his Discourse on the Method in 1637, which helped to establish the scientific method. - Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) constructed powerful single lens microscopes and made extensive observations that he published around 1660, opening up the micro-world of biology. - Isaac Newton (1643–1727) built upon the work of Kepler and Galileo. He showed that an inverse square law for gravity explained the elliptical orbits of the planets, and advanced the law of universal gravitation. His development of infinitesimal calculus opened up new applications of the methods of mathematics to science. Newton taught that scientific theory should be coupled with rigorous experimentation, which became the keystone of modern science. The idea that modern science took place as a kind a revolution has been debated among historians. A weakness of the idea of scientific revolution is the lack of a systematic approach to the question of knowledge in the period comprehended between XIV and XVII century, leading to misunderstandings on the value and role of modern authors. From this standpoint, the continuity thesis is the hypothesis that there was no radical discontinuity between the intellectual development of the Middle Ages and the developments in the Renaissance and early modern period and has been deeply and widely documented by the works of scholars like Pierre Duhem, John Hermann Randall, Alistair Crombie and William A. Wallace, who proved the preexistence of a wide range of ideas used by the followers of the scientific revolution thesis to substantiate their claims. Thus, the idea of a scientific revolution following the Renaissance is—according to the continuity thesis—a myth. Some continuity theorists point to earlier intellectual revolutions occurring in the Middle Ages, usually referring to either a European "Renaissance of the 12th century" or a medieval "Muslim scientific revolution", as a sign of continuity. Another contrary view has been recently proposed by Arun Bala in his dialogical history of the birth of modern science. Bala proposes that the changes involved in the Scientific Revolution—the mathematical realist turn, the mechanical philosophy, the atomism, the central role assigned to the Sun in Copernican heliocentrism—have to be seen as rooted in multicultural influences on Europe. He sees specific influences in Alhazen's physical optical theory, Chinese mechanical technologies leading to the perception of the world as a machine, the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, which carried implicitly a new mode of mathematical atomic thinking, and the heliocentrism rooted in ancient Egyptian religious ideas associated with Hermeticism. Bala argues that by ignoring such multicultural impacts we have been led to a Eurocentric conception of the scientific revolution. However, he clearly states: "The makers of the revolution – Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, Newton, and many others – had to selectively appropriate relevant ideas, transform them, and create new auxiliary concepts in order to complete their task... In the ultimate analysis, even if the revolution was rooted upon a multicultural base it is the accomplishment of Europeans in Europe." Critics note that lacking documentary evidence of transmission of specific scientific ideas, Bala's model will remain "a working hypothesis, not a conclusion". A third approach takes the term "Renaissance" literally as a "rebirth". A closer study of Greek Philosophy and Greek Mathematics demonstrates that nearly all of the so-called revolutionary results of the so-called scientific revolution were in actuality restatements of ideas that were in many cases older than those of Aristotle and in nearly all cases at least as old as Archimedes. Aristotle even explicitly argues against some of the ideas that were espoused during the scientific revolution, such as heliocentrism. The basic ideas of the scientific method were well known to Archimedes and his contemporaries, as demonstrated in the well-known discovery of buoyancy. Atomism was first thought of by Leucippus and Democritus. This view of the scientific revolution reduces it to a period of relearning classical ideas that is very much an extension of the Renaissance. This view of the scientific revolution does not deny that a change occurred but argues that it was a reassertion of previous knowledge (a renaissance) and not the creation of new knowledge. It cites statements from Newton, Copernicus and others in favour of the Pythagorean worldview as evidence. - Galilei, Galileo (1974) Two New Sciences, trans. Stillman Drake, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr. pp. 217, 225, 296–7. - Moody, Ernest A. (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)". Journal of the History of Ideas. 12 (2): 163–193. doi:10.2307/2707514. JSTOR 2707514. - Clagett, Marshall (1961) The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages. Madison, Univ. of Wisconsin Pr. pp. 218–19, 252–5, 346, 409–16, 547, 576–8, 673–82 - Maier, Anneliese (1982) "Galileo and the Scholastic Theory of Impetus," pp. 103–123 in On the Threshold of Exact Science: Selected Writings of Anneliese Maier on Late Medieval Natural Philosophy. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Pr. ISBN 0812278313 - Hannam, p. 342 - Grant, pp. 29–30, 42–7. - Cohen, I. Bernard (1976). "The Eighteenth-Century Origins of the Concept of Scientific Revolution". Journal of the History of Ideas. 37 (2): 257–288. doi:10.2307/2708824. JSTOR 2708824. - The Scientific Renaissance, 1450-1630 - Newton's Laws of Motion - Clairaut, Alexis-Claude (1747). "Du système du monde, dans les principes de la gravitation universelle". - Whewell, William (1837). History of the inductive sciences. 2. pp. 275, 280. - Whewell, William (1840). Philosophy of the Inductive sciences. 2. p. 318. - "Physical Sciences". Encyclopedia Britannica. 25 (15th ed.). 1993. p. 830. - Hunt, Shelby D. (2003). Controversy in marketing theory: for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity. M.E. Sharpe. p. 18. ISBN 0-7656-0932-0. - Donne, John An Anatomy of the World, quoted in Kuhn, Thomas S. (1957) The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr. p. 194. - Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science, 1300–1800, (New York: Macmillan Co., 1959).p. viii. - Harrison, Peter. "Christianity and the rise of western science". Retrieved 28 August 2014. - Noll, Mark, Science, Religion, and A. D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology" (PDF), The Biologos Foundation, p. 4, retrieved 14 January 2015 - Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986), "Introduction", God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 5, 12, ISBN 0520055381, It would be indefensible to maintain, with Hooykaas and Jaki, that Christianity was fundamentally responsible for the successes of seventeenth-century science. It would be a mistake of equal magnitude, however, to overlook the intricate interlocking of scientific and religious concerns throughout the century. - Grant, pp. 55–63, 87–104 - Pedersen, pp. 106–110. - Grant, pp. 63–8, 104–16. - Pedersen, p. 25 - Pedersen, pp. 86–89. - Kuhn, Thomas (1957) The Copernican Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr. p. 142. - Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982). "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to De revolutionibus, I, 10". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 126: 367–394. reprinted in Eastwood, B. S. (1989) Astronomy and Optics from Pliny to Descartes, London: Variorum Reprints. - McGuire, J. E.; Rattansi, P. M. (1966). "Newton and the 'Pipes of Pan'" (PDF). Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 21 (2): 108. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1966.0014. - Espinoza, Fernando (2005). "An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching". Physics Education. 40 (2): 141. Bibcode:2005PhyEd..40..139E. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/40/2/002. - Newton, Isaac (1962). Hall, A.R.; Hall, M.B., eds. Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. pp. 310–11. All those ancients knew the first law [of motion] who attributed to atoms in an infinite vacuum a motion which was rectilinear, extremely swift and perpetual because of the lack of resistance... Aristotle was of the same mind, since he expresses his opinion thus...[in Physics 4.8.215a19-22], speaking of motion in the void [in which bodies have no gravity and] where there is no impediment he writes: 'Why a body once moved should come to rest anywhere no one can say. For why should it rest here rather than there ? Hence either it will not be moved, or it must be moved indefinitely, unless something stronger impedes it.' - Sorabji, R. (2005). The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200–600 AD: Physics. G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Cornell University Press. p. 348. ISBN 978-0-8014-8988-4. LCCN 2004063547. An impetus is an inner force impressed into a moving body from without. It thus contrasts with purely external forces like the action of air on projectiles in Aristotle, and with purely internal forces like the nature of the elements in Aristotle and his followers.… Impetus theories also contrast with theories of inertia which replaced them in the seventeenth to eighteenth centuries.… Such inertial ideas are merely sporadic in Antiquity and not consciously attended to as a separate option. Aristotle, for example, argues in Phys. 4.8 that in a vacuum a moving body would never stop, but the possible implications for inertia are not discussed. - Heath, Thomas L. (1949) Mathematics in Aristotle. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 115–6. - Drake, S. (1964). "Galileo and the Law of Inertia". American Journal of Physics. 32 (8): 601. doi:10.1119/1.1970872. - Hannam, p. 162 - "Empiricism: The influence of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and David Hume". Sweet Briar College. Archived from the original on 8 July 2013. Retrieved 21 October 2013. - Bacon, Francis. "Novum Organum". - Bacon, Francis (1605), Temporis Partus Maximus. - Zagorin, Perez (1998), Francis Bacon, Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 84, ISBN 069100966X - Durant, Will. The Story of Philosophy. Page 101 Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. 1926. ISBN 978-0-671-69500-2 - Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5. - Gimpel, Jean (1976) The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages. New York, Penguin. ISBN 0760735824. p. 194. - Thomson, Thomas (1812) History of the Royal Society: from its Institution to the End of the Eighteenth Century. R. Baldwin. p. 461 - Singer, Charles (1941). "A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century". Clarendon Press: 217. - Whitehouse, David (2009). Renaissance Genius: Galileo Galilei & His Legacy to Modern Science. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 219. ISBN 1-4027-6977-6. - Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse. p. 155. ISBN 0-595-36877-8. - Hetnarski, Richard B.; Ignaczak, Józef (2010). The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 3. ISBN 1-4398-2888-1. - Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2007). "The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History ? By Manfred Weidhorn". The Historian. 69 (3): 601. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2007.00189_68.x. - Sharratt, pp. 204–05 - Drake, Stillman (1957). Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo. New York: Doubleday & Company. pp. 237–238. ISBN 0-385-09239-3. - Wallace, William A. (1984) Galileo and His Sources: The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science, Princeton: Princeton Univ. Pr. ISBN 0-691-08355-X - Sharratt, pp. 202–04 - Sharratt, 202–04 - Favaro, Antonio, ed. (1890–1909). Le Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale [The Works of Galileo Galilei, National Edition] (in Italian). 8. Florence: Barbera. pp. 274–75. ISBN 88-09-20881-1. - Dear, Peter (2009) Revolutionizing the Sciences. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691142068. pp. 65–67, 134–38. - Grant, pp. 101–03, 148–50. - Pedersen, p. 231. - McCluskey, Stephen C. (1998) Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr. pp. 180–84, 198–202. - Galilei, Galileo (1967) [Composed in 1632]. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Translated by Stillman Drake (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 103. - In the 1661 translation by Thomas Salusbury: "... the knowledge of those few comprehended by humane understanding, equalleth the divine, as to the certainty objectivè ..." p. 92 (from the Archimedes Project) - In the original Italian: "... ma di quelle poche intese dall'intelletto umano credo che la cognizione agguagli la divina nella certezza obiettiva, poiché arriva a comprenderne la necessità ..." (from the copy at the Italian Wikisource) - Galileo Galilei, Il Saggiatore (The Assayer, 1623), as translated by Stillman Drake (1957), Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo pp. 237–8 - Westfall, pp. 30–33. - Kuhn, Thomas (1970), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226458075. pp. 105–06. - Chartres, Richard and Vermont, David (1998) A Brief History of Gresham College. Gresham College. ISBN 094782216X. p. 38 - "London Royal Society". University of St Andrews. Retrieved 8 December 2009. - "Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building". The Royal Society. 7 July 2004. Retrieved 7 December 2009. - Henderson (1941) p. 29 - "Philosophical Transactions − the world's first science journal". The Royal Society. Retrieved 22 November 2015. - Lewis, C.S. (2012), The Discarded Image, Canto Classics, pp. 3, 4, ISBN 978-1107604704 - Hannam, p. 303 - Hannam, p. 329 - Hannam, p. 283 - Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol.2, 1676–1687 ed. H W Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at page 297, document No. 235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679. - Westfall, pp. 391–2 - Whiteside D T (ed.) (1974) Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, vol. 6, 1684–1691, Cambridge University Press. p. 30. - Isaac Newton (1643–1727), BBC – History - Halley biography. Groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk. Retrieved on 26 September 2011. - Edelglass et al., Matter and Mind, ISBN 0-940262-45-2. p. 54 - On the meaning and origins of this expression, see Kirsten Walsh, Does Newton feign an hypothesis?, Early Modern Experimental Philosophy, 18 October 2010. - Page through a virtual copy of Vesalius's ''De Humanis Corporis Fabrica''. Archive.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved on 26 September 2011. - Harvey, William De motu cordis, cited in Debus, Allen G. (1978) Man and Nature in the Renaissance. Cambridge Univ. Pr. p. 69. - Zimmer, Carl. (2004) Soul Made Flesh: The Discovery of the Brain – and How It Changed the World. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0743272056 - Hannaway, O. (1986). "Laboratory Design and the Aim of Science: Andreas Libavius versus Tycho Brahe". Isis. 77 (4): 584. doi:10.1086/354267. - Westfall, Richard S. (1983) Never at Rest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521274354. pp. 18–23. - AGRICOLA, GEORG (1494–1555). Scs.uiuc.edu. Retrieved on 26 September 2011. - von Zittel, Karl Alfred (1901) History of Geology and Palaeontology, p. 15 - Robert Boyle. understandingscience.ucc.ie - Acott, Chris (1999). "The diving "Law-ers": A brief resume of their lives.". South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society journal. 29 (1). ISSN 0813-1988. OCLC 16986801. Retrieved 17 April 2009. - Levine, Ira. N (1978). "Physical Chemistry" University of Brooklyn: McGraw-Hill. p. 12 - Caspar, Max (1993) Kepler. Courier Corporation. ISBN 0486676056. pp. 142–146 - Tipler, P. A. and G. Mosca (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. W. H. Freeman. p. 1068. ISBN 0-7167-4389-2. - Dobbs, J.T. (December 1982), "Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter", Isis, 73 (4): 523, doi:10.1086/353114 quoting Opticks - Priestley, Joseph (1757) History of Electricity. London - Maver, William, Jr.: "Electricity, its History and Progress", The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge, vol. X, pp. 172ff. (1918). New York: Encyclopedia Americana Corp. - Dampier, W. C. D. (1905). The theory of experimental electricity. Cambridge physical series. Cambridge [Eng.: University Press. - Benjamin, P. (1895). A history of electricity: (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. - Boyle, Robert (1676). Experiments and notes about the mechanical origin or production of particular qualities. - Boyle, Robert (1675) Experiments on the Origin of Electricity - Jenkins, Rhys (1936). Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times. Ayer Publishing. p. 66. ISBN 0-8369-2167-4. - "Napier, John". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. - Marguin, Jean (1994). Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942. Hermann. p. 48. ISBN 978-2-7056-6166-3. citing Taton, René (1963). Le calcul mécanique. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. - Schum, David A. (1979). "A Review of a Case against Blaise Pascal and His Heirs". Michigan Law Review. 77 (3): 446–483. doi:10.2307/1288133. JSTOR 1288133. - Pascal biography. Groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk. Retrieved on 26 September 2011. - Smith, David Eugene (1929). A Source Book in Mathematics. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. pp. 173–181. - McEvoy, John G. (March 1975). "A "Revolutionary" Philosophy of Science: Feyerabend and the Degeneration of Critical Rationalism into Sceptical Fallibilism". Philosophy of Science. 42 (1): 49. doi:10.1086/288620. JSTOR 187297. - Denis Papin. NNDB - Jenkins, Rhys (1936). Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times. Ayer Publishing. p. 66. ISBN 0-8369-2167-4. - Savery, Thomas (1827). The Miner's Friend: Or, an Engine to Raise Water by Fire. S. Crouch. - Thomas Newcomen (1663–1729), BBC – History - galileo.rice.edu The Galileo Project > Science > The Telescope by Al Van Helden "The Hague discussed the patent applications first of Hans Lipperhey of Middelburg, and then of Jacob Metius of Alkmaar... another citizen of Middelburg, Sacharias Janssen had a telescope at about the same time but was at the Frankfurt Fair where he tried to sell it" - Loker, Aleck (2008). Profiles in Colonial History. Aleck Loker. pp. 15–. ISBN 978-1-928874-16-4. - Newton, Isaac. Optics, bk. i. pt. ii. prop. 3 - Treatise on Optics, p. 112 - White, Michael (1999). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Perseus Books. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-7382-0143-6. - Hall, Alfred Rupert. Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought. p. 67 - King, Henry C. (2003). The History of the Telescope. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 77–. ISBN 978-0-486-43265-6. - telescopeѲptics.net – 8.2. Two-mirror telescopes. Telescope-optics.net. Retrieved on 26 September 2011. - "Hadley's Reflector". amazing-space.stsci.edu. Retrieved 1 August 2013. - Lienhard, John (2005). "Gases and Force". Rain Steam & Speed. KUHF FM Radio. - Wilson, George (15 January 1849). "On the Early History of the Air-pump in England". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. - Timbs, John (1868). Wonderful Inventions: From the Mariner's Compass to the Electric Telegraph Cable. London: George Routledge and Sons. p. 41. ISBN 978-1172827800. Retrieved 2 June 2014. - Hannam, James (31 October 2012) Medieval Christianity and the Rise of Modern Science, Part 2. biologos.org - Hassan, Ahmad Y and Hill, Donald Routledge (1986), Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History, p. 282, Cambridge University Press. - Salam, Abdus, Dalafi, H. R. and Hassan, Mohamed (1994). Renaissance of Sciences in Islamic Countries, p. 162. World Scientific, ISBN 9971-5-0713-7. - Briffault, Robert (1919). The Making of Humanity. London, G. Allen & Unwin ltd. p. 188. - Huff, Toby E. (2003) The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West, 2nd. ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52994-8. pp. 54–5. - Saliba, George (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? Columbia University. - Bala, Arun (2006) Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0230609791[page needed] - "Book Review of The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science by Arun Bala". MuslimHeritage.com - Sobol, Peter G. (December 2007). "Review of The Dialogue of Civilizations and the Birth of Modern Science". Isis. 98 (4): 829–830. doi:10.1086/529293. - Africa, Thomas W. (1961). "Copernicus' Relation to Aristarchus and Pythagoras". Isis. 52 (3): 403–409. doi:10.1086/349478. JSTOR 228080. - A survey of the debate over the significance of these antecedents is in Lindberg, D. C. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr. ISBN 0226482316. pp. 355–68. - Burns, William E. The Scientific Revolution in Global Perspective (Oxford University Press, 2016) xv + 198 pp. - Cohen, H. Floris. The Rise of Modern Science Explained: A Comparative History (Cambridge University Press, 2015) . vi + 296 pp. - Grant, E. (1996). The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0521567629. - Hannam, James (2011). The Genesis of Science. ISBN 1-59698-155-5. - Henry, John. The Scientific Revolution and the Origins of Modern Science (2008), 176pp - Knight, David. Voyaging in Strange Seas: The Great Revolution in Science (Yale U.P., 2014) viii + 329 pp. - Lindberg, D. C. The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450 (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1992). - Pedersen, Olaf (1993). Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0-521-40899-7. - Sharratt, Michael (1994). Galileo: Decisive Innovator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56671-1. - Shapin, Steven (1996). The Scientific Revolution. Chicago: Chicago University Press. ISBN 0226750205. - Weinberg, Steven. To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science (2015) xiv + 417 pp. - Westfall, Richard S. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton (1983). - Westfall, Richard S. (1971). The Construction of Modern Science. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-521-29295-6. - Wootton, David. The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution (Penguin, 2015) . xiv + 769 pp. excerpt
Many kinds of plants play a role in the holiday season. Frankincense is one of those. There are two species of this plant. These are Boswellia thurifera and Boswellia carteri. The trees are still grown in India, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Arabian Peninsula. During ancient times Arabia was a major source of frankincense. It was so expensive that only the very wealthy could afford it. The root word for frankincense is derived from an Old French phrase, ‘franc encens,’ which means pure incense. This helps to explain that the name came about because one major use for the plant was as an ingredient in incense. The gum resin from the tree is called frankincense. Historically, this has long been used for incense in temples in various places, including Babylonia, Rome, Greece, Egypt, Israel, and Persia. The Jews used it as an ingredient in their sacred incense, which they burned in the Sanctuary. This is still used today for church incense, particularly in the Orthodox Church and Catholic Church. Besides being a favorite for incense among the ancients, this was also used medicinally. Sometimes, it is also added to soaps. One of the earliest plant expeditions in history took place to collect frankincense trees in Punt (now Somalia). The collectors were sent by Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt around 1495 B.C. They dug the trees so that each one had a large root ball. Then the trees were packed in wicker baskets and brought back to Egypt. They were planted in the garden at the queen’s temple of Deir-el-Bahri. These plants were obviously treated very carefully for all except one of the 32 they collected lived. Frankincense trees can be challenging to grow because they require specific growing conditions. They would be hard to grow in colder areas of the world because they like a really hot climate. Frankincense is most widely known in the West as one of the three gifts of the Magi in the Nativity scene. Initially the early church authorities were undecided as to what was the proper number of wise men. At some stages there were said to be four. However, the church eventually settled on three. So that is what we now include as part of the Christmas celebration. This number also works well because each one brought a different kind of precious gift to the baby Jesus. These days it would be hard for obtain frankincense for use during Christmas. The spices commonly used in mince pies could represent frankincense and myrrh. These spices are cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. The three gifts play a significant role in the Nativity story. According to some experts, these served to show Jesus was divine. These were very expensive gifts to say the least. At one time the monarchs of England and Spain were presented with a gift of myrrh, frankincense, and gold once a year as part of a ritual that also involved a procession.
Mapping the Sky in Infrared Light: (WISE) The twinkling night sky has been an important component to civilizations throughout the world since ancient times with the oldest, accurately dated star chart coming from Egypt in 1534 BC. Thanks to technology created at Utah State University’s Space Dynamics Laboratory astronomers of today have a better understanding of the sky. The Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) telescope was created by SDL for NASA to take a survey of the sky. Launched into orbit in December 2009, WISE scanned the entire sky in infrared wavelengths to find the nearest and coolest stars, the most luminous galaxies in the universe and various asteroids in the solar system. During its mission, WISE took millions of images and discovered distant galaxies, comets and brown dwarf stars, as well as 33,000 previously unknown asteroids. By all accounts the mission was a total success. “In my 24 years in the space industry, I have never seen as unflawed a mission,” said John Elwell, SDL’s program manager for the WISE instrument. SDL manufactured the state-of-the-art infrared instrument to scan the sky with far better sensitivity and resolution than previous space-based instruments. WISE captured millions of images and provided scientists with a comprehensive map of the infrared universe that contains hundreds of millions of space objects. Attendees at the Sunrise Session will see a series of images taken by WISE. WISE was built to detect heat given off by objects in space ranging in temperature from minus 330 Fahrenheit to 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit. In order to accomplish these measurements, SDL designed the instrument with a 16-inch telescope and four infrared detectors containing one million pixels each. Each of the detectors is kept cold inside a container filled with frozen hydrogen. “For decades, SDL has collaborated with NASA to help it accomplish its scientific mission,” said Elwell. “WISE further validates our commitment to help NASA understand the origins, evolution and destiny of the universe and to understand the nature of the strange phenomena that shape it.” About Mr. Elwell John Elwell attended the University of Utah as an undergraduate, earning a bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering. After several years developing electronics for the oil and gas industry, in 1987, Mr. Elwell joined the Space Dynamics Laboratory. He completed his master’s degree while working on various research instruments, primarily infrared instrumentation for space- based missions. These instruments have advanced the study of the earth’s atmosphere, weather and climate, as well as astrophysics research for both the Department of Defense and NASA. His contributions have ranged from design and calibration through systems engineering to program management for the WISE mission. As the highly effective WISE mission comes to an end, he has recently become the program manager for an innovative project in weather prediction, the Sounding and Tracking Observatory for Regional Meteorology satellite. STORM’s infrared instrumentation may well be the future of real-time, extreme weather prediction.
One of the best ways to make someone understand a concept or have a better idea about the nature of something is to use a comparison. Comparisons are helpful because they can relate meanings by framing certain aspects of the objects being compared in terms with which the reader is familiar. For example, when shopping for a new car, a buyer might ask the salesperson how the car drives. The car salesman can say a lot of things about the car's maximum speed, handling, acceleration, and so forth, but those words and phrases have no meaning if the person buying the car has never driven a car before and has no context for comparison. Similarly, in literature, it is helpful to convey meaning and intent to the reader by use of comparisons. One of the most common figures of speech used to compare objects is the simile. A simile is a figure of speech that uses the words "like" or "as" to compare two unlike objects. The purpose of the simile is to give information about one object that is unknown by the reader by comparing it to something with which the reader is familiar. For example, the simile, "Debbie is slow as a snail," gives the reader information about Debbie's slowness by comparing her to a snail, which is an animal known to be slow. Similes can be either explicit or implicit depending on the way the simile is phrased. An explicit simile is a simile in which the characteristic that is being compared between the two objects is stated. The previous example, "Debbie is slow as a snail," is an explicit simile because it indicates what characteristic of Debbie and the snail are shared. An implicit simile is a simile in which the reader must infer what is being compared. For example, if the sentence read, "Debbie is like a snail," it is up to the reader to determine what is meant. Is the writer trying to say that Debbie is slow? Or is the writing meaning that Debbie is slimy? Both of these characteristics are common to snails and could possibly provide information that pertains to Debbie, but without any other context, it is impossible to know what meaning the author intended. Similes can be used in all kinds of writing but are especially effective in poetry and fiction, where they can be used to paint images and form pictures that carry more emotion than mere words can convey. However, a writer should guard against using familiar similes which may be considered cliché due to their overuse. Similes are a rich way to add emotion and imagery to writing. By making comparisons between two seemingly unlike objects, authors can add insight into one or both things that might be difficult using literal language alone.
Roman Empire, the ancient empire, centred on the city of Rome, that was established in 27 bce following the demise of the Roman Republic and continuing to the final eclipse of the Empire of the West in the 5th century ce. A brief treatment of the Roman Empire follows. For full treatment, seeancient Rome. A period of unrest and civil wars in the 1st century bc marked the transition of Rome from a republic to an empire. This period encompassed the career of Julius Caesar, who eventually took full power over Rome as its dictator. After ... (100 of 873 words)
This animation demonstrates the changing declination of the sun with a time-lapse animation. It shows how the shadow of a building changes over the course of a year as the declination of the sun changes. This video examines the thawing of permafrost due to changes in climate and shows examples of the impacts that warming temperatures have on permafrost in the Arctic, including the release of the greenhouse gas methane. Dramatic results are shown, including sink holes forming on the landscape and beneath buildings, roads, and other infrastructure, causing some communities to relocate. This short video examines the recent melting ice shelves in the Antarctica Peninsula; the potential collapse of West Antarctic ice shelf; and how global sea levels, coastal cities, and beaches would be affected. This animation describes how citizen observations can document the impact of climate change on plants and animals. It introduces the topic of phenology and data collection, the impact of climate change on phenology, and how individuals can become citizen scientists. In this Webquest activity, students assume roles of scientist, business leader, or policy maker. The students then collaborate as part of a climate action team and learn how society and the environment might be impacted by global warming. They explore the decision making process regarding issues of climate change, energy use, and available policy options. Student teams investigate how and why climate is changing and how humans may have contributed to these changes. Upon completion of their individual tasks, student teams present their findings and make recommendations that address the situation. This video discusses how the populous areas west of the Andes are largely desert and rely on glacial meltwater as an important source of fresh water. Because the Peruvian glaciers high in the Andes are in rapid retreat, scientists are monitoring the steadily shrinking glaciers and the impact of their reduction on local populations. Students use Google Earth to analyze oil consumption per capita in the US and around the world. Students then use spreadsheets to create graphs and calculate statistics regarding per capita energy use among various categories. This is a short NASA video on the water cycle. The video shows the importance of the water cycle to nearly every natural process on Earth and illustrates how tightly coupled the water cycle is to climate. In this activity, students use Google Earth to explore global temperature changes during a recent 50 - 58 year period. They also explore, analyze, and interpret climate patterns of 13 different cities, and analyze differences between weather and climate patterns.
Otto von Guericke (1602–1686) Otto Gericke was born as son of a patrician family resident for three centuries in Magdeburg. Guericke family inherited extensive property both in the city and in the countryside around it. At the age of 15, he entered the Faculty of Arts at the Leipzig University. When Otto Gericke was 18 years old, his father died and in 1621 he went to Jena to study at the university there. To complete his studies, Otto Gericke studied in Leiden (Netherlands) in 1623. He especially looked into problems of constructing fortresses for which mathematics, mechanics and geometry were the most important subjects. After finishing his studies, he went on a nine months journey through France and England as young men of noble houses were entitled to. Otto von Guericke, demonstrated experimentally the capacity of the atmosphere to do work and decisively refuted the long-held notion that it was impossible for a vacuum to exist. Using hollow copper spheres and an air pump of his own construction, Guericke demonstrated that a partial vacuum could be created by pumping the air out of the sphere. He also proved that the air remaining in the sphere (at a pressure below that of the atmosphere) was distributed evenly throughout the vessel. In 1663 Otto van Guericke invented the first electric generator, which produced static electricity by applying friction in the machine. The generator was made of a large sulfur ball cast inside a glass globe, mounted on a shaft. The ball was rotated by means of a crank and a static electric spark was produced when a pad was rubbed against the ball as it rotated. The globe could be removed and used as source for experiments with electricity. It is necessary here to note that von Guericke did not recognize the effect he generated as static electricity. Later editions increased the speed of the rotation with a belt and and rotating wheel. Electrical demonstrations became a favorite parlor trick for guests, but the electric machine also allowed serious scientists to perform experiments that could not be performed earlier. It was Guericke who noted that like charges repelled each other. In 1657, Guericke carried out his famous demonstration that several teams of horses could not pull apart two joined hemispheres when the air within had been evacuated. Using a piston in a cylinder, he also showed that when a vacuum was created on one side of the piston, the atmosphere would move the piston and a considerable mass through a distance, thus performing work. This became the basic principle of the Newcomen steam engine (1712).
A heart murmur happens when the blood doesn’t flow through the valves as usual, so instead of the traditional “lub-dub” sound, the heart beat may sound more like swishing in different volumes, pitches, and durations. Dr. Nisha Chandra-Strobos, chief of cardiology and professor of Mmedicine at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, said, “Where does the murmur reach its peak of intensity? This information can help guide a cardiologist as to whether the murmur is innocent or of more concern. In a crescendo murmur, for example, the sound whooshes up and then suddenly stops. So just from the way it sounds, you can often draw conclusions as to the type and seriousness of the murmur.” There are two main types of heart murmurs: innocent heart murmurs and abnormal heart murmurs. An innocent heart murmur occurs when too much blood flows through the valves and oftentimes it does not require any medical intervention if the heart is healthy. Innocent heart murmurs can arise after a strenuous exercise, due to lack of red blood cells in anemia, and during pregnancy. Abnormal heart murmurs can reveal a defect either in the heart’s muscular structure, or other valve abnormalities. Hardening of the valves, which commonly occurs with aging, can also cause heart murmurs. Depending on the type of heart murmur you have, a follow-up appointment with your physician or a cardiologist may be required. The type of heart murmur you have determines its possible causes. For an innocent heart murmur, common causes are physical activity, anemia, and pregnancy. For an abnormal heart murmur, there could be abnormalities in the valve structures. Other common causes leading to a heart murmur include: Mitral valve prolapse: When the mitral valve does not close properly due to ballooning out, this is known as a mitral valve prolapse. Normally, this condition is of minimal concern, but it can cause the blood flow to go backwards through the valve. Mitral valve or aortic stenosis: Stenosis is narrowing of the valves, which can cause the heart to work harder. If this condition is left untreated, it can ultimately lead to heart failure. Aortic sclerosis and stenosis: In this case, the murmur is a result of scarring, thickening, or stiffening of the aortic valve even without narrowing. This is commonly seen in individuals with heart disease and can lead to chest pains, shortness of breath, and even fainting. Innocent heart murmurs are not threats to the heart and usually don’t imply a problem with the heart itself, so they only signal an increase of blood flow. For an abnormal heart murmur, signs and symptoms may include: An innocent heart murmur doesn’t require treatment as it is not caused by a heart problem. Abnormal heart murmurs, on the other hand, do require treatment. For abnormal heart murmur, the doctor has many options such as treating the underlying cause like anemia or hypothyroidism. Medications and surgeries may be resorted to if congenital heart disease is the cause for the abnormal heart murmur, and if the cause is a heart valve disease then treatment depends on the severity and type of the condition. There is currently no cure for heart valve disease, but healthy lifestyle choices like a proper diet, regular exercise, and not smoking can help improve the condition. Nevertheless, surgery will be required over time to repair the damaged heart valve.
