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Pears are originally from Europe and northern region of Asia. Pears are a member of the rose family of plants and it is found in a variety of colors and shape, including many different shades of green, red, yellow/gold, and brown. The skin of pears is slightly rough, yellowish when ripe, and encloses a crisp, juicy, and a fine white or cream-coloured flesh. Sometimes it is slightly grainy around and inside the core. The flesh can be more or less juicy, melting, and aromatic depend
ing on the variety. Pear represents a rich source of fiber, free from cholesterol, and low in calories, fat, and sodium. The nutrients in dried pear are more concentrated. Unripe pear can be indigestible and have a laxative effect.
Pears is one of the most important fruit in the world and is cultivated in all temperate-zone countries of both hemispheres. China has become the world’s largest grower of pears. |
Hanukkah is a Jewish celebration that coincides with the Christian celebration of Christmas. Hanukkah is a sacred celebration. Antiochus stopped services in the temple and effectively outlawed Judaism. He ordered an altar to Zeus to be erected in the temple. A massive revolt ensued.
The people won their revolt and successfully rebelled against Antiochus. Afterward, the Temple was purified. They only had enough oil for one day of lamp burning, yet the sacred oil lasted for eight days. This miracle is the reason for the eight day celebration of Hanukkah.
Teaching Your Young Students about Hanukkah
The Hanukkah celebration is a series of rituals and traditions that span the eight days. It's a perfect opportunity to create eight mini-lessons for your students. Hanukkah also provides an opportunity to teach your young students about other religious, cultures and history.
Teacher Planet offers useful resources for teaching about Hanukkah. In addition to lesson plans, you can also find and use worksheets, hands on activities, clip art and an abundance of teaching resources to help you share the culture, traditions and celebration of Hanukkah. |
One day i found a hollow part of a trunk along the Shropshire Union Canal. Somebody discarded it as no use for burning as the centre is half rotten and some of the wood was composted into soil. The idea to use it one day to plant it with a tree in it an old tree giving space to a new tree even feeding giving soil to the new tree. The hollow tree trunk lived for several weeks now on top of the roof looking a part of the small land-art garden.
The soil washed away during the travels but has been replaced once again with soil from a mole-hill and one of the small Oaks found her new home in it. Here it will grow for the next few months until we are back at the Shropshire Union Canal where she will be planted with trunk and all in the soil to grow.
From this came the next planting. An old tree trunk next to the Trend and Mersey Canal, a dead Willow. The last planting had a circle of willows around the Oak this time the Oak went into the Willow. Willow trees don’t grow old but do grow fast, at their end of life circle they become hollow and just fall over.
This Willow tree was wisely cut and left, it was a big tree with several stems. If you pollard a Willow it can become a good old tree but will also hollow out creating a brilliant habitat for wildlife while the tree keeps on growing. We saw many along the canals, they become real sculptures.
The Willow had a soft centre which i removed al the way down to the bottom and filled it with old coffee, tea and soil with plenty of stones for drainage. It felt like a sponge so soft and very wet, my arm was just long enough to come to the bottom. The little Oak went in, no need for water the surrounding tree trunk will act as a sponge while the rain can dribble away to the bottom through all the rocks. You can see the stinging nettle taking well advantage of the rotting tree-trunk. The nettles feeding in their turn the surrounding soil for any plant who comes along on the wind.
The Oak will slowly grow and become old, the tree-trunk will slowly but certainly rot away around the new tree. The soil can wash away from the bottom leaving some bare old roots but the Oak will grow on evolving in her own root sculpture. Before the root sculpture to appear many years will pass as nature has no haste. Around her some rocks were placed from the places she visited on her trip on top of the boat.
Sand stone from the Shropshire Union Canal, flint from the Grand Union canal from the Cassiobury park where one of her sisters grows now, a round pebble from the Coventry Canal. One pebble came from Trefin Beach the root of the bridge planting that I do.
Finally she got an inscription of tree sensations. |
Rosa Luxemburg was born on 5 March 1871 in the small Polish city of Zamosc and grew up in Warsaw. She earned a doctorate from Zurich University in 1897 and co-founded the Polish social-democratic party (SDKPiL). Living in Germany from 1898, she joined the German social-democratic party (SPD) and rose to prominence as a left-wing journalist, speaker and theorist. Imprisoned several times in Germany, she was active in the 1905 Revolution in Poland before returning to exile in Berlin. Luxemburg was a leading figure in the Second Socialist International and a campaigner against imperialism, war and dictatorship. She believed in socialism and democracy and called for the overthrow of the capitalist system.
During the First World War, Luxemburg was imprisoned for her anti-war activities and expelled from the SPD. She co-founded the Spartakusbund, which sought to end the war and overthrow the Kaiser and capitalism. During the German Revolution, which ushered in the Weimar Republic, Luxemburg was a co-founder of the German Communist Party (KPD). On 15 January 1919, she was arrested by government soldiers and murdered.
Nearly one hundred years later, her life and ideas continue to be an inspiration to people all over the world. To read some of her works online go to: marxists.org/archive/luxemburg.
Happy 144th Birthday Rosa Luxemburg! |
Consider at least three seafood items that you, members of your family, or perhaps your friends commonly eat that appear on the Seafood Watch guides. What are they? Are they “best choices”, “good alternatives”, or ones to “avoid”? Do they perhaps fall into more than one category? If so, why?
Choose the guide for your state or use the national guide: https://www.seafoodwatch.org/seafood-recommendations/consumer-guides
[Note: If you, your family and friends do not eat seafood, pretend that you do and respond to the question accordingly.]
Your response should be at least 75 words in length. |
Clery Act Information
What is the Clery Act?
The federal Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act (Clery Act) requires that all colleges and universities (both public and private) that participate in federal aid programs must keep and disclose campus safety information. It also imposes certain basic requirements for handling incidents of sexual violence and emergency situations. Disclosures about crime statistics and summaries of security policies are made once a year in an Annual Security and Fire Safety Report (ASR), and information about specific crimes and emergencies is made publicly available on an ongoing basis throughout the year.
The Clery Act is named in memory of Jeanne Clery, a 19-year-old Lehigh University freshman who was raped and murdered in her residence hall room on April 5, 1986. The perpetrator, Josoph M. Henry, was a student and was convicted of her murder and sentenced to death in April 1987.
The Clery family advocated laws requiring the disclosure of campus crime information, and the federal law that now bears their daughter's name was first enacted in 1990.
Access the Fire Statistic Report Log here. |
'UNDO Labs' is producing a line of sustainable shoelaces that help to offset environmental damage through the use of carbon offset credits. The shoe business is one of the most environmentally damaging industries because of the raw materials it uses and the harmful manufacturing processes it relies on. To help offset some of the damage of the shoe industry, UNDO Labs has created a carbon-offsetting shoelace.
The 'UNDO Laces' are made from sustainable materials and come in a number of different colors and sizes. For every pair of laces purchased, the company will purchase carbon offset credits from a reputable solar energy, wind energy or reforestation project. The idea behind the project is that if everyone in the world used UNDO Laces, the company could help offset the entire carbon footprint of the shoe industry.
While the design is currently just a prototype, the company is running a Kickstarter campaign to begin distributing its product.
More Stats +/-
Untied Shoe String Holders
Solid Stone Sneakers
Fragrant Footwear Fasteners
Designer Rainbow Laces
Fire Starting Shoelaces |
Balancing human well-being with environmental sustainability: an ecologist’s story of Haiti
“Parc National La Visite is one of the few remaining refuges for Haiti’s once-remarkable biodiversity. It is also the only refuge for over 1,000 desperately poor families, the poorest people I have encountered anywhere on this planet. Naked children with bloated stomachs stood next to pine-bark lean-tos and waved shyly to me as I walked through the forest. Their parents eke out the meanest existence from small gardens and, if they are fortunate, a few chickens.”
This is how ecologist Norm Christensen from Duke University began the story of his journey in Haiti. Christensen’s article, featured in the “Trails and Tribulations” column from the March issue of Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, touches on a sensitive but vital subject: What does “sustainable development” mean to those who are barely making it day-by-day?
“In the context of places like Haiti and the other desperately poor areas, sustainable development—to think of it or define it—is in terms of improving the prosperity of some of the world’s very poorest people in ways that are not going to compromise opportunities for future generations and indeed are going to enhance those opportunities,” Christensen explained in a recent Beyond the Frontier podcast.
Last year’s earthquake in Haiti caused severe widespread damage to the country’s already fragile infrastructure. A subsequent cholera outbreak added to the devastation. In times of such palpable human suffering, it can be difficult to imagine the role of the environment; however, Haiti’s history of deforestation is a strong example of the link between people and ecosystems—that is, the connection between infectious disease and a decline in biodiversity. As Ethan Budiansky explained in a Huffington Post article:
“Over 98 percent of [Haiti] has been deforested by logging and improper environmental management. The resulting lack of biodiversity leads to impoverished soil, which is more susceptible to erosion. The eroded hillsides cause deadly mudslides during heavy rains and pollute drinking water. Farmers find it harder to grow nutritious food, and Haitians become malnourished, leaving them vulnerable to diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis and cholera.
The chain of events moves forward with a cold logic; an unhealthy ecosystem results in unhealthy people. Fortunately, it can be reversed by planting trees through sustainable agro-forestry and following basic plant and soil management techniques.”
While committing to sustainable development is certainly dependent upon those who choose to practice it, Christensen explained in the podcast and article, it is not solely their responsibility. Everyone—whether they live in a developed or underdeveloped nation—is a steward of the planet. And our actions affect more than just our immediate environment.
Photo Credit: United Nations |
Find the Latest Resources in Education Today
Social media tools are effective when used correctly
Teachers hear it all the time: Using social media will help increase professional development opportunities, it will engage students, and it can help students make real-world connections between what they’re learning and future career paths.
But how, exactly, can teachers begin? Some are quite social media-savvy, and others are unsure of where to turn. An infographic containing information from Edudemic, the National Education Association, Facebook, and more serves as a useful social media resource for teachers, curriculum directors, and technology integrators.
Educators can use social media to connect, notify, teach, and curate.
Facebook, one of the most widely-used social media tools, can help teachers improve their communication with students through Facebook group messages or group chats. Teachers can create a Facebook page for a class and can post events, notes, and assignment due dates, and can go one step further and ask students to engage in discussions about what they’re learning.
Through Twitter, teachers can post supplementary materials, such as links to relevant articles and videos, that students can access outside of class on their mobile or home devices. Choosing and using one hash tag with tweets will let students follow a conversation and see every tweet on that topic, as long as the tweet contains the chosen hash tag. Setting up a specific feed this way lets an entire class monitor the discussion–they can even reference older discussions from previous units or semesters.
Twitter also lets teachers and students connect with other students and educators. Maybe more importantly, it can link students with subject matter experts and professionals in certain fields–helping students form links between what they learn in the classroom and where that knowledge can take them in college or the workforce.
(Next page: Take a quick poll on social media use! Plus, view the infographic.) |
It’s a small structure, just one room and a loft, built around 1830. There’s a small fireplace in one wall. The floor is now just hard-packed dirt, although at one time there was rough wooden flooring. Long ago, an entire family of slaves might have lived here; perhaps 10 or more people, given the large families of antebellum days. I looked out the window up to Sotterley plantation house, set at the top of a rise offering a commanding view of the fields and of this slave house, and it occurred to me that the Sotterley story is a tale of two houses.
Sotterley plantation in Hollywood, Md., is a National Historic Landmark, a stately home of 15 rooms overlooking the Patuxent River. Throughout its centuries-long history, only four families have owned the estate, once a successful tobacco plantation that depended on slave labor. Sotterley today is run by a private foundation and is the only Maryland Tidewater plantation open to the public. The slave cabin on the grounds is the only one still standing.
On a recent trip to the plantation, guide Bob Aldridge greeted my wife and me at the back of the house — the side facing away from the river. “The river was the road,” said Bob, so the front would face the water. He had to make himself heard above the preparations for a wedding that would be held in the garden later that day.
In 1703, John Bowles built a two-room house here using post-in-ground construction; 309 years later, several of those original posts are still there. After Bowles’s death, four generations of the Plater family owned Sotterley between 1729 and 1822. They named the house after their ancestral home in Suffolk, England. As their wealth increased, successive Platers added to the original rooms, creating a long, narrow, stately brick-and-clapboard house with a steeply pitched roof that today sits on 100 acres of rolling hay fields.
The plantation reached its pinnacle during the time of George Plater III, a prominent politician who served as Maryland governor in the early 1790s. He added acreage and transformed the house into an elegant mansion. One stunning example of his vision is the drawing room at the north end of the house. The entire room, with the exception of the plaster ceiling, is carved in pine and poplar and painted a pale yellow. Above the mantel hangs a painting depicting the original house. Most notable are two recessed half-shell alcoves, showing the intricate woodcarving skills of 18th-century artisans, many of them slaves. An unusual Chinese Chippendale banister in the hallway was also added during this period.
Only five rooms are on display to the public; the others include a small parlor painted a startling blood red, a formal dining room with palm tree motif wallpaper, a library in the 1715 addition, and a small larder. Most of the furnishings and wall decorations in these rooms are from the 20th-century occupants.
But the plantation’s story isn’t just about the owners. “If you visit Sotterley, you learn about the estate’s wealthy owners, as well as the lives of slaves, tenant farmers, craftsmen, and domestic workers from the 1700s until the 1950s. Sotterley is uniquely valuable for the breadth of life it covers,” said Kenneth Cohen, an assistant professor of history at nearby St. Mary’s College of Maryland, who has worked as a consultant for Sotterley.
Bob told us just such a story about Peregrine Young, the doorman and the highest-valued slave on the plantation. From the hallway where I was standing, at the front door of Sotterley, Young couldn’t have missed the British ships coming up the Patuxent in 1814, in pursuit of the American flotilla, during the War of 1812. When British troops later landed at Sotterley looking for provisions, he took advantage of their offer of freedom, and with three other slaves went over to the British side. In an act of great courage and at the risk of their freedom, Young and the others returned to Sotterley with the British and freed more than 40 other slaves.
This summer, Sotterley is offering a living history presentation called “The Choice,” depicting the wrenching decisions Maryland slaves such as Peregrine Young made during the War of 1812.
Sotterley had fallen into disrepair when it was purchased in 1910 as a vacation retreat by lawyer and businessman Herbert Satterlee and his wife, Louisa, the daughter of financier J.P. Morgan. They were determined to re-create it as they envisioned it looking around the time of the American Revolution. The Satterlees were devotees of the Colonial Revival tradition and furnished the house in that style. Most of the furnishings date from their ownership, although there are also some original Plater pieces. The Satterlees also designed a Colonial Revival garden, divided into symmetrical sections for vegetables, perennials, flowers and herbs. During our visit, the peony hedge was a riot of pink and white.
The Satterlees’ daughter, Mabel Ingalls, bought the estate in 1947 after her parents died. She conferred ownership to a private foundation in 1960 to preserve the plantation for the public.
At the end of the tour, we’d worked our way over to the entranceway on the river side of the house. Below us, the fields of grass rippled in the breeze, creating undulating waves interrupted only by pretty clumps of trees. The river glittered in the background. For more than 300 years, Sotterley’s owners might have stood here, looking over their property; Peregrine Young, standing here at his station, would have watched British and American ships battling in 1814 and weighed the chances of gaining his freedom. Standing there myself, I looked down to the “rolling road,” leading to an old dock. It was the path along which tobacco barrels were rolled down to the dock and slaves were led up to Sotterley to work the plantation or were led off to be sold in the market.
From that vantage point, I could barely make out the roof of the slave cabin.
Lee teaches journalism at Bucknell University. |
As a general rule, immigration is a good thing for receiving countries regarding their GDP (not GDP per capita!) and overall employment level. But some vulnerable groups are negatively affected in terms of wages and unemployment. Let’s have a closer look at the latter, although this is not an easy task at least for two reasons: Firstly, political correctness doesn’t like us to talk about substitution effects of immigration. And, secondly, if you start talking about substitution effects, you easily find yourself in a situation of doing the job for right wing political parties – and who would like to be in that position?
In a theoretical (textbook) framework immigration shifts the supply curve to the right, increasing overall employment levels but reducing the employment of nationals; substitution effects depend on the elasticities of demand and supply curves. Beyond that, immigration has a dampening effect on wages. Of crucial importance in this reasoning is the assumption of foreign and native workers being perfect substitutes. This might be the case for unskilled workers and persons with same qualifications, motivation and reservation wages. If their skills and competences are complementary, then immigration will even increase employment of nationals. These positive effects are particularly large when migrants fit to vacancies which couldn’t be filled with natives. All in all, theory cannot predict the relation of immigration and employment of natives a priori; only empirical evidence can!
Anyway, employers normally like immigration because more labour supply has dampening effects on wages and more competition on the labour market makes it easier for employers to pick and choose. And normally, migration has positive effects for migrants themselves. But some labour market groups in the receiving countries – usually the ones with the same skills and competences as the immigrants – have to face negative effects regarding their incomes and employment probabilities. There are substitution effects.
Empirical research normally concludes that an increase of the share of foreigners in total employment by 1 percentage point reduces wages of national employees in the short run by some 0.1%. In many studies, the correlation between immigration and wages or employment probabilities of nationals is insignificant. But these results might be due to “measurement errors” – this is my main point I would like to raise: You will not be able to detect substitution effects if you average out on a too large scale, i. e. for several years or for sectors on a national level. If you allow your data to reveal substitution effects, you have to look on a regional and sectoral level, capturing occupations, skills and competences of migrants and nationals.
The long run empirical evidence of the labour market impact of immigration in Austria since 1989 is inconclusive in so far as it is measured at national level. But there are signs of displacement: Since the breakdown of the Iron Curtain employment of Austrian nationals increased by 8.8%, employment of non-nationals increased by 192.1%. During the same time, the unemployment rate of early school leavers increased by 94.6% (from 9.2% to 17.9% according to national definitions). Wage increases in Austria were quite moderate in this period. The yearly changes in employment show in many cases a parallel increase of both, nationals and foreigners. But in 2010, for example, 93% of overall employment increases was non-national, in 2011 the same figure was 61.2%. Beyond the overall situation at the national level, there is one important feature of immigration to the Austrian labour market, in particular from eastern European countries: Many of the migrants have good qualifications when they come to Austria, but find jobs only in occupations where their skills and competences are underutilised – so “over-qualification” is a big issue . And this is a particular dangerous aspect for low qualified employees in Austria!
More specifically: Full Liberalization of Worker´s Mobility for Migrants and Commuters from EU8 – one Year after
In the first year of free labour mobility some 34.000 additional workers i. e. some 1% of total employment from EU8 (eastern European accession countries of 2004) have found jobs in Austria. This is at any rate a rather low inflow! But the influx was strongly concentrated at particular regions in the eastern part of Austria and in specific sectors like catering, construction, market services and agriculture. For example, employment from EU8 countries increased in the first year of free movement in Burgenland (bordering to Hungary) by some 22% in agriculture and forestry and by some 12% in lodging and catering. In Vienna, the same figures increase by some 11% in private household services. For 22 branches and 9 regions, the cross sectional and cross regional correlation of the year-on-year changes of EU8 employment and the unemployment of early school leavers was remarkable close with R2=0.46.
A more sophisticated empirical framework of a panel regression with fixed time effects and changes of employment (of EU8, EU14, other non-nationals, nationals) und unemployment (overall and erarly school leavers) on a monthly basis revealed the following results: In certain sectors in some regions there were statistically significant substitution affects at work in the first year after full liberalisation (see table below). Particularly strong negative effects of inward migration could be found for the unemployment of unskilled workers. To give an example of the magnitude of the effect for Burgenland: An increase of 10 employees from EU8 in the construction sector reduced domestic employment by some 3.3 people in the same sector and employment of foreigners from third countries by 0.9 persons. The unemployment of early school leavers was increased by 1.7 persons.
Like it or not: Immigration leads to substitution effects for domestic workers, at least to some extent. To ignore and deny the problems of the negatively affected vulnerable labour market groups would be a politically risky strategy.
Bock-Schappelwein, J. Bremberger, Ch, Hierländer, R., Huber, P. Knittler, K., Berger, J, Hofer, H., Strohner, L. (2008), Die ökonomischen Wirkungen der Immigration in Österreich. See http:// www. bmask.gv.at/site/Soziales/Statistische_Daten_und_Studien/Studien/Arbeitsmarkt_ Studien_
Huber, P., Bös, G. (2012), Monitoring der Arbeitsmarktauswirkungen der Zuwanderung aus den neuen EU-Mitgliedsländern im Regime der Freizügigkeit. See http://www.forschungsnetzwerk. at/downloadpub/WIFO_bmask_Monitoring_Endbericht_2012.pdf
Longhi, S., Nijkamp, P., Poot, J. (2004), Meta-Analysis of Empirical Evidence on the Labour Market Impacts of Immigration, Tinbergen Institute Discussion Paper, TI2004-134/3
Schweighofer, J. (2012), Gab es auf regional sektoraler Ebene Verdrängungseffekte im Gefolge der Arbeitsmarktöffnung vom Mai 2011, in: Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft 3/2012. See http://johannes-schweighofer.at/publikationen.htm |
Ensuring the security of the mail has been sacrosanct to U.S. postal officials from the earliest days of the system. From the moment a piece of mail enters the mail stream, it is to remain safe and secure from prying eyes or theft.
Many types of locking mechanisms have been employed over the years to protect the U.S. mail. Once a letter is deposited in a sidewalk collection mailbox, only a postal employee is allowed, or equipped, to retrieve it. Locks have often secured mailbags and pouches. Some types of mailing containers, such as those used for registered mail, are always fitted with locks or seals.
Of course, no system is foolproof, and thieves have often made the mails a target. Mail robberies have been as simple as knocking the lock off of a mailbox or as complex as organizing a stagecoach or train robbery.
Access to first-class mail while in the postal system remains legally off-limits to anyone other than the sender or receiver. Once these pieces are in the system, they may not be opened without a federal search warrant except under the most dire circumstances. The U.S. Postal Service produces over 250,000 locks a year that are used in delivery and collections services. |
Sceletium has possibly the most complex chemistry of any ethnobotanically significant plant in the world with at least 32 known alkaloids (including a number of terpenes and saponins) isolated from the genus to date. As follows:
The range of phenolic alkaloids in Sceletium tortuosum belong to the crinane class of compounds and fall into four distinct structural categories defined by their alkaloid skeletal type:
(1) The 3a-aryl-cis-octahydroindole class (e.g. mesembrine)
(2) The C-seco mesembrine alkaloids (e.g. joubertiamine)
(3) Alkaloids containing a 2,3-disubstituted pyridine moiety and 2 nitrogen atoms (e.g. sceletium A4)
(4) A ring C-seco Sceletium alkaloid A4 group (e.g. tortuosamine).
The dominant, and clinically significant, alkaloids in Sceletium tortuosum are mesembrine, mesembrenone, ∆7-mesembrenone, mesembrenol and tortuosamine, though the minor alkaloids undoubtedly play important roles in the overall pharmacological effect too.
There is great variability in the distribution and concentration of both major alkaloids and minor alkaloids due to factors such as cultivar, season, geographical and climatic factors, growing conditions and age – and differences have even been noted between two plants growing right next to each other in the wild. Alkaloid levels are generally considered best in the late spring to early summer when the plants are fruiting.
Furthermore the process of bruising and fermentation alters the alkaloid profile, which we will deal with in some detail below. All that said, total alkaloid levels can range between 0.3% and 2.3% of dry weight. The average for cultivated material is generally around 0.8% total alkaloids, though there are certain high-yield stains that have been developed that can average double that.
Some, including ethnobotanist Christian Rätsch, believe that it is possible that tryptamines may occur in Sceletium tortuosum. However, we believe this to be unlikely as (a) it has never been demonstrated, (b) the general chemical profile of the plant does not suggest this possibility and (c) careful bio-assay does not indicate the presence of tryptamines.
In traditional usage by the Khoisan, Sceletium has always been fermented in the process of producing the original Kougoed, and there has been much speculation, even among researchers in this field, as to the reasons, usefulness and efficacy (or not, as the case may be) of this process. Hopefully the following information will shed some light on the matter.
In the traditional context, the freshly harvested Kanna, would be bruised (normally by crushing between two stones) and then placed in a gourd made from animal skins, or, in more recent times, in a plastic bag or glass jar. This would then be left out in the sun and allowed to ferment for a period of somewhere between 5 and 8 days. After this fermentation process, the Kanna would then be placed out in the sun to dry to produce the traditional Kougoed. It has also been stated that without this fermentation there is no power in the plant (which is not entirely true).
A number of critical papers address the matter of fermentation:
- “The distribution of mesembrine alkaloids in selected taxa of the Mesembryanthemaceae and their modification in the Sceletium derived Kougoed” by Smith et al., published in the Journal of Pharmaceutical Biology in 1998.
- “Investigation of the phytochemical content of Sceletium tortuosum following preparation of Kougoed by fermentation” by Patnala et al., published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology in 2008.
- “Forensic analysis of mesembrine alkaloids in Sceletium tortuosum by nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry” by Roscher et al., published in Electrophoresis in 2012.
Together, these papers show clearly some of the effects that fermentation has on the alkaloid profile, and further independent research subsequent to this has also verified these findings.
In summary, the fermentation of Kanna accomplishes the following primary outcomes:
- Lowers oxalic acid
- Lowers 4′-O-demethylmesembrenol
- Significantly converts mesembrine to mesembrenone and ∆7-mesembrenone
- May increase total alkaloid levels (by a very small measure)
(For reference, the traditional fermentation process which leads to this, as described verbatim by a local informant from the Namaqualand area (Smith at al. 1996) was “Leave the bag of crushed Kougoed in the sun to get warm; it’s not necessary to put it in the shade, it gets shade at night, and the sun doesn’t harm it. The plant is left to sweat. After 2 to 3 days the bag is opened, the Kougoed is mixed around, and then the bag is tightly closed again. On the eighth day after the crushing, the bag is opened and the Kougoed is spread out to dry in the sun, as when you dry raisins. You leave it out until it is dry. If you don’t do the whole thing, the plant won’t have power. If you eat the fresh plant nothing will happen – it doesn’t have power. I learned to prepare it from my father”. In the experiments referenced in these papers this process was mimicked under controlled laboratory conditions.)
It is also evident from studying the above research that this is not all that is going on, and that there is a complexity, beyond our full comprehension at this stage, related to all the alkaloidal transformations that occur during the fermentation process.
It also appears from the Journal of Pharmaceutical Biology paper that the mere act of bruising and crushing the plant, followed by drying at 80°C produced a very similar alkaloid profile to that which developed during full fermentation. This suggests, quoting directly from that paper, that “It is possible that, on crushing, enzymatic reactions may take place following cellular decompartmentation, these reactions may explain the modification of the alkaloid ratio and concentration that is observed in crushed plant material dried at 80°C; a temperature at which these reactions may be greatly amplified. From the results of this experiment it would seem that the essential step in the production of Kougoed may not entirely revolve around fermentation but that the crushing of the plant material and consequently the mixing of cellular material may be equally essential”.
This gives scientific credibility to another traditional method of Kougoed production referenced in the 1996 Journal of Ethnopharmacology review article on Sceletium in which it is stated that “A second informant described an alternative preparation technique, employed when the user seeks to rapidly prepare Kougoed. A small fire is made over sand, and when it dies down, the ashes are scraped aside, and a hollow made in the sand. A freshly picked, whole Sceletium plant is placed in this excavation, and covered with hot sand. An hour later the baked plant product is recovered, reputedly with acquired properties similar to the conventionally prepared material”.
It is also important to qualify the statement above that “fermentation converts mesembrine to mesembrenone and ∆7-mesembrenone”. This seems plausible, but what the data actually shows is that mesembrine levels decrease and that mesembrenone and ∆7-mesembrenone (double-bond isomers of each other) levels increase. So while this suggests “conversion” from the one alkaloid to the other as the “cause”, some other mechanism could be at play. Altogether very interesting stuff – and more detailed research into these phenomena are clearly called for.
Finally for the flavour aficionados, fermenting Kanna does some richly interesting stuff to the taste and aroma, which many smokers and chewers appreciate!
Oxalic acid is an organic compound commonly found at high levels in members of the spinach family, the brassicas (cabbage, broccoli, brussels sprouts, kale, rocket), sorrel, rhubarb and umbellifers like parsley. It also occurs in green bell peppers, beet greens, chives, leeks, purslane, dandelion, almonds, chocolate and… Sceletium.
It is a colorless crystalline solid that forms a clear solution in water and is a slightly stronger acid than acetic acid (vinegar). It is normally contra-indicated for those suffering from kidney stones, renal insufficiency, gout and rheumatoid arthritis (though some modern research is already questioning this traditional point of view). Excessive oxalic acid can also be a gastric irritant and contribute to joint pain due to calcium oxalate deposists.
An analysis on unfermented dry Sceletium using the technique of Sutikno et al. (1987) has indicated levels of 3.6% – 5.1% oxalate. This falls within the median range for oxalates in crop plants reported by Libert and Franceschi (1987). By contrast, common high oxalate foods are parsley (1.7%), chives (1.5%), beet greens (1.0%), spinach (0.8%) and cacao (0.6%).
On the other side, oxalic acid is needed by the body and is important for colon health. When we do not get enough from our diet, the body makes it from ascorbic acid. All the foods that are high in antioxidants are also high in oxalic acid, and cancer is always associated with low levels of oxalic acid in the blood.
Observations and reports by Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962), Kellerman et al. (1988) and Smith et al. (1996) regarding oxalates in Sceletium have suggested that the physical crushing of the plant and the fermentation process may, in some way, ameliorate the levels of oxalic acid. Free oxalic acid is likely to complex with cell-wall-associated calcium salts and precipitate as calcium oxalate when plant material is crushed.
Oxalates are degraded by microbial populations in the gastrointestinal tract of humans, ruminants and non-ruminant herbivores (Daniel et al., 1987). There is evidence that adaptive changes in microbial microflora may reduce oxalate absorbtion and toxicity (Argenzio et al., 1988). Allison et al. (1985) have proposed that these anaerobes be named Oxalobacter formigenes and it has been suggested that soils and lake sediments may serve as an inoculum for oxalate degrading organisms in the digestive tract of animals (Smith et al., 1985). Smith et al. (1996) suggest that the crushing process, prior to anaerobic fermentation would introduce oxalatedegrading microbes into the skin or plastic bag and so ameliorate levels of oxalic acid. The use of Mesembryanthemaceae to initiate fermentation for alcohol or breadmaking is well documented (Juritz, 1906; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962), so that the microbiology of fermentation in Kougoed is likely to be quite complex.
The alternate preparatory method for Kougoed mentioned above involving burying plant material in hot sand may also have a scientific basis. Oxalic acid is a simple dicarboxylic acid, and considerable sublimation is likely to occur at temperatures above its melting point of 101-102°C; on the other hand, mesembrine only boils between 186-190°C (Merck Index). Hence the use of this simple physical technique may achieve the same result as the more traditional fermentation process by removing oxalates, and drying the material while retaining alkaloids.
In summary, it is evident that fermentation decreases levels of oxalates in Kanna. It is also evident that the level of oxalic acid in Kanna (given the daily or occasional dose that is used) compared to what is normally ingested from common founds, is negligible (500mg of unfermented Sceletium per day being the equivalent of 3g of spinach), and of no consequence at all except perhaps in the managing of severe cases of renal insufficiency.
Coming soon 🙂 |
How Can I Educate a Patient Living With CMT?
Education on proper shoe wear is essential. People with CMT are often fatigued after several hours on their feet, so providing an avenue to keep their feet comfortable with an orthopedic shoe can lead to decreased occurrences of falls, decreased pain, and increased gait velocity.
Another essential educational point is the incorporation of regular exercise routines. Difficulties and fatigue during exercise can be frustrating, but studies prove that physical therapy and resistance exercise increases muscle strength and improves timing of execution of activities of daily living.17 Resistance exercises can also play a role in reducing disease progression; therefore, healthcare providers should encourage patients to exercise regularly, explain the benefits of doing so, and refer patients to physical therapy to incorporate a low-intensity program into the treatment plan.
What Is the Prognosis of Patients With CMT?
Most commonly, patients diagnosed with CMT experience a slow clinical progression that begins with lower extremity muscle imbalance and leads to weakness. Sensory changes in vibration, pain, thermal, and proprioceptive sensitivities can follow with disease progression. In some cases, the upper limbs are later affected with intrinsic muscle atrophy starting distal to proximal.13
Overall, the severity and course of the disease varies from patient to patient. Many patients have mild to moderate disabilities, with some experiencing severe disabilities such as skeletal deformities that drastically affect quality of life.13 As with many disease processes, the presenting signs and symptoms influence the patient’s prognosis.
A patient only complaining of lower extremity weakness may have a better prognosis than one who also has changes in sensation and grip strength, and complaints of tripping. The earlier a treatment plan can be initiated, the higher the likelihood of being able to slow or even reverse disease progression.13 In the majority of cases, patients live a normal life with limitations on certain daily activities as the disease progresses.
When treating a patient with peripheral neuropathy and weakness of unknown origin, it is important for the primary care provider to consider CMT as a differential diagnosis due to it being the most common genetic motor and sensory neuropathy.
While CMT is likely not fatal, it can severely affect quality of life. Diagnosing CMT is possible with nerve conduction studies and genetic testing. Treatment consists of insoles, ankle-foot orthoses, physical therapy, muscle strengthening, and other supportive therapies to increase comfort.
Disease progression and severity can be slowed with earlier diagnosis and treatment. Many providers choose to refer patients to neurology for diagnostic testing and follow-ups. Ultimately, it is often the responsibility of the primary care provider to recognize the initial signs and symptoms of CMT and to initiate an effective treatment plan.
Brandon Henke, PA-C, graduated in the class of 2020 from Augusta University and is currently working in the urgent care specialty. Alicia Elam, PharmD, is an associate professor, Physician Assistant Department, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia.
1. CMT Research Foundation. What is Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease? CMT website. Accessed January 8, 2021. https://cmtrf.org/what-is-cmt/.
2. Lee J-H, Choi B-O. Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease: seventeen causative genes. J Clin Neurol. 2006;2(2):92-106.
3. Ramchandren S. Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and other genetic polyneuropathies. Continuum. 2017;23(5):1360-1377.
4. Piazza S, Ricci G, Caldarazzo Ienco E, et al. Pes cavus and hereditary neuropathies: when a relationship should be suspected. 2010;11(4):195-201.
5. Ward CM, Dolan LA, Lee Bennet D, Morcuende JA, Cooper RR. Long-term results of reconstruction for treatment of a flexible cavovarus foot in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008;90(12):2631-2642.
6. Kunovsky D, Cordier R, Bray P, Burns J. Handwriting difficulties of children with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A. J Peripher Nerv Syst. 2017;22(1):34-38.
7. Hereditary Neuropathy Foundation. What it’s like to live with Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT). HNF website. Accessed January 8, 2021. https://www.hnf-cure.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/HNF-Living-With-CMT_singlepages-small.pdf.
8. Callaghan BC, Price RS, Feldman EL. Diagnostic and therapeutic advances: distal symmetric polyneuropathy. JAMA. 2015;314(20):2172-2181.
9. Pareyson D, Scaioli V, Laurà M. Clinical and electrophysiological aspects of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Neuromolecular Med. 2006;8(1-2):3-22.
10. Duchesne M, Mathis S, Richard L. Nerve biopsy is still useful in some inherited neuropathies. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2018;77(2):88-99.
11. Manganelli F, Pisciotta C, Reilly MM, et al; for the CMT-TRIAAL and CMT-TRAUK Group. Nerve conduction velocity in CMT1A: what else can we tell? Eur J Neurol. 2016;23(10):1566-1571.
12. McCorquodale D, Pucillo EM, Johnson NE. Management of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease: improving long-term care with a multidisciplinary approach. J Multidiscip Healthc. 2016;9:7-19.
13. Augusto Maranho D, Batista Volpon J. Acquired pes cavus in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Rev Bras Ortop. 2015;44(6):479-486.
14. Prada V, Schizzi S, Poggi I, et al. Hand rehabilitation treatment for Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease: an open label pilot study. J Neurol Neurophysiol. 2018;9(4):465.
15. Menotti F, Laudani L, Damiani A, Mignogna T, Macaluso A. An anterior ankle-foot orthosis improves walking economy in Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 1A patients. Prosthet Orthot Int. 2014;38(5):387-392.
16. Phillips MF, Robertson Z, Killen B, White B. A pilot study of a crossover trial with randomized use of ankle-foot orthoses for people with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Clin Rehabil. 2012;26(6):534-544.
17. Corrado B, Ciardi G, Bargigli C. Rehabilitation management of the Charcot-Marie-Tooth syndrome: a systematic review of the literature. Medicine. 2016;95(17):e3278. |
Stem 3D – Project based learning kit for the Classroom
Technology is amazing.
But with so many available avenues, how do we incorporate it into a streamlined learning tool that can be deployed into a classroom.
Introducing stem 3d kits.
Stem kits are small projects that include all necessary core hardware whilst giving students freedom of expression in designing some of the componentry needed to assemble the final working product.
Each kit comes with instructions handbooks for students as well as teachers, making them a complete resource with all necessary documentation to finish the items.
These small projects that students make allow them to fully implement their classroom knowledge in a hands on way, whilst covering topics that are specific to the requirements of the school. There are a superb range of handy little items to make.
These are not just pretty vases or statues, each kit is a real world functional item that can perform its specific task.
Think of these as an extension to the Lego & Meccano that many of us love.
Working with the vast range of components within each kit exposes students to different sets of controlled challenges, & this empowers learning with 3D Printing technology like never before.
Have a look at the range of items we have stem kits for – your pupils are sure to love them!
Project-based learning and 3D printing are pivotal avenues for teaching STEM subjects, engaging students on new levels, and preparing them for future careers. Afinia offers several 3D Printing STEM Kits, which support project-based learning in the classroom.
Each pack comes with student workbooks and a teacher’s guide to help you seamlessly integrate the projects into your curriculum.
Read more about each kit below, contact us to find out more
Prices start from just $28+gst per kit with discounts for multiple quantities or a bundle of different kits.
Please contact us to discuss pricing for a larger quantity.
Please specify which kit you would like in the comments when you order.
Available STEM Kits:
This is a great STEM project for teachers to further teaching on topics such as electric motors, gears, kinematics and basic principles of physics, such as the conservation of energy.
In this project, students get to design and build their own robot, while learning about servo and stepper motors. The science of simple machines is also a focus of this lesson.
Enrich students’ understanding of robotics, mechanics, simple programming mathematics, and art. Students will use browser-based programming apps to direct the Spirobot.
Heart Rate Watch
In this project students will design, print, and build their very own heart rate monitor. This project is great for further teaching on topics such as 2D drawings, electrical energy storage, voltage conversion and electronics.
LED Digital Clock
In this project, students will design, print, and then build their very own LED digital clock. This is a great STEM project for teachers to do further teaching on topics such as time, temperature, LEDs, and electronics.
Solar Battery Charger
In this project, students will design, print, and build their very own solar battery charger. This is a great STEM project for teachers to do further teaching on topics such as solar power, renewable energy, and electronics.
USB Power Bank
In this project, you’ll learn about the basics of 2D drawings, interpreting 2D drawings, CAD modeling, 3D printing, and assembling electronic components. A great project to enhance lessons in electricity!
M.I.R.A – 5 Axis Mini Industrial Robot Arm
Robotics and 3d printers are the fastest technologies used in education and research. MIRA is the ideal platform for teaching for teaching Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) principles at all levels.
Mini Boom Box
Turn up the music! Students can build a speaker that connects to their phone, MP3 player, or other portable device. This project is great for further teaching on topics such as sound and sound waves, amplifiers and speakers, circuit diagrams and electronics.
In this project, you’ll learn about the basics of design and development, following design requirements, market research, creating and developing concepts, CAD modeling, 3D printing, and assembly electronic components. |
Human activity has brought the planet's life-supporting systems to the brink of tipping points, causing an "alarming" loss in biodiversity and critical threats to the services nature has provided humankind.
So finds the newest state of the planet report (pdf) from the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), which offers a damning look on the health of the Earth.
"We're gradually destroying our planet’s ability to support our way of life," stated Carter Roberts, president and CEO of WWF.
Among the report's findings is a dramatic loss in biodiversity. Its Living Planet Index, managed by the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) and based on over 10,000 populations of over 3,000 species, shows a 52 percent decline in global wildlife between 1970 and 2010. And that's a trend that "shows no sign of slowing down."
Among the causes of the decline are climate change, habitat loss and degradation, and exploitation.
Breaking these losses down further, the report states that populations of freshwater species have declined 76 percent, compared to losses of 39 percent each for marine species and terrestrial populations.
Region-wise, Latin America has suffered the biggest decline in biodiversity, with species populations plummeting 83 percent.
Global wildlife populations have declined over 50 percent between 1970 and 2010.The impacts of humankind's assault on the planet are not being felt equally, the report notes, as higher-income countries have an "ecological footprint" five times higher than those of lower-income countries. In fact, because of resource imports, high-income countries "may effectively be outsourcing biodiversity loss," stated Keya Chatterjee, WWF’s senior director of footprint.
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Looking at humanity's overall "ecological footprint," the report states that we need 1.5 planets to provide for the current demands on nature.
Water footprints are noted as well, and the report states that in some ares "such as Australia, India and USA ...life-giving aquifers are being severely depleted." Agriculture is responsible for the lion's share of use, accounting for 92 percent of the global water footprint
Because of the human activity changes is causing on the planet, the report states, "we can no longer exclude the possibility of reaching critical tipping points that could abruptly and irreversibly change living conditions on Earth."
The WWF stresses that these sobering statistics were not unavoidable, and that the challenges we now confront to effect change are not insurmountable.
"The scale of biodiversity loss and damage to the very ecosystems that are essential to our existence is alarming. This damage is not inevitable but a consequence of the way we choose to live," stated Professor Ken Norris, Director of Science at the ZSL.
As WWF's Roberts stated, "we already have the knowledge and tools to avoid the worst predictions. We all live on a finite planet and it's time we started acting within those limits."
To hear more about some of the details of the report, watch this video from ZSL: |
Type of Culminating Activity
Master of Arts in English, Literature
Matthew C. Hansen
Hamlet has over 4,000 lines, and Gertrude speaks less than 200 of those lines (about 4% of the entire play), but her roles as a widow, wife, and mother drive much of the play’s action. This document brings together scholarship surrounding Gertrude’s roles within the play and new research into the historical cultural milieu of early modern England focused on working women to learn more about the cultural patterns influencing the creation of this character. What results is the assertion that analogues to Gertrude and her situation in Hamlet can be found in early modern widows who worked as printers and brewsters.
At first glance, Gertrude’s political role as queen consort suggests parallels with royal widows or monarchs, and certainly these do exist. When we look to Shakespeare’s own life, though, it seems more likely for Shakespeare to have had knowledge of the lives of brewsters and printers than of royal widows. Shakespeare’s friend Richard Field married a widowed printer and brewing was such a widespread phenomenon that women’s presence in the industry was largely recognized on a cultural level. Using Greenblatt’s circulation of social energy, I argue that Shakespeare would have been influenced by working women and that we see as much in Gertrude’s situation in the play.
Analogues to working class widows lie in the ambiguous nature of public and private in early modern England. This thesis illuminates similarities between the intersection of domestic and economic duties for women printers and brewsters and Gertrude’s overlapping political and familial obligations. I also engage with the stereotypes that resulted from the transgression of the public/private boundaries. As women involved in male-dominated trades, female printers and brewsters were often saddled with all of the anxieties surrounding their vocations, resulting in typecasts that depicted these women as greedy, deceitful, and lewd. Gertrude both adheres to and breaks these traditional stereotypes. In her marriage to Claudius, however, Gertrude differs from working class widows, though some similarities do exist.
This document poses the argument that Gertrude’s position in Hamlet reflects the cultural significance of women’s work. It utilizes research about the lives of women who printed and brewed alongside primary works like ballads and court cases as a lens through which to view Gertrude’s role in the play. In doing so, this thesis crafts a new interpretation of Gertrude as an analogue to working widows, the situations they faced, and their power position in early modern England.
Lehmann, Erin Elizabeth, "Pois'ned Ale: Gertrude's Power Position in Hamlet" (2013). Boise State University Theses and Dissertations. 632. |
Antiretroviral combinations including a protease inhibitor (like Prezista or Reyataz) made viral loads undetectable more often when people took their pills on time at least 95% of the time than when they took their pills less often.1 Viral load control rates did not differ significantly in people taking a combination including a nonnucleoside (like Edurant, Intelence, or Sustiva) if their pill-taking on-time record lay between 90% and 94% or at 95% or greater. That does not mean people taking a nonnucleoside can skip doses, but it suggests HIV control suffers less if someone mistakenly misses a nonnucleoside dose than if someone misses a protease inhibitor dose.
Adherence is the term health professionals use to describe how faithfully people take pills prescribed by their provider. The goal is to take every pill on time every day, exactly as your provider instructs. But sometimes people forget to take one or more pills, and sometimes they miss a dose when they run out of pills or leave home and forget to take their pills with them.
The main goal of antiretroviral therapy is to reach and maintain an undetectable viral load. Researchers and HIV providers want to know how often an undetectable viral load becomes detectable when people miss one or more doses of their antiretrovirals for any reason. Undetectability rates vary from one antiretroviral combination to another when someone misses a dose because different antiretrovirals stay in the body for different periods. An antiretroviral that stays in the body for a longer time after a dose will keep the viral load undetectable longer after a missed dose.
Rates at which antiretroviral-treated people reach and keep an undetectable viral load increased greatly over the past 10 years. One reason for this increase is better pill-taking adherence by people with HIV. Adherence improved as antiretroviral combinations became easier to take, required fewer pills, and caused fewer side effects. Researchers working with a large HIV-positive U.S. veterans group conducted this study to determine adherence levels needed to keep viral loads undetectable with the newest antiretroviral combinations in use today.
This analysis involved HIV-positive veterans who were part of the ongoing Veterans Aging Cohort Study Virtual Cohort (VACS-VC) at some point between October 2000 and September 2010. Researchers checked Veterans Affairs records for medical and laboratory details and to see which antiretroviral combinations these veterans took. The investigators classified combinations as (1) single pill versus multiple pills and (2) once daily versus twice daily. They assessed three major types of antiretroviral combination -- those including a nonnucleoside, those including a protease inhibitor, and those including an integrase inhibitor (the newest type of antiretroviral, including Isentress, Tivicay, and Vitekta).
The researchers checked Veterans Affairs pharmacy records to determine when veterans filled prescriptions for their antiretrovirals. The investigators defined adherence as the number of days a person had antiretrovirals available during 1 year divided by total days between the first and last antiretroviral prescription refill in a year. They defined "minimum needed adherence" as the adherence level at which chances of having an undetectable viral load did not differ significantly from the chance of having an undetectable viral load with at least 95% adherence (that is, at least 95% as defined in the previous sentence).
The researchers recorded changes in rates of adherence, undetectable viral load, type of antiretroviral combination, and antiretroviral dosing (once or twice daily) over time for each veteran. They used accepted statistical methods to determine changes in adherence over time and the impact of adherence on reaching an undetectable viral load. This type of analysis accounts for the potential impact of several factors that may influence adherence and undetectable viral load, such as race, alcohol abuse, drug abuse, major depression, number of antiretrovirals taken, and CD4 count.
The main aim of the study was to determine "minimum needed adherence" for antiretroviral combinations used from 2006 onward.
The study involved 21,865 HIV-positive veterans taking antiretrovirals, 98% of them men, 46.5% black, 41.6% white, and 7.6% Hispanic. When veterans entered the study, they averaged 46 years in age.
From 2001 through 2010, use of multi-pill protease inhibitor combinations fell from 65% to 43%, and use of multi-pill nonnucleoside combinations dropped from 33% to 16%. From 2006 onward, use of single-pill combinations rose from 1% to 29% and use of integrase inhibitors (the newest type of antiretroviral) rose from 0% to 11%. Atripla, which contains the nonnucleoside Sustiva, was the only single-pill combination these veterans took during the study period. Starting in 2006 veterans taking a single-pill combination had better adherence than those taking two or more pills and those taking antiretrovirals twice daily.
The proportion of veterans with 95% adherence or better rose slightly from 37% in 2001 to 42% in 2010. Statistical analysis determined that the overall adherence rate rose 8% each year, rose 13% every 2 years, and rose 16% from 2001-2005 to 2006-2011 (Figure 1). This analysis accounted for the impact of several factors on adherence, so the researchers can be confident that the increasing adherence was not affected by those factors -- age, race, alcohol abuse, drug abuse, major depression, or time since antiretroviral therapy began.
Figure 1. From 2001 through 2010, antiretroviral pill-taking adherence rose 8% yearly, 13% every 2 years, and 16% from 2001-2005 to 2006-2011 in a study of 21,865 HIV-positive U.S. veterans.
Among people with less than 95% adherence, the proportion with an undetectable viral load jumped from 38% in 2001 to 84% in 2010. At every adherence level studied, the proportion of veterans with an undetectable viral load was higher in those taking a nonnucleoside combination than in those taking a protease inhibitor combination or an integrase inhibitor combination (although these differences were smaller at the highest adherence levels).
Among all veterans studied, the proportion reaching an undetectable viral load did not differ much between those with 90% to 94% adherence and those with 95% adherence. However, among veterans taking a protease inhibitor combination, those with 90% to 94% adherence versus 95% or better adherence had a 12% lower chance of reaching an undetectable viral load. But among veterans taking a nonnucleoside combination, having 90% to 94% adherence versus 95% or better adherence did not affect chances of reaching an undetectable viral load. That finding with nonnucleosides held true whether veterans were taking a multi-pill nonnucleoside combination or a single-pill nonnucleoside combination.
This large study of U.S. veterans starting antiretroviral therapy made several interesting findings -- and most of those findings are good news for people with HIV infection. First, the proportion of veterans with less than 95% adherence (on-time pill taking) who reached an undetectable viral load with antiretroviral therapy rose steadily from about 40% in 2001 to almost 85% in 2011. Reaching an undetectable viral load is the main goal of antiretroviral therapy. This finding probably reflects the increasing strength and durability of antiretroviral combinations over the years, which would allow people to miss an occasional dose without hurting their chance of reaching or keeping an undetectable viral load.
It is important to remember, though, that missing too many doses is still risky. When the researchers compared undetectable viral load rates in four adherence groups (90% to 94% adherence, 85% to 89%, 80% to 84%, and 75% to 79%), the undetectable rate was about 10% higher with 90% to 94% adherence than with 75% to 79% adherence all the way from 2001 to 2010.
And worse adherence had an impact in veterans taking an antiretroviral combination including a protease inhibitor. Compared with veterans who had at least 95% adherence with a protease inhibitor combination, those with 90% to 94% adherence (that is, veterans missing only a few more doses over time) had a 12% lower chance of reaching or keeping an undetectable viral load.
Another piece of good news is that adherence improved slowly but steadily over the course of this study (Figure 1). The researchers recorded two factors that help explain this improving adherence: (1) Veterans were switching from twice-a-day combinations to once-a-day combinations, which are easier to remember to take. (2) Veterans were switching from combinations including two or more pills to a combination that puts three antiretrovirals in a single once-daily pill (Atripla*). The study did not explore two other well-known improvements with newer antiretrovirals -- fewer side effects and longer durability (drug levels staying higher longer after each dose).
All of these factors are making it easier for people with HIV to take their antiretrovirals on time, exactly as their HIV provider directs. And everyone should aim for 100% adherence -- taking all antiretrovirals on time every day. Missing a dose every now and then usually does not pose a big threat. But missing a few more doses -- letting adherence slip below 95% -- did pose a risk for veterans taking protease inhibitor combinations in this study. And an even lower adherence rate could pose problems for people taking any type of antiretroviral combination.
Researchers who conducted this study believe their overall findings hold a lesson for HIV providers: They argue that providers should not let concerns about barriers to adherence stop them from prescribing the newest antiretroviral combinations at early stages of HIV infection.
People taking antiretrovirals should never stop taking their antiretroviral pills or deliberately skip doses unless their provider tells them to. If you have trouble taking all your antiretrovirals regularly -- perhaps because you think they're causing side effects -- talk to your HIV provider as soon as you can. If side effects persist, it may be possible to switch to another antiretroviral combination. If the demands of daily living make it hard to take your antiretrovirals on time, you can get help from a social worker or case worker in your provider's office or recommended by your provider. The key is to talk about any problems that come up and work toward a solution. Antiretroviral therapy is helping HIV-positive people live as long as people without HIV. But you have to take your pills.
* Now three other once-daily pills combine three antiretrovirals -- Complera, Stribild, and Triumeq -- and others are on the way.
|Treatment Adherence Optimization: Acting With Humility to Move Beyond Preconceived Ideas|
|Solving the HIV Treatment Adherence Enigma|
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The Journal of Gerontology sites how we feel about 13 years younger than we really are!
I turned 71 last week and I don’t feel 13 years younger! In fact, I’m finding myself saying, “I’m getting old,” and hobbling along…in time with my own script.
However, my 93-year-old mother would say, “I keep forgetting I’m not 60!” and lived like it.
In fact, according to Emma Seppala, Ph.D., author of “The Happiness Track,” there is growing evidence that the expression of many of our genes is connected to how we choose to think.
Compassion’s clout - Getting out of ourselves
Research is also discovering that choosing to express compassion for others can actually erase the effects of getting older. A study by Michael Poulin Ph.D. at the University of Buffalo reports there was no linkbetween stress and health a-mong people who chose to help their friends and neighbors in the past year. In contrast, people who didn’t reach out to others actually decreased their odds of survival.
Thus the healing power of compassion for others is deeply rooted in promoting longevity! (Not to mention the fact that compassion simply makes us feel better.)
For example, one study found that elderly people who helped adolescents work on a life problem improved their own cognitive performance at the same time.
Another study found that older adults who shared a memorized story with children improved their own memory.
But the following discovery is the most exciting!
The older we grow in years, the more we learn to accept our own emotions!
In other words, the older we grow, the more we can choose to accept our feelings. As a consequence, we can actually decide to feel less anger and anxiety. This is based on Albert Ellis’ book, a “Guide to Rational Loving,” who discovered that our feelings do not come from out there in the universe somewhere. Our feelings primarily come from what we are choosing to believe about ourselves, about our lives and about others who need us.
There truly is something to be said for the expression older and wiser.
In other words, it all comes down to what we choose to think!
The hard times in your life
Think of this, dear reader. No matter how old we are, all of us can look back on our lives and see how some of the really hard times taught us life lessons we could not have learned in any other way. And it is these lessons which give us a more reflective awareness of the majesty of simply still being alive. 150 years ago, you were lucky if you lived to be 48; now the life expectancy is 85 or older.
This wisdom may be the reason that older people tend to take a more thoughtful stance about living: emphasizing the need for multiple perspectives, making room for compromise and recognizing the limits of knowledge.
Wisdom is contagious!
And this wisdom is contagious. Another study indicated that closeness to a grandparent was associated with reduced emotional problems, reduced hyperactivity and increased prosocial behaviors.
Caring keeps us healthy
I think all this science is getting to the roots of the obvious: Choosing to care for others and sharing our wisdom helps keep us alive and healthy. It also makes me think of my mom and how she loved life and the older she became, the more grateful she became for just being alive. She gave money to every single beggar she encountered and lived to help others.
She was truly hard to keep up with!
Steven Campbell is the author of “Making Your Mind Magnificent” and conducts “The Winners Circle” every two months at Sonoma Mountain Village in RP. Contact Steven at 480-5007 or go his website at stevenrcampbell.com to ask about his one-day free monthly seminar. |
Though the Film IA is a long process it is something you will enjoy doing, especially if you remember why you chose IB Film in the first place. This is often your first chance to really get stuck into film-making – make the most of it!
IB Film has a relatively big internal assessment. Not only do you have to create a whole film but you also have to write an extensive portfolio explaining everything. It is a long process but something you will enjoy doing, especially if you chose IB Film in the first place.
Before you start anything, watch movies for inspirations. If you don’t have enough time to spend hours watching even more films, you can simply think about ones you really enjoyed or thought were well made. Rather than focusing on their plot twists and character developments (which are still helpful for writing a screenplay), analyse the film language for inspirations on how to film. Look through different shots and edits as well as the role music plays and how the film sets its own mood. Don’t try to copy them but extract ideas to create your own. Remember to take note of these films; they will be excellent to mention in your portfolio.
Once you start planning, give each stage enough time – especially editing. Making ‘perfect’ edits is impossible, but every time you rewatch your film you will be able to spot more and more edits you want to make. The only thing stopping you will be time. So make sure to leave several days to edit. After a good night’s sleep your film will look different and you may be able to find even more ideas for edits.
I cannot stress enough how important it is to take each step seriously. It is very tempting to leave work for the next step so your current work will be easier and quicker. You might decide to leave your screenplay as it is because your actors can have spontaneous dialogues to fill the scene. Or you may shoot only one take because you can simply edit it to make it better. This is the worst mistake you can make. Always remember that when rubbish goes in, rubbish comes out. If you make sure every step is done at its best, it will make the next step so much easier and your end product so much better.
When you start writing your portfolio journal, try to incorporate every material you learned in class. Look over class notes and use specific film words you learned to explain various styles of shots and edits. Reference filmmakers and particular films as inspirations. Explain your process but include reflection wherever you can, to focus on what you’ve learned rather than what you’ve done.
Creating a film feels like a lot of pressure. But rather than an assessment, think of it as a project you always wanted to try. You love movies, now you simply get to make your own!
What the IBO says about IB Film: |
Definition of there is no time like the present in English:
An action should be done now rather than later: ‘When do you want me to leave?’ ‘No time like the present.’
More example sentences
- But nevertheless, no time like the present to begin.
- ‘We have to start winning soon,’ he said, ‘and there's no time like the present.’
- If you haven't had a chance to contribute yet, well… there's no time like the present!
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. |
“1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages…. 2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. ....3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.” --Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Education is the key to full economic, social, cultural and political participation in society and the right to education can be considered a right each of these categories. Access to primary education is a minimum core obligation; universal primary education must be compulsory and free of charge. The compulsory nature of primary education guards against violations of this right by parents or government. Making primary education free eliminates income-based discrimination and at the same time removes incentives for not attending school.
Governments should develop national policies that will progressively expand and improve the educational system and successively introduce free education at all levels. Every state should respect the right to educational freedom. This includes respect for the religious and moral convictions of the children and their parents, the liberty of parents or legal guardians to chose other than public school in which to enroll their children, and the freedom of every individual or institution to establish educational institutions as long as they conform to national standards for curricula and admissions.
General Comment 13 of the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights has set forth these standards for the right to education:
Availability. Government should build enough schools to guarantee that everybody can attend one. They should be equipped with all the materials and facilities that they need to function properly such as: teaching equipment, trained staff and faculty, protection from natural elements, and drinking and eating facilities.
Accessibility. Educational institutions should be accessible to everyone. Nobody can be discriminated against on the basis of sex, race, immigration status, religion, and/or ethnicity. Schools should be safe to attend and within reasonable distance from communities. Distance learning can be used for remote areas. Education should be available to everyone despite their level of income. States should gradually introduce free education at all levels.
Acceptability. The curricula and teaching methods of schools should be acceptable to the parent of the children and they should fulfill national norms that are set by the government.
Adaptability. Education should be adaptable to the changes in society and should include the different social and cultural interests of the students.
Legal Instruments on the Right to Education |
The Seals of Wisdom
by Shaykh al Akbar Muhi-d-Din Ibn al-'Arabi
Index of Chapters:
1. The Seal of Divine Wisdom in the Word of Adam
2. The Seal of Wisdom of the Breath of Angelic Inspiration
in the Word of Seth
3. The Seal of the Wisdom of the Breath of Divine Inspiration in the Word of Noah
Seal of the Wisdom of Purity in the Word of Idris
5. The Seal of the Wisdom of Being Lost in Love in the Wisdom of
6. The Seal of the Wisdom of the Real in the Word of Issac
7. The Seal of the Wisdom of Elevation in
the Word of Ishmael
8. The Seal of the Wisdom of the Spirit in the Word of Jacob
9. The Seal of the Wisdom of
Light in the Word of Joseph
10. The Seal of the Wisdom of Divine Unity in the Word of Hud
11. The Seal of
the Wisdom of Revelation in the Word of Salih
12. The Seal of the Wisdom of the Heart in the Word of Jethro
The Seal of the Wisdom of Power in the Word of Lot
14. The Seal of the Wisdom of the Decree in the Word of Ezra
The Seal of the Wisdom of Prophethood in the Word of Jesus
16. The Seal of the Wisdom of Mercy in the Word of Solomon
17. The Seal of the Wisdom of Existence (Wujud) in the Word of David
18. The Seal of the Wisdom of the Breath
(Nafas) in the Word of Jonah
19. The Seal of the Wisdom of the Unseen in the Word of Job
20. The Seal of the
Wisdom of Majesty in the Word of John the Baptist
21. The Seal of the Wisdom of Possession in the Word of Zachariah
The Seal of the Wisdom of Intimacy in the Word of Elijah
23. The Seal of the Wisdom of Ihsan in the Word of Luqman
24. The Seal of the Wisdom of the Imam in the Word of Aaron
25. The Seal of the Wisdom of Sublimity in the
Word of Moses
26. The Seal of the Wisdom of What One Turns to in the Word of Khalid
27. The Seal of the Unique
Wisdom in the Word of Muhammad
1) The Seal of Divine Wisdom
in the Word of Adam
When Allah - glory be to Him! - willed that the source of His most Beautiful Names - which are beyond enumeration
- be seen (or you can equally say that He willed His source to be seen), He willed that they be seen in a microcosmic being
which contained the entire matter, (1) endowed with existence, and through which His secret was manifested to Him. For how
a thing sees itself through itself is not the same as how it sees itself in something else which acts as a mirror for it.
So He manifests Himself to Himself in a form which is provided by the place in which He is seen. He would not appear thus
without the existence of this place and His manifestation (tajalli) to Himself in it.
Allah brought the entire universe
into existence through the existence of a form fashioned without a spirit (rûh), like an unpolished mirror. Part of the divine
decree is that He does not fashion a locus without it receiving a divine spirit, which is described as being "blown" (2) into
it. This is nothing other than the result of the predisposition of that fashioned form to receive the overflowing perpetual
tajalli which has never ceased and which will never cease. Then we must speak of the container (qâbil). The container comes
from nothing other than His most sacredly pure Overflowing. So the whole affair has its beginning from Him, and its end is
to Him, and "the whole affair will be returned to Him" (11:123) as it began from Him. Thus the command decreed the polishing
of the mirror of the universe. Adam was the very polishing of that mirror and the spirit of that form.
The angels are
some of the faculties of that form which is the form of the universe, which the Sufis designate in their technical vocabulary
as the Great Man (al-Insân al-Kabîr), for the angels are to it as the spiritual (rûhânî) and sensory faculties are to the
human organism. Each of these faculties is veiled by itself, and it sees nothing which is superior to its own essence, for
there is something in it which considers itself to be worthy of high rank and an elevated degree with Allah. It is like this
because it has an aspect of the divine synthesis (jam'îya). In it is something which derives from the divine side and something
which derives from the side of the reality of the realities. This organism carries these attributes as determined by the universal
nature which encompasses the containers of the universe from the most exalted to the basest. However, the intellect cannot
perceive this fact by means of logical investigation for this sort of perception only exists through divine unveiling
by which one recognises the basis of the forms of the universe which receive the spirits.
This being was called both
a human being (insân) and khalif. As for his humanness, it comes from the universality of his organism and his ability to
embrace all of the realities. He is in relation to Allah as the pupil, (3) being the instrument of vision, is to the eye.
This is why he is called "insân". It is by him that Allah beholds His creatures and has mercy on them. So he is a human being,
both in-time [in his body] and before-time [in his spirit], an eternal and after-time organism. He is the word which distinguishes
and unifies. The universe was completed by his existence. He is to the universe what the face of the seal is to the seal -
for that is the locus of the seal and thus the token with which the King places the seal on his treasures.
him khalif for this reason, since man guards His creation as treasure is guarded with the seal. As long as the seal of the
King is on the treasure, no one dares to open it without his permission. He made him a khalif in respect of safeguarding the
universe, and it continues to be guarded as long as this Perfect Man is in it. Do you not see then, that when he disappears
and is removed from the treasury of this world, nothing that Allah stored in it will remain? Everything that was in it will
leave it, and all the parts will become confused, and everything will be transferred to the Next World. Then Man will be the
seal on the treasury of the Next World for endless time and after-time. All the Divine Names contained in in the divine form
(4) appear in this human organism. Thus it possesses the rank of containing and integrating this existence. It was by this
that Allah set up the proof against the angels, (5) so remember that! Allah admonishes you through others. Look at where that
originates and where it ends up. The angels did not realise what was implied by the organism of the khalif, nor did they realise
what the presence of the Truth demanded as 'ibâda (6) (worship). Each one only knows from Allah what his essence accords him.
The angels do not possess the universality of Adam, and they did not understand the Divine Names with which he has been favoured,
and by which he praises Allah and proclaims His purity. They only knew that Allah had names whose knowledge had not reached
them, so they could not praise Him nor proclaim His purity through them. What we mentioned overcame them and this state overpowered
them. They said about this organism, "Why put on it one who will cause corruption on it?" (2:30) This is only the argument
which they were voicing.
What they said regarding Adam is exactly the state they were with regard to Allah. Had it
not been that their nature was in accord with it, they would not have said what they said in respect of Adam, "and yet they
were not aware." If they had had true recognition of themselves, they would have had knowledge, and had they been in possession
of knowledge, they would have been protected and would not have resisted by belittling Adam and thus exceeding their claim
of what they possessed of His praise and glorification. Adam was in possession of Divine Names which the angels did not have,
so that their praise and glorification of Him was not the same as Adam's praise and glorification of Him. Allah describes
this to us so that we may ponder it and learn adab (7) with Allah, and so that we will not lay claim to what we have not realised
or possessed by pinning down. How can we allege something which is beyond us and of which we have no knowledge? We will only
be exposed. This divine instruction is part of Allah's discipline of those of His slaves who are well-mannered, trusting and
Let us return to the wisdom under discussion. Know that universal matters which have no existence in themselves
are without a doubt intelligible and known in the mind. They are hidden and continue in their invisible existence. These universal
matters have jurisdiction and effect on everything which has an individual existence. Indeed, they are the same thing and
nothing else, i.e. the sources of existent individual things, and they continue to be intelligible in themselves. They are
manifest in respect of the sources of existent things just as they are hidden in respect of their intelligibility. Each individual
existent thing depends on these universal matters which cannot be dislodged from the intellect, nor would their existence
be possible in the source once they ceased to be intelligible, whether that individual existent is in-time or out-of-time.
The relationship of that which is in-time or out-of-time to this universal intelligible matter is the same. This universal
matter only has jurisdiction in individual existent things according to what the realities of these individual existent things
demand of it. It is like the relationship of knowledge to the knower, and life to the living. Life is an intelligible reality;
knowledge is an intelligible reality. Knowledge is as distinct from life as life is distinct from knowledge. So we say that
Allah has knowledge and life, and that He is the Living, the Knowing. We also say that the angel has life and knowledge, and
is living and knowing. We say that man has life and knowledge, and is living and knowing. The reality of knowledge is one
thing and the reality of life is another, and their relationship to the knowing and the living is the same relationship. We
say that the knowledge of Allah is in non-time and the knowledge of man is in-time. So look at the evaluation that this relationship
has brought about in this intelligible reality!
Examine this connection between individual intelligibles and stence
is necessary, rather, it is necessary by another, not by itself. As knowledge determines the one who participates in it
as he is called knowing so the one who is described by it can determine the knowledge. It is in-time in relation to
the one in-time and non-time in relation to the one in non-time. Each of the two is determining and determined. It is known
that these universal matters, even if they are intelligible, lack a source although they still have an authority. When they
are determined, since they are ascribed to an individual existent thing, they accept the principle in the existent sources
and do not accept distinction or fragmenting, for that is impossible for them. They themselves are in everything described
by them, as humanity is in every person of this particular species, without distinction or the numbering which affects individuals;
and it continues to be intelligible.
Now, as there is a connection between that which has an individual existence and
that which does not have one and it is a non-existent relationship so the connection of existents to each other
is easier to conceive because, in any case, there is a common factor between them which is individual existence. In the other,
there is no common factor, yet there is a connection despite the lack of a common factor. So it is stronger and more real
when there is a common factor. Without a doubt, the in-time establishes itself as being put into time and it needs something
in time to put it into time. It has no place in itself so it exists from something other-than-it, and it is linked to That
by the dependence of need. This dependence must be on That whose existence is necessary, which is independent in Its existence
by Itself without need. It is That which, by Its own essence, gives existence to the in-time which depends on It. Since the
existence of Its essence is necessary and what appears from It depends on It for its essence, it nevertheless depends on its
form for everything which is from a name or attribute, except for the essential necessity. That is not the property of it
in-time, even if its existence is neceesary, rather, it is necessary by another, not by itself.
Since the matter is
based on what we said about its manifestation in its form, Allah communicates to us knowledge of Himself through contemplation
of the in-time. He tells us that He shows us His signs in the in-time, (8) so we draw conclusions about Him through ourselves.
We do not describe Him with any quality without also possessing that quality, with the exception of that essential autonomy.
Since we know Him by ourselves and from ourselves, we attribute to Him all that we attribute to ourselves. For that reason,
divine communications came down on the tongues of our interpreters, (9) and so He described Himself to us through ourselves.
When we witness, He witnesses Himself. We are certainly numerous as individuals and species, yet we are based on a single
reality which unites us. So we certainly know that there are distinctions between individuals. If there were not, there would
be no multiplicity in the One.
Similarly we are described in all aspects by that by which He describes Himself, but
there must be a disinction and it is none other than our need of Him in our existence. Our existence depends on Him by virtue
of our possibility and He is independent of that which makes us dependent on Him. Because of this, one can apply before-timeness
and timelessness to Him which negates that firstness which is the opening to existence from non-existence. Although He is
the First, firstness is not ascribed to Him, and for this reason, He is called the Last. Had His firstness been the firstness
of the existence of determination, it would not have been valid for Him to be the Last of the determined because the possible
has no last - for possibilities are endless. So they have no last. Rather, He is the Last because "the whole affair will be
returned to Him" (11:123) after its attribution to us. So He is the Last in the source of His firstness and the First in the
source of His lastness.
Then know that Allah has described Himself as the Outawrdly Manifest and the Inwardly Hidden;
(10) He brought the universe into existence as a Visible world and an Unseen world so that we might know the Hidden by the
Unseen and the Manifest by the Visible. He described Himself with pleasure and wrath, and so He brought the world into existence
as a place of fear and hope so we fear His wrath and hope for His pleasure. He described Himself with majesty and beauty,
so He brought the universe into existence with awe and intimacy. It is the same for all that is connected with Him, may He
be exalted, and by which He calls Himself. He designates these pairs of attributes by the two hands (11) which He held out
in the creation of the Perfect Man. Man sums up all the realities of the universe and its individuals. So the universe is
seen and the Khalif is unseen. It is with this meaning that the Sultan veils himself, even as Allah is mentioned and described
as having with veils (12) of darkness, which are natural bodies, and luminous veils which are subtle spirits (arwâh). The
universe is composed of both the gross and the subtle.
The universe is its own veil on itself and cannot perceive the
Truth since it perceives itself. It is continuously in a veil which is not removed, since it knows that it is distinct from
its Creator by its need of Him. It has no portion of that essential necessity which belongs to the existence of Allah, so
it can never perceive Him. In this respect, Allah is never fully known by the knowledge of tasting and witnessing because
the in-time has no hold on that.
Allah only applied "between His two hands" to Adam as a mark of honour, and so He
said to Iblis, "What prevented you prostrating to what I created with My two Hands?" (38:76) That is none other than the union
in Adam of the two forms - the form of the universe and the form of the Real: (13) and they are the two hands of Allah. Iblis
is only a fragment of the universe and does not possess this comprehensive quality. It is because of this quality that Adam
was a khalif. Had he not had the form of the One who appointed him khalif, he would not have been khalif. If there were not
in him all that is in the world, and what his flocks, over whom he is khalif, demand of him because of their dependence on
him (and he must undertake all they need from him) he would not have been khalîf over them.
is only valid for the Perfect Man, whose exterior form comes from the realities of the universe and its forms, and whose inner
form is based on His form, may He be exalted! For that reason, Allah has said of him, "I am his hearing and his sight." (14)
He did not say, "his eye and his ear." So He differentiated between the two forms. It is the same for every existent in the
universe which appears according to what the reality of that existent demands of it. Nonetheless no one totally comprehends
what the khalif has. One only surpasses others by this comprehensiveness. If it were not for the diffusion of Allah into the
existents by the form, the universe would not have any existence. Similarly, were it not for these universal intelligible
realities, no principle would have appeared in individual existent things. From this reality the universe depends on Allah
for its existence. So all is in need, and nothing is independent.
This is the truth
and we have not spoken metaphorically.
If I speak of a something independent
without any need, you will know Who I mean by it.
The whole is tied to the
and cannot be separated from it, so understand what I have said!