“Every child is an artist. The problem is how to remain an artist once he grows up." -Pablo Picasso Over the years, educators, psychologists, and philosophers have come to appreciate the value of children’s art and its important role in early childhood education. It is now agreed by many in the field that exploring and creating with art materials helps children become more sensitive to the physical environment; promotes cognitive development and increases their social and emotional development. Young children who are encouraged to engage in expressive art activities also gain a sense of accomplishment and grow toward achieving independence and autonomy. Fostering an appreciation for and the desire to create art during the early years is not limited to museum trips or formal training. In fact, parents need only provide inexpensive art materials, interest, and encouragement. Following are some useful tips to inspire the Picasso in your child. - Provide safe materials. Check labels for warnings about toxins. Drawing tools should be thick enough for young hands to grasp and strong enough to prevent breaking. - Demonstrate the use of materials but resist the urge to tell children what to do and how to do it. - Limit the use of coloring books. It’s better to have children draw their own pictures and color them by staying within their own lines. - Raw materials, such as natural clay, sea shells, and beach sand offer a variety of non-structured possibilities for creativity. - Provide an abundant amount of inexpensive paper. Newsprint is ideal for children who wish to make large drawings on the floor, and colored construction paper can be used to create cutout shapes, collages, and paper plate masks. - Engage children in conversation about their creations.
Avian Eye Disorders Birds can suffer from many different eye disorders. They can be due to an eye injury, or possibly an infection to the area. Occasionally, eye disorders are symptoms of another underlying medical problem. Therefore, if your bird has an eye problem, it should be considered serious and you should consult a veterinarian to rule out any major internal disease. Symptom and Types Conjunctivitis, a common eye disorder, is usually caused by bacteria and can be identified as red and swollen eyelids, and may lead to photosensitivity (avoidance of light) in the bird. Conjunctivitis is also a symptom of many other medical problems, including respiratory infections. Uveitis causes an inflammation of the inner parts of the eye. However, it is commonly associated with symptoms of other internal diseases in the bird. This particular disorder needs to be treated quickly to avoid cataracts from forming. Cataracts develop in the bird's eye when there is a deficiency in vitamin E, an infection with encephalomyelitis, or even from continuous exposure to some artificial lights. Marek's disease is a particular type of eye disorder that is caused by a viral infection. This medical condition can lead to irregularly shaped pupils, iris problems blindness, and can progress into cancer. Vaccination can prevent this eye disorder from occurring. However, a bird that is already infected with the virus, cannot be cured. Avian Pox is another eye disorder which is found in birds, and is due to a viral infection. Though it is a generalized disease, the eye symptoms include swelling of the eyelids with blister-like formations, and partial or total loss of vision. However, the eyeball is not affected by the infection and the vision usually returns after the infection is treated. Many eye disorders are caused by bacterial infections (i.e., salmonella). This particular bacteria causes both conjunctivitis and ophthalmitis -- inflammation with pus in the eyeball and conjunctiva -- and possible blindness. In addition, salmonella is contagious and often spread from parent to your bird, or genetically through the egg yolk. Fungal infections of the eye can also lead to bird eye disorders, usually because of moldy feed. One common fungi, Aspergillus, infects the bird's respiratory system, but can also affect brain and eyes. The infected eye will show yellow plaques under the eyelid. The eye will also have inflammation, and if left untreated, this infection can result in severe eye damage. Vitamin deficiency is another cause of eye disorders in birds. For instance, a deficiency in vitamin E in the parent can lead to the birth of a blind chick. And vitamin A is required for proper pigmentation and tearing of the eyes. To prevent such deficiencies, give your bird commercial feed. If your bird show signs of discomfort or symptoms of any eye disorder -- such as the eyes close, swell, become red, discharge a substance, or blink more than usual -- be sure to get the bird checked by the veterinarian for immediate treatment. Antibiotic eye drops or other medicines can help in dealing with the eye disorder at an early stage. Prevention of certain types of eye disorders are dependent on the symptoms found in the bird. But, timely medical intervention can save the bird from suffering, as well as any serious eye damage.
The Kinematics and Dynamics of Galactic Rings The Physics of Resonance The physics involved in resonance entails the differential rotation of a galaxy's bar with respect to particles in the the disk of the galaxy. Put simply, it is the value of the bar pattern angular velocity in relation to the angular frequency of circular rotation and the radial epicyclic frequency of every star and dust cloud in the disk of the galaxy. The epicycles are actually closed elliptical orbits of material in the disk of the galaxy that are precessing around the central region of the galaxy. How fast a bar pattern rotates determines what kind of resonance you end up with in a galaxy. If the bar pattern speed is fast enough then it is believed that it can push a spiral out to the Outer Lindblad Resonance (OLR). If OLR is in the visible disk then it may lead to ring and pseudoring formation. The three major resonances relevant to ring formation are:Outer Lindblad Resonance (OLR) Inner Lindblad Resonance (ILR) Inner 4:1 Ultraharmonic Resonance (UHR) Figure 1. The OLR subclass of outer pseudoringsFigure. 2. Schematic showing the relative shapes, sizes, and major-axis orientations of all of the bar and ring features of NGC 3081, including the "dimples" in the outer R1 ring feature. Here "nr" refers to the nuclear ring, and "nb" to the nuclear (secondary) bar. Axes are labeled in arcsecond offsets relative to the nucleus. North is at the top, and east is to the left. Image and description source: A HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE STUDY OF STAR FORMATION IN THE INNER RESONANCE RING OF NGC 3081 by R. Buta et al. Other important types of resonance are corotation (CR) and the outer 4:1 resonance . In corotation (CR) the periodic rate of rotation of the bar is equal to the angular frequency of circular rotation of the disk. In the outer 4:1 resonance the periodic rate of rotation of the bar is equal to the angular frequency of circular rotation plus 1/4 of the radial epicyclic frequency. Figure 3. Corotation resonace (CR) If you read nothing else on this subject, at the very least, read Galactic Rings by R. Buta and F. Combes. I consider this a must-read. (very highly recommended) Another paper worth reading is the following: Title: The Morphology of Barred Galaxies Authors: Buta, R. Journal: Barred galaxies. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Volume 91; Proceedings of a conference held at the University of Alabama; Tuscaloosa; Alabama; 30 May - 3 June 1995; San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific (ASP #91); \|c1996; edited by R. Buta, D. A. Crocker and B. G. Elmegreen, p.11 Bibliographic Code: 1996ASPC...91...11BTABLE I. Summary of notation for ring and lens phenomena (below) from the paper (above), Galactic Rings by R. Buta and F. Combes. \|TABLE I. Summary of notation for ring and lens phenomena\| \|R1\|\|Type 1 OLR subclass outer ring\| \|R1'\|\|Type 1 OLR subclass outer pseudoring\| \|R2'\|\|Type 2 OLR subclass outer pseudoring\| Here's a wonderful paper written by Dr. Ronald Buta et al on a study done with the Hubble Space Telescope of the inner resonance ring of NGC 3081. Even though the paper's focus is on this one galaxy, it gives the reader a much more in-depth understanding of the kinematics and dynamics of inner rings in general. Admittedly, it's a little technical, but well worth reading. A HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE STUDY OF STAR FORMATION IN THE INNER RESONANCE RING OF NGC 3081 The Origins of Spiral Arms How Two, Three and Four Arms Are CreatedThe Origins of Spiral Arms by a Single Galactic Bar - translated by Charles Danforth, University of ColoradoFigure 1. By aligning a series of concentric elliptical (2/1) orbits, a bar can be produced (a). If each ellipse is given an azimuthal offset proportional to r½ , the effect is a two armed spiral of orbits (b). A set of (3/2) orbits produces a three armed spiral (c) and (4/1) produces a four armed pattern (d). The above illustration is from The Origins of Spiral Arms by Charles Danforth, University of Colorado. Star-Forming Nuclear Rings in Spiral Galaxies Here's a paper entitled Star-Forming Nuclear Rings in Spiral Galaxies.pdf Examples of the Application of the Notation for Ring and Lens Types to Actual Images of Galaxies I realize that this is a lot to swallow all at once. So, I have provided a couple of examples of objects, each with a very sophisticated classification using feature symbols from Table I. There is a summary of notation for ring and lens phenomena below. But, I have also included "alternative" classifications from both NED and SIMBAD, which are considerably simpler, to give you a better idea of what you may come across in Galaxy Analysis. Thank you for reading. Classifications: (R1R2')SAB(r,nr)0/a Alternative ClassificationsSIMBAD Basic data: Seyfert 1 Galaxy* Morphological type S0:rNED Classifications: (R_1)SAB(r)0/a Sy2* *SIMBAD and NED seem to be in disagreement on whether this is a Seyfert 1 or a Seyfert 2 galaxy. RA = 6:50.1, Dec. = +60:51 Classifications: (RR)SB(rs)a Sy2Alternative ClassificationsSIMBAD Basic data: Seyfert 2 Galaxy Morphological type SBaNED Classifications: SB(r)a: Sy2 The thumbnails (below) are more examples of ring and pseudoring classifications.
Foxhunting: What limits fox numbers in Britain? The major recorded cause of fox mortality in Britain is collision with vehicles, followed by culling. However, fox control appears to limit fox numbers only at a local level and all the studies that have looked at the effect of over-winter culling on fox densities the following spring have found culling to be ineffective in reducing the breeding population. Two field studies, in Scotland and in Wales respectively, found that the more foxes were killed in winter, the higher the number of foxes tended to be in the following spring. Thus over-winter culling seems to be counter-productive, attracting immigrant foxes from surrounding areas. Recently, a modelling study confirmed the results of these two field studies. A modelling study A study used computer simulations to model the impact of different culling practices on fox numbers in a large region (1,600 km2). Of four methods of fox control (hunting with hounds, winter shooting, culling at the den and fertility control) the most effective at reducing fox populations was found to be culling at the den, which eliminates the mother with her cubs and winter shooting, which removes dispersing individuals. Both methods however, were effective only at very high culling levels (>80%), which are unfeasible for large areas. None of the methods was very effective at reducing fox numbers because immigrating foxes from other areas quickly replaced dead foxes. Question & Answer TopIf road collisions and culling do not, what limits fox numbers? Foxes are organised in social groups that defend a territory against other foxes. The size of these territories is related to the availability of food both in space (how dispersed the food is) and time (according to annual/seasonal variations). As a consequence, the size of territories varies from 0.1 km2 in urban environments to 40 km2 or more in upland regions. So, at a local level the numbers of foxes present is related to the amount and availability of food. At a local level, disease outbreaks are also likely to be an important factor in regulating fox numbers. At a national level however, food availability is unlikely to limit fox numbers. It is likely that social factors have the largest effect on regulating fox numbers at a national level. - Baker, P.J. & Harris, S. (2006) Does culling reduce fox (Vulpes vulpes) density in commercial forests in Wales? European Journal of Wildlife Research 52, 99-108. - Baker, P., Harris, S. & White, P.C.L. (2006) After the hunt - the future for foxes in Britain. International Fund for Animal Welfare, London. - Heydon, M.J. & Reynolds, J.C. (2000) Fox (Vulpes vulpes) management in three contrasting regions of Britain, in relation to agricultural and sporting interests. Journal of Zoology 251, 237-252. - Hewson, R. (1986) Distribution and density of fox breeding dens and the effects of management. Journal of Applied Ecology 23, 531-538. - Pye-Smith, C. (1997) Fox-hunting - beyond the propaganda. Wildlife Network, Oakham, Rutland. - Reynolds, J.C., Goddard, H.N. & Brockless, M.H. (1993) The impact of local fox (Vulpes vulpes) removal on fox populations at two sites in southern England. Gibier Faune Sauvage 10, 319-334. - Rushton, S.P., Shirley, D.F., Macdonald, D.W. & Reynolds, J.C. (2006) Effects of culling fox populations at the landscape scale: a spatially explicit population modeling approach. Journal of Wildlife Management 70, 1102-1110.
From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Greek for oikos (house) and nomos (custom or law), hence "rules of the house(hold)." One of the uses of economics is to explain how economies work and what the relations are between economic players (agents) in the larger society. Methods of economic analysis have been increasingly applied to fields that involve people (officials included) making choices in a social context, such as crime, education, the family, health, law, politics, religion , social institutions, and war. Economic writings date from earlier Mesopotamian, Greek, Roman, Indian subcontinent, Chinese, Persian, and Arab civilizations. Notable writers from antiquity through to the 14th century include Aristotle, Xenophon, Qin Shi Huang, Thomas Aquinas, and Ibn Khaldun. The works of Aristotle had a profound influence on Aquinas, who in turn influenced the late scholastics of the 14th to 17th centuries. Joseph Schumpeter described the latter as "coming nearer than any other group to being the 'founders' of scientific economics" as to monetary, interest, and value theory within a natural-law perspective. Two groups, later called "mercantilists" and "physiocrats", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject. Both groups were associated with the rise of economic nationalism and modern capitalism in Europe. Mercantilism was an economic doctrine that flourished from the 16th to 18th century in a prolific pamphlet literature, whether of merchants or statesmen. It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver. Nations without access to mines could obtain gold and silver from trade only by selling goods abroad and restricting imports other than of gold and silver. The doctrine called for importing cheap raw materials to be used in manufacturing goods, which could be exported, and for state regulation to impose protective tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and prohibit manufacturing in the colonies. Physiocrats, a group of 18th century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow]] of income and output. Physiocrats believed that only agricultural production generated a clear surplus over cost, so that agriculture was the basis of all wealth. Thus, they opposed the mercantilist policy of promoting manufacturing and trade at the expense of agriculture, including import tariffs. Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners. In reaction against copious mercantilist trade regulations, the physiocrats advocated a policy of laissez-faire, which called for minimal government intervention in the economy. Modern economic analysis is customarily said to have begun with Adam Smith (1723–1790). Smith was harshly critical of the mercantilists but described the physiocratic system "with all its imperfections" as "perhaps the purest approximation to the truth that has yet been published" on the subject. Marxist (later, Marxian) economics descends from classical economics. It derives from the work of Karl Marx. The first volume of Marx's major work, Das Kapital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and the theory of surplus value which, he believed, explained the exploitation of labour by capital. The labour theory of value held that the value of an exchanged commodity was determined by the labour that went into its production and the theory of surplus value demonstrated how the workers only got paid a proportion of the value their work had created. The U.S. Export-Import Bank defines a Marxist-Lenninist state as having a centrally planned economy. - Art world economics - General economy by Georges Bataille - Invisible hand - Military-industrial complex - Surplus product - Underground economy
Intestinal parasites are something that most every pet and owner has to deal with at some point. There are many different types of intestinal parasites. Some of the most common of these are the parasitic worms (Roundworms, Hookworms, Whipworms, and Tapeworms). Lesser known, are the protozoa parasites (Coccidia and Giardia). ROUNDWORMS: Roundworms are the large intestinal worm infecting both dogs and cats. Animals are usually infected by ingesting fecal matter containing eggs. They can also be transmitted from the mother during pregnancy. This parasite is long, white, and round in appearance. Roundworms may cause diarrhea, vomiting, a pot-bellied appearance, and a generalized failure to thrive. Good hygiene practices, and regular deworming medication control these parasites. Roundworms are zoonotic parasites, meaning they can be passed to humans. Roundworms are especially problematic to children, who often acquire the larvae from putting their hands in their mouths without washing properly first. In some instances, the larvae can migrate to the eyes, causing blindness. HOOKWORMS: Another fairly common intestinal parasite is the Hookworm. Hookworms are microscopic in size, so you won’t be able to identify them without taking a stool sample to the veterinarian. Infection is caused by ingesting the larvae from the stool, or by larval migration through the skin. The mother can also pass these during pregnancy. Hookworms suck blood from the intestinal tract, and can cause severe diarrhea and anemia if left untreated. They also cause weight loss, poor hair coat, and in extreme circumstances, death. Good hygiene practices, and regular deworming of pets control hookworms. Hookworms are zoonotic parasites, meaning they can be passed to humans. Hookworms are especially problematic to children, who often acquire the larvae from putting their hands in their mouths without washing properly first. Hookworms can also migrate through the skin, usually by humans going barefoot in the soil. WHIPWORMS: Whipworms are another microscopic intestinal parasite that causes diarrhea and anemia and possibly death in dogs. Any age dog is susceptible. Infection is by ingestion, usually from the stool of an infected dog, or the soil. Management of whipworms is to practice good hygiene, and regular deworming of pets. Whipworms are not zoonotic parasites. TAPEWORMS: Tapeworms are a large (visible) intestinal worm of dogs and cats. Tapeworms are passed animal to animal by the flea. A pet while grooming itself ingests a flea carrying tapeworm eggs. After a few weeks, those eggs hatch, and begin releasing the egg packets that we see. These packets have the appearance of a flat, white or light brown piece of rice. They move, and are usually visible in the bowel movement, or dried and stuck to the hair around the rectum of the pet. Other fleas on the pet feed on this egg packet, and when a pet swallows them, the cycle continues. Management of these intestinal parasites is by practicing regular flea control, and deworming medication. COCCIDIA: Coccidia are not a worm, but a microscopic protozoan parasite of dogs and cats. Infection is by ingestion of eggs in stool, or by eating small rodents that have been infected. Signs of coccidial infection are diarrhea, vomiting, poor weight gain, and possibly some central nervous system signs. As many pets (especially puppies) re-infect themselves by eating or playing in their own stool, good hygiene practices are paramount at eliminating this parasite. Anticoddidial drugs are available. GIARDIA: Giardia is a microscopic intestinal protozoan. This parasite is found in contaminated water sources. Wild animals carrying the protozoan will drink, and then urinate, near the water sources. Pets that then drink out of the water are at risk of picking up this parasite. Any age of animal is susceptible, and the main symptoms are bloody or watery diarrhea, and weight loss. Elimination requires good hygiene practices, and antibiotic therapy. Giardia affects many mammals, including humans. It is the reason we should not drink from untreated water sources. In conclusion, there are many intestinal parasites that can affect the health and well being of our pets. Some of them can affect us as owners as well. Regular sanitation, deworming, and veterinary checkups are the best way to avoid parasitic problems. Many of the monthly heartworm preventive products also deworm against some of the common parasites. If your pet has experienced any of the above listed symptoms, please don’t hesitate to bring in a stool sample, or your pet for us to examine.
Lateral meningocele syndrome is a disorder that affects the nervous system, the bones and muscles, and other body systems. The condition is characterized by abnormalities known as lateral meningoceles. Lateral meningoceles are protrusions of the membranes surrounding the spinal cord (known as the meninges) through gaps in the bones of the spine (vertebrae). The protrusions are most common and typically larger in the lower spine. The meningoceles associated with this disorder may damage the nerves that spread from the spine to the rest of the body. Damage to the nerves that control bladder function, a condition called neurogenic bladder, causes affected individuals to have progressive difficulty controlling the flow of urine. Prickling or tingling sensations (paresthesias), progressive stiffness and weakness in the legs (paraparesis), and back pain can also occur. Delayed development of motor skills in infancy, such as sitting and crawling, often occurs in this disorder; intelligence is usually unaffected. Other features of lateral meningocele syndrome can include low muscle tone (hypotonia) during infancy, decreased muscle bulk, loose (hyperextensible) joints that can lead to dislocations, and protrusion of organs through gaps in muscles (hernias). Spinal abnormalities are also common, including side-to-side curvature of the spine (scoliosis), abnormal joining (fusion) of two or more vertebrae, and vertebrae that are unusually shaped (scalloped). People with lateral meningocele syndrome typically have a particular pattern of facial features that may include high arched eyebrows, widely spaced eyes (hypertelorism), outside corners of the eyes that point downward (downslanting palpebral fissures), and droopy eyelids (ptosis). Affected individuals may have a flat appearance of the middle of the face and cheekbones (midface and malar hypoplasia); low-set ears; a long area between the nose and mouth (long philtrum); a thin upper lip; a high, narrow roof of the mouth, occasionally with an abnormal opening (a cleft palate); a small jaw (micrognathia); coarse hair; and a low hairline at the back of the neck. Other signs and symptoms that can occur in lateral meningocele syndrome include a high and nasal voice, hearing loss, abnormalities of the heart or the genitourinary system, poor feeding, difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), and backflow of stomach acids into the esophagus (called gastroesophageal reflux or GERD). Lateral meningocele syndrome is a very rare disorder. Only a small number of cases have been described in the medical literature. Lateral meningocele syndrome is caused by mutations in the NOTCH3 gene. This gene provides instructions for making a protein with one end (the intracellular end) that remains inside the cell, a middle (transmembrane) section that spans the cell membrane, and another end (the extracellular end) that projects from the outer surface of the cell. The NOTCH3 protein is called a receptor protein because certain other proteins, called ligands, attach (bind) to the extracellular end of NOTCH3, fitting like a key into a lock. This binding causes detachment of the intracellular end of the NOTCH3 protein, called the NOTCH3 intracellular domain, or NICD. The NICD enters the cell nucleus and helps control the activity (transcription) of other genes. The NOTCH3 gene mutations that cause lateral meningocele syndrome occur at the end of the gene in a region known as exon 33. These gene mutations result in a NOTCH3 protein with an abnormally short (truncated) NICD. The shortened protein is missing the portion that normally causes the breakdown of the NICD after it has performed its function in the cell nucleus and is no longer needed. As a result, the presence of the NICD in the cell is prolonged, and the protein continues to affect the activity of other genes. However, the result of this prolonged NICD activity and its connection to the specific features of lateral meningocele syndrome are not well understood. This condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. Most cases result from new mutations in the gene and occur in people with no history of the disorder in their family. Occasionally, an affected person inherits the mutation from one affected parent. - Lehman syndrome
Earthworms, the darlings of gardeners, fishers and composters, have a dark side: some are globetrotters and when introduced to new homes can cause real problems, both above and below ground. “Invasive earthworms are a global problem and can cause considerable changes to ecosystems,” says Mac Callaham, research ecologist with the U.S. Forest Service Southern Research Station (SRS) scientist and an internationally recognized expert on invasive earthworms. Invasive earthworms have spread to every continent (except Antarctica), oceanic islands, and nearly every type of ecosystem on the planet—even desert oases. “Worms may be slow on their own but they’re good hitchhikers,” says Callaham. Mud containing earthworm cocoons can get stuck to the fur and feet of animals. Tornadoes transport small pieces of earthworm-containing soil, and ocean currents carry worms to exotic locales. Humans, however, are an invasive worm’s main ride to new regions. People spread worms accidentally through activities such as gardening, composting and dumping fishing bait. As early as 1900, scientists noticed that some travelling worms–but not all–became invasive. Ever since then, scientists have wondered what traits lead exotic species to cause trouble in their new homes. Invasive worms may be the ironmen of the worm phylum; they can tolerate many different environments, migrate on rainy nights, and as Callaham explains, “for certain species, a single worm can produce lots of offspring, no mate required. This means that one worm can establish a population, which may then act as a hub for future invasions.” Read Callaham’s article about the global problem of introduced earthworms. In the United States, earthworms have invaded northern regions like the Great Lakes and New England–regions where the native earthworms were killed during the last Ice Age. In these forests, earthworm invasions can have dramatic negative consequences as worms gobble up duff that took decades to accumulate, sometimes eating so much that all the leaf litter vanishes from the forest floor and only bare soil remains. This is bad news for salamanders and other creatures whose lives are spent in the layer of leaves and organic matter that normally cloaks the forest floor. Earthworm invasions also decrease the abundance and diversity of bacteria, fungi, mites and other small soil-dwelling creatures that break down old plant matter, and endanger rare ferns and trilliums that need a rich, fertile layer of duff to germinate in. In Tennessee, Callaham and his colleagues monitor Amynthas agrestis, an exotic worm species that has colonized parts of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. After 2 years of monitoring these worms, the researchers found that the colonies are mobile, especially when soils are wet. In drier weather, the worms don’t spread to new areas and even retreat, causing the size of colonies to shrink. “This suggests that if land managers decide to remove invasive earthworms, the most effective time for treatment may be when it’s dry,” says Callaham. “We know that worms can alter soil properties, organic matter and nutrient cycles, and well as plant and animal communities. We’re trying to figure out what that might look like in the Great Smoky Mountains.” Callaham and his colleagues recently studied the interaction between invasive earthworms and millipedes. The layer of soil where millipedes live also happens to be where the earthworms feed. “We wanted to see what happens if these millipedes and exotic worms compete for food.” Callaham and his team discovered that when Amynthas was present, millipedes had shorter lifespans. “It looks like millipedes and Amynthas do compete for the same foods,” says Callaham. “However, Amynthas cocoons were not found in soil that contained millipedes, so it looks as if millipedes have some biotic resistance the exotic worms.” –Sarah Farmer For more information, email Mac Callaham at [email protected]
Circuit breakers are a form of overcurrent protector; they interrupt electrical circuits which receive excess current in order to prevent high heat from resistance which may cause a fire. Overcurrent conditions can happen when too much load is attached to the circuit and power demand becomes too high. Other causes include lightning striking the power company’s wiring or service conductors and sending a power surge through your home’s wiring, and faulty insulation or broken connections allowing electricity to flow through the entire circuit without passing through a load, a condition known as a short circuit. Frayed wiring insulation that allows the neutral and hot conductors to contact one another is one of the most common causes of residential short circuits. Another hazardous condition causing short circuits is contact between a hot conductor and a conductive material or surface leading to the earth; this is known as a ground fault. Not only can these conditions be the cause of fires, but any conductive surfaces touching the current will become electrically charged and become part of the circuit. This includes any person or animal touching the surface; in other words, you would be at risk of getting a dangerous and potentially lethal electric shock. Overcurrent protection in the form of fuses is used in older homes and buildings, but the majority of modern construction houses are equipped with a circuit breaker panel, also known as a service panel. The circuit breakers inside the panel work by setting off a spring which cuts off the electrical supply to the circuit when heat goes beyond a certain point. To restore current to the circuit, the circuit breaker is reset, usually by flipping it back on. Circuit breakers are rated based on the amount of current, measured in amperage, that they are capable of passing. For a 120 volt circuit, a typical rating for a branch circuit breaker would be 15 to 20 amps, with main disconnect breakers rated from between 100 to 200 amps. If your home has a circuit breaker which goes off repeatedly, never replace it with one of a higher rating. Instead, call an electrician and let them track down the problem and fix it. For Further Information: – International Association of Electrical Inspectors – National Electrical Manufacturers Association – National Fire Protection Association (Publishers of the National Electrical Code) – Square D Company (Circuit breaker manufacturer)
Trigonometry:In a sense, trigonometry sits at the center of high school mathematics. It originates in the study of geometry when we investigate the ratios of sides in similar right triangles, or when we look at the relationship between a chord of a circle and its arc. It leads to a much deeper study of periodic functions, and of the so-called transcendental functions, which cannot be described using finite algebraic processes. It also has many applications to physics, astronomy, and other branches of science. It is a very old subject. Many of the geometric results that we now state in trigonometric terms were given a purely geometric exposition by Euclid. Ptolemy, an early astronomer, began to go beyond Euclid, using the geometry of the time to construct what we now call tables of values of trigonometric functions. Trigonometry is an important introduction to calculus, where one stud ies what mathematicians call analytic properties of functions. One of the goals of this book is to prepare you for a course in calculus by directing your attention away from particular values of a function to a study of the function as an object in itself. This way of thinking is useful not just in calculus, but in many mathematical situations. So trigonometry is a part of pre-calculus, and is related to other pre-calculus topics, such as exponential and logarithmic functions, and complex numbers." Back to top Rent Trigonometry 1st edition today, or search our site for I. M. textbooks. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Birkhauser Boston.
Approximately one third of all North American students suffer from some type of reading problems. In many cases, these students lack fluent decoding skills and cannot quickly and accurately glean information from written passages. If asked to read aloud, they do so haltingly. They tend to read orally at about half of the speed of a competent reader. They stumble over words, guess frequently and make many errors. Their silent reading skills are usually only marginally better. Given the amount of difficulty these students encounter in trying to decode words to get information, it is easy to understand why they would have problems remembering or applying the information they have just read. This is why they choose not to read unless it is absolutely necessary. It helps to explain why almost one third of adult North Americans have never read a single book. The Initial Solution This type of reading decoding problems can be almost always be remedied with a first-rate phonetically based reading decoding program and a competent instructor. Once the student becomes a fluent decoder, the chances of success in understanding what has been read increases dramatically. We have seen comprehension test scores increase by a year simply by teaching the student to decode fluently. This is not because we have dealt with teaching the student new strategies for reading comprehension. It is simply because we have helped the student to read passages at 200 words per minute with no more than two errors. Getting a smooth easy flow of information in and of itself helps to increase the understanding of the material. This becomes even more helpful when the student reads with expression, stopping at periods, pausing at commas, and changing his or her voice slightly at quotation marks. To get children to pause appropriately, try having them tap the desk or table once for each comma they see and twice for each period they encounter. Multiple readings of the same passages make an excellent practice routine for learning to read with emphasis. It also gives the student more opportunity to figure out what the passage is about. The Big Five The first level of reading comprehension involves understanding the factual information contained in any passage. These are the same five questions that journalists answer in reporting a story: Who, What, Where, When, and Why. The student should be able to read any passage and then quickly and easily answer these five questions. Asking these questions in the same order after many different stories gives the learner a framework into which they can compile information at the simplest level. Try this. Ask the student to read a relatively short piece of one or two paragraphs. Then ask the five W's in a specific order. Count the number of facts that the student is able to provide from the first reading. Then have him or her reread the passage and do the exercise again. Knowing what is going to be asked - the same five questions - cues the learner to attend to specific information in any given passage. Developing this practice as a routine method for reporting information establishes a system for gathering factual knowledge. Some children will get all of the information in a single reading. Others will have lots of difficulty trying to remember so many bits of information. The difference lies predominantly in providing more feedback and more practice of the same material. When we are teaching student to become fluent decoders, counting ideas reported by a student is more difficult than counting the number of words a student can read orally in a minute. We have developed a procedure in which we time the student for 30 seconds. We count each noun, verb, adjective, and adverb that the student says about the material during that 30-second segment. "The old man walked slowly across a bridge" has a count of 7 ideas. There are three adjectives (the, old, and a). There are two nouns (man, bridge), there is a single verb (walked), and there is one adverb (slowly). It takes a bit of practice to learn to count ideas fluently. The instructor may have to do a quick review of grammar parts before taking on this assignment. Practicing a few passages by yourself is one strategy for getting ready to do this with the children. It is easier if you use a pencil and tally each part of speech that is considered an idea during the 30-second measurement period. Fluently performing students can routinely report 30 to 40 ideas a minute about a passage that they have just read. Students who can report 30-40 ideas about a passage generally have a very solid understanding of the factual information that they have just read. If you get overwhelmed trying to count the student's ideas as they report them at top speed, try recording the students' responses on tape and then analyzing them with the student. That also helps the student to learn or review the various parts of speech contained in their answers. We always report the scores on a count per minute basis. So in this case you multiply the ideas by two in order to end up with a count per minute measure. Some children remember facts better when they write them down, as opposed to reporting them verbally. In this exercise we have the student read the passage and then write as many facts as they can remember for a period of one minute. We then check to see if the facts they have reported are actually in the passage. This allows us to get a quality control measure on their attempt. Students can write twenty to thirty words per minute. Again we count specific parts of speech as ideas. Each noun, verb, adjective, and adverb is counted as a single idea. When students can provide this level of information after reading a passage, they have demonstrated understanding of at least the factual aspects of the material. Most parents do not think of reading comprehension in such simple terms as I have outlined here. Usually reading comprehension is considered much more abstract higher order thinking that is difficult to measure. We have used these practices to get a handle on the simplest levels of reading comprehension and to pinpoint problems that students have in understanding what they are reading. There are many much more complex and difficult aspects of reading comprehension to be considered. Some of these will be the basis of the next segment of this series. For starters, I would check out each student to make sure that they are fluently decoding the material that is presented in their various books and materials. If you find a problem at this level, you must solve it first before considering any other reading comprehension strategies. Getting a system in place for the "Big Five" questions ensures that students have a consistent process for filing information. Counting ideas for a prescribed period of time does require some practice, but it also provides a simple standard for measuring reading comprehension at its most basic levels. Was this article helpful to you? Subscribe to Practical Homeschooling today, and you'll get this quality of information and encouragement five times per year, delivered to your door. To start, click on the link below that describes you: USA Librarian (purchasing for a library) Outside USA Individual Outside USA Library
What shape is the overlap when you slide one of these shapes half way across another? Can you picture it in your head? Use the interactivity to check your visualisation. What does the overlap of these two shapes look like? Try picturing it in your head and then use the interactivity to test your Draw three straight lines to separate these shapes into four groups - each group must contain one of each shape. Billy's class had a robot called Fred who could draw with chalk held underneath him. What shapes did the pupils make Fred draw? Can you cut a regular hexagon into two pieces to make a parallelogram? Try cutting it into three pieces to make a rhombus! A group activity using visualisation of squares and triangles. This practical problem challenges you to make quadrilaterals with a loop of string. You'll need some friends to help! Use the three triangles to fill these outline shapes. Perhaps you can create some of your own shapes for a friend to fill? A game for 2 players. Given a board of dots in a grid pattern, players take turns drawing a line by connecting 2 adjacent dots. Your goal is to complete more squares than your opponent. Can you arrange the shapes in a chain so that each one shares a face (or faces) that are the same shape as the one that follows it? An extension of noughts and crosses in which the grid is enlarged and the length of the winning line can to altered to 3, 4 or 5. Each of the nets of nine solid shapes has been cut into two pieces. Can you see which pieces go together? A shape and space game for 2,3 or 4 players. Be the last person to be able to place a pentomino piece on the playing board. Play with card, or on the computer. Investigate how the four L-shapes fit together to make an enlarged L-shape. You could explore this idea with other shapes too. Which of these dice are right-handed and which are left-handed? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outlines of the watering can and man in a boat? Reasoning about the number of matches needed to build squares that share their sides. Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outlines of the candle and sundial? Here are shadows of some 3D shapes. What shapes could have made Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outlines of Mai Ling and Chi Wing? Make a cube out of straws and have a go at this practical Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outlines of these clocks? How many balls of modelling clay and how many straws does it take to make these skeleton shapes? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outline of the child walking home from school? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outlines of these people? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outline of this brazier for roasting chestnuts? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outline of Little Ming playing the board game? Paint a stripe on a cardboard roll. Can you predict what will happen when it is rolled across a sheet of paper? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outlines of the lobster, yacht and cyclist? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outlines of the chairs? Which of the following cubes can be made from these nets? Investigate the number of paths you can take from one vertex to another in these 3D shapes. Is it possible to take an odd number and an even number of paths to the same vertex? If you split the square into these two pieces, it is possible to fit the pieces together again to make a new shape. How many new shapes can you make? How can the same pieces of the tangram make this bowl before and after it was chipped? Use the interactivity to try and work out what is going on! Where can you put the mirror across the square so that you can still "see" the whole square? How many different positions are possible? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outline of this shape. How would you describe it? Can you find ways of joining cubes together so that 28 faces are You have been given three shapes made out of sponge: a sphere, a cylinder and a cone. Your challenge is to find out how to cut them to make different shapes for printing. Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outline of Little Ming and Little Fung dancing? Imagine a wheel with different markings painted on it at regular intervals. Can you predict the colour of the 18th mark? The 100th I've made some cubes and some cubes with holes in. This challenge invites you to explore the difference in the number of small cubes I've used. Can you see any patterns? Can you work out what is wrong with the cogs on a UK 2 pound coin? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outline of Wai Ping, Wah Ming and Chi Wing? Take it in turns to place a domino on the grid. One to be placed horizontally and the other vertically. Can you make it impossible for your opponent to play? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outline of these rabbits? Can you fit the tangram pieces into the outline of the telescope and microscope? In how many ways can you fit two of these yellow triangles together? Can you predict the number of ways two blue triangles can be fitted together? This article for teachers describes a project which explores thepower of storytelling to convey concepts and ideas to children. This second article in the series refers to research about levels of development of spatial thinking and the possible influence of How many different cuboids can you make when you use four CDs or DVDs? How about using five, then six?
ReadWriteThink couldn't publish all of this great content without literacy experts to write and review for us. If you've got lessons plans, activities, or other ideas you'd like to contribute, we'd love to hear from you. Find the latest in professional publications, learn new techniques and strategies, and find out how you can connect with other literacy professionals. Teacher Resources by Grade \|1st - 2nd\|\|3rd - 4th\| \|5th - 6th\|\|7th - 8th\| \|9th - 10th\|\|11th - 12th\| Jazz Up Writing Workshop: Writing Biographies of African American Jazz Musicians \|Grades\|\|2 – 3\| \|Lesson Plan Type\|\|Unit\| \|Estimated Time\|\|Twenty 20- to 45-minute sessions\| Jazz provides the backdrop for students to learn how to write biographies and organize their work into chapters. Students first gain a strong understanding of jazz by reading biographies of African American jazz musicians and listening to music. Selected biographies introduce the musicians and familiarize students with the format of biographies. Lessons focus on collecting facts, taking notes, and synthesizing notes into biographies organized by chapters. At the end of the unit, the biographies are unveiled at a jazz café publishing party, complete with music and readings. Biography Planning Sheet: This structured resource helps students research and record important information about their jazz musicians. African American Jazz Musician Biography Assignment: This sheet clearly lays out the details of the biography assignment for students, teachers, and families. PBS Kids Go! Jazz website: Students use this website to research information about their chosen jazz musicians. Palmer, R.G., & Stewart, R.A. (2005). Models for using nonfiction in the primary grades. The Reading Teacher, 58(5), 426–434. - Teachers should scaffold the teaching of reading and writing nonfiction texts. - Models for using nonfiction texts with young students include (1) teacher-directed instruction, (2) scaffolded student investigation, and (3) independent student investigation. Ray, K.W. (2004). About the authors: Writing workshop with our youngest writers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. - Students should be encouraged to write in multiple genres from a young age. - Writing workshop lessons should consist of a minilesson that teaches an explicit skill, independent writing time, and time for students to share their writing.
\|Classification and external resources\| Hypervolemia, or fluid overload, is the medical condition where there is too much fluid in the blood. The opposite condition is hypovolemia, which is too little fluid volume in the blood. Fluid volume excess in the intravascular compartment occurs due to an increase in total body sodium content and a consequent increase in extracellular body water. The mechanism usually stems from compromised regulatory mechanisms for sodium handling as seen in congestive heart failure (CHF), kidney failure, and liver failure. It may also be caused by excessive intake of sodium from foods, intravenous (IV) solutions and blood transfusions, medications, or diagnostic contrast dyes. Excessive sodium and fluid intake: - IV therapy containing sodium - As a Transfusion reaction to a rapid blood transfusion. - High intake of sodium Sodium and water retention: - Heart failure - Liver cirrhosis - Nephrotic syndrome - Corticosteroid therapy - Low protein intake Fluid shift into the intravascular space: - Fluid remobilization after burn treatment - Administration of hypertonic fluids, e.g. mannitol or hypertonic saline solution - Administration of plasma proteins, such as albumin Signs and symptoms The excess fluid, primarily salt and water, builds up in various locations in the body and leads to an increase in weight, swelling in the legs and arms (peripheral edema), and/or fluid in the abdomen (ascites). Eventually, the fluid enters the air spaces in the lungs, reduces the amount of oxygen that can enter the blood, and causes shortness of breath (dyspnea), which is the best indicator of estimating central venous pressure is increased. Fluid can also collect in the lungs when lying down at night, possibly making nighttime breathing and sleeping difficult (paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea). See also - Volume status - Fluid balance - Anasarca (swelling of skin) - Pleural effusion (excess fluid in the pleural cavity) - Low pressure receptor zones - Page 62 (Fluid imbalances) in: Portable Fluids and Electrolytes (Portable Series). Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. ISBN 1-58255-678-4. - "Complications of Transfusion: Transfusion Medicine: Merck Manual Professional". Retrieved 2009-02-09. - The MERCK MANUALS > Hyponatremia Last full review/revision May 2009 by James L. Lewis, III, MD - Hypervolemia symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment, and general details - How Heart Failure causes fluid accumulation – An animated journey through Heart Failure - CRISP Thesaurus 00004009 \|This article about a disease, disorder, or medical condition is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|
LESSON PLAN FORMAT The following is an outline designed to guide you in developing lesson plans. The lesson plan is an effective tool used to enhance your instruction. Please approach it as a tool rather than a burden. Think of it as a road map to guide the journey! I. Title—Name it! Be creative, draw the reader in! Goals are the general rationale or purpose of what you want to teach. Goals speak to the broad outcome of a lesson. Example: “This lesson will encourage sensory awareness toward natural objects.” Objectives are the measurable and observable outcomes of your lesson. They are the specific reason/s the lesson is created/used. Example: From this lesson, students will be able to: a) Describe five different natural objects. b) Describe their awareness clearly in a brief essay. c) Describe a different object using each of the human senses. IV. Audience identified—Your students. a) Age group b) Affiliation, e.g. Boy Scout troop, recreation undergrads, grade 5 class, etc. V. Duration—Time involved. a) How long is the lesson? (preparation included) b) How long will it take to get to the site? (travel time) c) How long will it take to follow up the field experience or lab experience? a) Where will the lesson be taught? b) How will you get there? VII. Content—The substance of your presentation. This is a major portion of your lesson plan. Think of the content as the background; the content is the information that serves as the foundation of the lesson…the what! Include the information that is readily usable for your presentation (background), the information you want to impart to the students. Content is identifying the factual knowledge or relevant background. This information must be organized into a usable form for you, the presenter. Further, include additional background information designed to support other educators preparing to use this lesson. VIII. Methods/Procedure—How you will teach your lesson! The method is the teaching approach/instructional strategy that will be used in order to reach the objectives…the how! Describe the methods that will be used to present the information and facilitate the experience, ultimately to work toward achievement of the objectives. The lesson’s methods are a blending of the content into a conceptual plan so that the receiver can make sense of it. That is, learning through integrating content with personal meaning and building on past experiences. For example, if you are teaching tree identification, explain how you will teach tree identification and describe the specific activities that might be a part of this (games, role-play, experimentation, demonstration, observation, reflection…). In addition to the methodology, provide specific directions of procedure to accomplish the planned lesson…Step 1, step 2…part a, part b…This specific step-by-step is the procedure. A peer educator should be able to pick up your lesson plan, understand your content and be able to follow your procedural steps to successfully present the lesson. Depending upon your audience, you will need to consider different things for management of the group and prevention of injuries. a) How will you manage the group (keeping the group together, rules, discipline, supervision,) b) What are potential risks at the site you are using with the activities you are conducting? How will you minimize the student’s exposure to the risks? X. Equipment—What you need! a) What equipment or materials will be needed? b) List each specific item and quantity. XI. What is a weather alternative? How can you adjust if the weather conditions do not match your plans? XII. Evaluation—Assessing learning. Provide a specific plan for assessing learning. The plan may be a test, a group discussion, a rubric, a product completed for the student portfolio, demonstration of ability, a game, etc. Be deliberate about how the learning will be assessed, your tool should help you address the following questions: a) How do you know that the lesson was successful? b) Were your objectives met? c) How were you successful as an instructor? XII. Follow up—What’s next? Each lesson should link to the next lesson of a deliberate sequence (scope and sequence) within a broader context. This is especially important for all formal and non-formal educators – lessons are rarely stand-alone, without a connection to other learning. a) What is the next lesson? b) How will you prepare your students for the next lesson? XIV. Reference—Materials to support your lesson. must have some reference source that supports your content. The reference must be valid (books, journals). Unless a person is recognized in their field as a leading expert, people are not necessarily valid resources (i.e. the camp director at b) Provide any source information and cite it properly! c) List at least 3 references for additional information. As you develop your instructional skills and progress into a variety of formal and non-formal learning environments you need to be aware of existing professional educational standards. This awareness will allow you to connect your lesson/s to a broader scope and sequence. You will notice that many curriculum guides highlight connections to state or national standards; this professionalism is a reminder of two key points:
A little over a year ago, NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory witnessed an eruption from the sun that emitted bursts of hot plasma into space. During this phenomenon, some of the plasma was sucked back up by the gravitational pull of the Sun, helping scientists observe how young stars accrete the matter around them. The event took place on June 2, 2011, and since NASA’s Observatory spacecraft monitors the Sun constantly, it caught sight of hot plasma being hurtled into space. Yet, flashing bright flashes and ultraviolet radiation indicated that some of the plasma was being swallowed back up by the Sun. Designed and developed by scientists at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA), the spacecraft’s Atmospheric Imaging Assembly instrument was able to provide images of the event—better than any high-definition picture.
Low muscle tone, also called hypotonia, is a diagnosis given when a child makes loose and uncontrolled movements. Additional symptoms associated with hypotonia include poor coordination, muscle weakness and motor-skills delays. Hypotonia may stem from a medical problem, such as Down syndrome and hypothyroidism, or may have no recognizable cause. An occupational therapist helps you plan activities to do with a child who has low muscle tone. Children who demonstrate low muscle tone in the mouth and facial areas may benefit from oral-motor activities. When the child is able to gain better control over his mouth movements, he may improve his speech and language development. It can also be helpful for the prevention of choking. Using whistles and straws along with chewing on crunchy foods such as carrots and celery are typically recommended oral-motor activities. Warming up the muscles with fun activities can be helpful for children with low muscle tone. For instance, the Department of Occupational Therapy at Royal Children’s Hospital in Australia recommends that the child bounce on a trampoline for several minutes before sitting at a desk. This activity improves posture. Playing with clay before writing can improve grip and fine motor skills while holding a pencil. Certain exercises can be done to activate multiple muscle groups at once. For instance, star jumps are a fun exercise that simultaneously works the muscles in the upper and lower body. To do a star jump, the child must lift both arms while jumping. She should land with her feet approximately hip-width apart. Recommend 10 star jumps at a time for the child. Fine Motor Skills If the low muscle tone is affecting his fine motor skills, craft activities can be done at home. Have the child draw shapes and color between the shapes he has drawn. Paper cutting with safety scissors is another important activity for a child with low muscle tone. Have him cut out shapes drawn on construction paper.
Translate Estonian into 80 different languages. Insert your text Estonian language is a type of Finno-Ugric language that is somewhat similar to the Finnish language being used by around 1.1 million individuals in Estonia. The language contains several loanwords from Greek, German, English, and Latin languages. The alphabet used in this language is based on Latin script. The unique phoneme length of the Estonian language has caused much interest on several linguists. Written examples of the Estonian language can be seen in some texts found in the 13th century. The language serves as the official language of the European Union and Estonia. Estonian language is being regulated by the Institute of the Estonian Language.
Blocked and normal arteries What's this Science Bite about? To be healthy each cell in our body requires a constant supply of oxygen. Oxygen enters our body each time we breathe in and is transported through our bodies by our blood. The movement of blood through our bodies is called circulation and is controlled by the circulatory system which is made up of the heart, blood and blood vessels. Your heart is a powerful muscle that acts like a pump to send blood to the lungs and the cells in your body. The blood travels through a network of blood vessels called arteries and veins. Arteries carry oxygen rich (oxygenated) blood away from the heart to the cells in your body. The cells use the oxygen and produce carbon dioxide and other waste. Veins carry the oxygen poor (deoxygenated) blood back towards the heart. The heart sends the blood back to the lungs to be oxygenated and the cycle begins again. What happens when something goes wrong with the circulatory system? Try our experiment to find out. What you'll need - Download and print the Blocked and normal arteries guide: Blocked and normal arteries (546.98 kB) - 2 beakers of water with red food colouring added - 2 plastic cups - 2 straws of different thicknesses - Dish for catching water - Blu tac How to do the experiment Put a strip of tape around each cup close to the bottom. Use a pin to make a hole in the side of each cup, near the bottom. Carefully widen the holes so they fit each straw comfortably. The wider straw will require a bigger hole. Trim each straw to approximately 5 centimetres. Place the straws through the pre made holes. Use blu tac to seal the inside of the hole around the straw so that water cannot leak out of the hole. Place the cups side by side in the dish. Make sure the straws are pointing down so that the water can flow out. Pour in the coloured water. The coloured water will flow out both straws but at different rates. Find out more... The cup with the thin straw empties more slowly. This replicates what happens in the body when an artery becomes blocked. Heart disease occurs when the blood supply to your heart is blocked by a buildup of fatty substances, known as plaque, in the walls of the arteries. As the plaques grow larger, the arteries narrow. Narrowing of the arteries leads to a decrease in the volume of oxygenated blood that can reach the heart which can lead to chest pains and heart attacks. The plaques may become dislodged and form clots in the blood that block the flow. This can also cause heart attacks and strokes. Visit BodyWorks at Glasgow Science Centre - an interactive exhibition all about human health and wellbeing in the 21st Century. Body systems and cells Physical well being HWB 1-15a/ 2-15a/ 3-15a
A key perhaps to understanding dye sublimation is understanding what sublimation is. As you probably recall from high school chemistry or physics, sublimation is the physical process whereby a substance transitions from the solid phase directly to the gas phase without first passing through the liquid phase. The emblematic example of sublimation in action is dry ice, which is frozen carbon dioxide which immediately become a gas at room temperature. Sublimation takes place because of heat, because of pressure, or both. The opposite of sublimation is called deposition, the process by which a gas transitions directly into a solid without first becoming a liquid. Examples of this are snowflakes and frost, which is the result of water vapor (a gas) becoming a solid without first condensing into liquid water. How does this work in the context of dye-sublimation printing? As you well know, an ink comprises two basic elements: a colorant, which is a pigment or a dye, and a vehicle, which is a liquid that is used to transport the colorant to the substrate. It’s common to think of dyes as liquids and pigments as solids, but actually both are solids, and the real difference between them is solubility (among many other things). Generally speaking, dyes and dyestuffs are soluble in water and other solvents, while pigments are not. So, in traditional (if we can use that term at this stage) dye-sublimation printing, the ink consists of solid dye particles in a liquid suspension, usually water-based. The dye-sublimation printer transfers the ink to a transfer medium, usually paper. The sublimation paper has a special coating that will not only accept this ink, but also facilitate its release in the next step of the process. It should also be noted that the image is printed in reverse on the transfer paper. The next step, variously called fixation or outgassing, involves a heat press, which can either be rotary or flatbed. Usually the term heat press refers to flatbed devices used for the fabric equivalent of sheets, while the term calender is used to refer to a fixation unit used with rolls. In the heat press, the printed transfer paper is brought into contact with the fabric that is to be imaged. If you are planning to print on a stretchy material, you may get better results by using a tacky transfer paper that will adhere slightly to the fabric so that it won’t shift during fixing and cause blurring, ghosting, or other imaging imperfections. Whatsapp: +86 18252072197 Address: Central Road 323, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
What is Psychology The word psychology is the combination of two Greek words psyche (Soul, mind, self and logy (study, investigate). In simple words psychology investigate, the mental process, and its manifestations in social relations of men and animals. In this background psychology has great importance in order to get more and more insight about human mind and the logic behind his / her behavior in social relations. What is Education It is a process where skill & information, are transferred to next generation, in order to develop a person mentally, emotionally and technically to be a happy and valuable character in the social order. What is Educational Psychology If both the above paragraphs are combined it will be cleared to us that education which is an important social and human activity has close link with psychology. Psychology gives insight and information, about the student mentality while education executes & acts in the specific direction to get the goals that the educational psychologists have set. In other words Educational psychology studies mental and behavior related issues scientifically, of those who are directly or indirectly concerned with education. Definition of Educational Psychology The following are definitions of education psychology by well known psychologists: - ”Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with teaching and learning and also covers the entire range and behavior of the personality as related to education.” Skinner - “While general psychology is pure science, educational psychology is its application in the field of education with the aim of socializing an individual and modifying his behavior.” Anderson - "It is the systematic study of the educational growth and development of a child.” Stephen - “It is the science of education.” E.A. Peel - “It is the study of those facts and principles of psychology which helps to explains and improves the process of education.” Walter B. Kolesink Nature and Scope of Educational Psychology S.S Chanhan has given detail and comprehensive statements about the nature and scope of educational psychology, which are as follows: - It applies psychological findings in education. - Educational Psychology studies systematically an individual development in educational set up. - It enables a teacher to perform his/her role in very effective manner in order to make the learning & teaching process productive one. - Educational Psychology is the scientific study of an individual life stages development from birth to death and so on.
- A path is a list of components (directory or file names) separated by a slash (/). - An absolute path starts from the root directory and works its way down: - A relative path starts from some contextually-determined parent directory and works its way down from there: - In a terminal context, the default parent directory for a relative path is the present working directory, which you can print using the A path is how you refer to a file or directory. A path like /A/B/file is a concise description of how to find a file: - start at the system root directory - move to the - next move to the - and end with As you can see, a path is just a list of components ( file) separated by slashes ( /A/B/file is an absolute path. An absolute path is in truth relative to the filesystem root directory /. No matter the context, no matter what terminal you paste this path into, it will always specify the same path and so the same file. A/B/file is a relative path. It tells you to move down two directories and end with the file named “file”. It doesn’t tell you how to get to two directories above file: a relative path relies on context to provide its starting point. When you pair it with that starting point, you resolve it into an absolute path. The terminal understands relative paths as relative to its present working directory, just as a Finder window provides a context to situate the filenames displayed in it. When you double-click the Downloads folder in a window showing the contents of the /Users/Me folder, the Finder understands that you want to view the contents of the /Users/Me/Downloads folder. Likewise, if your working directory is /Users/Me/, then a command to ls Downloads/ will be understood by starting with the absolute path to your present working directory /Users/Me/ and appending the relative path Downloads/ to end up with /Users/Me/Downloads/. The command is carried out as if you had typed ls /Users/Me/Downloads/, but you just saved yourself some typing by relying on the context provided by the present working directory. Use an absolute path when you want to refer to the same file or directory in the same location regardless of the current working directory. This is useful when you want to reference the same path from multiple contexts. The meaning of an absolute path does not change with the circumstances: it is fixed no matter which user is logged in, no matter what your present working directory is, no matter what computer you are working with. Use a relative path when you want to refer to a file relative to some folder. You’ll see this a lot in step-by-step instructions that rely on the Terminal: step 1 will have you change to some directory whose absolute path is unknown to the author (“After unzipping the file, change to the unpacked directory…”), and step 2 will have you execute some command relative to that path (“…and make the awesome-script file executable by running chmod u+x awesome-script”).
The first reported case of SARS was in Asia in February 2003. During the following months, the unknown illness spread throughout North and South America, Europe and Asia.According to the World Health Organization over 8,098 people were infected with the SARS disease, and of those people 774 died. The symptoms of SARS are very similar to that of the symptoms of the Influenza disease. SARS patients will notice an unusually high temperature followed by a headache, body aches, and overall discomfort. Your symptoms, if not treated, may turn into pneumonia. Also, like the Influenza disease, SARS spreads by close person to person contact, and more specifically SARS is built up in the respiratory tract, so when a person coughs or sneezes, a person in close contact will be more likely to contract the disease. The disease can also spread when an uninfected person touches a surface or area that was recently touch by an infected person. If you were put in close contact with someone who had the SARS disease, you would be more susceptible to contracting the disease. For instance, if you lived with or cared for someone who had the SARS disease, then you would be considered at high risk. - Activated in Emergency Operations Center which would provide 24 hour coordination and response. - Provided 800 experts to work on the SARS response team - Deployed medical professionals to assist with investigations around the world - Provided assistance to state and local health departments in investigating causes of the SARS outbreak - Conducted testing of specimen from SARS patients to identify the cause of the disease - Distributed Health Alert notices to travelers who may have been exposed to cases of SARS You can put your mind at ease though, since the one outbreak of the SARS disease, there have not been any recurring cases. And like most other diseases, they will eventually die out or mutate into something else. Lucky for us, it did not mutate into something more threatening, nor did it go beyond the confines of the infected areas. All infected areas did a sufficient job in keeping from contaminating a devastating number of people. This is not to say that a different strain of the SARS disease will eventually pop up again, but based on how it was handled, it is safe to say that the government of countries around the world are prepared to handle a situation similar. But make sure if you are feeling any of the symptoms of the SARS disease, be quick to report it, so you can be properly diagnosed and treated before it is too late.
People come together for a variety of reasons. Sometimes a crowd is just an aggregate of people who happen to be doing the same thing, like waiting for a bus or shopping at the mall. Although these people may be in the same place at the same time, they are not pursuing any collective agenda. Some people are brought together for certain events like concerts, weddings or funerals. Some crowds come together to further an agenda. They may attempt to create or resist social change. As you saw in the examples in this module, the type of collective action can vary but these often come about because the people involved do not feel that they will be listened to without taking up their cause. They may believe that appropriate change cannot come through any other venue than their collective action. Several hundred years ago, social movements were short lived and often violent. If the townspeople gathered their torches and pitchforks to go and kill the Frankenstein monster, once that task has been completed, the social movement was over. Present-day social movements are less violent and can become national or even international movements, simply through the creation of a website. What you learned to do: - Describe the causes and development of collective behavior, social movements, and social change - Describe technology in a sociological context - Describe the evolution and role of the media in society - Understand and discuss how we analyze media and technology through various socialogical perspectives
Besides obscuring the stars, light pollution can also disrupt the reproduction of light-sensitive animals. French scientists have shown that light pollution can override the natural reproductive cycle of some animals, making them sexually active out of season. "The natural light/dark cycle allows living organisms to time a variety of behavioural and physiological rhythms, including migration, accumulation of reserves, dormancy and reproduction" explains Thomas Le Tallec (PhD Student, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, France), who led the study. "We postulate that chronic exposure to light pollution could impact the human reproductive function as well. Night work and artificial light are associated with menstrual irregularities, decreased fertility, spontaneous abortions and pre-term births. However, this is only a hypothesis and rigorous studies are needed." Mouse lemurs were chosen for the study as their reproductive cycle is highly sensitive to day length. In winter, male lemurs are sexually inactive and the testes are not visible. In summer, when there is light for more than 12 hours each day, the males become sexually active, with fully functioning gonads. Over five weeks in midwinter, the researchers placed sexually inactive male lemurs inside special climate chambers, where the level of light was controlled by fluorescent lamps. In the control group, the level of light at night was set to only equal that of the full moon. The second group were exposed to yellow LED lights to mimic streetlights. After only two weeks, the light-pollution group had considerably larger testes and higher levels of testosterone than the control group. These effects are thought to be caused by melatonin, a light-sensitive hormone which regulates mammalian reproduction. Melatonin can only be produced in darkness so that in long-day breeders, such as mouse lemurs, high melatonin levels in winter normally repress sexual activity. When darkness is broken by light pollution, however, melatonin production is inhibited. Consequently, the lemurs subjected to light pollution showed significantly lower concentrations of melatonin. Similar observations have been seen in female mouse lemurs, where light pollution caused sexually-inactive individuals to enter the oestrus cycle. Besides this, light pollution also affected the lemurs' daily activity pattern. As nocturnal animals, lemurs normally become active at night, however light pollution caused this to be delayed and for the animals to be active for much shorter periods. Anthropogenic light pollution could potentially be mitigated by using directional light sources and low-reflective coatings. Thomas Le Tallec adds that "By reducing air pollution we can reduce the scattering of light in the atmosphere and thus reduce light pollution." This research was presented at the Society for Experimental Biology Annual Meeting 2014 held at Manchester University, UK, from the 1st - 4th of July. Materials provided by Society for Experimental Biology. Note: Content may be edited for style and length. Cite This Page:
Tears literally enable us to see. They lubricate our eyeballs and eyelids, thus preventing our eyes from dehydrating. They also provide a smooth surface for refracting light, supply oxygen, and are a vital component of the ocular defense system that protects against a range of pathogens. Below we'll delve into the composition and types of tears, and further explain why they are so beneficial to our physical and emotional well-being. Structure of Tears Tears are made up of three layers: lipids, aqueous and mucous. The lipid layer is the outermost layer and prevents the evaporation of tears. The lipids are produced by tiny glands in the eyelids called the meibomian glands. The aqueous layer, which is the middle layer, makes up 95％ of our tears. This layer supplies nutrients to the cornea, prevents infection, and heals ocular damage. This layer is effectively made up of water and is produced by the lacrimal gland. The mucous layer is the one closest to the eye. It coats the cornea and provides a level platform that allows for an even distribution of the tear film over the eye. This layer is produced by even smaller glands called goblet cells. The Three Types of Tears Tears are composed of water, salts, amino acids, antibodies and lysozymes (antibacterial enzymes). However, there are several types of tears, and their composition varies. For example, the tears we shed while crying are different from the tears that flood our eyes in the presence of irritants like onions, dust or allergies. Humans produce the following three kinds of tears: - Basal - these tears are constantly at the front of the eyeball and form the liquid layer over the eyeball to keep it lubricated. - Reflex - these tears appear when the eye is irritated, such as when the eyes feel gritty or when we get dust, sand or other small foreign objects in our eyes. - Psychogenic - these tears are sparked by emotion. They possess a higher protein level than basal and reflex tears, which makes them thicker, causing them to stream more slowly. Psychogenic tears are made up of higher concentrations of stress hormones such as adrenocorticotropic hormone and leucine enkephalin (a natural painkiller). This suggests that emotional tears play an important role in balancing stress hormone levels. Tears Serve the Following Functions Tears prevent dryness by lubricating the surface of the eye. Each time we blink we spread this cushioning layer of tears across the front of the eyes. Supply oxygen and nutrients Oxygen and nutrients are delivered to the cornea through our tears. Not only do tears wash away foreign bodies that enter the eye, but they can also prevent infection thanks to an antibacterial property contained within tears called lysozyme. This antibacterial agent fights off the germs we pick up in our surroundings. Heal ocular damage Tears are made up of substances that heal damage to the surface of the eye. Damage can be caused by foreign objects and even high exposure to UV rays. Create a smooth surface on the eye Tears lubricate and smooth our eye’s surface, leading light to be correctly focused and enabling us to see clearly. Emotional tears contain more toxic byproducts than reflex tears (caused by irritation), and can thus flush out many toxins and stress hormones. Dull pain and improve mood Crying for extended periods of time releases oxytocin and endorphins. These feel-good hormones can help diminish both physical and emotional pain. Once the endorphins are released, your body may enter a more relaxed stage, with oxytocin providing you with a sense of calm and well-being. As you can see, tears are invaluable for clear vision, protecting your eyes, flushing out irritants, and soothing emotions. If you feel that your eyes are not as comfortable or your vision is not as clear as usual, contact Dr. Antoine at Antoine Eye Care in St. Louis today.