Now, you have learnt of the formation of
the body of Adam his outer form and the formation of his spirit, his inner form, so he is the Real and a created
being. Now you have learnt of the formation of his rank which is the comprehensiveness by virtue of which he is worthy of
the khalifate. Adam is the unique self from which the perfect human species was created according to His words, "O mankind,
be fearful of your Lord who created you from a single self, and created its mate from it, and disseminated many men and women
from the two of them." (4:1)
His words, "Be fearful of your Lord," mean to make of what has appeared from you a safeguard
for your Lord and make what is concealed of you, which is your Lord, a safeguard for yourselves. The matter consists of blame
and praise, so be His safeguard in the blame and your safeguard in the praise, so that you will be among those of knowledge
and adab. Then He showed him what He had placed in him, and He put that in His two hands - one handful contained the universe
and the other handful contained Adam and his descendants - and He showed them their ranks in Adam.
Then Allah informed
me in my inner heart (sirr) of what He placed in this Imam, the great progenitor. I have put in this book some of what was
allotted to me but not all of what I realised. A book could not contain that and not even the present existent universe could
contain it. I have put some of what I have witnessed in this book, as the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant
him peace, defined it. It was the divine wisdom in the word of Adam, that is, this chapter.
Then there is the wisdom
of the breath of angelic inspiration in the word of Shith (Seth), the wisdom of divine inspiration in the word of Nuh (Noah),
the wisdom of purity in the word of Idris, the wisdom of being lost in love in the word of Ibrahim (Abraham), the wisdom of
truth in the word of Ishaq (Isaac), the wisdom of the elevation of the word in the name of Isma'il (Ishmael), the wisdom of
the spirit in the word of Yusuf (Joseph), the wisdom of unity in the word of Hud, the wisdom of revelation in the word of
Salih, the wisdom of the heart in the word of Shu'ayb, the wisdom of the power of the word of Lut (Lot), the wisdom of the
decree in the word of 'Uzayr (Ezra), the wisdom of prophethood in the word of 'Isa (Jesus), the wisdom of mercy in the word
of Sulayman (Solomon), the wisdom of existence in the word of Da'ud (David), the wisdom of the soul in the word of Yunus (Jonah),
the wisdom of the unseen in the word of Ayyub (Job), the wisdom of majesty in the word of Yahya (John the Baptist), the wisdom
of possession in the word of Zakariya (Zachariah), the wisdom of intimacy in the word of Ilyas (Elias), the wisdom of benevolence
in the word of Luqman, the wisdom of the Imam in the word of Harun (Aaron), the wisdom of sublimity in the word of Musa (Moses),
the wisdom of what one turns to in the word of Khalid, and the wisdom of uniqueness in the seal of Muhammad.
is a seal for each wisdom. So I have condensed these wisdoms according to what is established in the Mother of the Book, and
I complied with what was written out for me, and stopped at what was set as a limit for me. Even if I had desired to do more
than that, I would not have been able to do so. Indeed, the Presence forbids that, and Allah is the One who grants success.
There is no Lord but Him.
Notes to Chapter 1:
1. al-Insân al-Kâmil, the Perfect Man.
2. Nafkh, Qur'an 32:9, etc.
Insan, as well as meaning human being, also means the pupil of the eye.
4. The form chosen by Allah for the human being.
5. Qur'an 2:30-33.
6. 'Ibada: All the acts of worship: giving, praying, fasting, etc..
7. Adab: Manners. Here
meaning the much deeper quality of spiritual manners, that is a courtesy engendered in the ritual acts of worship, the prostrations
of the prayer, the fast, and giving gifts to the needy. Such a quality is imbued with awareness that you are the dependent,
and the Real is the independent. You are poor, He is rich.
8. Qur'an 41:53, "We will show them Our signs on the horizons
and in themselves..."
9. i.e. the Prophets.
10. Qur'an: 57:3.
11. Qur'an 38:75, "What I created with My two hands."
12. Hadith: "Allah has 70,000 veils of light and darkness. If they were to be removed, the splendour of His face would
13. Hadith: "Allah created Adam on His form."
14. ref. to hadith qudsî via Abu Hurayra, "My slave does not
draw near Me with anything I love more than what I have made obligatory for him. My slave continues to draw near me with superogatory
actions until I love him. When I love him, I am his hearing with he hears, his sight by which he sees, his hand with which
he strikes, and his foot with which he walks." (Sahih al-Bukhari, 81:38:2)
2) The Seal of Wisdom of the Breath of Angelic Inspiration
the Word of Shith (Seth)
Know that the gifts and favours which appear in phenomenal being through human
beings or without them fall into two categories: the gifts of the Essence and the gifts of the Divine Names. These two categories
are distinct among the people of tasting according to whether as they come from a specific request for a specific thing, from
a general request, or without any request. This applies whether they are gifts of the Essence or gifts of the Divine Names.
They are specific when someone says, "O Lord, give me such-and-such a thing," and specifies something which occurs to him.
They are general when someone says, "Give me what You know is good for all my parts, subtle and gross," without specifying
The askers fall into two groups - one group makes the request from a natural impulse to hasten its attainment,
"for man is impetuous;" (17:11) and the other group asks because they know that there are matters with Allah which, in the
foreknowledge of Allah, are only obtained after a request. They say, "Perhaps what I ask of Him is something of that sort."
Their request takes into consideration this possibility. They do not know what is in the knowledge of Allah, nor what their
capacity to receive will grant them. This is because it is one of the most difficult things to know capacity at any moment,
for it refers to the capacity of the individual at that time. Furthermore, had he not been disposed by his capacity to make
the request, he would not have made that particular request.
The goal of the people of presence, (2) who do not possess
such a knowledge, is to know it in the moment in which they find themselves. They know by their state of presence what Allah
has given them in that moment. and they only receive it by their predisposition for it. They are of two sorts: one group knows
their predisposition from what they have already received, and the other group knows what they are going to receive based
on their predisposition. This latter group has the most perfect recognition of predisposition.
Among this group are
those who make a request, neither to hasten it nor for the possibilities of favour, but rather to comply with the command
of Allah when He says, "Call on Me and I will answer you." (40:60) This sort of person is the pure slave and when he asks,
his aspiration (himma) is not attached to what he asks for, be it specific or not, rather his aspiration is merely in or not,
rather his aspiration is merely in obedience to his Lord's command. When his state requires, he asks for slavehood, and when
it requires entrustment [to Allah] and silence, he is silent. So Ayyub and others were tried, and they did not ask Allah to
remove their affliction from them. Then at another moment, their state required that they ask that it be removed, and Allah
removed it from them.
The immediate granting of a request, or its deferment, depends on the decree which has been determined
for it by Allah. If the request coincides with the moment, the answer comes quickly, and if the moment is deferred - either
in this world or the next, the answer is also deferred except for the answer from Allah which is, "At your service" (3) -
so understand this well!
As for the second category, it is received without making a request, and by "without request"
we mean verbal expression of it. In actuality, there must always be a request - be it articulated, or by a state, or from
a predisposition. Similarly, unrestricted praise only takes place through verbal expression. The state determines the meaning,
for that which induces you to praise Allah is determined for you by a Name of Action (4) or a Name of Disconnection. (5) In
the case of the predisposition of the slave, its possessor is not conscious of it, but he is aware of his state because he
knows both what his motive is and the state itself. Predisposition is the most hidden form of making requests.
which prevents some people from asking is their knowledge that Allah has predetermined their destiny, so they have prepared
themselves to receive whatever comes from Him, and they have withdrawn from their selves and their desires.
people are those who know that the knowledge which Allah has of them in all their states is their basic constitution in the
state of their permanent source-form from before existence. They know that Allah will only give them what their source allows
them according to Allah's knowledge of it when they were in their permanent source-forms. Thus these people know that Allah
knows the way they will obtain anything.
There is no higher, nor more unveiled group among the People of Allah than
this group, who understand on the secret of the Decree. They, in turn, fall into two sorts: those who know it in general and
those who know it in particular. Those who know it in particular are higher and nearer perfection than those who know it in
general. Such a person knows what is in the knowledge of Allah for him - be it by Allah informing him of the knowledge his
own source has accorded to Him, or be it by direct unveiling to him from his permanent source-form whose unfolding states
are endless. So he, in his knowledge of himself, is in the position of having Allah's knowledge of him, because it is derived
from the same source. In respect of the slave, concern from Allah is predestined for him, and it is constituted by the sum
of the states of his source which the possessor of this unveiling perceives when Allah allows him to perceive it, i.e. the
states of his source. When Allah informs him of the states of his permanent source-form upon which the form of his existence
depends, it is not in the capacity of the creature in this state to perceive what Allah perceives of his permanent source-form
upon which the form of his existence depends, it is not in the capacity of the creature in this state to perceive what Allah
perceives of these permanent sources in the state of their non-existence, since they are but essential relations without any
form. In this respect, we say that divine concern precedes the slave's need because of this equivalence in the communication
In this way Allah speaks so that we will know, and it is an expression which is completely specific -
not as is imagined by those who do not drink from this source. The goal of disconnection is to make that in-timeness in knowledge
belong to Knowledge. It is the highest aspect of this question which the mutakallim (6) can comprehend with his intellect
- unless he considers knowledge to be distinct from the Essence. If he does this, he ascribes relativity to knowledge, and
not to the Essence, and because of this, he sets himself apart from the realised ones among the People of Allah, who are endowed
with unveiling and real existence.
Let us return to those gifts which are either the gifts proceding from the Essence
or the Names. As for the favours, gifts and graces of the Essence, they only come by means of divine tajalli. (7) Tajalli
only comes from the Essence by means of the form of the predisposition of the one to whom the tajalli is made. It never occurs
otherwise. The one who receives the tajalli will only see his own form in the mirror of the Real. He will not see see the
Real, for it is not possible to see Him. At the same time, he knows that he sees only his own form. It is the same as a mirror
in the Visible world inasmuch as you see forms in it or your own form but do not see the mirror. At the same time, however,
you know that you see the forms, or your own form, only by virtue of the mirror. Allah manifests that as a model (8) appropriate
to the tajalli of His Essence, so that the one receiving the tajalli knows that he does not see Him. There is no model nearer
or more appropriate to vision and tajalli than this. When you see a form in a mirror, try to see the body of the mirror as
well - you will never see it. It is true that some people who perceive this say that the reflected form is imposed between
the vision of the seer and the mirror. This is the most that it is possible to say, and the matter is as we have mentioned.
We have clarified this in the The Makkan Revelations.
If you wish to taste this, then experience the limit beyond which
there is no higher limit possible in respect of the creature. Neither aspire to, nor tire yourself out in trying to go beyond
this degree, for in principle, there is only pure non-existence after it.
Thus Allah is your mirror in which you see
yourself, and you are His mirror in which He sees His Names. His Names are not other than Himself, as you know. The matter
is confusing. One of us implied ignorance of the matter as part of knowledge and said, "The incapacity to achieve perception
is perception." (9) Some of us know but do not express it in this way, even though it is the highest of words. Knowledge does
not give incapacity to know as the first one said, but rather knowledge gives him the same silence which incapacity gives.
This is the highest level of those who have knowledge of Allah.
This knowledge only belongs to the Seal of the Messengers
and the Seal of the Awliyâ'. The Messengers and Prophets only see it from the niche of the Messenger who is the Seal. The
awliyâ' only see it from the niche of the walî who is the Seal. Even the Messengers only see it to the extent that they see
it from the niche of the Seal of the Awliya', for Message and Prophethood - by which I mean the Prophethood of bringing the
Sharî'a and its message - ceases, but wilâya never ceases. Thus the Messengers, imuch as they are awliya', see what we have
mentioned only from the niche of the Seal of the Awliya'. How could it be different for other awliyâ'? Although the Seal of
the Awliyâ' is subject to the judgement which the Seal of the Messengers brought through the Sharî;a, that does not diminish
his station nor does it detract from what we have said, for something which is lower from one point of view can be higher
from another. Confirmation of this occurred in the history of our Sharî'a in the excellence of the judgement of 'Umar regarding
the prisoners of Badr (10) and their treatment, and in the story of fertilization of the date-palms. (11) It is not necessary
that the perfect have precedence in everything and in every rank. The Rijâl (12) regard precedence as being in the degrees
of knowledge of Allah. Here is their goal. As for the things which are in-time, they do not attach their thoughts to them,
so realise what we have mentioned!
Al-Khidr said to Musa, "I have knowledge which Allah has taught me, and which you
do not know, and you have knowledge which Allah has taught you and which I do not know." (13)
It is like the Prophet,
may Allah bless him and grant him peace, in relation to a brick wall which was complete except for one brick, (14) and the
Prophet was that one brick although he himself only saw the place for the single brick. The Seal of the Awliyâ' must also
have this sort of vision. He sees the same as the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, saw, but he
sees a place for two bricks in the wall, and that the bricks are made of gold and silver. He sees that there are two bricks
missing in the wall, and he sees that they are a silver brick and a gold brick. He must see himself as being disposed by nature
to fill the place of these two bricks. The Seal of the Awliyâ' is these two bricks by which the wall is completed. The necessary
reason for which he sees himself as two bricks is that he follows the Shari'a of the Seal of the Messengers outwardly - which
is the place of the silver brick. This means the outward Sharî'a with all that pertains to it of ordinances which are taken
from Allah by the secret, according to the outward form which conforms to the secret because he sees the matter for what it
really is. He must see the matter in this manner, for it is the place of the golden brick in the inwardly hidden. It is taken
from the source from which the angel brought it, the same angel who brought the revelation to the Mesengers. If you have understood
what I have alluded to, then you have indeed acquired useful knowledge!
All the Prophets, from Adam to the last of
the Prophets, take their light from the niche of the Seal of the Prophets, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. Even though
the existence of his clay was deferred, the last Prophet was nevertheless present in his reality, according to his statement,
"I was a Prophet when Adam was between water and clay." (15) Every other Prophet only became a Prophet by being described
by divine qualities inasmuch as Allah is described as the Praiseworthy Wali.(16)
The Seal of the Messengers, in respect
to his wilâya, is connected to the Seal of the Awliyâ' in the same way in which Prophets and Messengers are connected to it.
He is a walî, Messenger, and Prophet. The Seal of the Awliyâ' is a walî and the heir who takes directly from the source, contemplating
the ranks. He is the most beautiful of the beauties of the Seal of the Messengers, Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant
him peace, the overseer of the community, and the master of the sons of Adam by reason of opening the door of intercession.
He specified a particular state which is not universal. (17) In this special state, he has precedence over the Divine Names.
So the All-Merciful only mediates with the Avenger for the people of affliction through the intercession of the mediators.
Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, obtained mastery in this special station. Whoever understands the ranks
and the stations does not find this discourse difficult.
As for the gifts of the Names, know that Allah bestows mercy
on His creation which is wholly from the names. Either it is a pure mercy, like the excellence of the provision which they
have in this world or on the Day of Rising which is bestowed by that name, the Merciful, and so is a gift of mercy, or it
is a mixed mercy like the taking of a disagreeable remedy which is followed by relief - it is still a divine gift. Divine
gifts can only possibly be given through the intermediary of the guardians of the Names. Sometimes Allah gives it to the slave
by means of the All-Merciful, and so the gift is pure from any adulteration which would be contrary to the nature of the moment,
otherwise he would not receive the object and what would resemble it. Sometimes He gives by means of the the Boundless, so
it is general - or by the Wise, so He looks at what is fitter at the moment, or by the Giving, who gives what is good without
those who receive it having to compensate for it by gratitude or deed. He gives by the Compeller, and so He looks at the environment
and what is necessary to it. He gives by the Forgiving and so He looks to the environment and what is happening to the individual.
If he is in a state which merits punishment, He veils him from it, and if he is in a state which does not merit punishment,
He protects him from a state which would merit it. He is "protected from wrong action", "safeguarded", and other descriptions
of that sort. The Giver is Allah in the sense that He is the Treasurer of all that is in His treasury, and Allah only brings
forth from it according to a predestined decree through the intermediary of a name particular to that matter. So He gives
everything its created form (18) according to the name, the Just, and its brothers.
The Names of Allah are endless
because they are known by what comes from them, and what comes from them is endless, even though they can be traced back to
the limited roots which are the matrices of the Names or the presences of the Names. In reality, there is but one of the Names
or the presences of the Names. In reality, there is but One Reality which assumes all these relations and aspects which are
designated by the Divine Names. The Reality grants that each of the Names, which manifest themselves without end, has a reality
by which it is distinguished from another Name. It is that reality by which it is distinguished which is the Name itself -
not that which it shares.
It is the same with the gifts - every gift is distinct from another by personal nature, although
they come from a single source. It is evident that this one is not that one. That is because the Names are distinct. Because
of its boundlessness, in the Divine Presence there is nothing at all which repeats itself. This is the truth which is determined.
was the knowledge of Shith, peace be upon him, and its spirit aids every spirit which discusses the like of this, except for
the spirit of the Seal who receives replenishing knowledge directly from Allah, not from any spirit. No, rather it is from
his spirit that his substance flows to all spirits, although he may not perceive that of himself at the time when his elemental
body existed. However, in respect to his reality and his rank, he knows all of that essentially, just as he is ignorant of
the composition of the elements (of his body). So he has knowledge and is ignorant, and he is capable of being described by
contrary attributes even as the Origin admits of description with opposites such as the Majestic and the Beautiful, the Outward
and the Inward, the Last and the First - and they are the same, and not other than Him. Therefore, he knows and does not know,
and he perceives and does not perceive, and he sees and does not see. It is by this knowledge that Shith received his name
because it means "the gift". In His hand is the key to the gifts in their various types and relationships So Allah gave him
to Adam, and he was the first gift, and He only gave it from Himself.
This was the knowledge of Shith, peace be upon
him, and its spirit aids every spirit which discusses the like of this, except for the spirit of the Seal who receives replenishing
knowledge directly from Allah, not from any spirit. No, rather it is from his spirit that his substance flows to all spirits,
although he may not perceive that of himself at the time when his elemental body existed. However, in respect to his reality
and his rank, he knows all of that essentially, just as he is ignorant of the composition of the elements (of his body). So
he has knowledge and is ignorant, and he is capable of being described by contrary attributes even as the Origin admits of
description with opposites such as the Majestic and the Beautiful, the Outer and the Inner, the Last and the First - and they
are the same, and not other than Him. Therefore, he knows and does not know, and he perceives and does not perceive, and he
sees and does not see. It is by this knowledge that Shith received his name because it means "the gift". In His hand is the
key to the gifts in their various types and relationships So Allah gave him to Adam, and he was the first gift, and He only
gave it from Himself.
All gifts in phenomenal being are manifested in this fashion - so no one receives anything from
Allah and no-one receives anything which does not come from himself. Not everyone recognises this. Only a few of the people
of Allah know it. When you see one who recognises that, rely on him, for that one is the source of the purest purity and the
elite of the elite of the Men of Allah. Whenever a person of unveiling sees a form which communicates to him gnosis which
he did not have and which he had not been able to grasp before, that form is from his own source, no other. From the tree
of himself he gathers the fruits of his cultivation, as his outer form opposite the reflected body is nothing other than himself,
even though the place of the presence in which he sees the form of himself presents him with an aspect of the reality of that
presence through transformation. The large appears small in the small mirror and tall in the tall, and the moving as movement.
It can reverse its form from a special presence, and it can reflect things exactly as they appear, so the right side of the
viewer is his right side, while the right side can be on the left. This is generally the normal state in mirrors, and it is
a break in the norm when the right side is seen as the right and inversion occurs. All this is from the gifts of the reality
of the Presence in which it is manifested and which we have compared to the mirror.
Whoever recognises his predisposition,
recognises what he will receive. Not everyone who knows what he will receive, knows his predisposition, unless he knows it
after receiving it, and this one knows it in a general way. Some people who are weak of intellect think that since it confirmed
with them that Allah does what He wills, they deem it admissible that He could contradict wisdom and what the matter is in
itself. (19) Because of this, some of them go so far as to deny the possibility and affirm that which is necessary by essence
and by other. The man who has achieved realisation, however, admits the possibility and knows its presence and knows what
is possible and how it is possible, since in its source it is necessarily existent because of something other-than-it. From
where is the name of other, which determines its necessity, valid for it? No one knows this distinction except those with
particular knowledge of Allah.
It is in the footsteps of Shith that the last of this human species will be born, and
he will carry his secrets. There will none of this species born after him, so he will be the Seal of the Begotten. A sister
will be born with him, and she will emerge before him, and he will follow her with his head at her feet. He will be born in
China, and he will speak the language of his country. Sterility will spread in men and women, so there will be much cohabitation
without conception. He will call people to Allah, but will not be answered. When Allah takes him and the believers of his
time, those who remain will be like beasts, not knowing what is lawful (halâl) from what is unlawful (harâm). They will act
according to their natural instincts with lust, devoid of reason and law. Upon them the Last Hour will occur.
Notes to to Chapter 2:
1. Nafth, to puff, blow
or spit, hence inspiration. Hadith, "He (Jibril) inspired or put (nafatha) into my heart..." Hence poetry is called the nafth
2. The people of the presence are those who see everything as coming to them from Allah and everything as
effected by Allah.
4. Like the Giving, the Provider.
5. Tanzih, making Allah free of any connection
to His creation. Names like the Absolutely Pure (al-Quddûs).
6. The people of words - theologians and philosophers. They
are unable to enter the realm of reflection and meditation that is the Sufic domain, and thus some of them oppose the Sufic
teaching - mistaking the doctrine's meanings since they cannot intellectually identify them with a specific set of physical
practices and direct inner experience.
7. A manifestation by which something is made clear and unobscured, as the bride
is displayed to the husband or the rust removed from a sword or mirror so that it shines. The tajalli is the unveiling of
a spiritual reality in the realm of vision. It is a direct-seeing into the nature of existence, a showing forth of the secrets
of the One in the celestial and terrestial realms.
8. Mithâl, a Qur'anic term which indicates learning not by logical
but by analogical method. It is simply the ACCESS to the parable and not the parable or any idea that the "metaphor" equals
its interpretation. It has no specificity. Mithal is grasped "on the wing" so to speak. It cannot be explored or analysed
or extended. That is to say it must not be approached rationally but emphathetically with direct and clear seeing-into.
Abu Bakr as-Siddiq.
10. After Badr, Abu Bakr asked the Prophet to either forgive or allow the prisoners to be ransomed.
'Umar said that they should be killed. Eventually, the Muslims reached a consensus that the captives should be ransomed and
they were. Later the verse was revealed, "It is not for a Prophet to take captives..." (8:67)
11. When the Prophet had
been asked about whether palm-trees should be pollinated and then later said, "You have the best knowledge of these things
of your world."
12. Rijal (sing. rajul): The men. Meaning the men of gnosis and illumination. Those who know - that is
- who know how-it-is, and not the veiled fantasy experience of so-called ordinary sensory perception which is, as we now know,
in direct contradiction to the physical reality of matter according to high-energy physics.
13. cf. Qur'an 18:65.
Hadith in al-Bukhari (2815) and Muslim.
15. Hadith in at-Tirmidhi and Musnad Ibn Hanbal.
16. Qur'an 42:28, "It is
He who sends down abundant rain after they have lost all hope, and He unfolds His mercy; He is the Praiseworthy, the Wali."
17. He only can open the door of intercession because it is a a special gift to him alone.
18. Qur'an 20:50: "Our
Lord is He who gives each thing its created form and then guides it."
19. i.e. they permit that He do the impossible,
like making existence non-existence or non-existence existence.
3) The Seal of the Wisdom of the Breath of Divine Inspiration
In the Word of Nuh (Noah)
Know that disconnection (tanzîh) among
the people of realities in respect to Allah is the same as limitation and qualification, so the one who disconnects is either
ignorant or ill-mannered if he only applies disconnection to Him and believes that about Him. (2) When the believer who follows
the Sharî'a disconnects and stops at that, and does not see anything else, he displays ill manners and slanders Allah and
the Messengers - may the blessings of Allah be upon them! - although he is not aware of it. He imagines that he has reached
the target and yet he has missed it, so he is like the one who believes in part and rejects part. (3)
knows that when the language of the various Sharî'as speaks about Allah as they do, they speak to the common people in the
first sense, and to the elite in every sense which can be understood from the various aspects of that expression in any language
in the usage of that language.
Allah manifests Himself in a special way in every creature. He is the Outwardly Manifest
in every graspable sense, and He is the Inwardly Hidden from every understanding except the understanding of the one who says
that the universe is His form (4) and His He-ness (huwiyya), and it is the name, the Outwardly Manifest. Since He is, by meaning,
the spirit of whatever is outwardly manifest, He is also the Inwardly Hidden. His relation to whatever is manifested of the
forms of the world is the relation of the governing spirit to the form. The definition of man, for example, includes both
his inward and outward; and it is the same with every definable thing. Allah is defined in every definition, yet the forms
of the universe are not held back and He is not contained by them. One only knows the limits of each of their forms according
to what is attained by each knower of his form. For that reason, one cannot know the definition of Allah, for one would only
know His definition by knowing the definition of every form. This is impossible to attain, so the definition of Allah is impossible.
Similarly, whoever connects without disconnection has given limits to Allah and does not know Him. Whoever combines connection
and disconnection in his gnosis, and describes Allah with both aspects in general - because it is impossible to conceive in
detail because we lack the ability to encompass all the forms which the universe contains - has known Him in general and not
in particular, as he knows himself generally and not in particular. For that reason, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and
grant him peace, linked knowledge (ma'rifa) of Allah to knowledge of oneself and said, "Whoever knows himself knows his Lord."
Allah says, "We will show them Our signs on the horizons (what is outside of you) and in themselves (what is your source)
until it is clear to them (the contemplators) that it is the Truth," (41:53) inasmuch as you are His form and He is your spirit.
You are to Him as your body-form is to you, and He is to you as the spirit which governs the body.
The definition contains
your inwardness and outwardness, for the form remains when the spirit which governs it departs, and it is no longer man, but
one can speak of it as resembling the form of man. There is no difference between it and the form made of wood or stone, upon
which the name of man is only applied by metaphor and not by reality. Allah cannot vanish from the forms of the universe,
as His definition of His divinity is by reality, not metaphor, as the definition of man applies only so long as he is alive.
As the exterior of the form of man praises both his spirit, and the self governed by it, with his tongue, similarly Allah
made the forms of the universe which glorify His praise, but we do not understand their glorifying. (5) We do not embrace
all forms in the universe. All are tongues of Allah uttering the praise of Allah and for that reason He said, "Praise be to
Allah, the Lord of all the worlds," (1:1) i.e. all types of praise refer to Him. He is the Praiser and the One praised.
you speak of disconnection, you limit Him,
and if you speak of connection, you define Him.
If you speak of the two
then you are free of error
and you are an Imam and a master in knowledges of gnosis.
He who affirms
duality, falls into shirk, and whoever speaks of uniqueness is a unifier. (6) Take care lest you be a dualist by connection,
and take care lest you be a isolator by disconnection.
You are not Him, rather you are Him
and you see Him in the
source of thing,
absolute and limited at the same time.
Allah says, "There is nothing like Him," and so He disconnects,
"and He is the Hearing, the Seeing," (42:11) so He connects. Allah says, "There is nothing like Him," so He connects and doubles
it, (7) and "He is the Hearing, the Seeing." Then He uses disconnection and makes Himself Unique.
If Nuh had combined
these two calls for his people, they would have answered him. He called them openly (71:8), and he called them secretly (71:9).
Then he said to them, "Ask forgiveness of your Lord. Truly He is Endlessly Forgiving." (71:10) He said, "I have called my
people night and in the day, but my calling has only made them more evasive" (71:5-6) because they knew what they had to do
in answering his call.
So the knowledge of those who know Allah is what Nuh indicated in respect to his people by praising
them through blame. He knew that they would not answer his call because of the furqân (8) it contained. The command is the
Qur'an, not the Furqân. Whoever is established in the Qur'an does not incline to the Furqân. Even if the Furqân is in the
Qur'an, the Qur'an contains the Furqân but the Furqân does not contain the Qur'an. For this reason, no one was favoured by
the QurÕan except Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and this community which is the "best community ever
to be produced before mankind." (3:110)
So "there is nothing like Him" unified several matters in one single matter.
If Nuh had articulated something like of this âyat, his people would have responded to him, because it contains connection
and disconnection in a single âyat, rather in half an âyat.
Nuh, peace be upon him, peace be upon him, called on his
people at night in respect to their intellects and spirituality (rûhânîyya), which are unseen; and by day he called on them
in respect to their outer forms and arrival. In his call, he did not unify with anything, like "there is nothing like Him."
So their inward had a distaste for this separation, and it increased them in evasion. Then he said of himself that he called
upon them that He might forgive them, not that He be unveiled to them. They understood that from him. That is why "they put
their fingers in their ears and wrapped themselves in their clothes," (71:7) and this is the form of veiling to which he called
them. So they answered his call by action, not by saying, "At your service."
There is both the confirmation of likeness
and its negation in "There is nothing like Him." For this reason, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said
of himself, "I have been given all the words." (9) Muhammad, peace be upon him, did not call on his people by night and day,
but rather he called upon them by night in the day and by day in the night. Nuh said in his wisdom to his people, "He will
send heaven down on you in abundant rain," (71:11) which is intellectual gnosis in meanings and metaphorical speculation,
and "He will reinforce you with wealth," i.e. by what comes to you from Him.
Thus it is your wealth in which you have
seen your form. So whoever among you imagines that he has seen Him, does not have gnosis, and whoever of you knows that he
has seen himself, he is the gnostic. For this reason people are divided into those who know Allah and those who do not know.
"And sons" is what results from their logical speculation while the knowledge of the business (to which Nuh called them) is
based upon contemplation which is far from the results of thought. Their trade did not profit them, (10) so what they had
in their hands, which they only imagined they possessed, vanished from them.
The kingdom belongs to the people of Muhammad,
may Allah bless him and grant him peace, for Allah says "Give of that to which He has made you successors." (11) (57:7) For
the people of Nuh it is, "Do not take anyone besides Me as a guardian." (17:2) The kingdom was confirmed for the people of
Muhammad, and the guardianship in it belongs to Allah. The people of Muhammad are the khalîfs in it. The kingdom belongs to
Allah and He is their guardian, and that is the kingdom of being appointed khalif. For this reason, Allah is the "King of
the kingdom" (12) as at-Tirmidhi says. "They have hatched a mighty plotting," (71:22) because calling to Allah is the plotting
of the the One called; since He does not lack the beginning, He is called to the end, so they call to Allah. This is the source
of devising according to inner sight. Nuh said, "The affair belongs entirely to Him," so they answered Him with plotting as
He called them.
The people of Muhammad came and knew what the call to Allah was in respect of its He-ness, rather what
it is in respect to His Names. Allah says, "The day those who are godfearing are gathered to the All-Merciful." (13) So He
used the "particle of the end" (ilâ - to) and joined it to that Name, and we recognise that the universe is under the care
of a Divine Name which requires them to be among the "godfearing". The reality of taqwâ (14) is that man avoids ascribing
blessings, perfections and praiseworthy attributes to himself or to others, except for Allah. He fears Allah through His acts
and attributes. These things are evils from the spring of possibilities. They said in their plotting, "Do not abandon your
gods. Do not abandon Wadd or Suwa' or Yaghuth or Ya'uq or Nasr." (71:22) Then they abandoned them ignorant of the Truth according
to what they left of the idols. Allah has an aspect in every worshipped thing. Whoever recognises it, recognises, and whoever
is ignorant of it is ignorant among the people of Muhammad. Your Lord decreed that you should worship only Him that
is the judgement of your Lord.
The one who possesses knowledge knows who the slave is and in what form he is manifested
as far as he is a slave. Separation and multiplicity are like the limbs of the sensory form and like faculties of meaning
(15) of the spiritual form. He only worships Allah in every worshipped object. The lowest one is the one who imagines that
godness is contained in it. Were it not for this illusion, stones and other things would not have been worshipped. This is
why He said, "Say: Name them!" (13:33) If they had named them, they would have named stone, tree, or star. If they had been
asked, "Who do you worship?" they would have replied, "God". They would not say "Allah" or "the god".
The highest knower
does not use this imagination, (16) but rather he says that this is a divine tajalli which one must exalt, and he does not
restrict himself. The lowest one is the one possessed of fantasy: "We only worship them so that they bring us neared to Allah."
(39:3) The highest knower says, "Your god is One God, so submit to Him," (22:34) wherever He is manifest, "and give good news
to the humble-hearted" who humble the fire of their nature. They spoke to it (the fire), and did not say "nature". "They have
misguided many people," (71:24) i.e. they perplexed many in the multiplicity of the One by aspects and relations. "Do not
increase not the wrongdoers" because their selves are from the totality of the chosen ones who inherited the Book and they
are the first of the three, (17) which precedes the ambivalent and the outdoer, "in anything but misguidance", except in the
perplexity of the man of Muhammad who says, "Increase me in perplexity." (18) "Every time it shines on them, they walk in
it. When the darkness comes over them, they stop." (2:20) So the perplexed one turns about, and the circular movement is about
the axis which he does not leave.
The one who has a stretched-out path is inclined to leave the goal, seeking what
the possessor of imagination has in it, and his end is that imagination. He has "from" and "to" and what is between them.
The one who has a circular movement has no beginning, "from", which clings to him, and no end, "to", is judged of him. Thus
he has the most perfect existence. He "is given all the words" (19) and wisdoms. "And because of their errors" which is that
which is recorded for them, "they were drowned" in the seas of the knowledge of Allah which is perplexity among the men of
Muhammad. When the seas were heated up, (20) "they were put into a fire" in the source of water, "and they found no one to
help them besides Allah." (71:25) Allah is the source of their helpers, and so they were destroyed in it for time without
end. If He had brought them out to the shore, the shore of nature, He would have brought them down from this high degree.
All belongs to Allah and is by Allah, rather it is Allah.
Nuh said, "My Lord!" and he did not say, "My God," for the
Lord has immutability, and "God" differs according to the Names. So "every day He is engaged in some affair." (55:29) By Lord,
he meant something with an immutable quality. "Do not leave upon the earth" and he called on them to go into its Muhammadan
interior. "If you let down a rope, it would fall on Allah," (21) "to Him belongs what is in the heavens and what is in the
earth." When you are buried in it, you are in it and it is your container, and "We will return you into it and We will bring
you forth from it again," (20:55) by the difference of existence. "...of the unbelievers" who wrap themselves in their garments
and put their fingers in their ears, seeking veiling because he called on them that He might forgive them. Forgiveness is
the veiling of wrong actions, "not even one" so that the benefit will become universal like the call. "If You leave any,"
i.e. if You call them and then leave them, "they will misguide Your slaves," i.e. confuse them and so bring them out of their
service to what they have of the secrets of lordship. They will think themselves lords after they were slaves in themselves.
Thus they are slaves and lords. "They will spawn nothing" i.e. they will not have any result or manifest anything except their
being shameless that is, the manifestation of what veils the unbelievers is that they were veiled from what appeared
after their manifestation. They manifested that which veils, so they were veiled after their appearance.
is confused and does not recognise the goal of the shameless in shamelessness, (22) or the unbeliever in his disbelief, yet
the person is but one. "My Lord, forgive me," i.e. veil me and that which concerns me so that my rank and station are unknown,
as the rank of Allah are unknown in His statement, "They do measure Allah with His true measure"; (23) "and my parents" of
whom I am a result, and they are the intellect and nature; "and all who enter my house," i.e. my heart, "as believers" believing
in what it contains of divine reports, and it is what their selves occasioned, "And all the believers, men (the intellects)
and women (the selves)."
"Do not increase the wrongdoers (dhâlimîn)" who are from the darkness (dhulumât), the people
of the unseen, hiding behind the veils of darkness, "except in ruin" i.e. in destruction. Thus, they do not recognise themselves
because they see the Face of Allah outside of them. Among the men of Muhammad, "All things are passing except His Face." (28:88)
Ruin is destruction. Whoever wishes to understand the secrets of Nuh must rise into the sphere of Nuh. (24) It is in our book,
Notes to to Chapter 3:
1. Subbûh, name applied to Allah, the All-Perfect, disconnected
2. If he does not go on to include tashbih, connection.
3. cf. Qur'an 4:149: "Those who reject
Allah and His Messengers and desire to make division between Allah and His Messengers, saying, 'We believe in some and reject
4. By manifesting His attributes and Essence since everything is a proof and indication of Him.
5. Ref. to
Qur'an 17:44, "There is nothing which does not glorify Him with praise, but you do not understand their glorification."
In this case, ignorant of the multiplicity of His Names and Attributes.
7. "Like Him" = "ka-mithlihi", the word "like"
occurs twice: "ka" and "mithl", so like negates like, like a double negative.
8. Furqan: One of the names of the Qur'an,
meaning a "discrimination" that which separates or distiguishes. Here presented as an opposite in a dyad: Qur'an/furqan, that
9. Hadith in al-Bukhari and Muslim.
10. Reference to Qur'an, 2:16, "Those are the people
who have sold guidance for misguidance. Their trade has brought no profit. They are not guided."
Since He answers His slave who is the "kingdom". Technical term used by al-Hakim at-Tirmidhi and Abu Madyan, discussed by
Ibn al-'Arabi in the Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Chapter 24, vol. I, p. 182.
13. ref. Qur'an 19:85.
14. Fearfulness of Allah
which is reflected in one's behaviour.
15. Meaning. Meaning does not carry the ordinary connotative significance that
it has in the science of semantics. In the Sufic science meaning is not allied, but inseparable from the experience of the
recognition of meaning. In other words, it is not a "thing" which can be apprehended with the qualities of thingness. It is
a mode of experiencing which takes places in a zone of awareness that is in itself a realm of the inward reality cognised
in the waking state. Meaning/sensory, ma'na/hiss.
16. Khayal: An important term. Khayal means imagination, but in the
special technical language of Ibn al-'Arabi the khayal contains an outer and inner meaning. Its outer (not inner) meaning
is imagining in the ordinary sense of a "tangible reality" which is experienced mentally yet remans unreal, that is, untouchable
and non-physical. Its inner meaning, however, is that faculty by
which we solidify the objects - which are according to
unveiling basically "not-there" - spatiality itself. There is much resistance to this in "rational" and programmed intellects
as there is of the hand to the rock in "common sense" experience. The rock is there, it does not budge. There is, it must
not be forgotten, a threshold situation where this is not so, for if the subject were brain-damaged, subjected to a hallucinogen,
or hypnotic trance, then the object would experientially melt away. That is still not the same as seeing in which things are
seen as-they-as in one unified field without differentiation, while altert within that condition of experiencing. And this
state brings with it wisdom beyond the recognition of how-it-is at that moment - in other words a new understanding is established
by the experience.
17. Ref to Qur'an 35:32, "...but some of them wrong themselves, some are ambivalent, and some outdo
each other in good."
18. Hayra: Bewilderment. A Key term. Hayra is not a negative situation - it is the condition in which
the seeker finds every intellectual channel blocked, every pathway of reason clashing against the other in contradiction so
that it induces in the seeker a state of intensity. This intensity by virtue of its inner tension creates a condition we call
hayra. It is a collapse of separation - a kind of "white hole" - which results in gatheredness. That is, the hayra creates
a new condition which is its result and that result is a breakthrough into an illumination of the Real.
19. Meaning the
Prophet Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, who was given all the words.
20. By the oven (from which the
water gushed out of the earth in the Flood.)
22. The manifestation of lordship.
23. 6:91, 22:84, 39:67.
24. The Sphere of the Sun.
4: The Seal of the Wisdom of Sanctification (Quddûs)
in the Word of Idris
Elevation has two references - one of place and one of rank. Elevation of place is "We raised him up to
a high place," (19:57) and the highest of places is that upon which the mill of the world of the spheres revolves. It is the
sphere of the sun and in it is the station of the spirituality of Idris, peace be upon him! There are seven heavens under
it and seven heavens above it, and it is the fifteenth. That which is above it is the red heaven, i.e. Mars, the heaven of
Jupiter, Saturn, the heaven of fixed stars, the Starless Heaven and the heaven of the constellations, the heaven of the Kursi
and the heaven of the 'Arsh. That which is below it is the heaven of Venus, Mercury, the Moon, the circle of ether, the circle
of air, the circle of water, and the circle of earth. It is is the axis of the heavens, and it is a "high place".
for the elevation of rank, it is for us, the people of Muhammad. Allah said, "When you are uppermost and Allah is with you"
(47:35) in this height. He exalts Himself above place, not above rank. When the selves of those among us who do deeds are
afraid, He follows the mention of "being with" with His words, "He would not cheat you of your deeds." The deed demands place
and knowledge demands rank. So He joined the two heights for us - elevation of place by deed and elevation of rank by knowledge.
Then to disconnect the association of being with, He said, "Glorify the name of your Lord, the Most High," (87:1) above this
association in meaning.
It is one of the most wondrous of matters that man is the highest of existent things - I mean
the Perfect Man, and elevation is only attributed to him by subordination either to place or rank which is a degree. So he
is not high by his essence, he is high by the height of place and the height of rank, for these possess height. Height of
place is like the All-Merciful settling on the throne, (1) and it is the highest of places. Height of rank is "All things
are passing except His Face," (28:88) and "the whole affair will be returned to Him," (11:123) and nothing has existence along
When Allah said, "We raised him up to a high place," He made high an adjective for place. Since your Lord
said to the angels, "I am putting a khalif in the earth," (2:30) this is height of rank. He said about the angels, "Were you
overcome by arrogance, or are you one of the exalted?" (38:75) so He gave elevation to the angels. If the angels had possessed
that elevation by simple virtue of the fact that they are angels, then all the angels would have been included in this elevation.
It was not common to them in the definition of angel. We recognise that this is elevation of rank with Allah. It is the same
for the khalifs of the people. If their elevation with the khalifate had been an elevation by essence, every man would have
it. It is not general and so we know that that elevation is by rank.
One of His names is the High. Over whom, when there
is nothing except Him? So He is the High by His Essence. Is He is High over that which is particular, when there is no He
except Him? His elevation is by virtue of Himself, and He, in respect to existence, is the source of existents. Those in-time
things which He calls high in themselves are not other than Him. He was the High when there was no height of relativity because
the source-forms in non-existence had not smelt the scent of existence. They remain in their state in spite of the multiplicity
of forms in existents, but the source is the same from the whole in the whole. The existence of multiplicity lies in the names
which are the relationships, and they are non-existent matters. There is only the source which is the Essence. He is High
through Himself, not by any ascription to another. From this standpoint, there is no height of relative relation in the universe,
but the aspects of existence which are distinct. The height of relativity exists in the one Source in respect of the many
aspects. For that reason, you say of Him, Him and not Him, and you and not you.
Al-Kharraz, (2) may Allah have mercy
on him, who is one of the aspects of Allah and one of His tongues with which He speaks of Himself, said that one only has
gnosis by joining opposites together in respect of Him. "He is the First and the Last, the Outwardly Manifest and the Inwardly
Hidden." (57:3) He is the source of what appears and the source of what is hidden in the state of its manifestation. There
is none who sees Him other than Him and there is none who is hidden from Him. So He is manifest to Himself and hidden from
Himself. He is called Abu Sa'id al-Kharraz and other than that from the names of things in-time.
The Hidden says "No"
while the Manifest says, "Me," and the Manifest says, "No" while the Hidden says, "Me". This is found in every opposite, yet
the speaker is one, and he is the same as the hearer in the statement of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace,
about what their selves say, (3) for they speak and hear what they say, and know what their selves say. The source is but
one, even if the judgements are different. There is no way that anyone can be ignorant of this sort of thing. Every man knows
from himself, and it is the form of the Real.
So things are mixed and numbers appear by the one in the known ranks.
Thus "one" brought number into existence, and number divides the One. The principle of number only appeared through the numbered.
Part of the numbered is non-existent, and part is existent. The thing is non-existent in relation to the senses while it is
existent in relation to the intellect. There must be number and numbered. That must grow from one and it grows because of
it. Every rank of the numbers has one reality like 9, for example, and 10 and down to 2, and upwards without end, and its
reality is not a sum.
A name is not perceived by the addition of ones. 2 is one reality, and 3 is one reality, and
so on until the end of these ranks. Even though the source [of numbers] is one, the source of one of them is not the source
of the others. Addition encompasses them all, and it speaks of them from them and judges them by them. Twenty ranks (4) appeared
in this statement, so composition entered into them. You will continue to affirm the source of what you deny in itself. Whoever
recognises what we have related of the numbers, and that negation is the same as their affirmation, knows that the Real, who
is disconnected by disconnection, is creature by connection, even though the creature is distinct from the Creator. The matter
is the creature/Creator and it is the Creator/creature. That is from one source, rather is is the One source and it is many
sources. Look at what you see!
Ibrahim¹s son told him, "My father, do what you are ordered." (37:102) The child is
the same as his father, so he only saw himself sacrificing himself, "and He ransomed him with an immense sacrifice." (5) That
which was manifested as a ram was manifested in the form of a human, and manifested in the form of a son. Rather, it is by
the principle of the son being the same as the father. "He created from (one self) his mate." (4:1) He (6) married his own
self, and from him are both his companion and his child. The matter is one in number. It is the same for nature and what is
manifested from it. We do not see it diminishing by what appears from it nor increasing by the lack of what other than it
manifests. That which is manifested is not other than it, nor is it the same as what is manifested according to the variety
of forms in principle. This one is cold and dry, and that one is hot and dry. They are joined by dryness, and distinct by
another quality. The common source is nature, and the world of nature is composed of forms in one mirror. Rather, it is one
form in different mirrors.
There is only bewilderment (hayra) by the dispersal of perspectives. Whoever knows what
we have said is not bewildered. If he increases in knowledge, it is only from the principle of place, and place is the same
as the source-form in which the Real varies in the locus of His tajalli. Conditions vary, so He assumes every condition. There
is no condition except for the source in which He make tajalli of Himself, and there is nothing except this.
aspect, Allah is creature, so interpret!
And by this aspect, He is not creature, so remember!
The inner sight of whoever
what I have said is not confused, and only
the one who perceives it possesses sight.
The source of
joining and separating is the same,
and it is multiplicity which never remains or departs.
The One who is High
in Himself is the One who possesses the perfection in which all matters of existence are absorbed, as are all non-existent
relations, inasmuch as it is not possible that any of these attributes be lacking from Him, be they praiseworthy by custom,
logic, or law, or blameworthy by custom, logic or law. That belongs only to the One named Allah. As for what is named other-than-Allah,
it is either a locus of His tajalli or a form which is in it. If it is the locus of His tajalli, it contains distinction.
Be-cause of that, there must be distinction between the One who makes tajalli and the place of tajalli; if it is a form in
it, that form is the source of the essential perfection because it is the same as what is manifested in it. That which belongs
to Allah belongs to that form. However, it is not said that it is Him nor that it is other-than-Him.
Qasi (7) indicated this in his book, The Removal of the Sandals, and he said, "Each Divine Name is qualified by all the Divine
Names, and described by their description." It is so. Each Name indicates the Essence and the meaning which is set out for
it and which demonstrates it. In respect to its indication of the Essence, it possesses all the names, and in respect to its
indication of the meaning which is singular to it, it is distinct from others, such as the Lord, the Creator, the Fashioner,
etc. The Name is the same as the Named in respect to the Essence, and the Name is other than the Named in respect to the meaning
which is particular to it.
If you have understood that the "high" is as we have mentioned, you know that it is neither
place nor height of rank, for height of rank is particular to the administration of authority, like the Sultan and the judge,
wazirs and qadis, and all who have rank, be they worthy of that rank or not. Height is by attributes which are not like that.
The most knowledgeable of people can be ruled by the person with the position of power, even if that person is the most ignorant
of people. This is the height of rank according to the principle of what he has over me in himself. When he retires, his high
rank vanishes. The one with knowledge is not like that.
Notes to Chapter 4:
1. Qur'an 7:54, "...then He
settled Himself firmly on the Throne."
2. Abu Sa'id Ahmad ibn 'Isa al-Kharraz, died in Cairo 286/899. He said, "I only
knew Allah by joining the opposites," and then recited, "He is the First and the Last, the Outward and the Inward."
Hadith, "Allah forgives my people what their selves say to then as long as they do not act upon that."
4. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 1000.
5. "And We ransomed him with an immense sacrifice." Qur'an:
7. Sufi leader of rebellion against the Murabitun in the Algarve.
5: The Seal of the Wisdom of Being Lost in Love (1)
in the Wisdom of Ibrahim (Abraham)
Ibrahim is called the intimate friend, and he was an intimate
friend (khalîl), because he was penetrated (takhallal) and gathered all the qualities of the Divine Essence. The poet says:
pervaded the course of my spirit,
and that is why the intimate friend is called the intimate friend.
It is like
the colour which permeates the coloured, so it is a non-essential matter ('arad) in respect to its essential substance (jawhar),
and it is not like the place and that which it occupies. Or it means the penetration of the Real into the existence of the
form of Ibrahim. Each of these two principles is true as was mentioned, for each points to an aspect which appears without
Do you not see that the Real is manifest in the qualities of beings in-time and He gives news of that
from Himself, and He is even manifest in the attributes of imperfection and the attributes of blame? Do you not see that the
creature is manifest with the qualities of the Real from first to last, and all of them belong to him as the attributes of
in-time things belong to the Real? "Praise belongs to Allah," so the results of praise from every praiser and one praised
go back to Him, and "the whole affair will be returned to Him," (11:132) It includes what is blameworthy and praiseworthy,
and there is only one or the other.
Know that when something is penetrated by something the first is contained by the
second, so the penetrating is the name of the actor veiled by the penetrated, which is the name of the one acted upon, and
it is the Outwardly Manifest. The name of the actor is the Veiled, the Inwardly Hidden. It is its food, as water permeates
wool and so makes it expand. If the Real is the Outwardly Manifest, then the creature is veiled within Him, and creation is
all theNames of the Real, His hearing and seeing, and all His ascriptions and discernments. If the creature is outwardly manifest,
then the Real is veiled and hidden in him, and so the Real is the hearing of the creature, and his seeing, hand and foot,
and all his faculties as it related in sound hadith. (2)
If the Essence were exempt from these relations, it would
not be divinity. These relations are made by our sources, so we make Him god by our dependence on His godness. He is not recognised
until we are recognised. The Prophet, peace be upon him, said, "Whoever knows himself knows his Lord." Such a person is the
creature with the most knowledge of Allah. Some sages, especially Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, claim that one can have gnosis of
Allah through disregarding the world. This is false. Indeed, the non-time pre-time is not recognised as god until that which
depends on its being God is known. Thus it is a proof of Him. Then after this, in the second state, (3) unveiling accords
you that the Real Himself is the source of the proof of Himself and His godness. The universe is but His tajalli in the forms
of their source-forms whose existence is impossible without Him. He assumes various forms and modes according to the realities
of these sources and their states, and this is after our knowledge of Him that He is our God.
Then the last unveiling
comes, so our forms appear to you in Him, and some of us appear to others in the Real, and then some of us recognise each
other and some of us are distinct from one another. Among us are those who recognise that our recognition of ourselves occurs
in the Real, and some of us are unaware of the presence in which this recognition of ourselves takes place. "I seek refuge
with Allah from being one of the ignorant." (2:67)
By the two unveilings together, He only judges us by ourselves,
rather we judge ourselves by ourselves, but through Him. That is why He says, "Allah's is the conclusive argument," (6:149)
meaning against those who are veiled when they say to the Real, in conformity with their desires, "Why did you do this or
that to us?", thinking that it was not in conformity with their desires. "On the Day when the legs are bared," (68:42) means
the matter which the gnostics unveil here. They see that the Real did not do to them what they allege that He did, but that
it was from themselves. For He only lets them know what they are in themselves. From this their argument will dissolve, and
the decisive proof of Allah will remain.
If you say, what is the benefit of His words, "If He had willed, He could
have guided every one of you," (6:149; 16:9) we say in If He willed "if (law)" is a particle of impossibility showing impossibility.
He only willed the matter as it is. But the source of possibility accepts the thing and its opposite in the principle of logical
proof, and it is the same with any two logical principles. That which occurs is that which the possibility implies in the
state of its immutability. The meaning of "If We had guided you" is, had He shown you the Truth. Allah does not open the inner
eye of every possibility in the universe to the perception of the matter as it is. There are those who know and those who
are ignorant. Allah did not so will, so He did not guide all of them, and He will not will it, and it is the same as if He
had willed it. How would He will this which is not? His volition is unified in its connections. It is a relationship dependent
on the known, and the known is you and your states. Knowledge does not have an effect on the known, rather the known has an
effect on knowledge, and so it accords from itself what it is in its source.
Divine discourse relates according to
what agrees with the ones addressed and what logical reflection accords it. It does not come according to what unveiling gives.
For that reason, there are many believers, but the gnostics who possess unveiling are few. "There is not one of us who does
not have a known station," (37:164) and it is what you are in your state of immutability which you manifest in your existence.
This is if it is confirmed that you have existence. If existence is confirmed to the Real and not to you, the judgement is
yours without a doubt in the existence of the Real. If it is confirmed that you are existent, then the judgement is yours
without a doubt, even if the judge is the Real. It is only the overflowing of existence on you.
You only praise yourself
and you only blame yourself, and praise is only due to Allah for the overflowing of existence, for that is His, not yours.
You are His nourishment by conditions, and He is your nourishment by existence. He is specified by what specifies you. The
command comes from Him to you, and from you to Him, even though you are called obligated, a passive name (mukallaf), and He
is not called obligated since there is no imposition upon Him.
He praises me, and I praise Him.
He serves me and
I serve Him.
In one state I draw near to Him,
and in sources I deny Him.
So He knows me and I do not know Him,
and I know Him and I witness Him.
Where is independence
when I help Him and assist Him?
That is why the Real
brought me into existence.
Then I knew Him and manifested His existence.
Hadith (4) brought us that,
and in me
He achieved His goal.
Then the intimate friend, Ibrahim, peace be upon him!, possessed this rank by virtue of which
he was called the intimate friend. For that reason, he made hospitality to guests a sunna. Ibn Masarra (5) associates him
with the angel Mika'il in respect to provisions. Provision is that which nourishes those provided for: when provision permeates
the essence of the one provided for until nothing remains in it except permeation and nourishment flows in all the parts of
the one nourished. There are no parts in divinity, so all the divine stations are penetrated which are designated by the Names,
and by which His Essence is manifested.
We are His as our proofs confirm,
and we are ours.
Only my being belongs
and we are His as we are ours.
I have two aspects: Him and me,
but He does not have "me" through me.
His place of manifestation is in me,
so we are His - like me.
"Allah speaks the truth, and He guides to the Way."
Notes to Chapter 5:
1. Huyûm is the intense love and passion which causes bewilderment and distraction.
2. ref. to hadith qudsî via Abu Hurayra, "My slave does not draw near Me with anything I love more than what I have made
obligatory for him. My slave continues to draw near me with superogatory actions until I love him. When I love him, I am his
hearing with he hears, his sight by which he sees, his hand with which he strikes, and his foot with which he walks." (Sahih
3. The first unveiling was annihilation (fanâ') and the second is going-on (baqâ').
4. "I created
existence so that I might be known."
5. Muhammad ibn Masarra al-Jabali, Andalusian Sufi and thinker, born in Granada 269
/883 and died near there in 319/931.
6: The Seal of the Wisdom of the Real
in the Word of Ishaq (Isaac)
ransom of a Prophet by an animal's sacrifice
as an offering!
How can the bleating of a ram be equal
to the voice
of a man?
Allah Almighty magnified the ram out of concern for us or for it,
but I do not see by what measure.
is no doubt that the bodies
of cows and camels are larger,
but they relinquished the rank of sacrifice
offering of the ram.
Would that I knew how a ram
replaced the khalif of the All-Merciful with its small body!
you not see that the command to sacrifice
implies correspondence and promises gain and diminishes loss?
There is no
creature higher than the mineral,
and after it comes the plant according to its ranks and measures.
The animal comes
after the plant,
and each one had gnosis of its Creator by unveiling and evident proof.
As for the one named Adam,
he is limited
by intellect, thinking, and the conventions of belief.
It is that which Sahl (at-Tustari) (1) and the
said as we do (2) - because we and they are in the degree of Ihsan.
Whoever witnesses the matter I have witnessed
will say what I have said, both secretly and openly.
Do not pay any attention to words
which contradict our words
and do not sow grain in the land of the blind!
They are the "deaf and dumb" in the text of the Qur'an
which the one
protected from wrong action brought for our ears.
Know, may Allah support us an you! that Ibrahim, the intimate friend,
peace be upon him, told his son, "I saw in a dream that I must sacrifice you." (37:102) He did not interpret it although the
dream is the presence of the imagination (khayâl). It was a ram which appeared in the form of Ibrahim's son, and Ibrahim confirmed
the vision. So his Lord ransomed his son from Ibrahim's illusion with the "mighty sacrifice", which was the interpretation
of the vision with Allah, but Ibrahim was not aware of it.
The tajalli of form in the presence of the imagination requires
another knowledge by which one can perceive what Allah means by that form. The Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and
grant him peace, said to Abu Bakr when he interpreted a dream, "You have guessed part of it rightly, and you have missed part
of it it." Abu Bakr asked him to inform him of what was right in it and what was wrong, but the Prophet did not do so.
said to Ibrahim when He called him, "Ibrahim, you have discharged your vision." (37:105) He did not say to him, "You have
confirmed the vision that it is your son" because he did not interpret it. He took what he dreamt literally, whereas dreams
require interpretation. That is why the 'Aziz, the ruler of Egypt, said, "...if you can interpret dreams." (12:43) The meaning
of interpretation is the transposition from the form of what one dreamt to another form. The cattle represented the hard years
and the fertile years. If Ibrahim had been faithful to the dream, he would have sacrificed his son, since he believed in the
dream that it really was his son, whereas with Allah it meant the "mighty sacrifice" in the form of his son. He ransomed him
by what occurred in Ibrahim's mind, but it was not ransomed in actuality with Allah.
There is a common form to the
sensory form of the sacrifice and the imaginary form of Ibrahim's son. If he had seen a ram in his imagination, he would have
interpreted it as his son or something else. Then Allah said, "This was a most manifest trial," (37:106) i.e. his clear test,
meaning his experience in knowledge - whether or not he knew what the perspective of the dream required in the way of interpretation.
He knew that the place of the imagination required interpretation, but he neglected it and the condition inherent in it, and
for this reason he believed in the vision.
Taqi ibn Mukhallad, the transmitter of traditions, did so too, having heard
in a tradition he was sure of, that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Whoever sees me in a dream,
sees me when awake, for Shaytan cannot assume my form." (3) So Taqi ibn Mukhallad saw the Prophet in a dream in which the
Prophet gave him milk to drink. Taqi ibn Mukhallad believed his dream, but he made himself vomit and threw up the milk. If
he had interpreted the dream, he would have known that milk means knowledge, equal to the quantity that he drank. Do you not
see that the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, received a goblet of milk in a dream and he said,
"I drank it until satiety came out of my nails, and then I gave the surplus to 'Umar." It was said, "Messenger of Allah, what
do you interpret it as?" He replied, "Knowledge." (4) He did not leave it as milk in its dream form since he had knowledge
of the state of dreams and how they must be interpreted. It is known that the form of the Prophet, peace be upon him, which
the senses see, is buried in Madina, and that the form of his spirit and his subtle form have never been seen by anyone nor
by himself. For this reason, the spirit of the Prophet takes on material existence in the form of his body as he died, and
nothing is missing from it. So it is Muhammad, peace be upon him, who appears in dreams through his spirit in a bodily form
which resembles his buried body, for Shaytan cannot assume the form of his body, (5) may Allah bless him and grant him peace,
and Allah protects the one who sees him. For this reason, whoever sees this form takes from it all that it orders or prohibits
or gives good news of, even as he takes judgements from him in the life of this world - according to what they indicate from
text, immediate or implicit. If he gives him something, that thing is subject to interpretation, unless it is manifest in
the senses as it is in the imagination, and so does not require interpretation. It is based on this aspect that Ibrahim, the
intimate friend, relied, even as Taqi ibn Mukhallad did. The vision has these two aspects. (6)
Allah taught us adab
in what He did with Ibrahim and what He said to him when He gave him the station of prophethood. We know that when we see
Allah in a form which logical reason rejects, we must interpret that form according to the Sharî'a, whether it is in the state
of the one who sees Him, or in the place in which He is seen, or the two together. If logical reason does not refute it, then
we take it as we saw it, just as when we see Allah in the Next World.
So the One, the All-Merciful,
has forms in
every place from what is hidden and what is manifest.
If you said, "This is the Real!" you spoke truly;
and if you
said, "It is something else," you interpreted.
His principle is not in one place rather than another,
but it brings
the Real to the creatures.
When He manifests Himself to the eyes,
the intellects deny him by insistent proofs.
is accepted in the tajalli to the intellects,
and in that which is called the imagination (khayâl).
That which is
sound is the seeing.
Abu Yazid, (7) may Allah be pleased with him, says of this station, (8) "Had the Throne, and
all it contains a hundred million times over, been in one of the corners of the heart of the gnostic, he would not have felt
it." This is the magnitude of Abu Yazid in the world of bodies, but I say, "If the limitlessness of that which exists could
be conceived of as being limited, and had it been contained as an existent source in one of the corners of the heart of the
gnostic, he would not have been aware of it in his knowledge." For it is confirmed that the heart contains Allah, although
it is not described by satiety. Had it been filled, it would have saturated.
Abu Yazid also said, "We have pointed
to this station, saying:
O Creator of things in Yourself,
You encompass all You have created!
You create that
whose being has no end in You,
for You are narrow and vast!
Had that which Allah created shone in my heart,
shining dawn would not have shone.
But that which contains Allah
does not exclude creation.
How is that, O Hearing?
Anyone can create by illusion in his imagination that which has no existence save in the imagination. This is a common
matter. By aspiration (himma), the gnostic creates that which has an outside existence in his aspiration. However, it continues
only as long as the aspiration continues to preserve it without being tired by preserving what it created. (9)
it happens that the gnostic neglects to preserve what he created by concentration, that creature ceases to exist, unless the
gnostic has mastered all the presences and does not neglect anything. Rather, he must witness at least one of these presences.
If the gnostic creates something by his aspiration and possesses this encompassment, that creature's form will appear in every
presence, and the form will preserve itself. If the gnostic neglects a presence or many presences while seeing one of the
presences, and while preserving the form of what he created in the presence he is in, all the forms will be preserved by the
preservation of that form in the presence which he does not neglect. For neglect is never universal, either among the common
or the elite. I have exposed a secret here which the People of Allah have guarded jealously, for it contains a refutation
of their allegation of being the Real. For the Real is never unconscious of anything, and the slave must be unconscious of
something in favour of something else. Inasmuch as he preserves that which he has created, he says, "I am the Real," (10)
but he does not maintain it the way the Real maintains it that is the difference. Inasmuch as he is unconscious of any
form and its presence, the slave is distinguished from the Real. He must be distinct, although all the forms are maintained
by his preservation of a single one of these in the presence of which he is conscious. This is preservation by inclusion,
and the preservation of the Real of what He created is not like that. Rather, His preservation is of each form in particular.
This matter which I have just communicated has never been written about by anyone - neither by me nor by any others - except
in this book. It is unique in time. Take care lest you forget it!
The presence which you remain conscious of, with
the form which resembles it, is like the Book about which Allah said, "We have not omitted anything from the Book." (6:38)
It therefore integrates the tangible and the intangible. None will recognise what we have said except the one who is himself
a Qur'an. (11) The one who fears Allah will have a furqân, (12) which is, as we mentioned, this matter in which the slave
is distinct from the Lord. This furqân is the highest furqân.
At one moment, the slave is the Lord without a doubt,
and at another the slave is most certainly the slave.
If he is the slave, he is vast by Allah,
and if he is the
Lord, he is in a restricted life.
Insofar as he is the slave,
he sees the source of himself,
and without a doubt
his hopes expand from him.
Inasmuch as he is a lord, he sees all of creation,
from the presence of angels and
the kingdom, demanding from him,
And he is unable to answer their demands by his essence.
For this reason, some of
the gnostics weep.
Be the slave of a Lord, and do not be the lord of His slave,
so you will not be suspended and tested
in the fire.
Notes to Chapter 6:
1. Famous Sufi who studied under Sufyan ath-Thawri. d. 282/896. Wrote a
short commentary on the Qur'an.
2. That the inanimate has more greater gnosis of Allah and obeys Him more than other creatures.
3. Al-Bukhari (6592); Muslim 42:10.
4. In Abu Dawud and Ibn Hanbal.
5. As in the hadith of al-Bukhari and Muslim.
6. Either it remains on its dream form or it is subject to interpretation.
7. Al-Bistami, d. 261/874. Famous Sufi
known for his ecstatic expressions.
8. The station of the vastness of the heart.
9. Language derived from Qur'an 2:255,
"...their preservation does not tire him."
11. i.e. The Perfect Man.
12. Qur'an 8:29, "O you who
believe! If you have fear of Allah, He will give you a furqan..."
7: The Seal of the Wisdom of Elevation
in the Word
of Isma'il (Ishmael)
Know that the one called Allah is Unique (Ahad) by Essence and by all His names, and
every existent thing is only attached to Allah by its own lord exclusively, for it is impossible for an an existent to possess
the whole. As for Divine Unity (ahadiyya), no existent possesses any of it because one cannot have one part of it while another
has another part. Unity does not admit of divisibility. His Unity integrates all of Him by potentiality.
one is the one is the one "who was pleasing to his Lord." (19:55) There is no one who is not pleasing to his Lord because
it is by him that lordship (rububiyyah) (1) is sustained. He is pleasing to Him, and so he is happy. This is why Sahl at-Tustari
said, "Lordship has a secret, and this secret is you." He was addressing every source. "Had the secret been disclosed, lordship
would have been invalidated." He used the word "law" (2) which is the particle of impossibility - so it is never manifested,
and lordship is never invalidated - for the source has no existence except by its Lord. The source is always existent, therefore
lordship is never invalidated.
He who is pleasing is beloved, and all that the beloved does is beloved, so everything
is pleasing, because the source could not act unless the act belonged to its Lord. The source is made tranquil by having an
act attributed to it, but it is content with what appears in it and from it of the acts of its Lord, and is pleased with these
acts, because every doer and producer is pleased with his act and product. He completes his act and product according to its
basis. "He gives each thing its created form and then guides it," (20:50) that is, He revealed to it that He gave everything
its creation, so it does not admit of decrease.
Isma'il, peace be upon him, by his discovery of what we mentioned "was
pleasing to his Lord." In the same way, every existent thing who is pleasing to its Lord is also pleasing to the Lord of another,
because lordship is only obtained from each of the names, not from the One of Unity. What is specific to it from the whole
is only what is attributed to it. So He is its Lord. None is attached to Him in respect of His Unity. For this reason, the
people of Allah are forbidden tajalli in the Unity. If you look at Him by Him, He is the One who is looking at Himself, and
He continues to be Himself looking at Himself by Himself. If you look at Him by yourself, unity vanishes because of you. If
you look at Him both through Him and through you, Unity also vanishes because the pronoun of the second person implies that
there is something else besides that which is regarded. There must be some relationship which necessitates the duality of
the regarder and regarded, and so Unity vanishes, even though there only exists the One who sees Himself by Himself. It is
known that in this description, He is the Regarder and the Regarded.
It is not possible that the one who is pleasing
be totally pleasing, unless all that he manifests comes from the act of the One who is pleased with him. Isma'il was distinguished
from other individuals by how Allah described him, namely, that "he was pleasing to his Lord."
It is the same for every
"self at peace" to which it is said, "Return to your Lord." He only commanded it to return to its Lord who called it, and
so it recognised Him among the totality, "well-pleasing and well-pleased. Enter among My slaves!" (89:28) to the degree that
they have this station. The slaves mentioned here refer to every slave who has gnosis of his Lord, who is content with Him,
and does not turn to the Lord of another while preserving the unity of the source which is necessary. "Enter My Garden," which
is My veil, (3) and My Garden is not other than you, so you veil Me by your essence. There is only gnosis of Me by you and
you only exist by Me, so whoever has gnosis of you has gnosis of Me, and there is no gnosis of Me, for there is no gnosis
of you. If you enter into the Garden, you enter into yourself, so you will know yourself by a gnosis other than the gnosis
by which you had knowledge when you knew your Lord. You will have two sorts of gnosis: gnosis of Him in respect of yourself,
and gnosis of yourself and Him in respect of Him, not in respect of you.
You are a slave and you are a lord
whomever you are a slave in respect of.
And you are a lord and you are a slave
to whoever possesses the covenant in
Every knot has a person over it who unravels it
by one who has another knot.
Allah is pleased with
His slaves, and "they are well-pleasing and well-pleased with Him." He is pleasing, so the two presences confront each other
and accept likes, and the likes are opposites because the two likes are a single reality which does not unify them since they
would not then be distinct. There is only the distinct, so there is no like. There is no like in existence, and so there is
no opposite in existence. Existence is one reality, and the thing is not opposite to itself.
Only the Real remains,
no phenomenal being remains.
There is nothing connected, nothing distinct.
For that reason, the proof of the eye-witness
so I only see His source with my eye when I see!
That is for "the one who fears his Lord" lest He makes
distinction by his knowledge. By that distinction, we indicated the ignorance of sources in existence according to what the
knower brought, so distinction occurs among the slaves, and distinction occurs among the lords. If distinction had not occurred,
one divine name would have been interpreted in all its aspects by that by which another name is interpreted. The explanation
of the Exalter is not that of the Abaser, and so on, but from the aspect of unity, as we said, every name indicates the Essence
and its reality in respect to what it is. The One Named is but One. The Exalter is the Abaser in respect to the Named. It
is not the Abaser in respect to itself and its reality. That which is understood differs in the understanding in respect to
each of them.
Do not look at the Real.
Free Him from creation.
Do not look at creation,
and garb it in
other than the Real.
Disconnect Him and connect Him,
and stand in a seat of honour. (4)
Stay in the state of gatheredness
(jam') if you wish,
and, if you wish, in the forms in separateness (farq).
You will win all,
even if all set out
to carry the day.
You will not be annihilated
and you will not have going-on
and the forms will not be annihilated
and will not have going-on.
Revelation will not be given to you
in respect to another, and you will not receive
Praise is by the truth of the promise, not the truth of the threat. The Divine Presence demands praise which is
praiseworthy in itself. So one extols the Divine Presence by the truth of the promise, not the truth of the threat, for one
goes beyond it, "and do not imagine that Allah break His promise to His Messengers." (14:47) He did not say, "and his threat",
rather He said that He will pass over their wrong actions even though he threatens not to. He praised Isma'il because "he
was true to his promise." (19:54) Possibility vanishes in respect to the Real, since in it is that which demands the probable.
remains except the One
who is true to His promise alone,
and an eye does not remain
seeing the threat of the Real.
If they enter the abode of misery,
in it they are in possession of delight, and a different bliss.
Than the bliss
of the gardens of endless-time, but the matter is the same.
The difference between them occurs in the tajalli.
is called punishment ('adhab) from the sweetness ('udhuba) of its food,
that is like the husk of it, and the husk protects
Notes to Chapter 7:
1. Rububiyyah: Lordship, the quality of being a lord. A term derived from the Qur'anic
descriptions of Allah's lordship over creation. One might say the ecology of natural existence. It is an essential element
in Sufic cosmology and is a most sophisticated concept which surpasses the crude specificity and mechanistic views of evolutionist
biology. It is an energy system of relationships in constant change and altering dynamics. It functions through the different
realms, the atomic, the mineral, the plant, and so on. It relates the levels ofliving organisms from the uni-cellular up to
man, and the interpenetrations of organism and environment. It re-defines "event" from crude historicity to a picture of organism/event
in a unified field. It is the underlying concept which allows us to abandon the dead mind/body split of the dying culture.
It permits us to utilise and develop the energy concepts of Islamic/Chinese medicine - which hold a common energy concept
at base. Rububiyya permits us to observe ONE PROCESS at work throughout every level of the creational realities.
"Law" (if, but probably not) expresses an unlikely condition, while "in" (if, but probably yes) expresses a probable condition.
Garden, Janna, also carries the connotation of veiling, concealing.
4.Qur'an 54:53-55, "The fearfully aware will be
amid Gardens and Rivers on seats of honour in the presence of an All-Powerful King."
8: The Seal of the Wisdom of the Spirit (Rûh)
Word of Ya'qub (Jacob)
The Din (1) is two Dins: the Din with Allah and with the one whom the Real knows,
and who has recognition of the fact that the Real knows him; and the Din with creation; and Allah takes account of it since
its goal is conformity with what Allah has willed of the Shari'a set down with Him. Allah said, "Ibrahim directed his sons
to this, as did also Ya'qub, 'My sons! Allah has chosen this Din for you, so do not die except as Muslims'" (2:132) that is
obeying Him. The Din brought the alif and the lam (2) of definition and acquaintance. It is the recognised Din. It is His
words, "The Din with Allah is Islam," (3:19) and it is submission. So the Din is an expression of your obedience. That which
is from Allah is the road which leads you to Him. Din is submission and the law (namus) is the road which Allah has set down.
who is described by submission to what Allah has prescribed for him is the one who has based himself on the Din, and it raises
him up and establishes him as does the prayer. The slave is the product of the Din. Allah sets down judgements, and thus submission
is the source of your action, and so Din is from your action. You will only achieve happiness by what comes from you. As happiness
is established for you by your actions, so the Divine Names are only established by His actions, which are you and which are
in-time. As He is called god by His effects, so you are called happy by your effects.