Scientists have discovered genes that influence height but are yet to explain the gap between the tallest and shortest of people: A meeting between two ordinary men in a remote locale in Mongolia hit the headlines all over the world in July last year. But neither Bao Xishun, 56, nor He Pingping, 19, holds a position of eminence. Nor are they film or sports celebrities. The encounter grabbed world attention because of the two men’s contrasting statures. While Xishun, at 2.36m, is the world’s tallest living man, the 74-cm Pingping claims he is the shortest. Modern science may not be able to explain the yawning gap between the heights of these two men — both hailing from Inner Mongolia — but it has gained some genetic insight into the varying stature of billions of others who fall between Xishun and Pingping in terms of height. For nearly a century, scientists have believed that genes handed down from parents are responsible for 90 per cent of the normal variation in human height in a population. And it is not just one gene but probably a few hundred that contribute towards making a person tall or short. But until last year, scientists were clueless about their location on the human genome, which consists of more than 3 billion DNA base pairs. In September 2007, researchers from both sides of the Atlantic, while foraging through DNA from 35,000 people, stumbled upon a difference in a gene called HMGA2, which plays a decisive role in making people taller or shorter, albeit marginally. They found that if a person had two copies of a longer variant of HMGA2, he or she would be 1cm taller than one who has two shorter versions of it. The HMGA2 gene thus became the first reliable genetic link to human height. Later, scientists zeroed in on yet another gene, GDF5, which makes for an average height difference of 0.4cm. What made the discovery of such genes possible is what scientists call genome-wide association studies. This is a relatively new way of identifying genes involved in human diseases. Made possible by advances in genetics and sophistication in scientific tools, this method searches the genome for small variations, called single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The tools are so advanced that researchers can search for hundreds or thousands of SNPs simultaneously. Such studies pinpoint genes that may contribute to a person’s risk of developing a certain disease or those associated with a trait such as height or eye colour. If 2007 saw a beginning in understanding the role played by genes in deciding how tall a person will be, 2008 has so far proved to be a watershed. The same consortium of scientists who discovered the HMGA2 and GDF5 genes, now split into two groups, recently discovered 40 more genetic locations. Combined, they may be able to explain a height difference of up to 6cm, or 5 per cent of the population variation in height. The number and variety of genetic regions discovered so far show that height is determined not just by a few genes operating in the long bones, notes Thomas Frayling of Peninsula Medical School in the UK. Frayling is the lead author of the one of the two studies that appeared in Nature Genetics last month. Joel Hirschhorn, a paediatric endocrinologist at Broad Institute in the US, who led the other study, says that the new findings account for only a small fraction of the variation in height among people and that there is a lot more to discover. “This is much more than we had even last year. But we are not close to predicting adult height,” Hirschhorn told Knowhow. The study of genes involved in determining adult height stems from more than sheer curiosity. By identifying which genes affect normal growth, it is easy to understand the processes that lead to abnormal growth, the scientists say. “There appears to be a definite correlation between height and some diseases,” says Michael Weedon, a colleague of Frayling. Weedon was not only part of the original team that discovered the HMGA2 gene but was also instrumental in the latest discovery of 20 new genetic locations linked to height. For instance, there is a strong association between shortness and a slightly increased risk of conditions such as heart disease. Similarly, tall people are more prone to certain cancers and, possibly, osteoporosis. A predominant factor that determines one’s height may be heredity, but diet too has a role to play. In fact, improved nutrition means that each generation gets successively taller, as has been shown by a recent study on Indians. That said, Indians still have some catching up to do: an average Indian man (165.3cm) is two centimetres shorter than an average Czech woman who stands 167.3cm tall. Sources: The Telegraph (Kolkata, India)
National Tartan Day On April 6, Scottish communities celebrate National Tartan Day, which commemorates the signing of the Declaration of Arbroath, a declaration of independence from Norman kings in 1320. The day features celebration of Scottish culture. In the United States, Tartan Day also honors the efforts of Scottish Americans, especially their efforts fighting on the side of the colonies during the American Revolution. Celebrations of Tartan Day feature Scottish cultural events, such as pipe bands and Scottish dances. Larger cities, like New York, hold parades, often made up of bagpipe bands. Participants often wear kilts that signify their clan. “Tartan” refers to the crisscrossed pattern of these kilts. Other events include dinners, awards, and educational events at schools and libraries. Festivities may include a meal, which often features traditional dishes such as haggis. New York is known for one of the largest celebrations, the Tunes of Glory Parade, which features over 8,000 musicians playing pipes and drums. Other significant celebrations in the US take place in St. Charles, Missouri, Washington D.C., and Baltimore. Many of these celebrations are held by Scottish-American Societies, which put on receptions and a Tartan Day Festival in Virginia, an educational and cultural program held at the beginning of April. International cities take part in many Tartan Day festivities. Regions of Scotland combine to put on Tartan Day festivals throughout the country. The large Scottish populations in Australia and New Zealand result in many festivals and events commemorating the holiday. Other celebrations take place in Ottawa, Canada, and Buenos Aires, Brazil. The Declaration of Arbroath served to declare Scottish independence from English control. It established Scotland as an independent state and declared the right to defend itself from military force. It was sent to Pope John XXII. Up until that point, Scotland had been ruled as a feudal land by Norman kings. The document also pointed out that Scotland had long been independent, and that English control was unjust. Although no copies of this document still exist, it is believed to be one of the inspirations for the American Declaration of Independence. Tartan Day also celebrates Scottish efforts in the Revolutionary War. Many Scots migrated to the colonies in search of religious freedom and economic opportunity. Most Scottish immigrants settled in Pennsylvania to farm. As seen with the Declaration of Arbroath, the Scots had a history of clashing with British rule, instilling a resentfulness that inspired many Irish-Americans to take up arms against them. Many saw the conflict in the colonies as a continuation of their struggles with Britain. Some countries celebrate Tartan day in July or August. Tartan Day celebrations have risen in popularity since local officials began to establish the holiday in the 1980s and 1990s. The United States did not declare an official Tartan Day until 2008.
A burn is skin damage, usually caused by exposure to heat. The seriousness of a burn depends on its type and size. There are different types of burns and many treatment options available. This article discusses different types of burn, their symptoms, how to treat them, and when to seek medical attention. The skin consists of three different layers that protect against viruses and bacteria entering the body. These are: - the epidermis - the dermis - hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue This is the visible outer layer of skin that helps regulate temperature and protect the body. It does not contain any blood vessels. Superficial or first-degree burns only affect the epidermis, which remains intact. Often treatable at home, a first-degree burn is the least severe. The dermis is the lower level of the skin. Called the papillary region, it consists of collagen, nerve endings, sweat glands, and elastic fibers. It is also the thickest layer of skin, providing flexibility and strength. A second-degree burn is one that reaches the dermis. This is more serious than a first-degree burn. Hypodermis or subcutaneous layer This consists of adipose tissue that stores energy in the form of fat. It is also connective tissue that cushions and insulates the body. Any burn that destroys all layers of the skin and reaches the hypodermis is a third-degree burn. Third-degree burns are severe and require immediate medical attention. All types of burns can be painful and produce visible symptoms. Understanding the kind of burn and its severity is essential when assessing medical treatment. There are three levels: A first-degree burn is the most common type of burn. Symptoms - dry skin with mild swelling - changes in skin color - sensitivity to the touch Sometimes blisters and peeling While first-degree burns may be painful, long-term damage is rare. Also known as ‘superficial’ burns, common causes include: - mild sunburn - tipped over hot liquids - hot bathwater - cooking fluids - hot appliances, such as a cooker or iron - friction between skin and hard surfaces, such as turf on a sports field, floors, roads, or carpets First-degree burns often heal on their own within a week. A person may require medical treatment if the burn is over a large area of skin. Speak with a healthcare provider for advice. Second-degree burns affect deeper layers in the skin than first-degree burns and can involve intense pain. They affect the epidermis and dermis, with the burn site often appearing swollen and blistered. The area may also look wet, and the blisters can break open, forming a scab-like tissue. Doctors also call them partial-thickness burns. A second-degree burn is more likely to require medical treatment, depending on its location and depth. Causes of second-degree burns include: - boiling water - flames from a fire - hot stoves - burning candle wax - steam from an iron - hot iron - sunburn in extreme cases over a large area - chemical burns Many second-degree burns heal within a couple of weeks, although scar tissue can occur. This is the most severe type of burn and requires medical treatment. Nerve and blood vessel damage often leave the burn site looking pale in color or blackened and charred. Despite the severity, third-degree burns are often painless because of damage to the nerve endings. Doctors may call them full-thickness burns. Causes of third-degree burns include: - a scalding liquid - an electrical source - contact with a hot object for an extended period - a chemical source Third-degree burns destroy the epidermis and the skin follicles, which means new skin will not grow back. Anyone who has a third-degree burn needs immediate medical attention. The treatment of a burn depends on its severity, size, and location. While a person can manage some burns at home, more severe burns require immediate medical treatment. First-degree burn treatment These are generally not severe and most clear up relatively quickly. However, first-degree burns can be painful. The American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) has a video that provides guidance on treating first-degree burns. Here is a quick guide: - hold under cool water or apply a cool compress for 5-10 minutes or until the pain subsides - cover burn with a non-stick, sterile bandage - clean wound gently with lukewarm water - apply petroleum jelly daily - over-the-counter (OTC) medication such as ibuprofen can help with pain and reduce inflammation Click here to learn more about sunburn treatment. Remember, if the burn is substantial or the person is an infant or older adult, seek medical attention. Learn about home remedies for mild burns here. Second-degree burn treatment Treating these types of burns will depend on its scale and location. Hot water and objects, radiation, friction, electricity, or chemicals can cause second-degree burns. Symptoms include the skin blanching when pressed, blistering, and swelling. These burns calm down within a couple of days. Home treatments include: - running the burn under cool water to ease the pain — do not use ice as it can cause tissue damage - removing jewelry, rings, or clothing that could become too tight around the swelling - applying a cool compress if the burn is on the face or body - cleaning and washing the burn gently — always wash the hands first - wrapping loosely with a bandage if clothing or dirt is likely to cause irritation - moisturizing lotion can help, but follow instructions closely - applying over-the-counter antibiotic ointment - talking pain relievers, such as ibuprofen or acetaminophen Hot oil, grease, or microwaved liquids can cause deeper partial-thickness burns. Symptoms can take a few days to develop, so monitoring the wound is crucial to prevent infection. People with a more severe second-degree burn should see a healthcare professional for treatment. They may prescribe a course of antibiotics or ointment. In extreme situations, a person may require a skin graft. Third-degree burn treatment This is the most severe burn and always requires medical treatment. Because a third-degree burn often destroys nerve endings, a person may not feel any pain when they touch the area. The skin can become raised, leathery, and dark brown, or waxy and pale. Keep a person who has sustained third-degree burns warm and still. Complications may - blood loss Severe burns covering a large part of the body may require intravenous antibiotics and skin grafts. Recovery times vary and depend on the location of the burn. A person may require treatment If blisters burst on a mild-first degree burn, such as on a hand or sunburn. If the burn is more severe, and pain does not settle after a couple of days, a doctor can prescribe antibiotics and recommend further treatment. This includes a specialist burn care service. Chemical burns are the result of exposure to acids, oxidants, bleaches, and gasses. They Third-degree burns are serious and often leave visible scarring. Children and the elderly are most at risk. After car accidents and drowning, burns are the most frequent cause of childhood death. While mild burns are common household injuries and may be very painful, it is possible to treat them at home. However, more severe burns require an expert opinion. To avoid sunburn, wear sunscreen and a hat. If there are hot appliances in a kitchen, take great care, and use protective gloves around an oven or stove.
Colloids are mixtures whose particles are larger than the size of a molecule but smaller than particles that can be seen with the naked eye. Colloids are one of three major types of mixtures, the other two being solutions and suspensions. The three kinds of mixtures are distinguished by the size of the particles that make them up. The particles in a solution are about the size of molecules, approximately 1 nanometer (1 billionth of a meter) in diameter. Those that make up suspensions are larger than 1,000 nanometers. Finally, colloidal particles range in size between 1 and 1,000 nanometers. Colloids are also called colloidal dispersions because the particles of which they are made are dispersed, or spread out, through the mixture. Colloids are common in everyday life. Some examples include whipped cream, mayonnaise, milk, butter, gelatin, jelly, muddy water, plaster, colored glass, and paper. Every colloid consists of two parts: colloidal particles and the dispersing medium. The dispersing medium is the substance in which the colloidal particles are distributed. In muddy water, for example, the colloidal particles are tiny grains of sand, silt, and clay. The dispersing medium is the water in which these particles are suspended. Colloids can be made from almost any combination of gas, liquid, and solid. The particles of which the colloid is made are called the dispersed material. Any colloid consisting of a solid dispersed in a gas is called a smoke. A liquid dispersed in a gas is referred to as a fog. \|Dispersed Material\|\|Dispersed in Gas\|\|Dispersed in Liquid\|\|Dispersed in Solid\| \|Gas (bubbles)\|\|Not possible\|\|Foams: soda pop; whipped cream; beaten egg whites\|\|Solid foams: plaster; pumice\| \|Liquid (droplets)\|\|Fogs: mist; clouds; hair sprays\|\|Emulsions: milk; blood; mayonnaise\|\|butter; cheese\| \|Solid (grains)\|\|Smokes: dust; industrial smoke\|\|Sols and gels: gelatin; muddy water; starch solution\|\|Solid sol: pearl; colored glass; porcelain; paper\| Each type of mixture has special properties by which it can be identified. For example, a suspension always settles out after a certain period of time. That is, the particles that make up the suspension separate from the medium in which they are suspended and fall to the bottom of a container. In contrast, colloidal particles typically do not settle out. Like the particles in a solution, they remain in suspension within the medium that contains them. Colloids also exhibit Brownian movement. Brownian movement is the random zigzag motion of particles that can be seen under a microscope. The motion is caused by the collision of molecules with colloid particles in the dispersing medium. In addition, colloids display the Tyndall effect. When a strong light is shone through a colloidal dispersion, the light beam becomes visible, like a column of light. A common example of this effect can be seen when a spotlight is turned on during a foggy night. You can see the spotlight beam because of the fuzzy trace it makes in the fog (a colloid).
The movie depicted empty public spaces, masked faces, and isolated clusters of families. Justice in medical ethics is the equitable distribution within human society of the benefits and burdens of treatment (Edge & Groves, 2006). Social justice is essential to the mission of public health. Justice offers guidance on how to allocate scarce therapeutic resources in a public health crisis, such as a pandemic airborne virus (Gostin, 2008). Health hazards threaten the entire population; however, the poor and disabled are at heightened risk. Neglecting the needs of the vulnerable will harm the whole community by eroding public trust and undermining social cohesion. In addition, social justice demands more than fair distribution of resources. Throughout the movie it was clearly conveyed that everyone within society would be treated equally in terms of receiving treatment prior to being diagnosed and in vaccination against the virus. Beneficence means to perform acts of kindness and charity, while promoting the health and welfare of patients (Edge & Groves, 2006). To go one step further, the act of beneficence is to offer a positive contribution towards the wellbeing of people. Several factors need to be considered before a vaccine is deployed: the potential burden of disease; vaccine-related risks (usually minimal); the desirability of prevention as opposed to treatment; the duration of the protection conferred; cost; herd immunity in addition to individual
By John Steele GordonThe Bank of England, the model for all subsequent central banks, was founded in 1694. But it did not come into existence in order to guard the money supply or to provide discipline for the banking system as a whole. Instead, it came into existence because of a series of naval disasters that revealed the deficiencies of the Royal Navy and the threat to the rapidly expanding English overseas commerce that it represented. In 1667, during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, King Charles II had been forced by lack of money to lay up most of the navy at Medway, near where the River Thames meets the sea. The Dutch, while peace negotiations were already underway, decided to attack. They took the fort guarding the Medway and then broke the massive chain that had been placed across the river. Fifteen English ships were destroyed, either by being captured or by being scuttled in a vain attempt to bottle up the Dutch fleet. Three more English ships were then burned and the largest of them all, HMS Royal Charles, was towed back to the Netherlands in triumph. It was the greatest defeat in the long history of the Royal Navy. In 1690, the French badly defeated a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet at the Battle of Beachy Head and, for awhile, had naval superiority in the Channel. Worse was to come. On June 17, 1693, a huge English fleet of 400 merchant ships, headed for the Mediterranean, was attacked by the French off the southwest coast of Portugal. The small Royal Navy escort tried its best, but almost 100 ships were captured by the French and the rest driven into Spanish ports. The financial loss was over £1 million, a vast sum at the end of the 17th century, and a major financial panic ensued. Clearly the Royal Navy needed to be both enlarged and better funded in order to ensure the success of both England’s political objectives and its mercantile interests. But how to find the money? Kings had long had very poor credit ratings and so were charged very high interest rates. King William III had found it impossible to raise the £1.2 million needed. As people were unwilling to lend to the government, it was decided to get subscribers to the loan by making them shareholders in a corporation, called the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. It would then lend the money to the government at 8 percent, taking government bonds in exchange. These bonds could be sold to the public, raising additional funds. In addition, the corporation was put in charge of the governments balances and was allowed to issue banknotes, the only limited liability corporation allowed to do so. The new corporation raised the £1.2 million in just 12 days. Half of that money was used to rebuild the navy, which soon became the largest in the world. It would remain the largest for more than two centuries, as Britain’s commercial interests and empire spread around the globe. Building up the navy also stimulated British industry and agriculture. But the most important effect was the creation of the first modern national debt. Once people had faith in the soundness of government bonds, they were more than happy to use their surplus capital to buy the government bonds, bringing millions in capital out of hiding. The ability of Britain to borrow large sums at low rates turned out to be the secret weapon behind its many victories in the endless wars of 18th century against France and Spain. It was the Bank of England and the British national debt that made Great Britain a superpower.
The Abolition of Government Welfare Program The major function of the federal government is making legislations and enforcing them, and protecting all citizens from crime. The role of the government should be restricted to these core functions. Charity through welfare programs should not be entrenched in the functions of the government since it is not a core government role. The inclusion of welfare programs in the government roles has raised significant debates; proponents of the debate argue that welfare systems are in the interest of the people. However, despite the significance of the welfare programs, they have created more problems than benefits. Welfare has led to an increase in the number of single parent families, discouraged women to marry, and encouraged more births. Additionally, social problems such as criminal gangs, drugs, and crime can be traced to welfare benefits. Studying the social welfare programs would be an effective way of understanding the issue and undertaking the appropriate action. Welfare refers to the actions or measures that are implemented by the government or institutions to promote the welfare of individuals or the community. The efforts are mainly aimed at improving the financial situation of the people. However, the efforts may strive to improve the employability of a community among other aspects such as mental health. Welfare adopts various forms such as monetary payments, housing, health services, and subsidies. The government, an institution, or a combination of both funds welfare programs. There are two main methods of funding welfare programs. Welfare programs may be funded directly by the government or through social insurance programs that are funded by the members of the welfare schemes. Welfare programs differ from country to country; however, they are commonly provided to the unemployed, persons with disabilities, the aged, parents of reliant children, and veterans. An individual’s eligibility to welfare program may be subject to means testing or other means. The United States has provided welfare programs for years. However, the Congress and the president commenced the welfare debates in 1996. A key issue in the debate was whether government aid should be maintained as an entitlement, a grant that was provided to the poor solely by virtue that they were poor (Olasky, 2000). Ultimately, the legislation that was enacted changed the welfare program from an entitlement to a grant-block program that was offered by respective states. Presently, different states are free to set their own qualification criteria and various states have varying means of limiting access to welfare (Olasky, 2000). The limitation includes the eligibility period that a family may be entitled to welfare. Welfare is economically inefficient and unfair; thus, it should be abolished. Murray (1994) best recaps the argument against welfare; he argues that welfare should be structured to increase the net value of the wellbeing in the condition it seeks to eliminate. This can be achieved through two means, by raising the rewards or by reducing the punishment. However, in a majority of countries and in the United States in particular, welfare programs have rendered poverty a more attractive venture (Olasky, 2008). Gingrinch (1995) argues that the welfare program has sapped the spirit of the poor and made it more difficult to climb up the economic ladder. Welfare programs in the United States have led to welfare recipients becoming contented with their subsidized lives. Additionally, welfare programs place unfair pressure on the working population who must be taxed to finance the program. The responsibility of supporting people with hardships should not be placed on the government and taxpayers. Individuals should be responsible for their actions and the resulting consequences. If an individual’s actions result in a decline of their wellbeing, they should be responsible for restoring their life back to normalcy. If the society were responsible for financing the wellbeing of individuals, no individual in the society would be responsible for anything ((Danziger, Haveman & Plotnick, 1981) (Danziger, Haveman & Plotnick, 1981). The lack of personal responsibility would impair the freedom in the society. Individuals have a right of freedom. Thus, requiring that individuals finance the laziness of their fellows is taking this freedom away and rendering them responsible for the wellbeing of others. Bill Clinton had clearly stated during the presidential campaigns that he would not defend the social welfare system; he would act to change the system. As president, he speedily initiated welfare reforms that aimed at tightening child support legislations and demanding that welfare recipients prepare for self-sufficiency (Zuckerman, 2000). In the welfare reform, the United States government placed five-year limits on welfare benefits. The majority of the citizens feared that an entire generation of children and single mothers would be rendered poor and hopeless. However, this has not been the case. Though there are a significant number of women who have not found and maintained their jobs, millions have made a transformation from reliance on welfare to employment (Spence, 2006). Thus, the abolition of welfare in the United States through the five-year limit has not produced the anticipated adverse effects. Welfare exemplifies the principles that were established during the Declaration of Independence. Additionally, welfare represents the principles that are established by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These two documents are based on the notion that all individuals have an equal worth. The business sector receives substantial aid compared to the poor. Thus, the abolition of welfare benefits while continuing to subsidize the business sector would be an inappropriate policy measure. The abolition of welfare would lead to a state with exemplarily rich few and extremely poor majority. Thus, the government would be promoting inequality among its citizens; the wealthy few would appear to be more valuable compared to the majority poor. Therefore, abolishing welfare programs would be in contravention of the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Declaration of Independence. In conclusion, there are various arguments that have been advanced to support welfare programs by governments. The proponents of the welfare debates have based their arguments on equality and other socialist ideologies. However, the implementation of welfare in many countries has led to more harmful outcomes than benefits. Welfare has led to such adverse effects as an increase in the number of single mothers and an increase in the number of destitute children who rely on welfare. Additionally, welfare has led to social decay in the society which can be blamed on such evils as the high prevalence rates of illegal gangs and drug abuse. On the contrary, the abolition of welfare in such countries as the United States has not produced the anticipated adverse effects. Thus, the example of the United States calls for other countries to follow suit. The abolition of welfare would not only relieve the working population financial burden from increases in taxation but will encourage the welfare-dependent populations to seek meaningful alternative sources of income. \|The McCarthyism\|\|Homegrown Terrorist in United States\|
Influenza, commonly known as “the flu”, is an infectious disease caused by the influenza virus. Symptoms can be mild to severe. The most common symptoms include: a high fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pains, headache, coughing, and feeling tired. These symptoms typically begin two days after exposure to the virus and most last less than a week. The cough, however, may last for more than two weeks. In children there may be nausea and vomiting but these are not common in adults. Nausea and vomiting occur more commonly in the unrelated infection gastroenteritis, which is sometimes inaccurately referred to as “stomach flu” or “24-hour flu”. Complications of influenza may include viral pneumonia, secondary bacterial pneumonia, sinus infections, and worsening of previous health problems such as asthma or heart failure. Usually, the virus is spread through the air from coughs or sneezes.This is believed to occur mostly over relatively short distances. It can also be spread by touching surfaces contaminated by the virus and then touching the mouth or eyes. A person may be infectious to others both before and during the time they are sick. The infection may be confirmed by testing the throat, sputum, or nose for the virus. Influenza spreads around the world in a yearly outbreak, resulting in about three to five million cases of severe illness and about 250,000 to 500,000 deaths. In the Northern and Southern parts of the world outbreaks occur mainly in winter while in areas around the equator outbreaks may occur at any time of the year. Death occurs mostly in the young, the old and those with other health problems. Larger outbreaks known as pandemics are less frequent. In the 20th century three influenza pandemics occurred: Spanish influenza in 1918, Asian influenza in 1958, and Hong Kong influenza in 1968, each resulting in more than a million deaths. The World Health Organization declared an outbreak of a new type of influenza A/H1N1 to be a pandemic in June of 2009. Influenza may also affect other animals, including pigs, horses and birds. Frequent hand washing reduces the risk of infection because the virus is inactivated by soap. Wearing a surgical mask is also useful. Yearly vaccinations against influenza is recommended by the World Health Organization in those at high risk. The vaccine is usually effective against three or four types of influenza. It is usually well tolerated. A vaccine made for one year may be not be useful in the following year, since the virus evolves rapidly. Antiviral drugs such as the neuraminidase inhibitors oseltamivir among others have been used to treat influenza. Their benefits in those who are otherwise healthy do not appear to be greater than their risks. No benefit has been found in those with other health problems.
Contemporary African religious custom embraces many different belief systems: African Traditional Religion (ATR) and the African Independent Church movement. Some individuals and families embrace a combination of these two belief systems, while others may be exclusively traditionalist or Christian or Muslim. Many Africans who practise African Christianity include African customs, rituals and beliefs as the cultural basis of their religion. There are 4 000 African independent churches. The largest is the Zionist church and it has very strong links with the Old Testament as well as with New Testament teachings. It is estimated that there are about 70 million practitioners of African Traditional Religions) in sub-Saharan Africa. The origin of the African belief system can be traced to people’s responses to different situations and experiences and thus can change with time. African Traditional Religion (ATR) is believed to have evolved through the believers’ interactions with nature. They view the entire universe as a living system; trees, rocks, rivers and soil are all filled with a living spirit. Although many African ethnic groups are clan-based, there are certain striking similarities such as belief in a supernatural being, the One living God who is all- powerful, ever-present, unchangeable, and everlasting. The One living God is served by spirits, and ancestors, and may be approached directly or through these intermediaries. ORIGIN OF THE AFRICAN RELIGION: Like most indigenous religions, African religions do not have a named and known founder or sacred texts. Because the rules are not in written documents there are no uniform teachings. The religion is preserved through the memory of the elders, and is based on oral traditions transmitted by word of mouth and passed from one generation to the next. Many African ethnic groups have their own understanding of what is sacred. However, the elders are the final trusted authority and followers believe in the guidance of their ancestor’s spirits. The place of worship is at the individual’s dwelling, or at a group of trees, or a shrine which may be set up at or near a mountaintop, a deep cave, a forest, or a fast-flowing river. Africans are presumed to adhere to their traditional religions by virtue of their birth, so no conversion is required in order to belong. Although African religion recognizes a Supreme God, followers do not worship him or her directly as they do not feel worthy enough. Therefore, they ask the ancestors to communicate on their behalf. Ancestors are projected as a source of moral authority and ancestor worship is an extension of a belief in, and respect for elders. They are the guardians of family affairs, traditions, ethics and activities because they are closer to God, and are therefore able to petition on behalf of the living. They are called upon in times of great hardship and need, like drought or epidemic that may threaten the entire community. Ancestors are part of every major event such as weddings, births and deaths. During these events an offering is usually made to honour and thank the ancestors. A cow, sheep or chicken is slaughtered and the ancestors are called to receive the offering and bless the gathering. Followers of ATR pray to various secondary deities as well as to their ancestors. These secondary gods also serve as intermediaries between humans and God. There are spiritual leaders, priests or pastors in most ATRs. In the Zulu culture there are mystics or sangomas (traditional healers) that are responsible for healing and ‘divining’ – a kind of fortune telling and counselling. These traditional healers have to be called by ancestors. They undergo strict training and learn many skills, including the use of herbs for healing. The traditional healers advise in all aspects of life – physical, psychological, spiritual, moral, or in legal matters. Religion is the source of ethics and moral values and it teaches how life is to be lived, how relationships are to be shared, and how the individual can contribute to society. The concept of Ubuntu lies at the heart of the African religion and implies that a person is only a person through his/her interaction with other people. Ubuntu is about caring for others, acting kindly towards other, being hospitable, compassionate and fair, and above all, having sound morals. The community is the most important part of a person’s life. What concerns the individual concerns the community, and vice versa. The ‘other’ is important in the construction of the ‘self’ and the ‘self’ needs the approval of the ‘other’. In the new South Africa religion and spirituality are used to create greater understanding and harmony rather than to divide people as was done in the past. The country that had emerged from two centuries of colonialism and apartheid was deeply divided by race, class, culture and religion. Ubuntu emphasises responsibility, between individuals, people and society and we are all responsible for creating our togetherness. Rituals often occur according to the life cycle of the year such as herding and hunting rituals which mark the rhythm of agriculture and of human life. There are craft rituals, and rituals on building new homes, on the assumption of leadership, etc. Male Initiation: Initiation involves circumcision and counselling on the responsibilities of adulthood. It generally takes between 2 weeks and a month. Ideally, it takes place in the mountains or a forest (near a river) in specially built huts. New blankets are issued before the initiates set off and when they return. A goat or sheep is slaughtered to mark the completion of initiation Rainmakers: The environment and nature are infused in every aspect of ATR as nature is responsible for providing people with their daily needs. All aspects of weather, thunder, lightning, rain, etc. may become amenable to control. ‘Rainmakers’ are believed to be capable of bringing about or stopping rain by manipulating the environment e.g. by burning particular kinds of woods or otherwise attempting to influence the movement of clouds. Drumming and dancing: During certain rituals some deities go into a trance-like state, sometimes uttering messages from the spirit that need to be interpreted for the audience. In parts of Africa this is usually induced by drumming and dancing. Animal sacrifice: the ritual of animal sacrifice marks special events: birth, initiation, weddings, and funerals. The ancestors require that the slaughter takes place at the home of a family member. Regrettably, since colonial times, traditional African religions have been misunderstood and have been subjected to most negative stereotyping. Traditional African religious beliefs were described by missionaries, colonialists, and apartheid supporters as ‘primitive’, ‘savage’, ‘heathen’, ‘pagan’, ‘tribal’, and nothing more than magic and superstition – or at best, ancestral worship. Such sentiments are insulting and demeaning and they have been rejected by many historians and anthropologists who have studied African Traditional Religions (ATR). People in our country follow many spiritual traditions and religious faiths, and within our new South Africa freedom of religion is entrenched in our Constitution. Everyone is free to follow any faith, or not to follow one at all. Respecting people from all religions and learning about their religions will create greater understanding and harmony rather than to divide people as was done in the past. South Africa is called the rainbow nation because of its variety of people, cultures and religions. The people follow many spiritual traditions and religious faiths. In South Africa the constitution protects freedom of religion. Everyone is free to follow whatever faith they want to, or not to follow one at all.
Fear has surfaced again. Just as we were about to heave a sigh of relief after the chaos of Covid 19 and Monkeypox subsided, “Cholera” emerged threatening to end more lives! But will history repeat itself? And to what extent shall we be worried about this new disease? Hence, here is everything you need to know about Cholera, the current terror. What is Cholera? Cholera is an infectious disease caused by a bacterium called Vibrio Cholera. It damages the small intestine, leading to chronic watery diarrhea, and eventually dehydration. This bacterium is mainly transmitted from contaminated food and water; be it from contaminated wells, seafood, raw fruits and vegetables, and grains. What are the symptoms? Even though not all Cholera carriers develop symptoms, they can still transmit the disease through their stool. However, Cholera symptoms can take between 12 hours to 5 days to appear and usually last for 2 weeks. Cholera symptoms include: - Intense diarrhea that resembles rice-water stool due to its milky appearance - Severe thirst In fact, what rings alarm bells is the intense vomiting and diarrhea that cause dehydration and lead to the loss of crucial fluids and substances in the body such as potassium, sodium, and electrolytes. Keep a close eye on the signs of dehydration that include: irritability, low blood pressure, dry skin, loss of skin elasticity, irregular heart rate, low urine output, and sunken eyes. Is Cholera treatable? The good news is that Cholera is not a new disease and it can be easily treated. Most people with mild Cholera are being treated with oral rehydration solution (ORS) which includes drinking significant amounts of water, sugar, and salt mixture. However, in severe cases, an intravenous solution is required, and it entails introducing fluids into your veins. Moreover, it is highly recommended to take the Cholera vaccine,” Vaxchora”, 10 days before traveling to endemic countries. However, this doesn’t mean that Cholera shouldn’t be taken seriously. This disease can be life-threatening especially since severe dehydration can lead to shock, coma, and death within hours if not treated immediately. How to fend off Cholera? Just like Cholera treatment, Cholera prevention doesn’t take a rocket scientist! Since poor sanitation is the main cause of Cholera outbreaks, the following precautions can keep Cholera at bay: - Wash your hands regularly, especially before eating. - Avoid drinking tap water even while brushing your teeth. - Stay away from street food. - Make sure that your food is well-cooked and hot. - Always clean vegetables and fruits with water that is chemically disinfected. - Be aware of undercooked shellfish! - Stick to pasteurized dairy products and always keep them in the refrigerator. Like any other disease, Cholera can be fatal if left untreated! However, there is nothing to worry about! Cholera treatments are available and accessible. All you have to do is protect yourself and your loved ones by following the above precautions. Stay safe everyone!