Allah bestowed His rank upon
you since you established the Din and obeyed what He prescribed for you. I will enlarge on that, if Allah wills, in a useful
manner, after we have clarified the Din which creation has which Allah takes account of when He says, "The Din is Allah's
alone," (8:39) and all of it is from you, and not from Him except in respect to origin. Allah says, "They invented monasticism,"
(57:27) and monasticism consists of arbitrary esoteric rules (an-nawâmis al-hikmiya) which the known Messenger did not bring
to the people from Allah by the traditional Prophetic method. When wisdom and clear benefit corresponded to these rules regarding
the divine decision about the goal of the Shari'a of Allah, (3) Allah took it into account according to what He Himself prescribed.
Allah did not prescribe it for them. Then Allah opened between Himself and their hearts the door of divine concern and mercy
while they were not aware of it, and in their hearts He made them esteem their rules by which they seek "the pleasure of Allah"
beyond the Prophetic method known by Divine definition. Allah says, "They did not observe it" those people who devised
these rules and what was prescribed for them "as it should have been observed" - "unless it was purely out of the desire
to gain the good pleasure of Allah." That was what they believed about it.
"To those of them who believed We gave their
reward, but many of them are deviators." (57:27) "Many of them," i.e. those who have this worship prescribed for them, "are
deviators," that is, do not submit to it and observe it properly. Allah does not accord to the one who does not obey it, a
law which pleases Him, but the command requires submission. Its proof is that the one who is obligated either obeys with agreement
or opposes it. The one who agrees and is obedient has no need of any discourse on it to prove it. The one who opposes it is
seeking one of two matters from Allah to be judged regarding him: either overlooking of wrong actions and forgiveness, or
being taken to task for that. One of the two is necessary because the command is true in itself. In any state, it is true
that Allah guides His slave by his actions whatever state he is in, and so the state is the influencing factor.
the Din is a reward, that is, the exchange for what is easy and for what for is not easy. "Allah is pleased with them, and
they are pleased with Him" (97:8, 58:22) is the easy reward, and "As for any one of you who has done wrong, We will make him
suffer great punishment" (25:19) is the reward of what is not easy. He passes over their wrong actions and this is their reward.
It is proven that the Din is the reward. As the Din is Islam, and Islam is the same as being led, it leads to what is easy
(the reward) and what is not easy (the punishment), and so it is the repayment. This is the language of the people of outwardness.
for its secret and inwardness, it manifests itself in the mirror of the existence of Allah, so it does not refer to possibilities
from Allah other than what their essences in their states accord. They have a form in every state, and their forms differ
according to the difference of their states. The tajalli differs according to the difference of the state. The effect occurs
in the slave according to what he is. None gives him good except himself, and none gives him the opposite of good except himself.
Thus he gives bliss to his essence, and he also punishes it. He only blames himself and only praises himself. "Allah's is
the conclusive argument" (6:149) in His knowledge of them since knowledge depends on the known.
The secret which is
above this in this sort of question is that possibilities are based on their origin from non-existence. Tthe existence of
the created reality is only by the forms of the states on which the possibilities are based in themselves and their sources.
Thus you know who has pleasure and who has pain, and from each of these states you know what follows ('aqaba); and since it
follows, you derive punishment ('uquba) and penalty ('iqab) from it. It permits good and evil as two opposites which custom
calls the good reward, and the evil punishment.
For this reason, He designates and elucidates the Din by custom because
He relates to it what is necessary and what his state demands. Din is custom or habit, and the poet said, "Like your habit
(Din) with the mother of little Harith...," that is, like your custom. What is understood by custom or habit is that the matter
itself recurs. This is not the case in Din. Custom is repetition, but custom is only one intelligible thing while resemblance
in forms exists. We know that Zayd is the same as 'Amr in respect to humanness, but humanness does not recur since, had it
done so, it would have multiplied. It is but one reality, and the one does not multiply itself. We know that Zayd is not the
same as 'Amr in respect to personality. The person of Zayd is not the person of 'Amr in spite of the realisation that personality
is common to both. In the sensory, we say that humanness recurs because of this resemblance, and we say in sound judgement
that it does not. From one aspect, there is no habit in reward, and from another aspect, there is habit even as there is reward
by one aspect and no reward by another aspect. Thus reward is also a state in the possible. This is a question about which
those who know this matter are unaware, and it is part of the secret of the Decree which governs creatures. Know that it is
as if it were said of the doctor that he is the servant of nature - in the same way, it is said of the Messengers and heirs
4 that they are the servants of the Divine Command among people. In the heart of the matter, they serve the states of possible
things, and their service derives from the sum of their own states on which they are based in the state of the immutability
of their sources. See how wondrous this is!
Is not the the desired servant here the one who performs what is commanded
by the one who is served, either by state or by word? So it is valid that the doctor be called the servant of nature if he
acts according to the principle of assisting it. Nature produces in the body of the one who is ill a special state of being
by which he is called "ill". If the doctor were to assist nature by service, he would also increase the magnitude of the illness
by it when he wants to repel the illness, seeking health. Health is also a part of nature by the growth of another state of
being which differs from this state of being. Then the doctor is not the servant of nature, and yet he serves it inasmuch
as he only heals the body of the one who is ill and changes that aspect, not the general one, for generalities are not valid
in this sort of question. Thus the doctor is both a servant and is not a servant of nature.
In the same way, the Messengers
and their heirs are in the service of the Real, and the Real has two aspects of judgement in respect to the states of the
obligated. The matter proceeds from the slave according to what the will of Allah demands of it, and the will of Allah is
attached to it according to what the knowledge of Allah demands of it. The knowledge of Allah is attached to it according
to what the known accords it of its essence. The known only appears in its form. The Messenger and the heir serve the divine
command by will, and yet they do not serve the will. The Messenger answered it seeking the happiness of the one who is under
obligation. Had he served the Divine Will, he would not have given counsel, and yet he only gave counsel by it, i.e. the will.
The Messenger and the heir are the doctors of the selves for Next life, obedient to the command of Allah when He commands
them. So he looks at Allah's command, and sees that He has commanded him to do that which opposes His will. The command is
only what He wills, and for this reason, it is the command.
He wills the command and it occurs, and He did not will
the occurrence of what He commanded the commanded one to do, and so it did not occur from the commanded one therefore
it is called opposition and rebellion. The Messenger conveys the news, and this is why he said, "The Sura of Hud (and its
like) made me white-haired," when they came to him from His words, "Go straight as you have been commanded." (11:112) He did
not know whether he was commanded to what complies with the will, so that it occurs, or to what does not comply with the will,
so that it does not occur.
No one recognises the judgement of the will except after what is willed takes place, unless
he is one whose inner eye has been unveiled by Allah. If he is, he will perceive the source-forms of the possibilities in
their fixed state for what they really are. Then he judges according to what he sees. This belongs to certain people at certain
moments, but they do not have it all the time. The Messenger said, "I do not know what He will do with me or with you." (5)
So he made the veil clear, and he only meant that it emerges in a particular command, and no more.
Notes to Chapter
1. Din: The life transaction, literally the debt or exchange situation between two parties, in this usage the Creator
and the created, or as some say between the conditioned and the unconditioned, the limited and the limitless, or the many
and the One.
2. The definite article.
3. Which is the achievement of human perfection through knowledge and
4. Hadith, "The people of knowledge are the heirs of the Prophets."
5. Hadith in al-Bukhari.
9: The Seal of the Wisdom of Light
in the Word of
This luminous wisdom spreads its light on the presence of the imagination (khayal), and it
is the first of the beginnings of divine revelation in the people of divine concern. 'A'isha, may Allah be pleased with her,
said, "The first of what the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, had of revelation was the true dream.
Then he only saw dreams which came like the breaking of dawn, and there was nothing hidden in it," (1) and her knowledge only
extended to this. This lasted for six months, and then the angel came to him. She did not know that the Messenger of Allah,
may Allah bless him and grant him peace, had said, "People are asleep, and when they die, they waken up." Everything seen
in the state of wakefulness is of that sort, although states differ. She spoke of six months, but all his life in this world
was like that, as a dream in a dream.
Everything reported of this nature is called the world of the imagination (khayal),
and for this reason, there must be interpretation: the matter which has a form in itself appears in a form other than it.
The interpreter passes from these forms which the sleeper sees to the form upon which the matter is based. If he is correct,
as in knowledge appearing in the form of milk, then he interprets the source of the form of knowledge from the form of milk,
He discovers the source and says, "This form of milk refers to the form of knowledge."
When the Prophet, may Allah
bless him and grant him peace, received revelation, he was taken from the ordinary sensory world. He was covered and withdrew
from those who were present with him. When that left him, he returned, and he only received revelation in the "presence of
the imagination", although it could not be said of him that he had been asleep.
It was the same when the angel appeared
to him as a man. That was also from the presence of the imagination, for it was not a man, but rather an angel who had entered
into the form of a man. The gnostic onlooker interpreted it until he reached its form in reality. Then he said, "This is Jibril
who came to teach you your deen." (2) He told them, "Answer the greeting of the man," so he called him a man in respect to
the form in which he appeared to them. Then he said, "This is Jibril," and he looked at the form to which this imaginary man
would return. He spoke the truth both times, with the truth of the vision of the physical eye, and the truth in that this
was Jibril without a doubt.
Yusuf, peace be upon him, said, "I saw eleven stars and the sun and the moon prostrate
themselves in front of me." (12:4) He saw his brothers in the form of the stars and his father and mother in the form of the
sun and moon. This is from the point of view of Yusuf. Had it been from the point of view of what was seen, the appearance
of his brothers in the form of stars and the appearance of his father and mother in the form of the sun and moon would have
been from their volition. Since they had no knowledge of what he saw, that which Yusuf perceived was in the repository of
Ya'qub knew that when he related it to him, so he said, "O my son, do not tell your vision to your
brothers in case they should devisse some scheme to injure you." (12:5) Then he absolved his sons of deceit and ascribed it
to Shaytan, who is the source of deceit. He said, "In truth, Shaytan is a clear-cut enemy to man," i.e. he manifests enmity.
Then Yusuf said at the end of the affair, "This is now the interpretation of the dream that I had. My Lord has made it all
come true," (12:100) that is, that He manifested it in the world of senses after it was in the form of the imagination.
Prophet Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said about it, "People are asleep". Yusuf spoke of what his Lord
had rendered true in the status of one who dreams that he has awakened from his dream and interprets it, and does not know
that he is still asleep. Then later when he wakes up, he says, "I dreamt such-and-such a thing, and then I dreamt that I woke
up and interpreted in such-and-such a way." This is similar to that. Look at how great the difference of perception is between
Muhammad, peace be upon him, and Yusuf, peace be upon him, at the end of the affair when Yusuf said, "This is the interpretation
of my dream of long ago which my Lord has rendered true," that is, made sensory or sensed. It was aways sensed, since the
imagination only gives out sensed things, and it has nothing other than that. See how noble is the knowledge of the heirs
of Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace!
I would say more on this presence on the Muhammadan tongue of
Yusuf, as you will soon understand, if Allah wills. Know that that which is referred to as other-than-Allah, or the universe,
is related to Allah as the shadow is related to the person. The universe is the shadow of Allah. It is the same as the relation
of existence to the universe, since the shadow exists in the senses without a doubt. But there must be something by which
that shadow appears. If one were to remove that by which the shadow appears, the shadow would be intelligible but would not
exist in the senses. Rather, it would be a potential in the essence of the person on whom it depends. The locus of the manifestation
of this divine shadow called the "universe" is the sources of the possibilities by which this shadow extends itself. This
shadow is perceived according to what it projects itself on from the existence of this essence, but perception occurs through
His name, the Light. This shadow is projected on the sources of possibilities in the form of the unknown unseen.
you not see that shadows incline to the darkness, indicating the hiddenness they contain because of the distance of the relationship
between them and the persons who project them? Even if the person is white, his shadow is like this. Do you not see that when
mountains are distant from the eye of the onlooker, they appear black? In their actual sources they are other than the colour
the senses perceive. This is only due to the effect of distance. It is like the blue of the sky. This is the effect distance
has on the senses with non-luminous bodies. It is the same for the sources of possibilities which are non-luminous because
they are non-existent. Even if they are described as unchanging, they are not described by existence since existence is light.
Distance makes luminous bodies appear small in the senses, so this is another effect of distance. The senses perceive them
as small in size, whereas in their sources they are large according to that degree and greater in magnitude. One knows by
proof that the sun is larger than the earth, but it appears to be the size of a shield. That is also an effect of distance.
only know the universe according to the amount you know the shadows, and you are ignorant of the Real according to what you
do not know of the person on which that shadow depends. Inasmuch as He has a shadow, He is known, and inasmuch as one is ignorant
of what is in the essence of the shadow of the form which projects the shadow, he is ignorant of Allah. For that reason, we
say that Allah is known to us from one aspect and not known to us from another aspect. "Do you not see how your Lord stretches
out shadows? If He had wished, He could have made them stationary," (25:45) i.e. it still would be a potential in Himself.
It is as He said, that Allah would not give a tajalli of Himself to possibilities until He manifests the shadow. The shadow
is as if it remains outside of the possibilities which do not have a source manifested for them in existence.
We appoint the sun to be a pointer to them," that is to His name, the Light of which we spoke, and the senses witness it,
for shadows have no source in the absence of light. "Then We draw them back to Ourselves, in gradual steps," so Allah draws
it back to Himself because it is His shadow which appeared from Him, and it is not other-than-Him. All that you perceive is
the existence of Allah in the sources of possibilities. Inasmuch as the He-ness of Allah is He, it is His existence. Inasmuch
as forms differ in it, it is the sources of possibilities. As the name of the shadow does not leave it by the difference of
forms, in the same way the name of the universe or the name other-than-Allah does not leave it by the difference of forms.
In regard to the Divine Unity of His being, the shadow is Allah, because He is the One, the Unique; and in respect to the
multiplicity of forms, it is the world, so understand and realise what I have explained to you! Since the matter is as I mentioned,
the universe is illusory, and it does not have a real existence. This is the meaning of the imagination, that is, you imagine
that the universe is an autonomous extra thing outside of Allah. It is not like that in itself. Do you not see that in the
senses, the shadow is connected to the person who projects it, and it is impossible that it be detached from that connection
since it is impossible for something to be detached from its own essence? Recognise your source ('ayn), and who you are, what
is your he-ness and what your relation to Allah is, and by what You are the Truth and by what you are the universe, "other",
and whatever resembles these expressions. In this, those that know vie in excellence, so there is the one who knows and the
one who is more knowing.
The Real is, in relation to a particular shadow, small or large, pure or more pure, as light
is in relation to what veils it from the onlooker through coloured glass which tints it. At the same time, it has no colour,
and so you see it as making a mirror-image of your reality to your Lord. If you say that the light is green by the greenness
of the glass, you will have spoken the truth as your sensory vision testifies. If you say that it is not green and has no
colour as evidence accords you, you will have spoken the truth as sound logical consideration testifies. This is light projected
across the shadow, and it is the same as the glass which is a luminous shadow because of its purity. It is the same for one
of us who has realised the Real. His form manifests itself in him more than it manifests itself in another. Among us there
is the one for whom Allah is his hearing, seeing, and all his faculties and limbs, (3) according to the signs which the Shari'a
gives in a transmission from Allah. In spite of this, the source of the shadow exists, so the pronoun of "his hearing" refers
to him. Other slaves are not like this. The relation of this slave is nearer to the existence of Allah than the relation of
Then the matter is as we have confirmed. So know that you are imagination and that which you perceive
and of which you say, "It is not me" is also imagination. All of existence is imagination within imagination. True existence
is Allah, the Real, in particular in respect to essence and source, not in respect to His Names, because the Names have two
meanings. One meaning is His source which is the same as the "Named", and the other meaning is what it indicates and that
by which the Name is separate from this other Name, and so distinct. The Ever-Forgiving is separate from the Manifest and
the Hidden, and the First is distinct from the Last. Thus it is clear to you that each Name is the same as the other Name,
and yet it is not the other Name. Inasmuch as the Name is the same, it is the Real, and inasmuch as it is not it, it is the
imaginary Real which we discussed.
Glory be to the One who is only proven by Himself and Whose being is only confirmed
by His source! The Hidden is pure non-existence, so whoever holds to multiplicity, holds to the universe and the Divine Names
and the names of the world. Whoever holds to Divine Unity holds to Allah in respect to His Essence which is independent of
the universe, not in respect to its divinity and form. If the Essence is independent of the universe, then He is the source
of its independence from the ascriptions of the Names, because it has the Names, and they indicated it as they indicate other
named things in which their effect is realised. "Say: He is Allah, Absolute Oneness" (112:1) in respect of his source, "Allah,
the Everlasting Sustainer of all" in respect to our dependence on Him. "He has not given birth" in respect to His He-ness
and us, "and was born born" the same way, "and no one is comparable to Him" in the same way.
This is His description
so He singled out His Essence in His statement, "Allah is Unique (Ahad)". Multiplicity appears by His attributes which are
known with us. We beget and are begotten, we depend on Him, and we are equals to one another. This is the One who is pure
above these attributes. He is independent of them as He is independent of us. There is no description of Allah except for
this sura, the Sura al-Ikhlas (112), and it was revealed in that. The Divine Unity (ahadiyya) of Allah is in respect to the
Divine Names which demand the unity of multiplicity on our part, and the Divine Unity of Allah, in respect to His independence
from us and from the names, is the Divine Unity of the source. Both of them are included in the name, the Unique One (al-Ahad).
that Allah has not manifested the shadows and made them prostrate themselves, casting themselves to the left and the right,
(4) except as indications for you of yourself and Him. In this way you are able to recognise who you are and what your relationship
to Him is, and what His relationship to you is, until you know from where and by which divine reality that which is other-than-Allah
is described, through its complete poverty to Him as well as the relative poverty of some to others. In this way also, you
are able to know from where and by what reality it is that Allah is described by independence from people and the universe,
and the universe is described by independence, i.e. the independence of some from others in an aspect which is the source
of its need of some. For the universe is in need of causes without a doubt by essential need. The greatest of its causes is
the causality of Allah, and there is no causality of Allah by which the universe is in need except for the Divine Names. The
universe is in need of each of the Divine Names, whether from the universe like it or, from Allah Himself. Thus it is Allah,
and not other-than-Him.
This is why Allah said, "Mankind! you are the poor in need of Allah whereas Allah is the Rich
Beyond Need, the Praiseworthy." (35:15) It is known that we depend on each other. Our names are the Names of Allah since everything
is, without a doubt, in need of Him. At the same time, our sources are His shadow, and not other-than-Him. So He is our he-ness,
and He is not our he-ness. We have prepared the way for you, so look!
Notes to Chapter 9:
1. In al-Bukhari
2. In Muslim, also an-Nawawi's Forty Hadith.
3. Hadith, see. p.11.
4. Ref. Qur'an 16:48,
"Do they not see the things that Allah has created, casting their shadows to the right and to the left, prostrating themselves
before Allah incomplete humility."
10: The Seal of the Wisdom of Divine Unity (Ahadiyya)
in the Word of Hud
has the straight path which is manifest
and unhidden among the common people.
Its source exists in great and small,
in those who are ignorant of matters
and those who know.
For this reason, 'His mercy encompasses everything,'
(1) great and small. "There is no creature He does not hold by the forelock. My Lord is on a Straight Path." (11:56) So all
that walks on the Straight Path of the Lord, and is not of those "against whom Allah is wrathful" from this aspect, nor is
he "astray". (2) As being astray is a non-essential quality, so divine wrath is also a non-essential quality. The source to
which they return is the "mercy which extends to all things", and which preceded wrath. Everything which is other-than-Allah
is a creature which crawls and which has a spirit. There is nothing which crawls by itself, rather it crawls by other than
it. It crawls by the principle of following the One who is on a Straight Path. It is only a path by virtue of the fact that
it is walked on.
If creation draws near you, Allah draws near you.
If Allah draws near you, creation does not follow.
So realise what we say on it,
and everything I have said to you is true.
There is no existent thing in phenomenal
that you see which does not have articulation.
The eye only sees of creation
that its source is Allah.
He is stored in it,
and for this reason, its forms are true.
Know that divine knowledges of taste (dhawq) which
are acquired by the people of Allah differ according to the different faculties acquired from them, even though they derive
from a single source. Allah said, "I am his hearing by which he hears and his sight by which he sees and his hand by which
he strikes and his foot by which he walks." (3) So He mentioned that His He-ness is the source of the limbs which are the
same as the slave. Thus He-ness is one, but the limbs are different, and every limb has one of the knowledges of taste which
are specified from a single source, and differ according to the different limbs. It is like water which is but a single reality,
yet differs in taste according to the different locations. The water of the Euphrates is sweet, and brackish water is salty,
yet it is water in all its states and its reality does not change, even though the taste differs.
This wisdom is from
the wisdom of the feet. It is the words of Allah, that whoever establishes His Books will eat "from beneath their feet" (5:66).
The path which is the Straight Path is travelling on it, and walking and running on it. It is only by the feet. So this witnessing
of the taking by the forelock by the hand of the One who is one the Straight Path only results in this special art from the
knowledges of taste. "We will drive the evildoers" (19:86), (4) who are those who deserve the station to which they are sent,
and destroy them by the west wind. (5) The wind takes them by the forelocks and carries them on, and it is the source of the
passions which take them to Jahannam. It is the distance (6) which they imagined. When it carried them to that abode, they
reached the source of nearness, and so distance vanished. What is called Jahannam vanished in respect to them. They win the
bliss of nearness in respect to merit since they were wrong-doers.
This pleasurable station of taste was not given
to them as a favour. They received it by what they realities merited from the acts which they were doing. They were running
with their actions on the Straight Path of the Lord because their forelocks were in the hand of the One who has this attribute.
They did not walk by themselves, but by the principle of compulsion to reach the source of nearness. "We are nearer to him
than you, but you cannot see." (56:85) Rather it is seen, and so the covering is stripped away, and "his sight is sharp."
(7) What is specified as dead is from the dead, i.e. what distinguishes the happy from the wretched in usage. "We are nearer
to him than his jugular vein." (50:16) What is specified as man is from man, so divine nearness is from distance as is not
hidden in divine transmissions. There is no nearness nearer than that His He-ness be the source of the limbs of the slave
and his faculties. The slave is not other than these limbs and faculties, so he is Allah witnessed in illusory creation. Creation
is intelligible and Allah is felt and witnessed with the believers and the people of unveiling. Allah is intelligible with
other classes, and creation is witnessed. So they are in the station of the salty, brackish water. The first group is the
station of the sweet water which is pleasant to drink.
People are of two classes those who walk on the path recognising
it and its end, for it is a straight path in respect to him; and those who walk on the path being ignorant of it and not knowing
its end. It is the same path which the other class knows. The gnostic calls to Allah by inner sight, and the non-gnostic calls
to Allah by limitation and ignorance. This is a special knowledge which comes from the lowest of the low (8) because the feet
are the lower part of the person, and what is lower than them is none other than the path. Whoever recognises that Allah is
the same as the Path, recognises the matter for what it is. Then Allah is travelling on it since there is no known except
Him, and He is the source of the wayfarer and the traveller. There is no knower except Him. He is you, so know your reality
and your Path (tariqa). The matter has been made clear to you on the tongue of the interpreter, (9) if you but understand.
It is the true tongue, so the only one who will understand is the one whose understanding is Real.
Allah has many ascriptions
and their existence varies. See how 'Ad, the people of Hud, said, "This is a storm cloud which will give us rain." (46:24)
They thought good of Allah, and He is with the opinion of His slave. (10) Allah turned this word away from them. He informed
them of what was more perfect and higher in nearness. When it rained upon them, that was the earth's portion and the seed
was watered. He told them, "No, rather it is what you desired to hasten a wind containing painful punishment." He made
the wind (rîh) an indication of what rest (râha) it contained for them. By this wind, He gladdens their spirits (arwah), delivering
them from dark forms, difficult paths and black veils. There is punishment ('adhab) in this wind, i.e. a matter which they
find sweet (ista'dhaba) when they taste it. It only pains them by the separation from familiar things. Thus punishment gives
them good news. And the command is nearer to them than they imagine.
"Destroying everything at its Lord's command !
When morning came you could see nothing but their dwellings." (46:25) That is, their corpses, in which their true spirits
lived, so the trueness of this special relation vanished from them; and a special life in their forms remains to them from
Allah of which their skins, hands, and feet speak, (11) so does the punishment of the blows and thighs. (12) All that is related
in a divine text.
Allah described himself by jealousy (ghayra). Out of jealousy He forbade actions unrestrained by
limits (fawahish). The unrestrained act is only what is evident. As for the unrestrained which is hidden, it belongs to the
one who manifests it. When He made the unrestrained haram, that it, forbade that the reality of what we mentioned be known,
and that is the source of things, He hid it by other (ghayr). So other says: hearing is Zayd's hearing. The gnostic says that
hearing is Allah. Thus nothing remains of the faculties and limbs. Therefore not everyone recognises Allah. People vie in
excellence and ranks are differentiated, and the exceeding and exceeded are clear.
Know that Allah revealed to me and
caused me to witness in a vision, which I received in Cordoba in 586, the sources of His Messengers and all His Prophets,
from Adam to Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. None of this group spoke to me except for Hud, peace be upon
him. He told me why they were gathered together. I saw that he was a very large man of good appearance, subtle in reply, gnostic
in matters of unveiling. My proof of his unveiling is His words, "There is no creature He does not hold by the forelock. My
Lord is on a Straight Path." (11:56) What gift to creatures is greater than this? Then it is from the bestowal of favours
on us by Allah that this speech reached us from Him in the Qur'an.
Then Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant us
peace, completed its gathering for everyone by what he was told by Allah, for He is the source of "hearing, sight, the hand,
the foot and tongue the source of the senses. The spiritual faculties are nearer than the senses. He is content with
the defined and distant more than with the defined unknown which is nearer. Allah translated the speech of Hud to his people
to inform us, and the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, translated the speech of Allah in turn
to give us good news. Knowledge is perfected in the breasts of those who are given knowledge, "and none denies Our signs but
the unbelievers," (29:47) for they cover up the signs when they recognise them through envy, meanness and injustice. We only
see from Allah in respect of Himself disconnection (tanzih) or non-disconnection by definition in any ayat which He has sent
down or in transmissions which have reached us from Him. Otherwise He has the Great Mist (al-'Ama') (13) which has no air
above it and no air beneath it. Allah was in it before He created creation. Then He mentioned that He "established Himself
firmly on the Throne." (57:4) This is also definition. Then He mentioned that "He descends to the nearest heaven." (14) This
is also definition. Then He said that "He is in the heaven and in the earth," (15) and "He is with us whever we are." (16)
and He tells us that He is our source. We are limited, so He only describes Himself by limitation.
His statement, "There
is nothing like Him," (42:11) is also limitation if we take the kaf ("like") as an appendage to other than the attribute.
Whoever is distinct from the defined is defined by his phenomenal being which is not the source of what is defined. Freedom
from limitation is limitation, and the absolute is limited by absoluteness for whoever has understanding, If we attach the
kaf of ka-mithli (like) to the attribute, we define it. If we take "There is nothing like Him" as the negation of "like (mithl)",
we realise the given and the sound transmissions that He is the source of things, and that things are defined. If their definitions
differ, He is defined by the definition of everything with a definition. Nothing is defined unless it is a definition of Allah's.
He moves in the designation of creatures and creation. Had the matter not been like that, existence would not have been valid,
for He is the source of existence. He preserves everything by His Essence, and the preserving of something does not oppress
Him. (17) His preserving of all things is His preserving of His form in that the thing is other than His form. Only this is
valid. He is the witness in the witness and the witnessed in the witnessed. (18) He is the spirit of the universe which is
managed by Him, and it is the Macrocosmic or Great man (al-insan al-kabir).
He is all phenomenal being
and He is
the One (al-Wahid)
who establishes my phenomenal being by His being,
For that reason, I said that He is nourished.
So my existence is His food, and we imitate Him in Him from Him,
if you look by the aspect of my taking refuge.
his sorrow breathed, so the breath is related to the All-Merciful because He is Merciful by it. Divine ascriptions demand
it from the bringing into existence of the form of the universe which we have said is what is manifest by Allah since He is
the Manifest. It is His inward since He is the Hidden; and He is the First since He was when they were not. He is the Last
since their source is in their manifestation. The Last is the source of the Manifest, and the Hidden is the source of the
First. He has knowledge of all things since he knows Himself. When He brought forms into existence in the Breath, and the
power of the ascriptions designated by the names appeared, the divine ascriptions then became valid for the universe. They
depend on Allah. He said, "Today, I set down your ascriptions and raise up My ascriptions," i.e. I take from you your dependence
on yourselves and return to you your dependence on Me. Where are those who are fearful of Allah? (19) they those who
take Allah as a safeguard. Allah is their manifest part, i.e. the source of their manifest forms. They are the greatest of
people, the most pure and the strongest among all. The one who has taqwa is the one who makes himself a safeguard for Allah
by His form since the He-ness of Allah is the faculties of the slave. The one called the slave makes a safeguard for the One
called Allah based on witnessing, so that the knower is distinct from the one who does not know. "Say: 'Are they the same
those who know and those who do not know?' It is only people of intelligence who pay heed," (39:9) and they see into
the core of the thing (20) which is sought from that thing. The negligent one does not precede the diligent, and similarly
the hireling does not resemble the slave, Since Allah is a safeguard for the slave by one aspect, the slave is a safeguard
for Allah by another aspect. Say what you like about phenomenal being. If you like, say that it is creation. If you like,
say that is the Real. If you like, say that it is both the Real and creation. If you like, say that it is not Real from every
point of view and not creation from every point of view. If you wish, say it is bewilderment in that. The goals are made clear
by your specification of ranks. If it had not been for definition, the Messengers would not have reported the changing of
the Real in forms, nor would they have described Him by the dropping of forms from Himself.
The eye only looks to Him,
and authority only rests with Him.
We are His, and by Him, in His hand, in every state, so we are with Him. For
that reason, He is denied and recognised, disconnected and described. The one who sees Allah from Him in Him by His eye is
a gnostic. The one who sees Allah from Him in Him by his own eye is not a gnostic. The one who does not see Allah from Him
nor in Him, and waits to see Him by his own eye is veiled and ignorant.
On the whole, each person must have some doctrine
of his Lord by which he refers to Him and in which he seeks Him. So when Allah manifests Himself to him in it, he knows Him
and goes near Him. If He manifests Himself to him in other than it, he denies Him and takes refuge from Him and has bad adab
in that matter while claiming he shows adab with Him. (21) He only believes in a divinity according to the [subjective] form
he gives that in himself. The divinity of creeds is based on subjective positing. People only see themselves and what they
formulate in themselves.
Look at the ranks of people in knowledge of Allah. That is the source of their ranks in vision
on the Day of Rising; and I have taught you the necessary cause of it. Take care lest you be limited by a particular creed
and deny what is other than it, so that a great blessing may pass you by. Indeed, knowledge of what the matter is based on
may pass you by.
Make yourself a vessel for all the forms of belief. Surely Allah is vaster and greater than being
contained by one creed rather than another. So Allah says, "Wherever you turn, the face of Allah is there." (2:115) He did
not mention one "where" less than another. He said there is the face of Allah. The face of the thing is its reality. By this
He spoke to the hearts of the gnostics, that they might not occupy themselves with non-essentials in this life through seeking
the like of this. The slave does not know in which breath he will be taken. He may be taken at the time of his negligence,
and then he will not be equal to the one taken in a state of presence.
Then the slave who is perfect knows that this
is linked to exterior form and to the state limited by turning the prayer toward the Masjid al-Haram. He believes that Allah
is in his qibla when he prays. Those are some of the ranks of Allah from "Wherever you turn, the face of Allah is there."
The direction of the Masjid al-Haram is one of them. In it is the face of Allah, but do not say "He is here", rather stop
with what you perceive and cling to adab in turning towards the Masjid al-Haram, and cling to adab in the non-encompassment
of the face in this particular whereness. Rather whereness is part of the sum of directions to which one turns. So Allah makes
it clear to you that He is in the "where-ness" of every direction.
There are only creeds, so all directions are correct.
Every correct thing has a reward. Every rewarded thing is happy. Every happy one is approved. If he is wretched at one time
in the Next Abode, the people of preservation experience illness and pain in this life in spite of our knowledge that they
are happy and the people of Allah. Among the slaves of Allah are those who are overtaken by these pains in the other life
in an abode called Jahannam. Even so, none of the people of knowledge to whom the matter is unveiled for what it is declares
that they do not possess a bliss particular to them in this abode. As for the loss of pain, they denied it, and so it was
lifted from them. Their bliss is their rest from feeling that pain, or else bliss is particular and extra as is the bliss
of the people if the Garden in the Garden. Allah knows best.
Notes to Chapter 10:
1. ref. Qur'an 7:156,
"My mercy extends to all things."
2. ref. Qur'an 1:7.
3. Hadith qudsi.
4. "We will drive the evildoers
5. The worst of winds which does not fertilise trees or raise clouds. It is said that it was a west wind
which destroyed 'Ad. It blows in the hot season and is very thirsty.
6. Jahannam comes from a root which means "deep",
as in a deep well.
7. See Qur'an 50:22.
8. Ref. Qur'an 95:5, "We reduced him to the lowest of the low."
The Messenger of Allah in the hadith, "..I am his hearing, his sight, etc."
10. Hadith qudsi, "I am according to My
slave's opinion of Me..."
11. Ref. Qur'an 41:21, "...that your hearing, eyes, and skin should not testify against you."
In the grave according to hadith.
13. "He was in the Great Mist with air neither above nor below it. "Hadith in Ibn
Majah, Ibn Hanbal and at-Tirmidhi.
14. Hadith qudsi from Abu Hurayra in al-Bukhari and Muslim: "Our Lord who is blessed
and exalted descends every night to the lowest heavens when two-thirds of the night has passed and says, 'Who supplicates
to me so that I may answer him? .....'"
15. Qur'an 6:3, "He is Allah in the heavens and the earth."
17. Qur'an: 2:255.
18. cf. Qur'an 85:3.
19. i.e. have taqwa.
20. Lubb means both
the core of a thing and or understanding.
21. Hadith in Muslim (Belief, 302) about the Day of Rising.
11: The Seal of the Wisdom of Revelation (Futuh) (1)
in the Word of Salih
Among the signs are the signs of the mounts. (2)
due to the difference in destinations.
Among those with mounts are those
who make their mounts stand by the command
and among them are those who cross
the deserts with their mounts.
As for those who stand,
the people of the source, (3)
and those who cross the deserts are the aliens.
Each of these has the revelation (futuh)
of the Unseen worlds
brought to him from Allah on every side.
Know, may Allah grant you success, that the business
(of bringing into existence) is based on uniqueness (fardiyya), and uniqueness has triplicity which is from three and upwards.
Three is the first singular. The universe exists from this Divine Presence. Allah, may He be exalted!, says, "Our Word to
a thing when We desire it is just to say to it, 'Be' and it is." (16:40) This is an essence which has volition and speech.
(4) Had it not been for this essence and its volition, which is connecting attention to something particular in order to bring
anything into being (and when He turns to that thing, He says, "Be"), that thing would not have been. Then tripartite uniqueness
also appeared in that thing, and it is by this uniqueness in respect to the thing that it is valid that it take and that it
be described by existence. Its triplicity is its thingness, its hearing, and obeying the command of the One who gives it form
by bringing it into existence. It accepted three by the threeness of its fixed essence when it was in the state of its non-existence
in counterbalance to the essence of the One who brought it into existence. Its hearing is in counterbalance to the volition
of the One who brought it into existence. Its agreeing to comply with the command to take form is in counterbalance to His
word "'Be!' and it is." Taking form is thus related to the thing. If it not had the capacity to take form from within itself
when this is said, it would not have been. Allah only brought the thing into existence after it was not in the command of
taking form, by the thing itself.
Allah confirmed that taking-form (takwin) belongs to the thing itself, not to Allah;
and that that which belongs to Allah is His command. Similarly, He told us about Himself when He said, "Our Word to a thing
when We desire it is just to say to it, "Be!" and it is." He ascribed taking-form to the thing itself from the command of
Allah. Allah speaks the truth, so this is understood in the command itself. Someone who is feared and not disobeyed commands
His slave: "Stand!" and the slave stands in obedience to his master's command. When this slave stands, the master only has
the command to the slave to stand. Standing is the slave's action, not the master's action.
Thus taking-form is based
on triplicity, i.e. from three, on both sides the side of Allah and the side of creation. That applies to bringing meanings
into existence by proofs. The proof must be compounded of three in a special structure and special condition. There must be
a result from it. The result is that the thinker constructs his proof from two propositions. Each one proposition contains
two singulars, and so it four. One of the four is repeated in the two propositions in order to link one to the other as is
marriage. It is three and no more because of one is repeated in both of them. That is how it is the goal exists. Then
this compound occurs in a special aspect which is that the two propositions are connected to each other by the repetition
of that one singular, by which triplicity, and the special condition that the principle be more general by cause or equal
to it, is valid. Then the principle is true. If it is not like that, then it will give a result which is not true. This existent
thing in the universe is like the ascription of actions to the slave, removed from their ascription to Allah, or the ascribing
of taking form, the object of our discussion, to Allah absolutely. But Allah only ascribed it to the thing which was told,
"Be!" A representation of that is if we wish to prove that the universe exists from a cause, (5) we say that every thing which
is in-time has a cause. (6) Thus we have the the in-time and the cause. Then in the other proposition we say that the universe
is in time. The "in-time" is repeated in the two propositions. The third singular is "the universe". From this it follows
that the universe has a cause and the conclusion appears in what was mentioned in the first proposition - that is the cause.
special aspect is the repetition of the "in-time", and the special condition is the generality of the cause ('illa) because
the cause is what effects the existence of the in-time. The principle is general in the in-timeness of the universe in relation
We therefore make the judgement that every being which is "in-time" has a cause, i.e. in the greater proposition,
unless that cause is equal to the principle or the principle is more general than the cause. So the universe would thus fall
under the principle of the cause [in both cases]. The result is true.
The principle of triplicity also appears in bringing
meanings into existence, which makes use of proofs. The root of phenomenal being is triplicity. For this reason, the wisdom
of Salih, peace be upon him, is what Allah manifested in the delay of three days when He promised to punish the people of
Salih, and the promise was kept. The truth was the result, and it was the Cry by which Allah destroyed them, and "morning
found them lying flattemed in their homes." (11:67) On the first of the three days, the faces of the people became yellow,
and on the second day red, and on the third day black. When the three days had passed, their predisposition was proved and
corruption appeared in them. That manifestation was called "destruction".
The yellowing of the faces of the wretched
is in counterbalance to the shining of the faces of the happy in the words of Allah, "Some faces on that day will be radiant
(musfira)" (80:38) which comes from sufur, when the dawn becomes white. This is a manifestation as the yellowing of the faces
on the first day was the manifestation of the sign of the wretchedness of Salih's people. Then came the counterbalance offered
to His word about the happy, "laughing".(80:39) Laughter is one of the causes which produces redness in the face. Among the
happy, it is the cheeks which are red.
Then He made the complexion of the wretched turn black as a counterbalance to
His word, "joyous (mustabshira)". (7) That is the effect that joy has on their skins as black effected the skins of the wretched.
For this reason, He spoke of the two groups with good news (bushra). He spoke a word to them which affected their skin (bashara)
which turned a colour by which skin had not been described before this event. Allah said in regarding the happy, "Their Lord
gives them the good news of His mercy and good pleasure," (9:21) and He said about the wretched, "Give them the news of a
painful punishment." (9:34) There was an effect on the skin of each group because of the effect of the discourse on them.
It only appeared in them outwardly by virtue of the understanding which was fixed inside them. So it is them who have that
effect on themselves just as taking form only comes from them. "Allah's is the conclusive argument." (6:149) Whoever understands
this wisdom and confirms it in himself and witnesses it, gives his self rest from connection to other. He knows that good
and evil only come from him. By good, I mean what agrees with his goal and suits his nature and temperament. By evil, I mean
what does not agree with his goal or suit his nature and temperament. The one who possesses this witnessing makes out excuses
for all existent beings, even if they do not make excuses. He knows that all he has for himself is from himself, as we mentioned
at the beginning, since knowledge follows the known. When something which does not agree with his goal comes to him, he tells
himself , "Clench your fists and puff out your cheeks!" "Allah speaks the truth and He guides to the Way." (33:4)
to Chapter 11:
1. Opening. Salih has this in view of the fact that the mountain split open to reveal the she-camel,
he opened belief to those who believed in him. The camel is a mount.
2. Mounts which are miracles proving the truthfulness
of the Prophets - like the Buraq of Muhammad and the she-camel of Salih.
4. i.e. a triplicity:
Essence, volition, and speech (qawl).
5. Here he uses sabab, something by which something is brought about, rather
than 'illa, which is something which alters or effects something, as in cause and effect. 'Illa is the reason behind judicial
6. First proposition.
7. Comes from a root meaning skin (bashara), the root of bashshara, to give
good news, is to announce something which produces a change in the complexion.
12: The Seal of the Wisdom of the Heart
in the Word
of Shu'ayb (Jethro)
Know that the heart of the gnostic of Allah is from the mercy of Allah, and it is vaster
than mercy. The heart encompasses Allah, but His Mercy does not encompass Him. (1) This is the language of the general public
from the door of indication (ishara). Allah is merciful (rahim) and is not the one to whom mercy is shown (marhum). Mercy
has no power over Him. As for the indication from the tongue of the elite, Allah describes Himself by the breath which is
from breathing. The Divine Names are the same as the Named, and the breath is none other than Him. They require what they
give the breath of realities, so the realities which the Names demand are not other than the universe. Thus divinity (ulûhîya)
demands the object of worship (ma'luh) and sovereignty (rubûbiya) demands the object of lordship (marbub). (2) They have no
source except by the universe in existence and determination (taqdir). Allah, in respect to His essence, is independent of
the universe, but sovereignty does not possess this principle. The matter remains between what the sovereignty demands and
what the essence deserves of independence from the universe. Sovereignty is based on reality and the description is only the
same as this essence.
Then the matter changes according to the relationships. It is reported that Allah only describes
Himself with compassion for His slaves. The first of what was breathed from sovereignty by Himself is related to the Merciful
by His bringing into being the universe, which sovereignty demands by its reality and all the Divine Names. By this aspect
it is confirmed that "His mercy encompasses everything." (3) It encompasses Allah. It is wider than the heart or equal to
it in capacity.
Know that Allah, as it is confirmed in sound tradition, changes in the forms of the tajalli. When the
heart contains Allah, it does not contain other-than-Him of creatures along with Him. It is as if He filled it, and the meaning
of this is, that when it looks to Allah in His tajalli to it, it is not possible to look at another with Him.
of the gnostic in respect to vastness is as Abu Yazid al-Bistami said, "If the Throne and what surrounds it a million times
over were in one of the corners of the heart of the gnostic, he still would not feel it." Al-Junayd said about this meaning,
"If the in-time were compared to the out-of-time, not a trace of it would remain." The heart encompasses the out-of-time,
so how can it sense the in-time as existent? If Allah varies His tajalli in forms, then by necessity, the heart is expanded
and contracted according to the form in which the divine tajalli occurs. There is nothing left in the heart apart from the
form in which the tajalli occurs. So in relation to the seal, the heart of the gnostic or the Perfect Man, is at the stage
of the place that is the face of the seal. It does not exceed it, rather it is its size and shape in respect to roundness.
The face is round, square, hexagonal, octagonal, etc. in form. If the face is square, hexagonal, octagonal or whatever form,
its place in relation to the seal is like it and it is not like other than it.
This is the opposite of what one group
alluded to, saying that Allah gives a tajalli according to the predisposition of the slave. This is not how it is. The slave
is manifest to Allah according to the form in which Allah gives him a tajalli of Himself.
The exact clarification of
this question is that Allah has two tajalli: an unseen tajalli and a visible tajalli. From the unseen tajalli He accords the
predisposition on which the heart is based, and it is the tajalli of the Essence of which the Unseen is the reality. It is
the He-ness which merits it by His word from Himself: "He". His He-ness is always He. If this predisposition comes to the
heart, then the visible tajalli is manifested to it in the Visible world, so the heart sees it. He is manifest by the form
of whatever tajalli he has, as we mentioned. Allah gives it the predisposition by His word, "He gave everything its creation,
then guided it." (20:50) Then He lifted the veil between Him and His slave, so He sees Him in the form of his belief in Allah.
Allah, who is in the belief, is He whose form the heart contains. He is the One who gives it a tajalli, and so it knows Him.
The eye only sees by belief, not hidden in the varieties of belief.
Whoever limits Allah, denies Allah in other than
what he limits Allah to, and confirms Allah in what he limits Him by, when Allah gives him a tajalli. Whoever frees Allah
from limitation does not deny Allah, and so confirms Allah in every form in which Him changes. He is given from himself according
to the form in which the tajalli infinitely occurs. The forms of the tajalli are without end. Similarly knowledge of Allah
has no limit in the gnostic who understands the forms. Rather, he is a gnostic at every moment, seeking increase of knowledge
by "Lord, increase me in knowledge! Lord, increase me in knowledge! Lord, increase me in knowledge!" (4)
is endless from both sides. This is as if you said: Allah and creation. If you looked at His words, "I am his foot by which
he runs, and his hand with which he strikes and his tongue by which he speaks," and so on of the faculties whose location
are the limbs which are not separate, then you said that the matter is all Allah or the matter is all creation. It is creation
by one ascription and it is Allah by another ascription, yet the source is one. The source of the form is what gives the tajalli
of the source of the form which did not exist before the tajalli. It is the one giving the tajalli and the one receiving it.
See how wondrous is the command of Allah in respect to His He-ness and in respect to His relationship to the universe in the
realities of His most Beautiful Names!
Who is He and what is He and what is His source?
He is He!
of His commonality is of His elite,
and whoever is of His elite is of His commonality.
There is no source except source,
so the light of His source is His darkness.
Whoever is ignorant of this
experiences grief in himself
recognises what we have said
except for the slave who has aspiration (himma).
He said, "There is a reminder in
that for anyone who has a heart," (50:37) because the heart (qalb) is transformed (taqallaba) in the various forms and attributes.
He did not say, "to him who has an intellect" because the intellect limits. (5) It confines the matter to a single description,
but reality refuses to be contained. It is also a reminder for those who have intellect, and they are those who have creeds
by which some deny others, and some curse others, and they do not have helpers. (6) The god of the one with a creed does not
have jurisdiction over the god of someone with another creed. The one who has a creed defends it; he defends the matter which
he believes of his god, and supports it. He does not support that which is not in his creed. For this reason, he has no effect
on the creeds of his dissenters, and similarly his dissenters have no help from the god who is in his creed; so they have
no helpers. Allah excluded help from the divinity of creed based on the isolation of one creed to the exclusion of others.
The helped is gathered and the helper is gathered.
For the gnostic, Allah is the Recognised Who is not denied. The people of recognition
in this world are the people of recognition in the Next World. This is why Allah said, "anyone who has a heart (qalb)" (50:37)
since he knows the transformation (taqlib) of Allah in forms by the transformation in shape. He recognises himself from himself.
His self is not other than the He-ness of Allah. There is nothing in phenomenal being from what is, or what will be, which
is other than the He-ness of Allah. Rather, He is the source of He-ness. So He is the gnostic and the knower and the acknowledger
in this form. He is the one who is neither gnostic nor knower. He is also the one who denies Him in the other form. This is
the portion of the one who knows Allah from the tajalli and the witnessing in the source of gatheredness (jam'). It is His
word, "anyone who has a heart" which transforms the shapes by His transforming.
As for the people of belief (iman), they are the ones who imitate those who imitated
the Prophets and Messengers in what they transmitted from Allah. They are not those who imitate the people of concepts and
those who interpret the transmissions received by basing them on their logical proofs. These are the ones who imitate the
Messengers, may Allah bless them and grant them peace. They are the ones who are meant by His words, "or listens well" (50:37)
to what divine transmissions relate of the sunna of the Prophets. He means this is the one who "will listen well, having seen
the evidence" (50:37) with awareness of the presence of the imagination and its use.
That is what the Prophet said about ihsan, "Worship Allah as if you saw Him," (7
and "Allah is in the qibla of the one who prays." (8) For that reason, he is a witness. Anyone who imitates the people of
logical speculation and is limited by them is not the one who will listen well. The one who will listen well must witness
what we have mentioned. When he does not witness what we have mentioned, he is not the one meant by this ayat. These are those
of whom Allah has said, "When those who were followed disown those who followed them." (2:166) The Messengers do not disown
their followers who follow them.
Realise, my friend, what I have mentioned to you in this wisdom of the heart. As
for its specification with Shu'ayb, there is some branching off (tash'ib). Its branches are not numbered because every creed
has a branch, and so they are all branches or creeds. If the covering is removed, it is removed for everyone in accordance
with his creed. The covering might be removed in a manner contrary to his creed in principle. It is His words, "What confronts
them from Allah will be something they did not reckon with." (39:47) Most of them in principle are like the Mu'tazilites,
believing that Allah will execute the threat on the rebel should he die without repentance. If he dies and is given mercy
from Allah, then concern preceded it, for He did not punish him. Thus he found Allah Ever-Forgiving, All-Merciful, and there
appeared to him from Allah something he did not reckoned with.
As for He-ness (huwiya), some people are firm in their
belief that Allah is such-and-such. When the covering is removed, they see the form of their belief, and it is true. They
believe in it. Then the knot is unravelled and the creed vanishes and becomes knowledge through contemplation (mushahada).
After vision is sharpened, weak vision does not return. It appeared to some people by the variety of the tajalli in forms
through vision, since the tajalli is not repeated. He verifies it in he-ness; and there appeared to them from Allah in Allah's
He-ness what they never reckoned with before the covering was removed. (9)
We mentioned the form of the ascent in
divine recognitions after death in our Book of the Tajalliyat, in which we mentioned what we gathered from the group regarding
unveiling, and the benefits we derived from them in the question that they did not know about. One of the most wondrous of
matters is that man is always in ascent, but is not aware of that due to the fineness of the veil and its delicateness. It
is like His words, "They were only given a simulation of it." (2:25)
He, the One, is not the same as the Last. Therefore
the two semblances with the gnostic are similar dissimilars. The one possessed of realisation sees multiplicity in One, as
he knows what the Divine Names indicate. Although their realities differ and are numerous, it is yet One Source. It is an
intelligible multiplicity in the source of One. In the tajalli, it is multiplicity witnessed in the one source even as it
matter which you obtain in the definition of each form. It and the multiplicity of forms and their variety derive, in fact,
from one substance (jawhar). It is its own matter (hayula). Whoever recognises himself with this recognition recognises his
Lord. Allah is in His creation due to His form, rather He is the source of its he-ness and its reality.
For this reason,
the only ones among the 'ulama' who tumble on the recognition of the self (nafs) and its reality are the divinely inspired
messengers and the great among the Sufis. As for the philosophers and masters of thought among the ancients and the mutakallimun
in their discourse on the self and its whatness, none of them stumbled on its reality, and logical speculation can never provide
it. (10) He who seeks knowledge of it by means of logical speculation, swells himself up and boasts without vigour or substance.
"They are those whose efforts in the life of this world are misguided while they suppose that they are doing good." (18:104)
He who seeks the matter by other than its path will not achieve its realization.
How excellent is what Allah said
about the universe - He changes it with the breaths into a new creation in one source. He said in respect to some, rather
to most of the world, "Yet they are dubious about the new creation." (50:15) This means that they do not know the renewal
of the command in breaths. However, the Ash'arites stumbled on it in some existent things, and these are non-essentials (a'râd).
The Hisbaniya (11) stumbled on it regarding the entire universe. The logical philosophers consider them ignorant of it. However,
the two groups erred. As for the error of the Hisbaniya, in spite of what they said regarding change in the entire universe,
they did not stumble on the oneness of the source of the intelligible substance (jawhar) which underlies the form. The universe
only exists by the oneness, as the oneness is only intelligible by the universe. If they had said that, they would have obtained
the degree of realisation in the matter.
As for the Ash'arites, they do not know that the entire universe consists
of a collection of non-essentials (a'râd). It changes in every moment since accidents do not last for two moments. That appears
in their definition of things. So when they defined the thing, its phenomenal being is clear in the definition of non-essential
matters. These non-essentials mentioned in its definition are actually the source of this independent substance and its reality.
Inasmuch as it is a non-essential, it is not independent, but by the sum of what is not independent, comes what is independent.
It is like occupation of space in the definition of the independent essential substance, and its acceptance is non-essential
in its essential definition. There is no doubt that that the containing-of-form is an accident since it is only in the container,
and that is not independent it is in the essential nature of the substance. Occupation of space is a non-essential,
and it only occurs in the thing occupying space, and so it is not independent. Occupation of space and containing-of-form
are not based on the source of the defined substance by an extra matter, since essential
definitions are the source of
the defined and its he-ness.
That which does not last two moments becomes that which lasted two moments or indeed
several moments! What was not independent became independent in their view! They do not understand the basis of this, and
these people "are dubious about the new creation."
As for the people of unveiling, they see Allah in a tajalli of Himself
in every breath, and there is no repetition of the tajalli. They also see by witnessing that every tajalli grants a new creation
and takes away a creation. Thus its departure is annihilation in the presence of the tajalli, and it is going-on by what the
other tajalli grants. So understand!
Notes to Chapter 12:
1. Hadith qudsi, "Neither My earth nor My heaven
contain Me, but the heart of My believing slave contains Me."
2. lit. "god-ed" and "Lord-ed".
3. cf. Qur'an
4. Ref Qur'an 20:114: "Say, 'My Lord, increase me in knowledge!'"
5. The root meaning from which intellect
('aql) comes means to hobble a camel.
6. ref to Qur'an 29:25, "You have adopted idols apart from Allah as tokens of
mutual affection in this world. But then on the Day of Rising you will reject one other and curse one another. The Fire will
be your shelter. You will have no helpers."
7. Hadith in Muslim and al-Bukhari.
8. Hadith in al-Bukhari.
Ref.Qur'an 39:47, "If those who did wrong were to possess all that If those who did wrong owned everything on earth, and the
same again with it, they would offer it as a ransom to save themselves from the evil of the punishment on the Day of Rising.
What confronts them from Allah will be something they did not reckon with.them from Allah that they never reckoned with."
10. Being veiled by limitation.
11. The Hisbaniya were sophists, a group known in the history of philosophy
for doubts, scepticism and sophism who held that the universe changes at every moment since there is no objective Reality.
All is subjective.
13: The Seal of the Wisdom of Power (Malk)
Word of Lut (Lot)
Malk is power and force, and the strong man with power says, "I have power over the kneading,
since I am forceful in kneading it." When the poet, Qays ibn al-Hatim, described his attack with a spear in verse, he said:
have power over it
and so I made its rupture wide,
and you see standing under it what was behind it.
is to say that he used enough force in the thrust. It was what Allah said regarding Lut, peace be upon him, "If only I had
the power to combat you, or could take refuge in some powerful support!" (11:80) The Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant
him peace, said, "Allah showed mercy to my brother Lut, and he took refuge in a powerful support." So the Prophet said that
Lut was with Allah who is strong. It was Allah whom Lut, peace be upon him, meant by the strong pillar, and resistance when
he said, "If only I had the power". Here it is aspiration (himma) in relation to man in particular.
The Messenger of
Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "From that time, the time in which Lut, peace be upon him, said, 'or
could take refuge in some powerful support,' after that, Prophets have only been sent with some power from their people."
His tribe protected him as Abu Talib protected the Messenger of Allah. His words, "If only I had the power to combat you"
is because he heard Allah say, "It is Allah who created you from a weak beginning," (30:54) by origin, "and then after weakness,
gave you strength." Strength is by appointing, and it is non-essential strength. "Then after strength ordained weakness and
grey hair." Appointing is connected to grey hair. As for weakness, it returns to the basis of its creation as He said, "He
created you from a weak beginning." Allah returns him to that from which He created him, as He says, "then some of you revert
to the lowest form of life that, so after having knowledge, they may know nothing at all." (16:70) Allah mentions that he
returns to the first weakness. The old man is judged to be as weak as the child is. A Prophet is only sent after he has reached
the age of forty. It is the time which is the beginning of decrease and weakness. For this reason, Lut said, "If only I had
the power to combat you," although that demands effective aspiration (himma). If you were to ask: "What prevents him from
using effective aspiration while it is present in the wayfarers (sâlikûn) among the followers when the Messengers are more
entitled to that?" you spoke the truth. However, you lack another knowledge, which is that gnosis does not leave the aspiration
freedom of action. Whenever gnosis is great, then its freedom of action with the aspiration is weak. That has two reasons
one is his realisation of the station of slavedom and his regarding the root of his natural creation; (1) and the other
reason is the oneness of the actor and the acted upon. The aspiration of a Messenger does not appear, since the latter aspect
In this witnessing, he sees that his opponent does not turn from the reality on which he is based in the
state of his source-form and the state of his non-existence. He only appears in existence through what he had in the state
of non-existence by his source-form. He does not overstep his reality nor does he abandon his path. That is called dissent;
yet it is a non-essential matter manifested by the veil which is over the eyes of the people, as Allah says, "but most people
do not know." They know what is manifest and outward of the life of this world, but they are ignorant of the Next life. It
is the other way round, so it is from their words, "our hearts are veiled," (2) that is, in coverings. It is a covering which
veils them from perceiving the matter for what it is. This and its like prevent the gnostic from acting freely in the world.
Abu 'Abdullah ibn al-Qa'id said to Shaykh Abu's-Su'ud ibn ash-Shibli, "Why do you not act freely?" Abu's-Su'ud replied, "I
have left Allah to act for me as He wishes." He meant the command of Allah, "so take Him as your Guardian." (73:9) The Guardian
is the one with freedom of action, especially as He heard Allah saying, "Give of that to which He has made you successors
(khalifs)." (57:7) Abu's-Su'ud knew, and the gnostics know that the command which he has is not his, and he is only a successor
to it. Allah told him, "this command is the deen to which I have you successors and over which I have given you power, so
take Me for a guardian in it," Abu's-Su'ud obeyed the command of Allah and took Him for a Guardian.
How can there remain
any aspiration for the one who witnesses the like of this command? Aspiration (himma) only acts by the property of concentration
that which its possessor does not have, and acts on other than his concentration. This gnosis separates him from that property
of concentration. The complete gnosis manifests gnosis at the end of incapacity and weakness. One of the Abdal (3) said to
Shaykh 'Abdu'r-Razzaq, (4) "After you greet Shaykh Abu Madyan, (5) tell him, 'O Abu Madyan! Why is nothing difficult for us,
yet things are difficult for you, and we long for your station and you do not long for ours?" Similarly, although Abu Madyan
had that station as well as the other, we are more complete than him in the station of weakness and incapacity. His badl said
this to him; he did not say it.
The Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said that this station is from
the command of Allah to him: "I do not know what He will do to me or you. I only follow what is revealed to me." The Messenger
acts according to what is revealed to him. He does not have anything else. If He reveals to him that he should act by ordinance,
he acts. If he is prevented from acting, he does not act. The best part of choice is to abandon freedom of action unless the
person is deficient in gnosis.
Abu's-Su'ud ash-Shibli said to his believing companions, "Allah gave us freedom of action
fifteen years ago, and we abandoned it through politeness." This is the language of conceit. As for us, we did not abandon
it through politeness, for abandoning would imply preference. Rather, we abandoned it by the perfection of gnosis. Gnosis
does not oblige it on the strength of choice. When the gnostic acts by aspiration in the world, it is from divine command
and compulsion, not by choice.
There is no doubt that the station of the Messenger demands freedom of action for the
acceptance of the Message which he brings. Allah informs him of what will be accepted in his community and among his people
in order to manifest the deen of Allah. The wali is not like that. Nevertheless, the Messenger does not seek Him in the manifest,
because the Messenger has compassion for his people. He does not want them to exceed by having the proof appear against them
because that would entail their destruction. He spares them.
The Messenger also knew that when something inimitable
(6) is manifested to the community, some of them believe in it, and some recognise it but deny it out of injustice, arrogance
or envy. Some of them attribute it to magic and deception. The Messenger sees that, and he also sees that no one will believe
unless Allah illuminates his heart by the light of belief. When the person does not look by that light called belief, the
inimitatable miracle has no benefit for him. Their aspiration does not seek initimable matters, since the effect is not uniform
among those who see it, nor is it in their hearts as He said in respect to the most perfect of Messengers and the most knowing
of creation and the most truthful in state, "You cannot guide those you would like to but Allah guides those He wills." (28:56)
aspiration did have an effect, no one would be more perfect than the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him
peace, nor have a higher nor stronger aspiration than him, yet even so his aspiration did not bring about Abu Talib, his uncle,
becoming Muslim, and it was to the Prophet that the ayat which we mentioned was revealed. Similarly, Allah said of the Messenger,
"It is only his to deliver the message." (7) And He said, "You are not responsible for their guidance, but Allah guides whoever
He wills," (2:272) and He added in Surat al-Qasas, "He has best knowledge of the guided," (28:56) those to whom knowledge
of their guidance was given in the state of their non-existence in their source-forms. It is established that knowledge follows
the known. Whoever is a believer in his source-form and in the state of his non-existence, appears in that form in the state
of his existence. Allah knew that of him, so that is what he is like. For that reason, Allah said, "He has best knowledge
of the guided."
When Allah said the like of that, He also said, "My Word, once given, is not subject to change," (50:29)
because My Word is based on My knowledge of My creation. "and I do not wrong My slaves," that is, I do not decree that disbelief
(kufr) on them which makes them wretched and then I demand of them what is not in their capacity to do. Rather, We only deal
with them according to what We gave them knowledge of, and We only gave them knowledge of what they gave Us from themselves
by that on which they are based. So if they do wrong, they are the ones who are unjust. For this reason, He said, "but they
wronged themselves. Allah did not wronged them." (8) Finally, We only said to them what Our essence accorded that We say to
them. Our Essence is known to Us by what it is based on; so, if We say this, and do not say that, then We only spoke by what
We knew to say. We spoke the word from Us, and obedience or lack of obedience is up to those who hear.
So all is from
Us and from them, (9)
and acceptance is from Us and from them.
If they are not from Us,
We, without a doubt, are
So,. my friend, realise this wisdom of power in the word of Lut. It is a gate which belongs to gnosis.
The secret (10) has been made clear for you, and the command is clear. It is included in the even which is called the odd.
to Chapter 13:
1. Which is weakness, and the slave obeying the command of the Master, as in Qur'an 30:54, "It is Allah
who created you from a weak beginning."
2. Two places: 2:88; 4:155.
3. Abdal, plural of badl, a substitute.
Shaykh al-Akbar says, "They are seven. Whoever travels from one place and leaves his body in its from so that no one recognises
that he has gone, that one is only a badl. He is modelled on the heart of Ibrahim, peace be upon him."
4. A jurist
and one of Abu Madyan's disciples.
5. Abu Madyan: Shu'ayb ibn al-Husayn al-Andalusi, great Maghribi Sufi, born ca.
520/1126 near Seville and died near Tlemcen in 594/1197.
6. Mu'jiza, a miracle performed by a Prophet to prove his
truthfulness and which others are unable to do.
7. Ref. Qur'an 5:99 and several other places.
8. 2:57, 9:70,
etc. in many places in the Qur'an.
9. The apparent sources. The Word is from him and obedience from them.
The secret of the Decree.
14: The Seal of the Wisdom of the Decree (Qadar)
in the Word of 'Uzayr (Ezra)
that fate (qada') is the judgement of Allah on things, and Allah's judgement on things is according to His knowledge in them
and of them. The knowledge of Allah in things is based on that which known things accord Him of what they are in themselves.
The decree (qadar) is the timing of how things are in their source without increase. (1) Fate is only decreed for things by
themselves. This is the source of the secret of the Decree for the one who has a heart or gives ear. He is a witness "Allah's
is the conclusive argument." (6:149)
Properly speaking, the judge (hâkim) studies the source of the question which
he judges according to what its essence demands. The one sentenced to what is due him is, in fact, a judge over the judge
when he sentences him to that. Every "judge" is sentenced to what he sentences, and in it he is the judge, whoever he is.
Grasp this question! The decree is only unknown by the force of its appearance. It is not recognised, so there is much seeking
and earnest request in it.
Know that the Messengers, may Allah bless them and grant them peace, inasmuch as they are
Messengers not inasmuch as they are awliya' and gnostics are in ranks according to that on which their communities
are based. They only have the knowledge with which they were sent, according to what the community of that Messenger needs,
no more and no less. Communities differ, some have more need than others, so Messengers differ in the knowledge of the message
just as their communities differ. It is what Allah said: "Those Messengers: We favoured some of them over others." (2:253)
the same way, they also differ in what springs from their essences, peace be upon them, in the varieties of knowledges and
judgements they have according to their predispositions. This is what Allah said: "We have preferred some of the Prophets
over others." (17:55) And Allah said in respect of creation, "Allah has favoured some of you over others in provision." (16:71)
Provision from Allah can be spiritual like knowledges and sensory like food. Allah "only sent it down in
a known measure." (15:21) It is the due which creation seeks. Allah "gives everything its created form." (20:50) He sends
down according to what He wills. (2) He only wills what He knows, and so He commands it. What He knows is as we have stated.
It is only by what the known accords.
Timing basically belongs to the known. Fate, knowledge, will and volition follow
the Decree. So Allah only gives the understanding of the secret of the decree in respect to knowledges to the one who has
been given complete gnosis. Knowledge gives complete rest to the knower, and it gives painful punishment to the knower as
well. It gives two opposites. By knowledge, Allah describes Himself with both wrath and pleasure, and by knowledge the Divine
Names are opposite one another. A reality (3) governs the absolute existent and the limited existent. It is not possible that
there be something more complete than it or stronger or greater than it, because of the universality of its jurisdiction,
both limited and unlimited.
The Prophets, may Allah bless them and grant them peace, only take their own knowledges
from a particular divine revelation. Their hearts are free of logical speculation because they know the limitations of the
intellect in respect to its cognitive perception. The intellect is unable to perceive matters for what they really are. Simple
communication is also unable to perceive that which is only accorded by taste (dhawq). Perfect knowledge remains only in the
divine tajalli and in what Allah removes of veils from the springs of the inner sight and the eyes. They perceive matters
- their non-time and in-time, their non-existence and existence, their impossibility, necessity and possibility - for what
they truly are in their realities and sources.
Since the request of 'Uzayr, peace be upon him, occurred on the elite
path, censure fell on him as is related in tradition. (4) Had he sought the unveiling which we mentioned, perhaps censure
in that would not have fallen on him. The proof of the simplicity of his heart is in his statement, "How can Allah restore
this to life when it has died?" (2:259) His form, peace be upon him, is in this statement of his, as the form of Ibrahim is
in His words, "Show me how You bring the dead to life." (2:260) That necessitates the response by the action which Allah manifested
when He said, "Allah caused him to die a hundred years, then He brought him back to life," and He said, "Look at the bones
how We raise them up and clothe them in flesh." So he saw how bodies grow with the witnessing of realisation. He showed
him how it was. He asked about the decree which is only perceived by unveiling to things in the state of their permanence
in their non-existence. That was not granted. That is one of the properties of divine cognisance, so it is impossible that
any except Allah know it. They are the keys of the First (5) the keys of the unseen which only He knows. Allah informs
only those slaves whom He wills on such matters.
Know that they are only called keys in the state of opening. (6) The
state of opening is the state of connecting taking-form to things, or rather the state of connecting the decree to the decreed.
None has any taste in that except Allah. Neither tajalli nor unveiling occur in it since only Allah has power and action in
view of the fact that He has absolute existence which is unlimited.
When we saw that Allah censured 'Uzayr, peace be
upon him, when he asked about the Decree, we knew that 'Uzayr was seeking this cognisance. Thus he was seeking to possess
the power (qudra) which is connected to the decreed (maqdur). That is only claimed by the One Who has absolute existence.
Thus he sought the impossible. How-things-are is only perceived by taste.
As for what we relate of what Allah revealed
to him, "If you do not desist, I will efface your name from the register of prophethood," it means I will remove the path
of transmission from you and give you matters based on tajalli. Tajalli only occurs according to what you have of the predisposition
by which the perception of taste occurs. You know that you only perceive according to your predisposition. You look at this
matter which you are seeking. If you do not see it, you know that you do not have the predisposition which it requires. That
is one of the properties of the Divine Essence. You have learned that Allah "gives everything its created form." (20:50) So
if He did not give you this particular predisposition, then it is not your creation. If it had been your creation, then Allah,
who informed you that "He gives everything its created for," would have given it to you. It is you who desist from this sort
of question in yourself. There is no need for any other prohibition. This is a mark of concern Allah showed to 'Uzayr, peace
be upon him. He knew that from his own knowledge and was ignorant of that from his own ignorance.
Know that wilaya
(7) is the universal encompassing sphere. This why it is not intersected, and so it is informed about things. As for the prophethood
of law-giving and the Message, it is intersected, and it was cut off in Muhammad, peace be upon him. There will be no Prophet
after him, either giving law or bound by law. There is no Messenger after him, and he is the lawgiver. This hadith (8) is
a fragment of the manifestation of the awliya' of Allah, because it contains the cutting off of the taste of complete perfect
slavedom, so the name of slavedom, which is particular to it, was not used. The slave does not want to share with his Lord,
who is Allah, in the same name. Allah is not called "prophet" or "messenger." However, He is called Wali and is described
by that name. (9) Allah says, "Allah is the Wali of those who believe," (2:257) and He says, "He is the Wali, the Praiseworthy."
(42:28) This name, "wali", continues to be applied to the slaves of Allah both in this world and the Next. A name which is
particular to the slave and not to Allah no longer remains since prophethood and the message have been cut off.
is gentle to His slaves," (42:19) so they still have the general prophethood in which there is no law (shari'a), and they
still have the law in striving in the confirmed ordinances. They still have heirs in the laws. The Prophet said, "The 'ulama'
(men of knowledge) are the heirs of the Prophets." (10) The only inheritance here is that they strive with the ordinances,
and so they legislate them.
If you see a Prophet speaking a language outside the simple ordinances of the Shari'a,
that is due to the fact that he is a wali and a gnostic. For this reason, his station in respect to his being a man of knowledge
and a wali is more perfect and complete than it is due to the fact that he is a Messenger or someone who legislates and has
a Shari'a. If you hear one of the People of Allah speaking, or it is related to you that he said, "Wilaya is higher than prophethood,"
that speaker only means what we mentioned. Or if he says that the wali is above the Prophet or the Messenger, he means in
the same person. He is the Messenger, and inasmuch as he is a wali, he is more complete than he is by simply being a Prophet.
It does not mean that the wali who follows him is higher than him. The follower never overtakes the followed in that in which
he follows him. If he had overtaken him, then he would not be his follower. So understand that!
The starting point
of the Messenger or Prophet who brings a Shari'a is wilaya and knowledge. Do you not see that Allah commanded him to seek
increase of knowledge, not increase of anything other than it? Allah commanded him, "Say: 'Lord, increase me in knowledge!'"
((20:114) This means: you know that the Shari'a consists of making certain deeds obligatory and prohibiting certain actions.
These actions take place in this world, so they come to an end. Wilaya is not like that. If it had been cut off, it would
have been cut off in respect to itself just as the message is cut off in respect to itself. If it had been cut off, it would
not still have a name. Wali is a name which Allah will continue to have. (11) This belongs to the slaves by following a model,
realisation and attachment. (12)
He told 'Uzayr, "If you do not desist from asking about how the decree is, I will
efface your name from the register of prophethood. The business will come to through unveiling by tajalli and the name "prophet"
and "messenger" will vanish from you." Allah will still have his wilaya. The context of the state indicated that this speech
came as a threat. Whoever has this state when he is addressed in this fashion, knows that he is threatened with the cutting
off of some of the special ranks of wilaya in this abode, since prophethood and the message are a special rank in wilaya based
on some of the ranks which wilaya contains. He knows that he is higher than the wali who has neither law-giving prophethood
nor the message.
If someone has another state which necessitates that the rank of prophethood be confirmed for him,
that then is the promise and not the threat. 'Uzayr's question was accepted because the Prophet is the elite wali. Because
of the context, he knows that since the prophet has this prerogative in wilaya, he cannot engage in what he knows that Allah
will dislike him doing. He cannot engage in what he knows it is impossible for him to attain. When these circumstances exist
for the one who has them and they are affirmed, then this divine statement, "I will efface your name for the register of prophethood"
becomes a promise. Thus it becomes a transmission indicating a lasting rank. It is a lasting rank for the Prophets and Messengers
in the Next Abode, which is not a place where a Shari'a is prescribed for any of Allah's creatures after they have entered
the Garden or the Fire.
We define that as an entry into the two abodes of the Garden and the Fire. When the Day of
Rising begins for the people who lived in the times of the gaps between the Prophets, (13) young children, and madmen, all
of them will be gathered on one plain for the establishment of justice, recompense for wrong actions and the rewards for works
which are due to the people of the Garden. Then they will be gathered separate from other people on one plain, (14) and a
Prophet from the best of them will be sent among them. The Fire will be shown to them. This Messenger sent to these people
will bring it, and he will say to them, "I am the Messenger of Allah to you." Some will affirm him and others will deny him.
Then he will say to them, "Plunge into this fire. Whoever obeys me will be saved and will enter the Garden. Whoever disobeys
me and opposes my command will be destroyed and he will be one of the people of the Fire." Whoever obeys his command and casts
himself into this fire will be happy and receive his reward. He will find this fire to be "coolness and peace".(15) Whoever
disobeys him deserves the punishment and will enter the Fire and descend into it because of his deed of opposition so that
that justice from Allah might be set up among His slaves.
That is like the words of Allah, "Upon the day when legs
are bared," (68:42) (16) i.e. for one of the immense matters of the Next World, "and they are called on to prostrate." This
is obligation and Shari'a. Some will be able to prostrate and some will not be able to do so. (17) These are the one about
whom Allah says, "They are called on to prostrate, but they will not be able to do so," just as some of the slaves cannot
obey the command of Allah in this world like Abu Jahl (18) and others. This is according to what remains of the Shari'a
in the Next Abode on the Day of Rising before people enter the Garden and the Fire. This is why we have written it down, and
praise belongs to Allah, the Wali.
Notes to Chapter 14:
1. Qadar has a specific time and qada' does not.
So qadar refers to the particular instances of qada'.
2. Ref. Qur¹an, "Were Allah to expand the provision of His slaves,
they would act as tyrants on the earth. But He sends downwhatever He wills in a measured way." (42:27)
3. The secret
of the decree.
4. Qur'an 2:259 "Or the one who passed by a town which had fallen into ruin. He asked, 'How can Allah
restore this to life when it has died?' Allah caused him to die a hundred years then brought him back to life. Then He asked,
'How long have you been here?' He replied, 'I have been here a day or part of a day.' He said, 'Not so! You have been here
a hundred years. Look at your food and drink it has not gone bad and look at your donkey so We can make you a
Sign for all mankind. Look at the bones how We raise them up and clothe them in flesh.'" According to 'Ali, Ibn Jarir,
Ibn 'Abbas, al-Hasan and Qatada, that is 'Uzayr.
5. The realities of sources.
6. Miftah, key, comes from the
root, fath, opening.
7. According to the commentator, wilaya is annihilation in Allah, and Allah encompassed all, and
"All things are passing except His face." (28:88).
8. "I am the Seal of the Messengers."
9. Wali means the friend
of Allah, and refers to the gnostic. It is also one of the Divine Names which means the Guardian or the One who manages people's
11. As Yusuf said about Allah, "...You are my Wali in this world and the Next." (12:101).
According to al-Qashani, it is acquires and realised through annihilation in the Divine Attributes and Essence and attached
by the going-on (baqa') after annihilation in the station of drawing near.
13. i.e. those who did not have a Prophet
14. According to the commentator, al-Qashani, the plain on which they are gathered may be as-Sahira, as
in the Qur'an (79:14), "But it shall be but a single scare, and behold they are at as-Sahira!" As-Sahira which, according
to some, is the earth Allah will create anew on the Day of Rising.
15. As was the case with Ibrahim, Qur'an 21:69.
The expression means to get ready for something difficult.
17. This is also reflected in a hadith in al-Bukhari in
which the Prophet said, "Our Lord will unveil what is hidden, and every believer, man and woman, will prostrate to Him. Those
who prostrated out of eyeservice and reputation in this world will go to prostrate and find their backs rigid."
The Prophet's uncle who was a violent opponent of Islam.
15: The Seal of the Wisdom of Prophethood
Word of 'Isa (Jesus)
He was manifested from the water of Maryam
and the breath of Jibril in the form
of man existing from clay.
The spirit was in an essence purified of nature
which it called prison.
For that reason,
the spirit stayed in it
for more a thousand years in the designation of time. (1)
A spirit from Allah, no other.
that reason, he revived the dead and formed the bird from clay.
Since his relation with his Lord is proven,
he has effective action in both the higher and lower worlds.
Allah purified his body, and made his spirit pure,
He made him a model of taking-form.
Know that among the special qualities of the spirits (arwah) is whenever they
touch anything life flows into it. This is why the Samiri (2) seized a handful of dust from the track of the messenger, who
was Jibril, and he is the Spirit. The Samiri had knowledge of this matter. When he recognised that it was Jibril, he knew
that life would flow into whatever he had walked on, so he took a handful of dust (3) from the track of the messenger or he
filled his hand or the ends of his fingers, (4) and threw it into the Calf. The Calf made a noise like the sound of a cow
mooing. If it had been in another form, the name of that form's sound would have been ascribed to it - as grumbling to the
camel, baa-ing to rams, bleating to sheep, and voice or articulation and speech to man. That power from the life
which flows in things is called lâhût. The nâsût is the locus on which the spirit is based. The nâsût may be called a spirit
by what is based on it.
When the Trusty Ruh, who is Jibril, presented himself to Maryam, peace be upon her, in the
form of a "handsome, well-built man", (5) she imagined that he was a man wishing to have intercourse with her. She took refuge
with Allah from him with all her being, with the whole of her existence, that Allah might save her from him since she knew
that that was among the things which are not permitted. She was given a complete presence with Allah, and it is the meaning-without-form
spirit. If Jibril had breathed into her at that moment in this state, 'Isa would have been born in such a manner that no one
could tolerate him due to the harshness of his nature which was the state of his mother.
When he said to her, "I am
only your Lord's messenger of your Lord so that He can give you a pure boy," she relaxed from that contraction (qabd) and
her breast expanded. It was at that time that Jibril breathed 'Isa into her. Jibril conveyed the word of Allah to Maryam as
the Messenger coveyed the word of Allah to his community. 'Isa was "His word that He cast into Maryam, and a Spirit from Him."
(6) Then appetite filled Maryam. The body of 'Isa was created from the actual water of Maryam and from the imaginary water
of Jibril which was infused in the moisture of that breath, since the breath of the living is moist because of the water content
in it. So the body of 'Isa is from imaginary water and real water. He emerged in the form of a man in respect to his mother
and inasmuch as Jibril had appeared in the form of a man, since taking-form only occurs in the human species according to
the normal principle.
'Isa brought the dead to life because he is the Divine Spirit, and bringing to life belongs to
Allah. The breath which 'Isa has is like the breath which Jibril has. The word belongs to Allah. The bringing the dead to
life by 'Isa is an actual revival inasmuch as it was manifested from his breath as he was manifested from the form of his
mother. His bringing to life is also imagined to be from him, but it actually belongs to Allah. He joined the two by the reality
on which he is based even as we said that he is created from imaginary water and actual water. Bringing-to-life is ascribed
to him by means of actualisation in one aspect, and by imagination in another aspect. In respect to actualisation, it is said
of him that he brings the dead to life. In respect to imagination (tawahhum), it is said that he breathes into it and it becomes
a bird by the leave of Allah. (7) The agent is in the prepositional phrase "by Allah's permission", even though He did not
breathe into it. It is also possible that the agent is the one who breathes into it. It became a bird as regards physical
form. In the same way, 'Isa healed the blind and the lepers.
All was ascribed to 'Isa as being "by Allah's permission."
(8) "Permission" (idhn) is an indirect expression, as in His words, "By My permission" (9) and "by the permission of Allah".
If the prepositional phrase is connected to breathing, the breather has leave in the breathing, and so it is a bird by the
leave of Allah. If the breather breathed not by leave, then the taking form of the bird as a bird is not by the leave of Allah.
The agent in that is then the verb "it becomes (yakûn)." If there had not been something real and something imaginary in the
matter, then these forms would not have accepted these two aspects. Rather, it has these two aspects because the constitution
of 'Isa accords that. 'Isa showed humility to the extent that he prescribed that his community "pay the jizya (10) tax with
their their hands in a state of willing submission," (11) and that if one of them were slapped on the cheek, he should offer
the other cheek to the one who slapped him, and not rise up against him nor seek revenge. This came from his from his mother's
side. Since the woman is lower, she has humility because she is subject to the man legally and physically. The power to bring
to life and heal that he had came to him the side of the breath of Jibril in the form of a man. 'Isa brought the dead to life
by the form of man. If Jibril had not come in the form of man, but in another of the elemental forms of phenomenal beings
from the animals, plants or minerals, 'Isa would not have been able to bring the dead to life without taking on that form
for that moment and appearing in it. If Jibril had come in a luminous form beyond the elements and natural humours, since
luminosity is part of his nature, 'Isa would not have been able to bring the dead to life unless he appeared in that form
of non-elemental light, while still maintaining the human form in respect of his mother.
When he brought the dead to
life, it was said that it was him and not him. The onlookers fell into bewilderment (hayra) just as the man of intellect becomes
bewildered in his logical reflection when he sees an individual human being bringing the dead to life, as that is one of the
divine qualities - bringing to life with speech, not mere bringing with animation. (12) The beholder is bewildered because
he sees the form of a man who possesses a divine effect. That led some of them to speak of that as "incarnation" and say that
'Isa was Allah since it was by Him that 'Isa brought the dead to life. Thus they are charged with disbelief (kufr) which is
the veil because they veil Allah, who brings the dead to life, by the human form of 'Isa. Allah said, "They are unbelievers
who say, 'Allah is the Messiah, the son of Maryam.'" (13) They fell into both error and disbelief at the end of all they said,
not because they say that he is Allah nor by calling him the son of Maryam. But they made the attribution that Allah, insofar
as He brought the dead to life, was contained in the human form of the nasut which is called the son of Maryam. There is no
doubt that 'Isa was the son of Maryam. The hearer imagines that they have attributed divinity to the form, and so they make
divinity the same as the form. That is not what they do. Rather, they make divine He-ness the subject in the human form which
is the son of Maryam. They should differentiate between the form of 'Isa and the divine principle because they have made the
form the same as the principle. Jibril was in the form of man who did not breathe and then he breathed. One differentiates
between the form and the breath, and the breath from the form. The form existed without the breath - thus the breath is not
part of its essential definition. For that reason, differences occurred among the people of different [Christian] parties
regarding 'Isa and what he was. Whoever looks at him in respect to his mortal human form, says that he is the son of Maryam.
Whoever looks at him in respect to his mortal representational form relates him to Jibril. Whoever looks at him in respect
to what was manifested from him of bringing the dead to life, relates him to Allah by the quality of the spirit, and says
that he is the Spirit of Allah, (14) that is, by Him life was manifested in whomever received his breath. Sometimes Allah
is imagined to be the passive principle in 'Isa, and sometimes the angel is imagined in him, and sometimes mortal humanity
is imagined in him. So the conception of everyone is based on what predominates that person. 'Isa is the Word of Allah, (15)
the Spirit of Allah, (16) and the slave of Allah. (17) That is something which no one else has in the sensory form. Indeed,
each person is attached to his father of form, not to the One who breathed his spirit into the human form. When Allah fashioned
the human body as He said, "When I have shaped him," (15:29;38:72) then He breathed into Him, that was from His spirit. Thus
in its being and source, the spirit is ascribed to Allah. That is not the case with 'Isa. The shaping of his body and mortal
form is implied in the breath of the spirit. Others, as we mentioned, are not like that.
All existent things are the
words of Allah which are inexhaustible (18) because they are from "kun" and "kun" is the word of Allah. Is the word ascribed
to Him according to what He really is? His what-ness is not known. Or is it that Allah descends to the form of the one who
says, "kun", and so the word "kun" is the reality of that form to which he descended or in which He is manifest? Some of the
gnostics take one side and some take the other side, and some of them are bewildered in the business and do not know. This
is a question which can only be recognised by taste (dhawq), as was the case with Abu Yazid al-Bistami when he breathed into
the ant which he had killed and it returned to life. He knew in that action by Whom he had breathed, and that was an 'Isawian
witnessing. As for the revival of meaning by knowledge, that is the divine life, essential, eternal, sublime, and luminous,
about which Allah said, "Is someone who was dead and whom We brought to life, supplying him with a light by which to walk
among the people..." (6:123) Whoever gives life to a dead soul by the life of knowledge in a particular problem connected
to knowledge of Allah, has brought him to life by it, and it is "a light for him by which he walks among the people, i.e.
among his likes in form.
Were it not for Him and not for us,
that which is would not have been.
I worship Him
and Allah is our Master.
I am his source so know!
If you said, "man,"
Then do not be veiled by "man".
He has given you a proof.
So be Allah and be creation,
and you will be merciful by Allah.
Feed His creation
and you will be spirit and sweet scent.
We give Him what appeared by Him in us,
and He gave to us.
The command is apportioned between Him and us.
My heart was given life by the One who knew it
when He gave us
At that time (before time),
we were beings, sources and times in Him.
That did not endure in us,
but that gave us life.
Part of what proves what we mentioned concerning the breath (nafkh) of the spirit with the
elemental form is that Allah has described Himself by the "breath of the All-Merciful". Everyone described by an attribute
must follow the attribute and all that attribute demands of him. You realise that breath is necessary for the one who breathes.
For that reason, the divine breath accepts the forms of the universe. It is like the primordial substance, (19) which is not
other than the source of nature.
The elements are one of the forms of nature, and what is above the elements and what
issues from them are also part of the forms of nature. They are sublime spirits going right up to the seven heavens. As for
the spirits of the seven heavens and their sources, they are elemental, so they issue from the vapour of the elements. The
angels from every heaven are from the elements, so they are made from the elements, and there are no beings of nature above
them. For this reason, Allah described them with dispute, (20) i.e. the Highest Assembly, because nature has polarisation.
Polarisation is that which is in the Divine Names, and they are ascriptions given by the "breath of the All-Merciful." Do
you not see how the Essence is not subject to this principle, and that it is independent of the worlds? This is why the world
appeared in the form of the One who brought it into being, and it is not other than the divine breath.
The divine breath
ascends by what it has of heat, and descends by what it has of humidity and cold, and fixes itself and solidifies by what
it has of dryness. Thus precipitation comes from cold and humidity. Do you not see that when the doctor wants to give someone
a remedy, he looks at his water (urine) in a long-necked bottle? If he sees precipitation, he knows that the digestion is
complete. He gives the remedy to speed progress. The precipitation is produced by his natural coldness and humidity.
Allah kneaded the clay of this human person with "His two hands." These are opposite to each other. Even though each of these
two hands may be a right hand, the distinction between them is not hidden. They are only two in themselves - two hands because
He only causes effects in nature according to what is in conformity with it. Nature consists of opposites, so He said "two
hands". Then He brought man into existence with two hands, and called him man (bashar). (21) This refers to the direct contact
(mubashara) of the two hands as befits the the Divine Presence. That arises from His concern for this human species. Then
Allah said to the one who refused to prostrate himself before Adam, "What prevented you prostrating to what I created with
My Own Hands? Were you overcome with arrogance (towards the one who is your like, made of the elements) or are you one of
the exalted?" (38:75) meaning those who are above the elements. "You are not like that."
By the exalted, (22) He means
those who, by their essence, are above being elemental by their luminous constitution, even though they are part of nature.
Man is only better than the other species by virtue of his being made of clay (bashar). He is the best species of all that
was created from the elements by direct contact with the two hands. So in rank, man is above the terrestial and celestial
angels, although the lofty angels are better than the human species according to a divine text. (23)
If anyone wishes
to recognise the divine breath (nafas), let him recognise the universe, because "whoever knows himself knows his Lord" (24)
who is manifest in him. The universe was manifested in the breath of the Merciful which Allah breathed from the Divine Names.
They brought the manifestation of their effects into existence from the non-manifestation of their effects. He was generous
to Himself by what He brought into existence in Himself. The first effect of the breath took place in that Presence. Then
the command continued to descend (25) by breathing out from the universal to the last of what Allah brought into existence.
is contained in the source of the breath,
like light is contained in the essence of darkness
at the end of the night
Knowledge comes by proof at the end of the day
for the one who is sleepy.
He sees what I have
said as a dream which indicates the breath,
And it gives him relief from every grief.
In the recitation of the Qur'an,
it is, "He frowned." (26)
He has given a tajalli of Himself
to the one who came to fetch a firebrand. (27)
Musa saw Him as a fire, while He is a light
for kings and seekers.
If you have recognise what I said,
that you are in a state of grief. (28)
If Musa had sought something else
(other than the brand),
he still would
have seen Him in that,
and not the opposite.
When Allah establishes this 'Isawian word in the Station (29) so
that we would know and he would be known, 'Isa will be asked about what was ascribed to him and whether or not it was true,
even though Allah already knew whether or not that matter had taken place. Allah will say to him, "Did you say to people:
'Take me and my mother as gods, besides Allah'?" (30)
Adab demands a response to the one asking the question because
when He gave him a tajalli in this station and form, wisdom necessitated the response in separation by the source of gatheredness.
So he put disconnection first and said, "Glory be to You!" using the kaf (pronoun of the second person singular) which defines
who is indicated by encounter and speech. "It is not mine," inasmuch as I belong to myself rather than You, (31) "to say what
I have no right to," that is, what my he-ness rather than my essence necessitates. "If indeed I said it, You know it," because
You are the Speaker, and whoever says something knows what he has said. You are the tongue by which I speak, as the Messenger
of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, reported to us in a divine transmission in which Allah said, "I am his
tongue by which he speaks." He made His He-ness the same as the tongue of the speaker, but ascribed the speech to His slave.
the man of right action completed his response by saying, "You know what is in my self," and the speaker is Allah, "and I
do not know what is in it," so this is in knowledge of the he-ness of 'Isa in respect of His He-ness, not in respect of the
fact that 'Isa speaks and has an effect. "It is You", so He brought distinction and support to confirm the proof and dependence
on Him, since Allah only knows the Unseen. So He separated and gathered, unified and made many, made wide and narrow.
end his reply, 'Isa said, "I said to them nothing but what You ordered me to say." He negated to begin with, (32) alluding
to the fact the he has no existence. The statement required adab with the questioner. If he had not acted thus, he would have
been described as lacking knowledge of the realities, but he certainly was not like that! Thus he said, "only what You ordered
me," and it is You are the One who speaks on my tongue, and You are my tongue. Observe this divine polarity of the spirit!
What is finer and more subtle than this!
'Isa said that he said, "Worship Allah." So he used the name of Allah because
slaves differ in forms of worship and Shari'a. So he did not specify one name rather than another name. Instead he used the
name which joins all of them. Then he went on, "my Lord and your Lord." It is known that His relationship to one existent
being by lordship (rubûbiya) is not the same as His relationship with another existent being. That is why he made a distinction
when he said, "my Lord and your Lord," by two references one to the speaker and one to the one addressed. He said, "nothing
but what You ordered me," and thus he affirmed that he is one who is commanded. The quality of being commanded is not other
than slavedom, since one is only commanded when obedience is expected of one, even if one does not comply.
command descends according to ranks, all that appears in a certain rank is coloured with what the reality of that rank gives
it. The rank of the one commanded has a principle which appears in everyone who is commanded. The rank of the commander has
a principle which appears in every command. Allah said, "Establish the prayer." He is the commander and the one who is subject
to the obligation is the commanded. The slave says, "Forgive me!" so he commands and Allah is the commanded. What Allah demands
of His slave by His command is the same as what the slave demands of Allah by his command. This is why every supplication
is answered, and it must be answered, even if the answer is delayed, just as some who are under obligation delay the prayer.
Whoever who is obligated to perform the prayer and does not pray it at its proper time, delays obedience and prays it at another
time when he is able to perform it. There must be an answer, if only by intention.
Then he said, "I was a witness against
them (and he did not say over himself with them as when he said, 'my Lord and your Lord') as long as I remained among them"
because the Prophets are witnesses over their communities as long as they are in them. "But when You took me (i.e. raised
me) back to You," and You veiled them from me and me from them, "You were the One Watching over them," no longer in my substance,
but in their substance, since You are their eye which necessitates observation.
He wanted to make a distinction between
him and his Lord so that it would be known that he was a slave and that Allah is Allah and He is his Lord. He referred to
himself as a witness (shahid) and he referred to Allah as the Watcher (raqib). He mentioned "them" before himself when he
said, "I was a witness against them as long as I remained among them," (33) preferring them in priority and with adab. He
put "them" after Allah in relationship to Him when he said, "You were the One Watching over them" because of what the Lord
merits in priority of rank.
Then know that Allah has the name the Watcher (Raqib) which 'Isa applied to Him, and He
is the Witness in His words, "a witness against them," and "You are Witness of all things." (5:117) He referred to all things
and "thing" is the most indefinite of things. He used the name, "The Witness," and Allah is the Witness over every witnessed
thing according to what the reality of that witnessed things demands. He indicated that Allah was the Witness over the people
of 'Isa when he said, "I was a witness against them as long as I remained among them." This is the witnessing of Allah in
the substance of 'Isa, as it is confirmed that Allah is his tongue, hearing and sight.
Then he said something which
is both 'Isawian and Muhammadan. As for its being 'Isawian, that is the speech of 'Isa by the transmission of Allah from him
in His Book. As for its being Muhammadan, it happened that Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, stood in one
place for an entire night reciting it without turning to anything else until dawn broke. It is, "If You punish them, they
are Your slaves. If You forgive them, You are the Almighty, the All-Wise." (34) "They" is the pronoun of those who are absent
as "he" is the pronoun of someone who is absent. as He said, "they are those who disbelieve," with the pronoun of those who
are not present. Absence is their veil to what is meant by the witnessed one who is present. He said, "If you punish them,"
with the pronoun of the absent, and that absence is the source of the veil which hides them from the Real.
mentioned them to Allah before the time when they are present (35) so that when the actual time came when they were present,
the leaven would already have acted on the dough, and the dough might have had time to become equal to the leaven. (36)
by "they are Your slaves," he singled out the unity (tawhid) on which they are based. There is no submissiveness greater than
the submissiveness of slaves because they have no freedom of action with themselves. They act according to what their master
wishes of them when he has no partner in them. He said, "Your slaves," and singled out what was meant of the punishment which
is their humiliation. There are none more lowly than them since they are slaves. Thus their essence necessitates that they
be lowly, so You do not degrade them, for You do not degrade them with anything more lowly than the fact that they are slaves.
You forgive them," if You veil them from the punishment which they deserve because of their opposition if You put forgiveness
on them, You veil them from the punishment and protect them from it, "You are the Almighty," the Protector, the Guardian.
When Allah gives this name ('aziz) to one of His slaves, then Allah is called the Exalter (Mu'izz). This name is given to
him by the 'Aziz, so he has strong protection from the revenge and punishment which the Avenger and Punisher desire for him.
He also used distinction and dependence to confirm the proof, and so the ayat is the same sort of His words, "You are the
Knower of the Unseen Worlds," and "You are the Watcher over them," and "You are the Almighty, the All-Wise." (37)
question from the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and his supplication to his Lord in which he repeated
the phrase for the entire night until dawn was a request for the answer. If he had heard the answer in the first questioning,
he would not have repeated it. Allah showed him the judgements in detail by which they deserved punishment. As each instance
was presented to him and specified, the Prophet said to Him, "If You punish them, they are Your slaves, and if You forgive
them, You are the Almighty, the All-Wise." If he had seen in what was presented to him anything which would make it necessary
that Allah had already decided and that His presence must be preferred, he would have invoked Allah against them rather than
for them. So what they deserved is changed by what this ayat accords of submission to Allah and exposing themselves to His
The Prophet related that when Allah loves the voice of His slave when he makes supplication to Him, He delays
the answer to his supplication so that the slave will repeat the supplication. This comes from His love for the slave, not
because He has turned away from him. For that reason, the Prophet mentioned the name of the Wise, and the Wise is the one
who puts everything in its proper place, and who does not turn away from the qualities which their realities necessitate and
demand; so the Wise is the One who knows the order of things. When the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, kept
repeating this ayat, he was in possession of a great knowledge from Allah. If anyone recites it, let him recite it in that
manner. (38) Otherwise, it is better that he remain silent. When Allah lets the slave articulate any request, He does so when
He wants to answer it and grant his need. Let no one be slow in whatever has been guaranteed to him, but let him persevere
as the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, perserved with this ayat in all his states, so that he
either hears with His ear, or with hearing, whichever you like. How else will Allah make you hear the answer? If He permits
the question on your tongue, He will let you hear the answer with your ear. If He permits the meaning to you, He will let
you hear the answer by your hearing.
Notes to Chapter 15:
1. As he was born more than five centuries before
the Prophet Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and is still alive, waiting to descend.
2. The story
is found is the Qur'an 20:75-95, where as-Samiri convinces the tribe of Israel to cast their ornaments into the fire out of
which he brought the figure of a Calf which lowed, and which they worshipped. He told Musa, "I beheld what they did not behold,
and I seized a handful of dust from the messenger's track and cast it into the thing."
3. With dad, qabda.
With sad, qabsa.
5. Qur'an 19:17.
6. Qur'an 4:171, "The Messiah, 'Isa son of Maryam, was only the Messenger
of Allah and His Word, which He cast into Maryam, and a Spirit from Him."
7. Qur'an 3:49; 5:110.
10. The tax paid by the People of the Book to the Muslim State.
12. i.e. the dead
person can speak and answer him. This not simply causing the dead limbs to move of their own accord.
13. Qur'an 5:17,
14. Ruh Allah.
15. See Qur'an 3:45, 4:171.
16. Qur'an 14:171.
17. Qur'an 19:30.
See Qur'an 18:109, "Say: 'If all the sea was ink to write down the Words of my Lord, it would run out long before the Words
of my Lord ran out,' even if We were to bring the same amount of ink again."
19. Al-jawhar al-hayulani.
Qur'an 38:69, "I had no knowledge of the Highest Assembly when they disputed." It can also mean mutual rivalry.
Qur'an 15:28, "I am creating a mortal (bashar)."
22. "The exalted" are the angels who wander in love and those who
are near, like Jibril and the angels of the Throne.
23. "Or are you one of the exalted?" 38:75.
24. As the Prophet
25. See Qur'an 65:12, "It is Allah who created the seven heavens and of earth their like, the Command descending
down through all of them."
26. Sura 80.
27. Musa in Qur'an 20:10; 27:7. Refers to empirical knowledge, but he
found unveiling in the form of the Burning Bush.
28. By standing behind the veil or seeking other-than-Him.
On the Last Day.
30. Qur'an 5:116.
31. To slaveness rather than lordship.
32. (ma qulta = I did not say).
Literally in the Arabic, "I was against them a witness."
34. This is the end of what 'Isa said in this verse.
On the Day of Gathering.
36. According to the commentator, the leaven is the predisposition for the arrival in the
presence of Allah. The dough is the clay of his substance.
37. All used in this verse.
38. i.e. with knowledge,
weeping, and maintaining adab.
16: The Seal of the Wisdom of Mercy
in the Word of
Bilqis said, (1) "It (the letter) is from Sulayman and it says 'In the Name of Allah,
the All-Merciful, Most Merciful.'" Some people criticise the fact that the name of Sulayman comes before the name of Allah.
That is not the case, and in saying this they say something that does not befit the gnosis which Sulayman, peace be upon him,
had of his Lord. How could what they say be connected to him when Bilqis said of it, "a noble letter had been delivered to
me," that is, a letter which honoured her. In this they were influenced by the story of how Chosroes tore up the letter of
the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. (2) He did not tear it up until he had read all of it and
knew what it contained. It was the same with Bilqis. Had she not accepted what was established, respect for its author would
not have prevented her from tearing up the letter, whether his name, peace be upon him, had been mentioned before or after
the name of Allah.
Sulayman mentioned the two mercies: the mercy of graciousness and the mercy of obligation, and they
are ar-Rahman ar-Rahim. So Allah freely dispenses His bounty by the Rahman, and it is incumbent on Him by the Rahim. This
obligation comes from graciousness, so Rahim is contained in Rahman. Allah "has prescribed mercy for Himself," glory be to
Him! in order that the slave might have what Allah spoke about of the deeds which this slave brings, expecting his due from
Allah who has required Himself to have this mercy for them, the mercy of obligation. When one of the slaves is like this,
he knows that He is the author of the deed.
The deed is divided according to the eight organs of man. Allah informed
us that He is the He-ness of each organ. So the author of the action is none other than Allah while the form is that of the
slave. He-ness is embodied in him, i.e. only in his name because Allah is the source of what is manifested and which is called
"creation". Because of this, the names of the Manifest and the Last belong to the slave since he was not and then was. By
the fact that his manifestation depends on Him and action issues from Him, there is the name the Hidden and the First. Thus,
when you see creation, you see the First and the Last, the Manifest and the Hidden.
This recognition was not hidden
from Sulayman, peace be upon him. Indeed, it is a part of a kingdom which "belonged to no one after him," (3) in terms of
its manifestation in the visible world. Muhammad, peace be upon him, was given what Sulayman was given, but he did not manifest
it. Allah gave him the power to vanquish the 'ifrit (4) who came in the night to attack him. (5) When the Prophet wanted to
take the 'ifrit and tie him to the one of the columns of the mosque until morning so that the children of Madina could play
with him, he remembered the prayer of Sulayman, and so Allah made him drive the 'ifrit off in disgrace. The Prophet did not
manifest his power as Sulayman had done. He spoke of "a kingdom" which is not universal, and we know that he meant a particular
kingdom. We see that the Prophet shared in every part of the Kingdom which Allah had given him and so we know by this that
he is privileged with the whole kingdom. In the story of the 'ifrit, he was only given the manifestation while Sulayman might
have been given the whole and the manifestation. If the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, had not said in
the story of the 'ifrit, "and Allah gave me power over him," we would have said that when he wanted to seize the 'ifrit, Allah
reminded him of Sulayman's prayer so that the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, would know that
Allah had not given him power to seize him. He then made him send off the 'ifrit off in disgrace.
When he said, "Allah
gave me power over him," we knew that Allah had given him freedom of action in that. Then Allah reminded him and he remembered
Sulayman's prayer and showed adab towards him. We know from this that that no creature after Sulayman had the general manifestation
of that kingdom.
Our goal in this question is only discussion and instruction about the two mercies which Sulayman
mentioned in the two names which are expressed in Arabic as ar-Rahman ar-Rahim. (6) Allah stipulated the mercy of obligation
(7) and made the application of the mercy of graciousness universal when He said, "My mercy extends to all things," (7:156)
even the Divine Names, which are the realities of ascriptions. He was gracious to us in them. We are the result of the mercy
of graciousness by the Divine Names and divine ascriptions of lordship. Then He prescribed mercy for Himself by our own manifestation.
He informed us that He is our He-ness, that we might know that He obliged mercy on Himself only for Himself. Mercy never departs
from Him. Who could be gracious to you when there is only Him?
There must be a principle for clarifying differences
in merit this is in relation to what is manifested of the differences in merit that creatures have in knowledge, so
that it might be said that this person knows more than that person, even though the source is but one. This means the shortcoming
connected to the will (irada), apart from the connection of knowledge. This difference in merit exists in the divine attributes.
(8) The connection and merit of will and its increase is connected to power. In the same way, hearing, sight and all the divine
names are arranged in ranks, some having more merit than others. Similarly what is manifested in creation differs in ranks
of merit, so that it can be said that this person knows more than that person even though the source is the same.
each Divine Name which I have set forth is implied by all the Names and described by them, similarly that which creation manifests
accepts all of that which is subject to differences of merit. Each part of the universe is from all the universe, i.e. it
is a vessel for all the separate realities of the universe. Our statement that Zayd is inferior to 'Amr in knowledge does
not contradict the fact that the He-ness of Allah is the source of both Zayd and 'Amr, but it is more perfect and knowing
in 'Amr than in Zayd, even as the Names differ in merit. They are not other-than-Allah. Allah, inasmuch as He is Knowing,
has a more encompassing connection than Allah as the Transformer, the All-Powerful. But He is still He and not other-than-Him.
my friend! do not then know Him in one aspect and be ignorant of Him in another! Do not negate Him here and affirm Him there,
unless You affirm Him by an aspect through which He affirms Himself and negate Him by an aspect through which He negates Himself,
as in the ayat which combines affirmation and negation in respect to Him when He said, "Nothing is like Him," negating, "and
He is the All-Hearing, the All-Seeing," (42:11) and so He affirmed an attribute which is general to every hearing and seeing
living being. Nothing exists but that it is alive, although this is hidden in the world from the perception of some people.
It will appear to all people in the Next World, for it is the Abode of the Living (ad-Dar al-Hayawan). Similarly, the life
of this world is only veiled from some of the slaves so that election and difference of merit might be manifested among the
slaves of Allah according to what they perceive of Him from the realities of the universe.
In one whose attainment
is more comprehensive, Allah is in principle more manifest in him than in someone who does not have this comprehensiveness.
So do not be veiled by the difference in merit and say that it is not correct to say that creation is the He-ness of Allah
after we have shown you the different in merit in the Divine Names. You have no doubt about them being Allah, and what is
designated by them is not other than Allah.
How then could Sulayman place his name before the name of Allah as they
allege? He is part of the whole which the mercy of graciousness brought into existence. The name, ar-Rahman ar-Rahim, must
come first for the dependence of the one receiving this mercy to be valid. Advancing the one who should come afterwards and
delaying the one who should come before in the place he merits is contrary to the realities.
Part of the wisdom of
Bilqis and the sublimity of her knowledge lies in the fact that she did not mention who cast the letter to her. She only did
that so that her companions would know that she had communications on matters whose means they did not know. This is part
of divine management in ruling because when the means of communication reaching the ruler are unknown, the people of the government
fear for themselves in their actions. Therefore they only act with prudence in a matter because that will reach their ruler,
and they are guarding themselves from the potential danger of that action. If they knew precisely by whom information reached
their ruler, they would have tried to flatter him and bribe him so that they could do whatever they wanted without their ruler
hearing about it. Therefore the Queen said, "a noble letter has been delivered to me," without naming the one who cast it.
That was an act of policy on her part would would insure respect for her among the people of her kingdom and the nobles under
her rule. By this, she merited her superiority over them.
As regards the superiority of the human man of knowledge
over the man of knowledge of the jinn in the secrets of the disposal of things and the special properties of thing, that is
known by the amount of time, for the movement of the eye in perceiving what it perceives is quicker than the movement of the
body when it moves. (9) The moment in which the eye moves is the same moment which it connects to the object, in spite of
the distance between the viewer and the object. The moment that the eyes open is the moment in which they are connected to
the heaven of the fixed stars. The moment when its glance returns is the same moment that its perception is absent.
from one's place is not like that. It does not possess this speed. Asaf ibn Barkhiya (10) was more perfect in the deed than
the jinn was. What Asaf ibn Barkhiya said is the same as the action in the same moment. Sulayman, peace be upon him, at the
same moment saw Bilqis' throne "settled before him" so one must not imagine that he perceived it while it was in its original
place without being moved. We do not think that the displacement takes place in one and the same moment, but that it involves
going into non-existence and returning to existence inasmuch as the only one who is aware of that is the one who has recognition
of it. This is what Allah said, "Yet they are dubious about the new creation." (50:15) Not a moment passes them but that they
see what they saw. Since it is like this, the time of its non-existence (the absence of the throne from its place) is the
same as the time of its existence with Sulayman because of the renewal of creation with the "breaths". No one knows this power,
or rather, man is not aware with regard to himself that he ceases to exist in each breath and then is again.
think that "this" (thumma) implies a delay. That is not true. However, it demands a high rank of knowledge in Arabic, as when
the poet says:
As he brandished the straight Rudayni, (11) it quivered.
There is no doubt that the moment of
brandishing the spear is without a doubt the same as the moment of quivering of the thing which is brandished. It happened
without delay. It is the same with the renewal of creation with breaths. The time of non-existence coincides with the time
of the existence of its like. It is similar to the renewal of accidents in the theory of the Ash'arites [tajrîd al-a'râd].
question involving the moving of Bilqis' throne is one of the most difficult problems, except for someone who has recognition
of what we have mentioned in its story. Asaf did not have any merit except for acquiring renewal in the assembly of Sulayman,
peace be upon him. The throne was not moved across place nor did it rise above the earth nor break the laws of space for the
one who understands what we mentioned. That was done by one of the companions of Sulayman in order to elevate Sulayman's honour
in the selves of those who were present with Bilqis and her suite. The reason for that was that Sulayman was Allah's gift
to Da'ud as He said, "We gave Sulayman to Da'ud," (38:30) so the gift is the giving of the donor by providing a blessing,
not by means of fitting recompense or merit. So he is the abundant blessing, the decisive word and the cutting sword.
for the knowledge of Sulayman, Allah said of him, "We gave Sulayman understanding of it (in spite of his opposite judgement
to that of Da'ud), and Allah "gave each of them judgement and knowledge." (21:79) Da'ud's knowledge was knowledge given by
Allah, and Sulayman's knowledge was the knowledge of Allah in the matter inasmuch as He is the Judge without intermediary.
So Sulayman is the interpreter of Allah in the seat of sincerity.(12) It is like the man who is striving to hit on the judgement
of Allah by which Allah would judge the question. If he were to find it by himself or by what was revealed to His Messenger,
then he would have two rewards. The one who errs in this particular judgement has one reward as well as its being knowledge
and judgement. The community of Muhammad was given the rank of Sulayman in judgement (13) and the rank of Da'ud in wisdom,
(14) so there is no better community than it.
When Bilqis saw her throne, and she knew how great the distance was and
the impossibility of moving it in that space of time, she said, "It seems the same." (28:42, lit. "it is as if it were.")
She spoke the truth according to what we mentioned regarding the renewal of creation by similarity. It was it. The matter
is true, as you are the same at the time of renewal as you were in past time. Part of the perfection of Sulayman's knowledge
was in the instruction he gave regarding the pavilion when he told Bilqis, "Enter the courtyard." (15) The courtyard was very
smooth without any curvature in its glass. When Bilqis saw it, she thought that it was water and had depth, so she bared her
legs so as not to let the water dampen her clothes. By that, Sulayman informed her that the throne which she saw was of this
sort. This is the utmost fairness. He informed her that she had hit the mark when she said, "It seems the same." At that point,
she said, "My Lord, I have wronged myself but I have submitted with Sulayman to the Lord of all the worlds."
did not submit to Sulayman, but to the Lord of the worlds, and Sulayman was part of the worlds. She did not restrict her submission
as the Messengers do not restrict their belief in Allah, contrary to Pharoah who said, "to the Lord of Musa and Harun." (26:48)
Although this submission is related to Bilqis' submission in a certain respect, it does not have the same force. She had more
discernment than Pharaoh in submission to Allah. Furthermore, Pharaoh was governed by the principle of the moment when he
said, "I believe in the One in whom the Children of Israel believe." (10:90) He specified, but he also specified when the
saw the sorcerers articulate their belief in the "Lord of Musa and Harun." The Islam of Bilqis was the Islam of Sulayman since
she said, "with Sulayman." She followed him in all that he adhered to in the way of beliefs.
This is how we are on
the straight path which the Lord is on, for our forelocks are in His hand, (16) and it is impossible for us to separate from
Him. We are with Him implicitly, and He is with us by open declaration. Allah said, "He is with you wherever you are," (57:4)
and we are with Him as He takes us by our forelocks. He. may He be exalted! is with Himself wherever He goes with us on His
path. So everyone in the world is on a straight path, and it is the path of the Lord. It is this that Bilqis learned from
Sulayman, so she said, "To Allah, the Lord of all the worlds," without referring to a particular world.
As for the
subjection which was the privilege of Sulayman, peace be upon him, and by which he was distinguished fom others, and the kingdom
which Allah gave him which none after him would have, it is from his command when He said, "We gave him the fiercely blowing
wind, speeding at his command." (21:81) It was not subjection in itself, for Allah said in respect of each of us without exception,
"He has made everything in the heavens and everything on the earth subservient to you." (45:13) He also mentioned the subjection
of the winds, stars and other things, (17) but that is not by our command. It is from the command of Allah. If you reflect
with your intellect, Sulayman was privileged by this command neither by mental concentration nor by aspiration (himma)
rather, it was by nothing more than the command itself. We said that because we recognise that the physical bodies of the
world can be affected by the himma of the self when someone is in the station of concentration. We have seen such things happen
in this Path. Sulayman only had to articulate the command in whatever he wished to subject without either concentration or
Know, may Allah support us and you by a spirit from Him, that when any slave receives a gift like this, that
does not detract from his portion of the kingdom of the Next World, nor is he called to account for it. That was true of Sulayman.
Although he sought it from his Lord, the tasting (dhawq) of the Path (18) demands that it was advanced to him from what was
stored up for others, and He will call him to account for it when he wants it in the Next World. Allah told him. "This is
Our gift (and He did not say "to you: or to anyone else); bestow or withhold without reckoning." (38:39) We knew by the tasting
of the Path that his request was from the command of his Lord. Thus the request was from the divine command, and the one who
requested it received full recompense for his request.
If the Creator wishes, He grants his need in what he seeks from
Him, and if He wishes, He withholds it. The slave has fulfilled what Allah demanded of him to obey His command
in what he asked of his Lord. If he had asked that from himself without his Lord commanding him to do that, then he would
be held to account for it.
That is true in all that Allah is asked for, as He said to His Prophet Muhammad, may Allah
bless him and grant him peace, "Say: 'O Lord, increase me in knowledge!'" He obeyed his Lord's command and sought increase
in knowledge to such an extent that each time he was given milk, he interpreted it to be knowledge even as he interpreted
it as knowledge in a dream in which he received a glass of milk. In the dream, he drank the milk, and gave the rest of it
to 'Umar ibn al-Khattab. The people asked, "What is its interpretation?" He replied, "Knowledge." Similarly, when Allah took
him on his Night Journey, the angel gave him a vessel which contained milk and a vessel which contained wine. The Prophet
drank the milk, and the angel said, "You have chosen the true nature (fitra). Allah has bestowed you on your community!" When
milk appeared, it was the form of knowledge. Therefore it is knowledge taking on the form as milk, just as Jibril came to
Maryam in the form of "a handsome, well-built man." (19:16)
When the Prophet said, "People are asleep and when they
die, they wake up," he meant that everything that man sees in the life of this world is in the rank of the dreams of someone
who is asleep, so it must be interpreted. Phenomenal being is imagination (khayal), but it is Allah in reality. (19) Whoever
understands this has received the secrets of the Path. When the Prophet was offered milk, he would say, "O Allah, bless us
in it and increase us in it" because he saw it as the form of knowledge, and he had been commanded to seek increase in knowledge.
When he was offered something other than milk, he would say, "O Allah, bless us in it and give us better than it."
Allah gives something to someone, and He gives it to him by a request which arises from a divine command, He does not take
him to account for it in the Next Abode. When Allah gives something to someone, and He gives it by a request which is not
by a divine command, the business in it is up to Allah. If He wishes, He will take him to account for it, and if He wishes,
He will not take him to account for it. I hope for knowledge from Allah in particular for which He will not call one to account,
for He commanded the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, to seek increase of knowledge, and it is the same command
which is addressed to the Prophet¹s community. Allah said, "You have an excellent model in the Messenger of Allah," (33:21)
and what greater model is there than this model who is a source of solace (20) to the one who possesses understanding from
Had we discussed the station of Sulayman in its entirety, you would have seen a matter whose revelation would
have struck you with terror. Most of the men of knowledge of this Path have no knowledge of the state and rank of Sulayman.
The business is not as they claim. (21)
Notes to Chapter 16:
1. In Qur'an 27:30. The story in found in Sura
27. When Sulayman hears of the kingdom of Queen Bilqis in Sheba', he sends the hoopoe to take a letter to her.
the Prophet sent Chosroes or Khosrau a letter inviting him to Islam, he tore it up after it was read to him.
Qur'an 38:35, where Sulayman says, "My Lord, forgive me, and give me a kingdom the like of which will never be granted to
anyone after me."
4. Type of malicious jinn.
5. Hadith. "Yesterday Shaytan rushed up suddenly to stop my prayer.
Allah gave me power over him and I seized him. I wanted to tie him to one of the pillars of the mosque so that all of you
could look at him, but then I remembered the supplication of my brother Sulayman, 'O Lord, forgive me and give me a kingdom
the like of which will never be granted to anyone after me.' (38:35) Allah turned him away in humiliation." via Abu Hurayra
in al-Bukhari and Muslim.
6. The All-Merciful, the Most Merciful.
7. When He said, "I will write (mercy) for
those who are godfearing...." (Qur'an 7:156)
8. i.e. Knowledge is more perfect than will.
9. Sulayman asked
his council, "'O Council, who among you will bring me her throne before they come to me in submission?' An 'ifrit of the jinn
said, 'I will bring it to you before you get up from your seat...' He who possessed knowledge of the Book said, 'I will bring
it to you before your glance returns to you.'" (27:38-40)
10. The name of the man of knowledge in Sulayman's council.
Rudayna was a woman who was famous for straightening spear shafts which were tested by shaking.
12. See Qur'an 54:55.
i.e. by the Qur'an and hadith.
14. By ijtihad.
15. This is in the same sura (27), ayat 44.
Ref. 11:56, "I have believed in Allah, my Lord and your Lord. There is no creature He does not hold by the forelock. My Lord
is on a straight path."
17. Various places in the Qur'an: 14:32, 16:12, 22:65, 31:20.
18. One variant has "reality"
instead of Path (Tariq).
19. Inasmuch as phenomenal being is a divine shadow.
20. Uswa is model, or a person
to be imitated and through whose emulation one gains consolation. The source of solace is the verbal noun from Form V of this
verb, ta'assa, which means to become consoled by the example of another who had suffered in a similar fashion and been patient
21. His kingdom does not decrease what he has in the Next world.
17: The Seal of the Wisdom of Existence (Wujud)
the Word of Da'ud (David)
"We subjected the mountains to glorify with him in the evening and sunrise, and
also the birds, flocking together, all of them turned to him." Then Allah combined the kingdom and speech and prophethood
in Da'ud when He says, "We made his kingdom strong, and gave him wisdom and decisive speech." (1) Allah clearly and openly
appointed Da'ud Khalif. This was Da'ud, peace be upon him. His freedom of action in the kingdom with this subjection was by
a mighty command which was not completed in him alone. Allah also gave it to Sulayman who shared in it as He says, "And We
gave knowledge to Da'ud and Sulayman who said, 'Praise be to Allah who has favoured us.'" (27:15) He says, "We gave Sulayman
understanding of it. We gave each of them judgement and knowledge."(21:79)
Know that since prophethood and the message
are a divine privilege, and cannot be accquired. This is the prophethood which lays down a Shari'a. It is Allah's gift to
them. Gifts of this sort are not recompense, nor is recompense demanded from them for these gifts. Allah bestows it on them
as pure blessing and favour. So He says, "We gave him (i.e. Ibrahim) Ishaq and Ya'qub." (2) He says of Ayyub, "We gave him
his family, and the same again with them." (38:43) He says of Musa, "We endowed him with Our mercy, making his brother Harun
a Prophet," (19:53). There are more instances like that.What they received first of all is what they will receive at the last
in the totality of their states, or most of them. It is only His name, the Giver.
Allah says in respect of Da'ud, "We
gave Da'ud great favour from Us." (34:10) He did not accompany that with a demand for recompense from Da'ud, nor did He say
that He gave him what He mentioned as a reward. When He demanded gratitude for that by action, He demanded it of the people
of Da'ud, and did not mention Da'ud himself, asking Da'ud's people to thank Him for the blessing which He gave to Da'ud. For
Da'ud himself, it is a gift of pure blessing and favour. It is not like that for his people, but rather like the demands of
barter. So Allah said, "Work, family of Da'ud, in thankfulness! But very few of My slaves are thankful." (3)
Prophets, peace be upon him, thanked Allah for what He had bestowed on them and given to them, that was not from the command
of Allah. They undertook that freely from themselves, as the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace,
stood thanking Allah until his feet were swollen, when Allah had forgiven Him his wrong actions, past and present. When people
commented what he did, he said, "Am I not a thankful slave?" Allah said that Nuh was a thankful slave. (4) So the thankful
among the slaves are few.
The first blessing which Allah bestowed on Da'ud was that He gave him a name which does not
have any connected letters in it:
D W D
By this, He cut him off from the world and He told us this by the name
itself which is dâl, alif, and wâw. Allah named Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, with both connected and
So in this Allah both joined him and separated him from the world. He combined the two states for
him in his name as He combined the two states for Da'ud through meaning (ma'na) (5) although He did not put that in his name.
That was a privilege which Muhammad had above Da'ud, i.e. calling him by this name. The matter was thus completed for Muhammad
in all its aspects. It is the same in his name Ahmad.
That is from the wisdom of Allah.
spoke about the blessing He gave Da'ud in the mountains' echoing of glorification with him. (6) So they glorified with his
glorification that the deed might be his. It was the same with the birds. He gave him power and described him by it, (7) and
He gave him wisdom and decisive speech.(8)
Then the greatest blessing and nearest rank which Allah appointed for him
was that his khalifate was mentioned in the divine text. He did not do that with any of his kind, and there were khalifs among
them. Allah said, "Da'ud, We have made you a khalif on the earth, so judge between people with truth and do follow your own
desires," i.e. whatever comes to your mind in judgement without revelation from Me, "letting them misguide you from the Way
of Allah," (38:26) from the path which I revealed to My Messengers. Then Allah showed adab with him and said, "Those who are
misguided from the Way of Allah will receive a harsh punishment since they forgot the Day of Reckoning." He did not say to
him, "If you go astray from My Path, there is a terrible punishment for you." If you said that Adam is mentioned as the Khalif
in divine text, we will say that it is not the same as in the text regarding Da'ud, for Allah said to the angels, "I am putting
a khalif on the earth." (2:30) He did not say, "I am making Adam a khalif." Even if He had said that, it still would not be
the same as His words, "We have made you a khalif," in respect of Da'ud. One is implied and the other is explicit. Mentioning
Adam in the story after that did not indicate that he is the same as the khalif of whom Allah spoke. Occupy your mind with
the transmissions of Allah on His slaves when He transmits them. It is the same in respect to Ibrahim the friend, "I will
make you an Imam for the people." (2:124) He did not say "a khalif". We know that the imamate here means the khalifate, but
it is not the same because He did not mention it by the most specific of its names which is the khalifate.
of bestowing the khalifate on Da'ud is that He made him a khalif of judgement. That is only from Allah. He told him, "Judge
between people with the truth." (5:42) The khalifate of Adam was not of this rank. Da'ud's khalifate was that he follow what
was in it previously, not that he delegated with the divine judgement of Allah in His creation. If that had been the case,
it would have occurred. However, our discourse is only regarding the khalifs on the earth from Allah, and they are Messengers.
As for the khalifate today, it is from the Messengers, not from Allah, so they only judge by what the Messengers prescribed
for them. They do not go beyond that except when there is a small point which is only known by those like us. That is in taking
what they judge by, from what is in the Shari'a of the Messenger, peace be upon him.
The khalifate is from the Messenger.
He takes the judgement from him, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, by transmission or by ijtihad, whose basis is also
transmitted from him. Some of us think that the one who takes the judgement takes it from Allah, for he is a khalif from Allah
by the source of that judgement. The substance is his inasmuch as it was the Messenger's - the source of his judgement is
that of the Messenger's. Outwardly he follows, not disputing his judgement, as will be the case with 'Isa when he descends
and judges. It is the same when the Prophet Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Those are the ones whom
Allah has guided, so be guided by their guidance." (9) This relates to what he recognises as one who is singled out and one
who conforms. It is in him by the degree of what the Prophet established of the Shari'a which from the previous Messengers
since he confirmed it. We follow him in relation to its confirmation, not because it is a Shari'a of someone else before him.
In the same way, the Khalif takes from Allah the same thing that he takes from the Messenger.
In the language of unveiling,
we call him "the khalif of Allah", and with outward knowledge, we say "the khalif of the Messenger of Allah". For this reason,
the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, died and did not transmit the khalifate from himself to anyone
else for he knew that among the slaves of Allah are those who will take the khalifate from their Lord. Thus the khalif from
Allah is in conformity with the judgements of the Shari'a. Since the Prophet knew that, he did not hinder the matter. Allah
has khalifs in His creation who take from the mine of the Messenger and the Messengers that which the Messengers took. They
recognise the virtue of their predecessor there because the Messenger is a vessel for increase. The khalif is not a container
for the increase which, had he been the Messenger, he would have received. He only gives knowledge and judgement in what he
legislates through the specific legislation of the Messenger. Outwardly he follows the Messenger without opposition.
you not see that in the case of 'Isa, peace be upon him, when the Jews imagined that he did not add to Musa, as is the case
with what we said about the Khalifate today with the Messenger, they accepted him and confirmed him? When he added judgement
and abrogated judgement, Musa confirmed it, for 'Isa was a Messenger. They did not accept that because he differed from their
creed, and the Jews did not know the matter for what it was - this is why they sought to kill him. His story is what Allah
relates to us about them and him in His Mighty Book. He was a Messenger before increase. As for decrease of the judgement
or its increase, it is confirmed since decrease is increase of judgement without a doubt.
The khalifate today does
not have this rank, but it decreases or increases based on the Shari'a which is confirmed by itjihad, not on the Shari'a which
Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, articulated. The khalif might do something which is counter to a hadith
in a certain judgement, and so he imagines that that comes from ijtihad. That is not the case, but rather this Imam has not
confirmed that the transmission with respect to unveiling is from the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. If
it had been confirmed, he would have judged by it. If the path in it is fairness in justice, he is not protected from illusion.
It is not by transmission in meaning.
Something like this occurs in the khalif today. Similarly, it also applies to
'Isa for, when he descends, he will remove much of the Shari'a established by itjihad. By removing that, he will clarify the
form of the legislated truth which he had, especially when the judgements of the Imams differ in the same event. We know absolutely
that when revelation descended, it descended in a certain way. That is the divine judgement and none other! Allah confirmed
it and it is the Shari'a of confirmation by the removal of interdiction from this community and the vastness of its judgements
As for the statement of the Prophet, "If there are two khalifs, then slay one of them," this is the outward
khalifate which has the sword. If they are in agreement, then one of them must be killed by the conflict of the khalifate
of meaning. There is no actual killing in it, but killing comes with the outward khalifate. If the khalif does not possess
this station, being the khalif of the Messenger of Allah - it is just being from the principle of the basis by which the existence
of two gods could be imagined: "If there had been any gods besides Allah in heaven or earth, they would both be ruined," (21:22)
even if they are in agreement. We know that if they differ implicitly, the judgement of one of the two will be valid. The
one with the operative judgement is the god properly speaking. The one whose judgement is not operative is not god.
this, we know that every valid judgement in the world today is the judgement of Allah even if it differs from the established
judgement in its outward manifestation called the Shari'a. The only judgement which is valid belongs to Allah in the heart
of the matter, because the matter which occurs in the world is based on the judgement of the Divine Will, not on the judgement
of the established Shari'a, (10) whose establishment itself comes from the Will. For that reason, He put His determination
into effect. Therefore, Will only has determination in the matter, not in the act which it brings.
The power of the
Will (mashi'a) is immense. (11) This is why Abu Talib (12) considered it to be the Throne of the Essence, since the will itself
necessitates judgement. Nothing occurs in existence nor disappears from it without the Will. When there is opposition to the
divine command here, it is called "rebellion". It is only commanding the means, not the command which brings things into being.
None opposes Allah at all in what He does in respect to the command of the Will. Opposition only occurs in respect of the
command of means. So understand that!
Properly speaking, the command of the Will is directed to bringing the action
itself into existence, not to the one at whose hands the action manifests itself. It is impossible that the action should
not be. However it takes place in a particular locus, and so, at one moment, it is called opposition to the command of Allah,
and at another moment it is called agreement and obedience to the command of Allah. The language of praise and blame follow
the action accordingly.
Since the matter itself is based on what we have stated about it, creation of all sorts therefore
hopes for happiness. He designated this station as "mercy which encompasses everything." (13) It preceded divine wrath, and
the predecessor comes before as is its right. That which the latter judges is what the former judged. Mercy obtained it since
nothing preceded it, so this is one meaning of "His mercy preceded His wrath" that mercy judges the one who reaches
it. It stands at the end. Therefore the end must be reached, and thus mercy and parting from wrath must be reached. It has
jurisdiction over everything which reaches it according to what is given to it by the state of the one who arrives.
witnesses what we have said.
If they do not understand,
they should take it from us.
is only what we mentioned in this matter,
so rely on it and be in it now as we were.
What we recited to you came from
it to us,
and from us to you is what we gave you from us.
As for the softening of iron, (14) hard hearts are softened
by reprimand and threat as fire softens iron. The hardness of hearts is a stronger hardness than that of stone. Fire breaks
stone, calcifies it and does not soften it. Iron was only softened for him so that protective coats of mail could be fashioned.
This is an instruction from Allah that the thing is only protected by itself.1 Mail protects against the spearhead, the sword,
the knife and the arrowhead - protection against iron is by iron. The Muhammadan Shari'a brings, "I take refuge with You from
You." Understand this! This is the spirit of the softening of iron. He is the Avenger, the Merciful, and Allah grants success.
to Chapter 17:
1. Qur'an 38:18-20.
2. 6:84;19:49; 21:72; 29:29.
3. Qur'an 34:13.
4. Qur'an 17:3.
As he had prophethood, the message, the khalifate, the kingdom, knowledge, wisdom, and discrimination.
6. Qur'an 34:10,
"O mountains and births! echo with him in his praise!"
7. Qur'an 38:17, "Remember Our slave Da'ud,who possessed true
8. Qur'an 38:20, "We made his kingdom strong, and gave him wisdom and decisive speech."
10. See the Qur'an 74:54-56, "It is truly a reminder to which anyone who wills may pay heed. But they will only
pay heed if Allah wills."
11. The reality of the will necessitates judgement because it is the same as making a demand.
13. Qur'an 7:156, also 40:7.
14. Qur'an 34:10, "We softened iron for him: 'Fashion wide coats of mail
and measure well the links.'"
18: The Seal of the Wisdom of the Breath (Nafas)
in the Word of Yunus (Jonah)
that this human organism in its perfection consists of spirit (ruh), body and self (nafs). Allah created it in His form. The
disintegration of its structure is only undertaken by the One who created it either by His hand - and it is only that - or
by His command. Whoever undertakes to do that without the command of Allah has wronged himself and exceeded the limits of
Allah in it and rushed to the ruin of the one whom Allah has commanded to thrive. Know that compassion to the slaves of Allah
is more proper through preservation than jealousy in Allah.
Da'ud, peace be upon him, wanted to build the Bayt al-Muqaddas,
(1) and built it many times. Whenever he finished it, it was destroyed. He complained about that to Allah. Allah revealed
to him, "This House of Mine will not be built by the hands of one who has shed blood." Da'ud said, "O Lord, was that not for
Your sake?" Allah said, "Yes, but are they not My slaves?" Da'ud said, "O Lord, let it be built at the hands of someone who
is from me!" Allah revealed to him, "Your son Sulayman will build it."
What is meant in this story is that the preservation
and maintenance of this human organism is better than its destruction. Do you not see that Allah has prescribed jizya (2)
and research of peace with those who had opposed the Din in order to spare them. He said, "If they incline to peace, you too
incline to it, and put your trust in Allah." (8:61)
Do you not see that for the one who has responsibility for retaliation,
accepting blood-money or pardoning is prescribed for the next-of-kin who is the responsible guardian? If he refuses to acept
either, then the killer can be slain in retaliation. Do you not see how when the next-of-kin consists of a group of people,
and one of them accepts the blood-money or pardons the person while the rest of the group want him killed, Allah observes
the one who pardoned and prefers him to the one who did not pardon. Do you not see that the Prophet, peace be upon him, said,
"Whoever is in a position to retaliate and slays the person is like him"? Allah says, "The repayment of a bad action is one
equivalent to it," (42:40) so He made retaliation an evil deed, i.e. that deed is evil even though it is part of the Shari'a.
Whoever pardons and makes amends has a reward due from Allah because he is based on His form. Whoever pardons and does not
slay, his reward is due to the One on whose form he is based, because the One who fashioned is more entitled to it, and his
existence only appeared by the name the Manifest.
Whoever preserves the person, preserves Allah. Man is not blameable
by his source, but by his action, and his action is not the same as him. We are discussing his action, and action belongs
only to Allah, even though some actions are blamed and some are praised. The language of blame in respect to purpose which
is reprehensible with Allah, and the only thing reprehensible is what is made to be so by the Shari'a. The Shari'a makes something
reprehensible because of what Allah made known or which He made known through someone He has instructed. So Allah prescribed
retaliation by necessity for the preservation of the human race and to prevent people exceeding the limits of Allah. Allah
says, "There is life for you in retaliation, O you who possess intelligence (lit. cores)!" (3) (2:179) They are the people
of the core who stumble onto the secret of divine laws and wisdoms.
Since you know that Allah preserves this organism
and preserves its continuance, you should also preserve it since you have that happiness. While man is still alive, he hopes
that he will obtain the attribute of perfection for which he was created. Whoever strives to destroy it, strives to prevent
the acquisition of that for which he was created. How excellent is what the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant
him peace, said, "Shall I tell you what is better and more excellent for you when you meet your enemies, smite their necks
and they smite yours? Remembering Allah."
That is because the only one who know the value of this human organism is
the one who remembers Allah with the invocation (dhikr) demanded of him. (4) Allah sits with the one who remembers Him, (5)
and the sitter is witnessed by the one doing the invocation. When the one doing the invocation does not witness Allah who
sits with him, then he is not doing invocation. When Allah is mentioned, He flows in all parts of the slave, not just in his
invocation with the tongue. Allah, at that moment, is only the Companion of the tongue in particular. The tongue sees Him,
inasmuch as the man, (6) in respect of his sight does not see Him. (7)
Understand this secret in the invocation of
those who are heedless! The heedless person who does invocation is present without a doubt, and the One mentioned sits with
him and so he witnesses Him. In respect of his heedlessness, this person does not do invocation and Allah does not sit with
the heedless. Man is many but with a single source. Allah is one source but has many Divine Names, just as man has many parts.
What is required of the invocation of one part is not the invocation of another part. Allah sits with the part which is invoking
Him, and the other part is described as heedless. There must be some part of man doing invocation, so Allah sits with that
part, and He preserves the rest of the parts by His concern.
When Allah undertakes the destruction of this organism
by what is called "death", that is not negation (i'dam) , but rather separation. He takes man to Him, and what is meant is
only Allah's taking man to Him, "and to Him the whole affair will be returned." (11:123) When He takes him to Him, He fashions
him a different composition than this composition. The new composition is from the genus of the abode to which he has moved,
that is, the Abode of Going-on, because equilibrium exists. The creature thus will never die, i.e. his parts will never be
As for the people of the Fire, they will return to bliss, but it will be in the Fire since after the end
of the duration of punishment, it must become cold and peace according to the mercy which preceded it. This is their bliss.
The bliss of the people of the Fire, after claims are settled, is the bliss of the friend of Allah, Ibrahim, when he was thrown
into the Fire.8 He was punished by the sight of it since his knowledge told him that it is a form which causes pain to any
living being which is near it. He did not know what Allah intended by it and from it in respect to him.
So after the
existence of these pains, he will find cold and peace in spite of the fact that he still witnesses the phenomenal form which
is fire in the eyes of the people. The single thing has various modes in the eyes of the onlookers. The divine tajalli is
also like that. If you wish, you could say that the tajalli of Allah resembles this, and if you wish, you could say that the
world is in the eye of the beholder which contains the parable of Allah in the tajalli, and so it takes on various modes in
the eye of the onlooker according to the onlooker's disposition. The onlooker¹s disposition varies with the modalities of
the tajalli. All of this is permissible in the realities.
Had a slain person or one who had died not returned to Allah
when he died or was slain, Allah would not have decreed their deaths nor prescribed their slaying. All is in His hand, and
there is no loss in respect to Him. He prescribes slaying and decrees death by His knowledge that His slave will not pass
from Him, for he returns to Him as Allah says, "and to Him the whole affair will be returned." So freedom of action occurs
in it, and He is the One with freedom of action. Nothing is outside of Him of which He is not the source. Rather, His He-ness
is the source of that thing, and He is the One who gives it its unveiling when He says, "and to Him the whole affair will
Notes to Chapter 17:
1. The Temple (Beth ha-Mikdash) in Jerusalem. The chapter is an evident
proof against the lies circulated by the occupier of al-Aqsa, Mr. 'Ikrimah Sabri, after the Ahlu-s-Sunnah were expelled from
2. Poll tax paid by non-Muslims.
3. Lubb: In Arabic there is no word for mind. However, in the Qur'an the
word that designates a central locus of awareness in the human being is lubb, which means core. It is the heart viewed as
an organ of gnosis and not merely as a valave which pumps blood to the head. Ibn al-'Arabi says that it is that part of knowledge
which is protected from the hearts which are attached to phenomenal being.
4. Which is to remember Allah on the tongues
while banishing passing thoughts and the chatter of the nafs while you watch Allah with the heart.
5. Hadith qudsi,
"The people of My dhikr are the people I sit with..." in Ibn Hanbal, Ibn Majah, etc.
6. Insan - also the pupil of the
7. "Eyesight cannot perceive Him but He perceives eyesight. He is the All-Penetrating, the All-Aware." (Qur'an
8. See Qur'an 21:69.
18: The Seal of the Wisdom of the Breath (Nafas)
the Word of Yunus (Jonah)
Know that this human organism in its perfection consists of spirit (ruh), body
and self (nafs). Allah created it in His form. The disintegration of its structure is only undertaken by the One who created
it either by His hand - and it is only that - or by His command. Whoever undertakes to do that without the command of Allah
has wronged himself and exceeded the limits of Allah in it and rushed to the ruin of the one whom Allah has commanded to thrive.
Know that compassion to the slaves of Allah is more proper through preservation than jealousy in Allah.
be upon him, wanted to build the Bayt al-Muqaddas, (1) and built it many times. Whenever he finished it, it was destroyed.
He complained about that to Allah. Allah revealed to him, "This House of Mine will not be built by the hands of one who has
shed blood." Da'ud said, "O Lord, was that not for Your sake?" Allah said, "Yes, but are they not My slaves?" Da'ud said,
"O Lord, let it be built at the hands of someone who is from me!" Allah revealed to him, "Your son Sulayman will build it."
is meant in this story is that the preservation and maintenance of this human organism is better than its destruction. Do
you not see that Allah has prescribed jizya (2) and research of peace with those who had opposed the Din in order to spare
them. He said, "If they incline to peace, you too incline to it, and put your trust in Allah." (8:61)
Do you not see
that for the one who has responsibility for retaliation, accepting blood-money or pardoning is prescribed for the next-of-kin
who is the responsible guardian? If he refuses to acept either, then the killer can be slain in retaliation. Do you not see
how when the next-of-kin consists of a group of people, and one of them accepts the blood-money or pardons the person while
the rest of the group want him killed, Allah observes the one who pardoned and prefers him to the one who did not pardon.
Do you not see that the Prophet, peace be upon him, said, "Whoever is in a position to retaliate and slays the person is like
him"? Allah says, "The repayment of a bad action is one equivalent to it," (42:40) so He made retaliation an evil deed, i.e.
that deed is evil even though it is part of the Shari'a. Whoever pardons and makes amends has a reward due from Allah because
he is based on His form. Whoever pardons and does not slay, his reward is due to the One on whose form he is based, because
the One who fashioned is more entitled to it, and his existence only appeared by the name the Manifest.
the person, preserves Allah. Man is not blameable by his source, but by his action, and his action is not the same as him.
We are discussing his action, and action belongs only to Allah, even though some actions are blamed and some are praised.
The language of blame in respect to purpose which is reprehensible with Allah, and the only thing reprehensible is what is
made to be so by the Shari'a. The Shari'a makes something reprehensible because of what Allah made known or which He made
known through someone He has instructed. So Allah prescribed retaliation by necessity for the preservation of the human race
and to prevent people exceeding the limits of Allah. Allah says, "There is life for you in retaliation, O you who possess
intelligence (lit. cores)!" (3) (2:179) They are the people of the core who stumble onto the secret of divine laws and wisdoms.
you know that Allah preserves this organism and preserves its continuance, you should also preserve it since you have that
happiness. While man is still alive, he hopes that he will obtain the attribute of perfection for which he was created. Whoever
strives to destroy it, strives to prevent the acquisition of that for which he was created. How excellent is what the Messenger
of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Shall I tell you what is better and more excellent for you when
you meet your enemies, smite their necks and they smite yours? Remembering Allah."
That is because the only one who
know the value of this human organism is the one who remembers Allah with the invocation (dhikr) demanded of him. (4) Allah
sits with the one who remembers Him, (5) and the sitter is witnessed by the one doing the invocation. When the one doing the
invocation does not witness Allah who sits with him, then he is not doing invocation. When Allah is mentioned, He flows in
all parts of the slave, not just in his invocation with the tongue. Allah, at that moment, is only the Companion of the tongue
in particular. The tongue sees Him, inasmuch as the man, (6) in respect of his sight does not see Him. (7)
this secret in the invocation of those who are heedless! The heedless person who does invocation is present without a doubt,
and the One mentioned sits with him and so he witnesses Him. In respect of his heedlessness, this person does not do invocation
and Allah does not sit with the heedless. Man is many but with a single source. Allah is one source but has many Divine Names,
just as man has many parts. What is required of the invocation of one part is not the invocation of another part. Allah sits
with the part which is invoking Him, and the other part is described as heedless. There must be some part of man doing invocation,
so Allah sits with that part, and He preserves the rest of the parts by His concern.
When Allah undertakes the destruction
of this organism by what is called "death", that is not negation (i'dam) , but rather separation. He takes man to Him, and
what is meant is only Allah's taking man to Him, "and to Him the whole affair will be returned." (11:123) When He takes him
to Him, He fashions him a different composition than this composition. The new composition is from the genus of the abode
to which he has moved, that is, the Abode of Going-on, because equilibrium exists. The creature thus will never die, i.e.
his parts will never be separated.
As for the people of the Fire, they will return to bliss, but it will be in the
Fire since after the end of the duration of punishment, it must become cold and peace according to the mercy which preceded
it. This is their bliss. The bliss of the people of the Fire, after claims are settled, is the bliss of the friend of Allah,
Ibrahim, when he was thrown into the Fire.8 He was punished by the sight of it since his knowledge told him that it is a form
which causes pain to any living being which is near it. He did not know what Allah intended by it and from it in respect to
So after the existence of these pains, he will find cold and peace in spite of the fact that he still witnesses
the phenomenal form which is fire in the eyes of the people. The single thing has various modes in the eyes of the onlookers.
The divine tajalli is also like that. If you wish, you could say that the tajalli of Allah resembles this, and if you wish,
you could say that the world is in the eye of the beholder which contains the parable of Allah in the tajalli, and so it takes
on various modes in the eye of the onlooker according to the onlooker's disposition. The onlooker¹s disposition varies with
the modalities of the tajalli. All of this is permissible in the realities.
Had a slain person or one who had died
not returned to Allah when he died or was slain, Allah would not have decreed their deaths nor prescribed their slaying. All
is in His hand, and there is no loss in respect to Him. He prescribes slaying and decrees death by His knowledge that His
slave will not pass from Him, for he returns to Him as Allah says, "and to Him the whole affair will be returned." So freedom
of action occurs in it, and He is the One with freedom of action. Nothing is outside of Him of which He is not the source.
Rather, His He-ness is the source of that thing, and He is the One who gives it its unveiling when He says, "and to Him the
whole affair will be returned."
Notes to Chapter 18:
1. The Temple (Beth ha-Mikdash) in Jerusalem. The chapter
is an evident proof against the lies circulated by the occupier of al-Aqsa, Mr. 'Ikrimah Sabri, after the Ahlu-s-Sunnah were
expelled from it.
2. Poll tax paid by non-Muslims.
3. Lubb: In Arabic there is no word for mind. However, in
the Qur'an the word that designates a central locus of awareness in the human being is lubb, which means core. It is the heart
viewed as an organ of gnosis and not merely as a valave which pumps blood to the head. Ibn al-'Arabi says that it is that
part of knowledge which is protected from the hearts which are attached to phenomenal being.
4. Which is to remember
Allah on the tongues while banishing passing thoughts and the chatter of the nafs while you watch Allah with the heart.
Hadith qudsi, "The people of My dhikr are the people I sit with..." in Ibn Hanbal, Ibn Majah, etc.
6. Insan - also
the pupil of the eye.
7. "Eyesight cannot perceive Him but He perceives eyesight. He is the All-Penetrating, the All-Aware."
8. See Qur'an 21:69.
19: The Seal of the Wisdom of the Unseen
in the Word
of Ayyub (Job)
Know that the secret of life flows in water, for it is the basis of the components and the
basic elements. For this reason, Allah made every living thing of water. (1) There is nothing is which is not alive, so there
is nothing which does not proclaim His praise, but their extolling is only understood by divine unveiling. (2) Nothing extols
unless it is alive. So the basis of everything is water. Do you not see how the Throne is on the water because it was formed
from it? (3) It oppresses the water while the water underneath it maintains it. In the same way, Allah created man a slave.
Then he was haughty towards his Lord and put himself above Him. In spite of this, Allah preserves him from underneath in respect
of the height of this slave who is ignorant of himself. This is what the Prophet said, "If you let a rope fall, it would fall
on Allah." So he indicated that "below" is related to Him as "above" is related to Him when He said, "They fear their Lord
above them," (16:50) and "He is the Absolute Master over His slaves." (6:18; 6:61) So He has "above" and "below" For this
reason, the six directions only appeared in respect of man, who is on the form of the All-Merciful.