Social Comparison Theory People constantly evaluate themselves, and others, in domains like attractiveness, wealth, intelligence, and success. According to some studies, as much as 10 percent of our thoughts involve comparisons of some kind. Social comparison theory is the idea that individuals determine their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others. The theory was developed in 1954 by psychologist Leon Festinger. Later research has shown that people who regularly compare themselves to others may find motivation to improve, but may also experience feelings of deep dissatisfaction, guilt, or remorse, and engage in destructive behaviors like lying or disordered eating. When individuals compare themselves to others as a way of measuring their personal development or to motivate themselves to improve and, in the process, develop a more positive self-image, comparisons can be beneficial. It takes discipline, however, to avoid the pitfalls of negative comparison. In large part, how we react to comparisons depends on who we compare ourselves to: When we just want to feel better about ourselves, we tend to engage in comparisons to people worse off than we are, although this can become an unhealthy habit. When we want to improve, though, we may compare ourselves to people roughly similar to us but higher achieving in one trait or another. Social comparison can be highly beneficial when people use social networks to push themselves. In a study, friendly competition was highly effective in pushing people to exercise more, as peers pushed each other to keep up and do more. In such a "social ratchet effect," each person’s activity generates more activity among others. Social networks in which people simply offered each other positive encouragement were far less helpful. People generally engage in either upward or downward comparisons. In upward comparisons, we compare ourselves with those we believe are better than us in some way; in downward comparisons, we do the opposite. Research, unsurprisingly, finds that downward comparisons make us feel better about ourselves, but that there are dangers to each approach—insecurity and jealousy, or overconfidence and arrogance. Envy is usually an unpleasant feeling that can lead to brooding, resentment, or even violence. Some psychologists, however, have suggested that people can experience “benign” envy, in which they use envious feelings as motivation to improve themselves. Benign envy could lead someone, for example, to try to emulate the best qualities of a person who has what they want. Theodore Roosevelt called comparison “the thief of joy,” and he may have been right. Social comparison can motivate people to improve, but it can also promote judgmental, biased, and overly competitive or superior attitudes. Most people have the social skills and impulse control to keep their standards for social comparison to themselves, and not to act on any envy or resentment spurred by comparison-making. But their true feelings may manifest in other ways. Comparisons are likelier to make us feel bad when we make the error of only comparing ourselves to paragons of certain traits. For example, many people believe they have a less active social life than others. But when making such comparisons, people tend to compare themselves only to the most social people they know. Understanding this bias can help us make more realistic and motivating comparisons. Constantly checking social-media feeds full of images from parties, concerts, or other aspirational events can diminish self-esteem and contribute to depression. But some studies have found that such risks primarily affect those high in the trait of neuroticism, and others suggest that social-media use can reinforce self-esteem; for example, when people review their own images of good times with friends. To be less vulnerable to painful comparisons, notice the people or events that prompt the behavior. Commit to being deeply grateful for what’s good in your own life. And remember that the human propensity to want what others have is such a waste of time, unless what you see and “covet” in another is something of deep worth, such as their generosity or kindness. Many people fall into the trap of positional bias, comparing "up" more often than "down" relative to their own standing. A fascination with celebrity culture and the prevalence of carefully-manicured social-media feeds only exacerbates the effect by exposing people to an endless stream of others’ seemingly perfect images, homes, jobs, skills, and families. It's been widely proven that people tend to believe that they are above average when it comes to desirable traits such as intelligence. But this the belief may not be so stable. For example, people are generally quick to report that they are smarter than average, but somewhat more humble when asked to place themselves in a specific percentile or to rate themselves on specific skills. Two-thirds of Americans believe their intelligence is above average, but men are much more likely to inflate themselves than women; in surveys, more than 70 percent of men state that they are smarter than average, compared to about 60 percent of women, and they are much more likely to “strongly agree” that they are smarter than average. Grandiosity is a core trait of many individuals high in narcissism. But seeing themselves as superior also requires seeing everyone else as beneath them. Research finds that while most people are driven by a need for social inclusion and approval, those high in narcissism are motivated by a need for status—to stand above a group, rather than being welcomed into it.
What is Climate Change? Climate is defined as prevailing weather conditions averaged over several decades. Earth’s climate has changed throughout time, transitioning in and out of periods of global warming and cooling, mostly due to changes in the Earth’s orbit and associated fluctuations in the amount of solar energy received by the planet. Over the past century however, the climate has changed at a rate that is unprecedented over decades to millennia. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “scientific evidence for warming of the climate system is unequivocal”, and recent climate change is extremely likely to have been caused by human activity since the mid-20th century, namely through activities that result in the emission of greenhouse gases (see the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, Summary for Policymakers (PDF)(opens in new tab) for more information). In other words, global temperatures are warming faster than they would naturally, without increased emissions of greenhouse gases such as methane and carbon dioxide. How is the Climate Changing in California? Global climate models are used to project future climate trends based on historical climate and known exchanges of energy between land, atmosphere, and ocean. Climate projections for California indicate that temperatures will rise, snowpack will decline, wildfire activity will increase, ocean temperatures will rise, important ocean-atmosphere interactions (winds, currents, and coastal upwelling) will likely shift, and more. These changes will not be uniform across the landscape but will vary in extent and magnitude. In fact, these types of changes have already been observed in California. Air temperatures have risen, heat waves are becoming more frequent, snowpack has shrunk, streamflow patterns have changed, and more. These changes have exacerbated drought conditions and wildfire events in the state. Sea level rise and changes in ocean chemistry have also been observed along the California coastline. For more information on documented climatic changes in California and future climate projections, see the Statewide Summary Report (PDF)(opens in new tab) from the state’s fourth climate change assessment. What Does Climate Change Mean for California’s Biodiversity? Biodiversity (or biological diversity) refers to the variety of life from ecosystems to species to genes. There are many ways that biodiversity can be affected by climate change. For example, species can be directly impacted, like Salmon being exposed to warming stream temperatures that threatens their survival. Species can also be affected indirectly through climate-induced changes in food, water, and habitat availability. Since ecosystems are highly interconnected, impacts to individual species often have consequences for other species within the system. In California we have seen shifts in species abundances and distributions (how many relative to where they are found on the landscape), and in the timing of important life-cycle events such as flowering, pollination, breeding, and migration. Climate change has also contributed to the spread of invasive species and pests, which pose a threat to the survival of native species and usually disrupt ecosystem processes. Habitat loss and species extinctions are also occurring. Throughout California, these types of changes have been observed across terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine, and marine ecosystems. Healthy ecosystems and ecological processes provide direct and indirect benefits to Californians such as clean air, clean water, crop pollination, and recreational opportunities such as hunting, fishing, and wildlife viewing. These benefits, sometimes referred to as ecosystem services, are tied to biodiversity and therefore are also at risk of being negatively impacted by climate change. For documented examples of observed impacts of climate change in California, see the latest report from the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment on Indicators of Climate Change in California(opens in new tab). To learn more about which species may be most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, please visit the department’s climate change vulnerability page. What is CDFW Doing to Address Climate Change? Changes in climate pose risks to natural resources and people, thereby creating challenges for the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) tasked with managing these resources in perpetuity for future generations, while also allowing public access for people to recreate and learn. To safeguard natural resources in the state, CDFW is taking a multi-pronged approach that includes the following: - Building resilience of the natural landscape to climate impacts by utilizing scientific tools to inform adaptive ecosystem management, - Promoting carbon storage in natural and working lands to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, and - Frequently coordinating with other state agencies and non-governmental organizations to ensure our approaches are complementary with a higher likelihood of yielding positive results. Communication is also key to cultivating an understanding of climate-related risks and solutions amongst partners and the public. We strive to clearly communicate about this topic and provide access to relevant information through various resources, including this website, related reports, and publications, and through the development of new interpretive panels that will be installed on multiple properties with public access, such as wildlife areas and ecological reserves. Adapting to Climate Change – Creating a Resilient Landscape CDFW is taking action to ensure species and their habitats are as healthy, robust, and resilient to environmental change as possible to give them the best chance for survival. Examples of these types of actions include: - Restoring degraded habitat - Conserving critical linkages and movement corridors for species to use as they shift on the landscape in search of suitable habitat or food - Identifying and protecting areas of refugia or areas relatively buffered from the impacts of climate change - Reducing existing stressors to biodiversity, such as invasive species - Conducting and supporting scientific endeavors to detect and monitor the impacts of climate change and inform management approaches and conservation goals. Together, this portfolio of actions will help fish, wildlife, and plants adapt to impending climatic changes and associated effects. To learn more about the state’s climate change adaptation goals and strategies for biodiversity and habitat, as well as several other sectors, check out the Safeguarding California Plan: 2018 Update (PDF)(opens in new tab). The department implements restoration and conservation activities through a variety of programs focused on terrestrial, aquatic, and marine ecosystems; visit other pages on the website to explore these activities in the context of land and species management, landscape-scale conservation planning, invasive species management, marine protected areas, grant programs, and more. Mitigating Climate Change Climate change mitigation involves addressing sources of greenhouse gas emissions, for example within the transportation and agriculture sectors. It also includes activities to increase energy efficiencies or reduce energy consumption and waste in business operations. These types of actions are sometimes referred to as “sustainability” activities. The department has a Sustainability Unit that is dedicated to planning and implementing sustainability initiatives. Climate change mitigation also refers to efforts to capture greenhouse gases from the atmosphere (through natural processes like the uptake of carbon dioxide during plant photosynthesis) and protecting the existing carbon stored in plants and soil to prevent its release into the atmosphere. This type of mitigation is referred to as carbon sequestration in natural and working lands and is relevant to many different habitat types including coastal wetlands, forests, deserts, grasslands, and even eelgrass beds in the ocean. The department supports projects to sequester and protect stored carbon in natural lands. For more information, visit CDFW’s Wetland Restoration for Greenhouse Gas Reduction Grant Program page. The CDFW Science Institute works to advance efforts to evaluate climate risks relevant to CDFW’s mission with particular focus on CDFW-managed lands and waters, and to identify and implement strategies to address those risk. Examples of some of these efforts include: - Ongoing: An internal Climate Change Focus Team facilitated by the Science Institute. - Recently completed: A department-wide climate change survey to understand climate-related information, data, and guidance needs. - In progress: A state-wide climate-biodiversity sensor network on department lands to detect and monitor on-site changes in climate and associated impacts to species and ecosystems. - Upcoming: A climate risk assessment of department lands, including wildlife areas and ecological reserves. Additional Information and Resources
AI ML DL Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning and Deep Learning Artificial Intelligence (AI) and its subsets Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) are playing a major role in Data Science. Data Science is a comprehensive process that involves preprocessing, analysis, visualization and prediction. Lets deep dive into AI and its subsets. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science concerned with building smart machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence. AI is mainly divided into three categories as below - Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI) - Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) - Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI). Narrow AI sometimes referred to as ‘Weak AI’, performs a single task in a particular way at its best. For example, an automated coffee machine robs which performs a well-defined sequence of actions to make coffee. Whereas AGI, which is also referred to as ‘Strong AI’ performs a wide range of tasks that involve thinking and reasoning like a human. Some example is Google Assist, Alexa, Chatbots which uses Natural Language Processing (NPL). Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI) is the advanced version that outperforms human capabilities. It can perform creative activities like art, decision making and emotional relationships. Now let’s look at Machine Learning (ML). It is a subset of AI that involves the modelling algorithms that helps to make predictions based on the recognition of complex data patterns and sets. Machine learning focuses on enabling algorithms to learn from the data provided, gather insights and make predictions on previously unanalyzed data using the information gathered. Different methods of machine learning are - supervised learning (Weak AI – Task-driven) - non-supervised learning (Strong AI – Data Driven) - semi-supervised learning (Strong AI -cost-effective) - reinforced machine learning. (Strong AI – learn from mistakes) Supervised machine learning uses historical data to understand behaviour and formulate future forecasts. Here the system consists of a designated dataset. It is labelled with parameters for the input and the output. And as the new data comes the ML algorithm analysis the new data and gives the exact output on the basis of the fixed parameters. Supervised learning can perform classification or regression tasks. Examples of classification tasks are image classification, face recognition, email spam classification, identify fraud detection, etc. and for regression tasks are weather forecasting, population growth prediction, etc. Unsupervised machine learning does not use any classified or labelled parameters. It focuses on discovering hidden structures from unlabeled data to help systems infer a function properly. They use techniques such as clustering or dimensionality reduction. Clustering involves grouping data points with similar metric. It is data-driven and some examples of clustering are movie recommendation for the user in Netflix, customer segmentation, buying habits, etc. Some dimensionality reduction examples are feature elicitation, big data visualization. Semi-supervised machine learning works by using both labelled and unlabeled data to improve learning accuracy. Semi-supervised learning can be a cost-effective solution when labelling data turns out to be expensive. Reinforcement learning is fairly different when compared to supervised and unsupervised learning. It can be defined as a process of trial and error finally delivering results. t is achieved by the principle of iterative improvement cycle (to learn by past mistakes). Reinforcement learning has also been used to teach agents autonomous driving within simulated environments. Q-learning is an example of reinforcement learning algorithms. Moving ahead to Deep Learning (DL), it is a subset of machine learning where you build algorithms that follow a layered architecture. DL uses multiple layers to progressively extract higher-level features from the raw input. For example, in image processing, lower layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digits or letters or faces. DL is generally referred to a deep artificial neural network and these are the algorithm sets that are extremely accurate for the problems like sound recognition, image recognition, natural language processing, etc. To summarize Data Science covers AI, which includes machine learning. However, machine learning itself covers another sub-technology, which is deep learning. Thanks to AI as it is capable of solving harder and harder problems (like detecting cancer better than oncologists) better than humans can. Reference – https://towardsdatascience.com/understanding-the-difference-between-ai-ml-and-dl-cceb63252a6c?gi=9c15bafcd7d3 Absolutely everyone is psyched about synthetic intelligence. Great strides have been built in engineering and in the system of equipment studying. Even so, at this early phase in its enhancement, we may want to suppress our enthusiasm to some degree. Already the price of AI can be observed in a broad variety of trades such as internet marketing and income, organization operation, insurance plan, banking and finance, and much more. In brief, it is a suitable way to conduct a wide variety of business routines from managing human money and examining people’s efficiency by way of recruitment and extra. Its potential runs via the thread of the total small business Eco construction. It is extra than clear presently that the price of AI to the full financial system can be really worth trillions of bucks. Sometimes we may well neglect that AI is even now an act in progress. Due to its infancy, there are still limitations to the know-how that will have to be triumph over in advance of we are indeed in the brave new globe of AI. In the latest podcast posted by the McKinsey Worldwide Institute, an organization that analyzes the worldwide economic system, Michael Chui, chairman of the firm, and James Manyika, director, mentioned what the limitations are on AI and what is getting performed to relieve them. Manyika noted that the limits of AI are “purely technical.” He determined them as to how to demonstrate what the algorithm is executing? Why is it creating the selections, results, and forecasts that it does? Then there are practical limitations involving the info as very well as its use. He stated that in the system of discovering, we are providing computer facts to not only system them, but also coach them. “We are training them,” he mentioned. They are experienced by supplying them labeled data. Educating equipment to discover objects in a photograph or to acknowledge a variance in an information stream that may perhaps indicate that equipment is heading to breakdown is executed by feeding them a good deal of labeled info that indicates that in this batch of info the equipment is about to crack and in that selection of data the equipment is not about to split and the computer figures out if a piece of equipment is about to break. Chui determined five restrictions to AI that have to be overcome. He stated that now people are labeling the facts. For example, people today are likely via pics of website traffic and tracing out the cars and trucks and the lane markers to create labeled info that self-driving autos can use to produce the algorithm necessary to drive the autos. Manyika mentioned that he is aware of students who go to a community library to label artwork so that algorithms can be established that the computer system utilizes to make forecasts. For instance, in the United Kingdom, groups of people are identifying pictures of distinct breeds of dogs, making use of labeled facts that are used to create algorithms so that the personal computer can detect the data and know what it is. This method is remaining employed for health care reasons, he pointed out. People are labeling images of different varieties of tumors so that when a computer scans them, it can recognize what a tumor is and what form of tumor it is. The issue is that too much sum of knowledge is essential to instruct the personal computer. The challenge is to create a way for the computer system to go as a result of the labeled knowledge more quickly. Instruments that are now becoming used to do that incorporate generative adversarial networks (GAN). The applications use two networks — 1 generates the correct matters and the other distinguishes no matter if the computer is building the correct detail. The two networks contend towards each individual other to permit the laptop to do the appropriate issue. This system will allow a laptop or computer to produce artwork in the fashion of an individual artist or create architecture in the fashion of other matters that have been noticed. Manyika pointed out persons are currently experimenting with other procedures of machine mastering. For illustration, he said that researchers at Microsoft Analysis Lab are creating in-stream labeling, an approach that labels the information through use. In other words and phrases, the laptop or computer is striving to interpret the knowledge dependent on how it is being made use of. Despite the fact that in-stream labeling has been about for a while, it has just lately made main strides. Even now, according to Manyika, labeling knowledge is a limitation that wants more development. A different limitation to AI is not plenty of information. To overcome the issue, companies that develop AI are attaining data for many decades. To try and slice down the amount of time to assemble knowledge, organizations are turning to simulated environments. Producing a simulated natural environment in just a computer permits you to run much more trials so that the computer can understand a lot of extra factors more quickly. Then there is the issue of outlining why the computer system determined what it did. Regarded as explainability, the challenge offers rules and regulators who might look into an algorithm’s decision. For case in point, if an individual has been let out of jail on bond and a person else wasn’t. An individual is going to want to know why. One particular could test explain the determination, but it certainly will be hard. Chui defined that there is a strategy becoming made that can present the explanation. Called LIME, which stands for locally interpretable product-agnostic rationalization. It will involve hunting at sections of a model and inputs and seeing whether or not. That alters the end result. For case in point. If you are looking at a photo and hoping to establish it. If the merchandise in the photograph is a pickup truck or a car. Then if the windscreen of the truck or the back of the auto is improved. Then does either one particular of people variations make a variation? That reveals that the design is concentrating on the back of the motor vehicle. Or the windscreen of the truck to make a choice. What’s going on is that there are experiments being done. On the product to ascertain what will make a big difference. Last but not least, biased details are also a limitation of AI. If the data likely into the laptop is biased, then the result is also biased. For illustration, we know that some communities are subject to additional police presence than other communities. If the personal computer is to figure out whether a large selection of law enforcement in a group boundaries criminal offense and the information arrives from the community with large law enforcement presence and a neighborhood with very little if any police existence, then the computer’s choice is based mostly on more details from the neighborhood with police and no if any information from the community that does not have police. The oversampled community can lead to a skewed conclusion. So reliance on AI may possibly result in a reliance on inherent bias in the details. The challenge, therefore, is to figure out a way to “de-bias” the info. So, as we can see the probability of AI, we also have to identify its limits. Never fret AI researchers are doing work feverishly on the difficulties. Some factors that ended up thought of limitations on AI. A number of decades in the past are not now since of its fast growth. That is why you want to constantly examine with AI researchers what is feasible right now.
Scientists have created an artificial synapse, the space over which neurons communicate. It could help computers better recreate the way the human brain processes information and lead to improvements in brain-machine technologies. “It works like a real synapse but it’s an organic electronic device that can be engineered,” says Alberto Salleo, associate professor of materials science and engineering at Stanford University and senior author of the paper. “It’s an entirely new family of devices because this type of architecture has not been shown before. For many key metrics, it also performs better than anything that’s been done before with inorganics.” “Instead of simulating a neural network, our work is trying to make a neural network.” The new artificial synapse, reported in Nature Materials, mimics the way synapses in the brain learn through the signals that cross them. This is a significant energy savings over traditional computing, which involves separately processing information and then storing it into memory. Here, the processing creates the memory. This synapse may one day be part of a more brain-like computer, which could be especially beneficial for computing that works with visual and auditory signals. Examples of this are seen in voice-controlled interfaces and driverless cars. Past efforts in this field have produced high-performance neural networks supported by artificially intelligent algorithms but these are still distant imitators of the brain that depend on energy-consuming traditional computer hardware. Building a neural network When we learn, electrical signals are sent between neurons in our brain. The most energy is needed the first time a synapse is traversed. Every time afterward, the connection requires less energy. This is how synapses efficiently facilitate both learning something new and remembering what we’ve learned. The artificial synapse, unlike most other versions of brain-like computing, also fulfills these two tasks simultaneously, and does so with substantial energy savings. “Deep learning algorithms are very powerful but they rely on processors to calculate and simulate the electrical states and store them somewhere else, which is inefficient in terms of energy and time,” says Yoeri van de Burgt, former postdoctoral scholar in the Salleo lab and lead author of the paper. “Instead of simulating a neural network, our work is trying to make a neural network.” The artificial synapse is based off a battery design. It consists of two thin, flexible films with three terminals, connected by an electrolyte of salty water. The device works as a transistor, with one of the terminals controlling the flow of electricity between the other two. Like a neural path in a brain being reinforced through learning, the researchers program the artificial synapse by discharging and recharging it repeatedly. Through this training, they have been able to predict within 1 percent of uncertainly what voltage will be required to get the synapse to a specific electrical state and, once there, it remains at that state. In other words, unlike a common computer, where you save your work to the hard drive before you turn it off, the artificial synapse can recall its programming without any additional actions or parts. A tough task Only one artificial synapse has been produced but researchers at Sandia used 15,000 measurements from experiments on that synapse to simulate how an array of them would work in a neural network. They tested the simulated network’s ability to recognize handwriting of digits 0 through 9. Tested on three datasets, the simulated array was able to identify the handwritten digits with accuracy between 93 to 97 percent. Although this task would be relatively simple for a person, traditional computers have a difficult time interpreting visual and auditory signals. “More and more, the kinds of tasks that we expect our computing devices to do require computing that mimics the brain because using traditional computing to perform these tasks is becoming really power hungry,” says A. Alec Talin of Sandia National Laboratories in Livermore, California, and senior author of the paper. “We’ve demonstrated a device that’s ideal for running these type of algorithms and that consumes a lot less power.” This device is extremely well suited for the kind of signal identification and classification that traditional computers struggle to perform. Whereas digital transistors can be in only two states, such as 0 and 1, the researchers successfully programmed 500 states in the artificial synapse, which is useful for neuron-type computation models. In switching from one state to another they used about one-tenth as much energy as a state-of-the-art computing system needs in order to move data from the processing unit to the memory. This, however, means they are still using about 10,000 times as much energy as the minimum a biological synapse needs in order to fire. The researchers are hopeful that they can attain neuron-level energy efficiency once they test the artificial synapse in smaller devices. Every part of the device is made of inexpensive organic materials. These aren’t found in nature but they are largely composed of hydrogen and carbon and are compatible with the brain’s chemistry. Cells have been grown on these materials and they have even been used to make artificial pumps for neural transmitters. The voltages applied to train the artificial synapse are also the same as those that move through human neurons. All this means it’s possible that the artificial synapse could communicate with live neurons, leading to improved brain-machine interfaces. The softness and flexibility of the device also lends itself to being used in biological environments. Before any applications to biology, however, the team plans to build an actual array of artificial synapses for further research and testing. Funding came from the National Science Foundation, the Keck Faculty Scholar Funds, the Neurofab at Stanford, the Stanford Graduate Fellowship, Sandia’s Laboratory-Directed Research and Development Program, the US Department of Energy, the Holland Scholarship, the University of Groningen Scholarship for Excellent Students, the Hendrik Muller National Fund, the Schuurman Schimmel-van Outeren Foundation, the Foundation of Renswoude (The Hague and Delft), the Marco Polo Fund, the Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia/Instituto Nacional de Eletrônica Orgânica in Brazil, the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo, and the Brazilian National Council. Source: Stanford University
Who or what was Toumai? Those who found his skull in 2001 insist he is the oldest human ancestor, a small fellow who lived by an African lake some 7 million years ago. Doubters have maintained that the skull belongs to an ancient chimpanzee or a gorilla. More recent findings, announced last week (April 7), include teeth and jaw fragments unearthed in Toumai’s neighborhood. Together with a reconstruction of his cracked skull, they support the idea that he was more man than ape. When the skull was first found, Daniel Lieberman, a professor of anthropology at Harvard, called it “one of the greatest discoveries of the past 100 years.” After studying the new evidence, Lieberman stands by that statement. “The next oldest, reasonably complete humanlike skull we have is just over 3 million years old,” he notes. “The Toumai fossils go back close to the time when anthropologists believe our ancestors separated from chimpanzees.” In 2001, Michel Brunet, from the University of Poitiers in France, led a team who found the cracked and distorted cranium, along with two lower jaw fragments and some teeth, in a blisteringly hot, arid part of Chad, in north central Africa. The discovery pulled up the tree of evolution by its roots. Brunet and his team named the creature Toumai, which means “hope of life” in the local language. It’s a name often given to newborns in Chad. The fossils make him out to be about 3 to 4 feet tall, with thick brow ridges, and a flat, somewhat humanlike face. Close examination of the new teeth and jaw parts lead to the conclusion that they are of the same ancient age and belonged to creatures like Toumai. The fossils are pictured and described in two articles in the April 7 issue of the journal Nature. The two reports are the product of an international collaboration among Brunet and his colleagues at the University of Poitiers; Lieberman; David Pilbeam, a professor of anthropology at Harvard; and researchers from the University of Zurich in Switzerland and from Chad.
Note: if you cannot remember the formulas for the surface area and volume of common shapes, revise notes for 1.1 Surface Area of Common Shapes and 1.2 Volume of Common Shapes. Guide to Finding the Surface Area of a Composite Shape Read More »1.3 Surface Area and Volume of Composite Shapes - Composite shapes are shapes that are created by merging multiple simple shapes. - Due to the large amount of combinations possible, it is not possible to derive formulas for each. - To find the surface area of a composite shape, you need to first identify the simple shapes it is made up of. The surface area of the composite shape is equal to the sum of each shape, minus the surface area which has been removed to merge it into the shape:
Researchers a step closer to finding cosmic ray origins The origin of cosmic rays in the universe has confounded scientists for decades. But new information that may help unravel the longstanding mystery of exactly how and where they are produced. Aug. 30, 2013 — The origin of cosmic rays in the universe has confounded scientists for decades. But a study by researchers using data from the IceCube Neutrino Observatory at the South Pole reveals new information that may help unravel the longstanding mystery of exactly how and where these “rays” (they are actually high-energy particles) are produced.Cosmic rays can damage electronics on Earth, as well as human DNA, putting astronauts in space especially at risk.The research, which draws on data collected by IceTop, the IceCube Observatory’s surface array of detectors, is published online in Physical Review D, a leading journal in elementary particle physics.University of Delaware physicist Bakhtiyar Ruzybayev is the study’s corresponding author. UD scientists were the lead group for the construction of IceTop with support from the National Science Foundation and coordination by the project office at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.The more scientists learn about the energy spectrum and chemical composition of cosmic rays, the closer humanity will come to uncovering where these energetic particles originate.Cosmic rays are known to reach energies above 100 billion giga-electron volts (1011 GeV). The data reported in this latest paper cover the energy range from 1.6 times 106 GeV to 109 GeV.Researchers are particularly interested in identifying cosmic rays in this interval because the transition from cosmic rays produced in the Milky Way Galaxy to “extragalactic” cosmic rays, produced outside our galaxy, is expected to occur in this energy range.Exploding stars called supernovae are among the sources of cosmic rays here in the Milky Way, while distant objects such as collapsing massive stars and active galactic nuclei far from the Milky Way are believed to produce the highest energy particles in nature.As Ruzybayev points out, the cosmic-ray energy spectrum does not follow a simple power law between the “knee” around 4 PeV (peta-electron volts) and the “ankle” around 4 EeV (exa-electron volts), as previously thought, but exhibits features like hardening around 20 PeV and steepening around 130 PeV.”The spectrum steepens at the ‘knee,’ which is generally interpreted as the beginning of the end of the galactic population. Below the knee, cosmic rays are galactic in origin, while above that energy, particles from more distant regions in our universe become more and more likely,” Ruzybayev explained. “These measurements provide new constraints that must be satisfied by any models that try to explain the acceleration and propagation of cosmic rays.”IceTop consists of 81 stations in its final configuration, covering an area of one square kilometer on the South Pole surface above the detectors of IceCube, which are buried over a mile deep in the ice. The analysis presented in this article was performed using data taken from June 2010 to May 2011, when the array consisted of only 73 stations.The IceCube collaboration includes nearly 250 people from 39 research institutions in 11 countries, including the University of Delaware. For more info: Researchers a step closer to finding cosmic ray origins
The Métis fiddle is a violin and playing-style associated with the Métis people. Traditional Métis music draws from both Native American/First Nations and European sources (including Cree, Ojibwe, Scottish and French) and is a post-Columbian multicultural invention. The music is marked by percussive use of the bow and percussive accompaniment, such as spoon percussion. It is not unusual for a player to use his or her feet and choke up the bow to create an exceedingly sharp “bite”. The chord progressions use complex harmonic structures and abandon the European I-IV-V-I progression in favour of other alternatives. According to ethno-musicologist Lynn Whidden, the meter of Métis fiddling can vary from measure to measure and is very percussive. It is common for the audience to participate by clapping hands and stomping feet. In the Métis fiddle music, Native American/First Nation music and dancing have mingled with European influences. Regrettably, we tend to know less about indigenous music and dances than the European ones. Examples of European influences are the polka, waltz, schottische, jig, and French chanson. Today, the Métis fiddle and the tradition of jigging are seen as key features of Métis culture and identity. About the Métis The Métis is a people of mixed Native American and European ancestry whose homeland is Canada and parts of northern United States. Not all people of mixed Native American and European descent are Métis; the Métis are a distinct group with their own culture and language. The focal point for the Métis culture is located between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes regions. In Canada, the Métis are recognized as a distinct Indigenous people under the Constitution Act of 1982. As of 2016, roughly 585,000 people self-identified as Métis in Canada. One example of a Métis community living in the United States is the Little Shell Tribe of Montana. The French adjective métis denotes something that is mixed, and the term Métis was used by French colonists in New France (now Quebec) as early as the 16th century to denote a person of mixed Native American and European ancestry. A majority of the early Métis were born to male fur trade workers of French or Scottish origin and women who were Cree, Nakota or Ojibew. Early on, a distinction was made between a French Métis (born to a French-speaking voyageur father) and an Anglo Métis (born to a Scottish father), but this distinction was soon lost as the generations continued and a unified Métis culture developed. Over time, the Métis people adopted various aspects of both Native American and European culture and customs, while also developing traditions and cultural expressions of their own. Michif is the language of the Métis, and it combines Cree and Métis French (a version of Canadian French) with some elements from English, Ojibwe and Assiniboine. Michif is thus a mixed language rather than a creole. Today, few people still speak Michif. The Red River Jig A very important tune for the Métis culture is the Red River Jig, which is actually a reel and not a jig. The dancing have notable elements of the complex footwork seen in certain Irish dances. Within the Métis culture, it is jokingly said that you can drive a Métis crazy by nailing their moccasins to the floor and playing the Red River Jig. Examples of Métis fiddle players - Andy de Jarlis - Brad “Chug” Morin - Brianna Lizotte - Calvin Vollrath - Erin Okrainec - Gabriel Brie - Jamie Fox - Jimmie La Rocque - Joe Parisien - John Arcand - Lawrence “Teddy Boy” Houle - Michael Audette - Mike Page - Patti Kusturok - Reg Bouvette - Sierra Noble
There are several sets of numbers, which will be discussed below. The set of real numbers Rational and irrational numbers form the real numbers. They are numbers that can be represented in the form of infinite decimal fractions. The set of Complex numbers It is numbers of the form , where ; is the imaginary unit. The set of Rational numbers Combining whole numbers with a decimal, get a rational number Rational numbers can be represented in the form of irreducible fraction , where integer is a natural number written as infinite periodic decimal fractions). The set of Irrational numbers They are numbers that can be written in the form of an infinite non-periodic decimal fractions. The set of integers Include natural numbers, their opposites numbers (negative) and the number . The set of natural numbers They are positive integers. It's a numbers composed of integer fractions of a unit. — common fractions; — decimals
Pest description and damage Peach twig borer is a European insect first found in California in the 1880s. It is a major pest of apricots, peaches, plums, and prunes. There are no native hosts outside the orchard. The adult is a steel-gray moth with white and dark scales, about 0.33 to 0.5 inch long. The larva is approximately 0.5 inch long, with a dark brown head and distinctive, alternating light and dark bands on the body. The pupa is smooth and brown. The larva of the borer causes injury to both fruit and twigs. Feeding on the buds and twigs occurs early in the season; later the larva bores into the shoots, causing a characteristic "flagging" or wilting of the new growth. Later generations of larvae feed on shoots or fruit causing blemishes. For biology, life history, monitoring and management See Table 4 in:
DNS (Domain Name System or Service) is a hierarchical decentralized naming system/service that translates domain names into IP addresses on the Internet or a private network and a server that provides such a service is called a DNS server. This article explains, how to setup a local DNS using the hosts file (/etc/hosts) in Linux systems for local domain resolution or testing the website before taking live. For example, you may want to test a website locally with a custom domain name before going live publicly by modifying the /etc/hosts file on your local system to point the domain name to the IP address of the local DNS server you configured. The /etc/hosts is an operating system file that translate hostnames or domain names to IP addresses. This is useful for testing websites changes or the SSL setup before taking a website publicly live. Attention: This method will only work if the hosts have a static IP address. Therefore ensure that you have set static IP addresses for your Linux hosts or nodes running other operating systems. For the purpose of this article, we will be using the following domain, hostnames and IP addresses (use values that apply to your local setting). Domain: tecmint.lan Host 1: ubuntu.tecmint.lan 192.168.56.1 Host 2: centos.tecmint.lan 192.168.56.10 Understanding Name Service Switch in Linux Before moving any further, you should understand a few things about another important file that is /etc/nsswitch.conf. It provides Name Service Switch functionality which controls the order in which services are queried for name service lookups. The configuration is based on order; if files is before dns it means the system will query the /etc/hosts file before checking DNS for name service requests. But if DNS is before files then the domain lookup process will consult DNS first before any other appropriate services or files. In this scenario, we want to query the “files” service. To check the order, type. $ cat /etc/nsswitch.conf OR $ grep hosts /etc/nsswitch.conf Configure DNS Locally Using /etc/hosts File in Linux Now open the /etc/hosts file using your editor of choice as follows $ sudo vi /etc/hosts Then add the lines below to the end of the file as shown in the screen shot below. 192.168.56.1 ubuntu.tecmint.lan 192.168.56.10 centos.tecmint.lan Next, test if everything is working well as expected, using the ping command from Host 1, you can ping Host 2 using it domain name like so. $ ping -c 4 centos.tecmint.lan OR $ ping -c 4 centos On the Host 2, we have setup Apache HTTP server. So we can also test if the name translation service is working as follows by going to URL http://centos.tecmint.lan. Important: To use the domain names on any host on the network, you must configure the above settings in its /etc/hosts file. What does this mean, in the above example, we only configured the hosts file of Host 1 and we can only use the domain names on it. To use the same names on Host 2, we have to add the addresses and names to its hosts file as well. Lastly, you should use host command or nslookup command to test if the name translation service is actually working, these commands only query DNS and overlook any configurations in /etc/hosts and /etc/nsswitch.conf files. You may also like to read these following related articles. - Install and Configure Caching-Only DNS Server in RHEL/CentOS 7 - Setup a Basic Recursive Caching DNS Server and Configure Zones for Domain - 8 Linux Nslookup Commands to Troubleshoot DNS (Domain Name Server) - Useful ‘host’ Command Examples for Querying DNS Lookups That’s it! Do share any additional thoughts or questions about this topic with us, via the comment section below.