There is no nourisher
except Allah. He said of one group, "If they had implemented the Torah and the Gospel," using the indefinite and being general,
"and what was sent down to them from their Lord," and this includes every judgement sent down on the tongue of a Messenger
or someone inspired, "they would have been fed from above their heads," and He is the Nourisher in respect of the aboveness
which is ascribed to Him, "and beneath their feet," (5:66) as He is the Nourisher in respect of the belowness which He ascribes
to Himself on the tongue of His Messenger, who translates from Him. If the Throne had not been on the water, its existence
would not have been maintained. The existence of the living sustains life. Do you not see that when the living dies the customary
death, the parts of his structure disintegrate and his faculties are eliminated from that particular structure? Allah said
to Ayyub, "Stamp your foot! Here is a cool bath," (38:42) meaning that since he had an excess of the heat of pain, He would
alleviate it by the coolness of the water. For this reason, the medicine was decrease from excess and excess in decreasing.
What is the meant is the demand of balance, and the only way to it is by approaching it.
However, we said that there
is no way achieve equilibrium because realities and witnessing constantly accord taking-form with every single breath. (4)
Taking-form (takwin) only comes from an inclination which is called deviation or decomposition in nature. In Allah it is the
will, and it is inclination to one particular goal rather than another. Equilibrium denotes sameness in all, but this does
not occur. For this reason, we are deprived of the principle of equilibrium. Allah's description with pleasure and anger and
the attributes is related in prophetic divine knowledge. Pleasure obliterates anger, and anger obliterates pleasure from the
pleasing. Perfect equilibrium would mean that anger and pleasure are the same. The Wrathful would not be wrathful towards
the one he is angry with, but would be pleased with him. He is described by one of the two principles in respect to him
that is, inclination. And Allah would not pleased with the one He is pleased with and would be angry with him, and so He is
described by one of the two principles in respect to him - that is, inclination.
We said this, however, in respect
of the one who thinks that Allah's wrath will continue against the people of the Fire forever, as he claims. So they do not
have the principle of pleasure from Allah. What is meant is true. It is as we have said, so the hopes of the people of the
Fire lies in the removal of pains. Even if they still dwell in the Fire, that is pleasure, so wrath is removed when the pains
are removed since the source of pain is the source of wrath if you understand! Whoever is wrathful has suffered hurt. He only
strives to avenge the object of his wrath by causing him suffering so that the wrathful might find relief by that. He transfers
the pain which he has to the object of his wrath. If you separate Allah from the universe, then High indeed is He exalted
above this attribute! If Allah is the He-ness of the universe, then all principles appear only in Him and from Him. It is
His word, "to Him the entire affair will be returned" in reality and unveiling, "so worship Him and put your trust in Him"
(11:123) in veil and covering. There is nothing in the realm of possibility more original than this universe because it is
based on the form of the Merciful which Allah brought into existence - He manifested His existence by the existence of the
universe as man manifests the existence of the natural form. We are His manifest form, and His He-ness is the spirit of this
form which governs it. There is no management except in Him as it is only from Him. He is the First by meaning and the Last
by form, and the Manifest by the changing of judgements and states, and the Inner by management. "He has knowledge of all
things." "He witnesses everything" (5) so He knows by direct witnessing, not by thought. It is the same with the knowledge
of tasting (dhawq) which does not derive from thought. Tasting is sound knowledge. Other things are only conjecture and surmise,
and that is not knowledge at all.
Then Ayyub had that water to drink to remove the pain of thirst which was from the
weariness and punishment with which shaytan (6) had touched him, (7) that is, distance from the realities which he perceived
for what they were. Ayyub perceived them for what they were, and by his perception, he was in the place of nearness. Every
witnessed one is close to the eye ('ayn=source), even if it is far away by the interval of distance. Vision reaches it, since
it is witnessing. If it had not been for that, he would not witness it, nor would what is witnessed be reached by vision,
however you want to put it. The witnessed is near between the sight and the seer. This is why Ayyub alluded to touch and ascribed
it to Shaytan in spite of the nearness of touch. He said, "The one distant from me is near because of his power over me."
know that distance and nearness are two relative matters, for they are two ascriptions. They have no existence in the source
in spite of the fact that there judgements are established in the far and near. Know that the secret of Allah in Ayyub (whom
He made an example for us in a written existing book which this Muhammadan community reads in order to learn what is in it,
and they attach honor to the one who possesses it), is that Allah praised him for his patience in his supplication to remove
affliction from him. We know that when the slave calls on Allah to remove affliction from him without that lessening his patience,
then he is patient and the best of the slaves, as Allah said, "What an excellent slave! He truly turned to his Lord." (8)
(38:44) This means he goes back to Allah, not back to the cause.
Allah affects by the cause because the slave depends
on it since the causes which will remove any one matter are many, but the Causer is but one. It is more fitting that the slave
return to the One Source in order to remove that pain by the cause of that than to the particular cause. It may be that it
will not conform to Allah's knowledge in it, and then some will say, "Allah did not answer me." Yet he did not call on him,
but he inclined to a particular cause which neither the time nor the moment requires. Ayyub acted by the wisdom of Allah since
he was a Prophet. He knew that with one group, patience is what holds the self back from complaint. That is not our definition
of patience (sabr). Its definition is to hold the self back from complaint to other-than-Allah, not to Allah. The first group
is veiled in their view that the complainer is lessened in contentment (rida) with the decree by complaint. That is not the
Contentment with the decree is not lessened by complaint to Allah or to others, but contentment with the decreed
is lessened. We are not speaking about contentment with the decreed. Affliction is what is decreed and not the same as the
Decree. Ayyub knew that holding the self back from complaint to Allah for the removal of affliction is to oppose divine force.
It is ignorance if, when Allah afflicts someone by what gives him pain, he does not call on Allah to remove that painful matter
from him. The one who has realization must supplicate and ask Allah to remove that from him. For that gnostic who possesses
unveiling, that removal comes from the presence of Allah. Allah describes Himself as "hurt", so He said, "those who hurt Allah
and His Messenger." (33:57) What hurt is greater than that Allah test you with affliction in your heedlessness of Him or a
divine station which you do not know so that you return to Him with your complaint so that He can remove is from you? Thus
the need which is your reality will be proven. The hurt is removed from Allah by your asking Him to repel it from you, since
you are His manifest form.
One of the gnostics was hungry and wept. Someone who had no tasting (dhawq) in that area
censured him for that. The gnostic said, "But Allah makes me hungry so that I might weep. He tests me by affliction so that
I might ask Him to remove it from me. This does not lessen my being patient." We know that patience is holding the self back
from complaint to other-than-Allah.
By "other" I mean a particular aspect of Allah. Allah specified a particular one
of Allah's aspects, and it is called the aspect of He-ness, so he calls on Him from that aspect to remove affliction from
him, not from the other aspects called causes. They are only Him in respect to elaboration of the matter in itself. The gnostic's
request does not veil him from the He-ness of Allah in removing affliction from him and the fact that all the causes are Him
from a particular point of view. This path is only obliged on the people of adab among the slaves of Allah who are entrusted
with the secrets of Allah. Allah has guardians whom only Allah recognizes, and some of them recognize each other. We have
counselled you, so strive, and ask of Allah!
Notes to Chapter 19:
1. Qur'an See 21:30.
2. See Qur'an
3. See 11:7. As for the connection between Water (al-ma') and the Throne (al-'arsh), see the hadith narrated
by Imam al-Bukhari, "Allah existed and there was nothing with Him, then His Throne was on the water, and then He created the
heavens and the earth."
4. Tajdid al-khalq, instantaneous renewal of creation.
5. See Qur'an 5:117; 22:17, etc.
The root of the name Shaytan is shaytana, meaning "to be remote from".
7. Qur'an 38:41.
8. Awwab, which means
one who frequently turns to Allah.
20: The Seal of the Wisdom of Majesty
in the Word
of Yahya (John the Baptist)
This is the wisdom of firstness in the names. Allah called him Yahya, i.e. the
dhikr of Zakariyya was Yahya brought to life by him, and "a name We have given to no one else before." (19:7) He joined the
attainment of the attribute, which is in the one who has passed on but left a son to revive his memory and his name through
him. He called him "Yahya". His name Yahya is like knowledge by tasting. The memory of Adam, peace be upon him, was revived
by Shith and that of Nuh by Sam. It is the same with the Prophets, peace be upon them; but Allah did not combine the name
of knowledge from Him and the attribute for anyone before Yahya. It was an act of concern for Zakariyya from Allah, since
Zakariyya said, "Give me an heir from You." (19:5) He mentioned Allah before the mention he mentioned his son, as Asiya (1)
mentioned the neighbor before the abode when she said, "Build a house in the Garden.for me in Your presence." (66:11) Allah
was generous to Zakariyya, for He granted his need and named him by His attribute. Yahya's name was a remembrance for what
His Prophet Zakariyya asked of Him; because he preferred the going-on of dhikr-Ullah after his death, since the son is the
secret of his father.
He said, "to be my inheritor and the inheritor of the family of Ya'qub." (19:6) Nothing is inherited
in respect of these except for the station of dhikr-Ullah and calling to Him. Then Allah gave him the good news of what He
appointed for him from His words, "Peace be upon him the day he was born, and the day he dies, and the day he is raised up
again alive." (19:15) He brought the attribute of life, which is his name, and He informed him of His peace upon him. His
words are true. He completed it, even if it is the word of the spirit, "Peace be upon me the day I was born, the day I die,
and the day I am raised up again alive," (19:33) and this is more sublime and more perfect in oneness and belief in the interpretation.
That in which the order of nature (2) was broken in respect to 'Isa was articulation. His intellect was given mastery and
perfected at that time when Allah made him speak. In any case, mastery of articulation is not necessary.
the truth in what he articulated but this is different than the one who was testified to, as in the case of Yahya. (3) Allah's
greeting on Yahya was higher than the greeting of 'Isa on himself in this way since the ambiguity occurring in divine concern
was removed. The immediate circumstances indicate his proximity to Allah in that and his sincerity, since he spoke in the
cradle the form which indicated the innocence of his mother. He was one of the two witnesses. The other witness was the shaking
of the dried trunk of the palm tree. (4) Fresh, ripe dates came tumbling down without the male palm tree or pollination. In
the same way, Maryam bore 'Isa without a man, that is, without normal and customary intercourse. If a Prophet had said, "My
sign and my miracle is that this wall will speak," and then the wall speaks and says, "You have lied, you are not the Messenger
of Allah," then the sign is proven and it is confirmed by it that he is the Messenger of Allah. One does not pay any attention
to what the wall said.
He introduces this probability into the words of 'Isa when his mother pointed to him while he
was in the cradle. Allah's greeting on Yahya is higher than this element. The passage which indicates that he is the slave
of Allah is in respect of the claim made about him that he was the son of Allah. The indication is completed by sheer articulation.
He is the slave of Allah according to another group who speak of Prophethood. It increases the principle of probability in
logical thought until his truthfulness appeared in the future regarding all that he spoke about when he was in the cradle.
So understand our allusion!
Notes to Chapter 20:
1. The wife of Pharaoh who was one of the perfect women.
Kharq al-'adat, miracle, literally, the breaking of the normal pattern of things.
3. 'Isa was a witness, not one who
is the object of witness, since he testified on behalf of his mother.
4. See Qur'an 19:29.
21: The Seal of the Wisdom of Sovereignty
in the Word of Zakariyya (Zachariah)
Know that the mercy of Allah encompasses
everything in existence and judgement, and the existence of wrath comes from the mercy of Allah by wrath. His mercy preceded
His wrath, that is, the ascription of mercy to Him preceded the ascription of wrath. Then every source has an existence which
demands that Allah's mercy encompass every source. For that reason, we say that the mercy of Allah encompasses all things
in existence and principle.
The Divine Names are "things", but they derive from a single Source. The first thing that
His mercy encompassed before time was its thingness, that source which gives existence to mercy by mercy. Thus the first thing
that His mercy encompassed was itself, then the thingness indicated, then the thingness of every existent existing without
end in this world and the Next, non-essential ('arad) and substance (jawhar), composite and simple. Neither the acquisition
of a goal nor harmony of nature is taken into account rather, harmonious and inharmonious things are all encompassed
by divine mercy in existence. We mentioned in The Makkan Revelations that effect only belongs to the non-existent, not the
existent. If the existent had it, it is by the principle of the non-existent. It is a strange knowledge and a rare question.
Only those who posess illusions (awhâm) know its realisation, and that is by their tasting (dhawq). (2)
The mercy of
Allah pervades phenomenal beings, and circulates in essences and sources. The most ideal position of mercy is when it is known
from witnessing with sublime thoughts. Everyone mercy designates is happy. There is only what mercy designates, and the mention
of the mercy of things is the source of its bringing them into existence. Every existent thing has been shown mercy. O friend!
Do not be veiled from the perception of what we have said by what you see of the troubles people experience and what you believe
about the pains of the Next Abode which will not depart from the one whom they afflict.
First of all, know that mercy
is in bringing-into-existence in general. In mercy by pains, only pains come into existence. So mercy has an effect in two
ways - the first effect is by the essence, which is its bringing every existent source into existence. It does not regard
desire or lack of it, suitability or lack of suitability. It looks at the source of every existent before its existence, or
rather, it looks at its source-form. For this reason, it saw Allah-as-creature in creeds as a single source-form among the
source-forms. Its mercy to itself is by bringing-into-existence. This is why we said that Allah-as-creature in creeds is the
first thing shown mercy after its mercy to itself in its connection of bringing those shown mercy into existence.
has another effect by request. Those who are veiled ask Allah to have mercy on them in their beliefs, and the people of unveiling
ask for the mercy of Allah to settle on them. They ask for it by the name of Allah, and so they say, "O Allah! Have mercy
on us!" and He only has mercy on them by carrying out mercy through them. It has authority because authority in reality belongs
to the meaning based on place.
He is the Merciful in reality, so Allah is only merciful to His slaves, attentive to
them by mercy. When mercy settles on them, they experience its authority through taste (dhawq). The one designated by mercy
has had mercy known to him. The active participle is the Merciful (Rahîm) and the Mercy-Giver (Râhim), and this principle
does not describe creatures because it is a matter of directing meanings to their essences.
States are neither existent
nor non-existent they have no source in existence because they are relationships. They are not non-existent in principle
because what knowledge establishes is called the "knower", and it is a state. The knower is an essence described by knowledge,
but it is not the same as the essence nor is it the same as knowledge. There is only knowledge and the essence on which this
knowledge is established. The being of the knower is a state of this essence when it is described by this meaning. The relationship
of knowledge occurred to him, so he is called knowing. Mercy, properly speaking, is a relationship from the Mercy-giver, and
it is necessarily part of the principle, so it is merciful. The One who brought it into existence in the one shown mercy did
not bring it into existence in order to be shown mercy by it; He brought it into existence to show mercy to the one on whom
Allah is not in a place by events, so He is not in a place by bringing mercy into existence. He is the
Mercy-Giver, and the Mercy-Giver is only Mercy-Giver by the establishment of mercy. He confirmed that He is the source of
mercy. Whoever has not tasted this matter and has no part in it, does not dare to say that He is the source of mercy or the
source of the attribute. Such a person says, "He is not the same as the attribute nor other than it." In his view, the attributes
of Allah with Him are not Him, nor are they other-than-Him because he cannot deny them nor can he make them the same as Him.
Thus he (3) moves to this interpretation, and it is a good interpretation. Yet there is another interpretation more appropriate
to the matter than this one, and more likely to remove ambiguity. It is to deny the sources of the attributes any existence
based on the essence of the one described. Rather, they are relationships and relative ascriptions between the one described
by them and their intelligible sources. Although mercy is common to all of them, it is different in relationship to each Divine
For this reason, Allah is asked to show mercy by each Divine Name, so the mercy of Allah and its indirect
reference, which is that which encompasses everything, has many branches according to the number of the Divine Names. It is
not general in relation to that particular divine name in the statement of the one who asks, "O Lord, have mercy!" and other
Divine Names, even the Avenger. So he says, "O Avenger, have mercy on me!" That is because these Names indicate the designated
Essence and, by their realities, indicate different meanings. They call on Him by these Names in mercy with respect to their
indication of the Essence called by that Name and no other not by what is indicated by that Name, separating it from
another and distinguishing it. The Name is not distinguished from another, and with him it is the indication of the Essence.
It is distinguished in itself from other-than-it by its essence, as it is generally agreed that, by any expression, this Name
is a reality distinct in its essence from other-than-it.
The whole is set forth to indicate one designated source.
There is no disagreement that each name has an authority which another does not have. That also must be taken into account,
as one takes into account their indications of the named essence.
For this reason, Abu'l-Qasim ibn Qasi said regarding
the Divine Names that each Name is, in its isolation, designated by all of the Divine Names since they preceded in mentioning
its description by all the Names, that is, by their indication of one source. Although the Names based on it are many and
their realities differ, i.e. the realities of these Names, the mercy is obtained by two means. The first is the path of obligation,
and it is His word, "I shall prescribe it for those who are godfearing and pay zakat," (7:156) and He binds them by it through
the attributes of knowledge and action. The other path by which mercy is obtained is the path of divine graciousness which
is not connected to action. It is His words, "My mercy embraces all things." Of this, it is said, "So that Allah may forgive
you your earlier errors and any later ones." (48:2) And of this, there are His words, "Do what you want, I have already forgiven
you." (5) So know that!
Notes to Chapter 21:
1. Al-Mâlikiyya. His state was dominated by the name al-Mâlik,
the Sovereign, who prevails in His orders. This strength was shown in his himma whose fruit was Yahya.
2. Because they
connect the imagination (wahm) to things and bring them into existence and thus have experiential knowledge of this. As for
the one on whom illusion has no effect, he is far from this question.
3. The Imam of Ahlu-s-Sunnah wa-l-Jama'ah, Shaykh
4. There is a specific mercy of Allah, of al-Rahman, of ar-Rahim, of al-Malik, etc.
This refers to an incident involving Hatib ibn Abi Balta'a. When the Muslim army prepared to set out to conquer Makka, Hatib
sent a letter to warn the Quraysh which was intercepted. 'Umar wanted kill him for intelligence with the nemy in war, but
the Prophet said, "O 'Umar, perhaps Allah has looked with favor on those who already fought at Badr and said, 'Do whatever
you want. I have already forgiven you.'"
22: The Seal of the Wisdom of Intimacy
in the Word
of Ilyas (Elijah)
Ilyas (Elijah) is none but Idris (Enoch), peace be upon him. He was a Prophet before Nuh,
and Allah raised him to a high place. (1) He dwells in the heart of the spheres, the sphere of the sun. Then he was sent to
the town of Baalbek (Ba'labakk). Baal is the name of an idol and "bakk" is the power of the village. The idol was called Baal
and was singled out with domination. It was Ilyas who was Idris, who was given the example of the splitting of the mountain
called "Lubnan (Lebanon)" which comes from lubana (desire, goal). What he needed was a horse of fire with all its trappings
of fire. When he saw it, he rode it and appetite fell from him, and so there was intellect without appetite. There remained
for him no connection with that which is connected to the desire of the self. For him, Allah was pure without connection.
He had only half of gnosis of Allah. When the intellect is free of the self in respect to gathering knowledges by its discernment,
its gnosis of Allah is based on disconnection (tanzih) not connection (tashbih).
When Allah gives gnosis by tajalli,
then gnosis of Allah is perfected.
Disconnection is used in one place and connection in another place.
sees the diffusion of Allah by existence in natural and elemental forms. There is no form but that he sees the source of Allah
in its source. This is the complete perfect gnosis which is brought the roads (shara'i) revealed from Allah. By this recognition,
all illusions (awham) have authority. For this reason, illusion has a stronger power in this human organism than the intellect,
because the man of intellect even if his intellect reaches maturity is not free of the power which illusion has
over him and over the formation of what he reasons. Illusion is the greatest power in this perfect human organism. The revealed
roads brought it, and so you use both connection and disconnection. You use connection in disconnection by illusion, and disconnection
in connection by the intellect. So the whole is connected to the whole. It is not possible that disconnection be free of connection
nor connection from disconnection. Allah said, "Nothing is like Him," so He used connection and disconnection. "He is the
All-Hearing, the All-Seeing," (2) and He used connection, and yet it is the greatest of ayat revealed on disconnection. Even
so, it is not free of connection because of the Kayf (like).
So He has the most knowledge of Himself of those who know.
He only designated Himself by what we mentioned. Then He said, "Glory be to your Lord, the Lord of Might, beyond anything
they describe," (37:180) and they only describe according to what these realities accord them. He exalted Himself above their
disconnection since they limit Him by that disconnection. That is due to the inability of the intellect to perceive the like
Then all the roads (Shara'i) brought what the illusions dominate. They do not free Allah of an attribute in
which He is manifest as they said. They brought that, and so communities acted on it. Allah granted them the tajalli. The
heirs followed the Messengers closely, and said what the Messengers of Allah said. Allah knows best where He puts His message,
and so Allah knows best who turns his face to Him in a particular aspect by transmission to the Messenger of Allah. One aspect
of His begins with "He knows best where to place His message." (6:124) There is a reality in each of the two aspects
for that reason, we speak of connection and disconnection, and disconnection and connection. After this (3) is established,
we will lower the screens and drop the veils on the eye of the critic (4) and the one who simply follows a creed. Both of
them are among the forms in which Allah gives tajalli, but He has commanded the veil for us in order that different levels
of excellence of the predisposition of forms might appear. One is given a tajalli in a form according to the predisposition
of that form. What its reality and exigencies accord him is ascribed to him. That must be. The example of the one who sees
Allah when he is asleep and does not deny it is this. Without a doubt, it is Allah Himself. He attaches to it the exigencies
of that form and its realities in which He gives the tajalli in sleep. Then after that, he interprets, i.e. he transfers it
to another matter which disconnection logically demands. If the one who interprets it has unveiling and belief (iman), then
he does not transfer it to disconnection at all. Rather, he gives it the disconnection that is due it and what is due to that
which is manifest in it, i.e. its connection/resemblance. Properly speaking, "Allah" is an expression for the one who understands
the indication (ishara). (5)
The spirit of this wisdom and its seal is that the command is divided into the effector
and the one effected. These are two expressions. The effector in every aspect and in every state and in every presence is
Allah. The effected by every aspect and in every state and in every presence is the universe, even if it is Allah who comes.
(6) Allah is everything at its foundation which corresponds. That which appears is forever and ever a branch from the root;
divine love is a branch from the supererogatory acts of the slave. So this is an effect between the effector and the effected.
Allah is the hearing of the slave and his sight and faculties from this love. (7) This is an established effect which, if
you believe, you cannot deny because it is confirmed by the Shari'a.
As for the person of sound intellect, he is either
in possession of a divine tajalli in a natural locus of tajalli, (8) so he recognizes what we have said, or else he is a believing
Muslim who believes in what was reported in sound tradition. The power of illusion must govern the man of intellect investigating
what has been brought to him in this form because he believes in that form. As for the one who is not a believer, he judges
illusion by illusion; and so he imagines by his logical discernment that he assigns to Allah what the tajalli gives him in
dream. Illusion in that does not depart from him inasmuch as he is not aware because of his disregard for himself. From that
is what Allah says, "Call on Me and I will answer You." (40:60) Allah also says, "If My slaves ask you concerning Me, I am
near. I answer the call of the caller when he calls on Me," (2:186) since He only answers when there is someone who calls
to Him. The source of the caller is the source of the answerer, but there is no disagreement about the difference of forms.
They are two forms without a doubt.
All these forms are like Zayd's limbs. It is known that Zayd is one reality in
personality, yet his hand is not the form of his foot nor his head nor his eye nor his eyebrow. He is one multiple - multiple
by forms, one by source. That is like man who is one by source without a doubt. There is no doubt that 'Umar is not Zayd nor
Khalid nor Ja'far, and that the individual persons of this one source are endless in existence. Even if man is one by source,
he is many by forms and persons. If you are a believer, you know absolutely that Allah Himself will appear in a tajalli in
a form on the Day of Rising. He will be recognized and then He will change form and be denied. (9) Then He will change from
it again into another form and will not be recognized. He is the One giving tajalli and it is not other than Him in each form,
even though it is known that this form is not that other form.
It is one source which has the same function as the
mirror. When the viewer looks in it at the form of his belief in Allah, he recognizes Him, and so draws near Him. When it
happens that he sees in it the belief of someone else, he denies Him since he sees his form and the form of someone else in
the mirror. The mirror is but a single source while the forms are many in the eye of the viewer. There is no form in the mirror
which comprises them all at once. Although the phenomenal being of the mirror has an effect on the forms from one aspect,
it does not have an effect on the forms from another aspect. The effect which it has makes the form change shape in smallness,
largeness, length, and width, so it has an effect in quantities. This is attributable to it, but this changing of it is by
the difference of the size of the mirrors. In the example, look at one of these mirrors, and do not look at all of them. It
is your perception in respect to His being essence, and so He is independent of the universe, and in respect to the divine
names. In that moment He is like the mirrors. Whatever Divine Name in which you look at yourself or simply look at. He manifests
the reality of that Name in whoever looks. The matter is thus. If you understand, do not be anxious, and do not fear. Allah
loves bravery, even to the extent of killing a snake. The snake is not other than your self, and the snake is alive through
its self in form and reality. The thing is not killed by itself, even if the form is destroyed in the senses, The definition
determines it, and imagination does not make it depart.
Since the matter is based on this, this is the safeguard of
the essences and might and invincibility. You cannot destroy the definition. What might is greater than this might? You imagine
by illusion that you have killed. By intellect and illusion, the form does not vanish from existence in the definition. The
proof of that is, "You did not throw when you threw, but Allah threw." (8:17) The eye only perceived the form of Muhammad
which had the throwing confirmed to it in the senses. It is what Allah denied the throwing to at first, and then confirmed
in the middle, only to return to the perception that Allah was the One who threw in the form of Muhammad. One must believe
this. So look at this effector when Allah descended into a Muhammadan form. Allah Himself informs His slaves of that, and
none of us said that of Him, rather He said it of Himself. His report is true, and it is obligatory to believe it whether
or not you perceive the knowledge of what He said, being a knower or believing Muslim.
Part of what shows you the weakness
of the intellect's discernment in respect to its thought, since the intellect passes judgement on cause ('illa), is that cause
is not an effect of the one who is the cause. This is the judgement of the intellect which is evident. There is only this
in the knowledge of tajalli, and it is that the cause is an effect to whoever is the cause. That which the intellect governs
is sound when discernment is clarified. Its goal in that is that, when it sees the matter differently than what logical proof
would accord it, it says that the source after it is confirmed that it is one in this multiple, and inasmuch as it is
cause in one of these forms belonging to any effect is not an effect of its effect, so that its effect would become
a cause to it. This is his goal when he sees the matter for what it was, although he does not continue in his logical discernment.
the command in causality is of this sort, your opinion by the scope of logical discernment is not in other than this narrow
limit. None are more reasonable than the Messengers, may the blessings of Allah be upon them, and they brought what they brought
in transmission from the Divine Presence. They confirmed what the intellect confirmed. Then they gave more in what the intellect
alone does not possess by its perception and what the intellect does not imagine directly, but one draws near to it in the
divine tajalli. When he is alone with himself after the tajalli, he is confused about what he saw. If he is the slave of a
Lord, his intellect returns to him, and if he is the slave of reasoning, Allah gives him back judgement. This is only as long
as he is veiled in the dimension of this world from his dimension in the Next World.
The gnostics appear here as if
they possessed the form of this world by virtue of the fact that its principles operate on them. However, Allah has transformed
them inwardly to the dimension of the Next World. That must be the case. They are unknown by form except to whomever has had
his inner eye unveiled by Allah so that he perceives. (10) There is no gnostic of Allah in respect of divine tajalli who is
not based on the dimension of the Next World. He has been gathered in this lower world of his and has been called from his
grave. He sees what they do not see, and he witnesses what they do not witness - as a mark of concern from Allah to some of
His slaves in that respect.
Whoever wishes to find this wisdom of Ilyas-Idris to whom Allah gave two formations, so
that he was a Prophet before Nuh, and then he raised him up and brought him down after that as a Messenger and so Allah joined
for him the two degrees, let him descend from the authority of his intellect to his appetite and be an absolute animal so
that he will be shown what every creature that crawls is shown except for the jinn and men. Then he will know that he has
realized his animality, and it has two tokens. One is this unveiling so he sees who is punished in his grave and who
has bliss. He sees the dead alive and the silent speaking and the sitting walking. The second token is muteness since, had
he wanted to utter what he had seen, he would be unable to do so. Thus he has realized his animality. We had a pupil who acquired
this unveiling although dumbness did not take hold of him, and so he did not fully realize his animality. When Allah established
me in this station, I realized my animality with a complete realization. So I was seeing and wishing to utter what I was witnessing
but I could not. So there was no difference between me and the mute who cannot speak.
When he realizes what we have
mentioned, he will move to being pure intellect in natural matter. He will witness matters which are the roots of what is
manifested in natural forms. He will know from where this principle is manifest in the natural form with the knowledge of
tasting. Had it been unveiled that nature is the source of the breath of the All-Merciful, he would have been given much good.
If he is restricted in what we have mentioned, this power from the gnosis which governs his intellect will be enough for him.
He keeps company with gnostics, and by that he knows tasting. "You did not kill them, it was Allah who killed them," (8:17)
yet only iron, the blow and that which is behind this form killed them. In the whole, killing and throwing took place. So
he witnesses matters by their roots and by their forms, and he is complete. When he witnesses the breath, he is completely
perfect. The breath of the All-Merciful is the source of the overflowing of existence and life on all, rather the source of
Allah's descent to all forms.
Notes to Chapter 22:
1. A place from which, according to Sidi Muhiddin, Idris
(Enoch) descended in order to become Ilyas (Elijah). See Qur'an 19:57, "Mention Idris in the Book. He was a true man and a
Prophet. We raised him up to a high place."
2. Qur'an 42:11.
3. The rule of joining tanzih and tashbih.
The one who uses logical proof.
5. i.e. what he recognises from the word "Allah" extends only so far as his predisposition
6. In the wârid.
7. "When I love him, I am his hearing with he hears, his sight by which
he sees, his hand with which he strikes, and his foot with which he walks".
8. i.e. the human form.
in Muslim: 1: 299, 302.
10. See Qur'an 50:22, "We have stripped you of your covering and today your sight is sharp."
23: The Seal of the Wisdom of Ihsan
in the Word of
If Allah wishes, He wills provision for Him,
so all of phenomenal being is His food.
wishes, He wills provision for us,
so He is our food as He wishes.
His volition is His will, so say that He wished
So it is wished.
He wills increase and decrease.
So what He wishes is wished.
This is the distinction
between them, (1)
From a certain point of view,
their source is the same.
Allah says, "We
gave Luqman wisdom," (31:12) and He says, "Whoever has been given wisdom has been given much good." (2:269) By the divine
text, Luqman had much good as Allah has testified. The example of what Luqman said to his son is, "My son, even if something
weighs as little as a mustard-seed, and it is inside a rock or anywhere else in the heavens or earth, Allah will bring it
out." (31:16) This is a wisdom which is articulated, and that wisdom is his setting out that Allah is the One who brings forth.
Allah confirmed that in His Book and did not refute what the speaker said.
As for the silent wisdom in it, and you
know it by the circumstances, he is silent about the one to whom that grain is given. He did not mention him nor did he say
to his son, "Allah will bring it to you or to other than you." He used bringing in general terms and denoted the thing brought
in the heavens or in the earth as an instruction that the looker might regard His words, "He is Allah in the heavens and in
the earth." (6:3) Luqman gave instruction by what he said and by what he remained silent on, so Allah is the source of every
knowing thing because the known is more universal than the thing, so it denies unknown things.
Then he completed the
wisdom and brought it to its full value in order that the structure might be complete in it. He said, "Allah is Latif (Subtle,
Kind)." (31:16) Part of His subtleness (latâfa) and His kindness (lutf) is that He is in the thing named by such-and-such
a definition in such-and-such a source of that thing, so it is only what its name indicates by convention and usage. It is
said that these are names: heaven, earth, rock, tree, animal, angel, provision and food, and yet the source of everything
is One. Thus the Ash'arites say about this that the entire universe is homogeneous in substance (jawhar), so it is one single
It is the same as our statement that the source is One. They said that it varies by non-essentials. Thus
our statement that it varies and becomes many through forms and relationships so as to provide distinction. It is said, "This
is not that in respect to its form or its non-essential or natural disposition (mizâj)." Say whatever you like, but this is
the same as that in respect to its substance. For this reason, the source of the substance is put in the definition of every
form and disposition. However, we say that it is not other-than-Allah. The mutakallim thinks that it is called substance.
Even though it is true, it is not the source of Allah of which the people of unveiling and tajalli speak. This is the wisdom
of the "Latîf".
Then He is described when He says "the All-Aware (Khabir)," the One who knows by experience. It is
His words, "We will test you until We know." (47:31) This is the knowledge of tastes. Allah put Himself with His knowledge
of what the matter is in (our) profitable knowledge. No one can deny what Allah has written about Himself. Allah differentiated
the knowledge of tasting and absolute knowledge. The knowledge of tasting is limited by the faculties. He said of Himself
that He is the source of the faculties of His slave when He said, "I am his hearing," which is one of the faculties of the
slave, "and his sight," which is one of the faculties of the slave, "and his tongue," which is one of the faculties of the
slave, "and his foot and his hand." He did not restrict Himself to specifying the faculties, but He mentioned the members.
The slave is not other than his members and faculties. The source called the slave is the Real, but the source of the slave
is not the Compassionate Master.
Relationships are distinct by their essence. The one brought into relationship is
not distinct. (2) Then He equalized His source in all relationships, for it is but one source with various ascriptions, relationships
and attributes. Part of the completeness of Luqman's wisdom in instructing his son is what has come in the ayat of these two
Divine Names, Latif and Khabir - Allah is called by them. If He had put that in phenomenal being (kawn) which is existence,
and said, "He was (kana)," it would have been more complete in wisdom and more eloquent in admonition. Allah related the words
of Luqman in meaning as he said it and did not add anything to it. His statement that Allah is the Latif, the Aware, is from
the statement of Allah. Then Allah knew of Luqman that, had he said it (kana), it would have been utterly perfected by this.
for his words, "If it should be but the weight of one grain of mustard-seed," it is for the one who has it as food. It is
only the atom mentioned in His words, "Whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it, and whoever does an atom's weight
of evil will see it." (99:7-8) A mustard-seed is the smallest thing consumed. If there had been anything smaller, Allah would
have used it as He said, "He is not ashamed to make an example of a gnat." (2:26) Then since He knew that there is anything
smaller than the gnat, He said "or of an even smaller thing," i.e. in smallness. This is the word of Allah, and that which
is in the Sura of the Earthquake (az-Zalzal, 99) is also the word of Allah. So know that! That which is smaller than the gnat
is the atom, and then there is another subtlety (latîfa). That is that the atom, in spite of its smallness, is also lighter
in weight because it is alive, since the living is lighter than the dead. So the meaning is that when the deed is the weight
of an atom in smallness and lightness, the recompense must be seen. We know that Allah did not restrict Himself to the weight
of the atom, and there is nothing smaller than it. He used it by way of intensification, and Allah knows best.
Luqman used the diminutive for his son, (3) it was the diminutive of mercy and thereby he gave him a legacy which contains
his happiness if he acts according to it. The wisdom of Luqman's legacy lies in his prohibition to his son, "Do not associate
anything with Allah. Associating others with Him is a terrible wrong." (31:13) The one wronged establishes apportioning in
respect to His description even though it is the same source. So he is only associating His source with Him, and this is the
very greatest ignorance.
The reason for this is that the person who has no recognition of the matter nor of the reality
of the thing, does not know that diversity is actually contained in a single source although forms vary in that single source.
So such a person puts the form shared by another in that station, and so he makes every form a part of that station. It is
known of the associate that the matter which indicates him through what occurs in him of partnership is not the source of
the other with whom he is associated, since it is the other. In reality, there is no associate. Everyone is based on his portion
whenever it is said about him that there is a partnership between the two in it. The reason for that joint association, if
it is joint, is that the action of one of them eliminates the collective aspect. "Say: Call on Allah or call on the All-Merciful."
(17:110) This is the very heart of the question.
Notes to Chapter 23:
1. The difference between volition
(mashi'a) and will (irada).
2. In respect of its reality, the Essence is not distinguishable.
24: The Seal of the Wisdom of the Imam
in the Word
of Harun (Aaron)
Know that the existence of Harun, peace be upon him, was from the presence of mercy
(rahamut) by His words, "We endowed him with Our mercy, making his brother Harun a Prophet." (19:53) So his Prophethood was
from the presence of the Rahamut. He was older than Musa, and Musa was greater than him in Prophethood. The Prophethood of
Harun is from the presence of mercy (rahma) and, for that reason, he said to his brother Musa, peace be upon him, "O son of
my mother!" (7:150) So he called to him by his mother, not by his father, since, in principle, mercy belongs in greater abundance
to the mother than the father. Were it not for that mercy, the mother would not have the patience necessary for upbringing.
Then he said, "do not seize me by the beard or by the hair," (20:94) and do not let my enemies gloat over me. All this is
one of the breaths of mercy. The reason for that is the lack of ascertainment in looking at the tablets which had been given
into his hands. If he had looked at them with ascertainment, he would have found guidance and mercy in them.
have found guidance, which is an elucidation of what happened in the matter which made him angry and of which Harun was innocent,
and mercy towards his brother. He did not take him by the beard because of that state in which he saw his people because of
his age, for Harun was older than him. That was compassion for Musa from Harun because the Prophethood of Harun is from the
mercy of Allah. Only the like of that issued from him.
Then Harun said to Musa, "I was afraid that you would say: 'You
have caused division in the Tribe of Israel'," (20:94) and you would make me the cause of their division since the worship
of the Calf divided them. There were some of them who worshipped it following and imitating the Samiri, and there were some
of them who refused to worship it until Musa returned to them so that they might question him regarding it. Harun was afraid
that he would have that division between them attributed to him.
Musa knew the matter better than Harun because by
his knowledge he knew the One the people of the Calf worshipped since Allah decreed that only He would be worshipped. When
Allah decrees something, it must occur. Musa chided his brother Harun since the business consisted of disavowal and inadequacy.
The gnostic is the one who sees Allah in everything, rather he sees Him as the source of everything. Musa was teaching Harun
with the instruction of knowledge even though Musa was younger than him in age.
For that reason, when Harun said what
he said, he turned to the Samiri and said to him, "What did you think you were doing, O Samiri," i.e. what were you doing
in turning aside to the form of the Calf, and in your making this shape from the jewelry of the people so that you captured
their hearts for the sake of their wealth? 'Isa used to say to the Tribe of Israel, "O Tribe of Israel! Every man turns to
where his wealth is, so put your wealth in heaven, and then your hearts will be in heaven." Wealth is only called that (mâl)
because by essence it inclines (yumîl) the hearts to worship. It is the greatest and most exalted goal in the hearts since
they need it. Forms have no going-on, so the form of the Calf must vanish. If Musa had not hastened to burn it, jealousy would
have overcome him. So he burned it and then scattered the ashes of that form in the sea. He told the Samiri, "Behold your
god." He called it a god to alert him in order to teach him that he did know some of the places of divine tajalli, "I will
surely burn it!"
The animality (hawayâniyya) of man has freedom of action over the animality of animals since Allah
has subjected animals to man, especially in view of the fact that man's origin is not animal. Man has greater subjugation
because that which is not-animal does not possess will. In fact, the non-animal is under the jurisdiction of whoever administers
it without any recalcitrance whatsoever. The animal, on the other hand, has both will and instinct. Recalcitrance appears
in some of its actions. If it has the power to manifest that, reluctance and resistance to what man wants appears from it.
If it does not have that power or if what the man wants agrees with what the animal itself wants, then the animal obediently
follows what is wanted of it.
Even so, man's "like" follows a command in whatever Allah has called him to in respect
of the wealth which he hopes for from Him, which is designated in some states by "the other World" as when Allah says, "We
have raised some of them above others in rank so that some of them are subservient to others." (43:32) His like is only subjugated
to him by his animality, not by his humanness. The two likes are two opposites. The higher is degree subjugates the lower
in degree by wealth or by rank with his humanness, and that other was subjected to him either by fear or greed from his animality,
not from his humanness, so his like is not subjected to him.
Do you not see that what is among the beasts in the way
of jostling against one another is because they are likes? Two likes are two opposites. That is why He said, "and He raised
some of them above others in rank," so he is not with him in rank, and so subjugation occurs in respect of rank. Subjection
is of two kinds. First, there is subjection intended by the subjector like the active conqueror when he subjects this subjected
person - like the subjugation by the master of his slave although he is his like in humanness, and like the subjugation of
the Sultan of his subjects who are his like in humanness, He subjugated them by rank.
The second sort is subjugation
by the subjects of the king establishing their command that he drive harm away from them, protect them, do battle against
those who attack them, and preserve their property and lives. All this is subjection through state by the subjects who subjugate
their king in this act. In reality, it is called the subjection of rank. Rank has jurisdiction over him by this act. There
are kings who work just for themselves, and there are those who recognize the matter and know that their subjects¹' subjugation
of them is by rank. He knows their power and rights. Allah rewards him for that with the reward of those who know. The reward
of the like of this is up to Allah, in Allah¹s being involved in the affairs of His slaves, for all the universe is subjected
by state. Who is there who cannot be referred to as being "subjected"? Allah said, "Every day He is engaged in some affair."
Lack of power was in fact the armour of Harun which saved him from the people of the Calf by mastery over the
Calf as Musa had mastery over it. This is a wisdom from Allah which is manifest in existence that He should be worshipped
in every form. When the form departed after that, it only departed after it had been clad with divinity by its worshipper.
For this reason, there is no species but that it is worshipped, either by the worship of making divine or by the worship of
subjugation. That must be so for the one who has intellect.
Nothing is worshipped in the universe except after it is
clad in elevation for the worshipper and its rank is manifest in his heart. For that reason, Allah called Himself for us,
"the Exalter of ranks," and He did not say the "Exalter of rank," for ranks are many in the same source. He decreed that we
worship only Him in many ranks. Each rank accords a divine locus of tajalli which is worshipped in it, and the greatest locus
of tajalli in which He is worshipped and the highest, is passion (hawa). As He said, "Have you seen him who takes his passion
to be his god?" (45:23) It is the greatest idol. Nothing is worshipped except by it, and it is only worshipped by itself.
Of it I say:
The truth of passion is
that passion is the cause of passion.
If there had not been passion in
passion would not have been worshipped.
Do you not see how perfect Allah's knowledge of things is?
How it is completed it in respect of the one who worships his passion and takes it as a god? He said, "he who Allah has misguided
knowingly." (45:23) Being astray is bewilderment (hayra). That is when this worshipper sees that what he worships is only
his passion, by following it in obedience to Him in what He commanded him of worship of whichever person worships Him, until
his worship is for Allah the Great. That too is from passion because if passion had not occurred in him in that pure presence
and it is the will to love he would neither have worshipped Allah nor preferred Him to others. In the same way,
everyone worships a certain form among the forms of the universe, and takes it as a god, and he only takes it by passion.
The worshipper is under the power of his passion. Then he sees that idols take on various forms among the worshippers. Each
worshipper, for some reason, denies the one who worships another. What he has is a nearer perception which is confused by
the unity (ittihâd) of passion, rather by the oneness (ahadiyya) of passion as He mentioned. It is the same source in every
worshipper. Allah led him astray, i.e. confused him in respect to a knowledge that every worshipper only worships his own
passion, and only seeks to worship his passion whether or not it agrees with the command of the Shari'a.
gnostic is the one who sees that every idol is a locus of Allah's tajalli in which He is worshipped. For that reason, they
are all called "god" in spite of having a particular name of a stone, tree, animal, man, star, or angel. This is the nature
of the personality in it. Divinity is a rank which the worshipper imagines it to have, and it is the rank of his idol. In
reality, it is a locus for the tajalli of Allah belonging to the sight of this particular worshipper devoted to this idol
in this particular locus of tajalli.
This is why some of those who did not recognize an ignorant statement said, "We
only worship them so that they may bring us nearer to Allah" (39:3) although they called them "god", as they said, "Has he
turned all the gods into One God? That is truly astonishing." (38:5) They do not deny Him, rather they are amazed. They stop
at the multiplicity of possible forms and the ascription of divinity to them. That is why the Messenger came and called them
to one God who is recognized and not witnessed by their witnessing. They confuse Him with them and believe in Him when they
say, "We only worship them so that they may bring us nearer to Allah" by their knowledge of those forms in stones. This is
why the proof went against them when He said, "Say: Name them!" and they only named them by what they know those names to
have in reality.
As for those who recognize the matter for what it is, they manifest the form of denying what is worshipped
in the way of forms because their rank is in knowledge, and their rank is in accord with their being based on the principle
of the moment, since they know that the moment is one of the mighty places of the tajalli of Allah in which He gives tajalli
at each moment by some of His attributes. This is why time (ad-Dahr) is one of Allah¹s Names. The Prophet, peace be upon him,
said, "Do not curse time, for time is Allah!" At every moment, people are overcome by the principle of the quality in which
He gives tajalli at that particular moment. The Messenger who is sent in that moment is the greatest manifestation of the
perfection of that quality. He calls creation to Allah, manifested by tajalli in him, by obedience to him, which is obedience
to Allah, as Allah says, "Whoever obeys the Messenger has obeyed Allah." (4:80) This is why is obligatory to trust in him
and obey him.
However, the gnostics know that they do not worship the forms themselves. Rather, they worship Allah
in them according to the power of the tajalli which they know of these forms. The one who denies and has no knowledge of what
Allah has manifested in tajalli is ignorant of this. The complete gnostic veils himself from the Prophet and Messenger and
their heirs. He commands himself to leave that form which the Messenger of the moment left in order to follow the Messenger
desiring Allah's love for them by His words, "Say: if you love Allah, then follow me and Allah will love you." (3:31) He called
on a God to whom one has recourse and Who is known in respect to the whole and is not witnessed, "nor do the eyes perceive
Him, but He perceives the eyes" (6:103) by His lutf and His diffusion in the source of things. The eyes do not perceive Him
as they do not perceive their spirits which govern their shapes and outward forms. "...He is the Latif, the All- Aware."
is tasting, and tasting is tajalli. Tajalli occurs in forms. They must be and it must be, and the one who sees Him by his
passion must worship Him, if you only knew! Allah possesses the goal of the path.
25: The Seal of the Wisdom of Sublimity
in the Word
of Musa (Moses)
The wisdom of the killing of the male children in respect to Musa was in order to give him
the support of the life of each of those killed for his sake because each of them was killed for being Musa. There is no ignorance,
so the life of the one killed for his sake had to return to Musa. It is pure life in the natural state (fitra). The desires
of the self have not soiled it; rather, it is in its natural state of "Yes (bala)." (1) Musa was the sum of the lives of those
killed for being him. All that was prepared for the murdered ones in the way of the predisposition of their spirits was in
Musa, peace be upon him. This is a divine favour to Musa which no one before him had.
The wisdoms of Musa are numerous.
If Allah wills, I will enumerate them in this chapter according to what the divine command puts into my mind. This is the
first about which I shall speak in this chapter.
Musa was only born being a synthesis of many spirits. He was a concentration
of effective forces since the young have an effect on the old. Do you not see how the child has an effect on the older person
by the special quality the child has? The older person descends from his leading position to play with the child and rock
him in his arms and to show himself at the child's level of intellect he descends to the level of the child's intellect.
He is under subjugation even though he is not aware of it. He occupies himself with instructing and protecting the child,
seeing to his needs and consoling him so that the child is not distressed.
All this is part of the effect of the young
on the old. That is due to the strength of his station. The young has a new covenant with his Lord because he has newly come
into being. The old person is further from Him. Whoever is nearer to Allah subjects whoever is further away from Him, just
as the elite of the near angels subject the further ones. The Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace,
used to expose himself to the rain when it came down and to uncover his head so that it would fall on him. He said that it
has a new covenant with Allah. Look at this recognition of Allah on the part of this Prophet! What is more glorious, more
sublime and clearer than this? The rain subjected the best of men due to its proximity to its Lord. That is a likeness of
the Messenger on whom the revelation descends. The rain called him by its own state, (2) and so he exposed himself to the
rain in order to receive from it what it brought from his Lord. If he had not received this divine benefit from it by the
rain, he would not have exposed himself to it. This is the message of water from which Allah has fashioned every living thing
(3) - so understand! As for the wisdom of Musa being put into the ark and then cast into the river, the ark (tâbût) is his
human nature (nâsût). The river is what he received of knowledge through his body by what the power of discernment and the
sensory imaginative faculties accorded him. Only by the existence of this elemental body does the human self have these faculties
or their like. When the self comes to this body and is commanded to freely dispose of it and manage it, Allah gives it these
faculties as instruments by which it obtains what Allah wills that it obtain in the management of this ark which contains
the sakina (4) of the Lord. Musa was cast into the river in order to receive various knowledges by these faculties. Thus Allah
taught him that the spirit which manages him is the ruler. He is only managed by it. It gives him the command of these faculties
of phenomenal being which are in this nâsût that is designated by the ark in the field of indications and wisdoms.
manages the universe in the same way, and it is only managed by it or by its form. It is only managed by Him inasmuch as the
arrival of the one begotten depends upon its being brought into existence by the begetter. Caused things depend on their causes,
proven things depend on their proofs, and true things depend on their realities. All of this is part of the universe, and
it is Allah's management of it, and he only manages by it.
As for our statement, "or by its form," I mean the form
of the universe, and by it I mean the Most Beautiful Names and sublime attributes by which Allah is named and described. Nothing
of a name by which He is called has reached us but that we found the meaning and spirit of that name in the universe. The
universe is also only managed by the form of the universe.
For that reason, the Prophet said in respect of the creation
of Adam who is the blueprint which gathers all the attributes of the Divine Presence which is the essence, the attributes
and the actions: "Allah created Adam in His form." His form is only the Divine Presence. In this noble epitome, which is the
Perfect Man, He brought into existence all the Divine Names and the realities of that which is outside of him in the Macrocosm
separate from him. He made Adam a spirit (rûh) for the universe, and so He subjected to him the high and the low through the
perfection of his form. As there is nothing in the universe that "does not glorify Allah's praise," (5) in the same way, there
is nothing in the world which is not subject to this man according to what the reality of his form accords him. Allah says,
"He has made everything that is in the heavens and the earth subservient to you. It is all from Him." (22:65) All that is
in the universe is subject to man. He who knows that from his knowledge is the Perfect Man. He who is ignorant of that is
the Animal Man.
The form of casting Musa into the ark and then casting the ark into the river is outwardly a form of
destruction. Inwardly, it was his rescue from being killed. He was brought to life as the self is brought to life by knowledge
from the death of ignorance as Allah says, "Is someone who was dead (i.e. by ignorance) and whom We brought to life (with
knowledge) and supplied with a light by which to walk among the people (which is guidance) the same as someone who is in utter
darkness (in being astray) unable to emerge from it (i.e. will never be guided)?" (6) In itself the matter has no end at which
Guidance is that man is guided to bewilderment (hayra). He knows that the business is bewilderment. Bewilderment
is being unsettled and movement. Movement is life. There is no non-movement nor death. There is existence and not non-existence.
It is the same with the water which gives life to the earth. Its movement is His word, "so it quivers" and conceives, "and
swells" with pregnancy, "and sprouts plants in beautiful pairs." (7) It only gives birth to what resembles it, i.e. has a
nature like it. It has being linked in pairs (zawjiya) which is the state of being doubled by what is born from it and what
appears from it.
Similarly, the existence of Allah has multiplicity and the many Names. It is this or that according
to what appears from it of the universe which demands the realities of the Divine Names by its development. They are doubled
by it and stand in opposition to the unity of multiplicity. It is one by source in respect to its essence, as the primal substance
(hayûla) is a single source in respect to its essence, while it has many forms which it supports by its essence. It is the
same with Allah through the forms of tajalli which are manifested from Him. So the locii of the tajalli are the forms of the
universe, in spite of the intelligible unity (ahadiyya). Look at the excellence of this divine instruction which Allah gives
by granting its recognition to whoever He wishes among His slaves.
When the family of Pharaoh found him in the river
by the tree, Pharaoh called him Musa. Mu is water in Coptic and sha is tree. He named him by where he found him, for the ark
stopped by the tree in the river. Pharaoh wanted to kill him. His wife, speaking by divine articulation in what she said to
Pharaoh about Musa since Allah had created her for perfection as Allah said about her when He testified that she and
Maryam, daughter of 'Imran, have the perfection which men have (8) - said, "he may be a source of delight for me and for you."
(28:9) She would be consoled by him with the perfection which she received as we have said.
The consolation of Pharaoh
was with the belief Allah gave him when he was drowning. So Allah took him pure and purified. There was no impurity in him
since He took him in his belief before he had acquired any wrong actions. Islam effaces what was before it. He made him a
sign of His concern so that none might despair of the mercy of Allah, for "no one despairs of solace from Allah except for
the unbelievers." (12:87) If Pharaoh been of those who despair, he would not have embarked on belief. Musa, peace be upon
him, was, as the wife of Pharaoh said, "a source of delight for me and for you. Do not kill him. It may well be that he will
be of use to us." That is what happened. Allah gave them use of Musa, although they were not aware that he was a prophet who
would destroy the kingdom of Pharaoh and his family.
When Allah protected him from Pharaoh, his mother's heart was
freed of the anxiety which had befallen her. Then Allah forbade him to be suckled until he had received his mother's breast,
so she suckled him that Allah might complete her joy. The knowledge of the roads (sharâ'i) is like that. It is as Allah said,
"to each We have made a road," (5:48) i.e. a path (tariq), "and a direction (minhaj)" from that path. This statement is an
indication of the root from which he came (minhuja). It is his food as the tree has branches and yet is only nourished by
its root. What is haram in one Shari'a can be halal in another Shari'a - I mean in a certain form it can be halal, while in
the heart of the matter it is not really the same as what passed because the matter is new creation, not repetition. This
is what we instruct you! It is referred to in connection with Musa when the wet-nurses were made haram.
the one who suckled him, not the one who bore him, is his mother. The mother of birth carried him in regard to the trust.
He is formed within her and fed by her menstrual blood without any volition on her part in that, so that does not come from
her benevolence towards him. He is only fed by what would destroy her or make her ill had he not been nourished on it, or
had that blood not gone out of her. The embryo is a gift to its mother since it feeds on what would cause her harm had that
blood remained with her and not gone out of her, or had not the embryo been nourished on it.
Suckling is not the same.
By her suckling, she intends to give him life and to sustain him. Allah gave that to Musa in the mother who bore him. No woman
outside of his mother by birth had any right over him that she also might find consolation in bringing him up and watching
him grow in her room, and so she was not sad.
Allah saved him from the grief of the ark, so he pierced natural darkness
by what Allah gave him of divine knowledge, while he did not depart from nature. He tested him with many trials (9) and gave
him experience in many places so that he might realize patience in himself in the trials Allah gave him.
of Allah's trials was the killing of the Copt which Allah inspired him to do and gave him success in his secret yet
he did not know this. However, Musa did not feel any anxiety over killing him, although he was unsure until the command of
his Lord told him, since the Prophet is inwardly protected without being aware of it until he is informed, until transmission
comes to him. For this reason, al-Khidr showed him the killing of the boy, (10) so Musa criticized the killing but did not
remember how he had killed the Copt. Al-Khidr told him, "I did not do it of my own volition," (18:82) and he informed him
of his rank before he told him that his movement was protected in reality, but he was not aware of it.
showed him the piercing of the ship. Outwardly it was destruction, but inwardly it was rescue from the hand of the tyrant.
He made that an analogy of the ark which was in the river its outward aspect was destruction, while inwardly it was rescue,
for his mother did it fearing the hand of the tyrant, who was Pharaoh, that he might not kill Musa in captivity. She looked
at him with the revelation Allah had inspired in her while she was not aware of it. She felt in herself that she would suckle
him. When she feared for him, she cast him into the river because, as the proverb says, "What the eye does not see does not
afflict the heart." She did not fear for him with the fear of the witnessing of the eye, and she was not sad with the sorrow
of seeing him. It came over her thoughts that perhaps Allah would return him to her, for she had a good opinion of Him. She
lived by this thought in herself and by the hope which was opposite fear and despair. When she was inspired to do this, she
said, "Perhaps he is the Messenger who will destroy Pharaoh and the Copts." She lived and took joy in this, which was illusion
and thought in respect of herself, but, in the heart of the matter, it is knowledge.
When they searched for Musa (after
he had killed the Copt), he left in flight, fearful outwardly and in the meaning, it was love of deliverance for movement
is always by love, but the onlooker is veiled from it by other causes, which are not the movement. This is because the root
is the movement of the universe from non-existence which was immobile in existence. That is why it is said that the matter
is movement from immobility. The movement which is the existence of the universe is the movement of love. The Messenger of
Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, quoting Allah, "I was a hidden treasure, therefore I wanted (lit. loved)
to be known." (11)
If it had not been for this love, the universe would not have appeared in its source. Its movement
from non-existence to existence is the movement of the love of the One who brings into existence for this purpose. The universe
also loves to witness itself in existence as it was witnessed in immutability. Thus by every aspect, the movement from immutable
non-existence to the existence of the sources is a movement of love, both in respect of Allah and in respect to itself.
is loved for itself. Allah's knowledge of Himself is His, since He is independent of the worlds. It belongs only to Him. The
perfection of the rank of knowledge only remains by the in-time knowledge which comes from these sources. When the sources
of the universe exist, then the forms of perfection appear with timeless and in-time knowledge. Thus the rank of knowledge
is perfected by two aspects.
In the same way, the ranks of existence are perfected. Existence from it is before-time
and not before-time, which is in-time. Pre-temporal (azali) time is the existence of Allah by Himself, and non-pre-temporal-time
is the existence of Allah by the forms of the immutable universe. It is called in-time because it manifests some parts to
others. He is manifest to Himself by the forms of the universe, and so existence is perfected.
The movement of the
universe is by love of perfection, so understand! Do you not see how what the Divine Names bring into existence is breathed
from the absence of the manifestation of their effects in a entity called the universe? It loves rest (12) which is only reached
by the existence of form, high and low. Thus it is confirmed that movement occurs by love. The only movement in the entire
cosmos is by love.
Among the 'ulama' are those who know that and those who are veiled by the nearer cause because it
rules their state (hâl) and overpowers them. Musa was aware of his fear by what occurred through his killing the Copt. That
fear implied love of deliverance from killing. So he fled by fear. In the meaning, he fled when he loved deliverance from
Pharaoh and his deeds. He mentioned the nearest cause which he was aware of at that moment, which is like the form of the
body of man, and love of deliverance is contained in it as the body contains the spirit which manages it.
had the language of the outward with which they addressed people in general and on which they relied to make the one who listened
understand what was said. The Messengers make allowances for people in general by their knowledge of the rank of the people
of understanding. It is as the Prophet, peace be upon him, said about gifts, "I give to this man, while another man is more
beloved to me than him for I fear that Allah might throw him down into the Fire." He made allowances for those whose intellect
and discernment are weak and who are overcome by greed and nature.
Similarly, what they brought of knowledges, they
brought wearing a robe (13) which nearer to the understanding, so that the one who has no "diving" might stop at the robe
and say, "How excellent this robe is!" and he will see it as the limit of rank. Because of what this robe from the king demands,
the one with subtle understanding, the one who dives for the pearls of wisdom, looks at the quality of the robe and its type
of material. By it, he knows the degree of the one it covers, and so he stumbles onto a knowledge which no one else has obtained
from those without knowledge of such matters.
Then the Prophets and Messengers and heirs knew that in this world and
in their communities, there are those who, in this manner, express themselves in the outward language which the elite and
common share. The one who is elite understands of it what the common understand, and more, inasmuch as it is valid that he
be called elite. He is distinguished from the blind. Those who have obtained knowledges are content with this. This is the
wisdom of his words, "I fled from you when I was in fear of you," (14) but he did not say, "I fled from you by love of safety
Musa came to Madyan and found two women and got water for them without being paid for it. Then he
turned away to the divine shade and said, "O my Lord, I am truly in need of any good You have in store for me." (28:24) He
made the source of his getting water the same as the good which Allah sent down to him, and he described himself as being
in need of Allah in the good which he had. Al-Khidr showed him the setting-up of the wall without wage, but Musa chided him
for it. So al-Khidr reminded him of his drawing water without wage, and other things which were not mentioned. The Prophet,
may Allah bless him and grant him peace, wished that Musa had remained silent and had not left him so that Allah would have
related more about them.
Al-Khidr alerted Musa to the fact that what had come to him and would come to him was by the
command of Allah and His will which it is impossible to contradict. Knowledge of that is one of the prerogatives of wilaya.
As for the Messenger, He might not acquaint him with it, for it is the secret of the decree.(15) If He had acquainted him
with that, it might have been a reason for his lassitude in conveying what he was commanded to convey. Allah withholds the
knowledge of this from some of the Messengers as a mercy to them from Him. He did not withhold it from our Prophet, may Allah
bless him and grant him peace, because of the strength of his state. This is why our Prophet said, "I call on Allah by inner
By this he knew what Musa had succeeded in had been without knowledge on his part. If it had been from
knowledge, Musa would not have criticized what al-Khidr did, since Allah had testified before Musa as to al-Khidr's purity
and justice. In spite of this, Musa was heedless of the fact that Allah had made him pure, and of the conditions set down
for following him. This was a mercy for us if we forget the command of Allah. If Musa had known that, al-Khidr would not have
said to him, "What you have never encompassed in your knowledge," meaning I have a knowledge which you have not received by
tasting as you have a knowledge which I do not know. He was just.
As for the wisdom of his parting from him, it is
because Allah said of the Messenger, "Take what the Messenger brings you, and avoid what he prohibits you." (59:7) The 'ulama'
of Allah who recognize this quality of the Message and the Messenger stop at this statement. Al-Khidr knew that Musa was the
Messenger of Allah. He regarded what came from him to preserve the adab which is due to the Messengers. Musa said to him,
"If I ask you about anything after this, then you should no longer keep me company." So he forbade al-Khidr to keep his company.
When that occurred for the third time, al-Khidr therefore said, "This is where you and I part company," Musa did not tell
him, "Do not do it," nor did he seek to keep him company for he knew the level of the rank he was in when he spoke of the
prohibition against keeping him company. Musa was silent, and the parting took place.
Look at the perfection of these
two men in knowledge and the completion of divine adab as right, and the justice of al-Khidr, peace be upon him, in what he
acknowledged to Musa when he said, "I have a knowledge which Allah has taught me which you do not know, and you have a knowledge
which Allah has taught me which you do not know." This information which al-Khidr imparted to Musa was a remedy for the wound
inflicted on him in his words, "How indeed could you bear with patience something you have not encompassed in your knowledge?"
(18:68) although he knew the sublimity of his rank with the message, and al-Khidr did not have this rank.
in the community of Muhammad in the hadith regarding the fertilization of the date tree. The Prophet, peace be upon him, told
his Companions, "You know more about the matters of your daily life."16 There is no doubt that the knowledge of the thing
is better than ignorance of it. Allah praises Himself, saying,"He has knowledge of all things." The Prophet, may Allah bless
him and grant him peace, acknowledged to his Companions that they knew more about the exigencies of this world than him because
he had no experience of them. It is knowledge of tasting (dhawq) and experience, and the Prophet, peace be upon him, had not
occupied himself with this sort of knowledge. Rather, he was occupied with what was more important. I have informed you about
a great adab by which will benefit you if you occupy yourself with it.
Musa's statement, "My Lord gave me right judgement,"
(26:21) means the khilafah, "and made me one of the Messengers," means the message. Not every Messenger is a Khalif. The Khalif
has a sword, duties and governance. The Messenger is not the same rather, he transmits what he has been sent to transmit.
If he does battle and defends with the sword, then he is both Khalif and Messenger.
As for the wisdom of Pharaoh's
question regarding divine whatness (mâhiya) when he said, "What is the Lord of the worlds?" (26:23) that question did not
arise from ignorance, but it was posed in order to test Musa and to see what answer he would give when he claimed that he
had a message from his Lord. Pharaoh knew the rank of the Messengers in knowledge of Allah and he wanted to test Musa's answer
to ascertain the validity of his claim. In order to inform those present, he invited an answer which would have been misleading
as far as they were concerned since they did not know what Pharaoh himself knew about the question. Musa answered him with
the answer of those who have knowledge of the matter. Then Pharaoh, in order to preserve his position, asserted that Musa
had not answered his question. So because of the inadequacy of their understanding, it seemed clear to those who were present
that Pharaoh knew more than Musa. For this reason, when Musa answered him with what was not appropriate and outwardly
it is not an answer to what he was asked about and Pharaoh knew that he would only give that answer, Pharaoh then said
to his companions, "Your Messenger" who was sent to you "is mad" since the knowledge of what I question him about is veiled
from him (17) since it is inconceivable that it be known at all.
The question is valid. The question of the what-ness
is a question about the reality of what is asked about - it must be real in itself. As for those who make definitions which
consist of category and genus, these are matters shared by various things. Whoever has no category must have a reality in
Himself which belongs to no other. The question is invalid in the school of the People of Allah, sound knowledge and sound
intellect. The only answer to it is the answer Musa gave.
Here is a great secret! He mentioned the "act" in giving
the answer to the one who asked for a definition of essence. He made the essential definition the source of the attribution
to what appeared of Him in the forms of the universe, or what appeared in Him of the forms of the universe. In answer to,
"What is the Lord of the worlds?" he said that He is the One in whom the forms of the universe are manifest on high
which is the heaven - and below - which is the earth, "if you but have certainty," (18) or He who is manifest by them.
Pharaoh told his companions that Musa was mad, (majnûn) in the sense that he was possessed, Musa added to the elucidation
in order to inform Pharaoh of his rank in divine knowledge because he knew that Pharaoh already knew that. Musa said, "The
Lord of the East and the West," bringing what was manifest and what was hidden, in the outward and the inward, "and what between
them is" which is Allah's words, "He has knowledge of everything," "if you have intellect," (19) i.e. if you possess qualification
since this comes from intellect.
The first answer is for those who are certain, and they are the people of unveiling
and existence. Musa said, "If you have certainty," i.e. if you are the people of unveiling and existence. I have given you
knowledge of what you are already certain about in your witnessing and existence. If you are not of this category, I have
answered you in the second answer: if you are among the people of intellect and qualification, and you limit Allah according
to what the proofs of your intellects accord.
Thus Musa manifested both aspects in order to inform Pharaoh about his
question and his veracity. Musa knew that Pharaoh knew that because he asked about the what-ness of Allah. He knew that his
question was not couched in the language the ancients used in their questioning by means of what. That is why he answered
him. If he had known anything else from him, he would have been mistaken in the question. Musa treated that about which he
was asked as the source of the universe, and Pharaoh addressed him by this language (20) although the people present were
not aware of that.
Pharaoh said to him, "If you take any god other than me, I will certainly make you one of the imprisoned."
(26:29) The letter sin in prison (sijn) is one of the letters of increase, (21) meaning I will veil you, for you answered
by what supported me so that I might say the same to you. If you say to me, "O Pharaoh! I do not I do not recognize your threat
to me while the source is but one, so how can you separate?" Then Pharaoh replied, "The ranks are separate, but the source
is not separate and it is not divided in its existence. My rank right now is power over you by actual fact, O Musa! I am you
by the source and other than you by rank!"
When Musa understood that from him, he gave him his due in respect to himself
and told him, "You will not be able to do that." Pharaoh's rank gave him power and influence over Musa because Allah is in
the rank of Pharaoh in respect of the outward form which has authority over the rank in which Musa appeared in that assembly.
Musa told him that Allah had manifested a barrier to his hostility against Musa. He said, "Even if I were to bring you something
undeniable?" Pharaoh could only reply, " Produce it then, if you are someone telling the truth" so that Pharaoh would not
appear to be unjust among those of his nation who were weak-minded. They had doubts about him, and they were the group Pharaoh
made unsteady. However, they obeyed Pharaoh because they were a corrupt people; (22) that is, lacking sound intellects' rejection
of taking Pharaoh's claims literally. The intellect stops at a certain limit, and only those of unveiling and certainty can
cross that limit. This is why in his answer, Musa first addressed those of certainty and then address those of the intellect.
he drew down his staff ('asa)" (26:32) which is the form with which Pharaoh defied (23) ('asa) Musa when he refused to answer
his call. "And there it was, unmistakably a snake," i.e. an evident snake. Thus rebellion, which is evil, changed into obedience,
which is good, as Allah says, "Allah will transform their evil deeds into good deeds," (25:70) meaning in judgement. Here
the judgement manifested a differentiated source in a single substance (jawhar) so it is a staff, a snake, and a manifest
serpent. It devoured its likes among the snakes in the form of a snake, and the staffs in the form of a staff. The proof of
Musa overcame the proofs of Pharaoh in the form of staffs, snakes and ropes. The sorcerers had ropes, but Musa did not have
a rope. The "rope" is the small hill; (24) that is, their powers in relation to the power of Musa is as the hills are to the
When the sorcerers saw that, they recognized Musa's rank in knowledge and they saw that he possessed
a power which was not mortal. If it had been within the power of a mortal, it would only belong to someone who could distinguish
sure knowledge from imagination and illusion. So they believed in "the Lord of the Worlds, the Lord of Musa and Harun" - that
is, the Lord to whom Musa and Harun summoned them because they knew that the people understood that they were not being called
to Pharaoh. Pharaoh was in the position of authority, and he was the master of the moment since he was the Khalif with the
sword, even though he broke the customary divine laws when he said, "I am your Lord most high" - i.e. since all are lords,
(25) I am the highest of them through the power which you have outwardly given me over you. The sorcerers knew that he spoke
the truth in what he said, and they did not deny it. They affirmed that to Pharaoh, and said, "You only judge in this passing
life, so judge as you like, for the kingdom is yours." So the statement of Pharaoh, "I am your Lord most high," was valid.
Although the source is from Allah, the form is Pharaoh's. He cut off the hands and feet, and crucified through a real source
in false form in order to attain the ranks which are only attained by that act.
There is no way to neutralize causes
because the source-forms necessitate them. They only appear in existence by the form on which they are based at the source
since "there is no changing the words of Allah." (10:64) The words of Allah are not other than the sources of existent things.
Timelessness is ascribed to Him in respect to their permanence, and in-time ness is ascribed to them in respect of their existence
and appearance. Thus we say, a certain man or guest happened (26) to be with us today." That does not mean that he did not
have any existence before this event. For that reason, Allah says about His Mighty Word which is timeless, "No reminder (dhikr)
from their Lord comes to them lately renewed (27) without their listening to it as if it were a game," (21:2) and "but no
fresh (28) reminder reaches them from the All- Merciful, without their turning away from it." (26:5) The Merciful only brings
mercy, and whoever turns away from mercy advances the punishment which is the absence of mercy.
As for the words of
Allah, "but their belief when they saw Our violent force was of no use to them. That is the pattern Allah has always followed
with His slaves," (29) (40:85) that did not mean that it did not profit them in the Next World through His exception, "except
for the people of Yunus." He meant that that did not prevent them being punished in this world. For that reason, Pharaoh was
seized in spite of the existence of his belief even though his affair was that of someone who is certain that his death is
approaching. The circumstances accord that he was not certain that he was going to die because he saw the believers walking
on the dry path which had appeared when Musa struck the sea with his staff. Pharaoh was not certain that he would perish since
he believed that he would not die until the moment actually reached him. He believed in the One in whom the Tribe of Israel
believed, in certainty of his deliverance.
It was indeed certain, but it was in a form other than the one he wanted.
He was saved from the punishment of the Next World in himself and his body was saved as Allah says, "Today We will save your
body that you might be a sign for those after you," (10:92) because, if his form had vanished, his people might have said
that he had gone into occultation. His known form appeared as a corpse that it might be known that it was really him. Deliverance
was encompassed both in the senses and in the meaning.
The one who has the word of the punishment in the Other World
realized for him (30) will not believe, even if every ayat had been brought to him, "so that they might see the painful punishment,"
that is, taste the punishment of the Next World. Pharaoh left this class of people. This is the literal meaning of what the
text of the Qur'an brought us. We say, and the matter belongs to Allah, that the fixed idea which the common people have regarding
the wretchedness of Pharaoh is not based on anything in the divine text. As for his family, that is another judgement. This
is not the place to mention it.
Know that Allah only takes someone while he believes that is, affirms what divine
transmissions bring, and I mean those who are consciousness at death. This is why dislikes sudden death and being killed while
unaware is disliked. The definition of sudden death is that the incoming breath goes out and the outcoming breath does not
come in. This is sudden death and when that happens, one is not conscious of death.
It is the same if a man is killed
unawares by a blow from behind on the back of the neck. He is then taken with whatever belief or disbelief he possesses at
that moment. For that reason, the Prophet said, "One will be gathered in the state in which one dies," as one is taken in
whatever one is doing at the time. The one who is conscious of death is only the one who sees it coming. He believes what
he sees. He is only taken in what he is doing because that is an existent expression connected to time by the circumstances.
We distinguish between the unbeliever who is conscious at death and the unbeliever either killed while unaware or who dies
suddenly as we have said in the definition of sudden death.
As for the wisdom of tajalli and the discourse on the form
of the fire, this was because it was the object of Musa's desire. Allah gave him a tajalli in what he was searching for so
that Musa would turn to Him and not turn away. If Allah had given the tajalli in other than the form which he was seeking,
Musa would have turned away because his interest was concentrated on a particular goal. If he had turned away, his action
would have rebounded on him, and Allah would have turned away from him. Musa was the chosen one and the one brought near.