AI is the technological acronym of the moment, appearing tied to everything from smart speakers to smartphones. Scientists at Google’s health tech arm, Verily, however, have started using artificial intelligence to assess a person’s risk of developing heart disease. Verily has developed an AI algorithm which is able to analyze scans of the back of a person’s eye and determine their age, blood pressure and whether or not they’re a smoker. Basically, all of the potential cardiovascular risk areas. Using this information, it’s then possible to assess someone’s risk of suffering a heart attack or developing heart disease. The researchers trained the algorithm using machine learning by having it analyze the eye scans and general medical data of around 300,000 patients. The AI was then able to gather patterns from this data and understand which signs in the eyes scans pointed towards cardiovascular risk. In a paper published in the Nature journal Biomedical Engineering, the project researchers said that the method would have to be subject to further testing before it can be used in clinical settings. However, it has the potential to be just as accurate as current methods of assessment while being faster, easier and far less invasive. In the testing phases, the algorithm was able to identify heart conditions 70% of the time, which is a slightly lower rate of success than the longer SCORE process which is correct around 72% of the time. While it might seem strange to look into a person’s eyes to determine their heart health, it’s actually not unusual and the eyes are actually a good place to check for the first signs of many health conditions. When it comes to the heart, the back inner eyeball is covered in blood vessels and their appearance can give all manner of insights into heart health. Essentially Google has taken a diagnosis method with an established history, found new ways to analyze the data and sped it up significantly. It’s clear from its Project Baseline that Verily sees great potential in continuing to gather medical data for analysis and it’s likely we could see a great deal more innovation in the coming years.
The aim of this information sheet is to provide parents with information and advice about medicines for heart conditions. As part of the management of your child’s heart condition they may be prescribed medications. The kind of medicines they need will depend on their heart condition. This factsheet provides information on the most frequently used medicines for the treatment of paediatric heart conditions. Should you have any questions about prescribed medicines, we advise that you talk to your child’s pharmacist or cardiologist at the NHS specialist centre that provides your child’s medical care. Your child may need to take several medicines, some at specific time intervals. Many parents find it useful to use a medicine chart or schedule. To make it easier for children to take medicines they are available in different forms such as capsules, tablets, or liquids. Ask your child’s cardiologist or pharmacist to advise on alternatives if your child is finding it difficult to take their current prescribed form. If your child spits or vomits after medication has been administered, they may not have received their required dosage. If you are unsure of how much medication has been ingested, we strongly recommend that you seek advice from your child’s cardiac care team to ensure you are not overdosing the medicine. If your child needs medicines during the school day, it is important to work with the school to draw up a health care plan. A health care plan is a document that helps to ensure that the school has all the necessary information they need and have all the appropriate systems in place to help your child manage their medicines. It is important to make the school aware of any side effects of the medication that may affect your child, for example: Below are some generic medicines that are commonly used to treat symptoms associated with heart conditions: In congestive heart failure the body tends to retain fluid. Diuretics help the kidneys to get rid of excess fluid so that the heart can work more efficiently. Diuretics will make your child need the toilet more frequently and more urgently. Vomiting or diarrhoea can make a child on diuretics dehydrated. If this happens, talk to your cardiac liaison nurse or your GP as soon as possible. Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors These medicines reduce blood pressure by dilating the blood vessels. Lower blood pressure means the heart does not have to work so hard to pump blood around the body. These medicines are used to treat arrhythmias (a fast or irregular heart beat). Different antiarrhythmic medicines are used depending on the specific type of arrhythmia. Anticoagulants help to prevent blood clots by thinning the blood. The most common anticoagulant is warfarin. It is important to monitor the blood regularly to make sure children are getting the correct dose of anticoagulants. This can be done using blood test monitors called INR machines. Your child’s cardiologist or haematologist can give you more information about this procedure. Children on anticoagulants should carry a record of their usual dosage and the result of their last blood test. This will make sure they receive the correct treatment in an emergency. Children on anticoagulants are advised to avoid contact sports and other situations where they may be at high risk of injury. If a child is already taking anticoagulants then they should avoid taking any medicines containing aspirin as this can increase the risk of bleeding. These medicines are used for a number of reasons: some are used to control high blood pressure, whilst others are used to treat arrhythmias. It is important that you ask your child’s cardiologist or the hospital pharmacist about any interactions with other medicines, supplements and side effects that you should be aware of. It may be helpful for your child to carry a record of all the medicines they are on. In an emergency situation, this can be given to medical staff so that they are aware of the medicines your child is already taking. Medic Alert or similar items of jewellery are another way of alerting medical staff to health conditions, allergies and medicines being taken. For more information visit: If you think your child is suffering a reaction to a medicine, or is showing any other symptoms that may be related to their medicines, contact your GP or cardiologist immediately. Evidence and sources of information for this CHF information sheet can be obtained at: (1) The Health Conditions in Schools Alliance. London: HCSA; 2017. Available at: (2) UK. Children with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND). London: GOV.UK; 2017. Available at: About this document: Published: June 2014 Reviewed: June 2017 Due for review: June 2019 To inform CHF of a comment or suggestion, please contact us via [email protected] or Tel: 0300 561 0065.
2013 AMC 10A Problems/Problem 16 A triangle with vertices , , and is reflected about the line to create a second triangle. What is the area of the union of the two triangles? Let be at , B be at , and be at . Reflecting over the line , we see that , (as the x-coordinate of B is 8), and . Line can be represented as , so we see that is on line . We see that if we connect to , we get a line of length (between and ). The area of is equal to . Now, let the point of intersection between and be . If we can just find the area of and subtract it from , we are done. We realize that because the diagram is symmetric over , the intersection of lines and should intersect at an x-coordinate of . We know that the slope of is . Thus, we can represent the line going through and as . Plugging in , we find that the y-coordinate of F is . Thus, the height of is . Using the formula for the area of a triangle, the area of is . To get our final answer, we must subtract this from . First, realize that is the midpoint of and is the midpoint of . Connect to to form . Let the midpoint of be . Connect to . is a median of . Because is isosceles, is also an altitude of . We know the length of and from the given coordinates. The area of is . Let the intesection of , and be . is the centroid of . Therefore, it splits into and . The area of quadrilateral \|2013 AMC 10A (Problems • Answer Key • Resources)\| \|1 • 2 • 3 • 4 • 5 • 6 • 7 • 8 • 9 • 10 • 11 • 12 • 13 • 14 • 15 • 16 • 17 • 18 • 19 • 20 • 21 • 22 • 23 • 24 • 25\| \|All AMC 10 Problems and Solutions\|
This text is the product of a seven year effort to develop an elementary mathematics methods text that fully implements the NCTM standards for mathematics teaching and learning. These standards do not recommend a band-aid approach to reform, that is, supplementing existing practices with some new techniques to better accomplish the same old goals. Instead the standards propose radical surgery, profound changes in what and how mathematics is taught and assessed. That is the purpose of this text, to show how to make mathematics instruction consistent with all three of the central NCTM tenets: 1. Making mathematics relevant to the everyday lives of students. 2. Making mathematics a problem-based or reasoning-based activity. 3. Making mathematics a meaningful (understandable) learning activity. Investigative Approach--The author imbeds these three tenets in what he labels the investigative approach to mathematics instruction. It involves a unique format in which students interact with the text material through a series of reader inquiries that explore key ideas about mathematics, children's mathematical learning, and mathematical teaching. These inquiries constitute the core of the book. Personalized Teaching Guide--To encourage personalized learning, the pages of this book have been perforated and 3-hole punched so that its contents can be reorganized and/or mixed with materials from other sources to form a Personalized Teaching Guide. In short, this book should be viewed as a starting point in the long road to professional development in mathematics instruction. Contents: Preface. Prologue: Understanding This Teaching Guide and the Role of Affect in the Teaching-Learning Process. Fostering Mathematical Power: The Need for Purposeful, Inquiry-Based, and Meaningful Instruction. Processes of Mathematical Inquiry: Problem Solving, Reasoning, and Communicating. Fostering and Evaluating Meaningful Learning: Making Connections and Assessing Understanding. Basic Mathematical Tools: Numbers and Numerals. Introducing Arithmetic: Understanding the Whole-Number Operations and Mastering the Basic Number Combinations. Understanding Base-Ten, Place-Value Skills: Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic With Multidigit Numbers. Thinking With Whole Numbers: Number Sense, Estimation, and Mental Computation. Exploring Numbers Further: Number Theory and Integers & Operations on Integers. Working With "Parts of a Whole" and Other Meanings of Rational Numbers and Common Fractions. Understanding Operations on Common Fractions. Place-Value Representations of Fractional Parts: Decimal Fractions, Decimals, and Operations on Decimals. Comparing Quantities Fairly: Ratios, Proportions, and Percent. Making Sense of Information and Using It to Make Everyday Decisions: Statistics and Probability. The Mathematics of Our Environment: Geometry and Spatial Sense. Sizing up Things: Measurement and Measurement Formulas. The Transition From Arithmetic to Algebra: Prealgebra and Functions. Reflections on Teaching: Organizing Instruction to Enhance Mathematical Power, Professional Development, and Epilogue. Appendices: Footnotes. Bibliography. Publishers and Distributors of Educational Materials. Subject Index. Index of Reader Inquiries. Index of Children's Literature (by Title and by Subject). Technology Index (Web sites; Software, Videos, & Laserdisks; Calculator Applications by Subject; Computer Applications by Subject). Questions for Promoting Mathematical Power.
Art & Design Key Stage 3 As two closely-linked subject areas, through art and photography, our primary aim is to build confidence, resilience and to foster a love of learning, experimentation and hard work. Students arrive in year 7 very unsure of their abilities and we decide to return to basics with drawing, building skills and an awareness of visual presentation. Very quickly, staff are able to identify a range of needs and challenge the more able, at the same time building resilience with those whose confidence threatens to hamper development. Learners soon realise that they are able to make progress effectively through the personalised programme that we offer. Gradually, technical skills using a range of media evolve allowing students to experiment with scale and photographic supporting materials in particular. Throughout key stage 3, all learners are encouraged to investigate literacy elements within the subject areas, researching the work of other artists and becoming aware of their style characteristics, their intentions and the context of the work, both at the time of its creation and also within present-day society. Students also use written and verbal feedback to drive their own and each other’s development through staff and peer assessment. Student responses are prompted through a planned questioning focus during lessons, both on the whiteboard, through verbal interaction and also within PTR sheets in sketchbooks. All of these features effectively build the skills required for study at key stage 4. The expectation of the department dictates that commitment outside lessons is essential for success; something that we believe prepares all learners for the demands of the new GCSE courses. We also cover the various career possibilities in art and design and photography through display material in the department but also via the newly-established photography course. Curriculum Implementation (see also Long Term Plans) Throughout KS3, students learn the skills and ways in which to gain and continue building knowledge within the subject. In addition to technical challenges, learners are always encouraged to consider their intentions when using a particular media. They would be expected to be able to justify the selection of materials for the purpose of the piece. Students’ knowledge of artsists’ work extends from the characteristics of his her style to reasons for links to the project ad also that artist’s intentions, what he or she was trying to portray, the intended audience. At key stage 3, we encourage learners to reflect on themselves as people and also those around them. Both the year 7 ‘Pop Art’ and year 8 ‘Cubism’ units of work involve a clear focus upon self- identity and students are able to investigate things that are personal to them e.g. family, friends, pets, hobbies, favourite celebrities/sports stars etc. This echoes starting points of many artists, both within the themes studied but also as they progress to the more flexible and broad-based GCSE approach in year 9 and onwards, even involving possible responses to the GCSE exam starting points in year 11. Much of the work at the beginning of projects is modelled by staff to build confidence and also establish expectations. The department also utilises exemplar work from past and present students and encourages peer coaching to share good practice and drive success. Projects studied at KS3 Year 7 - Drawing, Colour, Natural forms, Pop Art Year 8 – Surrealism and Cubism Progress is assessed at a variety of stages and the timings of these are always planned to evidence optimum impact within a student’s work. AfL is personalised and takes on the form of both verbal and written feedback by both staff and peers. Students’ responses drive next steps and staff revisit these to extend the dialogue if appropriate. Data is collected to support reporting windows and use of ATLs closely reflect homework performance, as recorded in the front of sketchbooks. A significant number of students choose to purse an art subject at KS4.The resilience adopted through years 7 and 8 effectively prepare learners for the challenge ahead. The personalised approach and focus from prior projects allow students to then become more flexible when understanding and appreciating works of other artists and their intentions when creating pieces. Those not opting for art or photography at GCSE level are given the chance to experiment with media and processes during years 7 and 8, building confidence and presentational skills required for other curriculum areas. They have developed knowledge of themselves and their peers as individuals and have learned how to justify their choices and ideas. Key Stage 4 GCSE Fine Art In year 9, students begin to study the GCSE course through a more fostered approach; many of the earliest tasks being introduced as a step by step format, allowing learners to develop ideas and build resilience with greater guidance. As the course evolves, students are encouraged to take risks, personalise their pathways and justify these choices. As a department, we are constantly seeking ways in which to challenge progress to exceed prior targets. This may take the form of extending the scale of work or increasing the sophistication of written elements of the portfolio, for example when linking work to that of other artists, students are expected to highlight reasons for their selections and the intention of the artist. We are insistent that this is a development of skills and knowledge from KS3 and not to be seen as a new approach. We believe that the journey as an artist should not abandon knowledge from previous learning, but link to prior experience. The level of chosen subject matter within these personalised project developments or pathways, we believe, prepares students for the subject at the next level. The department has strong links with local post-16 providers and maintains an awareness of KS5 demands and expectations. For example, when working towards the exam in art, students are asked to look at their chosen starting point through a social lens and if at all possible introduce a topical focus to their project and resulting final outcome. This encourages them to read more widely on the subject, looking at news articles and link issues to the works of other like-minded artists. Curriculum Implementation (see also Long Term Plans) An overview (brief) of the topics covered and reference to teaching/learning styles i.e group work, independent study How is it assessed (brief) and how does data collected support individuals future learning? Conflict – This project encourages students to look more closely at war, focusing upon not just military elements but also the impact of conflict on society. They are able to investigate how conflict re-models life and also explore war-based art, including the intention of the artist. Links to prior learning at KS3 from other subject areas can be revisited and staff are eager to discuss and gauge students’ understanding. For example the rise of the Nazi party and the Holocaust, as studied in year 8 History and how these events linked, were portrayed through Nazi propaganda and also from the Holocaust survivors’ view. Years 10 and 11 The City – This particular part of the GCSE course flows smoothly from the investigations in year 9. Knowledge and appreciation of conflict and the city allows students to then move towards the city and society as a whole. They are encouraged to investigate issues which will demand greater depth to their current standing and prompt wider reading. Issues such as religion, politics, and the environment can be linked to prior conflict-based knowledge and enable some effective connections to artists using a variety of forums. The project develops and evolves over time and students’ focus points build towards final outcomes at a variety of stages. Photography students follow the same starting points and this allows for cross-subject links and materials, involving a team ethos amongst departmental staff. Exam results at GCSE have, for a number of years, been incredibly positive. Positive SPI from last years’ leavers was 72.4% (0.75) and the residual was 0.73 in a school whose P8 score was O.77. As a result of teaching across both key stages in art, a significant number of students pursue the subject at post-16. Long Term Plans & Assessment Plan
Editing Mode is now enabled: Please hover over the topic, item or block you wish to edit. Drag and drop files onto course sections to upload them Formative Assessment and Strategies in Secondary Mathematics ‘Assessment for learning involves: • gathering and interpreting evidence about students’ learning; and • learners and their teachers using that evidence to decide where students are in their learning, where they are going and how to take the next steps.’ Assessment for and as Learning with Mathematical Processes Goal: engaged thinkers in math. The document below has some clear and practical ideas for assisting students in reflecting on their own understandings. Click here to download a copy of a two page pdf document provided by Math GAINS and TIPS4RM which connects Assessment for and as learning with the mathematical processes. - The first page provides Sample Questions and Sample Feedback divided into the processes Reasoning and Proving, Reflecting, Selecting Tools and Computational Strategies, Connecting and Representing (a nice overlap with our 7 processes) - The second page reminds us of the Key Features of Effective Mathematics Instructions with Sample Indicators and Questions you may ask yourself to reflect on your own teaching. - I found this document extremely beneficial for all math teachers reminding us of different ways to question our students for their understanding and also providing a checklist for us to reflect on our teaching practices. Tic-Tac-Toes (Think-Tac Toes or Choice Boards) have been commonly used for Differentiated Instruction. They can also be used to indicate the level that a student is at with a specific concept. Click here to listen to one way you can use Tic-Tac-Toes in your classroom to assess for learning. Click here to download an editable WORD copy of Math 20-2 Rationalizing Denominators Tic-Tac-Toe Click here to download a PDF copy of Math 20-2 Rationalizing Denominators Tic-Tac-Toe Entrance and Exit Slips Entrance/Exit slips are a very powerful formative assessment tool that you can use as a teacher to get lots of information very quickly. There are many ways to use entrance and exit slips. I will share how I use them in the class. I like to use them to exit a lesson not a class. - Once a lesson is complete, I allow time to work on assigned work in class. Enough time is provided to complete these questions based on good work ethic. The students know this and they work hard since they do not want homework. - Once they are finished the assigned work, they show me and we go over any questions they may have. I then give them the exit slip. I can easily look at the answers to the exit slips and base my groups accordingly the next day. (Please note that students who do not hand in their exit slip will be placed in a group that requires more assistance). Math 30-2 Sinusoidal Functions Provided below are Exit Slips for the unit in Word format. Please feel free to adapt them to your learning environment. Lesson 8.1 Exit Slip Lesson 8.2 Exit Slip Lesson 8.3 Exit Slip Lesson 8.4 - 8.6 Exit Slip Websites that Provide Additional Ways of Using Entrance and Exit Slips in High School Mathematics Exit Slips to Activate Students as Owners of Their Learning -- John Scammell Exit Slips as Practice -- John Scammell Questioning is used not only as a pedagogical tool but also as a deliberate way for the teacher to find out what students know, understand and are able to do. The Frayer model organizes student's knowledge graphically about a concept or mathematical term into a written description, characteristics/illustrations, examples, and non-examples. Shown is an example of how a student used the Frayer model to describe Slope.
Anglican worship was first celebrated in North America on the coast near San Francisco, by Sir Francis Drake's chaplain, in 1579. The first regular worship began in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. English mission societies (SPG in particular) supported the early work under the direction of the Bishop of London, who never visited the American colonies. The American Revolution challenged the ongoing existence of Anglicanism, as many clergy departed for Canada or other parts of the British Empire. Lay leaders were responsible for continuing the work of parish churches and recruiting clergy. The first bishop for the new Episcopal Church was consecrated by the Scottish Episcopal Church in 1784, with two other bishops consecrated by the Church of England after changes in English law. At that point, The Episcopal Church became fully autonomous and soon began to send missionaries to other parts of the Americas and beyond. Today a quarter of the Anglican Communion's provinces derive at least in part from that missionary work. The Episcopal Church today includes 100 dioceses in the United States, and 12 additional dioceses or jurisdictions in 15 nations in Asia, the Pacific, Latin America, the Caribbean, and Europe.
BMI (body mass index) is an easy, inexpensive method of predicting the percentage of your body weight that is due to fat mass. BMI is found by dividing your weight (in lbs.) by your height squared (in inches) and then multiplying by 703. In adults, a BMI below 18.5 is considered underweight, 18.6 to 24.9 is considered healthy, 25.0 to 29.9 is considered overweight and above 30.0 is considered obese. Respiratory function has been studied extensively in relation to BMI. For those with lung diseases, including emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and interstitial and vascular lung diseases, respiratory function is moderately to severely compromised. This compromise can be exacerbated by being overweight or having a BMI over 25.0. However, even in those with normal airway function, high BMI can impair respiratory function. Obesity and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases include emphysema, chronic bronchitis and asthma. COPD causes a decrease in elastic recoil of the lungs so that excess air becomes trapped in the chest. This stretches the muscles involved in respiration and compromises their function. The respiratory muscles must then work harder even at rest, increasing oxygen demand on an already taxed respiratory system. At a certain point during physical activity, COPD patients reach a level when increased effort does not further increase the amount of air that they can expire. Having a high BMI means having more weight for your muscles to support during mobility. Thus, if you have COPD, the level at which increased effort no longer provides an increase in expiration comes much faster since you are working harder to support your own weight. In addition, having a high BMI means having more weight on the chest for the respiratory muscles to work against. Underweight and COPD Although a high BMI can further impair respiration in those with COPD, once COPD progresses to a severe level, weight loss becomes problematic. Because of lower oxygen levels in the blood, blood becomes shunted from the abdomen into the heart and lungs. This causes malnutrition because the gut is not getting enough blood flow to properly digest foods. Additionally, severe impairment of the lungs causes the respiratory muscles to work so much harder that metabolism greatly increases, even at rest. Typically, severe COPD patients who are underweight have a worse prognosis than those who are overweight because they are essentially starving. High BMI in Healthy Individuals According to a 2005 study by Jones et. al., high BMI can severely impact respiratory function even in non-diseased individuals. The study found that both Functional Residual Capacity--the volume of air in your lungs after passive exhalation--and Expiratory Reserve Volume--the volume of air you can expire after passively exhaling—decreased exponentially as BMI increased. Subjects who were morbidly obese were actually breathing close to their Residual Volumes--the amount of air in your lungs after forced exhalation. Another 2005 study by Medarov et. al. Supports Jones' findings and also found that Total Lung Capacity—the maximum amount of air you can inhale--decreased with increasing BMI. According to the American College of Sports Medicine, being overweight has mechanical effects on respiration, due to increased weight on the chest wall and diaphragm. Being overweight also causes an increase in energy use at the same workload compared to a leaner person, so the respiratory muscles fatigue at lower intensities in heavier people. These effects may contribute to the decreases in Functional Residual Capacity, Expiratory Reserve Volume and Total Lung Capacity. Lung Diseases Caused by Obesity There are two types of lung disease for which obesity is a primary cause. The first is Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome, also known as Pickwickian Syndrome. Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome involves chronic hypoxemia—too little oxygen in the blood—and hypercapnia—too much carbon dioxide in the blood. The second lung disease obesity can cause is Obstructive Sleep Apnea. This disease involves periodic airway collapse and increased airway resistance during sleep. As both of these diseases progress, pulmonary hypertension may occur and eventually cause cor pulmonale--failure of the right side of the heart. Because high BMI decreases lung function in both diseased and healthy individuals, an unfortunate domino effect often occurs. Since being overweight makes it harder to breathe, those with respiratory problems may become less physically active. Decreased physical activity causes your muscles, including your respiratory muscles, to weaken and break down, which in turn makes breathing even more difficult. A downward spiral begins, in which inactivity begets further respiratory problems and respiratory problems beget more inactivity.
Flu season wellness When it comes to senior wellness, flu season can be a major hit to one's health. While all seniors are recommended to get a flu shot every year, there are some who will still get ill. How the flu spreads Unfortunately, the flu can spread fairly quickly and easily from person to person. This can happen when a person sneezes, coughs or even just through talking. Germs that cause the flu can also be transferred from an object or surface to a person. Touching the face, eyes, nose or mouth after touching a contaminated object or surface can be a jumping point for the flu virus to get into the body. There are other viruses that spread in a similar way. The flu virus can infect a person fairly quickly, and those afflicted with the virus can spread it to others one day after they get it and up to 5-7 days after they start showing symptoms, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. This means it is possible to spread the flu to others without even knowing you are sick. An infected person is advised to stay home for at least 24 hours after they become ill to reduce the risk of spreading it to others. Who is at risk? The flu can affect anyone, though it is more dangerous for young children, infants and seniors to be infected. Those with weak immune systems are also at risk for complications from the flu. Fortunately, there are several methods that people can employ to reduce their risk of getting the flu. The CDC recommends that everyone over the age of six months takes steps to prepare for flu season. - Flu shots As the best way to protect against the flu, the CDC recommends that every senior gets a new shot every year. As flu strains change from year to year, it is important to get vaccinated against the most common. - Prevent spreading germs To cut down on spreading or getting the flu, reduce any opportunities to spread germs. The main methods for reducing the spread of germs have to do with personal hygiene. Washing hands frequently with soap and hot water can reduce contamination. People should also not touch their face, eyes, nose or mouth, as germs can enter the body this way. Contact with sick people should also be avoided, as the flu is often very contagious. Disinfect surfaces and objects that could carry germs. To prevent spreading any germs, be sure to cover your mouth and nose when sneezing or coughing. - Anti-viral drugs If you already have the flu or become infected and sick, you can take anti-viral drugs to treat your symptoms. Unlike bacterial infections, viruses like the flu cannot be treated with antibiotics. Anti-viral drugs can only be prescribed by a doctor but can come in pill, liquid or an inhaled powder form. Studies have shown that anti-viral drugs work best when they are taken within two days of getting sick, but they can still be beneficial if taken later – especially for someone who has another health condition or becomes very ill. When taken, these prescriptions can reduce the amount of time a person is sick as well as reduce the risk of complications from the illness. Anti-viral drugs are only used if a person becomes sick. A flu shot is still the best first-line of defense against the illness. For people who are very sick and need to be hospitalized for their illness, anti-viral medicine can greatly improve their symptoms. Children, pregnant women and seniors can take these prescriptions safely. To maximize your Senior Health Insurance benefits, visit MySeniorHealthPlan.com for quick, simple and easy information.
Introduction to Virus Computer viruses are perceived as a threat to both business and personal. Virus is a self-replicating program that produces its own code by attacking copies of itself into other executable codes. Operates without the knowledge or desire of the computer user. Characteristics of a Virus Virus resides in the memory and replicates itself while the program where it is attached is running. It does not reside in the memory after the execution of the program. It can transform themselves by the changing code to appear different. It hides itself from detection by three ways. - It encrypts itself into the cryptic symbols. - It alters the disk directory data to compensate the addition virus bytes. - It uses stealth algorithms to redirect disk data. Working of virus Triggers evens and direct attack are the common mode which cause a virus to “go off” on a target machine. Most viruses are operate in two phases 1. Infection phase - Virus developers decided when to infect the host system’s program. - Some infect each time they are run and executed completely ex direct virus - Some virus code infect only when users trigger them which includes a day, time or a particular event ex TSR virus. 2. Attack phase - Some virus have trigger events to activate and corrupt systems - Some virus have bug that replicate and perform activities like file and deletion and increasing the session time. - They corrupt the targets only after spreading completely as intended by their developers.
On February 14, 1929, gunmen working for Al Capone disguised themselves as police officers, entered the warehouse of a competing gang, and shot seven of their rivals dead. The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre is famous not only in the annals of gangland history, but also the history of forensic science. Capone denied involvement, but an early forensic scientist named Calvin Goddard linked bullets from the crime scene to Tommy guns found at the home of one of Capone’s men. Although the case never made it to trial—and Capone’s involvement was never proved in a court of law—media coverage introduced millions of readers to Goddard and his strange-looking microscope. That microscope had a split screen that allowed Goddard to compare bullets or cartridge cases, the metal cases a gun ejects after firing a bullet, side by side. If markings on the bullets or cases matched, that indicated that they were fired from the same gun. Firearms examiners still use that same method today, but it has an important limitation: After visually comparing two bullets or cartridge cases, the examiner can offer an expert opinion as to whether they match. But they cannot express the strength of the evidence numerically, the way a DNA expert can when testifying about genetic evidence. Now, a team of researchers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed a statistical approach for ballistic comparisons that may enable numerical testimony. While other research groups are also working on this problem, the advantages of the NIST approach include a low error rate in initial tests and that it is relatively easy to explain to a jury. The researchers described their approach in Forensic Science International. When comparing two cartridge cases, the NIST method produces a numerical score that describes how similar they are. It also estimates the probability that random effects might cause a false positive match—a concept similar to match probabilities for DNA evidence. “No scientific method has a zero error rate,” said John Song, a NIST mechanical engineer and the lead author of the study. “Our goal is to give the examiner a way to estimate the probability of this type of error so the jury can take that into account when deciding guilt or innocence.” The new approach also seeks to transform firearm identification from a subjective method that depends on an examiner’s experience and judgement to one that is based on objective measurements. A landmark 2009 report from the National Academy of Sciences and a 2016 report from the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology both called for research that would bring about this transformation. The Theory Behind Forensic Ballistics When a gun is fired, and the bullet blasts down the barrel, it encounters ridges and grooves that cause it to spin, increasing the accuracy of the shot. Those ridges dig into the soft metal of the bullet, leaving striations. At the same time that the bullet explodes forward, the cartridge case explodes backward with equal force against the mechanism that absorbs the recoil, called the breech face. This stamps an impression of the breech face into the soft metal at the base of the cartridge case, which is then ejected from the gun. The theory behind firearm identification is that microscopic striations and impressions left on bullets and cartridge cases are unique, reproducible, and therefore, like “ballistic fingerprints” that can be used to identify a gun. If investigators recover bullets or cartridge cases from a crime scene, forensic examiners can test-fire a suspect’s gun to see if it produces ballistic fingerprints that match the evidence. But bullets and cartridge cases that are fired from different guns might have similar markings, especially if the guns were consecutively manufactured. This raises the possibility of a false positive match, which can have serious consequences for the accused. A Statistical Approach In 2013, Song and his NIST colleagues developed an algorithm that compares three-dimensional surface scans of the breech face impressions on cartridge cases. Their method, called Congruent Matching Cells, or CMC, divides one of the scanned surfaces into a grid of cells, then searches the other surface for matching cells. The greater the number of matching cells, the more similar the two surfaces, and the more likely they are to have come from the same gun. In their recent study, the researchers scanned 135 cartridge cases that were fired from 21 different 9-millimeter pistols. This produced 433 matching image pairs and 4,812 non-matching pairs. To make the test even more difficult, most of the pistols were consecutively manufactured. The CMC algorithm classified all the pairs correctly. Furthermore, almost all the non-matching pairs had zero matching cells, with a handful having one or two due to random effects. All the matching pairs, on the other hand, had at least 18 matching cells. In other words, the matching and non-matching pairs fell into highly separated distributions based on the number of matching cells. “That separation indicates that the probability of random effects causing a false positive match using the CMC method is very low,” said co-author and physicist Ted Vorburger. A Better Way to Testify Using well-established statistical methods, the authors built a model for estimating the likelihood that random effects would cause a false positive match. Using this method, a firearms expert would be able to testify about how closely the two cartridges match based on the number of matching cells, and also the probability of a random match, similar to the way forensic experts testify about DNA. Although this study did not include enough test-fires to calculate realistic error rates for actual casework, the study has demonstrated the concept. “The next step is to scale up with much larger and more diverse datasets,” said Johannes Soons, a NIST mechanical engineer and co-author of the study. With more diverse datasets, researchers will be able to create separate models for different types of guns and ammunition. That would make it possible to estimate random match rates for the various combinations that might be used in a crime. Other groups of researchers are working on ways to express the strength of evidence numerically, not only for firearms but also fingerprints and other types of pattern evidence. Many of those efforts use machine learning and artificial intelligence-based algorithms to compare patterns in the evidence. But it can be difficult to explain how machine-learning algorithms work. “The CMC method can be easily explained to a jury,” Song said. “It also appears to produce very low false positive error rates.”