When Allah brings someone near to Him, He gives him a tajalli in the object he desires, without him knowing it.
the Fire of Musa
which he saw as what he needed.
It was Allah,
but he did not perceive it.
1. "Yes, we testify." Qur'an 7:172. Before the selves were created, Allah asked them, "Am I not your Lord?"
They replied. "Yes, we testify."
2. In the form of knowledge and life descending from Allah.
3. See Qur'an 21:30.
Divine Presence which causes calmness and tranquillity in the hearts of the Believers. It is also related to the Ark of the
Covenant and to Bayt al-Maqdis, when the invisible Sakina/Shechina descends from above. See 2:249: "The sign of his kinship
is that the Ark will come to you, containing a Sakina from your Lord, and certain relics left by the families of Musa and
Harun left. It will be borne by angels."
5. Qur'an 17:44.
6. Qur'an 6:122.
7. Qur'an 22:5.
Qur'an 66:11: "Allah has make an example for the believers - the wife of Pharaoh when she said, 'My Lord, build a house in
the Garden for me in Your Presence, and rescue me from Pharaoh and his deeds."
Also the hadith in al-Bukhari and Muslim
from Abu Musa, "Many men have been perfect, but among women only Maryam, daughter of 'Imran, and Asiya, wife of Pharaoh, were
9. See Qur'an 20:40, "We rescued you from trouble and tested you with many trials."
10. See the story
in the Qur'an 18:65-82.
11. Hadith qudsi.
12. i.e reaching the perfection of love. This is called or love or
yearning after the parting.
13. khil'a, a robe of honor.
14. Qur'an 26:21.
15. Sirr al-Qadar.
Hadith narrated by Imam Muslim.
17. Madness "junun" is related to veils.
18. "The Lord of the heavens and the
earth and what is between them is you have certainty." Qur'an 26:24.
19. Qur'an 26:28.
20. of unveiling.
Zawa'id, the augmentative letters, i.e. the ten letters which are added to the radical letters in Arabic words sin, hamza,
alif, lam, ta', mim, waw, nun, ya' and ha'. If you take away the sin from sijn (prison), you get "jinn" meaning veil.
See Qur'an 43:54, "In that way he swayed his people and they succumbed to him. They were a people of deviators."
'Asâ as a noun means "staff", and 'Asâ as a verb means "to rebel against , oppose."
24. Habl meaning "rope" also means
mound or small hill.
25. Lord being a relative name, demanding a subject, also because it means owner, so one says
the lord of the house, the "lord" of a herd, etc. Also one who looks after, the "lord" of a child.
26. Huduth means
coming into existence for the first time. It also means an event or occurrence.
It like is in Qur'an 10:98, where the punishment is removed from the people of Yunus after they believed.
30. See Qur'an
26: The Seal of the Wisdom of What One Turns to (as-Samad)
the Word of Khalid
As for the wisdom of Khalid ibn Sinan, (1) by his call he manifested the Prophethood
of the interspace. He claimed that he would tell them about what happens after death. He commanded that he should be disinterred
and questioned in order that he might report that the judgement in the Interspace occurs in the form of the life of this world.
Thus it would be known that all the Messengers spoke the truth in what they related in this life regarding what happens after
death. Khalid's goal was that all the world would believe in what the Messengers brought so that there would be mercy for
all. He was honored by his Prophethood being near the time of the Prophet Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace.
He knew that Allah had sent Muhammad as a mercy to the worlds, but Khalid was not a Messenger. He wanted to receive a generous
share of this mercy contained in the message of Muhammad. He was not commanded to convey the message, but he wanted to have
that share in the Interspace so that there would be stronger knowledge about the creation, and for this reason his people
The Messenger of Allah described them as having squandered their Prophet because they did not do what
he wanted them to do. Did Allah give him the reward for what he wanted? There is no doubt and no disagreement that he had
the reward of what he wished, but there is doubt and disagreement about the reward of the goal. Is wishing for it the same
in the Next World as its occurrence even though it did not occur or not? In the Shari'a, equality is not supported in many
places such as in the case of the one who performs the prayer in the group. (2) The one who prays it in the group has
a reward from the presence of the group. He is like the person who, in spite of poverty, desires to be able to give charity
as the people of wealth and property do. He has the like of their rewards, but the like of their rewards can be in their intentions
or their deeds. The people had both the intention and the action. The Prophet, peace be upon him, did not prescribe both of
them, nor one of them, and outwardly they are not the same. For that reason, Khalid ibn Sinan sought the proclamation to confirm
for him the station of joining both matters so that he would receive two rewards. Allah knows best.
Notes to Chapter
1. Al-Qashani, the commentator, says that Khalid lived in Aden, and was a man of great himma who was overcome in
the contemplation of divine unity. One day a great fire appeared from a cave among his people. It destroyed the crops and
the livestock, and the people called on him to protect them from it. He struck the fire with his staff, saying, "Away! Away!"
until it became cold and retreated to the cave. Then he told his people that he would enter the cave in order to extinguish
the fire, and he told them to call him after three full days had passed. Should he call him before that, he would come out
and die. If they were patient, he would emerge in good health.
They waited two days, and then Shaytan made them restless,
and doubts came to them and they were afraid that he might have been destroyed. They shouted to him. He emerged from the cave
with his hand on his head from the pain their shouting had caused him. He told them, "You have killed me and squandered my
word and my covenant." He then told them of his death and commanded them to bury him and then watch for forty days. Then,
he said, a flock of sheep led by a donkey with slit ears and its tail cut off would come to them. When it stood opposite his
grave, they were to disinter him and he would rise and tell them of the true state of things after death from witnessing and
vision so that all creation would receive certainty as to what the Messenger related. Then he died and they buried him.
waited until the forty days had passed. The flock of sheep came led by a donkey with slit ears. It stopped opposite his grave,
so they understood that they should disinter Khalid as he had commanded them so that he might inform them as to the truth
of the Prophets. Some of his older sons were adverse to that and said that it would shame them among the Arabs and that they
would be called, "the sons of the disinterred one." There was the vehemence of the Jahiliya in that. They squandered their
legacy and destroyed him. After the Prophet Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, was sent, a daughter of Khalid
came to him, and he said to her, "Greetings to you, O daughter of a Prophet whose people squandered him!"
2. His Prophethood
did not appear in this world.
27: The Seal of the Unique Wisdom
in the Word of
Muhammad's wisdom is uniqueness (fardiya) because he is the most perfect existent creature of this
human species. For this reason, the command began with him and was sealed with him. He was a Prophet while Adam was between
water and clay, (1) and his elemental structure is the Seal of the Prophets. The first singular is three, and what is more
than this firstness of individuals comes from three. The Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, is the surest proof
of his Lord, so he was given all the words, (2) which are everything that is named by the names of Adam. (3) He resembles
the proof in its threefoldness, and the proof is a proof of itself. Then his reality grants the first uniqueness which is
threefold in structure. For that reason, speaking about the domain of love which is the root of existence, he said, "I was
made to love three things in your world," (4) because of what this world has of threefoldness. Then he mentioned women, and
perfume, and that the coolness of his eye was in the prayer.
The Prophet began by mentioning women and ended with the
prayer. That is because woman is part of man in the root of the manifestation of her source, and because man's recognition
of himself preceded his recognition of his Lord. That is why the Prophet, peace be upon him, said, "Whoever knows himself
knows his Lord." If you wish, you can say that this tradition is the forbidding of gnosis and stating the inability to attain
to Him - and that is a permissible statement; and, if you wish, you can say that it is the affirmation of gnosis. The first
is that if you do not know yourself, so you will not know your Lord. The second is that you recognize yourself, so you do
recognize your Lord. Muhammad was the clearest proof of his Lord. Every part of the world indicates its root which is its
Lord, so understand!
The Prophet was made to love women, so he yearned for them because as the whole yearns for what
is part of it. The matter is self-evident through what Allah says regarding this elemental human constitution, "and I breathed
My Ruh into him." (15:29; 38:72) Then He described Himself with intensity of yearning to meet those who yearn for Him. He
said, "O Dawud! I have intense yearning for them," i.e. those who yearn for Him, and it is a particular encounter. The Prophet
said in a hadith about the Dajjal, "None of you will see his Lord until after he dies." (5) Allah must yearn for those near
ones - because even though He sees them and wants them to see Him, that encounter is still prevented by man's station. That
is like His words "until We know" although He is Knowing. He yearns for this particular attribute which only is achieved existence
By this, He tests their yearning for Him as He said in the hadith of hesitation which concerns this
matter, "I do not hesitate in anything I do, but I hesitate to take the breath of My believing slave because he hates death,
and I hate to make him die. But He must meet Me." He gave him good news and did not say to him, "he must die" because He did
not want to distress him by mentioning death. Man only meets Allah after death as the Prophet says, "None of you will see
his Lord until he dies." That is why Allah says, "He must meet Me," for Allah desires the existence of this relationship.
He made it clear that He breathed into him some of His spirit (rûh) so He only yearns for him. Do you not see that He created
him on His form because he is from His Spirit?
Man's constitution is based on these four elements which are called
the "humors" in his body. The combustion of the moisture found in the body occurs from his breath. The spirit of man is fire
as regards his constitution. For this reason, Allah only spoke to Musa in the form of fire, (6) and put his need in it. If
his constitution had been from nature, (7) then his spirit would have been light. Allah alluded to it with the blowing (nafkh)
which indicates that it is from the breath (nafas) of the All-Merciful. It is by this breath, which is the blowing-out that
he manifested from Him, and by the predisposition of the one blown into, that combustion is fire and not light. The breath
of Allah is hidden in that by which man is man.
From man, He derived a person in his form called "woman". She appeared
in his form, and he yearned for her with the longing of that thing has for itself, and she yearned for him with the longing
of that thing has for its home. Allah made him love women. Allah loves the one whom He created in His form, and He made the
luminous angels, in spite of the power of their might and their station and the sublimity of their natural constitution, prostrate
to him. (8) From this comes the affinity which occurs in the form which man and woman share, which is like that between Allah
and man. The form has the greatest affinity, as well as the most glorious and perfect. It makes a pair that is, doubles
the existent belonging to Allah, as the woman, by her existence, doubles man, and makes him one of a pair. So three appeared:
Allah, man and woman. Man yearns for his Lord who is the origin as woman yearns for man.
His Lord made him love women
as Allah loves the one who is in His form. Love only occurred by the One by whom he is formed. His love was for the One he
was formed by, and He is Allah. This is why the Prophet said, "He made me love...," and he did not say, "I loved" as coming
from himself because his love is connected to his Lord in Whose form he is. In his love for his wife, he loves her by Allah's
love for him as a divine nature. (9)
When a man loves a woman, he desires union, that is, the goal of union which exists
in love. In the elemental form, there is no greater union than marriage. (10) By this appetite encompasses all parts. For
that reason, complete ritual washing is prescribed after intercourse. Purification envelops him as annihilation in the woman
was complete in the obtainment of appetite. Allah is very jealous of His slave if He believes that he finds pleasure in other
than Him. So man purifies himself by ritual washing in order to return to Him in whom he was annihilated, since that is all
When man witnesses Allah in women, his witnessing is in the passive; when he witnesses Him in himself, regarding
the appearance of woman from Him, he witnesses Him in the active. When he witnesses Him from himself without the presence
of any form from him, his witnessing is in the passive directly from Allah without any intermediary. So his witnessing of
Allah in the woman is the most complete and perfect because he witnesses Allah inasmuch as He is both active and passive.
Regarding himself, He is passive in particular. For this reason, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, loved
women because of the perfection of the witnessing of Allah in them since one does not ever witness Allah free of matter. Allah
by His essence in independent of the worlds. So from this aspect, the business is impossible, yet witnessing only occurs in
matter. The witnessing of Allah in women is the greatest and most perfect witnessing. The greatest union is marriage.
is like the projection of His will on the one He created in His form in order to create him. He sees His form in him, rather,
He sees Himself. He fashioned him and balanced him and breathed into him of His spirit (rûh) which is His breath. Outwardly
he is creation, and inwardly he is Allah. For this reason, Allah describes Himself with having management of this frame. He
"directs the whole affair from the heaven," which is the height of the earth, "to earth," (32:5) which is the lowest of the
low, because it is the lowest of all the elements.
He called them women (an-nisâ') which is a plural which does not
have a singular form. For that reason, he said, "He made me love three things in your world: women..." and he did not say,
"woman". He took note of the fact that they came after him in existence. The word an-nisa' also means postponement. Allah
says, "The month postponed is an increase in disbelief," (9:37) and the sale of "nasi'a" is said to be by postponement, that
is, by credit. That is why he said an-nisa'. He loved them only by rank, and they are the place of the passive. They are to
him as nature is to Allah in which Allah opened the forms of the world by the projection of the will and the divine command
which is marriage in the world of elemental forms, and aspiration (himma) in the world of luminous spirits, as in the order
of premises and their meanings through deduction. All of that is the marriage of the first uniqueness in each of these aspects.
Whoever loves women in this measure, loves with a divine love. Whoever loves them in respect to natural appetite in particular,
deprives himself of the knowledge of this appetite. For him it is a form without a spirit (rûh). That form in the heart of
the matter is the essence of a spirit, but it is not witnessed by the one who comes to his wife or any woman by
pure gratification, and he does not perceive the one it is for even so, he has no knowledge of himself, as others have
no knowledge of him, since he has not been verbally named so that he could be known.
One of them said:
It is confirmed
that I am a passionate lover,
although they do not know
the object of my passion.
It is the
same with the one who loves gratification - he loves the place in which it occurs, being the woman, but the spirit of the
question is obscure to him. If he had known it, he would have known by whom he has pleasure and who it is that has pleasure.
He would have been perfect.
Similarly, the woman has a lower degree than the man by the words of Allah, "As for men,
they have a degree over them." (2:228) The one created on the form is lower in degree than the one who is fashioned in His
form, (11) even though he is in His form. This is the degree by which He is distinguished from the form. So Allah is independent
of the universe, and He is the first Doer. The form is the second doer, and does not have the firstness which Allah has. Sources
are distinguished by ranks. "He gives each thing its creation," (12) as every gnostic gives each thing with a right its due.
love that Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, had for women came from divine love. "Allah gives everything
its creation," and that is the source of its truth. He only gave creation to it by merit, so it merits what He called it
that is, by the essence of the created thing.
He put women first because they are the place of the passive as nature
precedes that which exists from it by means of form. Nature in reality is only the breath of the Merciful. The forms of the
universe, high and low, are introduced into it by the diffusion of the breath (nafkha) in the primal substance (jawhar hayulânî),
particularly in the world of bodies. As for its diffusion by the existence of the luminous spirits and non-essentials (a'râd),
that is another kind of diffusion.
In this tradition, the Prophet put the feminine before the masculine because he
meant to attach importance to women. He said, "Three (thalath, the feminine form of the number) and he did not say thalatha
(the masculine) with the ha' which is by the number of the masculine since scent (tîb) is one of the three, and it is masculine.
The custom among the Arabs is that the masculine takes precedence over the feminine. When they say, "The Fatimas and Zayd
went out," they saw kharajû (mas. pl) and do not say kharajna (fem. pl). The masculine, even if it is only one, take precedence
over the feminine, even if they are a group. The Prophet was Arab, so he respected the meaning which was intended by showing
love for what did not happen through his own love. Then Allah informed him of what he did not know, and Allah's bounty to
him was great. (13) The feminine took precedence over the masculine by his word, thalath without ha'. Who knew the realities
better than him, may Allah bless him and grant him peace? Who had greater care to observe rights and dues?
placed the seal with what was like the first since it is also feminine (salat, prayer, is feminine), and he placed the masculine
between them, as in existence. He began with "women" and ended with "prayer", both of which are feminine while perfume is
masculine. The man is between the essence from which he appeared and then the woman appeared from him. So man is between two
feminines, the form of the Essence (14) from which he appeared, and a real feminine, woman, who appeared from him. Similarly,
women is a real feminine, and the prayer is not a real feminine. Scent is the masculine between the two, as Adam is between
the essence from which he has existence and Hawwa' (Eve), who existed from him. If you wish, you can say "attribute (sifa)"
which is also feminine. If you wish, you can say, "power (qudra)" and it is feminine. Be of whatever school you wish. You
will always find that the feminine takes precedence, even among the people of cause ('illa) who make Allah a cause in the
existence of the form, and cause is also feminine.
As for the wisdom of the perfume which he mentioned after women,
because women have fragrance in their form, the most fragrant of perfumes is the embrace of the lover as they say in the common
example. When the Prophet was created a slave, by the nobility of his origin, he did not lift his head at all to mastery
rather, he continued to prostrate himself in humility and to remain passive in spite of who he was until Allah formed from
Him what He had intended. He gave him the rank of action in the world of breaths, and the breaths are fragrant scents. So
Allah made him love perfume. For that reason, he put perfume after women.
He observed the ranks which belong to Allah
in His words, "Raiser of ranks is He, Possessor of the throne" (40:15) by His sitting on it by the name of the All-Merciful.
There is none among those that the Throne encompasses but that divine mercy touches him. That is the words of Allah, "My mercy
embraces all things," (7:156) and the Throne encompasses everything, and the One who sits on it is the Merciful. By its reality,
mercy is diffused through the universe as we explained in another part in this book and in The Makkan Revelations.
put perfume in this marital connection in the innocence of 'A'isha, (15) may Allah be pleased with her! He said, "Corrupt
(16) men are for corrupt men, and corrupt men are for corrupt women; and good (17) women are for good men, and good men are
for good women. The latter are innocent of what they say." (24:26) He made their scent fragrant because the word is breath,
and it is the source of the scent. It goes out with fragrance and putrefaction according to what appears in the form of speech.
As it is divine by the nobility of its origin, it is all good, and so it is good. As for what is not praised and is censured,
it is good and bad. The Prophet said in respect to the badness of garlic, "It is a plant whose scent I dislike." He did not
say, "I dislike it." The source is not disliked, but he disliked what appeared from it. Dislike for that is either by custom
or unsuitability of nature, by something in the Shari'a, or a lack of perfection or something other than what we have mentioned.
the command is divided into corrupt and good as we confirmed, he was made to love perfume rather than repulsive odours. He
described the angels as being offended by unpleasant odours. He described the angels as being offended by unpleasant odours.
Since there is putrefaction in this elemental structure as it is created of "dry clay from mud moulded (or fetid)," (18) so
the angels dislike it by essence. The nature of the dung-beetle is offended by the scent of the rose which is one of the pleasant
scents. For the dung-beetle, the scent of the rose is not a pleasant scent. If someone has the same sort of nature (as the
dung beetle) in meaning and form, the truth offends him when he hears it, and he is gladdened by the false. It is what Allah
said, "those who believe in falsehood and reject Allah." (29:52) He described them with loss, and said, "those, they are the
losers" who have lost themselves. Whoever does not distinguish goodness from corruption, has no perception.
the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, love only the good (the perfume) of everything, and there
is only that. Can it be conceived that there is a disposition in the universe which only finds good in everything but does
not recognize the bad? We say that there is not. We find it in the very root from which the universe appeared which
is Allah; we find that He hates and loves. The corrupt is only that which He hates, and the good is only that which He loves.
The universe is the form of Allah, and man is in both forms. There is no nature which only perceives one matter in everything
- rather, the nature distinguishes the good from the corrupt in spite of the fact that it knows that it is corrupt by tasting
and good without tasting. The perception of the good in it diverts him from the sensation of its corruptness. This can happen.
As for the removal of the corrupt from the universe that is, from phenomenal being it is not admissible. The mercy
of Allah extends to both the corrupt and the good. The corrupt considers itself good, but the good in itself is corrupt. There
is nothing but good but that an aspect of its disposition is bad, and vice versa.
As for the third by which uniqueness
(fardiyya) is completed, it is the prayer. The Prophet said, "and the coolness of the eye (19) is in the prayer" because it
is contemplation. That is because it is intimate discourse between Allah and His slave as Allah says, "Remember Me, and I
will remember you." (2:152) It is worship ('ibâda) which is divided in two parts between Allah and His slave one part
belongs to Allah and one part to His slave, as has come in sound transmission from Allah in which He says, "I divided the
prayer into two parts between Me and My slave. One part is Mine and one part is My slave's, and My slave will receive what
he asks for. The slave says, 'In the name of Allah, the All-Merciful, the Most Merciful,' and Allah says, 'My slave has mentioned
Me.' Then the slave says, 'Praise belongs to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds,' and Allah says, 'My slave has praised Me.' The
slave says, 'The All-Merciful, the Most Merciful,' and Allah says, 'My slave has glorified Me. My slave has given Me authorisation.'"
(20) All this part belongs purely to Allah.
"Then the slave says, 'You alone we worship. You alone we ask for help,'
and Allah says, 'This is between Me and My slave, and My slave has what he asks for.'" Sharing occurs in this ayat. "The slave
then says, 'Guide us in the straight path, the path of those You have blessed, not of those with anger on them nor of the
misguided,' and Allah says, 'This is for My slave, and My slave has what he asks for.'" This is purely for His slave as the
first part is purely for Allah. The knowledge of this makes the recitation of the Fatiha obligatory. Whoever does not recite
it has not prayed the prayer establish between Allah and His slave.
The prayer is then a secret conversation (munajat).
It is remembrance/invocation (dhikr). When someone mentions Allah, he sits with Allah and Allah sits with him. It is a sound
divine transmission that Allah said, "I sit with the one who mentions Me." (21) Whoever sits with the One he mentions and
has sight, sees the One with whom he sits. This is contemplation (mushahada) and vision. If he does not have sight, he does
not see Him. Thus the one who prays knows his rank, and whether or not he sees Allah with this vision in the prayer. If he
does not see Him, then let him worship Him by belief (iman) as if he saw Him, imagining Him to be in the qibla of his conversation,
and let him listen for Allah's reply.
Without a doubt, everyone who prays is an Imam, so the angels pray behind the
slave when he prays alone, as is related in tradition. If he is the Imam for his particular world and the angels pray with
him, then he has attained the rank of the Messenger in his prayer which is deputyship from Allah. When he says, "Allah hears
whoever praises Him," (22) he informs himself and whoever is behind him that Allah has heard him. The angels and those present
say, "Our Lord, praise belongs to You."
Allah says on the tongue of the slave, "Allah hears whoever praises Him." Look
at the sublimity of the rank of the prayer and where it takes the one who has it! Whoever does not achieve the rank of vision
in the prayer has not reached the goal nor does he have the coolness of the eye in it because he does not see the One he addresses.
If he does not hear the answer of Allah, he is not one of those who listen. Whoever is not present in the prayer with his
Lord, and does not hear nor see Him, is not one who prays at all, and he is not along those "who listen well, having seen
the evidence." (30:37)
The prayer is the only form of 'ibada during which one is forbidden to perform any other action.
The mention of Allah in it is greater than the words and actions it contains. We mentioned the attribute of the perfect man
in the prayer in The Makkan Revelations and his nature, because Allah says that "the prayer precludes indecency and wrongdoing"
(29:45) since it is set down in the Shari'a that the one performing the prayer cannot act in anything except this 'ibâda as
long as he is in it, and he is called the one the prays (musalli). "The remembrance of Allah is greater still" (29:45) in
it that is, the mention which is from Allah to His slave when He answers him in his request, and his praise of Him is
greater than the mention of the slave of his Lord in it, because greatness belongs to Allah. (23) This is why He says, "Allah
knows what you do," and He says, "He who listen well, having seen the evidence" he gives ear to what Allah mentions
in the prayer.
Therefore, since existence is from an intelligible movement which transported the universe from non-existence
to existence, the prayer encompasses all movements. There are three movements: vertical, which is the state of standing in
the prayer, the horizontal, which is the state of bowing, and the downward movement, which is the state of prostration. The
movement of man is vertical, the movement of the animal is horizontal, and the movement of plants in downward. The inanimate
does not have a movement from its essence. If a rock moves, it moves by other means than itself.
As for the words of
the Prophet, "The coolness of my eye is in the prayer," he did not ascribe the action of putting it there to himself, so Allah
gives the one who prays a tajalli which stems from Him, not from the one who prays. If he had not mentioned this attribute
from himself, he would have commanded the prayer without tajalli from Him to him. Since that is from Him by means of graciousness,
the contemplation is also through graciousness. He said, "the coolness of my eye is in the prayer," and it is only contemplation
of the Beloved by which the eye of the lover is delighted by continuance. The eye remains seeing Allah. It does not look with
Him to other than Him in anything, and for that reason, it is forbidden to turn away in the prayer. The glance is something
which Shaytan steals from the prayer of the slave in order to forbid him the contemplation of the Beloved. (24) If Allah had
truly been the Beloved of the one who turns aside, he would not have turned aside in his prayer to another qibla. Man knows
his state in himself, whether he is like that in this particular act of worship or not. "Man will be clear proof against himself
in spite of any excuses he might offer." (75:14) He recognizes his lie apart from his truth in himself, because man is not
ignorant of his state, his state has tasting (dhawq) for him.
The prayer has another portion. Allah commanded us to
pray to Him, and He told us that He prays for us. The prayer is from us and from Him. When He prays, He prays by His name,
the Last, for it comes after the existence of the slave, and it is the source of Allah which the slave created in his qibla
by logical discernment or by imitation. He is the God of the one who has a creed. It varies according to what the place of
the tajalli has and according to the established predisposition as al-Junayd said when he was asked about recognition of Allah
and the gnostic. He said, "The color of water is the color of its vessel." It is a masterly answer giving information about
the matter for what it is. This is Allah who prays for us. If we pray, we have the name, the Last, so we are in it, as we
mentioned, in the state of the One who has this name we are with Him according to our state. He only regards us by the
form which we bring to Him.
The one who prays is behind the one who precedes him in the place. It is His words, "Each
one knows its prayer and its glorification " (24:41) that is, its rank in being behind the worship of its Lord and the
extolling which his predisposition accords him of disconnection (tanzih). "There is nothing which does not glorify Him with
praise" of its Lord, the Forbearing, the Forgiving. For that, we do not understand the extolling of the universe distinctly,
(25) creature by creature.
Then a rank refers the pronoun to the extolling slave in His words, "There is nothing which
does not glorify Him with praise," that is, the praise of that thing. The pronoun which is in His word, "His praise (bi-hamdihi)"
refers to the thing - that is, with the praise that is from it.
As we said of the one who has a creed other than Islam,
he praises the God who is in his creed and attaches himself to Him. What is from his work returns to him, so he only praises
himself. It is from the praise of fabrication the artisan is praised without a doubt, and so the excellence of what
he creates or its lack of excellence returns to the artisan. The god of a creed is the product of the one who looks at it,
and it is his fabrication; his praise for what he believes is his praise for himself. For this reason, he condemns the creed
of another if he had been fair, he would not have done that. Indeed, the possessor of this particular object of worship
is certainly ignorant in his rejection of other than what he believes about Allah, since had he recognized what al-Junayd
said, "The color of water is the color of its vessel," he would have conceded to everyone who has a creed what he believed
in, and he would have recognized Allah in every form of worship of every person with a creed, He has opinion but does not
know it. For that reason, Allah says, "I am in My slave's opinion of Me," (26) that is, I only appear to him in the form of
his creed. If he wishes, he generalizes, and if he wishes, he limits. The god of creeds is taken from definition, so He is
the God which the heart of His slave encompasses. (27)
The Absolute Divinity is not encompassed by anything because
He is the source of things and the source of Himself. It is not said of the thing that it encompasses itself, not that it
does not encompass itself, so understand! "Allah speaks the truth and He guides to the Way." (33:4)
Notes to Chapter
1. Hadith, "I was a Prophet when Adam was still between water and clay."
2. Hadith, "I was given all the
3. Qur'an 2:31, "And He taught Adam the names of all things..."
4. Hadith in an-Nasa'i and Ibn Hanbal:
"I was made to love three things in your world: women, perfume, and the coolness of my eye in the prayer."
in Muslim (fitan:95) and at-Tirmidhi.
6. The Burning Bush.
7. i.e. from the nature of the world of Purity.
9. Since his nature (khuluq) was immense or mighty ('adhim) as Allah said, "You are truly immense in character,"
(68:4) and as 'A'isha said of the Prophet, "His nature was the Qur'an."
10. Nikah, or marriage, actually means lawful
11. See Qur'an 6:98.
12. See Qur'an 20:50.
13. Qur'an 4:113, "Allah's favour to you is indeed
14. Dhat, essence, is feminine.
15. The following verse was revealed about 'A'isha in the affair of
the Lie and declared her innocence in the affair.
16. Khabith, also meaning with a repulsive odor.
means good, wholesome, fragrant, from the same root as perfume, tîb.
18. See Qur'an 15:26.
19. i.e. that which
20. Muslim 4:38, 41, etc.
21. Hadith qudsi in Ibn Majah and Ibn Hibban.
22. When he comes
up from ruku' in the prayer.
23. See Qur¹an: 45:37.
24. Hadith in al-Bukhari and Muslim. "(Looking aside in
the prayer) is something which Shaytan snatches from a slave's prayer."
Also the hadith in Ibn Hanbal and elsewhere:
"Allah continues to turn favorably towards a slave while he is engaged in the prayer as long as he does not look to the side.
But if he does so He departs from him."
25. See Qur'an 17:44, "The seven heavens and the earth and everyone in them
glorify Him. There is nothing which does not glorify Him with praise; but you do not understand their glorification. He is
the All-Forbearing, Ever-Forgiving."
26. Hadith in Muslim and al-Bukhari, "I am in My slave's opinion and I am with
him when he remembers Me..."
27. Hadith qudsi, "Neither My heaven nor My earth contains Me, but the heart of My believing
slave contains Me." |
Hormone replacement therapy, HRT, provides welcome relief for women experiencing severe hot flashes and other symptoms as they enter menopause. But it also carries several risks.
Tablets are the most common way hormone replacement therapy is delivered; but it is also administered using skin patches, gels and creams. Unfortunately, a recent study finds that taking HRT in pills raises women's risk of venous thromboembolisms (VTE), a form of severe blood clot.
British researchers looked at the prescription records of over 80,000 women on HRT from two primary care databases in the United Kingdom. They compared women diagnosed with venous thromboembolism (VTE) with those of a control group of nearly 400,000 women not diagnosed with VTE.
Women who took hormone replacement therapy orally had a significantly increased risk of blood clots compared to women who did not take oral HRT.
The study made clear that most women with menopausal symptoms are prescribed the oral form of hormone replacement therapy. It also showed that women who took hormone replacement therapy orally had a significantly increased risk of blood clots compared to women who did not take oral HRT. Conjugated equine estrogens, made from the urine of pregnant mares, both alone or combined with progesterone, were associated with greater VTE risk than the synthetic estrogen estradiol.
The dose of estrogen was directly associated with VTE risk: the higher the dose of estrogen, the greater the risk of VTE. Transdermal HRT preparations did not affect VTE risk. Compared to women who did not take HRT, women taking hormones made from equine estrogens combined with medroxyprogesterone had the highest VTE risk, and those taking estradiol and dydrogesterone had the lowest risk.
The risk of VTE in women who don’t take HRT is very low, so the small risk increase in healthy women who do take HRT should not be of concern, Yana Vinogradova, co-lead author of the study, told TheDoctor in an email.
Women already at increased risk for VTE — because of cancer, cardiovascular disease, recent surgery or injury, smoking, obesity or because they take drugs that increase VTE risk may want to discuss the risks and benefits of different HRT formulations with their doctor, said Vinogradova, a research statistician at the University of Nottingham. But generally, she adds, the study underscores the fact that “…there is no increased risk when HRT is used by means of patches or gels.” Hopefully, women's doctors will get the message and shift their prescribing to safer hormone delivery methods. |
New research out of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory has determined that early-life stress may cause anxiety and aggression in adults. Children and adolescents who have experienced what they may consider to be a hostile environment continue to feel the pressures of those early stressors when encountering negative situations when they have grown to adulthood.
The findings are not conclusive, however, because the resulting conclusions of many researchers indicate that it depends on the subject. Some seem to bounce back effectively from the early-life stress while others seem to hold onto the experiences and transfer them to future negative experiences.
The neuroscientists who conducted the current research concentrated on links between stress and the neuroendocrine system. HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis regulates stress hormones in the endocrine glands. These hormones include both corticotrophin and glucocorticoid. Both of these hormones are secreted during higher levels of stress. Findings by Dr. Enikolopov working with others at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, determined that hostility experienced by an adolescent can affect their ability to perform functionally in social situations once they have reached adulthood.
In the research, adolescent mice were exposed to aggressive older mice for a period of time each day. The mice who were effectively bullied by the more aggressive mice began to function with lower levels of social skill. They were unwilling to cohabitate with unfamiliar mice, showing distrust of the new arrivals. They also possessed lowered levels of communication with their peers. Some of these mice were then given a “rest” period until they reached equivalent adult age.
Even the mice who were not recently exposed to aggressive behavior displayed some of the lowered social potential of anxiousness and aggressiveness, although they did not present with the same antisocial or fearful behaviors of the peers who did not get the rest. Dr. Enikolopov has determined that mice who are bullied as adolescents have problems managing their emotional state as adults. Their ability to socialize with their peers becomes diminished as well. |
Here are some of my favorite quotes about singing and the power of the voice. As someone who has worked every day throughout all of my adult life with my own voice and with the voices of my students, I have gotten to experience this every day. In the quotes below you’ll see that you don’t have to be a singer or a vocal coach to understand the influence and magnitude of the voice. Enjoy!
The human voice: It’s the instrument we all play. It’s the most powerful sound in the world, probably. It’s the only one that can start a war or say “I love you.” Julian Treasure (1958- )
An international speaker whose five TED Talks on various aspects of sound and communication have been viewed an estimated 30 million times. TED began in 1984 as a conference where Technology, Entertainment and Design converged. Today TED Talks are influential videos from expert speakers covering topics from science to business to creativity to global issues in more than 110 languages. Julian is the author of How to be Heard.
A bird doesn’t sing because it has an answer; it sings because it has a song. Maya Angelou (1928-2014)
An American poet, singer, memoirist and civil rights activist (1928-2014). She published seven autobiographies, three books of essays, several books of poetry, and is credited with a list of plays, movies and television shows spanning over 50 years. She received dozens of awards and more than 50 honorary degrees. President Clinton chose Angelou to recite her poem On the Pulse of Morning at his 1993 inauguration, and called her “the black woman’s poet laureate.” President Barack Obama presented her with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011.
To love a person is to learn the song that is in their heart and to sing it to them when they have forgotten. Arne Garborg (1851-1924)
A Norwegian writer whose work tackled the issues of the day, including the relevance of religion in modern times and the ability of the common people to actually participate in political processes and decisions.
Love, I find, is like singing. Zora Neale Hurston (1989-1960)
An anthropologist author of African-American literature and, who portrayed racial struggles in the early 20th century American South. Her novels went relatively unrecognized by the literary world for decades, but interest was revived after author Alice Walker published In Search of Zora Neale Hurston in the March 1975 issue of Ms. Magazine.
There’s no half-singing in the shower, you’re either a rock star or an opera diva. Josh Groban (1981- )
An American tenor who has sold more than 20 million albums. In 2002, Groban performed The Prayer with Charlotte Church at the closing ceremonies of the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, and in 2005 he earned his first Grammy nomination for one of his best known recordings, You Raise Me Up.
With my heart and soul expressed through my voice and the music, all else fades away. Renée Fleming (1959- )
An American opera singer with a full lyric soprano voice, consummate artistry and a compelling stage presence. Known as the people’s diva, she continues to grace the world’s greatest opera stages and concert halls, and has extended her reach to include other musical forms: jazz, Musical Theater and pop in addition to her opera career. The only classical artist ever to sing The Star-Spangled Banner at the Super Bowl, and winner of the National Medal of Arts and four Grammy Awards. In 2008 Renée became the first woman in the 125-year history of the Metropolitan Opera to solo headline an opening night gala.
Psychologically speaking, there is something particularly naked about being your own instrument. No other musician deals with this exact situation. Lynn Eustis
A soprano and currently the Director of Graduate Studies in Music and Associate Professor of Voice at Boston University. She is the author of The Singer’s Ego, Finding Balance Between Music and Life.
The only thing better than singing is more singing. Ella Fitzgerald (1917-1976)
An American jazz singer sometimes referred to as “The First Lady of Song,” Ella Fitzgerald was the most popular female jazz singer in the United States for more than half a century. In her lifetime, she won 13 Grammy awards, the National Medal of Arts, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In addition, she recorded more than 200 albums and sold over 40 million albums.
If I cannot fly, let me sing. Stephen Sondheim (1930- )
A prolific American composer and lyricist known for more than a half-century of contributions to musical theater. Sondheim has received an Academy Award, eight Tony Awards, eight Grammy Awards, a Pulitzer Prize, a Laurence Olivier Award, and a 2015 Presidential Medal of Freedom. His best-known works as composer and lyricist include A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, Company, Follies, A Little Night Music, Sweeney Todd, Sunday in the Park with George and Into the Woods. He also wrote the lyrics for West Side Story (1957) and Gypsy (1959).
(S)he who sings prays twice. St. Augustine (354-430 A.D.)
An early Christian theologian and philosopher from Numidia whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy.
The human voice is the most perfect instrument of all. Arvo Pärt (1935- )
An Estonian composer of classical and religious music. Pärt’s music is to some extent inspired by Gregorian chant and often has a slow and meditative tempo, and a minimalist approach to both notation and performance.
When the whole world is silent, even one voice becomes powerful. Malala Yousafzai (1997- )
A Pakistani activist for female education, she is known for her human rights advocacy. Malala was barely 11 years old when she began championing girls’ education and speaking out in TV interviews. The Taliban had overrun her home town of Mingora, terrorizing residents, threatening to blow up girls’ schools, ordering teachers and students into the all-encompassing burqas. She was critically injured on Oct. 9, 2012, when a Taliban gunman boarded her school bus and shot her in the head. She survived through luck – the bullet did not enter her brain – and by the quick won the Nobel Prize, becoming the youngest Nobel laureate.
Never be afraid to raise your voice for honesty and truth and compassion against injustice and lying and greed. If people all over the world…would do this, it would change the earth. William Faulkner (1897-1962)
A novelist of the American South who wrote challenging prose and created the fictional Yoknapatawpha County. He was not widely known until receiving the 1949 Nobel Prize in Literature, for which he became one of eleven Americans (as of 2016) and the only Mississippi-born Nobel winner. Two of his works, A Fable and his last novel The Reivers, won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. He is best known for such novels as The Sound and the Fury and As I Lay Dying. |
Ohio State University engineers have invented a radar system that is virtually undetectable, because its signal resembles random noise.
The radar could have applications in law enforcement, the military, and disaster rescue.
Eric K. Walton, senior research scientist in Ohio State’s ElectroScience Laboratory, said that with further development the technology could even be used for medical imaging.
He explained why using random noise makes the radar system invisible.
“Almost all radio receivers in the world are designed to eliminate random noise, so that they can clearly receive the signal they’re looking for,” Walton said. “Radio receivers could search for this radar signal and they wouldn’t find it. It also won’t interfere with TV, radio, or other communication signals.”
The radar scatters a very low-intensity signal across a wide range of frequencies, so a TV or radio tuned to any one frequency would interpret the radar signal as a very weak form of static.
“It doesn’t interfere because it has a bandwidth that is thousands of times broader than the signals it might otherwise interfere with,” Walton said.
Like traditional radar, the “noise” radar detects objects by bouncing a radio signal off them and detecting the rebound. The hardware isn’t expensive, either; altogether, the components cost less than $100.
The difference is that the noise radar generates a signal that resembles random noise, and a computer calculates very small differences in the return signal. The calculations happen billions of times every second, and the pattern of the signal changes constantly. A receiver couldn’t detect the signal unless it knew exactly what random pattern to look for.
The radar can be tuned to penetrate solid walls — just like the waves that transmit radio and TV signals — so the military could spot enemy soldiers inside a building without the radar signal being detected, Walton said. Traffic police could measure vehicle speed without setting off drivers’ radar detectors. Autonomous vehicles could tell whether a bush conceals a more dangerous obstacle, like a tree stump or a gulley.
The radar is inherently able to distinguish between many types of targets because of its ultra-wide-band characteristics. “Unfortunately, there are thousands of everyday objects that look like humans on radar — even chairs and filing cabinets,” he said. So the shape of a radar image alone can’t be used to identify a human. “What tends to give a human away is that he moves. He breathes, his heart beats, his body makes unintended motions.”
These tiny motions could be used to locate disaster survivors who were pinned under rubble. Other radar systems can’t do that, because they are too far-sighted — they can’t see people who are buried only a few yards away. Walton said that the noise radar is inherently able to see objects that are nearby.
“It can see things that are only a couple of inches away with as much clarity as it can see things on the surface of Mars,” he added.
That means that with further development, the radar might image tumors, blood clots, and foreign objects in the body. It could even measure bone density. As with all forms of medical imaging, studies would first have to determine the radar’s effect on the body.
The university is expected to license the patented radar system.
From Ohio State |
Researchers from the David Geffen School of Medicine and the Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science at UCLA today announced they have transformed adult stem cells taken from human adipose – or fat tissue – into smooth muscle cells, which help the normal function of a multitude of organs like the intestine, bladder and arteries. The study may help lead to the use of fat stem cells for smooth muscle tissue engineering and repair.
Reported in the July 24 online edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the study is one of the first to show that stem cells derived from adipose tissue can be changed to acquire the physical and biochemical characteristics as well as the functionality of smooth muscle cells.
Smooth muscle cells are found within the human body in the walls of hollow organs like blood vessels, bladder, and intestines and contract and expand to help transport blood, urine, and waste through the body’s systems.
“Fat tissue may prove a reliable source of smooth muscle cells that we can use to regenerate and repair damaged organs,” said Dr. Larissa V. Rodriguez, principal investigator and assistant professor, Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA.
Rodriguez and her team first cultured the adipose-derived stem cells in a growth factor cocktail that encouraged the cells to transform into smooth muscle cells. Researchers observed the genetic expression and development of proteins, which are specific to this type of cell. So it looked like a smooth muscle cell, but would it act like one?
The next step required testing functionality to see if the cells would expand and contract like smooth muscle tissue. Rodriguez turned to associate professor of bioengineering Dr. Benjamin Wu at the UCLA Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science for help.
Wu’s team developed a special device to evaluate the cells’ ability to contract by tracking movement of microbeads dispersed in a collagen gel embedded with the cells. Researchers added different pharmacologic agents known to cause contraction or relaxation in smooth muscle.
“We found that the cells did indeed function just like smooth muscle,” said Wu. “The new device allowed us to evaluate drug-induced changes in the physical properties of smooth muscle at the cell level – previously we’ve needed tissue samples to observe this phenomena.”
To make sure they could reproduce the smooth muscle cells and to confirm the transformation, Rodriguez and her team cloned one of the primitive stem cells from the adipose tissue and repeated the experiments on a cloned population of cells with similar results.
“We wanted to make sure it wasn’t an isolated case or particular conditions in the cell cultures that allowed us to create or select out already existing smooth muscle cells,” said Rodriguez, also a member of the UCLA Stem Cell Institute. “We are surprised and pleased with the results and are excited about future applications.”
Rodriguez notes the many advantages of using a patient’s own fat stem cells for organ re-growth and tissue regeneration, including no need for anti-rejection medications. In patients with a diseased or absent organ, who cannot use their own organ tissue for regeneration, adipose stem cells offer an alternative.
Smooth muscle cells have also been produced from stem cells found in the brain and bone marrow, but acquiring stem cells from adipose tissue is much easier and most patients have adipose tissue readily available, according to Rodriguez.
The next step, she adds, involves identifying and developing the growth factors that will induce transformation of cells more quickly. She is also starting to use smooth muscle cells for tissue engineering in the urinary tract, including the urethra. |
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The goal of this online course is to help you understand the risks of working in extreme cold situations. We will review how the body regulates temperatures, define cold stress, identify cold stress-related injuries and illnesses, describe first aid measures to treat cold stress-related injuries and illnesses, and review best practices to prevent these hazards.
What are the governing regulations? OSHA does not have a specific standard for working in cold environments. However, Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act states that employers must provide their employees with a workplace free from recognized hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm. This includes cold temperature-related hazards.
Who must take this training? Anyone who works in a cold environment, whether outdoors or indoors, may be at risk for cold stress. Just like with heat stress, extreme temperatures are hard on the body, and these risks can be increased depending on the type of work being done, the duration of the work, and external factors. If the body cannot maintain a normal temperature, cold stress-related illnesses can occur and may even result in permanent tissue damage or death.
Case Study: In 2013, an employee was working as a freezer order selector at a food warehouse when he experienced frostbite. The temperature inside the warehouse was around -10°F. During his work shift, he suffered frostbite to his ring and middle fingers of both hands. He was admitted to a hospital where they attempted to save his fingers, but all four fingers had to be amputated to the first knuckle.
Key Takeaway: Employees should wear appropriate clothing when working in cold environments. This includes wearing gloves to protect the hands and fingers. In addition, employees should report any discomfort or concerns about their health and safety.
OSHA has not specified any time frame for required retraining or recertification for Cold Stress, Illness & Injury Safety training. Since there is no OSHA standard dealing with this specific hazard the OSH Act general duty clause, section 5(a)(1), 29 U.S.C. 654(b)(1) defines the standard which provides that:
(a) Each employer -
(1) shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees.
A recognized hazard is a danger recognized by the employer's industry or industry in general, by the employer, or by common sense. The general duty clause does not apply if there is an OSHA standard dealing with the hazard, unless the employer knows that the standard does not adequately address the hazard. |
Copyright © 2007 Dorling Kindersley
These invertebrates include crabs, barnacles, KRILL, and woodlice. They are sometimes called the insects of the sea, because they are the most numerous ocean arthropods. All crustaceans have hard skin, gills, and two pairs of antennae.
Most crustaceans live in the ocean—although some species live in freshwater, and woodlice and a few crabs live on land. Prawns and shrimp swim freely in open water. Barnacles live attached to rocks, harbor walls, or the sides of ships.
Many crustaceans are scavengers, feeding on scraps and dead creatures. Crabs, shrimp, and prawns search for food mainly at night and hide in crevices by day. Some crabs and lobsters are active predators, seizing prey in their powerful claws. Barnacles filter tiny creatures from the water using their hairy legs. Woodlice munch on plant remains.
Most crustaceans hatch from eggs into nauplius larvae, which do not resemble their adult form at all. These tiny creatures float near the ocean surface, where they feed and grow. They shed their hard skin several times before becoming adults.
Crustaceans make up the second-largest class in the animal kingdom. They include about 38,000 species, split into eight sub-classes:
Krill are small, pinkish, shrimplike creatures found in the oceans in huge numbers. They form an important part of the marine food chain and are the main diet of many larger sea creatures.
Krill feed on plankton—tiny plants and animal larvae (young) that float with the ocean currents. They, in turn, are eaten by everything from penguins to whales. Some whales migrate thousands of miles from warmer waters just to feed on seasonal swarms of krill.
Krill are extremely numerous and there is no threat of their dying out. However, they are being taken from the ocean in increasing amounts by fishermen. As krill disappear, the animals that feed on them suffer. Krill trawling in the Antarctic has had a major effect on penguin numbers. |
Last modified: March 20, 2021, 10:50 a.m.
A rare species in Belgium, with most observations in the Kempen.
This rather shiny Coleophora can have a forewing ground colour varying from grey to brownish-black. The wingspan is 9–13 mm. The antennae are ringed with alternating white and dark brown till the tip.
The fully developed lobe case is about 7 mm long. The mouth angle is 0°.
See also bladmineerders.be.
The caterpillar makes a lot of small holes in one leaf. The case is gradually enlarged giving it a rough triangular view. The rings are cut out of the lower epidermis. The larva is fully developed in the autumn of the second year of its development. Hence, the larval stage lasts two years.
From the end of May and especially the entire month of June.
The usual foodplant is Rhamnus cathartica but the species has also been found on Viburnum, Cornus, Lonicera, Betula, etc...
This Coleophora can be found nearly everywhere. |
Definición de shameful en inglés:
Worthy of or causing shame or disgrace: a shameful accusation
Más ejemplos en oraciones
- To be weak and shameful is a disgrace severe enough to be punishable by death according to my standards.
- The history of racism in accusations and punishments for rape is sordid and shameful.
- Susan felt bad that she had hurt Jason but she quickly held back shameful tears so she could speak.
disgraceful, deplorable, despicable, contemptible, dishonourable, discreditable, reprehensible, base, mean, low, blameworthy, unworthy, ignoble, shabby, inglorious, infamous, unprincipled, shocking, scandalous, outrageous, abominable, atrocious, appalling, disgusting, vile, odious, monstrous, heinous, unspeakable, loathsome, sordid, bad, wicked, immoral, nefarious, indefensible, inexcusable, unforgivable
- Oraciones de ejemplo
- Their dedication to compromise is impressive… to the point of shamefulness.
- Hopefully, the shamefulness of the result will ensure the Parliamentary benches are purged for the election to follow.
- In 1990, the U.S. government acknowledged the shamefulness of this policy, formally apologized to Japanese Americans for implementing it, and paid token reparations of $20,000 to each Japanese American who had been interned.
Pronunciación: /ˈʃeɪmfʊlnəs/ /ˈʃeɪmf(ə)lnəs/sustantivo
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Definition of jackfruit in English:
1A fast-growing tropical Asian tree related to the breadfruit.
- Artocarpus heterophyllus, family Moraceae
- Red mud paths dissect the vibrant green of paddy fields, the dense foliage of coconut, jackfruit, cashew, areca nut and bamboo plantations.
- Coconut palms, jackfruit, mango, orange, lime, and rubber trees, as well as coffee bushes, were cultivated.
- Local art shops sell a range of items, from mass-produced woodcarvings to high-quality, handmade items made by recognized masters in fine-grained ebony, jackfruit or sandalwood.
1.1The very large edible fruit of the jackfruit tree, resembling a breadfruit and important as food in the tropics.
- One of the most intriguing fruits of its kind is the jackfruit, a close relative of the breadfruit, a starchy staple of most Caribbean diet.
- The lunch, which costs Rs.50, commences with seasonal fruits, which include mango, jackfruit, grapes or any of the citrus varieties in the form of shake, chutney or salad.
- However, she warned diabetics to be wary of fruits with moderate calorific values such as mango, pomegranate and jackfruit, and high calorie fruits such as dates and grapes.
Words that rhyme with jackfruitpassion fruit • breadfruit
Definition of jackfruit in:
- US English dictionary
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
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Green tea and oolong tea
Green tea is usually unfermented,
Oolong is fully fermented and cured tea.
Oolong means black dragon.
There are 2 categories within this classification.
They are what is commonly also known
as green oolong and black oolong.
The green oolong is also commonly and rather loosely termed as green tea.
How green oolong is achieved is dependent on the tea master
who handles the processing.
Unlike coffee crops that are sold prior to harvest, tea crops are sold only
after the tea is harvested,
processed and the taste test is conducted.
The final product sold is dependent on the quality of the end product.
Therefore, the tea quality is dependent on factors like weather, seasons
and the final processing by the tea maker.
Freshly roasted green oolong is vacuum packed to preserve its freshness.
Black oolong is achieved by re-roasting the old green oolong. |
The cover of "Challenger: An American Tragedy" written by veteran NASA public affairs office Hugh Harris.
Credit: Open Road Media
Twenty-eight years ago today, NASA and the world watch as the space shuttle Challenger and its crew of seven intrepid astronauts were lost shortly after liftoff in a devastating launch failure.
The Challenger shuttle disaster, tragically, was not NASA's last shuttle accident, but it was the first broadcast on live television and is the subject of the new e-book "Challenger: An American Tragedy" by veteran Hugh Harris, who served as the Voice of NASA in launch control. In the book, Harris offers a personal — and sometimes painful — look back at one of the darkest chapters in U.S. human spaceflight, as well as its impact on NASA over time.
Harris spent 35 years with NASA, many as director of the Public Affairs Office at NASA's John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC). Best known to the public for his calm, professional commentary on the progress of launch preparations and launch of the space shuttle, his primary accomplishments were in directing an outreach program to the general public, news media, students and educators, as well as to business and government leaders. Harris and publisher Open Road Media sends SPACE.com this two-chapter preview from "Challenger: An American Tragedy," which is available for Amazon Kindle, Nook, Kobo, Google Play and Apple iTunes:
Chapter One: A Look Back Twenty-eight Years
Challenger was a spacecraft designed to transport, protect, and nurture its seven-member crew as it transported them beyond the limits of our home planet’s life-support system. There, they would conduct experiments to improve lives on Earth. Among its passengers was the first civilian crewmember, the “Teacher in Space” Sharon Christa McAuliffe (known as Christa), who was already inspiring a generation of school children.
I had watched from the firing room as the twenty-four previous shuttles rocketed upward and successfully returned to Earth. But on January 28, 1986, Challenger was engulfed in a fiery inferno in full view of thousands of people at the center and millions of others viewing the launch on television.
The tragedy produced a myriad of human emotions. For Todd Halvorson of Florida Today, it was an unforgettable introduction to space reporting. Hired the day before, but not yet on the job, he stepped out of the Cocoa Beach Holiday Inn to watch. Burned into his psyche are the pitchfork contrails and the memory of a weeping young girl, pointing upward and crying over and over, “The teacher is up there! The teacher is up there!”
For some young astronauts, it was a “loss of innocence” that took some time to accept. Franklin Chang-Díaz flew on STS-61C, the shuttle mission just a few weeks before Challenger. He and his crew experienced the tragedy from a viewing room at the Johnson Space Center in Houston.
“I think we were all unprepared to deal with this kind of event,” he says. “From my first flight before the Challenger disaster, to my second flight, after, it felt as if we had lost our innocence. When I went into my second flight—well, it was probably the same way a soldier goes into battle with a few scars. You don’t look at that battlefield the same way you did on the first day. I mean, it was still exciting, it was still wonderful, but we realized it was not child’s play anymore.”
Lisa Malone, then a young public information specialist who would become director of public affairs for the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) twenty years later, recalled, “At the time, I was angry. I was angry at the engineers. I didn’t yet realize how hard space flight was. Later, as I started to go to more technical meetings, I learned the difficulty of managing risk posed by a highly complex vehicle.”
The accident triggered in-depth investigations and denied the nation of human access to space for almost three years. Unmanned launches continued, but our astronauts stayed on the ground.
It brought into question the way management and technical experts worked together. It highlighted the role played by political decisions and uncertain year-to-year funding. It exposed the roadblocks to communication imposed by managers and organizational culture.
It was a chilling reminder that it is safer to sit on the ground than fly into space. But that’s not an option for the human race.
Ultimately, it helped enable 110 more space-shuttle flights and the construction of the International Space Station, which ranks near the top of human achievement.
Dozens of people gave the “go” to launch on that morning twenty-eight years ago, and tens of thousands more had worked on the hardware. Yet, despite all of the investigative probing and some rancorous finger-pointing in the months to follow, no one ever alleged less than a strong desire to do his or her job to the best of his or her ability.
It demonstrated, once again, how much there is to learn as humankind continues to advance the boundaries of science, technology, and human interaction.
On that day, I was the chief of public information for NASA’s Kennedy Space Center and the launch commentator. This piece will take you on the same journey I experienced in the hours before launch and then along the bumpy road to find the cause of the accident and heal the system.
Chapter Two: A Cold, Cold Night
The night of January 28, 1986, was the coldest I can remember in Florida. But when I left my house in Cocoa Beach at two a.m., I wasn’t thinking of the cold. I was worrying about getting to the Kennedy Space Center on time.
Every time I served as “the voice of launch control” for a space shuttle launch—a responsibility I had held beginning with STS-1 in 1981—I worried that my car would be delayed by the hundreds of thousands of people who came to watch. If I didn’t get to the firing room on time, the launch would have happened anyway, but I would have felt like I’d let down the team.
But this morning, as I drove toward KSC, I did not find the usual congregation of cars. Very few were parked along the causeway over the Banana River. Normally, even at that early hour in the morning, and eight or more hours before a launch, the causeways were crowded. Families would leave their cars to make new friends or gather around radios to keep track of the progress of launch preparations. Cars would sport license plates from dozens of states—California, Washington, even Alaska. The space program was a source of national pride, and we who were privileged to work in it could not help but be inspired.
But this night was different. The few who had come were huddled inside their vehicles.
In the distance, Pad 39 B and Challenger were sparkling in the pure white light of the xenon searchlights. The thick shafts of light illuminated the rocket vehicle and slanted skyward for many miles.
As I drove toward the center along State Route 3 on Merritt Island, some of the orange groves huddled under blankets of smoke from large bonfires created to help protect the fruit from freezing. Most of the large groves had been flooded or sprayed with water. The temperature of fruit encased with ice does not drop below freezing. Smudge pots were no longer used due to pollution.
The air temperature was in the low thirties and dropping rapidly into the twenties. The smaller grove owners could not afford to protect their groves, and a week later their oranges would be thudding to the ground at the rate of a dozen per minute.
The officers at the first guard gate wore heavy jackets. “Do you think it will go, Mr. Harris?” one asked.
I told them the launch had already been postponed an hour and might be delayed further because of concern due to the cold. I said, “They’re supposed to start tanking around three a.m. If they tank, they’ll try to launch. They have about a two-hour window.”
In capitulation to the freezing cold, the press site looked pretty deserted when I arrived. Normally, the photographers and reporters would be walking between buildings or gathered in little groups for a smoke. This morning they were all indoors.
There were fewer press representatives than normal, as well. The shuttle launches had become routine through the years. About five hundred media had been accredited for Challenger—as opposed to five times that number for STS-1. As I recall, only one of the major networks was covering the launch live.
The science writers typically on hand for launch had a conflict this time. Press briefings were taking place at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, where many of the most knowledgeable space reporters were learning what scientists were discovering as Voyager flew past Uranus. Laurie Garrett of National Public Radio described the experience by saying, “Every single minute Uranus was blowing our minds more than the minute before. The moons of Uranus were absolutely the most stupendously puzzling things any of us had ever covered.”
The twelve-acre press site is located at the Banana River Turn Basin, slightly more than three miles from the launch pads. During the Apollo program, barges bringing the rocket stages from Michoud Assembly Facility, just outside of New Orleans, unloaded at the turn basin; now it was the shuttles’ external tanks that were unloaded there. It is just across the road from the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), where the Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB), external tanks, and orbiters were bolted together on a mobile launch platform before being taken to one of the two launch pads, designated Pads 39 A and 39 B. The Challenger launch was taking place from 39 B.
A three- to four-acre, six-foot-high mound had been built along the back of the press site with material dredged up to deepen the turn basin. On top was a 350-seat grandstand fitted with long counters, telephone hookups, and folding chairs, as well as several permanent structures put up by NASA, the major television networks, and the wire services. Another half-dozen office trailers had been brought in by Florida Today, the Orlando Sentinel, the Nikon camera company, and others were split between the mound and the lower level.
The public information office, my home away from home, was located at the press site in a geodesic dome originally bought for the United States Bicentennial Exposition. It also provided working space for media who didn’t have their own facilities. KSC office spaces lined one inner wall of the dome; along the other were several rows of long, counter-like desks for the press with assigned spaces where they could order temporary phone hookups. There were bins for fact sheets and news releases and a bank of pay phones.
A waist-high counter separated the press from the information people and provided space for the press to ask questions. Members of the press were not allowed behind the counter unless they were invited in for an interview or other business.
The flags of the sixteen countries that were partners with the United States for the Spacelab missions and for the future International Space Station flew over the press area.
Down below the mound were several acres of grass and the large, iconic countdown clock at the water’s edge. Many news photographers had used the countdown clock in the foreground of pictures of previous launches. Thousands more posed with it as proof that they had covered history.
For each launch, temporary grandstands were trucked in to accommodate about a thousand VIP visitors. These included the extended families of the astronauts who were flying and guests invited by NASA headquarters or other centers. The immediate families of the astronauts and special guests, such as members of Congress, would watch from the roof of the Launch Control Center.
Approximately twenty thousand other invited guests would be taken by bus or given car passes to park on the causeway across the Banana River connecting KSC and the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station about seven miles from the pads. Loudspeakers set up in each location allowed my commentary to keep them informed about what was happening. Public affairs representatives and car parkers at each location helped direct them and answer questions.
I reached the press site about eight hours before the then-scheduled launch time of 10:38 a.m. and went into my office after checking with the staff and saying hello to the press who had come in early. Almost everyone commented on the cold and speculated that we would postpone the launch for a third time.
The launch scheduled for two days earlier had been canceled because of the weather forecast. It turned out to be a perfect day. The attempt of the previous day, January 27, had been scrubbed because sensors showed that the crew ingress door on the Challenger was not securely closed. Once that was corrected, the handle used to latch the door could not be removed without drilling out the bolts. Time ran out, and crosswinds at the shuttle landing facility became unacceptable.
Finally we were at January 28. The day had everything going for it in terms of weather, except the bitter cold.
The first person I called was information specialist Andrea Shea King, who was in the firing room, keeping the press informed on the progress of loading liquid hydrogen and oxygen. “What are you hearing on the OIS?” I asked, referring to the Operational Intercom System, which tied all elements of the launch team together on more than thirty voice circuits.
“It’s been pretty smooth, except for concern about ice on the pad,” she reported. “The temperature is below thirty-two degrees. All the valves on the water lines on the pad have been open slightly all night so that they don’t freeze. Can you see the icicles?” |
The U.S. presidency and both chambers of the legislature are currently controlled by Republicans — one of two main political parties in the U.S. The situation can help a party to pass laws that support its causes, but it doesn’t mean proposals sail through unhindered.
A combination of traditions, “checks and balances” and math all factor into how a bill becomes a law.
Let’s start with the math part. The 435-member House of Representatives passes legislation by majority vote, which means at least 218 House members need to vote in favor of a bill for it to pass the House.
It’s more complicated in the Senate, which has 100 members. A group of senators can “filibuster,” or keep a proposal from coming to a vote, unless 60 senators agree that it’s time to stop talking about the measure and agree to a vote.
So, for instance, in the current U.S. Senate, the 52 Republicans need eight Democratic votes to get past the filibuster and vote on a bill. Once there are enough votes to end a filibuster, the Senate still needs to take a formal vote to pass the bill, but only a majority (51 votes) is needed. If the legislation isn’t controversial and a senator doesn’t use the filibuster, a majority vote suffices to move the bill along.
Donald Ritchie, historian emeritus of the U.S. Senate, predicts senators are unlikely to change the rule that allows for filibusters. “It makes every single senator a powerful player,” he says.
In the old days, senators talked all night during a filibuster to prevent votes. In recent years, all senators have needed to do is threaten a filibuster before the leadership backs off. (The majority party isn’t too keen to stay up all night watching the other side speak if they know they don’t have the votes to stop it, Ritchie says.)
The filibuster serves a broader purpose than stopping particular legislation. It fosters a Senate tendency to find bipartisan compromise. That makes the Senate a very different place than the House, where the tradition during the past 20 years has been for the majority party to focus on legislation that can pass without any help from the other political party.
Once the Senate and House pass their own bills on a topic, the two different versions are worked out. If the compromise they come up with is passed by both the House and the Senate (they vote again), the bill goes to the president next. Getting that far is rare, Ritchie points out: The U.S. system “was never designed to be easy.” (Even when the leadership of the House and the Senate are in the same party, they aren’t always on the same page about legislation.)
But House and Senate rules aren’t the only factor. The president and the courts also have important roles to play. That gets us to the “checks and balances” of the U.S. Constitution, which exist to make sure one branch of government doesn’t have too much influence.
When legislation does pass Congress, it goes next to the White House, where the bill’s monthslong or yearslong journey can end with a stroke of the president’s pen. If the president signs the legislation, it becomes law.
If the president rejects the legislation, or vetoes it, it isn’t necessarily the end for the bill. Congress can override the president’s veto with a two-thirds vote in both the House and the Senate. This “check” prevents the president from blocking an act when there is significant support for it. Historically, Congress has overridden less than 10 percent of all presidential vetoes.
This article was written by freelance writer Tamara Lytle. |
Party Platform Creation Activity
Party Belvedere Creation Activity
This anniversary we abstruse about the important functions of political parties. You additionally had the befalling to browse the Democratic and Republican Affair platforms for your reading. In this activity, pretend you are in allegation of inventing your own aboriginal political affair and abode a belvedere for your cast new political party.
Your belvedere and absorption article should be at atomic 500 words continued and abode the following:
Part 1 - Your Platform
Name your party.
Identify and call one calm action that your affair would accept in. Give a branch description of that calm policy. Be actual abundant and specific in your description. (Domestic action is annihilation that impacts how we alive our lives aural the borders of our nation.)
Identify and call one specific bread-and-butter action that your affair would accept in. Give a branch description of that bread-and-butter policy. Be actual abundant and specific in your description. (Economic action is all those behavior that appulse the administration and barter of property, wealth, and capital. Think about things that appulse money and how abundant you accept and how you can accomplish more.)
Identify and call one specific adopted action that your affair would accept in. Give a branch description of that adopted policy. Be actual abundant and specific in your description. (Foreign action is how this nation interacts with alternative nations.)
Part 2 - Absorption Essay
Write an article in which you analyze and adverse anniversary of your three policies, one at a time, to agnate behavior from the platforms of the Democratic and Republican parties. How are your behavior agnate to the behavior of the two above parties? How your behavior altered from the behavior of the two above parties? Be specific and accommodate specific examples. Conclude your allegory and adverse article by discussing which of the two above parties your political affair best agnate to?
Don’t balloon to accommodate a advertence list.
Please note: APA formatting and citations rules administer to this and all essays in this course.
As with all account accounting assignments, abide your assignment as an absorbed file. Double-space your cardboard and use 12 point Times New Roman as your font.
Order a unique copy of this paper |
January 2017 brought exciting news to document restoration companies. A volunteer working with an archaeology team at Knole, a historic home in Kent, England, discovered two letters from the years 1603 and 1633 in the South Barracks attic. The letters, written on quality rag paper, offer a glimpse into 17th Century life as one contains a beautifully penned shopping list with items such as greenfish, pewter spoons, a fireshovel and frying pan. Paper has a rich history that spans continents, offering insight to human ingenuity and imagination. By understanding why some types of paper survived the test of time better than others, you can take steps to better preserve your own documents and reduce the need for archive restoration services.
History of Paper
Many primary schools teach that the ancient Egyptians were responsible for making paper out of papyrus. The mats created with reeds, however, are not technically paper, even though people wrote on them. Similarly, Mayans in the second century AD, ancient Mediterranean cultures, and early inhabitants of the Pacific Islands used bark to create books and bases on which to write that do not qualify as true paper.
The first papermaking processes date back to China’s Eastern Han period between 25 and 220 AD. While exploring tombs from the era, archaeologists found Lao Tzu’s texts printed on silk cloth, along with paper made of a variety of plant fibers. Papermakers macerated the fibers in a vat with water. They then used a screen to catch the fibers. When the fibers dried, they contracted and intertwined, forming sheets of paper.
In the third century AD, the people of Vietnam and Tibet were introduced to papermaking, followed by those in Korea and Japan. The skill slowly made its way west thanks to printing projects, explorers, and even wars. Papermaking entered the Islamic word during the Battle of Talas in 751. The resultant imprisonment of two Chinese papermakers led to the founding of the first paper mill in the Middle East. Over the centuries, individuals in the Islamic world built machines that refined papermaking processes, transforming the skill into a major industry.
In the ninth century, people in the Middle East made advancements in bookmaking techniques using paper that was lighter in weight and less reactive to humidity. Around the same time, European cultures began preferring parchment made of animal skins over papyrus. Paper did not become an everyday item until Johannes Gutenberg perfected movable type, giving birth to the modern printing and paper industry.
Why Some Paper Deteriorates Faster than Others
It is not unusual for a newspaper printed 50 years ago to be more brittle and discolored than paper made centuries ago, like the shopping list found at Knole. There are several reasons for this, including:
- The quality of fibers and the length of the cellulose chains in the paper: Before the 1850s, paper in the Western world was made of durable linen and cotton cloth rags
- External factors: Light, oxygen, moisture, heat, acids and pollutants in the environment
- Pulping techniques: Mechanical pulping does not remove acid lignin from cellulose and produces short fiber lengths; chemical pulping removes lignin and preserves long cellulose chains
- Compounds added to wood pulp during production: Some chemicals added to paper to reduce absorbency generate acid when exposed to moisture
Specialists with document drying services attest that quality paper stored in areas with cool temperatures, low relative humidity levels, and away from light and acidic compounds, can last hundreds of years.
Preserving your documents and archives long-term is as simple as using the technologies that document restoration companies offer. Polygon complements your document preservation efforts with custom climate control solutions that allow you to create an environment with the ideal temperature, humidity level and ventilation rate. |
Definition of lunar node in English:
Each of the two points at which the moon’s orbit cuts the ecliptic.
- Therefore it takes just over 31 days to traverse the zone in which eclipses can occur, the seasons that recur twice per eclipse year when the lunar nodes are close to the solar direction.
- The mean lunar nodes always move backwards, but the true nodes describe a bi-directional motion somewhat like other planets; though the nodes are mostly retrograde but at times travel forward - what is known as direct motion in astrology.
- When the Sun and Moon are in opposition, and each is in conjunction with one of the lunar nodes, a lunar eclipse occurs.
Definition of lunar node in:
- US English dictionary
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
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Once a week, we feature This Disgraceful Evil, a series which collects the lynchings which took place that week in history, but also shares a few newspaper accounts and photographs from the lynchings in question.
Between the Civil War and World War II, the black community, especially in the South, was terrorized by an epidemic of lynchings. As opposed to public executions, the point of lynchings was to avoid the court of law, judge and jury. Often times, a mob kidnapped a victim from a holding cell. According to a recent report issued by the Equal Justice Initiate, there were 4,075 lynchings of black Americans across the South between 1877 and 1950. 1In this case, “The South” pertains to the dozen states where the most lynchings occurred: Mississippi (614), Georgia (595), Louisiana (559), Arkansas (491), Alabama (363), Texas (344), Florida (307), Tennessee (238), South Carolina (184), Kentucky (170), North Carolina (122), and Virginia (88). States, such as Missouri (69), Oklahoma (40), West Virginia (28), Maryland (27), Kansas (19), Illinois (19), and Indiana (14) – plus the states with fewer lynchings of black Americans) go unreported in both Project HAL and the Equal Justice Initiative studies.
Hanging was the typical method of lynching, though the lynch mob often riddled their victim’s body with bullets. As one reads through the reports detailing the acts, the patterns which emerge resemble almost a ritual. There is almost always a mob, a tree, guns, and an audience.
The spectators often took photos and collected souvenirs. They saved such items as hair, ears, or fingers as relics. In some cases, a local photography studio made postcards of the lynching to sell in local service stations. 2When photos of specific lynchings are available, I will use them.
According to the NAACP, for an act of violence to be considered a lynching, the following criteria must be met.
1) There must be evidence that someone was killed;
2) The killing must have occurred illegally;
3) Three or more persons must have taken part in the killing; and
4) The killers must have claimed to be serving justice or tradition.
Concerning the Databases
When I first began to delve into the history of lynchings, I consulted a few databases. These huge files listed the names of the victims, the locations, the manner in which they were lynched, as well as the reasons for their lynchings. While each of the databases was an amazing resource, the individual authors limited themselves to certain regions or races. A national lynching database for the entire United States is incredibly necessary. Unfortunately, it’s likely an impossibility. 3For more information on this, read Lisa D. Cook’s paper, “Converging to a National Lynching Database: Recent Developments,” available as a PDF here.
This database, at the very least, should have the date, name, gender, race, location, accusation and lynching method listed for every victim. Also, it should be available to the public with the caveat that the list is fluid and additional information could change it.
What I’ve compiled is not a full national lynching database, but I believe it might be the closest we have to such a thing. With the exception of seven states, I’ve collected all known lynchings that happened from 1877 to 1950. The vast, vast majority of this is not my work, but was simply a compilation of existing databases.
Let’s look at the sources.
Beck and Tolnay Inventory
This recently-updated database first showed up in 1997. While it covers all lynchings of all races, it includes only the South – excluding Texas, Missouri, Maryland, Oklahoma, and West Virginia. However, their work is implacable. If I had my druthers, Beck and Tolnay would be the authors of the full national database.
As far as I can tell, their sources come from a wide variety of other databases, such as the NAACP (more on them soon), Tuskegee University, and various newspapers. I’ve freely used their data, changing it only when I found cause (which was almost never).
Michael J. Pfeifer’s work has been published in at least two books, one entitled Lynching Beyond Dixie. The database within covers almost every state that Beck and Tolnay do not. While his published data isn’t as thorough as Beck and Tolnay’s, it’s close and falls well within my “at the very least” perimeters.
This leaves eight states covered by neither of the above databases. Unfortunately, these states include Texas, Oklahoma and Missouri – three states with a very large number of lynchings.
Here is where the bulk of the limitations lie. The NAACP first compiled their database in 1919 as Thirty Years of Lynchings. While it was nation-wide, and covered lynchings regardless of race, it only examined 1889 through 1918 (with supplements published at least until 1924). Additionally, data like age and lynching method were missing. This is where my work truly began.
My Own Contribution (sort of)
Because of this missing data, I couldn’t simply copy and paste the NAACP’s database alongside the others. And so, for the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, West Virginia, and New Mexico, I had to do the research myself.
Using the names provided by the NAACP, I searched out newspaper articles about those specific lynchings. In almost every single case, I was able to find multiple articles, as well as follow up articles.
Using the NAACP
One thing that didn’t really surprise me was how often the NAACP published inaccurate information. This is understandable. While we are able search thousands of period newspapers from the comfort of our desks, the NAACP was limited to whatever they could get their hands upon. Considering the constrains, they were basically superheroes.
Still, it’s important to note and correct inaccurate information. We need to compile as much of the missing information as possible. In some cases, the NAACP listed a lynching that wasn’t actually a lynching. Newspapers of the time published rumors as facts, and spread this misinformation via telegraph. Before long, the false articles ran in hundreds of newspapers across the country. Apart from locally, these corrections almost never saw publication.
Further, I found a similar amount of lynchings missed by the NAACP. This is, of course, understandable given the times in which they worked. For some listings, they had names or locations incorrect. In every case, their explanation of the crime laid upon the accused was short – a single word. Being able to read the original newspaper articles, I was able to expand upon the description a bit. The NAACP database never mentions the method of lynching employed. Newspapers of the period almost always did. I passed along this information as well.
Thanks to the NAACP’s amazingly difficult work, I was able to research and expand the information on nearly 298 different lynching victims in Texas, 69 in Missouri, 57 in Oklahoma, 34 in West Virginia, 23 in Kansas, 19 in Colorado, and 7 in New Mexico.
This added over 500 names to the database. Unfortunately, it was only for the years between 1889 and 1924. While that certainly covers the peak frequency of lynching, it means that there are thirty-eight years of data missing for these seven states. To me, that’s a pretty huge deal. This needed correction is unlikely to happen in the near future.
Though this database is incomplete, it still contains most of the lynchings from all of the states for the years 1877 to 1950. It contains all of the known lynchings between 1889 and 1924. 4Five states, CT, MA, NH, RI and VT, had no recorded lynchings. As a total, we list 4,818 victims in this database.
Until something better comes along, this is the database I’ll be using in my weekly lynching articles.
Additionally, the list is downloadable as an Excell file here.
Compiled from several databases, for our purposes, we will be focusing mostly upon the lynchings of black Americans and their allies. The reasoning is because our focus isn’t upon lynchings, but upon the repercussions of slavery and the Civil War. 5That said, in the downloadable database, all lynchings -regardless of race or cause- are included. It is only on the website that the focus is upon black Americans.
For instance, a white person lynched in Arizona in the 1870s had more to do with revenge than it did a reaction to the Civil War. Such acts, though obviously immoral and terrible, are beyond our purview. If that is your interest, then I fully suggest Pfeifer’s Lynching Beyond Dixie.
All of the posts in this series can be found here.
References [ + ]
|1.||⇡||In this case, “The South” pertains to the dozen states where the most lynchings occurred: Mississippi (614), Georgia (595), Louisiana (559), Arkansas (491), Alabama (363), Texas (344), Florida (307), Tennessee (238), South Carolina (184), Kentucky (170), North Carolina (122), and Virginia (88). States, such as Missouri (69), Oklahoma (40), West Virginia (28), Maryland (27), Kansas (19), Illinois (19), and Indiana (14) – plus the states with fewer lynchings of black Americans) go unreported in both Project HAL and the Equal Justice Initiative studies.|
|2.||⇡||When photos of specific lynchings are available, I will use them.|
|3.||⇡||For more information on this, read Lisa D. Cook’s paper, “Converging to a National Lynching Database: Recent Developments,” available as a PDF here.|
|4.||⇡||Five states, CT, MA, NH, RI and VT, had no recorded lynchings.|
|5.||⇡||That said, in the downloadable database, all lynchings -regardless of race or cause- are included. It is only on the website that the focus is upon black Americans.| |
What’s the real difference between Mac and PC?
In lecture, at the office or at the library, it’s easy to notice there are two popular types of laptops. Apple’s Mac computers and Windows’ PC computers are popular among just about every person who owns a computer. What makes these computers so different? PC computers use the Windows operating system; this is the interface one uses to navigate the computer. Windows and the hardware that makes up a PC are designed to run virtually any program created for a computer. This gives users flexibility but also can cause errors and vulnerability to viruses. On the other side, a Mac computer is designed to run Mac software and the Mac operating system. Therefore, these computers tend to seem smoother and more user friendly. In the end, choosing a computer depends on what you need. If you only need Mac designed programs and not the flexibility, a MacBook might be for you. If you need the options and flexibility, try a PC.
What are stem cells?
Research using stem cells often sparks controversy and questions. Stem cells are special kinds of “blank-slate” cells. They have the capability to develop or turn into any type of specialized cell, such as different organ cells, tissue cells, blood cells and so on. There are two kinds of stem cells: adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells. We all have adult stem cells throughout our entire lives. They can be found all over our body in our different tissues, and they stay dormant until they’re needed by our bodies to regenerate our tissues or organs. Embryonic stem cells, however, are different in that they’re exclusively found in days-old embryos. While adult stem cells have a limited range of cells that they can turn into, embryonic stem cells can turn into any type of cell in our bodies. There is a lot of exciting research about the medical applications of stem cells; from regenerating organs and tissues in injured patients to replacing damaged brain tissue in Alzheimer’s patients. Stem cells have many possibilities. |
Micro-organisms of the genus Cryptosporidium are considered important zoonotic agents that often induce asymptomatic infections. They represent important pathogens especially in very young or immunocompromised hosts.
The life cycle requires only one host with an endogenous and exogenous stage. The exogenous stage is represented by a sporulated oocyst, which is excreted in the environment with the faeces of infected hosts.
The endogenous phase begins with the ingestion of an oocyst by a suitable host. Sporozoites encyst from the oocyst and infect epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal or respiratory tract, according to the species.
At the end of the endogenous cycle, sporulated oocysts are formed which, once shed in the environment with faeces, are ready to infect a new suitable host.
The prepatent period, which is the time between the ingestion of infecting oocysts and the excretion of a new generation of oocysts, varies with the host and species of Cryptosporidium. Usually, it ranges from 4 to 22 days. The patent period, which is the duration of oocyst excretion, ranges from 1 to 20 days.
The susceptibility of different hosts to Cryptosporidium is a complex feature that is not yet completely understood. On a regular basis, isolates from one class of vertebrates are not infectious to animals of another class (Fayer, Speer and Dubey, 1997). According to this scenario cryptosporidiosis has long been considered a classical zoonosis in which the aetiological agent is spread between different mammals and humans.
Nevertheless, new light was recently shed on the epidemiological patterns of cryptosporidiosis. Indeed, another species named Cryptosporidium hominis, has been described (Morgan-Ryan et al., 2002). Cryptosporidium hominis was isolated in human faeces and was able to infect neonatal gnotobiotic piglets, but not Wistar rat pups, puppies, kittens or calves.
The existence of this new species suggests that there are at least two different scenarios in human cryptosporidiosis. One is due to C. parvum and involves mammals, mainly calves; the other is due to the newly described C. hominis and probably can also involve piglets.
When samples from diarrhoeic patients were analysed, prevalence of C. parvum (ODonoghue, 1995) ranged from 0.1 to 27.1 percent in developed industrialized countries compared with 0.1 to 31.5 percent in developing countries. In contrast, when samples from asymptomatic individuals were examined, prevalence ranged from 0 to 2 percent in developed countries compared with 0 to 9.8 percent in developing countries.
In addition to coprological data, several immunoserological surveys have been conducted. Seroprevalence ranged from 25 to 91 percent. These data strongly suggest that Cryptosporidium is highly prevalent in humans, both in developed and developing countries.
The infection often seems to be subclinical and according to clinical findings, it seems that Cryptosporidium has a minor pathogenic effect in healthy individuals.
Young children are much more susceptible to Cryptosporidium infections than other age groups, probably due to their immunological immaturity. The most common clinical signs of Cryptosporidium infection are profuse and watery diarrhoea. Other general signs include crampy abdominal pain, fever, nausea and vomiting. A plethora of such signs is often associated with a marked weight loss.
The duration and severity of clinical signs reflect the immune status of the patients. Most immunocompetent persons are able to respond rapidly and resolve the disease within 1-2 weeks.
Due to their immunological deficiency, HIV infected and AIDS affected patients are at a high risk of contracting cryptosporidiosis. In such patients, infection produces persistent diarrhoea that worsens with time and eventually contributes to death. Infections are not always confined to the small intestine and parasites have been found in the oesophagus, stomach, appendix, colon and rectum.
Histology performed on the site of infection reveals enteritis with mild to severe villous atrophy, increased crypt size and cellular infiltrates in the lamina propria.
According to epidemiological animal health data, cryptosporidiosis is a major problem in cattle, where the majority of infections occur in fattening units, in multiple suckler beef herds and in dairy farms with multiple-cow maternity facilities (Reynolds et al., 1986; Garber et al., 1994). Natural infections have been reported in calves as young as four days old but they are most common at around two weeks of age and are rare in calves under one and over four weeks old (Pohlenz et al., 1978; Snodgrass et al., 1980). The most prominent symptoms in neonatal calves include watery diarrhoea, dehydration and weight loss; death may occur in the most severe cases even in the absence of other enteropathogens. It has been shown that a prepatent and a patent period ranging from 3-6 days and 4-13 days respectively, occur following an experimental C. parvum infection in neonatal calves (Fayer et al., 1998). This scenario suggests an age-related susceptibility to infection that is not completely understood. There is in fact evidence to suggest that the basis of susceptibility of neonatal animals to cryptosporidiosis, relies on the immunological immaturity of the host (Pasquali et al., 1997; Canals et al., 1998).
PREVENTION OF INFECTION
In order to develop a control strategy to reduce the incidence of infection, the following features of cryptosporidiosis have to be taken into account:
Cryptosporidium infections are spread through the ingestion or inhalation of oocysts;
avoid direct contact with faeces;
wash hands after changing nappies or touching objects that may be contaminated with faeces of human or animal origin;
wash hands before preparing food;
use filtered drinking water. |
I was lucky.
I fell in love with reading from my perch on my mama’s lap long before I was enrolled in school.
Then I caught the word fever on my own, and devoured book after book, determined to read everything. My third grade teacher had to shoo me out of the library to the playground during recess. And to this day, most of my possessions are made of paper and print.
But for some kids finding the road to reading takes more time.
And it’s fine to let children develop reading skills at different paces. Yet if they hit third grade and are still struggling with literacy, that’s a red flag. Because research shows that this benchmark is a determining point in educational success.
This is where SMART volunteers step in to help.
SMART is an acronym for Start Making A Reader Today, and it’s premise is simple: Pair two adult volunteers with kids who need reading support. The goal is to support children’s literary efforts and model good reading habits for a seven month period.
The SMART program, founded in 1992, also seeks to complement reading curriculum already embedded in schools. This means educators can aid children who need extra reading help by matching them with a SMART volunteer.
And the data indicates that the one-on-one mentorship of SMART volunteers pays off in a big way. Fifth graders who participated in SMART are 60 percent more likely to reach state reading benchmarks than are similar students who didn’t, according to an independent study by the Eugene Research Institute.
This week we’re featuring SMART as part of our award-winning Community Voices series. The podcast, featuring interview sessions with members of the organization, are below.
- Moving Lives Forward Podcast 03: Self Discovery Through Service - May 6, 2019
- Moving Lives Forward Podcast 02: Strategies for Tackling Student Loan Debt - April 2, 2019
- Moving Lives Forward Podcast 01: Want Impact….Try This! - February 6, 2019 |
Astronomers capture close-up images of breathtaking SPACE BUTTERFLY
The image was captured as part of the European Southern Observatory's (ESO) Cosmic Gems program, for the purposes of education and public outreach.
Peering into deep space through the ESO's Very Large Telescope, astronomers enjoyed a view of the huge bubble of glowing gas, in a near-symmetrical shape resembling a butterfly, between 3,000 and 6,500 light years away from Earth.
Though the nebula was discovered by British astronomer John Herschel in 1835, no one has ever seen it in such high resolution before.Also on rt.com 11-billion-year hole in our understanding of the history of the universe now ‘filled’
The butterfly's wingspan reaches nearly 19 trillion kilometers, or two light years. It is also incredibly hot, as the hydrogen and oxygen which make up its ‘body’ are heated to around 10,000 degrees Celsius (twice as hot as the Sun) thanks to two stars in its center, which are believed to give it its symmetrical appearance.
The NGC 2899 can only be viewed from the Southern hemisphere, and only through a powerful telescope – aptly known as the Very Large Telescope – which is conveniently located in Chile.
Its four 8.2-meter telescopes have discovered numerous images of deep space objects, such as the first known interstellar asteroid and light from a gravitational wave source, among others.
If you like this story, share it with a friend! |
In 1902, three Australian volunteers who served with the British Army during the Anglo Boer War were tried and sentenced for executing Boer combatants. Lieutenants Harry 'Breaker' Morant and Peter Handcock were executed and George Witton sentenced to life imprisonment.
The manner in which these men were treated remains controversial, shrouded in protest that they were scapegoated for the war crimes of their British superiors. The book is dedicated to the memory of Major James Francis Thomas who was relegated to history without an understanding of who he was and the part he played in the dynamic development of the town of Tenterfield in New South Wales, Australia, as a property owner, solicitor, newspaper proprietor, historian, poet, proponent for Australian nationalism, volunteer soldier. How he came to serve in the Boer War, yet destined to die alone from malnutrition, destitute having suffered from the stress of what he experienced in representing Morant, Handcock and Witton as their trial lawyer.
This book acknowledges Thomas' sacrifice he made in acting for his clients, a task that took a terrible toll on his mental and physical health and his life in Tenterfield. |
- All > Medicine Access and Rational Use > Antimicrobial Drug Resistance
- All > Medicine Access and Rational Use > Rational Use
- Keywords > antibiotics - non prescribed use
- Keywords > antibiotics - pattern of consumption
- Keywords > antibiotics - use
- Keywords > antibiotics control
- Keywords > antimicrobial resistance (AMR)
- Keywords > containment of antimicrobial resistance
- Keywords > data collection
- Keywords > inappropriate use
- Keywords > resistance containment
- Keywords > surveillance - antibiotic resistance and antibiotic use
- Keywords > confinement antimicrobien
(2011; 9 pages)
The overall volume of antibiotic consumption in the community is one of the foremost causes of antimicrobial resistance. There is much ad-hoc information about the inappropriate consumption of antibiotics, over-the-counter availability, and inadequate dosage but there is very little actual evidence of community practices.
This study surveyed antibiotic use in the community (December 2007-November 2008) using the established methodology of patient exit interviews at three types of facilities: 20 private retail pharmacies, 10 public sector facilities, and 20 private clinics to obtain a complete picture of community antibiotic use over a year. The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification and the Defined Daily Dose (DDD) measurement units were assigned to the data. Antibiotic use was measured as DDD/1000 patients visiting the facility and also as percent of patients receiving an antibiotic.
During the data collection period, 17995, 9205, and 5922 patients visiting private retail pharmacies, public facilities and private clinics, respectively, were included in our study. 39% of the patients attending private retail pharmacies and public facilities and 43% of patients visiting private clinics were prescribed at least one antibiotic. Consumption patterns of antibiotics were similar at private retail pharmacies and private clinics where fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins, and extended spectrum penicillins were the three most commonly prescribed groups of antibiotics. At public facilities, there was a more even use of all the major antibiotic groups including penicillins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, cephalosporins, tetracyclines, and cotrimoxazole. Newer members from each class of antibiotics were prescribed. Not much seasonal variation was seen although slightly higher consumption of some antibiotics in winter and slightly higher consumption of fluoroquinolones during the rainy season were observed.
A very high consumption of antibiotics was observed in both public and private sector outpatients. There was a high use of broad spectrum and newer antibiotics in the community. Suitable and sustainable interventions should be implemented to promote rational use of antibiotics that will help in decreasing the menace of antibiotic resistance. |
Information for Preteens:
Body Science, About Clumsiness
When your body is growing so much all at once, it's hard to get used to your new shape. That's why you may notice that you and your friends are much clumsier than usual.
- Have trouble with sports
- Be uncoordinated
- Drop things
- Bang into walls or doorknobs
- Feel awkward
It can be pretty weird – walking into walls suddenly or not being able to catch a football as well as you used to. In middle school, it's not uncommon for kids to fall down stairs or bang into doorknobs with their hipbones.
It may sound funny, but wait until it happens! My friends and I saw it happen all the time – and it happened to us, too. You'll be walking along and boom! Where'd that door come from? Were there always stairs here?
You may feel completely uncoordinated. Where'd those legs come from? Sports can also be pretty awkward. Things that were once easy for you may have to be relearned.
But, all of this clumsiness is okay and normal. It won't last long. Soon, you'll get used to your new body and everything will be back to normal!
Back to top |
[Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society, J32, 2003/1, pp9-11]
[John Wells: see New SSS President, 2004 AGM talk, Newsletter, Media, Web links.]
English Accents and their Implications for Spelling Reform.
John C Wells, Professor, Linguistics Dept., University College - London.
A recently edited version of a talk given to the Spelling Society on 25 January 1986.Spelling that is changed to accommodate one accent may disrupt another. Many seemingly odd spellings such as <any> are actually pronounced that way in some dialect of English. The heterographs <Mist/missed> are homophonic almost everywhere except Nigeria. What is a phonetic representation of a word for one person is not necessarily phonetic for another. Even with the awareness of the varying patterns of contrast in different English accents, you can't satisfy all of the speakers all of the time; the best that can be hoped is that a reform will satisfy most of the speakers most of the time. This is the first installment of a two part article.
1. Some Basic Problems.
1.1. The alphabet.
An ideal spelling system, we all know, will have one symbol for one sound, one grapheme for one phoneme. But this principle throws up certain difficulties in practice. If we confine ourselves to consideration of the Latin alphabet, one major difficulty is that it is an arbitrary list of 26 letters which do not necessarily correspond to the sound systems of the languages which have to use it. In particular, they do not correspond to the sound system of English. On the one hand, the Latin alphabet provides us with no unambiguous way of spelling English sounds that Latin lacked (e.g. the sound we often spell sh, the two sounds we spell th, and many of our vowels and diphthongs); on the other, it contains at least two letters, q and x, that were unnecessary even from the point of view of Latin. In this article, however, I am concerned not so much with the deficiencies of the alphabet and how we might remedy them (the 'grapheme' part) as with the problems arising from the fact that we English speakers do not all pronounce our language in the same way (the 'phoneme' part). As my eminent predecessor Daniel Jones pointed out in his article about phonetics and spelling reform (1944),
people in different parts of the country speak differently [...;] what is a phonetic representation of a word for one person is not necessarily phonetic for another.In raising these problems I do not want to detract from the fact that there are large numbers of words in our language where they do not arise. All speakers of English, no matter where they come from, pronounce friend so that it rhymes with bend, send, tend. So a reformed spelling frend ought to be uncontroversial. Everyone pronounces sight, site and cite identically, so it is absurd (except for advocates of etymological spelling) that we have to learn to spell them all differently. Everyone distinguishes the verb to advise from the noun the advice, so we can see the justification for distinguishing them in spelling - yet we all make the same pronunciation difference between to use, to house, to excuse and the nouns the use, the house, the excuse where we make no spelling distinction. /Uz houz exkUz - Us hous exkUs/
1.2 Danger of parochialism.
The sounds of any language can be viewed as a system of contrasting phonemes. The pronunciation of any word can be specified in terms of the string of phonemes that represent it, together perhaps with information about relevant prosodic features (in the case of English, about stress placement). In designing a scheme of spelling reform, we face a certain danger of insularity or parochialism, of assuming that everybody has the same set of phonemes, and uses the same phonemes in particular words as we do ourselves. Unfortunately this is not the case. What seems obvious and normal to one speaker may be exotic, unusual, subtle and strange to another. There are all sorts of little facts about how English is pronounced round the world by native speakers which may give us pause in our reforming zeal. Here is a simple example. The traditional spelling of the words any and many conflicts with the way most of us say them. It may seem obvious to most of us that they rhyme with penny and so ought to be spelt in the same way, perhaps as enny and menny. In making such an assumption, however, we are ignoring the awkward fact that many southern Irish people pronounce them to rhyme with nanny, so that they would see nothing strange about writing them with the letter a. Maybe they would want to write anny and manny rather than any and many, but that is not my point. I concede that in English as a whole the preferences of the southern Irish may have to give way before those of the vast majority of other English speakers - but we should be aware of what our proposals imply.
2. Consonant Variations.
2.1 Spelling the past tense.
Ought mist and missed to be spelt identically because they are pronounced identically? Or should we give the past tense a consistent spelling shape with d, even when, as in missed, it is pronounced /t/? In deciding this issue, we should perhaps consider the Nigerians, who do not usually pronounce missed like mist. This is because - under the influence of traditional orthography - they typically use a /d/ sound in missed, and in fact usually assimilate the /s/ sound to a /z/, so saying /mizd/, with voicing throughout. For them kicked, likewise, tends to rhyme with rigged rather than with strict. I am not necessarily saying that we have to let our reform proposals be determined by how Nigerians pronounce English, even though they do constitute a substantial body of users of English. But I am saying that we should at least be aware that a reform that makes spelling more logical for one group of speakers may make it less logical for another.
2.2 Spell or omit r?
From New Spelling onwards the importance of catering for accents other than Received Pronunciation has been clear from the treatment of historical r (Ripman and Archer, 1948). Like most English people, in my speech I don't distinguish stork and stalk. If spelling reform proposals do make a distinction, as they usually do, then the reason is (a) historical and (b) because they are pronounced differently from one another in other accents. Historically, stork had /r/, and stalk did not. In many varieties of English (Scottish, Irish, west of England, most American, Canadian - the rhotic accents) the distinction is still made in speech. Similarly pairs such as larva - lava, rotor - rota, homophonous for English people like me, are distinct in the rhotic accents. This justifies our keeping the distinction in spelling, even though the task of learning which words to write with r and which without will impose some burden on those of us whose English is non-rhotic. And those of us who pronounce intrusive /r/, saying perhaps rotar of duties, will have to remember not to write r in some positions where we pronounce it, as well as sometimes writing it where we do not pronounce it. Faced with this problem, spelling reform has little alternative to accommodating the rhotic speakers, even if the consequence is that we non-rhotic speakers must learn by rote when to write r and when not.
Singer and finger.
A similar problem arises with ng. Consider the pair singer:finger. For most speakers these words do not rhyme exactly, because finger has a /g/ sound after the nasal. It seems logical to write singer but fingger (Ripman 1941). The trouble here is that people in the trapezium linking Birmingham-Manchester-Liverpool make these words rhyme, with /g/ in both. So if we show a difference in spelling, some Midlanders and Northerners will have to learn an extra arbitrary distinction. Alternatively, I suggest, it is a distinction we might well decide to ignore - so incidentally also simplifying the spelling of the comparative and superlative of long, strong, young, whose irregular pronunciation in most accents would otherwise be reflect in reformed spelling as longger, longgest etc.
3. Vowel Variations.
3.1 Greater problems with vowels.
Such variations in pronunciation mean we may have to violate the principle of one sound per letter and one letter per sound in quite obvious ways, ways that probably everyone can accept. Greater difficulties perhaps arise with vowel-sounds and sets of vowel-contrasts, where I think the danger is particularly strong of wrongly assuming that everybody makes the same contrasts.
In what follows I make use of the concept of standard lexical sets, as proposed in Wells 1982: 2.2. Each keyword, shown in capitals, stands for perhaps hundreds or thousands of words containing the vowel sound in question. The keywords are chosen so as to maximize clarity: whatever accent of English we use, they can hardly be mistaken for any other word.
3.2 The Sam - psalm contrast.
New Spelling makes special provision for the words I shall refer to as the lexical set BATH - words such as pass, path, chance - by allowing either a or aa. There is an assumption behind this permissive solution, namely that everyone distinguishes the vowel sound in gather from that in father. However, this is not the case. In parts of the west of England and certainly in Scotland and Northern Ireland some people have no such contrast in their phoneme system. They use the same vowel in Sam as in psalm, so that these two words are homophones for them. It would actually have been consistent with this fact for New Spelling to ignore the difference between these two vowel sounds. It has very low functional load, which is to say that there are very few word-pairs that are distinguished as Sam and psalm are. So we might prefer, in a reformed spelling scheme, to ignore the contrast that RP makes between the vowel sounds of mass and pass, and abandon the New Spelling aa entirely. On the other hand RP speakers and others who make pass rhyme with farce must still remember the spelling difference reflecting the historical r in farce (fars) but not in pass (pas). By taking accent variability into account one lays oneself open to the objection that one has abandoned the principle of one letter per sound. The southern English will protest that mass and pass differ in sound, while pass and farce do not - yet we would be proposing the same spelling for the first pair and different spellings for the second. I do not think we can avoid this difficulty.
3.3 CLOTH, LOT, THOUGHT.
Less well known is the very similar situation affecting the lexical set CLOTH, namely words such as cross, cough, lost, where even within RP in this century we had a rival pronunciation which might be respelt as clawth, crawss, cawf, lawst. This situation has now resolved: the clawth variant is now very much a minority form, if it indeed still exists. But the problem here is that American pronunciation really corresponds to crawss, cawf, clawth, lawst rather than to cross, cof, cloth, lost (to the extent that Americans distinguish the two vowel sounds at all, which many do not). If we follow New Spelling and keep lot as lot while changing thought to thawt, my point is that most people in England would logically not change the spelling of cloth and other words like it. But Americans generally speaking identify the CLOTH set with the THOUGHT set, not the LOT set, and might therefore logically want to write clawth, etc. This would also apply to words such as long (lawng), since for them it too belongs with THOUGHT, not with LOT.
3.4 Ignore such contrasts?
If pressed, I would propose the same radical solution here as with TRAP, BATH and PALM, namely to ignore the whole set of contrasts and write LOT and THOUGHT identically, probably as o. This would also suit Scottish and Northern Irish pronunciation, many Scots having the same vowel for LOT and THOUGHT, as do also most Canadians and many Americans. We would then have to forget the distinction we English (and Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans) make between cot and caught, don and dawn. In fact those of us who make a sharp difference between these two vowels are perhaps a minority; if we were to insist on distinguishing them in reformed spelling we would be imposing a real burden on the many people who make no such distinction and who would have to learn what for them would be an arbitrary difference in spelling.
3.5 Misconceptions about r.
In this area RP speakers, and many others, would again face the same problem of r, as in stalk (stok) but stork (stork). In reformed spelling we should have to write kot for cot, caught, but kort for court. Inevitably, some people would have to accept that they should write certain words identically that they pronounce differently, and other words differently that they pronounce the same. This could lead to difficulties. Wherever the spelling depends on what happens in other people's accents rather than in one's own, one is liable to be misled because of mistaken ideas of what happens in other accents. We can see this in the difficulty we English people have if we try to imitate American or Scottish accents - even talented English actors or impressionists attempting American or Scottish speech quite often make mistakes. Peter Sellers, in his spoof travelogue Balham, Gateway to the South, talking lyrically in his pseudo-American accent about morning coming, says "and now at last we see the [dorn] approach". But Americans don't say an r-sound in dawn. Its reformed spelling will have to be don, not dorn. Clearly even for highly literate people sound in a sense dominates spelling in their mental picture of words; so when imitating another accent they set up correspondences between sounds in their own accent and what they imagine are the equivalents in the other accent, rather than be guided to the spelling. (After all, the presence/absence of r in traditional spelling is a pretty reliable indicator of whether rhotic speakers pronounce /r/ in a particular word.) English actors playing Scottish parts likewise make many errors with /r/, pronouncing words such as comma and China with final /r/. This is because in many words English final schwa does correspond to Scottish final /r/, as in father; but in many other words there is no such correspondence.
4. Further problems with a and o.
4.1 Bother and father.
A difficulty with the simplification that I have just been advocating is that while I propose the reformed spelling a for PALM and o for LOT, most Americans pronounce these two lexical sets with the same vowel-sound. Thus in a typical American pronunciation father and bother rhyme perfectly. Americans make puns that don't work for the British: a Saab car sounds like sob for them, and they put up posters for the painter Salvador Dali saying "Hello Dali", punning on Hello Dolly, with which it is for them homophonous. This means that the Americans, the most numerous and influential part of the English-speaking community, will be confronted with the uncertainty of how to spell words in which they use this vowel sound. They are going to have to write it o as in lot in most words, but presumably - unless we allow both possibilities in reformed spelling - as a in a minority of cases such as father and palm. Words like pasta will also come under this heading: Americans will have to remember to write pasta rather than the posta that might seem to them more logical. Hey, we all have to make compromises.
4.2 NORTH and FORCE.
Most of us nowadays use the same vowel sound in NORTH as in FORCE. New Spelling, however, was inclined to allow for two distinct sounds here. Ripman 1941 marks FORCE words, but not NORTH words, with an asterisk: A considerable number of words written here with or are pronounced by many speakers with oer, and may be written so if desired. (p.6)
This distinction is a historical one which is now mostly lost in England, North America and the southern hemisphere, though still made in Scotland and Ireland and to some extent in Wales, the West Indies, and the United States. Speakers who have it make a difference, for example, between horse and hoarse, and do not rhyme short and sport, fork and pork. Common sense may tell us to ignore the distinction, since only a minority now make it. But this does mean that the Scots, etc., would risk misspelling FORCE words, in which they use their GOAT vowel, not their THOUGHT vowel.
4.3 NORTH-FORCE and CURE.
Not only have NORTH and FORCE sets merged for the English: the CURE words (e.g. sure, poor, tour have joined them too for many speakers. Many English people now pronounce Shaw, shore, sure as homophones, and likewise paw, pore-pour, poor. I would suggest all the forms with r could be spelt in the same way, and that we ignore the Scottish or Irish distinction between war, shore, sure, writing them all perhaps with or.
References:The final installment of this article will appear in the next issue of the Journal. References include Daniel Jones, English Pronouncing Dictionary and Dhe Fonetik Aspekt ov Speling Reform , Ripman and Archer, New Spelling , and John Wells, Longman's Pronunciation Dictionary , J.C. Wells, 'English Accents and their Implications for Spelling Reform' in Simplified Spelling Society Newsletter Summer 1986, J3 pp.5-13
Back to the top. |
The revised mid-2016 population estimate for Wakefield District is 337,094 people.
As is typical nationally, the Wakefield District age profile shows the effect of baby-boom years of the 1950s and 1960s and greater numbers of women in older age than men. Overall numbers are projected to keep on increasing, albeit more slowly than elsewhere in the region, with improved life expectancy resulting in a greater proportion of the population being made up of people in older age groups.
When compared with many other metropolitan districts Wakefield’s age profile has smaller than average proportions of people in the late-teen, early 20’s age bands. This reflects the absence of any sizeable university presence within Wakefield district. In large university cities such as Leeds, by contrast, increasing levels of participation in higher education in recent decades have created a population where 9.8% of people are aged 20-24, compared to 6.0% in Wakefield District.
The total population of Wakefield District is expected to rise by approximately 6,000 persons (332,000 in 2015 to 338,000 in 2018). Compared to other regional Health & Wellbeing Board areas with more urbanised populations, the growth is quite marginal.
What do things look like locally?
Resident Population Projections
Population projections are produced every two years and are important for planning community services provision and ensuring that the needs of the local population are met. The tables below illustrate that the population of Wakefield is projected to change differentially according to particular age groups.
As nationally, the population age profile in Wakefield District is becoming older. The implications of an ageing population are many and varied and will include increased demand for health and well-being services; more people reliant on pension income (usually considerably lower than income from work); and increased human resources for care services (paid and unpaid carers). The number of people of working age is projected to increase slightly, solely due to phased increases in the state pension age to 66, 67 and then 68 (between 2037 and 2039 under current plans).
What can we expect in the future?
There will be a major shift in the population structure over the next 5 to 10 years as the proportion of the population aged over 65 increases. The pyramids above demonstrate how the Wakefield population is projected to become flatter across the age ranges.
In terms of sheer numbers and percentage changes, this can be awkward to present in a concise and engaging manner. However, using ONS projections based on 2008 estimates, we can show how the broad age groups are likely to alter over time.
According to this data, Wakefield is expected to encounter a large population structure change within the next five years, with the older persons grouping growing by over 11% by 2016 (73,000 persons), and over 22% by 2021 (80,900 persons). By 2025 we are going to see a doubling of men aged 85 and over. By 2031, the older persons population is expected to have grown by over 50%, representing a population close to 100,000 persons.
While this is happening, the working age population is not predicted to grow at anywhere near the same level, approximately 1.6% by 2031 (about 3,300 additional persons in the theoretical workforce). Similarly, the children’s age band will grow by about 7% over the same time period.
Health and wellbeing needs increase with age, with a higher burden of chronic disease, susceptibility to the negative impacts of social isolation and an associated raised need for health and social care services and carers. Local plans should reflect this anticipated demographic shift. |
croton krō´tən [key], any of several species of Codiaeum that are widely cultivated as ornamentals and houseplants. The most popular species is C. variegatum, which has many cultivated forms of highly colored variegated leaves. Croton is also used as the common name for all species of the genus Croton, some of which are used as medicinals. These include C. tiglium, the source of croton oil, a purgative, and
sangre de grado,C. lechleri, an important folk medicine in western Amazonia. C. megalocarpus, a tree of E and central Africa that has historically been grown for shade, firewood, and fence posts, is being explored as a source of biofuel; the oil cake remaining after pressing the seeds for oil may be used for animal feed. Both Croton and Codiaeum are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Euphorbiales, family Euphorbiaceae.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Plants |
A healthy pregnancy diet is vital because nutrition is the major intrauterine environmental factor that alters the expression of the fetal genome and may have lifelong consequences.
Maternal malnutrition is associated with low birth weight, increased perinatal morbidity, and even mortality. It increases the child’s risk of developing chronic diseases such as hypertension, insulin resistance, type-2-diabetes, and other cardiovascular and neurological diseases.
The Role Of A Healthy Pregnancy Diet In Fetal Growth
Diet and nutrition are important factors in the promotion and maintenance of good health throughout the entire life course.
However, many people in the developing world, particularly women and children, continue to suffer from undernutrition, the adverse health effects of which are frequently compounded by deficiencies in micronutrients, particularly iodine, iron, zinc, vitamin A, folic acid, and vitamin B12.
Determining one’s nutrient needs during pregnancy is complicated because nutrient levels in tissues and fluids that are available for evaluation and interpretation are normally altered by hormone-induced changes in the metabolism, shifts in plasma volume, changes in renal function, and the patterns of urinary excretion.
Generally, the daily requirements of macro (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) and micro (minerals, vitamins) nutrients are easily met in women who follow a balanced and healthy pregnancy diet that provides the recommended daily allowance of all nutrients.
How A Healthy Pregnancy Diet Affects Fetal Programming
The conditions in the maternal womb have a programming effect on fetal physiology. In simpler terms, this means that the overall development of the fetus is closely tied to the conditions that the fetus is exposed to in the womb.
The fetal programming hypothesis proposes that chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease and type-2-diabetes originate through adaptations that the fetus makes when it is undernourished.
In response to an adverse intrauterine environment, the fetus adapts its physiological development to maximize its immediate chances for survival. These adaptations may be vascular, metabolic or endocrine. They permanently change the function and the structure of the fetus’ body in adult life.
There is substantial epidemiological evidence that the nutritional and hormonal environment experienced by the fetus can determine its degree of risk as an adult.
This association appears to be independent of classic lifestyle risk factors such as smoking, obesity, social class, alcohol consumption, and lack of exercise, which are additive to the effect. Indeed, evidence from both human and animal studies suggests that diseases that primarily occur during adult life are induced by the fetal environment.
For this reason, following a healthy pregnancy diet that takes care of the nutritional needs of the fetus is one of easiest ways to ensure that the child’s overall development as an adult is secured.
Why Inadequate Nutrition Poses A Long Term Risk
Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene activity that are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence. These genetic changes may remain through cell divisions for the remainder of the cell’s life and may also last for multiple generations.
Two mechanisms mediating epigenetic effects are DNA methylation and histone modification (acetylation and methylation). There is growing evidence that maternal nutritional status can alter the epigenetic state of the fetal genome and imprint gene expression. Epigenetic alterations in early embryos may be carried forward to subsequent developmental stages.
This means that by not following a diet that’s packed with nutrients, you’ll be placing your further generations at risk and not just your child.
As all such studies point out, maternal nutrition during pregnancy is an important determinant for fetal growth. With a healthy pregnancy diet, you’ll be able to prevent low birth weight, rapid neonatal growth, and adult diseases like cardiovascular conditions in the child. |
verb (used with object), dis·posed, dis·pos·ing.
verb (used without object), dis·posed, dis·pos·ing.
- to deal with conclusively; settle.
- to get rid of; discard.
- to transfer or give away, as by gift or sale.
- to do away with; destroy.
QUIZ YOURSELF ON AFFECT VS. EFFECT!
Origin of dispose
OTHER WORDS FROM disposedis·pos·ing·ly, adverbre·dis·pose, verb (used with object), re·dis·posed, re·dis·pos·ing.
Words nearby dispose
Example sentences from the Web for dispose
Nothing much to use in cleaning up the baby and his mother after the birth, no place to dispose of the placenta.
The Jewish Week reported that sources said Hynes was expected to dispose of the case with a lenient plea deal.
And with so many pigs dying, farms have been challenged to try to find hygienic ways to dispose of the carcasses.Aporkalypse Now: Pig-Killing Virus Could Mean the End of Bacon|Carrie Arnold|August 20, 2014|DAILY BEAST
He wanted to make sure that he had the maximum amount of time to attack his victim and dispose of her body.
The Japanese team then folded, allowing Rong Guotuan quickly to dispose of his last opponent.
But its use as such is to dispose of any such idea as that there is a natural price of coal or of anything else.The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice|Stephen Leacock
My object was to dispose of a cargo of cotton which I had brought from Realejo, and to purchase sugar in return.Life of Richard Trevithick, Volume II (of 2)|Francis Trevithick
Truce now, Gregory; and consider how we can best dispose ourselves here, till the morning.The Battle of Hexham;|George Colman
During this journey I was an eye-witness of the manner in which the missionaries dispose of their religious tracts.A Woman's Journey Round the World|Ida Pfeiffer
His creature has no right to ask the reason of His conduct; He can dispose at will of the works of His hands.Superstition In All Ages (1732)|Jean Meslier
British Dictionary definitions for dispose
- to deal with or settle
- to give, sell, or transfer to another
- to throw out or away
- to consume, esp hurriedly
- to kill |
* Number of OXYGEN STONE pieces depends on the size of fish, number of fish and water temperature.
* If the fish gasp at the water surface - avery common sign of low oxygen levels - replace water and OXYGEN STONE pieces.
* The higher the water temperature, the less oxygen it holds. We recommend that you keep your aquariums away from excessive heat and/or direct sunlight.
*Make sure you replace Oxygen Stone every month or as needed.
*Do not open the bags that contain Oxygen Stone until you are ready to use.
*store unopened Oxygen Stone in a dry place.
*Instruction for Use:
Use only bottled spring water(not distilled water) at room temperature. Place gravel in the tank. Put Oxygen stone piece(s) on the gravel. You may see air bubbles forming on the Oxygen Stone, that is the oxygen generated by Oxygen Stone. Those air bubbles will disappear, dissolving into the water. But Oxygen Stone continues to produce oxygen for the period of about one month. |
WHEN Vestine Mukeshimana bought electric lights last month from BBOXX, an off-grid solar company, it helped her spot snakes in her garden and stopped thieves making off with her cow. In her Rwandan village she and her neighbours now cook after dark and their children study in the evenings. They have never heard of the Green Climate Fund (GCF), a UN initiative to bring climate finance to developing countries. But last month such household solar schemes became its first disbursed investment.
Understaffed and buffeted by politics, the GCF is struggling to define itself. It started operations last year after coaxing $10.3 billion from governments. Raising money was hard; spending it is proving even harder. Its board meets on October 12th in Songdo, South Korea, to weigh up proposals. It will also have to mull appointing a new boss. Héla Cheikhrouhou, the old one, has left, warning that the wrong projects are being financed.
The debate goes to the very purpose of the GCF. It was set up in 2010, part of a pledge to transfer $100 billion of climate cash a year by 2020. Developing countries had long lamented that they bear the brunt of climate change, having done little to cause it; the GCF gave them equal board representation and promised that half the money would be used to deal with the impacts of climate change (not just reducing emissions). Rich countries, which pay, wanted a role for the private sector, too.
The talk is of “paradigm shifts”. But of the 17 projects approved so far, few are transformational. In June, for instance, the board approved $49m to plonk more solar panels in a Chilean desert so baked in solar energy that some suppliers had been giving it away. Over 90% of the money is being funnelled through the usual suspects, such as multilateral development banks and UN agencies. Many of them, says one observer, have been pulling old proposals out of drawers. National authorities are puffing to keep up.
Part of the problem is politics. With one eye on future fund-raising, the board has set an ambitious target of approving $2.5 billion of investment by the end of the year (the total now stands at $257m). So far it has waved through every proposal put to it, from wastewater management in Fiji to weather-warning systems in Malawi.
A deeper issue is who leads the management of the projects. Rather than running its own, the GCF channels money through “accredited entities”. A decision to accredit big commercial banks, Deutsche Bank and HSBC, has stirred controversy. Yet the process stretches the capacity of smaller institutions. The GCF should do more to understand local contexts, says Alex Mulisa, who heads Rwanda’s own climate fund. Another developing-country technocrat grumbles “we’ll be under water” by the time his project is considered.
But good ideas are out there—like Ms Mukeshimana’s solar panels. The GCF is putting $25m into a fund raised by Acumen, an impact investor, to be invested in off-grid solar firms in east Africa (it bought equity in BBOXX in August). Private co-financing will magnify the impact and money is put aside for consumer protection, like keeping the lights on if the firm servicing the system goes bust.
Or take a scheme in El Salvador, which will give small businesses greater certainty about investing in energy efficiency, by insuring against the risk that the cost savings are less than promised. By being bolder itself—through offering insurance or partial guarantees—the GCF can reassure private firms nervous of new technologies and unpredictable markets.
If it is to have any point, the GCF must go where the World Bank or private money dare not. It must also sort out its own processes. Beefing up the secretariat is one step; devolving some smaller decisions from board level would help too. The GCF (which turned down The Economist’s requests for an interview) still has a lot going for it. It is young. It has rare political legitimacy. It has moved further, faster, than other climate funds (like the Adaptation Fund) had at a similar stage.
But now is the moment when precedents are set. “The GCF is under pressure to be everything to everyone,” says Niranjali Amerasinghe of the World Resources Institute, a research organisation. Bankers want to lure investment from pension funds; the World Bank is promoting dam projects; civil-society groups demand “locally driven” development. The GCF cannot give them all a green light.
This article appeared in the Finance & economics section of the print edition under the headline "The green light" |
The tree basin is the square – or rectangle – that is cut out of the sidewalk. Cover it with mulch, which retains moisture and helps prevent soil erosion.
Soil / mulch should be level with the sidewalk.
Mulch should be about 3″ deep but should be kept away from the trunk.
If you need to add soil, it’s best to add natural soil from the immediate area rather than to buy soil. (see the soil section to find out why)
Don’t raise the soil around your tree trunk! It can cause rot and kill the tree. If you must build a raised box around the tree, keep the tree trunk at a separate level from the raised part. Do this with a large tube or barrier around the trunk, with plenty of airspace, inside the box. Make sure there is room for the tree to grow!
Note that city code requires that you apply for a minor encroachment permit for anything that sticks up around the border of a tree basin. This includes benches, bollards (large concrete poles), fences, planter boxes, etc. The edging treatment must be at least 6 inches and no more than 15 inches high from the grade of the sidewalk and allow water to flow around or through into the landscape (tree basin). It may be made of wood, stone, decorative metal or other material, subject to staff review. For more information call the DPW Bureau of Urban Forestry, 415-641-2676.
Don’t add other plants to the basin during the first year after planting; they’ll compete with the tree for water and nutrients. On the other hand, bare dirt isn’t good either, because it doesn’t hold moisture well. If you do have other plants in the basin, keep them short and away from the trunk. See our tips on companion plants.
We recommend against covering the basin with bricks or stones; they won’t help control roots, and they may deprive the tree of water and oxygen. If you do add bricks or stones, leave spaces between them, and do not fill the spaces with mortar. Consider adding only a border of flat bricks, rather than covering the basin.
If the soil is sandy, the tree’s roots are less likely to crack the sidewalk as the tree grows, because roots travel easily through sand, and they’ll tend to travel downward to chase the water that penetrates quickly through the sand. If the soil is clay-like, however, roots are more likely to grow close to the surface and to crack the sidewalk. To avoid this, you can do preventive “root pruning” when the tree is young by taking a shovel and cutting around the border of the tree basin every 6 months or so. Using a “rootguard” for larger tree species or species with invasive roots may prevent or delay future sidewalk disruption, but works better in sandy soils.
Help! My sidewalk is cracking! What do I do?
If a tree is already cracking your sidewalk, the best solution is to expand the tree basin to accommodate the roots. The Americans with Disabilities Act requires that the sidewalk be at least 4 feet wide to allow the passage of wheelchairs, so there’s a limit to how wide your basin can be, but there’s often plenty of room to expand it lengthwise. An expanded basin can be turned into a beautiful sidewalk garden.
Expansion of the tree basin may require a minor encroachment permit. Please check with the DPW Bureau of Urban Forestry, 415-641-2676.
If you can’t expand the tree basin, follow these three steps:
- Remove the affected concrete.
- Have the tree root pruned by a certified arborist. This is not a job for a novice. The idea is to prune the roots without adversely affecting the stability and health of the tree. See our arborist referral page.
- Replace the concrete. |
M.I.T. researchers have developed a robot cheetah that they say may soon be faster than its real-life counterpart. The 70-pound robot can trot for up to 90 minutes at 5 miles per hour with motors that can be programmed to adjust the robot’s legs depending on the terrain. It’s remarkable, they say, because of its ability to do this all without wasting very much energy.
Sangbae Kim, the Esther and Harold E. Edgerton Assistant Professor in MIT’s Department of Mechanical Engineering, tthat the highly energy efficient robot may be useful for emergencies where emergency workers would be in danger–like the Fukushima Disaster.
“There are so many ways to design, and each legged robot has a different system,” Kim said. “If you design the motor properly, it’s more powerful, simpler robotics.” |
If you’ve been diagnosed with hypothyroidism, you’ll be eager to know what is hypothyroidism and how it’ll affect your life on a day-to-day basis. The first thing you need to know about this disease is that in almost all cases, it is fatal only if left untreated. Secondly, it is not completely curable and requires treatment throughout the course of your life.
Now that you know that the outcome of this condition is not all bad, you need to learn more about it to accustom yourself to the idea of living with hypothyroidism.
What Is Hypothyroidism?
At the time of hypothyroidism diagnosis, you’re likely to have heard from your doctor that this is a condition caused by an underactive thyroid gland. To elaborate on that, your thyroid gland produces important hormones like thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These thyroid hormones are responsible for regulating the rate at which your body uses up fats and carbohydrates. Their production and release into your bloodstream depends on the interdependent functioning of your thyroid gland, pituitary gland, and your hypothalamus.
When there is a malfunction at any of these levels, it affects the production of the thyroid hormones. In your case, the thyroid gland has failed to produce these hormones in sufficient quantities, and as a result you have hypothyroidism.
Causes And Risk Factors
While the exact cause of your condition can be pinpointed only through a consultation with your doctor, here are some causes and risk factors associated with this condition.
- Iodine deficiency, which is the most common cause of hypothyroidism
- Sporadic inheritance, which is either a non-genetic disorder unlikely to be repeated or a genetic one occurring for the first time in the family
- The use of lithium-based mood stabilizers, which are prescribed for treating individuals with bipolar disorder
In some cases, hypothyroidism may be transient. For example, some women develop this condition for a short while post pregnancy. In rare cases, children may be affected with hypothyroidism at birth.
Symptoms That Act As Red Flags
Some of these symptoms are probably what alerted you that something was amiss with your body and drove you to consult a doctor for diagnosis.
- Dry and itchy skin
- Weight gain
- Decreased sweating
- Increased sensitivity to cold
While these are some common and early hypothyroidism symptoms, there may be others like hair loss, memory impairment, lowered sense of smell and taste, and shortness of breath.
Diagnosis Measures Followed
A measurement of the Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is the most common test for hypothyroidism. If your TSH levels appear to be normal, you still might be required to undergo other blood tests to rule out the presence of secondary or tertiary hypothyroidism. In some cases, the diagnosis involves the measurement of the basal body temperature, serum cholesterol, and antithyroid antibodies.
Treatment Options Likely To Be Suggested
Hypothyroidism treatment involves administering the levorotatory forms of triiodothyronine (liothyronine or L-T3) and thyroxine (levothyroxine or L-T4). But, based on the exact nature of your condition, your doctor may put you on one of the following treatments.
- A combination therapy involving the natural forms of L-T3 and L-T4, which are found in an animal-based thyroid extract
- A combination therapy involving the simultaneous administration of the L-T4 and L-T3 hormones in their synthetic form
- Administration of the synthetic form of levothyroxine or L-T4 only, which is the most common form of treatment
If you’ve been diagnosed with subclinical hypothyroidism, your physician will need to study your condition further to narrow down the best options for treatment.
Since you’ve now understood what is hypothyroidism, it is probably evident to you that this is a medical condition like any other, and with a timely hypothyroidism test and treatment, it can be kept under control. Sticking to a hypothyroidism diet also helps to quite an extent.
As long as you consult your doctor from time to time and strictly adhere to his advice, your hypothyroidism treatment should proceed without a glitch. More importantly, learning in detail about what is hypothyroidism can help you stop worrying about your condition and mentally prepare yourself to live with it. |
Written by: Jacob N. Kinnard
Likewise, Ramanuja (1017-1137), another great theological commentator, is often seen as a "founder" in that he articulated a complex theological and devotional system known as Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (qualified non-dualism), which, like Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, had a tremendous influence on later Hindu thought and practice. Ramanuja argued, in contrast to Shankara, that there is an essential difference between the world and the divine, although individuals contain a fragment or portion of the divine. For the followers of Ramanuja, knowledge is not as essential as devotion (bhakti).
|Founder: Shankara Acharya||Founder: Ramanuja|
|School: Advaita Vedanta||School: Vishishtadvaita Vedanta|
|Belief: the material realm and the divine cosmos are essentially the same||Belief: the material world and the divine are different|
Again, Hinduism is not a single institution, but a vast, complex collection of schools, subschools, sects, subsects, etc., that together make up what is known as "Hinduism." As such, there can be no single founder, but rather a diverse group of men and women who have contributed, over the course of two millennia, essential philosophical and ritual and devotional principles that, together, can be understood to make up the whole of the religion.
1. Who was Manu?
2. What was Shankara Acharya's contribution to Hinduism?
3. Who was Ramanuja, and how did his teachings conflict with those before him?
4. Why is it incorrect to classify Hinduism as a single institution? |
Chinese satellites raising orbits after launch anomaly
WASHINGTON — Two Chinese remote sensing satellites placed into a low orbit after an apparent problem with their launch vehicle are gradually raising their orbits and may still be able to carry out their missions.
The two SuperView-1 satellites launched at 10:23 p.m. Eastern Dec. 27 from the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center on a Long March 2D rocket. Chinese media declared the launch a success, but satellite observers noted the two spacecraft were placed in elliptical orbits ranging from 214 to 524 kilometers rather than the planned circular sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 530 kilometers.
Since the launch, the two satellites have been gradually raising their orbits. Orbital data provided by the U.S. Air Force’s Joint Space Operations Center indicated that as of early Dec. 30 one spacecraft, designated SuperView-1 01, is in an orbit of 352 by 526 kilometers. The other, SuperView-1 02, is in an orbit of 369 by 526 kilometers.
Such maneuvers would be consistent with the satellites using onboard propulsion to raise their orbits, at some cost to their lifetimes. A secondary payload on the launch, a student-built small satellite named BY70-1, is in an orbit of 214 by 518 kilometers, suggesting it lacks a propulsion system to raise its orbit.
Neither the owner of the SuperView satellites, Siwei Star Co. Ltd. of Beijing, nor other Chinese officials have commented on the apparent launch anomaly. Outside observers noted that the timing of several events during the launch, including the separation of the second stage from the first stage and the second stage’s engine shutdown, were delayed from scheduled times by several seconds.
The two SuperView satellites are the first commercial Chinese high-resolution Earth imaging satellites. The spacecraft, each weighing 560 kilograms, carry cameras capable of taking images at a resolution of 0.5 meters per pixel. They will be joined by two similar spacecraft scheduled for launch in 2017, placed in the same orbit and separated from one another by 90 degrees.
Ultimately, Siwei Star Co. Ltd. plans to place 16 such spacecraft in orbit, in a constellation that will also include four satellites capable of even higher resolution imagery, four designed to produce synthetic aperture radar imagery and an unspecified number of hyperspectral and video satellites. That constellation, the company said prior to this launch, would be completed by 2022. |
In the Garden:
Pitcher plants have fascinating flowers plus leafy tubes that lure and digest insects.
A Pitch for Pitcher Plants
There's a smug satisfaction in growing plants that devour mosquitoes and flies. Venus fly trap (Dionaea), pitcher plant (Sarracenia), sundew (Drosera), bladderwort (Utricularia), and butterwort (Pingula) are all alien-looking plants that have all sorts of devices to lure their breakfast, lunch, and dinner.
Pitcher plants always attract me. Their fantastical appearance quickly grabs my eye -- tall, tubular, and distinctly veined leaves and unique nodding flower heads. Pitcher plants come in many sizes and colors --chartreuse; light green with red veins; burgundy; yellow with red veins; green, white, and red veined. Insects are attracted to the tube's nectar and patterning. They fly into the leafy pitchers, lose traction on the tube's waxy coating, and fall to their demise.
Sarracenia alata x oreophila recently made me do a double-take at a New Jersey nursery. The slender, chartreuse tubes stood 20 inches, flanked by firm green flowers on equally tall stems. Nearby Sarracenia 'Love Bug' was nearly the opposite -- shorter, plumper green leaves with distinctly veined burgundy tops.
At $24.99, I admired them both and shook my head. Not in my budget.
Just as we were leaving though, impulse overtook. I hurried back to the hoop house, picked up both, and carried them to the wagon. Then walked back and got two more for a garden client with a small pond (she was just as enchanted.)
Pitcher plants are engineering wonders: their pitfall trap (tube leaves) holds slippery pools of digestive enzymes that process prey into nitrogen (plant food). Atop the rolled-leaf tube, a flared leaflet covers the opening and protects it from rain.
At home, I transplanted 'Love Bug' into a teal, glazed pot without a hole, and the chartreuse variety into a beige, styrofoam pot. They're bog plants, preferring a moist (not soggy), acidic environment. So for soil, I mixed one part peat moss with one part sand. Pitcher plants need full sun (6 to 8 hours) for good leaf color and flowering.
Watering is tricky. All carnivorous plants require constant moisture, low pH, and mineral-free water. I water with collected rainwater. Distilled water is an alternative. DO NOT USE TAP WATER; it has chemicals that will kill these plants.
In nature, carnivorous plants have adapted to low-nutrient environments. They get some nutrients by trapping and digesting small invertebrates and occasionally small frogs and mammals. Their leaves photosynthesize and trap. The leaf shape of a good trap makes it a less efficient photosynthesizer. Plants also use extra energy to process prey and to produce hairs, glands, enzymes, and mucilage.
Carnivorous or insectivorous plants are grouped according to trap type:
1. Pitcher plants have pitfall traps with deep pools of enzymes.
2. Sundews and butterworts have flypaper -- leaves covered in glands that exude sticky mucilage.
3. The Venus flytrap and waterwheel plant have snap traps (or steel traps) -- hinged leaves that snap shut when trigger hairs are touched.
4. Bladderworts have suction traps -- highly modified, bladder-shaped leaves with a hinged door lined with trigger hairs.
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Litha/Midsummer Customs and Practice
Just as the Pagan Midwinter celebration of Yule was adopted by Christians as “Christmas” (December 25), so too the Pagan Midsummer celebration was adopted by them as the Feast of John the Baptist (June 24). Occurring 180 degrees apart on the wheel of the year, the Midwinter celebration commemorates the birth of Jesus, while the Midsummer celebration commemorates the birth of John, the prophet who was born six months before Jesus in order to announce his arrival.
In England, it was the ancient custom on St. John’s Eve to light large bonfires after sundown, which served the double purpose of providing light to the revelers and warding off evil spirits. This was known as “setting the watch”. People often jumped through the fires for good luck. In addition to these fires, the streets were lined with lanterns, and people carried cressets (pivoted lanterns atop poles) as they wandered from one bonfire to another. These wandering, garland-bedecked bands were called a “marching watch”. Often they were attended by morris dancers, and traditional players dressed as a unicorn, a dragon, and six hobbyhorse riders. Just as May Day was a time to renew the boundary of one’s own property, so Midsummer’s Eve was a time to ward the boundary of the city.
At the very least, most young folk plan to stay up throughout the whole of this shortest night. Certain courageous souls might spend the night keeping watch in the center of a circle of standing stones. To do so would certainly result in either death, madness, or (hopefully) the power of inspiration to become a great poet or bard. (This is, by the way, identical to certain incidents in the first branch of The Mabinogion.) This was also the night when the serpents of the island would roll themselves into a hissing, writhing ball in order to engender the “glain”, also called the “serpent’s egg”, “snake stone”, or “Druid’s egg”. Anyone in possession of this hard glass bubble would wield incredible magical powers. Even Merlyn himself (accompanied by his black dog) went in search of it, according to one ancient Welsh story.
Snakes were not the only creatures active on Midsummer’s Eve. According to British faery lore, this night was second only to Halloween for its importance to the Wee Folk, who especially enjoyed a ridling on such a fine summer’s night. In order to see them, you had only to gather fern seed at the stroke of midnight and rub it onto your eyelids. But be sure to carry a little bit of rue in your pocket, or you might well be “pixie-led”. Or, failing the rue, you might simply turn your jacket inside out, which should keep you from harm’s way. But if even this fails, you must seek out one of the “ley lines”, the old straight tracks, and stay upon it to your destination. This will keep you safe from any malevolent power, as will crossing a stream of “living” (running) water.
This is a time to acknowledge those wild things which man culls but cannot tame, like the sheep and bees. The full moon which occurs in June is sometimes called the Mead Moon. The hives are full of honey. In ancient times, the honey was fermented and made into mead.
This is a traditional time for honoring water, perhaps because it plays such a vital role in maintaining life while the sun is blazing overhead. Several of the goddesses honored at midsummer — Matuta, Anahita, and Kupala — are associated with moisture and dampness.
Midsummer Eve is also known as Herb Evening. This is the most potent night (and midnight the most potent time) for gathering magical herbs, particularly St John’s wort, vervain, mugwort, mistletoe, ivy and fern seed.
This is also a time for lovers. An old Swedish proverb says “Midsummer Night is not long but it sets many cradles rocking. |
USA: Water covers more than 70 percent of the Earth’s surface, but the oceans’ capacity for meeting the growing consumer demand for seafood is limited—the seas are simply overfished.
Some new business opportunities are emerging to produce more fish amid dwindling fish resources. Global seafood consumption reached 143 million metric tons in 2009, an increase of more than 20 million tons over a decade, according to the United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization. The organization has concluded that the global fishing industry has likely tapped out as much wild catch as it can get from the oceans. Given projections for growth in population and seafood consumption, the FAO calculates that the world must produce an additional 40 million tons of fish annually to meet demand by 2030.
“Even in well-managed fisheries, there’s no more to be had,” said Ronald Stotish, CEO of biotechnology startup AquaBounty. “We can stay where we are but we’re not likely to improve the wild stocks.”
Stotish spoke this week at the North Carolina Marine Biotechnology & Seafood Symposium in Research Triangle Park, NC. His was among the voices making the case for aquaculture. This farming of aquatic life accounts for about half of the fish on the market, according to UN figures. As more consumers fill their plates with fish, technology is angling for a greater role in filling the demand gap that wild-caught fish can’t meet. In some cases, technology is also spawning entirely new products derived from the ocean for health and consumer applications.
AquaBounty aims to meet growing demand for salmon, which is second only to shrimp as the world’s most consumed seafood, according to UN figures. The Maynard, MA-based company has developed a way to produce faster-growing salmon through genetic engineering. Using the growth hormone gene from Chinook salmon enables AquaBounty fish to use nutrients more efficiently as they grow, and they reach market weight faster, Stotish explained. The FDA approved AquaBounty’s salmon last year, concluding that the company’s farmed fish was as safe to eat as conventional Atlantic salmon.
The United States imports far more salmon than it produces, flying in farmed fish from places like Chile and Norway. Stotish says AquaBounty’s salmon can offset that carbon footprint with domestic production.
AquaBounty operates a hatchery in Panama, farming the fish in an entirely enclosed, land-based system that Stotish says guards against the mixing of AquaBounty salmon with wild stocks of fish. He says the technology will enable domestic salmon production to supplement wild-caught salmon from Alaska, as well as salmon farmed in pens off the coasts of Maine and Vancouver, British Columbia. |
Crystal singing pyramid 30 cm
Our Crystal Singing Pyramid are made from over 99.9 percent pure quartz crystal, a naturally occurring element....more
Another variants of this instrument
The crystal is placed in a mold and heated up to 4000 degrees. While similar to glass, they are comprised of a much higher pure quartz substance. They give an excellent, rich tone when struck (like a bell,) or ‘sung’ (rubbing the side of the bowl with a special striker, also, called a wand, or mallet). Although the larger pyramid have a deeper, lower octave, tone, it is not the size that determines the 'note' of the pyramid. The pyramid are associated with the musical scale, starting with C, then D, E, F, G, A and B. These notes are in turn associated with the Seven Chakras of the Human System.
Crystal Singing Pyramid is a kind of music instrument can be used for treatment, which helps practitioner to clarify the mind in order to achieve a state of deep meditation. All the singing pyramid are made of high purity quartz crystal, they naturally contain the ability to energize, clear and enhance the energy in any environment, making them incredibly resonant.
The tones produced by singing pyramid are not just heard by the ear, you feel them in your body. Theses tones move through our body in vibrant waves, calming, aligning, and healing our energy centers. Excellent, growing medical research is validating the powerful use of these bowls in balancing and healing the human body, mind and spirit. |
There are a wide variety of different techniques and sleep aids that promote a normal, high quality night's sleep leading to full alertness and energy during the day. Just as one might practice good dental hygiene to keep teeth and gums in good shape, "sleep hygiene" is designed to keep sleep healthy and restore energy for the following day's activities.
Sleep hygiene involves engaging in a number of practices and behaviors that improve sleep. As chronic pain develops, it is not uncommon for patients to develop bad habits relative to sleep hygiene without even realizing it. An example of poor sleep hygiene habits includes such things as varying the time that one goes to bed and awakens in the morning, taking naps during the day, engaging in stressful activities such as paying bills while laying in bed, staying in bed most of the day, among other things. Good sleep hygiene habits include the following:
Adopt Bed Time Techniques to Spur Sleep
Do not go to bed unless sleepy. If an individual does not feel sleepy at bed time, then he/she should engage in some activity that might help to relax. This might include such things as listening to music, reading a book, or practicing some relaxation exercises. It is important to engage in some activity that is relaxing and not stimulating at bed time. Often, watching the evening news can be distracting, but certainly not relaxing.
If one is not asleep after 20 or 30 minutes, then get out of bed. It is important not to lie in bed and "try to fall asleep" for hours and hours. This simply creates a more and more stressful situation making it less likely that an individual will fall asleep. Instead, one should find something to do that will help them feel relaxed and ready to fall asleep. Often, it can be helpful to get out of bed and return to a relaxing activity such as reading a book until they once again feel sleepy. In this manner, patients are training their bodies that a bed is a place to relax towards the goal of falling asleep.
Develop rituals that help with relaxation each night before bed. Often times, it can be helpful to develop "rituals" that one complete just prior to going to bed and getting ready to fall asleep. This might include such things as taking a warm bath, having a light snack, listening to a few minutes of music, or reading. Engaging in the same ritual each evening prior to going to bed can actually train the body that it is time to fall asleep.
Keep a Regular Schedule to Establish a Better Sleep Cycle
Try to go to bed at the same time each night. Going to the bed at the same time each night helps the body develop a healthy sleep-wake cycle.
Wake up and get up out of bed at the same time every morning. It is important to establish a consistent sleep-wake pattern, seven days a week. Again, this helps to train the body that it will fall asleep at a certain time each evening and awaken and get out of bed at the same time each morning. Getting up and out of bed at the same time each morning is important to avoid disrupting the sleep-wake cycle. This is important even if one had difficulty falling asleep or awakened through the night. One of the most common disrupted sleep-wake patterns for the chronic back pain sufferer is to "get sleep when I can." Therefore, if the individual happens to not fall sleep until 2:00 a.m., he or she might compensate by "sleeping in" until noon. Once this pattern gets established, the routine sleep-wake cycle becomes more and more disrupted.
Avoid naps during the day. Another bad habit with sleep disruption is the tendency to take naps during the day. Although this may seem like a good idea when one has experienced a night of non-restorative sleep, it can actually make the situation worse over the long term by continuing to disrupt a routine sleep-wake cycle.
Keep a regular schedule. As much as possible, attempt to maintain a routine schedule throughout the day as well as activities prior to bedtime. If someone has a chronic back pain problem and is continuing to work, maintaining a routine schedule is much easier. However, even the individual with chronic back pain that is on disability should attempt to maintain as much of a routine during the day as possible. This might include such things as eating meals at the same time throughout the day, engaging in other distractive or volunteer activities at regular times, and completing the pre-bedtime routine as discussed previously.
In This Article:
Avoid Stimulants that can Cause Insomnia
Stop caffeine, stop/limit alcohol, and avoid nicotine prior to bed time. In individuals even without a chronic pain problem, research has demonstrated that caffeine use exceeding 250 mg per day increases the likelihood of interference with slow wave/deep sleep. In a person with a chronic back pain problem, this situation is likely to be even more significant. Thus, it is recommended that caffeine consumption be eliminated, or at the very least restricted, with the caveat that no caffeine be consumed after noontime. Alcohol has been found to be disruptive to a good night's sleep and should either be avoided or limited in consumption. If a limited amount of alcohol is consumed, it should only be done 4 hours prior to bedtime. Nicotine has also been found to be disruptive to sleep and, again, should be avoided prior to bed time.
Avoid vigorous exercises within four to six hours of bedtime. Regular exercise can promote good sleep, but vigorous exercise just prior to bedtime can be disruptive. Any type of vigorous or cardiovascular exercise should be completed at least six hours prior to bedtime. Relaxing exercises such as yoga can be done prior to bedtime in order to help initiate a restful night's sleep. Of course, regular appropriate exercise is also helpful for a chronic back pain problem.
Make the bedroom a restful place. The sleep environment should be pleasant and relaxing. The bed should be comfortable, based on choosing the appropriate mattress and the best pillow for your sleep position, and the room should not be too hot or too cold, as well as not being too bright. Of course, any distracting sounds that might make it difficult to fall asleep or cause awakening during the night should be eliminated. |
Before San Bernardino had its own newspaper, it was the Los Angeles newspapers that were read there, so Los Angeles influence and views were spread to San Bernardino. When the Mormons returned to Utah in 1857, a void was left and a need arose for a local newspaper to âreflect county aspirationsâ, as expressed in an article by L. Burr Belden.
San Diego newspaper publisher J. Judson Ames was printing the San Diego Herald, but he was not bringing in the money on the newspaper that he had expected. Ames learned of the need for a newspaper in San Bernardino, and in Nov., 1859, the Los Angeles Star newspaper printed a notice that Ames was going to start a newspaper in San Bernardino. A team of oxen was sent to San Diego to bring Amesâ press to the inland city.
The last edition of the San Diego Herald was printed on April 7, 1860, and the new San Bernardino newspaperâs first edition was issued on June 16. However, Amesâ love of California brandy began to interfere with his new weekly publication, and the inland version of the Herald was suspended that November.
Now and then, an issue of the newspaper would be completed and distributed, but creditors found it necessary to step in; and in Jan., 1861, they appointed J.S. Waite as editor. Waite only served as editor for three months, then the newspaper was sold to Edwin A. Sherman. The newspaper was then named the San Bernardino Patriot.
At the time, San Bernardino was considered pro-secessionist, while Sherman was strongly pro-Union. Sherman claimed that he had received threatening letters telling him to stop printing Union sentiments.
In July, 1861, Sherman shared with Maj. James H. Carleton that the pro-Confederate groups in San Bernardino were going to blow up his newspaper office. A camp of California volunteer soldiers was built south of Mill St. on the west side of Mt. Vernon Ave. in case of trouble. It was a site previously used during the Mojave War in the 1850s. When the camp was moved to the Tippecanoe crossing of the Santa Ana River, it was named Camp Carleton.
The Union League and the soldier camp made sure San Bernardino stayed loyal to the Union. However, Shermanâs newspaper struggled, printing only 90 newspapers at its end, and it didnât last through the Civil War. Sherman packed up his press and took it to the Esmeralda district at Aurora. He became an officer in the Nevada militia. He loudly supported the Union and began heavily drinking brandy, just as Ames had. |
Plants produce seeds in a variety of sizes for reproduction. Some seeds, such as those from nut trees, are very large while other seeds, such as from the snapdragon plant, are very little. Working with little seeds can be difficult because the seed may be expensive or hard to find. It is better to plant little seeds in separate containers rather than in a tray or one big pot because fungal disease can spread between seed plantings. Generally, little seeds need light to germinate, so pressing into the top layer of soil is sufficient for sprouting.
Prepare potting soil by placing in container and soaking with water. Let potting soil in container drain so soil is moist and not wet.
Find an area with no wind or air circulation to prepare the seed for planting. Set out the seed in a convenient area in a light-colored shallow dish, beside the planting container. Fill a container that holds water about half full and set out several toothpicks.
Dip a toothpick in water, then put the end of the toothpick that was dipped in water onto the little seed. The little seed should immediately attach itself to the wet toothpick.
Move the seed that is now connected to the toothpick over the planting container, and press the toothpick into the soil until the little seed detaches from the toothpick. Remove the toothpick.
Lightly press down on the little seed with the end of a dry toothpick to be sure the little seed has contact with the soil in the planting container. Do not soak the container in order to keep moist but use a light stream of water or mister to keep damp until sprouts appear. A large stream of water will dislodge the little seed and may affect how it grows in the container. |
Butter Bridge stands in the shadow of Beinn Ime and crosses the gently flowing Kinglas Water, in Glen Kinglas, Argyll. The bridge was built sometime between 1748-1750 as part of Major Caulfeild’s military road that ran from Dumbarton to Inveraray.
Wade and Caulfeild’s Military Roads
The construction of the military roads
Writing to George I in 1724, Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat stated that:
“The Highlands, being very mountainous and almost inaccessible to any but the inhabitants thereof do remain to this day much less civilised than other parts of Scotland”
Irishman Major William Caulfeild was employed by Wade in 1732 as Inspector of Roads and took over road-building when Wade left Scotland in 1740. Although he is not as well known as Wade, Caulfeild oversaw the construction of over 800 miles of road and around 600 bridges, compared to Wade’s 250 miles and 40 bridges. Many people talk about ‘Wade’s Roads’, and while he was the father of the road-building programme, it is important to note that most of the road network was done under Caulfeild in the 1740s, 50s and 60s. Both men had great admiration for each other and it is believed that Caulfeild was the author of the verse: “If you had seen these roads before they were made, you would hold up your hands and bless General Wade”.
In 1726, Colonel Henry Hawley wrote that keeping soldiers occupied in road building would “prevent sloth and idleness” and “
Dumbarton to Inveraray Military Road
The construction of the Dumbarton to Inveraray road began in the summer of 1743 and by May 1745 had got as far as Luss, on the west bank of Loch Lomond, with work on this part carried out by men from Lascelles’ Regiment. A stone with the inscription ‘Colonel Lascelles Regiment, May 1745’ was placed three miles from Luss. Work was interrupted in August 1745 when Charles Edward Stuart landed in the highlands, beginning the 1745 Jacobite Rising. Road-building was halted until after the Jacobite defeat at the Battle of Culloden in April 1746. In September 1746 The Scots Magazine reported that ‘a small detachment of soldiers under Major Caulfeild are begun to work on the roads of
Butter Bridge in Glen Kinglas
Butter Bridge is a humpbacked, single-arch bridge spanning the Kinglas Water. Built mainly of coursed rubble with better cut stone for the arch stonework. The bridge is just a short drive from the well-known ‘Rest and
Notes on Canmore, the National Record of the Historic Environment, mentions Butter Bridge as: ‘A handsome single segmental arch over the Kinglas Water,
Although the roads were constructed by parties of soldiers, the bridges were built by civilian masons with the stone being sourced locally. Work on a bridge could still be continuing long after a stretch of road was already completed. William Taylor mentions in his book The Military Roads in Scotland: ‘While the soldiers were pressing on with the heavy, but comparatively simple work of road making, the masons and other craftsmen were building the necessary bridges… there were always more soldiers than masons, resulting frequently in a time lag between road and bridge building’.