Definition of Slope Words The slope is the value of the quotient . Interpretation of the Slope Draw three lines whose equations are y = x , y = 2 x , and . These lines look like this in the coordinate plane. Check the slopes of each of the lines. Note that the line with largest slope of 2 is the steepest, and that the line with least slope of is the least steep. The figure above shows lines of various slopes. Slopes of Horizontal and Vertical Lines "What slope should a horizontal line have?" Since a horizontal line always has rise equal to zero, the slope will always be zero divided by a positive number, and so the slope is zero. Note that the x-axis has zero slope. "What about vertical lines?" Since the run is always zero and division by zero is undefined, the slope is undefined. It is sometimes useful to think of them as having "infinite slope," but since infinity is not a number, this is not a precise statement. Notice that so far all slopes have been positive numbers, and all lines have sloped upward from left to right. For lines drawn in the coordinate plane, the standard direction to move along them is from left to right and bottom to top. Lines with positive slope rise to the right and lines with negative slope rise to the left. - For positive slopes, the larger the number, the more steeply the line slopes upward. - For negative slopes, the larger the absolute value of the negative number, the more steeply the line slopes The next figure shows lines of both positive and negative Algebraic Formula for Slope Let's summarize the whole discussion by introducing the algebraic formula for slope. To do this, we draw two points in the coordinate plane that correspond to the ordered pairs (x 0 , y 0) and (x 1 , y 1), as in the figure below. The rise is y 1 - y 0 and the run is x 1 - x 0 . Slope is rise divided by run, which gives the formula Values can be substituted into this formula once the coordinates are given. It does not matter which points are designated as (x 0 , y 0) and (x 1 , y 1). However, the first x in the denominator must come from the same coordinate pair as the first y in the
Inquiry Question: How does formative assessment help students develop expressive qualities in their artwork? Data from the ARTS ACHIEVE Assessment showed that students struggled with their drawing skills and their ability to achieve expressiveness in their artmaking. The art specialist and facilitator developed a unit around creating expressive portraits. This unit allows middle school students a freer and more successful approach to dealing with art at the same time as dealing with age-related self-consciousness. Students engaged in formative assessment through peer and self-assessments, written reflections, teacher feedback, group discussions, and generating their own criteria. By the end of the lesson, formative assessment became a part of their artmaking process. Use of Technology Students used the Explain Everything app on the iPads to self-assess their work. The classroom smartboard was used to research and analyze masterworks, as well as to facilitate classroom brainstorming sessions.
\|Name: _________________________\|\|Period: ___________________\| This test consists of 5 short answer questions, 10 short essay questions, and 1 (of 3) essay topics. Short Answer Questions 1. Who intervenes to prevent the soldiers from deserting Agamemnon? 2. How does Aphrodite flee the battle in Book 5? 3. Who does Zeus send down to the Greeks to stir up the battle? 4. What does Zeus suggest to Agamemnon in a dream in order to trick him? 5. Who are the two beautiful women that are captured as war prizes? Short Essay Questions 1. What is the state of mind of Agamemnon in Book 4? 2. What does Athena's interference in the truce between the Trojans and the Greeks cause? 3. What are the origins of Achilles' anger? 4. How do the Trojans successfully attack the wall the Greeks have built? 5. In Book 2, what do the Greek forces do to get help from the gods? 6. In Book 7, who decides the fighting should end and how do they plan that end? 7. What is the interpretation of the eagle and the snake that Hector does not like? 8. In Book 3, why is Paris considered a coward? 9. In Book 2, was Zeus' plan for Agamemnon successful? 10. How does Paris' selfishness manifest itself in Book 7? Write an essay for ONE of the following topics: Essay Topic 1 Please pick one of the following options to write about: 1) How pride caused Hector's death. 2) How envy cause the war to being. 3) How greed caused a division in the Greek forces. Essay Topic 2 If you had to identify the moral of The Iliad, what would it be and why? Please explain using specific examples of characters and lessons they went through and learned. Essay Topic 3 How does Achilles change in character from the beginning of Book 1 to the end of Book 24. Please provide specific examples of changes. This section contains 621 words (approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page)
Learning is never stagnant – students and teachers are constantly evolving into better versions of themselves, and therefore need resources to evolve along with them. Technology has opened up a new world to the education sector, providing communication between teachers from around the globe as well as opportunities for students to learn in new ways. According to a 2018 article by David Nagel, 75% of teachers this year are either entirely positive or mostly positive toward the use of technology in their classrooms, meaning they believed technology would have a positive impact on their students. We are growing into a world of out-of-the-box creativity and quicker responses. Teachers use technology for testing and games, for group interaction and studying. Included in this article are several specific examples of the ways educators are using technology to teach students. As a teacher of students learning English as a second language, technology is increasingly valuable. Not only can the students use translating services like Google Translate on their phone, but they can also use internet services in their first language. With the internet on our phones, finding an image to illustrate a point can be done in seconds. Need to know the pronunciation of a word? Type it into the dictionary app and listen to a native English speaker say it. There are programs for messaging with a native speaker to practice conversation, as well as programs like Burlington English that “grade” pronunciation. Beyond the ESL field, teachers are using technology to keep students engaged and excited about learning. For example, there are several apps, including Kahoot, that allow teachers to create questions and challenges which students can respond to on their smartphones. In projects about geography or in literature discussions where students need more context about a specific location, map features online are incredibly valuable. Using machines like Elmo’s and Smartboards allow students to interact with what’s going on in the front of the room. For example, I let my students label parts of a picture on the board, or draw their own versions of words. Research takes much less time with online search engines and scholarly article filters – just be aware of the potential for inaccurate information to surface. IPads and Chromebooks have become a staple in many community schools across the United States. When students have their own computer or tablet in front of them, they can submit work electronically on their own into a shared folder, making it much easier for the teacher to access work to grade. This is most easily exhibited in the concept of writing homework. In the past, students have spent hours creating, editing, and submitting drafts of projects. Crossing out mistakes, drawing lines to where phrases should go, and underlining important points is time consuming and can distract or confuse students. With word processing systems in computers and tablets, erasing mistakes is simple, and tracking progress of a document is much less time consuming. Spell check and dictionary searches can be completed with one click of the mouse. Technology also helps in providing assistance for specific subjects. If you provide chemistry homework help you can interact with students who need that help and they can learn and progress. Of course there are always difficulties that arise with the use of technology as with any new educational development, such as lack of attention and the potential for inexperienced students to struggle. It can be daunting as a teacher with maybe less tech knowledge than the modern student to know how to handle all the change. However, in a global society moving ever forward in the world of gadgets and technology, the benefits easily outweigh the negative potential of technology in the classroom. Happy teaching!
Author : Douglas Caddock. Published : Wed, May 22 2019 :4 PM. Format : jpg/jpeg. To practice mathematics, math workbooks are the good source. You learn a concept in a workbook, then in the same booklet there are more problems on the same concept for practice. Another good method to practice mathematical concepts is using math worksheets and you can print math worksheets free of charge from the web. Let us discuss some tangible advantages of Mathematics in today world. One should also be aware of the wide importance of Mathematics, and the way in which it is advancing at a spectacular rate. Mathematics is about pattern and structure; it is about logical analysis, deduction, calculation within these patterns and structures. Math is known to be difficult and is often a headache for the young and so the math worksheets come in handy in helping resolve this problem. Thanks to the sites over the internet that offer free printable math worksheets, you do not need to worry about the cost of purchasing one, maybe only the ink cost. So do not go making excuses for not being able to access a math work sheet. Math worksheets second grade subtraction with regrouping column worksheet generator printablend 1920 Two digit subtraction worksheets math with regrouping 2 digits subtractingonedigitfromtwodigitregrou Subtraction with regrouping worksheets math 4 digits column 3 no Subtraction with regrouping math video for 2nd grade youtube 3rd worksheets maxresde Triple digit raction without regrouping borrowing worksheets racting math subtraction with carrying addition download them Math worksheets grades 1 6 subtracting 2 digit numbers 2nd grade subtraction with regrouping single addit 1st grade math worksheets subtraction with regrouping the best borrowi 6 digits math kindergarten 2 digit subtraction worksheets sheets with regroupin Math worksheets regrouping match worksheet free 2nd grade addition and subtraction with digit plus Two digit subtraction without regrouping worksheet 2nd grade math worksheets addition and with 209b2efda7a469aabb145f07ba9 Subtraction with regrouping worksheets math 4 digits colum Subtraction with regrouping worksheets math addition and 2nd grade column 3 digits 2nd grade math worksheets subtraction with borrowing printable christmas regrouping 2 dig 2nd grade subtraction worksheets alistairtheoptimist math with regrouping 4 digits for kids missing facts to 20 sh Free math printouts from the teachers guide 2nd grade worksheets subtraction with regrouping twodigitsubtractionwithoutregrouping Borrowing worksheets second grade math subtraction with download t The two digit subtraction with some regrouping 49 questions b 3rd grade math worksheets 845ef0113ef295cffa2dcfad102 Math worksheets ideas collection borrowing printable subtraction with regrouping 4 digits 1024 Math worksheets threeit subtraction with regrouping addition and 2nd Triple digit raction without regrouping borrowing worksheets racting math subtraction with 3 digits addition and workshe Two digit subtraction worksheets math addition and with regrouping tictactoemathtwodigitsubtractionregroupi Subtraction with regrouping worksheets math 2 digits column 3 Subtraction with regrouping 9 worksheets printable math sheets f4dff22a2729c9407ff16cf63e7 Second grade math worksheets subtraction 2nd with regrouping borrowing beautiful mon coretion 3 digit subtraction with regrouping word problems math worksheets addit Borrowing math digit subtraction with regrouping collection of worksheets wo Triple digit subtraction with regrouping google math worksh 488 subtraction worksheets for you to print right now math worksheet generator with regro Subtraction with regrouping worksheets 2nd grade digit second math 2 digits printa Math worksheets addition subtraction and multiplication 2nd grade sheets with regrouping digit with Subtraction with regrouping worksheets math worksheet generator column 3 dig Fresh math worksheets subtraction with regrouping fun worksheet 2 digit borrow begin Worksheet 3 digit addition and subtraction with regrouping word math worksheets 2 digits ccss2n The 2 digit subtraction with some regrouping a math worksheet from a5bc92f176c223121f2bc023ce4 Fresh 3 digit subtraction with regrouping fun worksheet math worksheets addition and collection of printable s 2nd grade math worksheets subtraction without regrouping printable with 2 digits work Math subtraction sheets column 2 digits no regrouping 1 worksheet generator with 40f8808b35198bd5b034ecadadd Three digit subtraction worksheets math with borrowing threedigitsubtractionwithoutregro Subtraction with regrouping worksheet video 2nd grade math worksheets borrowing maxresde 2 digit minus subtraction with no regrouping a math worksheet generator subtraction 0202 no regrouping 00 Two digit minus one subtraction with all regrouping a math worksheets 3 digits subtraction 2d 1d regrouping 00 2nd grade math worksheets subtraction match worksheet mental to generator with regrouping second digit
Indonesia Cotton Fabric – Making Process – Places Cotton is a natural plant fiber from cotton seeds. The fibers used in the textile industry are the starting point of the production chain. Cotton fibers are obtained from cotton plants and then woven into threads. The woven cotton yarn or knit is then converted into cloth. The use of cotton has a long tradition in the clothing industry because of its desired characteristics. Fabrics made from these fibers can absorb water and are known to have long endurance. Cotton is a fine fiber that encapsulates the seeds of several species of Gossypium bushes originating from the tropics and subtropics area. Cotton fiber becomes an important material in the textile industry. The fiber can be spun into yarn and woven into cloth. Textile products of cotton fibers commonly referred to as cotton and consumers continue to buy cotton products in bulk because they prefer light and comfortable quality. Many products are made of cotton, including bath towels, clothes, pants, or even socks. Cotton fibers are a valuable product because only about 10% of the gross product weight is lost in processing. When fat, protein, wax, and other residues are removed, the rest is a pure and natural cellulose polymer. Cellulose is arranged in such a way as to provide cotton strength, durability, and the absorption of a unique but favored fabric. Textiles made of cotton are warm in the cold and cool in the heat and also absorbs sweat. Types of Cotton Fabric Cotton is a fiber produced by a cotton plant called Gossypium hirsutism, this cotton plant has many species and it is estimated some 40 species spread all over the world from tropical to the subtropical area. While the most widely used for clothing production is cotton type of Gossypium hirsutism whose rate of usage reaches 90% of world cotton production Cotton works best if it’s a sterile cotton and free of any chemicals starting from planting, maintenance to harvesting and ready-to-use production on the market. The farmers should not try to use pesticides when treating the cotton trees, including cotton bleach when the cotton begins in production. The requirements for growing cotton is: - The fields are in lowland areas - The soil is fertile - The temperature between 21C – 26C - Lots of water availability especially when it grows and dries weather condition when the cotton starts to ripe. Some types of cotton have unique characteristics and function. However, there are 5 types of cotton grown commercially and are in high demands, namely: - Asiatic Cotton Cotton - Sea Island Cotton - Egyptian Cotton - Upland American Cotton, and - Prima American Cotton. Egyptian cotton, Pima cotton, and Upland cotton are the most widely traded cotton fibers on the market today. Egyptian cotton, Pima cotton, and Sea Island cotton are all derived from the same cotton plant, the Barbados Gossypium. Cotton plants are usually grown in spring and in good condition, this plant will generally appear on the ground within a week. The plant will then mature in about a month and a half, and then start flowering. Below will explain the process of making cotton. - Fruit/cotton flower (boll) that has been ripe is ready to be picked from the tree. Picking can be done manually or by machine. If picking manually, then the leaves will not be plucked and only picked the fruit that is really ripe. The types of cotton vary in each region, the fruit also varies in shape. - After picking from the tree, the cotton must be separated from the seeds. This process is commonly called ‘ginning’. In this process, the cotton is sucked into the tube to be inserted into the dryer to decrease the cotton moisture and the quality of the cotton fiber to becomes better. Then the cotton will go through a cleanser that cleans leaves, stalks, and seeds that are still attached to the cotton fibers. The cleaned cotton is compacted into a 1.5-meter ball that weighs up to 227 kg. The cotton bales are ready for further processing at the mills and then be woven into yarn or other cotton-processing products. - Cotton bales then reopened and put into picker machine. The solid cotton is loosened back with a bat, then through some grinding to get the feathers back up. It intended to remove the plant properties and make the fibers smoother and softer. This smooth cotton is commonly called a cloth. - The next process is called carding. Carding is a mechanical process for unblocking fibers and straightening them up so that the cotton are parallel to one another. This process can also be used to create combined textiles (blends). In this process, different types of fibers can be incorporated, such as cotton fibers mixed with silk fibers or used to combine several different fiber colors. - The next stage is combing. Combing is the process of separating the shorter fibers, so the resulting yarn will be stronger and better. Actually, this stage can be skipped, but if the producers want a better result then they should still go through this stage. Fiber that has been through the process of carding & combing will take the form of long strands commonly called sliver. - The next process is drawing or withdrawal phase. At this stage, some slivers are combined to produce a very thick cotton fiber band. This string is then called roving. Then the two twisted rovings that produce the weight are required for further processing into yarn. Furthermore, this merging and spinning produce the desired thickness for yarn size. The whole process above is generally referred to as spinning. In more detail, there are many other steps that can be added in this spinning process, in accordance with the quality (size, thickness, color) of the yarn to be produced. Then after all the process above has been completed then all the threads are ready to be sent to the textile company for further processing into clothes and other consumer items. Places of Indonesian Cotton Fabric The best places for producing cotton fabric in Indonesia is in East Sumba, East Nusa Tenggara. This place has the best cotton in Indonesia because the quality is good. It has more cotton production per hectare than cotton production in Java and Sumatra. Cotton production in East Sumba is 4.6 tons per hectare while in Java and Sumatera only 2 tons per hectare. The soil and climate quality in East Sumba are suitable for cotton development. Cotton Sumba is best because it is not easy to break the thread, so that it is easy to set, smoothened, clean and flexible and other character traits that are sent to Java to be furthered processed into textile raw materials in Indonesia. Other cotton plants in Indonesia are located in Palembang, Central Java (Semarang, Jepara, Rembang), East Java (Madiun, Madura), and Nusa Tenggara. Development in New Era For Indonesia alone, the largest cotton producing region is in South Sulawesi. Cotton from this province is mostly produced at 1,614 tons or 39.0% of the national production. Utilization of cotton is mostly used as raw material for textile industry. The raw material in the use of cotton is the cotton tree. But there is also a synthetic cotton used in the textile industry that is a mixture of polyester. For now, the textile industry faced obstacles is an increasingly rare cotton material, then they used synthetic materials with a percentage of polyester composition increased by more than 50%. The obstacles in increasing the cotton yield are that during harvest then the cotton field faces high rainfall probability as cotton plantations lose its quality when exposed to water and turned to mushroom and greenish color. Achievement of Indonesian Cotton Product Indonesia apparently has to import 100 percent of its cotton requirement which is the raw material of textile products. The largest cotton imported are from Australia. Indonesia has not been able to optimally produce cotton, although textile is the largest non-oil exports. Indonesia has actually tried to reduce the dependence on cotton imports by cultivating cotton in South Sulawesi. Unfortunately, the government’s move through the Ministry of Agriculture to produce cotton in South Sulawesi is still facing obstacles. The problem is about climate unpredictability and technological limitations. As a result, production only reaches 0.01 percent of the demand per year to reach 700 thousand tons. Currently, cotton is widely used for underwear and socks, because of its good ability to absorb sweat. Actually, in Indonesia, the cotton tree can grow, but the quality is not good because there are characteristics of cotton that should not be exposed to water during the riping process. In Indonesia, it is difficult because the rain is hard to predict. Meanwhile, the demand for cotton as a national textile raw material is currently not increasing because they are replaced by polyester and nylon whose price tends to be cheaper. Manufacturers are also more inclined to mix cotton and polyester as textile raw materials to achieve better economic value and disregarding comfortability.
This Teaching set explains how the events in Genesis and Exodus foreshadow the course of Biblical and modern history. The events associated with Adam and Eve, Noah, Abraham and Isaac foreshadows the exile of the nation of Israrel into the nations and their redemption through the Messiah. The conflict between Jacob and Esau foreshadows the events of the tribulation or Jacob's trouble. Joseph's separation from his brothers foreshadow the split of the house of Jacob into Northern Kingdom and Southern Kingdom and there eventual reunification.The judgments upon Egypt foreshadows the judgment upon the nations during the tribulation period. The two signs of Moses foreshadow the death and resurrection of the Messiah The events of the historical Egyptian exodus foreshadows the tribulation, judgment of the nations, and the redemption of Ephraim and Judah.
The Tongariro National Park has had a violent past and was formed by multitude of eruptions from at least six different cones. The oldest lava started flowing about 275,000 years ago, near what is now the Tama Lakes on the southern flanks of Mt Ngauruhoe. The eruptions continued until the Ice Age, as the ice retreated, it carved out valleys clearly visible in the lower Mangatepopo valley, on the Tongariro Alpine Crossing and into Oturere valleys on the Northern Circuit. Red Crater and Mt Ngauruhoe are the most recently formed features on the Tongariro Alpine Crossing with Red Crater formed about 3000 years ago. It lies within a scoria cone which rests on top of the older Tongariro lava flows. The red colour is due to the presence of oxidised iron in the rock. The volcanic activity from Red Crater was reported between 1855 and 1890. The dike on the Southern Wall has been exposed by erosion; lava would have flowed through this dike and poured into the Oturere Valley. Mt Ngauruhoe is the youngest volcano in the area having begun to form about 2,500 years ago. It is the most active vent in the Tongariro area with its last eruption recorded in 1975. The most recent flows from Mt Ngauruhoe are easily visible on the way to South Crater. The Te Maari crater on the northern flank of Tongariro and is not on the Tongariro Crossing but is 1.5 kilometres from the Ketetahi Hut last erupted on the 6th of August 2012.
An algal bloom is a relatively rapid increase in the population of (usually) phytoplankton algae in an aquatic system. Algal blooms can occur in coastal and marine waters as well as freshwater environments. Typically only one or a few species are involved. Although there is no officially recognized threshold level, algae can be considered to be blooming at concentrations of hundreds to thousands of cells per milliliter, though concentrations may reach millions of cells per milliliter. Algal blooms are often linked to eutrophication, a condition of water systems characterised by excessive concentrations of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. Algal blooms are a problem for water environments because they often lead to conditions of low oxygen concentration after the phytoplankton die and begin decomposing. Algal blooms of certain specific species are considered to be Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) - Algae (definition) - Harmful algal blooms (definition) - Eutrophication (definition) - Real-time algae monitoring - Eutrophication in coastal environments - Lincoln R., Boxshall G. and Clark P. (1998). A Dictionary of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics (2nd Ed). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, (England). 361pp.
Renaissance music is music written in Europe during the Renaissance. Consensus among music historians–with notable dissent–has been to start the era around 1400, with the end of the medieval era, and to close it around 1600, with the beginning of the baroque period, therefore commencing the musical Renaissance about a hundred years after the beginning of the Renaissance as understood in other disciplines. As in the other arts, the music of the period was significantly influenced by the developments which define the early modern period: the rise of humanistic thought; the recovery of the literary and artistic heritage of ancient Greece and Rome; increased innovation and discovery; the growth of commercial enterprise; the rise of a bourgeois class; and the Protestant Reformation. From this changing society emerged a common, unifying musical language, in particular the polyphonic style of the Franco-Flemish school. The invention of the Gutenberg press made distribution of music and musical theory possible on a wide scale. Demand for music as entertainment and as an activity for educated amateurs increased with the emergence of a bourgeois class. Dissemination of chansons, motets, and masses throughout Europe coincided with the unification of polyphonic practice into the fluid style which culminated in the second half of the sixteenth century in the work of composers such as Palestrina, Lassus, Victoria and William Byrd. Relative political stability and prosperity in the Low Countries, along with a flourishing system of music education in the area’s many churches and cathedrals, allowed the training of hundreds of singers and composers. These musicians were highly sought throughout Europe, particularly in Italy, where churches and aristocratic courts hired them as composers and teachers. By the end of the sixteenth century, Italy had absorbed the northern influences, with Venice, Rome, and other cities being centers of musical activity, reversing the situation from a hundred years earlier. Opera arose at this time in Florence as a deliberate attempt to resurrect the music of ancient Greece. Music, increasingly freed from medieval constraints, in range, rhythm, harmony, form, and notation, became a vehicle for new personal expression. Composers found ways to make music expressive of the texts they were setting. Secular music absorbed techniques from sacred music, and vice versa. Popular secular forms such as the chanson and madrigal spread throughout Europe. Courts employed virtuoso performers, both singers and instrumentalists. Music also became more self-sufficient with its availability in printed form, existing for its own sake. Many familiar modern instruments (including the violin, guitar, lute and keyboard instruments), developed into new forms during the Renaissance responding to the evolution of musical ideas, presenting further possibilities for composers and musicians to explore. Modern woodwind and brass instruments like the bassoon and trombone also appeared; extending the range of sonic color and power. During the fifteenth century the sound of full triads became common, and towards the end of the sixteenth-century the system of church modes began to break down entirely, giving way to the functional tonality which was to dominate western art music for the next three centuries. From the Renaissance era both secular and sacred music survives in quantity, and both vocal and instrumental. An enormous diversity of musical styles and genres flourished during the Renaissance, and can be heard on commercial recordings in the twenty-first century, including masses, motets, madrigals, chansons, accompanied songs, instrumental dances, and many others. Numerous early music ensembles specializing in music of the period give concert tours and make recordings, using a wide range of interpretive styles. One of the most pronounced features of early Renaissance European art music was the increasing reliance on the interval of the third (in the Middle Ages, thirds had been considered dissonances). Polyphony became increasingly elaborate throughout the fourteenth century, with highly independent voices: the beginning of the fifteenth century showed simplification, with the voices often striving for smoothness. This was possible because of a greatly increased vocal range in music–in the Middle Ages, the narrow range made necessary frequent crossing of parts, thus requiring a greater contrast between them. The modal (as opposed to tonal) characteristics of Renaissance music began to break down towards the end of the period with the increased use of root motions of fifths. This later developed into one of the defining characteristics of tonality. The main characteristics of Renaissance music are the following: - Music based on modes - Richer texture in four or more parts - Blending rather than contrasting strands in the musical texture - Harmony with a greater concern with the flow and progression of chords Polyphony is one of the notable changes that mark the Renaissance from the Middle Ages musically. Its use encouraged the use of larger ensembles and demanded sets of instruments that would blend together across the whole vocal range. Principal liturgical forms which endured throughout the entire Renaissance period were masses and motets, with some other developments towards the end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular forms (such as the madrigal) for their own designs. Common sacred genres were the mass, the motet, the madrigale spirituale, and the laude. During the period, secular music had an increasing distribution, with a wide variety of forms, but one must be cautious about assuming an explosion in variety: since printing made music more widely available, much more has survived from this era than from the preceding medieval era, and probably a rich store of popular music of the late Middle Ages is irretrievably lost. Secular music was music that was independent of churches. The main types were the German Lied, Italian frottola, the French chanson, the Italian madrigal, and the Spanish villancico. Other secular vocal genres included the caccia, rondeau, virelai, bergerette, ballade, musique mesurée, canzonetta, villanella, villotta, and the lute song. Mixed forms such as the motet-chanson and the secular motet also appeared. Purely instrumental music included consort music for recorder or viol and other instruments, and dances for various ensembles. Common instrumental genres were the toccata, prelude, ricercar, and canzona. Dances played by Instrumental ensembles included the basse danse, tourdion, saltarello, pavane, galliard, allemande, courante, bransle, canarie, and lavolta. Music of many genres could be arranged for a solo instrument such as the lute, vihuela, harp, or keyboard. Such arrangements were called intabulations. Towards the end of the period, the early dramatic precursors of opera such as monody, the madrigal comedy, and the intermedio are seen. Theory and Notation According to Margaret Bent, “Renaissance notation is underprescriptive by our standards; when translated into modern form it acquires a prescriptive weight that overspecifies and distorts its original openness.” These different permutations were called “perfect/imperfect tempus” at the level of the breve–semibreve relationship, “perfect/imperfect prolation” at the level of the semibreve–minim, and existed in all possible combinations with each other. Three-to-one was called “perfect,” and two-to-one “imperfect.” Rules existed also whereby single notes could be halved or doubled in value (“imperfected” or “altered,” respectively) when preceded or followed by other certain notes. Notes with black noteheads (such as quarter notes) occurred less often. This development of white mensural notation may be a result of the increased use of paper (rather than vellum), as the weaker paper was less able to withstand the scratching required to fill in solid noteheads; notation of previous times, written on vellum, had been black. Other colors, and later, filled-in notes, were used routinely as well, mainly to enforce the aforementioned imperfections or alterations and to call for other temporary rhythmical changes. Accidentals were not always specified, somewhat as in certain fingering notations (tablatures) today. However, Renaissance musicians would have been highly trained in dyadic counterpoint and thus possessed this and other information necessary to read a score, “what modern notation requires [accidentals] would then have been perfectly apparent without notation to a singer versed in counterpoint.” A singer would interpret his or her part by figuring cadential formulas with other parts in mind, and when singing together musicians would avoid parallel octaves and fifths or alter their cadential parts in light of decisions by other musicians. It is through contemporary tablatures for various plucked instruments that we have gained much information about what accidentals were performed by the original practitioners. For information on specific theorists, see Johannes Tinctoris, Franchinus Gaffurius, Heinrich Glarean, Pietro Aron, Nicola Vicentino, Tomás de Santa María, Gioseffo Zarlino, Vicente Lusitano, Vincenzo Galilei, Giovanni Artusi, Johannes Nucius, and Pietro Cerone.
The kidneys are vital organs that filter toxins and other waste products from your blood, produce urine and hormones, and maintain levels of minerals in your bloodstream. Keeping them healthy is very important as kidney disease can have a devastating impact on your wellbeing. The kidneys filter roughly 200 litres of blood everyday, removing toxins, wastes and water from your body in the process. Kidney health is quite closely linked with lifestyle factors such diet and weight, so it important to watch what you eat and drink, to exercise regularly and to get regular checkups from your doctor to help protect your kidneys. Here are 6 helpful tips to keep your kidneys as healthy as possible at every stage of life, and to reduce the risk of chronic kidney disease. It is a rule of thumb that you should drink 2 to 3 litres of water every day to stay in good health. Maintaining a healthy intake of fluids helps the kidneys clear toxins from the body, and is believed to significantly reduce the risk of kidney disease. However, too much water, or “aggressive fluid intake” can cause side effects and is discouraged. The best way to keep an eye on your hydration is to examine the colour of your pee when you urinate: pale yellow or clear is fine, while a darker yellow means you should drink more. Also, stick to water! Stay away from sugary drinks like juice and sodas, and tea and coffee. Your kidneys have to work harder to filter toxins from these fluids. While high blood pressure is often associated with heart disease and stroke, it is also the most common cause of kidney damage. The kidneys are vascular organs, meaning they contain many blood vessels, and even slightly elevated blood pressure can damage them. It is important to have your blood pressure checked regularly by your doctor to help protect your kidneys! Keeping fit by exercising every other day helps reduce blood pressure and therefore reduces the risk of kidney disease. It is believed that obesity is closely linked to kidney related problems too, so if you are overweight, adjust your exercise levels accordingly. Aim for at least 30 minutes of moderate exercise, such as walking, cycling or swimming, five times a week. Your diet impacts your entire body, and eating healthy foods can help prevent high blood sugar, high blood pressure, and other conditions associated with kidney disease. Eat plenty of fruits and vegetables, and reduce your salt intake by eating less processed and takeaway foods. A balanced diet is the most kidney-friendly. Smoking can have a devastating impact on your kidney health for three reasons: it can damage blood vessels, which decreases the flow of blood in the kidneys, and without adequate blood flow their function decreases; it can also contribute to high blood pressure and significantly increase the risk of kidney cancer. It is also important to limit your alcohol intake to a maximum of two standard drinks per day for men and one for women. Excess consumption of alcohol can contribute to high blood pressure. Some common non-prescription medication, such as ibuprofen, can cause kidney damage if taken regularly and for a prolonged period of time. If they are taken occasionally to manage pain, such a period pain or headaches, and your kidneys are healthy, they shouldn’t pose a risk. But if they are taken regularly to manage chronic pain or a condition. You should discuss kidney health with your doctor. If you have any further questions about kidney health, and would like to book an appointment, please feel free to call. Dr Arianayagam is one of the most respected urologists in Sydney, and is a one of the top urological surgeons in Sydney. Bladder stones can be very painful. While they aren’t as common as kidney stones, they do occur. Here’s an overview…
When did humans leave Africa? Once, archaeologists believed that Homo sapiens journeyed from this origin point and outwards to Europe and Asia about 60,000 years ago. But that tidy story no longer holds up. As evidence accumulates that the history of human origins and development was much messier, with H. sapiens overlapping and interbreeding with other hominins, the concept of a single great migration from Africa is also losing ground. In a new paper, published in Science, an international team of researchers, led by Israel Herskovitz of Tel Aviv University, offers new evidence that H. sapiens left Africa tens of thousands of years earlier than scientists once thought. The researchers identify a jawbone, found in the collapsed Mislaya cave in Israel’s Mount Carmel, as a H. sapiens fossil, exhibiting the characteristics of modern humans. They date this fossil to between 177,000 to 194,000 years, making it the earliest fossil of a modern human found outside of Africa. The group of prehistoric caves on Mount Carmel was discovered decades ago, and twentieth-century excavations turned up ancient human remains, dated to around 90,000 years ago, in Skhūl cave. The roof of the Mislaya Cave, though, had collapsed in prehistoric times, and excavations that yielded this new discovery did not start until 2001. The jawbone described in the study was uncovered in 2002, but “only later did we appreciate the full importance of the find,” says Herskovitz. In the paper, Herskovitz and his colleagues present their analysis of the skull fragment, arguing that this long-dead hominin should be grouped with modern humans. Assessing the shape of the jawbone, the teeth, and the parts of the palate and nasal floor that survived, they find that the bones share characteristics with modern humans (although they note that some of these features do appear “occasionally” in other early hominins). In the same issue of Science, Chris Stringer and Julia Galway-Witham of the Natural History Museum London, agree with this assessment. “The size and shape of the specimen fall within the known range of variation of later H. sapiens fossils,” they write. In some ways, this discovery does not come as a complete surprise. Last year, scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology published their discovery of fossils in Morocco that dated back roughly 300,000 years and had features that were akin to those of modern humans. Genetic evidence, as well, has indicated that humans may have left Africa even before the time of the Mislaya individual. Increasingly, the idea that there was one migration out of Africa has come into question; instead, it seems possible that groups of H. sapiens left the continent at different times, traveling out in the world and continuing to exchange genetic materials with other hominins. “The history of our species is longer and probably more complicated than scientists had previously believed,” says Hershkovitz. We’re only just beginning to understand that full story of who we are and how we came to populate this entire planet.
Animals Off Display How We Keep Track Games & Videos Jobs & Careers Meet our Zoo Partners Sample your Product Regions > Eurasia > Wisent (European bison) Wisent (European bison) Location at the Zoo: Eurasia Region: Northern Europe Scientific Name: Bison bonasus bonasus The wisent is a massive ox-like animal with distinct hump-like shoulders and a short neck. The forehead is broad and flanked by two short upcurving sharp horns. Both sexes have horns. They usually have a beard on their chin. In comparison with the North American bison, the European bison has longer legs, greater body length, and a smaller head which is carried much higher. On the average males are larger than females. Head and body length: 2.1 - 3.5 m Tail length: 0.3 - 0.6 m Height at shoulder: 2.6 - 2.8 m Weight: 450 - 1,350 kg The reintroduced population now inhabits parts of Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, and the Russian Federation. Mixed forests with access to wet areas. Browse on ferns, leaves and bark, lichen and graze on grasses. Reproduction and Development : There is no harem master who monopolizes sexual activities. The bulls fight each other during the mating season (July - September). The gestation period is about nine months and the cow is solitary when the calf is born. After 4 - 5 days when the calf is able to stand, they join the herd. The young calf is reddish brown in colour. The calf is protected by the bull, the cow, and frequently the whole herd. Nursing takes place for about a year and the calf stays with the mother until it is about three years old. At that time it becomes sexually mature and ready to mate. The Wisent is sexually mature at about 3 years. The female is physically mature at 4 years and the male at 6 years. The life span is 18 - 40years. Although gregarious, the herds usually numbered less than 30 individuals. Solitary bulls were quite common. Like the American bison, the wisent had good sense of smell, but weak eyesight. It is altogether a wilder and more wary animal. They graze mostly in early morning and early evening. Much of the day is spent ruminating or chewing cuds of grass that was eaten earlier. In time of danger the herd will form a circle of adults facing outward, while the young are kept inside. This method of defense works with all predators except man. Unlike the American Bison, the Wisent had little seasonal migrations. Threats to Survival : Wisent habitat is threatened by "development" by humans. Young animals may be killed by wolves or lynx. Several diseases also take a toll on the population. Zoo Diet : Herbivore ruminant cubes, timothy hay, alfalfa, salt blocks with cobalt, iodide and trace minerals are available at all times. Browse when available.
While strands of DNA may be able to pick fights with other strands, one thing that they can't do yet is play computer games -- that is, until now. In what appears to be an early proof-of-concept for DNA computing, scientists at Columbia University and the University of New Mexico have created a basic computer, called the MAYA-II, which has a molecular array of YES and AND logic gates made up of 100 DNA circuits. This allows the MAYA-II to play a complete game of Tic-Tac-Toe against a human opponent, and apparently nearly always win. However, this isn't exactly a fair test, given that the MAYA-II always goes first, and always opens with the center square. Still, even though each move takes 30 minutes to complete, the lead researcher on the project, Dr. Joanna Macdonald of Columbia, says that a DNA computer would be perfect for injection into human subjects to combat disease, because in theory, it would be able to "diagnose and kill cancerous cells or monitor and treat diabetes by dispensing insulin when needed." Useful applications aside, we're ready to take on the MAYA-II in Connect Four whenever Dr. Macdonald thinks it's ready.
Learning the English Alphabet with images and words lesson What will I be learning from the lesson learning the English alphabet with words and images? During this English lesson you will start learning the English alphabet using pictures and words. you will learn every letter of the alphabet and how to say each letter. Images and words are also used to help you understand each letter and learn a word for each letter. Learning the English alphabet using pictures The video below shows all 26 letters of the English alphabet. Every letter of the alphabet has a word beginning with the letter and an image of the word. To use any of the Alphabet videos click on the play button on or any were on the video itself. Small letters:- a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Capital letters:- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A E I O U There are 5 Vowels in the English alphabet 21 Consonants in the English alphabet B C D F G H J K L M N P Q R S T V W X Y Z Learning how to say the letters of the English alphabet This video shows am image, letter, word and how to say the letter How do I use the video? To start click on play and then use the arrow keys to click on the next slide or previous slide. Lessons that are related to this one To view a lesson just click on the link. Easy pace Learning on-line dictionary and how to use dictionaries Click on the following link for the On line English dictionary - English lesson Easy Pace Learning Forum If you are struggling with a lesson or an exercise post a question we will try and help you or post your answers and let others compare with what you have
National Nutrition Week has ended on the 2nd week of September. Before we can wrap up our series on Nutrition, we would like to talk about ten healthy eating habits that must be inculcated among children. Dictionaries define nutrition as “the process of providing or obtaining the food necessary for health and growth.” Unfortunately obtaining food for health and nutrition worldwide has proved to be tougher challenge than it was perceived. Providing healthy food for children is a concern that transcends geographical boundaries. Fresh and healthy food is a basic right of every child, and there is a need to make sure that they get it every day. 1. Balanced diet Children need to be taught early that nothing is tastier than a complete nutritious meal. One of the objectives of mid-day meal at Akshaya Patra is to provide a balanced diet to the children as a healthy eating habit. 2. Praying before eating We count it as a healthy eating habit. Akshaya Patra wishes to educate children apart from feeding them. One of our practices is to ensure that the children say their prayers before starting to eat food. This helps them realise the value of food and that they should be thankful to the Almighty for providing them with food. 3. Eating together Families must eat together at home and friends must have lunch together at school. There’s nothing more joyous than enjoying a great meal together, discussing about taste and favourite foods. At Akshaya Patra, eating together fulfills our objective of supplying mid-day meal in a healthy environment. 4. Eating slowly It’s vital to have the habit of eating slowly as it helps in controlling weight. This ensures that they chew their food properly leading to better digestion. Eating fast causes obesity. Studies have shown that nearly 60 percent of overweight children aged 5 to 17 had at least one risk factor for cardiovascular disease and 25 percent had two or more. Also, obese kids have an 80 percent chance of staying obese their entire lives. 5. Attractive foods Another healthy eating habit is to include colourful foods, vegetables and fruits in children’s meals. This encourages children to enjoy food and look forward to meals. At Akshaya Patra, we prepare a variety of food for children to ensure that they really enjoy the experience of having mid-day meal at school. 6. Water instead of concentrated drinks In modern day meals, we have got into the habit of consuming concentrated juices or cold drinks or soda instead of water. While fresh juices do have some merit, most preserved juices have more calories than we know. But water should be the choice during meals for children since it boosts immune system and digestion. 7. Learning when to stop Another healthy food habit is knowing when your stomach is full. Toddlers and younger kids find it hard to understand the signals that their stomach sends to their brain. Children should be taught signs of fullness clearly from the time they learn to eat their own food. 8. Healthier snacks Today, there are several varieties of snacks available for children, many of which are not healthy. Snacks such as fried foods, packaged foods, noodles, potato chips etc are readily available but are far from healthy. As a healthy eating habit, children must be taught to consume fruits, juices, nuts etc. as alternative snacks. 9. Less sugar and salt At Akshaya Patra, the amount of sugar and sweets is an important parameter of a nutritious diet. While we always send extra salts with our transport vans, we teach the children to avoid using too much salt and sugar in their meals. Salt and sugar are the leading causes of heart-related diseases as adults and must be cut down right from the childhood. 10. Discouraging eating meals before TV Eating dinner or lunch before television is a common practice among modern families. However, this kills the joy of eating and distracts children from truly savouring their meals. Children often complain of hunger afterwards if they have consumed their meals while watching TV. There are millions of children still who don’t get healthy food. They need to be reached and fed. We encourage you to donate to NGO towards unlimited food for education so that we are able to take our mid-day meals to more and more children.
In the Yunnan Province of China, paleobiologists have found evidence for exactly how certain fossils were preserved in the Early Cambrian, around 525 million years ago. This preservation process may shed light on what the worms and other animals captured in the Chengjiang formation were made of, with the promise of determining more details about many early life forms, including some of the earliest ancestors to present-day vertebrates. Soft tissues from this worm from the Early Cambrian, about 525 million years ago, were preserved in the Chengjiang formation in China, replaced by tiny crystals of pyrite. The preservation process provides a rare look at early life forms that are related to present-day vertebrates and other animals. Copyright: Derek Siveter. The soft tissues of Chengjiang worms, arthropods and other creatures were replaced by pyrite very quickly after the animals died. Now the Chengjiang site is one of a few major deposits in the world that contain well-preserved fossils from the Cambrian explosion, a period when the diversity of life increased rapidly. The best known of these deposits is the Burgess Shale, in which the soft tissues of fossils were preserved in fine detail by clay mineralization, and which have influenced thought on Cambrian species diversification for decades. But lately, fossils from the older Chengjiang which includes organisms also in the Burgess have become a major part of the discussion. Sarah Gabbott of the University of Leicester and her co-workers, publishing in the October Geology, used scanning electron microscope imaging and chemical mapping to elucidate the different forms of pyrite that replaced some of the Chengjiang fossils. The researchers found three shapes of pyrite crystals, seemingly separated by tissue type: framboids (tiny raspberry-shaped crystals), octahedra and cubes. For example, in several worm specimens, they found that raspberry-shaped crystals seemed to replace the outermost soft tissues, but octahedra replaced the hardened plates on the animals. The shape differences may indicate the speed of tissue decay and environmental conditions, Gabbott says. In this case, the environment in the Chengjiang had the right mix of iron-bearing water in the sediments and hydrogen sulfide from rotting carcasses. Different bacteria broke down the animal tissues and freed up the iron to make it available to form pyrite on the animals decaying surfaces. Its all about getting the right ingredients together in the right place at the right time, Gabbott says, comparing the process to cooking. The faster you supply your ingredients, the more little [pyrite] nuclei form, and the more likely you are to get little raspberries, she says, which formed on very soft outer tissues that were likely to decay very quickly. More durable soft tissues that decay more slowly leave time for pyrite to grow in more regular forms, she says, such as octahedra or cubes. The comparison of the pyrite crystals forms can help researchers understand a little bit more of what the animal is like, she says. Carlton Brett, an invertebrate paleontologist at the University of Cincinnati, says that few researchers have considered why these animals were preserved at all and why such accumulations do not commonly occur later in geologic time. Such deposits dont occur very frequently after the Cambrian, Brett says, perhaps because of other environmental factors, such as burrowing by animals that disturbs pyrite crystallization. Gabbott and her team have greatly improved our understanding of these processes. If we understand how the preservation occurred, we have a much better chance of actually targeting settings for these types of fossils, says Derek Briggs, a paleobiologist at Yale University in New Haven, Conn., who specializes in the Cambrian. Also, he says, the fast mineralization of soft tissues saved a wealth of information about these creatures, which is especially important when you are dealing with animals that dont have any close living relatives. The Chengjiang site is particularly important because it provides insight into the earliest stages of evolution of multi-celled creatures, including early offshoots of the lineage leading to vertebrates, Briggs says. The Chengjiang holds more information about vertebrate species than the Burgess Shale, which, he says, adds a certain amount of excitement to discoveries from the deposits. Back to top
The Autism Epidemic and How to Stop It We are facing an autism epidemic in which one out of two American children born in 2025 will suffer the devastating health consequences of autism. MIT research scientist Stephanie Seneff makes this prediction based on the current rapid growth rate of autism in this country. This growth pattern cannot be explained away by changes in genetics. Autism has been causally linked to vaccinations, based on research, parental reports and court case rulings. Scientist Seneff also links autism with the growth of the dangerous herbicide glyphosate, widely used on crops. The best way to end this movement towards a national health disaster is to change the views of parents regarding the safety and effectiveness of vaccinations targeting their children. Research has clearly linked vaccines to autism, in spite of repeated denials by government and health institutions to the contrary. Statistics on Autism According to statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), one out of 68 children suffered from autism in the year 2012. In the year 2000, one in 150 children suffered from autism. Individuals identified with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) suffer from significant problems in the areas of social, emotional and communication skills, which can cause serious problems in their daily functioning The following symptoms are common: - not point at objects to show interest (for example, not point at an airplane flying over) - not look at objects when another person points at them - have trouble relating to others or not have an interest in other people at all - avoid eye contact and want to be alone - have trouble understanding other people’s feelings or talking about their own feelings - prefer not to be held or cuddled, or might cuddle only when they want to - appear to be unaware when people talk to them, but respond to other sounds - be very interested in people, but not know how to talk, play, or relate to them - repeat or echo words or phrases said to them, or repeat words or phrases in place of normal language - have trouble expressing their needs using typical words or motions - not play “pretend” games (for example, not pretend to “feed” a doll) - repeat actions over and over again - have trouble adapting when a routine changes - have unusual reactions to the way things smell, taste, look, feel, or sound - lose skills they once had (for example, stop saying words they were using) Vaccinations Linked to Autism There is a strong causal link between the MMR vaccination and autism. Parental reports, court verdicts, animal studies and human research points to this correlation. Other studies comparing vaccinated to unvaccinated children also conclude that vaccines are a leading cause of autism. In several comparative studies involving thousands of children, autism was non-existent in children who were not vaccinated. Glyphosate’s Role in Neurological Damage Research scientist Seneff maintains that vaccinations containing toxic mercury, aluminum, and glutamate are a major contributing cause to autism. Seneff also correlates the rising use of glyphosate, a herbicide used in Roundup on crops, with neurological damage. Seneff reports the following: “What I think people don’t appreciate is that the vaccines and the glyphosate are synergistically toxic. The glyphosate is making the chemicals in the vaccines much more dangerous to the children than they would otherwise be. As I said, the glutamate is very interesting because glyphosate disrupts the body’s ability to metabolize glutamate, so the glutamate becomes toxic and gets into the brain.” Pain and Costs of Autism The greatest cost, which can have no price tag attached, is that of human suffering for those struggling to live with autism. Parents describe extraordinary pain and discomfort for those diagnosed. The emotional turmoil experienced by parents, who struggle to provide comfort to those they love, can also not be captured by any measures. From an economic stance, the total cost per year for children with autism spectrum disorder in the United States in 2011 was estimated to be $60.9 billion. These costs include medical care, special education and lost parental productivity. Intensive behavioral interventions for children with ASD average $40,000-$60,000 per year. The Canary in the Mine Several organizations started by parent activists are sounding the alarm on the autism epidemic and its link to vaccinations. Several brave physicians and scientists have also spoken out about vaccines’ dangers. These include: Andrew Wakefield, MD; Boyd Haley, PhD; Frank Engley, MD; Mayer Eisenstein, MD; Richard Haverson MD; Bob Sears, MD; Julie Buckley, MD; Chris Shaw, PhD; David Berger, MD; Toni Bark, MD; Ken Stoller, MD; Michael Schachter, MD; Mitchell Fleisher, MD; and Kelly Brogan, MD. The Hope for our Children’s Future The best way to avoid this autism epidemic is to change our views on vaccinations. Vaccinations are not the mythological giant responsible for eradicating horrible diseases. Improvements in sanitation are largely responsible for elimination and decrease in diseases. More parents are becoming educated on vaccine dangers and opting out of this barbaric practice. With more parents opting out, there is hope to stop the train wreck of autism rates from continuing to grow. Likewise, many are recognizing the importance of clean, pesticide free food. Scientist Seneff has discussed the toxic synergy of vaccines with the pesticide glyphosate. Avoiding pesticide-laden food may also decrease the danger of vaccinations. Americans are demanding cleaner, organic food and farmers and grocers are responding to this demand. Be the change that we so desperately need for the future of tomorrow’s children. Refuse vaccinations for your children and say no to dangerous glyphosate in foods.
The speed of light (299,790 km/sec) is very fast, but finite. For any phenomenon on the Earth's surface, the distances are small enough that light signals appear instantaneous. However, the distances in space are vast. And, in particular, the distance between galaxies are measured in hundreds of millions of light-years. Thus, the time for light to travel from distance galaxies is on the order of hundreds of millions of years up to billions of years for the most distant objects. This effect can be of an advantage to astronomers. The more distant an object, the farther in its past we are observing its light. Combined with the cosmological principle, the fact that the Universe is homogeneous at all points and all times, then the finite speed of light means that observation so distant galaxies are equivalent to lookback time. Lookback time is what makes the subfield of galaxy evolution possible, the ability to study the changes in galaxies with time by observing them at various distances means equals different epochs. Excerpt from the Encyclopedia Britannica without permission.
Magnetic flow meters are increasingly taking the place of traditional mechanical flow meter designs. While they both measure the flow of a liquid in a pipe, they do so in different ways. The most common mechanical flow meters are inserted into a pipe and use a turbine, wheel or paddle to measure velocity and then calculate volumetric flow by knowing the cross section area of the pipe in which they are installed. The most common type of the above listed mechanical flow meters utilizes a turbine that rotates as the flow of water applies a force to the blades. The rotation of the turbine is proportional to the velocity of the fluid moving past it. Once the velocity is known, the flow can be calculated. Other mechanical meters use the same basic mechanical principles to measure flow. They operate most effectively when used in a full pipe and in an area with stable flow and little-to-no turbulence. Mechanical flow meters will operate in all types of liquids, but are prone to clogging and deteriorating performance due to solids accumulating on the turbine blades. They also obstruct a portion of the flow and require regular maintenance of the gears and moving parts. Magnetic flow meters calculate the velocity of a moving substance using Faraday’s Law. The meter body consists of a coil system, which is external to the process, but encapsulated in the meter body wrapping around the outside of the internal pipe wall, and operate by creating a magnetic field across the section of pipe. As the fluidflows through the magnetic field, conductive particles in the fluid create changes in voltage across the magnetic field. This variation can be measured and used to calculate the velocity of the material flowing through the pipe. Like mechanical flow meters, magnetic flow meters operate effectively only if the pipe is full and in areas where the flow pattern is stable. Magnetic flow meters are effective when used with any concentration of wastewater and with other water-based liquids. However, magnetic flow meters are not designed for use in distilled water, oil and other hydrocarbons, and most non-water based substances. Magnetic flow meters are superior to mechanical flow meters because they don’t impede flow, don’t become clogged with solids and have no moving parts to maintain or replace.
During the 1960s, as U.S. commitments abroad drew gold reserves from the nation, confidence in the dollar weakened, leading some dollar-holding countries and speculators to seek exchange of their dollars for gold. A severe drain on U.S. gold reserves developed and, in order to correct the situation, the so-called two-tier system was created in 1968. In the official tier, consisting of central bank gold traders, the value of gold was set at $35 an ounce, and gold payments to noncentral bankers were prohibited. In the free-market tier, consisting of all nongovernmental gold traders, gold was completely demonetized, with its price set by supply and demand. Gold and the U.S. dollar remained the major reserve assets for the world's central banks, although Special Drawing Rights were created in the late 1960s as a new reserve currency. Despite such measures, the drain on U.S. gold reserves continued into the 1970s, and in 1971 the United States was forced to abandon gold convertibility, leaving the world without a single, unified international monetary system. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
Here is something that none of us probably think about. If the language you speak does not accommodate words for certain areas of human culture it may change the way you see the world. In one interesting example a language that had no number words made it hard for its speakers to count accurately. Although number words and counting are a fixture of life in most cultures from the time we are old enough to play hide-and-go-seek, some languages have only a handful of number words. In a paper published in 2008, MIT cognitive neuroscientist Michael Frank and colleagues demonstrated that Pirahã, a language spoken by a small Amazonian community, has no number words at all. The research team simply asked Pirahã speakers to count different numbers of batteries, nuts and other common objects. Rather than having a word consistently used to describe "one X" a different word for "two Xs" and yet another word for "three Xs," the Pirahã used hói to describe a small number of objects, hoí to describe a slightly larger number, and baágiso for an even larger number. Basically, these words mean "around one," "some" and "many."
Nurses give a lot of vaccines. But they also need vaccines! By the nature of their work, nurses come into contact with many infectious diseases, the most notable of which is influenza. Vaccination is an important way to stay protected from contracting a disease at work. But vaccination can also protect the nurse's patients and family. While at work, a nurse may unknowingly pass a disease on to the patient, especially when critically ill or the most vulnerable, such as newborns. In addition, if a nurse contracts an illness from work, he or she can pass it on to her family members. Don't risk it - be vaccinated. Being vaccinated against all diseases, from measles to influenza to whooping cough, can prevent the transmission of disease and protect nurses, their patients, and their families! - Seasonal Influenza - get your influenza vaccine every fall! - Tetanus, Diptheria, and Pertussis (Tdap) - especially for nurses working with newborn or compromised infants - Measles, Mumps, and Rubella - Hepatitis B Use these resources to help educate and advise patients and their families. Humanitarian and Military Recommendations Nurses care for patients in a variety of settings outside of acute care hospitals such as during an international disaster. Humanitarian Aid relief health care providers require specific vaccines to avoid communicable preventable diseases. Nurses working for the military may also have different vaccination guidance based on their deployment or situation. Influenza is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses infecting the nose, throat and lungs. Each year, influenza claims thousands of lives and is responsible for hundreds of thousands of hospital admissions from influenza and its complications. ANA believes that nurses have a professional and ethical obligation to be immunized - it protects both the health of the nurse, and the health of her or his patients and community. Nurses play a critical role during influenza prevention season by serving as vaccinators, educators, advocates, and role models for their patients as well as their colleagues. Vaccination of nurses, and other healthcare professionals, is strongly encouraged by both ANA and the CDC to protect both nurses and the patients whom they serve. Influenza vaccination of nurses not only reduces the disease burden in those vaccinated, but also has been shown to reduce the rate of influenza disease and overall mortality in the patients under their care. In 2007, the Joint Commission began requiring its accredited facilities to offer influenza vaccine to improve vaccination rates as a patient safety and quality initiative. Everyone, unless contraindications exist, over the age of six months should receive the seasonal influenza vaccine. In an effort to reduce the spread of influenza this season, ANA strongly urges nurses to: - Get vaccinated as soon as the vaccine is available. - Ensure your family and co-workers get vaccinated. - Talk to your patients and community about the importance of vaccination. - Use or create standing orders to administer vaccinations. - Always use a safety needle - it's your right under the law. - Observe meticulous hand-washing practices. - View ANA’s Immunization Position Statement regarding immunizations for nurses and across the lifespan. Help be a part of the solution. Be vaccinated this influenza season, and encourage your nursing colleagues to do the same. Let’s all unite to fight the flu! You are now leaving the American Nurses Foundation The American Nurses Foundation is a separate charitable organization under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. The Foundation does not engage in political campaign activities or communications. The Foundation expressly disclaims any political views or communications published on or accessible from this website.Continue Cancel
by Bruce Batt Ph.D. Nothing in nature is more critical to waterfowl reproduction than the eggs that are laid each spring. Each egg has all the vital components needed to produce a new life in the form of a developing embryo, a duckling, and ultimately, an adult duck capable of producing its own eggs. Besides self-maintenance and survival, virtually everything else that waterfowl do in the months leading up to spring is focused in some way on nesting and the eggs that are produced. Eggs have three major components—the shell, the yolk, and the albumen. Besides giving structural strength, the shell is the source of most of the calcium that the embryo absorbs during development to form cartilage and bone. The yolk is mostly various forms of fat, and the albumen (the "white") is mostly protein. The micronutrients necessary for development are found among all three components. The set of eggs that a hen lays is known as a clutch. For a few species, the clutch may actually weigh as much as the hen. This is quite remarkable when you consider that the female produces all the elements in the eggs from the body reserves she carried from wintering and migration habitats as well as what she obtained from local breeding habitat. This again highlights the critical importance of quality habitats during all seasons. It also explains why this package of goodies is so attractive to predators, as virtually nothing in nature is more nutritious than an egg. But what goes on inside the nest and the egg between laying and hatch? Once nesting has started, ducks lay one egg each day, usually in the early morning when nocturnal predators are bedding down for the day and daytime predators haven’t started moving around yet. When the first eggs are laid, the hen attends the nest only for a few minutes. As the clutch grows, she spends more and more time on the nest, pulling in grass and twigs to form the nest bowl. At about the mid-laying period, the hen starts to pluck down feathers from her body and mix them with the other nesting material to form a very effective blanket that insulates and conceals the nest. Later in the laying period, the female starts to apply her body heat by making close contact between the skin on her breast and the eggs. This is the beginning of the incubation period, during which egg temperature is raised to a level that causes the embryonic cells to divide and the embryo to begin its magical transition into a duckling. For mallards, incubation takes just over three weeks, and during this time, the hen is on the nest for 90 percent or more of the time. When egg temperature drops below the optimal level, embryonic development will slow and even stop. During the early laying period, egg temperature remains below the level needed for development, as it is very important that all ducklings develop and hatch at about the same time so the hen can lead her brood away in a cohesive group. During very hot days, the eggs can reach lethal temperatures, and at these times, the hen will stand over the nest and shade it from the sun while not applying any heat from her body. Because the eggs at the center of the nest get more heat than those at the edge, the hen does a variety of things to equalize the heat each egg receives. She frequently rotates the direction she faces, moves her feet up and down in a paddling motion, and pulls her bill through the eggs. These movements cause the eggs to be rolled over and shifted into, and out of, the center of the nest so that all receive about the same total amount of heat over the course of the incubation period.
Scientists now have the first definitive answer to what caused one of the largest bird die-offs ever recorded: starvation, brought on by shifts in ocean conditions linked to a changing climate. “When we see these mass mortality events, that’s the ecosystem saying, in big neon letters, that something is wrong.” In the fall of 2014, West Coast residents witnessed a strange, unprecedented ecological event. Tens of thousands of small seabird carcasses washed ashore on beaches from California to British Columbia. A network of more than 800 citizen scientists responded as the birds, called Cassin’s auklets, turned up dead in droves along the coast. Beach walkers and local residents recorded the location and date of carcasses as they found them, entering the information into a real-time database that helped state, tribal, and federal wildlife experts track the mass mortality event as it unfolded. “This paper is super important for the scientific community because it nails the causality of a major die-off, which is rare,” says senior author Julia Parrish, professor in the School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences at the University of Washington and executive director of the Coastal Observation and Seabird Survey Team (COASST), one of the citizen science groups that counted the carcasses. “When we see these mass mortality events, that’s the ecosystem saying, in big neon letters, that something is wrong. This paper can be used as definitive proof of the impacts of a warming world, and it’s a not a pretty picture,” she says. The new paper, which appears in Geophysical Research Letters, pinpoints starvation as the cause of death for between 250,000 and 500,000 Cassin’s auklets in late 2014 to early 2015. The birds’ main source of prey, aquatic zooplankton known as krill and copepods, was found to be smaller and less abundant than in previous years, forcing the seabirds to eat less nutritious “junk food” instead of their usual nutrient- and energy-rich prey. Cassin’s auklets are palm-sized, stocky seabirds known for their remarkable ability to fly underwater in search of food. They are a gregarious species that nest in colonies and migrate south along the coast in early fall, after breeding. Warmer surface water temperatures off the Pacific coast—a phenomenon known as “the blob”—first occurred in the fall and winter of 2013, and persisted through 2014 and 2015. This event was the likely culprit for shifting the zooplankton “dinner table” toward less nutritious species, researchers say. Energy-rich copepods thrive in colder water. When the massive marine heat wave spread along the coast, it swept in loads of smaller, less nutritious copepods typically found in warmer southern waters. Through the summer of 2014, ocean circulation kept the blob at bay in the Pacific Northwest, creating a coastal wedge of cold water full of energy-rich food just off the coast of Oregon and Washington. But that refuge collapsed in mid-September when seasonal shifts in ocean circulation changed. As a result, Cassin’s auklets migrating south after breeding off the coast of British Columbia essentially lost their nearshore foraging habitat. A glimpse of the future This study is the first to document the direct link between marine heatwaves and marine bird mortality events, the authors write. “A lot of the evidence points to there being a very tangible link in the warming of the Pacific to changes in ecosystem structure that ultimately led to seabird starvation,” says lead author Timothy Jones, a postdoctoral researcher in aquatic and fishery sciences. The warm “blob” sat at the surface of the Pacific Ocean for more than three years. After the auklet die-off, four more mass mortality events involving seabirds took place, occurring farther north each time. Murres, puffins, and most recently short-tailed shearwaters and northern fulmars in the Arctic experienced a similar fate as the auklets—as far north as the Chukchi Sea. “The Cassin’s auklets story is really the opener of a saga of multiple seabird die-offs that are unprecedented, as far as we know,” Jones says. The story of the auklet die-off is likely to repeat for other species under climate change, Parrish says. Researchers will continue to draw upon and learn from this example. “This was a unique opportunity to have a window into the future,” she adds. “We are getting a sense of what the largescale ecosystem—the entire North Pacific up into the Bering and Chukchi seas—might look like in the future, and where we will have winners and losers and how we might see change. In that sense, it was a tremendous natural experiment.” The efforts of hundreds of beach walkers—many of whom survey their local beach for seabird deaths each month—combined with databases and the knowledge of scientists across many fields cracked the mystery of the Cassin’s auklets with a level of precision that is hard to replicate, the authors say. Critical to their success was the ability to collaborate and share resources. “The big lesson here is you have to work together in the sandbox. No one on this author list has any hope of doing all that work by themselves,” Parrish says. “We had incredible luck in that citizen scientists were collecting for years the very data we needed to find the cause.” The National Science Foundation and the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife funded the work. Source: University of Washington

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.