To build the military bridges, first, the river banks would be cleared to make way for a solid foundation. Then a wooden frame would be erected which would support an arch barrel. Once the keystones were in place the arch barrel and frame would be removed. A lime harling was then applied over the stonework as a protective coating. As with the roads, the stone required for the construction would usually be quarried locally. Bridge-building was time-consuming and expensive. Some of the bridges had to be rebuilt after being washed away by fast-flowing torrents, likely due to poor foundation work.
The name Butter Bridge comes from the tradition of bringing cattle high up into the glen in the summer months for pasture. The cattle would be milked here and butter and cheese would be produced in temporary dwellings.
Site: Historic Environment Scotland (HES)
Type: Bridge (c.1750)
Listed: Listed Building (Category B)
Grid reference: NN 234 095
Council area: Argyll and Bute
Canmore page: https://canmore.org.uk/site/23752/ |
The Scarlet Letter. Plot Summary. LitCharts Teacher Editions. Teach your students to analyze literature like LitCharts does. Detailed explanations, analysis, and citation info for every important quote on LitCharts.
9 Poems by Gabriela Mistral About Life, Love, and Death
Anapest - Definition and Examples of Anapest
Gabriela Mistral April 7, — January 10, , also known as Lucila Godoy Alcayaga was a Chilean poet, educator, diplomat, and feminist. Here you can sample nine poems by Gabriela Mistral about life, love, and death, both in their original Spanish poemas de Gabriela Mistral , and in English translation. Mistral stopped formally attending school at the age of fifteen to care for her sick mother, but continued to write poetry. Just two years later, her heart broke after the sad deaths of her lover, Romeo Ureta, and a close nephew. These early losses would figure into her work for many years to come, the heartbreak leading her to create some of her best works, including Sonetos de la Muerte. Much of her later poetry was focused on the theme of death. How to seal myself up now?
10 Poems All About Alliteration
Pearl is one of the jewels in the crown of medieval English poetry : a real gem of a poem. Bateson speculated that the Black Death caused this sudden surge of creativity among English poets: rapid historical change is bound to make everyone from kings to peasants rethink the nature of their society. The poem is narrated by the grieving parent of the lost child, who tells the reader of how he lost his pearl in a garden. After he falls asleep, his spirit is transported to a bright and wonderful land.
He was born of an urban background in Ganja Seljuq empire, now Azerbaijan and is believed to have spent his whole life in South Caucasus. According to De Blois, Ganja was a city which at that time had predominantly an Iranian population. Nezami was orphaned early and was raised by his maternal uncle Khwaja Umar who took responsibility for him and afforded him an excellent education. |
There are plenty of myths about malware in general, but Macs especially seem to attract an extra dose of mythos due to a smug sense of invulnerability among the Mac community. We covered 10 malware myths that refuse to die for USA Today, but there are plenty more than 10 misconceptions being passed around. Of the many reasons to love Macs, immunity to danger is not one of them. For a while now, people have felt a sense of security because they’re on an operating system that doesn’t inspire hundreds of thousands of new malware a day. But the total number of malware crawling around the Internet waiting to infect your computer is less important than this simple fact: it only takes one to ruin your day. By going out on the Internet with a false sense of safety, you can leave yourself more open to that malware bullet with your name on it.
So what are some of the biggest Mac malware misconceptions that need to be cleared up? Here are five of the most prevalent ones:
1. Macs Don’t Get Viruses
If you mean Windows-specific file viruses do not harm Macs, you’re totally right. If you mean self-replicating code doesn’t happen on Macs, there is really no period of time in which this statement has ever been true. Elk Cloner, the very first virus to be discovered in the wild, was written specifically for Apple DOS 3.3. Since then, every Mac OS has had some manner of virus or worm. There have been macro viruses capable of spreading on Macs as long as people have been using MS Office on Macs. The first OS X specific worm was discovered in 2006, so they do indeed exist.
There are not a lot of viruses running around in Mac-land today, because there are not a lot of viruses running around, period. They’ve fallen out of favor with the malware-writing crowds, even on Windows. They’re a heck of a lot of work to make, they tend to cause system instability, and they’re no more difficult to find and remove than other non-replicating forms of malware. Bang-for-buck-wise, viruses are just not worth the effort.
But that’s not to say there aren’t other types of malicious code causing problems for Mac users. Malware doesn’t have to replicate to be a pain in your machine. There are a lot of different types of threats to Macs, but the most common one these days is spyware – it gets into your system and steals your data, whether it’s in text laying around your file-system or it requires eavesdropping on your chat sessions.
2. Mac Malware Requires You to Input Your Password
You generally need to input your password to install things on a Mac, so this is true with malware too, right? Not even a little. There was a very brief period of time in which this might have been partially true – the first OS X malware was what we call “Proof of Concept,” meaning its intent was to prove a point rather than to actually cause damage or steal anything. It didn’t mean to be harmful, so it didn’t have to be particularly stealthy because people who were running the file knew exactly what it was meant to do (prove a point about malicious code). But again, we run into that whole macro virus thing, and those did not require separate installation or entering of passwords.
Now, malware is meant to bring in cash, so malware writers are motivated to make their creations stealthier. It can be tricky to get people to install some random piece of software as folks get more wary of threats. So most malware now employs some kind of exploit in order to install the malicious code without you even knowing. Drive-by downloads on compromised websites or in malicious advertisements is now the order of the day. It doesn’t matter what browser you use, they’re all vulnerable to some extent. Removing commonly attacked browser plugins can certainly help, but Java and Flash are not the only culprits (they’re the most popular because most people use them, regardless of operating system).
3. OS X’s Built-In Protection Will Save the Day
OS X has a handful of ways to improve your security, some that are built in to the operating system itself, and some that are separate components. The three most important components are the Application Firewall, Gatekeeper, and XProtect (also known as File Quarantine). These are all fantastic and we heartily recommend people use them.
However, they’re all limited by design. The Application Firewall will block incoming communications, but not outgoing. Gatekeeper is still vulnerable to malware that uses exploits. And XProtect will protect you only against certain specific, prevalent malware, and usually quite a while after the malware picks up steam.
OSX/Flashback hit over 600,000 Mac users before it was incorporated into XProtect. When Apple’s own developers were hit with OSX/Pintsized, none of those protections saved them.
4. There are No Mac Malware Affecting Real People
Let me throw a few names at you: Flashback. Pintsized. DNSChanger. MacDefender. Three of these malware hit large numbers of Mac users in the last few years; one of them also hit Apple’s own developers. Malware is real, and it hurts. Two of these malware left infected users’ machines open to attackers, to do what they pleased with them. One stole credit card information and “nominal fees,” and the last redirected users’ attempts to surf the web so the attackers could increase ad revenue. The underlying theme is profit motive – where there is a buck to be gained, there is a way. Choice of operating system or other software is not a sufficient deterrent.
5. OS X is Inherently a Safer Operating System
As we discussed in point three, there are a few baked-in parts of the OS X operating system and add-on components that help prevent malware. And to some extent, OS X has enjoyed “security through obscurity” as it has less market share and was considered less interesting to malware authors. But that’s all changed now, as OS X steadily increases in popularity. But when it comes right down to it, the differences between the major OSes in terms of security are pretty negligible. None of them present sufficient hurdles for malware writers who are looking to get onto your machine.
None of these things means you’re helpless against the malware onslaught. There are plenty of ways to improve your level of protection. For instance, make sure all the software on your machine is updated regularly, remove (or limit) browser plugins that you don’t frequently use, encrypt your data, and have up-to-date Mac antivirus software and a full firewall. It’s better to be properly prepared than to wander blindly and be rudely awakened after things go wrong. |
The general term ” flat foot ” simply describes a lowering of the inner arch of the foot.
Flat feet can be as a result of a number of different reasons.
- Congenital Biomechanical flat foot
- Acquired Biomechanical flat foot
- Paralytic flat foot
- Arthritic flat foot
- Spastic flat foot
- Traumatic flat foot
When treating flat feet it is not just a case of propping up the lowered arch with an Orthotic, one has to determine each clinical feature associated with that form of flat foot and determine the underlying primary mechanical issue that has caused the fault.
Please note that not everyone who has flat feet will experience pain or require treatment, but increased activity placing more strain on the foot and ankle can lead to symptoms.
Early detection of this foot condition and subsequent treatment is vital to reducing further deformation on skeletal structures, therefore ensure that children are routinely checked until they reach full skeletal maturity.
Orthotic management is just one treatment type that forms part of the complete arsenal in helping to stabilise this foot condition that occurs in both adults and children which can cause a structural effect on all joints above the ankle.
- Stretching and strengthening exercises
- Supportive footwear
- Surgery – Hyprocure treatment for flat foot
For those patients who suffer with flexible flat foot problems and whom have tried conventional Orthotic treatments which have either not provided relief or simply wish for an alternative solution, Mr Anthony Wilkinson and Mr Stephen Finney at The Yorkshire Foot Hospital in Leeds have dealt with hundreds of cases and can treat you at The Yorkshire Foot Hospital. |
If you've looked into natural treatments for mild depression, you've probably heard about St. John's Wort. It's perhaps the most common herb used to elevate moods and decrease anxiety, and in most temperate regions, it's an easily-identified foraging plant...perfect for treating those lost-in-the-wilderness blues.
St. John's wort, also known as goatweed, chase-devil, Klamath weed, or by its botanical name, Hypericum perforatum, dresses up any herb garden with its pretty yellow flowers and green, ovate leaves. It performs well in sunny, low-water gardens, and looks great when planted among other shrubby perennial herbs, particularly those with contrasting blooms and foliage.
You won't be cooking any meals with St. John's wort, but it's a must-have for low-maintenance gardens, and for natural medicine practitioners wanting to grow a cornerstone herbal remedy plant.
Hypericum perforatum is native to Europe, western Asia (including the Himalayas) and northern Africa. Early settlers brought St. John's wort to the New World in the late 17th century, and it quickly took hold across the continent, where it's considered a noxious weed in some states.
Highly adaptable to various soil types, it thrives in pastures, prairies, woodlands, ditches, and in riparian margins. It's hard to keep a good plant down.
The Cultural History of St. John's Wort
"Wort" is a traditional designation for "medicinal herb", and can also refer to plants used for spiritual rites. Hypericum perforatum definitely lives up to both.
In less-than-educated times, mental illness was considered the work of the devil (or its cultural counterparts), and patients were treated with the herb. Since St. John's wort does raise serotonin levels, and "lifts spirits" in more ways than one, it became a tool in exorcisms in early Christian practices.
European Catholics celebrated John the Baptist's birthday by gathering sprigs of freshly-bloomed Hypericum perforatum, which were thought to ward off or overpower demons and evil spirits. In fact, the name Hypericum is a loose translation of "over" and "apparition." Perforatum refers to the tiny impressions on the plant's leaves and petals.
As with many Christian traditions, St. John's Day co-opted pagan rites as a means of aiding acceptance of the new religion. Hypericum perforatum had already been used by European and Mediterranean cultures for thousands of years for repelling bad luck and sinister spirits. St. John is associated with light, and given that the summer solstice is the longest day of the year, it isn't a mystery that June 24 became his designated feast day.
We'll get into other interesting connections between St. John's wort and its namesake further on when we get down-and-dirty with the plant's description.
St. John's Wort as a Medicinal Herb
Studies show that Hypericum perforatum increases dopamine levels in rats. This isn't necessarily great news; depressed rats don't get out as much, and tend to stay out of trouble. But we're happy that St. John's Wort it's widely used in European Western medicine because we really like their cooking.
As much as we try to find humor in anything, we do take mental health seriously—as should the rest of our society. St. John's wort is one effective tool in combating mood disorders, but it doesn't replace guidance and support from a mental health professional.
Having said that, let's take a look at all the reasons why herbalists worship St. John's wort. Its oils, leaves, and flowers are used to treat the following:
- Skin disorders (psoriasis, eczema)
- Minor burns
- Insect bites and stings
- Cuts and abrasions
- Nerve pain
St. John's wort is considered an astringent, an antibacterial, and an anti-inflammatory, and its active chemical is hypericin. Hypericin is undergoing studies to determine its antiviral properties as applied to HIV and Hepatitis C. For more about St. John's wort's medicinal properties, check out our 2017 blog post on the subject.
How to Use St. John's Wort
Air-drying sprigs in a warm, well-ventilated room allows you to preserve the leaves for use in teas.
You can make a tincture at home by steeping crushed leaves and flowers in high-proof vodka and letting them soak for several weeks. Strain out the leaves and store the fluid in a light-resistant dropper bottle.
Fill a jar with olive oil and crushed leaves and flowers, and let the mixture sit for two or three weeks. The hypericin will turn the oil a funky reddish color. Homemade St. John's wort oil is best used as a topical remedy, and it has a history of healing and disinfecting wounds and, when used in a dropper, easing earaches.
St. John's wort isn't recommended for patients taking mood-regulating prescription medication, and the plant's oils—present on the surfaces of its leaves and petals—may cause photodermatitis, a.k.a. light sensitivity and rashes, in livestock, pets, and people. (Get coats for your goats).
These are the two main red flags for St. John's wort users, but it's always a good idea to consult with your physician and natural medicine advisor prior to taking St. John's wort.
St. John's Wort in the Garden
USDA Hardiness Zones: St. John's wort is a hardy, herbaceous perennial in zones 3 to 10.
Soil Requirements: Hypericum perforatum isn't picky about where it sets down roots, as long as the soil is well-drained. Digging in a bit of aged compost will help retain moisture and drain excess water, and provide a nutrient boost for growing plants.
pH: St. John's wort prefers a slightly acidic soil. Your target range is between 5.5 and 7.
Sunlight Requirements: St. John's wort prefers full sun from morning to midday, and, in the hottest regions, locations with late afternoon shade.
Water Requirements: St. John's wort is a very forgiving plant. It's drought-tolerant (provided it's well-established and not over-heated in scorching afternoon sun), and withstands wet, soggy soils for a reasonable period. To keep your plants happy, keep them on the moist side.
Growth Habits: Young Hypericum perforatum plants, as they start to establish themselves, are ground-creepers before they begin to grow upright. At this point, multiple branches grow from woody, trunk-like stems. As a St. John's wort plant matures, its bark turns a rusty red with a peeling, "shreddy" texture. The plant usually forms an attractive rounded, shrubby shape when it reaches maturity.
St. John's wort's spreading, rhizomatous roots lurk at least three inches below the soil surface, reducing their vulnerability to drought.
Plant size: St. John's wort "bushes out" as it matures, so choose a spot that can accommodate a plant growing 1 to 5 feet tall, and 1 to 4 feet wide during its lifecycle.
Flowers: St. John's wort blooms June through August, typically prompted by the summer solstice...which is usually 2 to 4 days before St. John's reported June 24 birthday.
Tiny black dots on showy, 5-petaled yellow flowers help gardeners identify this herb. Each flower has a cluster of relatively long, protruding yellow stamens to give the 1 to 1.5-inch blooms a little extra visual interest. Crushed petals turn red; the juice was thought to be a representation of St. John's blood.
Foliage: Long, narrow, smooth-edged leaves in alternating pairs provide density to this herbaceous perennial, especially when the plant is given space to soak up the sun. The leaves lack shine, reflecting a soft, medium-green color. Hold a St. John's wort leaf up to the light, and you'll see how it's speckled with tiny, translucent, gland-like cells.
Aroma: Hypericum perforatum flowers and leaves have a sharp turpentine smell.
Maintenance: This is a low-maintenance plant, though spent flowers should be gathered to prevent re-seeding. Don't worry about fertilizing your plants unless your soil is particularly depleted. Too much fertilization can cause the plants to become spindly.
Pests and Diseases: Looking for a deer-resistant plant? You've found one. St. John's wort isn't particularly susceptible to plant pests or diseases.
Companion Plants: St. John's wort is one of the few plants that tolerate the presence of black walnut, and it grows well with other herbs with the same environmental requirements. Try planting it with members of the Rudbeckia genus (Black-eyed Susan and friends), with asters, wild bee balm, and echinacea.
Growing St. John's Wort from Seed
St. John's Wort seeds, which are roughly the shape of tiny, brown, bumpy Tic-Tacs (or hamster turds, if you prefer) have a tough outer coating, allowing them to remain dormant in the soil for up to ten years. The US Forest Service indicates that wildfire and intense heat trigger seed germination, and a deep root system helps protect burned plants so they can grow anew once the firestorm's passed.
Seed Preparation: Don't break out the butane torch to get your seeds to sprout; we recommend soaking your Hypericum perforatum seeds overnight using the paper towel method as described in our germination guide. From there on out, growing St. John's wort from seed is a cinch.
When to Plant: We recommend starting your seeds indoors, given that outdoor-sown seeds are easily buried beneath the soil. Sow indoors 6 to 8 weeks before the last spring frost, after which time you can transplant them outdoors.
Planting Depth: Surface-sow tiny St. John's Wort seeds, which require sunlight to germinate.
Spacing: Thin or plant seeds 18" to 24" apart. Crowded St. John's wort can become leggy, so giving it even more room as it matures provides the best results.
Germination: St. John's Wort seeds germinate in 10 to 20 days at soil temperatures around 70°F. Keep the seeds and seedlings consistently moist.
Harvesting: Plan to assault your plants early in the morning or late in the afternoon. Make sure the plants are free of dew and rainwater. Clip entire stems about an inch above the woody base, and dry the leaves and flowers using your preferred method.
Budding blooms are the most potent, so select flower clusters with the most unopened flowers. Suspending flowers upside down on their stems increases the chance of optimizing their potency.
Why Shop at Seed Needs?
Even if St. John's Wort seeds can survive a decade in the dirt, we're big believers in using seeds from frequently-rotated, fresh suppliers. We source our herb seeds from reputable producers of resilient, healthy parent stock to increase successful germination. You won't find genetically-modified seeds in our catalog, but you will find informative, relatable growing information on our website and blog.
No herbalist's garden is complete without Hypericum perforatum, and ornamental plant enthusiasts are catching on to the plant's charm. Whether your goal is to add color to your yard, soothe your frazzled nerves, or perform an exorcism, you're going to want to have this herb on hand...and we're here to help!
Your gardening success is important to our own as a small family business, and we look forward to the opportunity to add you to our growing group of loyal customers! |
Rising Voices Grantee Update
Taking the Mayan language Tz'utujil to social media has been a large challenge because people that pass through the school system have always written in Spanish. There has been almost nothing in their own Mayan language because of the resistance to writing fluently in indigenous languages and much of this “Spanish-ization” of indigenous peoples can be traced to State policies.
It has been a collective effort from the Mayan Tz'utujil communities when a Facebook group was created in 2012 so that internet users could express themselves in their own language Tz'utujil Tziij, which has significantly increased the amount of participation, publication, and commenting. Those who only speak this language join this group, and it has been interesting to see how the group has helped facilitate communication, the creation of new knowledge and entertainment.
In addition, in 2011 a Facebook Page was created to promote the language in the community and allow others from around the world to learn words and phrases in the Mayan Tz'utujil language.
For this process, we created a plan to recruit participants from the communities that speak Tz'utujil because there are young people in each community that are currently writing in this Mayan language. In addition, we also have a plan for social media trainings, images, and the recording of audios. |
Building a LeaderFebruary 17, 2014
By Jessica Vician
Today is Presidents’ Day, during which we celebrate George Washington’s birthday and honor all United States presidents. Regardless of political affiliations, most of us can agree that each president we elect is a leader. While you might not aspire for your child to become president one day, teaching your child leadership skills will help him or her on the playground, in the classroom, in college, and throughout a career.
Here are three important leadership qualities and skills you can help your child develop.
- Listening. Teach your child to be a better listener. When someone speaks or shares an opinion, your child should listen to what that person is saying. Teach him or her to consider the speaker’s opinions before responding.
Each of us learns more by listening than by speaking. By practicing listening, your child will learn more about people and the topic discussed and can apply that knowledge to future conversations.
- Assertiveness. While your child learns to listen to others, he or she should also learn to effectively communicate with others. Teach your child to be politely assertive so that he or she can communicate his or her needs and opinions with others. Being assertive will help your child with his or her own self-respect while also helping manage others.
- Set goals. A leader accomplishes many things. In order to do that, he or she must be organized to set and achieve goals. Help younger children set goals like completing five chores a week to teach them time management and the reward of accomplishment. Help teens set longer-term goals like getting four A’s in a term. This type of goal requires longer planning and dedication, but the reward is greater and can positively impact your teen’s future.
As your child develops and practices these skills, he or she will build knowledge, confidence, and self-respect, which are all qualities of a leader. |
Hair loss can affect both genders, but is more prominent in men, most commonly in the form of androgenetic alopecia, or male-pattern baldness, a condition for which there is no cure.
The National Institutes of Health estimates that 35 million American men suffer from male-pattern baldness, which can drastically alter a man’s appearance. Glossy, flowing manes, or 360-degree spinning waves can vanish strand by strand, causing many men to mask their faulty follicles with toupees, hats, headbands, comb-overs or hairlines that start at the crown of their heads. The more affluent can opt for pricey hair transplant surgery; some men throw in the towel and shave their heads bald.
Xiaowei “George” Xu, an associate professor of pathology and laboratory medicine and dermatology at the Perelman School of Medicine, says human hair is a “quite complex organ” composed of two different types of cells: epithelial cells, which make the hair shaft, and dermal papillae cells, which regulate the proliferation of epithelial cells and influence hair growth. Men with male-pattern baldness lose both cells, causing follicular miniaturization. A hair follicle gradually becomes smaller and smaller before it is altogether lost.
Xu says hair loss is difficult to treat because epithelial stem cells—localized in a stem-cell rich area of the hair follicle known as the bulge—are required for hair to grow. If they are absent, hair growth cannot occur.
The epithelial stem cells from a hair follicle
Researchers have successfully isolated and characterized epithelial stem cells from a hair follicle, but have been unable to multiply them, a high hurdle in the battle against hair loss.
In search of a solution for several years, Xu and colleagues have made a breakthrough. His research team, which includes experts from the Department of Dermatology at Penn Medicine, the Department of Biology in the School of Arts & Sciences, and the New Jersey Institute of Technology, has found a method to amplify and make scalable amounts of epithelial stem cells.
Xu and his collaborators began by adding three genes to dermal fibroblasts—a type of human skin cell—and converted them into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), which can differentiate into any type of cell in the body. The researchers then converted iPSCs into a large number of epithelial stem cells that are usually found in a hair follicle’s bulge. The study marked the first time anyone has created sizable amounts of epithelial stem cells capable of producing the epithelial component of hair follicles.
Their research was published in Nature Communications. Funding was provided by the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases.
Manipulating the timing and growth factor
Xu says a key factor in their discovery was manipulating the timing and growth factor of iPSCs to force them to differentiate into epithelial cells.
To determine if the iPSC-derived epithelial stem cells can make human hair follicles, the researchers mixed the epithelial stem cells with dermal papillae cells from a mouse, and grafted the cells onto the skin of immunodeficient mice. The cells were able to produce human epidermis and hair follicles, which Xu says were “nearly identical to the epithelial stem cells directly isolated from a hair follicle—biochemically, in gene expression, as well as functionally.”
Xu says his research has promise for the treatment of hair loss in humans. Now that researchers have discovered a way to create epithelial stem cells, they must figure out how to maintain and multiply human dermal papillae cells, a finding that has so far evaded them. He says the ultimate goal is to be able to make a hair follicle in a lab.
“I think we can probably make that happen in 10 years,” Xu says. “I’m pretty confident because we are very close. There is a lot of promise, but there is still a long way to go. But I think it’s very much possible.” |
Sad to say as an art teacher, I never really got excited about American Art
History, even though I was myself an artist for near 27 years...until about
eight years ago when I took my easel outside to paint.
The difficulties of painting on location in fickel elusive light certainly
leads one to observe the efforts of others. From there...I absorbed myself
into the early history of American Impressionists, and in my own
opinion...while Europe has its founders of Impressionism, and yes...while
many of our artists went their to train, I think the best Impressionists
were actually here in this country.
I think there are important schools of this painting period that are
important to know such as the Hope Buck County School of Pennsylvania, the
Cape Cod School...The New York Student Art League...and the California Plein
To me...one of my very favorites as a painter is Singer Sargent...but more
so after he tired and grew weary of portraiture and the business side of it
and went off independently wealthy to paint landscapes and architectural
structures such as fountain sculptures, buildings and so forth.
But what many do not know is that there was an American painter that was
second in all popularity in sales to Sargent, a Buck County Impressionist
painter by the name of Edward Redfield. A very colorful
personality...bringing canvases as large as 50"x 56" or so into the field or
forests, even tying them to trees to support them while painting. Some
artists with that habit would even leave the unfinished canvas tied to the
trees and come back the next day. Redfield though would start AND finish
such a large size in one day. Working morning to late afternoon.
Can't believe it took more than half my life to become acquainted with him.
It was our landscape painters that largely led to the education of the
congress and government officials in general that in turn led to movements
to create national parks. So many good ones. Yes, Thomas Moran....but then
there are others to know such as Emille Gruppe, Edgay Payne, Williard
Metcalf, W.M. Chase, Charles Hawthorne, John Carlson,
...all very important influential painters.
Carl Rungius, a German emigrant...was the first professional wildlife
artist, doing many plein airs in the mountains and turning around to paint
very large canvases from those plein airs instudio adding wildlife to them.
Today's best artists in the genre of nature to be aware of are Clyde
Aspevig, Matt Smith, Scott Christensen, Marc Hanson, Richard Schmid, and I'm
happy to say I know a number of them. Honored... |
At present, the supply of thermopile sensors has been in short supply due to the sudden epidemic situation. Due to the shortage of stocks in the market, the price has risen again and again, which has formed a tense supply shortage. Although the current thermopile sensor industry, including non-contact temperature measurement and health monitoring sensors, has made considerable and stable development, the sudden outbreak of the epidemic makes the supply capacity of the entire industrial chain to meet the sudden demand face a huge challenge. The core factor is that the whole industry is highly fragmented and there is few leading enterprises, so low-level technology, products, application and low-efficiency technology is the current situation of the whole sensor industry.
Infrared thermopile sensor is mainly composed of a series of thermocouples in series connection. Two ends of the thermocouple are composed of two different materials. When one end contacts the hot end and the other contacts the cold end, there will be a potential difference between the two different materials due to Seebeck effect. The size of the potential difference is related to the temperature difference between the two different materials. Thermopile sensors connect a series of thermocouples in series to improve the sensitivity of the sensors.
Parameters of thermopile temperature sensor:
Measurement range: - 50-100℃;
Measurement accuracy: within 0.1℃ and ± 0.1%;
Operating temperature: - 20℃ - + 85℃;
Maximum measuring distance: ≤ 0-50mm (with lens of 300-500mm)
Output voltage: 0-10mv;
The maximum range of thermopile sensor can reach - 60℃ to + 1200℃. The infrared thermopile sensor, which is widely used in human body temperature monitoring during this pandemic, covers many fields and disciplines, and has strict requirements for talents and processing equipment. At present, the infrared sensors used in the ear and forehead temperature guns for human body measurement are thermopile type, and the basic physical principle is Seebeck effect. Similar to the thermocouple, the infrared thermopile temperature sensor is composed of an infrared filter which can pass through the specific wavelength range and a thermopile chip with infrared reception. |
Freedom of information laws now exist in over 100 countries, but despite their stated goals of increasing transparency, journalists must increasingly navigate bureaucratic resistance to obtain public data. Despite the challenges, when used effectively, documents obtained through the laws can lead to compelling investigative stories that serve the public interest.
Shyamlal Yadav has filed more than 6,000 requests across different government offices since India’s Right to Information Act came into effect in 2005.
“There is no government office in India from the president’s secretariat to the district collector’s office where my RTI has not reached. And it is all in search for some story,” said the senior editor of The Indian Express’s investigative team at the Uncovering Asia 2016 conference in Nepal.
When Yadav did a story in 2008 concerning excessive expenditure on foreign travel by Indian ministers and public officials based on data obtained through his requests, his colleague across the border in Pakistan, Umar Cheema, followed suit with a story on the foreign travels of his country’s prime minister. Both stories had considerable impact on their audiences.
“Journalists should be activists on this front,” said Cheema, a veteran investigative journalist at The News International. “[Public information] adds credence … If your information is source-based, anybody can easily dismiss it [as speculation], but if the story is based on documents duly stamped by government authorities, nobody can deny it.”
Cheema added that since government officials are increasingly finding new ways to evade freedom of information requests, framing the query correctly may be crucial to obtaining the information sought.
Panelists agreed that human sources, especially those within government departments, can alert the journalist to the existence of a document or the exact title for a data set, making the information request impossible to reject. Obtaining the documents referenced by your source helps avoid less credible ‘source-based’ reportage, Cheema noted.
But documents alone are not the whole story, Yadav underscored. In his recent investigation into the implementation of one of the Indian prime minister’s pet projects, which exposed major loopholes, getting the data was only the beginning for the process. Yadav and his team subsequently travelled to six different states and interviewed over 52 people in order to make sense of the data they had obtained. The story had important political consequences, with the Indian government ordering an inquiry into the matter.
Cheema similarly followed a meticulous process to out some Pakistani lawmakers for not paying taxes in 2012, relying in part on data obtained through freedom of information requests.
Obtaining government documents can be an indispensable part of investigative reporting, but it’s not a fast process.
Not all of Yadav’s 6000 applications resulted in stories, and his newspaper provides the logistical support for him to focus all his efforts on pursuing such long-term stories, away from the bustle of daily news. Some journalists may not have this opportunity, Yadav conceded.
In addition, systemic problems within a country’s infrastructure may prevent full utilization of freedom of information laws. Sinar Project’s Hazwany Jamaluddin, an expert on open data and transparency in Southeast Asia, pointed to governments capacity in maintaining information effectively and limited data availability as the top culprits.
Pushkal Shivam is a Bangalore-based freelance writer. A Development Studies graduate, he is currently a fellow at the Indian Institute for Human Settlements.
Pushkal reported on this event as part of the IACC Young Journalists Initiative, a network reporting on corruption around the globe. |
Instead of taking accountability for a challenging situation at work, we often complain about our circumstances or vent our frustrations.
That takes us away from self-reflection and we avoid self-examination. So when your leaders reflect and facilitate quiet moments for their employees to engage in mindfulness, they will reap huge benefits. There are scientifically proven advantages to practicing mindfulness. Here are 4 to consider:
- Reduces anxiety and stress that will raise health-care costs as seen in a 2013 Massachusetts General Hospital study.
- Reduces implicit age and race bias leading to enhanced trust by affecting conscious behaviors. Central Michigan University study by Professor Adam Lueke
- Improves cognition. A study published in Consciousness and Cognition Journal showed a significant improvement in visio-spatial processing, working memory and executive functioning.
- Reduces distractions. In a Harvard study participants made faster and significantly more pronounced attention-based adjustments to suppress irrelevant or distracting sensations and regulate the flow of sensory information.
In the book, 10% Happier by Dan Harris, he states that practicing meditation and mindfulness will make a person at least 10 percent happier. A big win for taking time to reflect.
What makes humans different from other animals is that we think about the future. Being mindful doesn’t change the problems we face, but it helps us respond to problems rather than react to them, which enables us to respond in an accountable way. Help your leaders build reflection time into their day-to-day work by practicing these 4 mindfulness techniques.
- Start small. End meetings five minutes early and allow people to reflect on the meeting and consider what implications arose from topics discussed, actions to be taken, relationship to be mended, etc.
- Start early and set a mindful intention. Encourage leaders to retreat to a quite space in the morning to think about the day ahead in order to cultivate a heightened awareness and appreciation of simple daily tasks and the results they can achieve. Encourage managers to set an intention for their day, such as, every time they think a negative thought, they might choose to take a moment to stop, label the thought as unhelpful, and replace the negativity with positivity.
- Take a breathing break. This exercise can be done standing up or sitting down. Have managers take rhythmic breaths of approximately six seconds in and six seconds out. Repeat for about ten minutes and watch their energy rise and cognition improve.
- Be grateful. Have your managers take four minutes near the end of their work day to write down four things in their day that usually go unappreciated. Then have them be grateful for the seemingly insignificant things in their lives. Most of us rarely give a second thought in our busy lives to simple things like the tree outside the window, the elevator that works like clockwork, lunch that is easily accessible, etc.
Many organizations are incorporating mindfulness at work. At Facebook, Instagram, and Google, some meetings start out with a couple of minutes of meditation. Not only does adding mindfulness make people happier and more present, but it also makes people more productive and more accountable.
Our Accountability Workshop is packed with how-to tools, providing your managers smart answers to their most pressing accountability challenges.
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This fun family adventure tour of Egypt includes the famous Pyramids & Sphinx in Cairo, the spectacular temples & tombs in Luxor, a short camel ride, beach time by the Red Sea, and a traditional felucca cruise along the Nile.
The landscape of the Arctic islands of Spitsbergen, Iceland and Greenland is one of permafrost that in place is permanent and in other gives way briefly during summer to a largely marshy, poorly drained soil. Temperatures can vary widely from bitingly cold sub zero temperatures in the winter to as high as 30o C (86o F) in the summer. Plants and animals have adapted to the large changes in temperature and the meagre resources available at such high latitudes to carve out an existence in this harsh and unforgiving terrain. On land mosses and lichen are abundant whilst the polar waters are rich in invertebrates, particularly during the summer month, when vast quantities of zooplankton fuel the summer influx of birds and whales.
The polar bear is perfectly adapted to life on and around the pack ice. Weighing as much as half a ton and standing more than ten feet tall they are extremely dangerous and at times very aggressive. It is well insulated by a thick layer of blubber and a dense underfur and outer layer of transparent guard fur. Its large fur covered paws provide excellent traction on the ice, help distribute load while walking on snow and enable it to swim very well. They have been spotted swimming over fifty miles away from any land or ice. Their main prey is bearded and ring seals though they will attack other animals, including humans, when driven by hunger. Breeding takes place between April and June with one to three cubs being born every 28 months. Female bears dig dens in the snow in October and November and give birth in December. At one time heavily hunted and heading towards extinction, there are now believed to be around 3,000 – 5,000 in Svalbard.
The word beluga derives from the Russian word bielo, meaning white. The white colour of these whales can take up to eight years to fully develop from the dark grey colouration of juveniles. They can grow up to 5m in length and are very sociable, living in pods ranging from a few individuals to several hundred. They are toothed whales feeding mainly on fish and crustaceans.
Also known as killer whales, the orca is the largest member of the dolphin family. Males can reach 9m in length and weigh more than 6 tonnes. Their distinctive black and white markings and large dorsal fin make them easy to identify. They feed on marine mammals, fish and birds and travel in pods of up to 50 individuals.
The blue whale is the largest whale and also the largest mammal on the planet. It is from the baleen family of whales, which means it feeds by filtering small crustaceans (krill) from the sea using fibrous plates (baleen) that line its jawbones. The largest recorded blue whale was 33.5m and probably over 200 tonnes in weight. A single blue whale can eat as much as 4.5 tonnes of krill in a day. They tend to be either solitary animals of travel in pairs.
Humpback whales are usually black and can be recognised by their enormous flippers, which can grow to a third their total length. Reaching a length of 20m, they can weigh as much as 40 tonnes. Members of the baleen family like the blue whale, humpback whales filter feed on krill. Once grossly exploited by whale hunters, they are now fully protected.
Minke whales are by far the most populous of southern ocean whales and population estimates are as many as 500,000. Relatively small at around 10m and 9 tonnes, they are black/grey in colour and fast swimmers. Like blue and humpback whales, the minke whale is a baleen and feeds on krill.
Other species of whale found in and around the Antarctic include the Fin, Sei, Bowhead and Narwhal.
Adult harp seals are dark grey in colouration and a very common species of seal in the Arctic, particularly Greenland. Fully grown, they can weigh as much as 150kg. Adults spend most of their time in the water feeding on fish and crustaceans, including salmon, herring, crab, krill, shrimp, octopus, flounder, cod, anchovy and squid. Pups are raised on the ice where they are extremely vulnerable to predation hunting by man.
The hooded seal is the largest species of seal and can weigh up to 400 kg. The seal is named after the inflatable, cap-like bulge on the forehead and nose of the adult males, which they can inflate when angry. Their colouration is silvery with scattered dark, irregular marks. The skin from the hooded seal was used in the past to cover kayaks. The hooded seal can live to an age of about 30 to 35 years.
The ringed seal is the smallest and most common seal in the Arctic growing to around 1.5m in length and weighing up to 100kg. They have plump bodies covered in dark fur with silver rings on their back and sides and a silver underbelly, small head and short cat-like snout. They live mainly around fjords where there are ice fells and in areas where the sea freezes in winter and feed on fish and crustaceans.
Other species of seal include the bearded seal and the common seal.
The walrus is a very distinctive marine mammal, which is easily recognisable by its massive bulk – 3 meters in length and 1000kg in weight – and its impressive tusks. Its tusks can grow up to 50cm in length and are used as a useful tool, for example when hauling itself up onto an ice floe, and for protection from attack by polar bears and killer whales. They generally stay close to the edge of the sea ice or on drifting ice floes where they dive down to feed, using their tusks to scrape the seabed in search of mussels and molluscs. Hunting for walrus tusks almost brought the species to the point of extinction, but they are now fully protected under international law, with only limited and controlled hunting allowed.
Arctic foxes are common and most abundant along the coast, though they wander freely over the sea ice. During the winter their coats are white, whilst in summer they change to a brownish grey in summer. Their compact body, short legs, short ears, dense fur, and thickly haired foot pads, which insulate against the cold and provide traction on ice, make them perfectly suited for the freezing Arctic climate. Mating occurs in early March and early April and litters average around six or seven pups but can be as large as fifteen. Most of their food comes from seabird colonies and from carrion washed up along the shoreline.
A larger relative of the deer, this remarkable animal has adapted itself to the harsh and barren Arctic landscape. It is an excellent swimmer and its thick coat traps air giving added buoyancy in the water, allowing it to cross large bodies of water. Reindeer herds can vary from a couple of dozen up to thousands and are almost constantly on the move in search of food. They eat a wide variety of plants during the summer months, but the bulk of their diet consists of lichens and tough grasses found across the tundra. In winter months they dig through the snow to find the lichens and mosses beneath. Reindeers mate between September and November. During the rutting season males become very aggressive, fighting with each other to gain control over harems of up to fifteen females. Calves are born in May and June and can stand within minutes of being born.
The musk ox is a large cattle like animal that is more closely related to sheep and goats than to oxen. Their name comes from their strong musky odour omitted during mating, and they have large hooves, broad curved horns, and a thickly insulated dark brown hair that hangs almost to the ground. They have a stocky build and a pronounced shoulder hump. Their diet is similar to reindeer and consists of grass, lichen and mosses. They live in smaller herds of between ten and twenty individuals and mating takes places during August and calves are born in April and May.
The arctic hare lives on the tundra and has a thick, pure white coat that camouflages it against the snow during the winter. During the summer the coat changes to a greyish brown in colour. They have very acute hearing even though their ears are small to help conserve heat. Their large feet and toes help them to travel easily on the snow. They eat mostly willow leaves, shoots, bark and roots along with other small plants. Females give birth to between four to eight babies, known as leverets, which can run within a few minutes of birth. The arctic hare is a vital source of food for other animals such as arctic fox, polar bear, wolves and birds of prey.
The Arctic is seasonally home to some of the largest seabird populations in the world. When the snow starts to melt hundreds of thousands of birds arrive to breed, nest, raise young and feed on Arctic plants and insects. These include seabirds, shore birds, waterfowl, song birds and many others. Many nest on the rocky cliffs or along the shore, with others nesting in the grass or on the ground. Migrating birds arrive in May and early June, leaving again in the autumn to winter in warmer climates. No less than 183 species of birds breed in the high latitudes, taking advantage of the short but but insect abundant summer season. Year round residents of the arctic include ptarmigan, arctic tern, raven and snowy owl. |
I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up, live out the true meaning of its creed: “We hold these
truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.”
Martin Luther King Jr….perhaps one of the most celebrated revolutionaries in our time; perhaps even in the history of man. Today is the day we remember…we remember the spirit of a man who had the strength to stand up and fight for his people…the man who fought for freedom and was instrumental in ending one of the darkest blots on American History: segregation.
I’m glad I was born after the era of segregation…after the speeches made by King…after the riots in the streets. I’m glad, because I can’t wrap my brain around separating a society based on physical characteristics or heritage…because I would never be able to see a difference between “this group” and “that group”. I’m thankful for my own freedoms…my freedom to love whomever I want…to be friends with whomever I want…and to live in a society where “all men are created equal.”
But do I? Do I live in a world where “all men are created equal”? The idealistic part of my brain wants to believe it’s true. I want to do what I’m supposed to do on this day, which is remember. Then again, I’m thankful for the end of segregation every day. I don’t need a holiday to tell me that there is no difference between black and white…I don’t need a “reminder” to pay homage to Martin Luther King, Jr’s message. Still, as I read the words to his infamous “I have a dream” speech, it seems that King still has a message to share.
As much as we like to think that the end of segregation created an equal society, sometimes I’m afraid that isn’t true. There is still plenty of division in this world. I’m going to talk a little about that division and this is going to be a rather lengthy post. I will try to make it as brief as possible but I have a lot to say about this. Please read the entire post…you won’t understand where I’m going with this whole thing unless you do…and please give me your feedback.
Why does racial division still exist? Is it because white people are racist? Maybe. I’m white and I’m not racist…but I know plenty of white people who are less than accepting of other races. On the same token, I know a lot more who are perfectly accepting of other races. Is it because black people are racist? Perhaps. That seems to be the chief complaint from the 1% of white people that have a “problem” with black people….(to quote one of them)…”They’re more racist than we are”.
When I hear things like that, I know that something is still wrong here. Why are we still grouping people by a them and us system? When I say we, I’m generally referring to the whole of humanity. If I’m being specific, it’s because I’m referring to my immediate family or a group of people (such as a class or my group of friends). I don’t quite grasp the concept of one race of people being a them and another group being an us. How can we, 50 years passed the end of segregation, still segregate people in our minds?
It’s true…white people aren’t the only ones who are guilty of racism. I just recently allowed myself to believe this. During a trip to WalMart, I was in the self-checkout. I was with my husband and I was trying to buy a Duck Dynasty item. Now, you can say what you want about the men of Duck Dynasty but I don’t know them personally so I try to reserve judgement. Sure, there are some things they say that I don’t agree with but it’s not up to me to judge them (or to let their ideals become my own). Anyway, my mother loves the show and I was trying to buy the item for her.
It was a situation where we needed a price check and my husband went to hunt the price while I stood with the attendant. We struck up a conversation and after a while she looked down at the item in her hand (with the faces of the Robertson boys) and says “Isn’t these guys racist?” This confounded me but if it was based on fact, I would be interested to know. I said back to her, “I don’t know. I don’t know them for real but my mom likes the show.” She admitted that she had never watched the show but she insisted that they just “looked mean”. I couldn’t wrap my brain around this and I did what I always do…I spoke my mind. My speech to her went a little like this:
“How can you say that somebody is racists based on the way they look? I don’t judge people based on the way they look. I would never label any of these men as racist unless I personally heard something from their mouth that made me think they were. It’s just not right to be like that toward people.”
She didn’t buy it. She insisted that they look “mean” and “they must be racist”, although she couldn’t tell me exactly why. By the time my husband had gotten back from checking the price, I had noticed that people around us (of all races) had stopped to watch the exchange. He couldn’t find the price for the item and we walked out of the store without the item. I don’t know if the checkout lady thought about the exchange afterward but I did. I thought about it, a lot.
First, I had to reconcile the factors in my head. The checkout lady was black…I am white. I am certain that she wasn’t labeling me as a racist because she was comfortable enough to talk to me about it. So, I can assume that it isn’t the Robertson’s white skin that made her think they are racist. After all, I have white skin too and she was completely fine with me. So, what’s the difference between me and the guys of Duck Dynasty? Well, I was wearing jeans, a rastafarian shirt and a Bob Marley jacket…the Robertson boys look like what they are: rednecks.
I can assume that some interaction with this “group” of people (rednecks) has planted the seed that the entire group is racist. My experience has been different. I grew up in the country and I was surrounded by a mixed bag in this department. Some of the people from this culture that I encountered were racist…others weren’t. I can’t get from that point to the point where I believe that all members of the group ascribe to a set of universal principles. I still can’t categorize.
I also think that the media has something to do with this. I know that along with the “gay bashing” hype, there was a story where Phil Robertson had said something about the time of segregation that made a lot of people think he was racist. I don’t know if he is, or not, because my experience with the media helps me to understand that things can be taken out of context. I still refuse to judge somebody until I have met that person, myself.
Whether it’s a seed planted by personal experience or by the media, it has become apparent to me that the strands which led to segregation still exist. In order to truly overcome separation, we have to keep from categorizing people and ascribing those categories with universal properties. We have to allow ourselves to make up our mind on an individual basis. We have to truly give one another a chance and never accept that we can’t love someone else just because they come from a different group or place.
Sexual Division and Moral Division
This doesn’t only apply to racial division but it also applies to sexual division and moral division. Some days, I think the days of men typecasting and discriminating against women is over…some days I do not. Still, I know that 90% of the women that I know are more than strong enough to handle it when someone tries to put her down, simply, because she has a vagina. I really don’t see feminism as a problem in our society, except for the ones I have met along the way who use being a woman to bend the world to their own will. THAT I have a problem with. How is it that women have fought so long for a freedom, simply so that women of today can use their vaginas like a “get out of jail free” card.
But I digress, because women’s rights really isn’t a pertinent issue in today’s time. I mean, it is but not as big as the issues that are facing people who identify with an “alternative” sexual orientation. When I see the fight for gay rights unfolding, it reminds me how unaccepting people can be when it counteracts their own moral compass. I guess I understand this. For instance, I don’t believe in murder. So, when someone commits murder, I admittedly don’t like that person. I identify that person as “bad”. However, I just don’t see what’s “bad” about loving someone of the same sex or identifying with a gender that is not your birth gender.
Love is always a good thing, no matter how it’s expressed (amongst consenting adults) and the ability to accept oneself for the inside matter rather than the outside is a beautiful thing. What I find, however, is that some people who have decided (for whatever reason), that these things are morally wrong don’t want any ties or connection to people who engage in this type of lifestyle. It’s not that I can say that’s wrong but I can say that it certainly creates division. When two groups of people refuse interaction it creates a “me” and “us” mentality. On one side, you have the straight people of the world and, in our minds (and through the law), we have separated them from the people who are not straight.
I straddle the line, here. I am both straight and gay (you can disagree if you like but this is my reality). I am also a morally righteous person…so where does that put me? What group do I stand in when the “roll is called up yonder”. Here’s my answer to that question: and you’re not going to like it…WHO CARES?
Surely, you’re not going to be standing in the line to heaven/paradise, looking around and gossiping about the people who didn’t make it? If you think you are, you might want to re-think that because the Christian Bible groups that kind of catty behavior right along with homosexuality. It is literally IN THE SAME verse as the one which is often used to speak against laying with someone of the same sex…Still, there are plenty of morally righteous people who talk about gay people behind their back and in secret corners…who talk about the neighbors and the pastor’s wife and anybody who does anything they don’t like…but that is never met with the same condemnation as homosexuality. It just doesn’t make sense to me.
Division of Faith
The previous rant brings me to this one. Perhaps the most I have ever felt discriminated against is because of my faith. I was once Christian…I hold the Christian faith in high regard. Now, I’m Pagan (Druid, specifically) and I hold the Pagan faith in high regard as well. I don’t really see a lot of difference between them. I mean, of course, in practice they are very different. However, they are both systems which help people find a deeper connection in life…they are both systems which (hopefully) create a moral backbone for the individual which will foster love and compassion in this world.
So, how is this so often translated that this love and compassion is only directed toward groups which the individual deems “worthy” of it? There is not a god, goddess, prophet, son of god, seer or mystic who ever said “Love everyone except ____.” I don’t care what religion (or non-religion) you are, if you have the capacity to love and be compassionate, I hold you in the same high regard as anybody else.
I will say this: coming out of the broom closet taught me a thing or two about how discrimination works. After I had been discriminated against, over and over, I began to see a wall forming. I began to see my own mind thinking, “all Christians hate me”. That, in and of itself, is a discriminatory thought and it is something I had to fight back against. What I learned is to accept the fact that people will naturally have certain preconceived notions about what the symbol around my neck (a pentacle), means. After accepting that, I had to decide what to do about it.
What I learned is that it doesn’t take very long, in talking with someone of a different faith, to come to common ground. After all, some believe that all faith systems drink from the same well and although we may not agree on everything, people of different faiths share something in common. The topics that are “hot button”, I try to stay away from. I focus on the similarities and delight in learning something from someone who shares a different point of view. To this day, I have not met a person of a different faith that, after a little conversation, does not have the ability to be accepting of my “Pagan ways”. All I have to do is give a little accepting, first.
Social Division and Separation of Class
Perhaps the fastest growing type of division is the social division and separation of class. It’s not new but it’s definitely rearing its head with ferocity, lately. I’m not going to get into the different categories of class or anything like that because I can write another 4,000 words on that thought alone. I will simply break the division down into a group of “haves” and “have-nots” (thank you, Tyler Perry).
In our nation, the “haves” look down on the “have nots” as morally corrupt and lazy beings; basically, not worthy of the time of day (or a fair wage). On the other hand, the “have nots” see the “haves” as morally corrupt and spoiled beings; taking advantage of the lifestyle afforded by their daily work. It becomes an endless cycle of blame when, in fact, the economy of our society depends on a perfect balance of the two.
Conclusion: The Benefits of a Segregated Society.
I feel like before the end of segregation, there was a brick wall in between the different groups in our society. Martin Luther King Jr, and other revolutionary soldiers, broke down these brick walls. There are still glass walls in their place, and new types of division starting up every day. We still have boundaries…as much as I would like to assume that we don’t, I can’t. What I can do is try to pinpoint the reasons why these divisions still exist.
I think I’ve done a good job of doing that throughout. I know that categorization, moral righteousness and misunderstanding are (often) not proponents of breaking the walls that divide us. However, I think it’s good to look at the antecedent factors. What is good about a segregated society and who actually WANTS us to remain divided?
People who are divided don’t fight wars together…they fight wars against one another. So, while we’re trying to solve the mysteries of the universe…(like which skin color is supreme, how to “define” love, who’s going to heaven and who is not, there is a war being waged against our individual liberties. One by one, the reigns of justice are being tightened against our necks and we’re too busy worrying about what people are doing in their own bedrooms to care. Why is it that we don’t believe that a united front is the best attack against tyranny, when our founding fathers did?
I can’t answer the “who” part of the question…I don’t know exactly who is waging the war on our freedom. I do know that it’s often not the person who everyone blames (in this case, Obama). I don’t know what Obama’s motivations in office are or even if what he is doing is right or wrong. I don’t know because it’s impossible to know the truth about what goes on in our government. Is the entirety of government to blame? Perhaps. Perhaps it’s only one or two…perhaps it’s not the government at all. The government is too large and transparency is too far gone to truly make that determination. In fact, it almost seems like a slight of hand trick, meant to misdirect our anger and frustration.
All I know is this: the Middle Class is getting too close to the lower class and the lower class is falling away, to a point where we are about to see a lot more women and children dying in the street. The American Dream is dying and somebody who is born on the bottom better start resigning to staying there their entire lives. I do know that the type of hopelessness and resentment that is growing in our society is very dangerous. In the end, the controlling factors (the unknown antecedent to our separations) will be the only ones segregated from the damage that is done. |
If your child likes mysteries, she’ll love second grade science! Alongside faith, science is our attempt to understand the longest-running mystery we know: how the universe came to be and how we as humans fit into it. In Earth science, second graders will investigate what different rocks are made of. Your child will play the “animal, mineral, vegetable” game that was a staple of family road trips long before the iPad. She will cast fossil-like molds and examine petrified bones.
To explore the properties of matter, your child will concoct quicksand with cornstarch and water and test different objects to see if they sink or float. He will ponder how wind and water can change the shape of the land and discover whether the stick and paper house he builds can withstand a landslide. What kind of simple machine is an ax, a nutcracker, or a jar lid? Second grade scientists will embark on a scavenger hunt for real-life examples of wedges, levers, screws, and other simple machines, then construct one out of recycled materials. Books like The Tiny Seed and The Carrot Seed will introduce your child to the characteristics of plants—what they need to grow and how they depend on animals to pollinate them and disperse their seeds. Then your child will get his hands dirty in our garden getting a close-up look at how tomatoes, carrots, and beans grow. And all along, your child is adding to an ever-growing list of clues about the mystery and miracle of life. |
Skyline Inspection Services offers Radon testing in your home as an add-on service to home inspections or a standalone service.
Call us today if you are interested in testing your home for Radon levels.
The Basics: What Is Radon & Why Is It a Concern?
Radon is a radioactive gas that comes from the breakdown of naturally occurring uranium in soil and rock. It is invisible, odorless and tasteless, and can only be detected by specialized tests. Radon enters homes through openings that are in contact with the ground, such as cracks in the foundation, small openings around pipes, and sump pits.
Radon, like other radioactive materials, undergoes radioactive decay that forms decay products. Radon and its decay products release radioactive energy that can damage lung tissue in a way that causes the beginning of lung cancer.
The more radon you are exposed to, and the longer the exposure, the greater the risk of eventually developing lung cancer. Radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United States, resulting in 15,000 to 22,000 deaths per year.
Testing your home for radon is easy and homes with high levels of radon can be fixed (mitigated). The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) recommends that all homes be tested for radon.
Selecting & Arranging for Tests
Homeowners can test for radon themselves or hire a New Jersey certified radon measurement company to perform the testing.
If you buy your test from a retail store, make sure that the kit is labeled with the New Jersey certification number of the company that produced the test kit (the number will begin with “MEB9’” followed by 4 digits), or you can call the Information Line to confirm that the company is certified. If you hire a contractor to do the test, make sure the technician who places and picks up the test device is certified by the State, by checking their NJDEP certificate or calling the Radon Information Line. It is against the law to do radon testing or mitigation without certification in New Jersey. |
The subject of granting financial reparations to American descendants of slaves has long provoked discourse between academics and social justice advocates alike. For centuries, enslaved Africans and their descendants were kept on American plantations against their will, brutally harmed and forced to perform labor every day. In 1619, slavery was first introduced in the United States, in the Jamestown colony of present-day Virginia. It was not until January 1, 1863, when the abolition of slavery was announced under the Emancipation Proclamation of President Abraham Lincoln (“Slavery in America”). The amount of time slavery existed in America is still longer than the amount of time since its abolishment. The effects of slavery still remain today. In The New York Times’ “ The 1619 Project” examining the history of slavery, author Trymaine Lee acknowledges modern examples of systemic racism. Legal segregation and Jim Crow laws plagued American society for the greater part of the twentieth century. Redlining and housing discrimination against black Americans created a wide economic gap between the average black and white families in America (Lee). While segregation has since been outlawed, many schools are still arguably segregated, with majority-white schools receiving visibly more funding than their African-American-majority counterparts. Academic achievement and police brutality continue to threaten the lives of black Americans.
These systemic, economic ills of racism can be linked to America’s past involvement in the slave trade. A Pew Research study indicates that 63% of Americans today believe that the legacy of slavery continues to impact the position of black people in modern society, while also citing how "more than four-in-ten U.S. adults think the country hasn’t gone far enough in giving black people equal rights with whites...” (Horowitz). The persistent economic gaps between Americans of different racial groups can be reduced through granting of financial reparations. The implementation of financial reparations for American descendants of slaves will reduce historical and systemic racial inequality and can be implemented via the approval of federal legislation that already exists.
Racial inequality has been continuously apparent in society. Since the origin of slavery in early world history, the oppression of black people has perpetuated the wealth and economic success of their white counterparts. As described in “The 1619 Project,” a special report on the history of American slavery by The New York Times Magazine, slavery “provided political power, social standing, and wealth for the church, European nation-states, New World colonies and individuals,” (Elliott Hughes). If the inhumane practice of enslaving people was used to create mass amounts of wealth for white oppressors, reparation payments can be used to account for this unjust creation of wealth. In an essay analyzing the faults of capitalism in America, Matthew Desmond asserts that early economic success in America was due to “our nation’s unflinching willingness to use violence on nonwhite people and to exert its will on seemingly endless supplies of land and labor,” (2). His statement furthers the notion that the financial well-being of white people has historically existed at the expense of people of color.
The widening of the gap between black and white Americans has not been accidental. In fact, the federal government has played a significant role in the creation of wealth inequality. As Lee writes for the New York Times, “plundering of black wealth was...etched in law and public policy,” (3). He continues to assert this idea by examining specific examples of the federal government’s failures to create economic equality. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s G.I. Bill was one of his “most enduring legacies,” (Lee 4). However, while giving veterans easier access to mortgages, this legislation allowed for the Veterans Administration to adopt “the same racially restrictive policies as the Federal Housing Administration” that granted loans to racist developers (Lee). Trymaine Lee’s article also reminds us that, while Roosevelt’s economic policies provided a foundation for a successful American middle class, domestic and agricultural workers, the majority of whom were black, were ineligible for these “wealth-building programs” such as Social Security (Lee). The impossibility of attaining the same economic privileges as white Americans thus led to a greater economic gap between black and white people. Lee’s article on the racial wealth gap in America also quotes Duke University professor William A. Darity Jr., who argues that because one’s wealth is largely dependent on the financial success of their family’s previous generations, black Americans are at a disadvantage because of recent injustices preventing the accumulation of generational wealth (Lee). As a professor of both African American studies and public policy at a prestigious university, Darity clearly possesses the credentials necessary to offer an insight as to what the underlying causes of the racial wealth gap are. Irina Ivanova of CBS News also provides quantitative data highlighting just how large the gap is, showing white families are worth about $171,000 on average, as opposed to just about ten percent of that figure being the average wealth of a black American family (1).
Proposed federal legislation, titled H.R. 40, would divert federal funds towards the study of reparations. Congressional attention would be diverted towards the subject of reparations for slave descendants, and while the bill would not yet implement these reparations, Sheryl Gay Stolberg of the New York Times explains that a congressional commission would be created “to develop proposals to address the lingering effects of slavery and consider a ‘national apology’ for the harm it has caused,” (Stolberg). Such a commission would be made up of thirteen members and would receive $12 million in federal funding, as noted by The Philadelphia Inquirer (Russ).
A reasonable question to be raised regarding the implementation of reparations is who would be eligible. This is a question that could be studied and answered by the congressional commission. Professor William Darity, mentioned in Lee’s article for “The 1619 Project,” is cited in the Huffington Post with an answer. Darity proposes that for one to qualify for reparations, that individual would have to provide identity himself on a formal document as “black, African-American, colored or Negro” and have legitimate proof of an enslaved ancestor (Craven). This article also quotes Darity as stating that $9.12 billion would be owed, while economist Larry Neal estimates $6.4 trillion (Craven). This same article responds to questions regarding just how reparation payments could be made, pointing to statistics showing that “in fiscal year 2014, the U.S. government spent $3.5 trillion...only 20% of the nation’s gross domestic product” (Craven). While a lack of widespread support and an abundance of questions surrounding the achievability of reparations casts doubt on the issue, simple questions regarding the issue can be answered through the congressional approval of a commission to study reparations.
Numerous questions surround the subject of reparations. Political gridlock and economic debate have resulted in no legitimate blueprint for implementation. While the subject is controversial, with many skeptics, there is no debate that the legacy of slavery is detrimental to the current lives of black Americans. At the very least, productive research and discourse on the issue are owed to the people who have suffered economic misfortune as a result of centuries of discrimination. Education of the public and outspoken criticism of political leaders who refuse to act will result in long overdue financial compensation for this country’s most painful legacy.
Craven, Julia. “We Absolutely Could Give Reparations To Black People. Here's How.” HuffPost, HuffPost, 23 Feb. 2016, www.huffpost.com/entry/reparations-black-americans-slavery_n_56c4dfa9e4b08ffac1276bd7.
Desmond, Matthew. “American Capitalism Is Brutal. You Can Trace That to the Plantation.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 14 Aug. 2019, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/slavery-capitalism.html.
Ferris State University. “Slavery in America.” Slavery in America - Timeline - Jim Crow Museum - Ferris State University, www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/timeline/slavery.htm.
Horowitz, Juliana Menasce. “Most Americans Say the Legacy of Slavery Still Affects Black People in the U.S. Today.” Pew Research Center, Pew Research Center, 17 June 2019, www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/17/most-americans-say-the-legacy-of-slavery-still-affects-black-people-in-the-u-s-today/.
Ivanova, Irina. “If Black Families Were as Rich as White Ones, U.S. Economy Would Be $1.5 Trillion Bigger.” CBS News, CBS Interactive, 20 Aug. 2019, www.cbsnews.com/news/racial-wealth-gap-costs-economy-1-5-trillion-dollars-report-finds/.
Lee, Trymaine. “How America's Vast Racial Wealth Gap Grew: By Plunder.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 14 Aug. 2019, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/racial-wealth-gap.html.
Russ, Valerie. “What You Need to Know about Reparations after the First Congressional Hearing Convened on the Topic in More than a Decade.” Https://Www.inquirer.com, The Philadelphia Inquirer, 22 June 2019, www.inquirer.com/news/what-are-reparations-america-h-r-40-congressional-hearings-democratic-presidential-candidates-20190619.html.
Stolberg, Sheryl Gay. “At Historic Hearing, House Panel Explores Reparations.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 19 June 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/06/19/us/politics/slavery-reparations-hearing.html?module=inline.
The Journal of Scholarship at WHS is a peer reviewed journal publishing academic works by emerging scholars at Weymouth Middle and High School. |
Listening skills impact behavior and academic skills. For some students, listening and following directions is a challenge. If you ask these students if they heard you after you give directions, they will often say yes. But, if you ask them questions about the directions you gave, they cannot explain what they need to do. These students confuse hearing the sound of your voice with listening for meaning. They need to tune into the meaning of the words and practice active listening in order to know how to follow the directions that you give.
Use a radio to show students the difference between hearing and tuning into the meaning. When a student is tuned out, not actively listening to the lesson, they are hearing some of the words. This is like listening to a radio station without being completely tuned into the correct spot. They hear some words, but not all of the words, along with static. They might get the gist of what the DJ is talking about but miss some important details. My new “Tune into the Details” file includes a recording of the first lesson with static so you can demonstrate this with your class.
Students need to practice listening skills frequently. Practice makes perfect, right? Unfortunately, teachers do not always have time to include teachers directed listening lesson with their plans. No problem! I made “Tune into Details – Listening Centers” that students can do independently. Students click on the QR Code at the top of the response page (see above). The directions are read twice. Students can stop the directions to complete the work on the worksheet and begin the directions again when they are ready. Each lesson has a theme. After listening and following directions, the students will write a story using the writing extension page. The FREE sample themes include weather and shapes.
The Tune into Details free sample also includes listening tips like the Listening Walk printable above. You can read more about Listening Walk by Paul Showers HERE.
Tune into the Details – Listening Center – FREE
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"But long ago he rode away,
and where he dwelleth none can say;
for into darkness fell his star
where the shadows are."
From The Fall of Gil-Galad
as translated by Bilbo Baggins
in The Fellowship of the Ring
I 11 A Knife in the Dark
The lay that tells of the loss of Ereinion Gil-galad in the Siege of Barad-dûr at the end of the War of the Last Alliance. Sam sings the first lines of it in the The Lord of the Rings.
Little is known of the lay itself. According to Aragorn, it was originally written in 'an ancient tongue' (presumably Quenya), but Bilbo Baggins later translated it into the Common Tongue, and taught it to Samwise Gamgee in his younger days. It seems to have told the story of the War of the Last Alliance, at least to the point where Gil-galad aided in the overthrow of Sauron, and was himself slain. Its contents, though, are largely unknown: Sam confirms that it was a long poem, but apart from three introductory stanzas, the text of the lay is lost.
For acknowledgements and references, see the Disclaimer & Bibliography page.
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Original content © copyright Mark Fisher 1998, 2001, 2003. All rights reserved. For conditions of reuse, see the Site FAQ. |
Getting to know your skin is probably the single most important thing you can do to help detect skin cancer symptoms. Check your moles regularly and keep a record of things popping up or growing on your skin.
If you notice any signs consistent with the list highlighted below that concern you or persist for two weeks, visit your doctor. There's a good chance that it's nothing - but why put it off? Early detection saves lives.
Skin Cancer Signs and what you should look out for:
Most cancers have some pretty obvious signs: lumps and bumps, tenderness, sickness or pain. But when it comes to skin cancer, they aren't always as plain to see especially for the untrained eye. What can make early detection tricky is that skin cancer can sometimes grow slowly and often free of glaring warning signs.
There are a few things that you can keep an eye out. Following requests from our customers, we have compiled a list thanks to a number of dermatologists who contributed to it.
Skin cancers usually present as a mole, a spot or a freckle and are sometimes visibly different to the surrounding skin. It is sometimes a new spot but can also be a pre-existing one that has changed size, shape or colour.
It is important you visit your doctor or skin specialist if you have any marks or spots on your skin that are:
Types of skin cancer
There are three main types of skin cancer.
Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC) - this is the most common type of skin cancer. It tends to develop slowly over months or even years. Predominantly related to cumulative sun exposure. If a BCC is left untreated, it is likely to damage surrounding tissue and organs. It usually presents itself as a pearly surfaced, pink raised lump or as a pink-red scaly area. In some instances, it may ulcerate.
Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC) - it is less common but faster growing and can spread to other parts of the body if left untreated. It can be scaly or crusty, pale pink or red in colour. It may be tender to touch. Usually found in sun-exposed areas, it can take weeks or months to grow.
Melanoma - is least common but the most dangerous. When detected early, it can often be cured. If it is not diagnosed early, it may spread to other parts of the body. Melanoma can be found anywhere on the body and also in non-exposed skin areas.
Know your ABCDE
Dermatologists classify melanoma using the ABCDE method.
A is for ASYMMETRY - benign moles (non-cancerous and non-malignant) are most of the time round in shape and symmetrical. Melanoma lesions are typically irregular in shape and asymmetrical.
B is for BORDER - benign moles have smooth even borders. Melanoma lesions often have uneven borders (notched edges or ragged).
C is for COLOUR - benign moles are usually a single shade of brown. Cancerous lesions often contain multiple colours (brown, black, pink, red or purple).
D is for DIAMETER - benign moles are usually less than 6mm in diameter. Melanoma and other cancerous lesions are often more than 6mm in diameter.
E is for EVOLVING - benign moles usually do not change over time. Melanoma and other cancerous lesions often grow in shape or change height over time.
Did you know:
Notice any of these signs? Early detection saves lives. Book your skin check this week for peace of mind.
Prevention is the best cure.
The SOLBARI Team
This blog is for information purposes only. Please seek help from your medical specialist if you have questions about your skin or concerns.
Your skin is your largest organ and has a long memory. Sun exposure and ultraviolet (UV) damage is cumulative throughout your life. Research shows that sun damage contributes to more than 90% of wrinkles, brown spots, premature skin ageing as well as precancerous and cancerous skin lesions.
It is very difficult to the untrained eye to identify melanomas and skin cancers because they can come in many different shapes and sizes.
As Associate Professor Rosemary Nixon from the Skin & Cancer Foundation Inc. says, "the earlier a skin cancer is identified and treated, the better the chance of avoiding surgery, or in the case of a serious melanoma or skin cancer, potential disfigurement or even death." |
Connecting people to the natural world in urban settings requires turfgrass. Furthermore, turfgrass provides several vital ecosystem services, such as stormwater runoff collection, heat island effect mitigation, pollution and erosion control, and carbon sequestration. So, for those who say turfgrass serves no functional purpose—only an aesthetic one—they are wrong. However, those who say turfgrass can be managed more sustainably might be onto something.
Brian Horgan, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Turfgrass Management at the University of Minnesota. His research interests focus on the fate and transport of pesticides and nutrients, water conservation strategies, and low-input turfgrass systems. Horgan spoke on the topic of "Defining Sustainable Turfgrass Systems" at the fifth-annual Lawn Care Summit in Nashville on January 28.
"Demand for turfgrass will continue to increase," Horgan told the Lawn Care Summit audience. That is an inevitability, he said, due to population growth and urbanization. As that demand for turfgrass increases, though, products used to manage turfgrass—including mowing equipment, fertilizers and pesticides, and irrigation systems—will become less available. Something has to give.
"If the ecosystem services of turfgrass are not enhanced by management—i.e. mowing, fertilization and irrigation—then the value of turf in urban environments will be questioned," Horgan said. Therefore, the more efficient and sustainable management of turfgrass is becoming more and more important now, and will be critical in the future.
"Turfgrass landscapes must represent a balance," Horgan pointed out, adding that landscape managers should balance inputs with desired end results. In other words, the goal should be to develop turfgrass management methods that require fewer energy inputs—without hindering the positive impact turfgrass has on the environment.
A Systematic Approach via Baby Steps
Irrigation. Did you know that turfgrass is the most-irrigated crop in the U.S., even surpassing corn by 3:1? That's a big reason why water conservation should be foremost in the minds of all landscape contractors, not just irrigation specialists.
"The future is about remote sensors," Horgan said in reference to the infrared technology that can detect water stress from visual systems. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) identifies things like hot spots, bare soil and stress. "Remote sensors can pick up things before the human eye can, if it even can," Horgan said.
That's the technology of tomorrow. For now, the more common ET (evapotranspiration) controllers and soil moisture sensors can be put to better use. "You can also go archaic," Horgan reminded. You can put a pan out behind the shed on a property to measure the rate of water loss, which can help you determine how much water needs to be replaced on a daily basis. As a general rule, you'd take the amount lost x 0.8 to determine irrigation needs.
Fertilization. Some municipalities and states have moved to limit or completely ban the use of phosphorous and/or nitrogen. Not necessarily a good move. "Depriving turf of food doesn't help matters," Horgan pointed out. His testing has shown significant leaching when high levels of phosphorous were applied, but also when none was applied. Nutrient loss can lead to thinning thatch, which can result in increased leaching. "A better approach is to conduct a soil test to determine if phosphorous is needed," Horgan said. Then, feed the turf when it is growing.
Aeration. Aerating is an important component to an overall lawn care program. You have a choice between hollow-tine and solid-tine aerating equipment. "Tests show 55% less water runoff when you use a hollow tine," Horgan explained. Thus, you'll also experience less nutrient loss. |
Date of Award
Campus Access Thesis
Archaeology is a field that inspires interest and curiosity among people outside of the profession. Movies, television, newspapers, video games - numerous popular culture areas have featured archaeology or archaeologists at one time or another. However, archaeologists have fallen under criticism for not providing effective and captivating public communication. The goal of this project was to examine how to present archaeology to non-archaeologists in a way that takes advantage of the excitement generated by popular media, but also gives people an appreciation for what archaeologists actually do. Specifically this research used the method of a museum exhibit to present information on the Johannes Kolb Site, an archaeological excavation in Mechanicsville, South Carolina. Site or region-based exhibits that address not only the archaeological data, but also the needs and interest of the community are an excellent way for an archaeologist to create a multi-media method of communicating their research and message to a wide range of people.
Shofner, E. H.(2010). That Belongs In A Museum: Archaeology and Audiences. (Master's thesis). Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/259 |
March 26, 2018
Technology is designed to make life easier. From banking apps to selfie sticks, innovative ideas from big tech companies and small startups alike have made daily life infinitely more simple for the average person. However, with all this advanced tech flying off the shelves for the everyday consumer, it’s important to remember a population that would benefit from the tech more than most: those with disabilities.
Fortunately, there is a lot of tech out there designed to make our connected world a little more accessible for everyone.
Whether you’re sight-impaired, immobile, or hard-of-hearing, a little technology can go a long way in making everyday tasks a whole lot easier. From sign language translators to braille smart watches, the tech world is doing its best to make the digital world more accessible to those with disabilities.
The Dot Watch
In a world teeming with visual online stimuli, being blind or sight-impaired can mean missing out. From push notifications to text messages, the connected life we lead is highly reliant on the ability to see. While audio options are available, privacy comes in to question for those more sensitive topics. Fortunately, there’s a more subtle approach for the visually impaired, thanks to the Dot Watch.
This innovative smart watch has a braille touch display and a slim, stylish design. It uses 24 dots for a wide array of functions, connecting to a smartphone through Bluetooth.
Whether it’s checking social media, utilizing GPS, or even controlling your smart home, this watch can make life easier and more enjoyable. You can even send messages with the two buttons on the side of the Dot Watch, giving better connectivity to users.
The Dot Watch costs $359 and comes in large or small sizes.
American Sign Language has helped many deaf and mute people to communicate from day-to-day. Unfortunately, only about half a million people in the US and Canada are familiar with the language, putting the hearing-impaired at a significant disadvantage. Yet again, technology is here to help.
UNI, a product developed by MotionSavvy, is “the world’s first two-way communication software for the deaf.” By translating sign language to grammatically correct spoken language, it gives deaf and mute users the ability to communicate with loved ones and strangers like never before. With sign-to-speech and speech-to-text features, it has tremendous potential for broadening communications for the hearing-impaired.
The Dring Smart Cane
A lot of products are smart nowadays. Homes, phones, and even egg trays have been infused with WiFi and Bluetooth to make them more practical. The trend has admittedly gone a little overboard, but it has yielded some pretty incredible innovations when it comes to assisting seniors — the Dring Smart Cane is a great example.
This simple product can detect if the user has fallen and will contact a friend or family member immediately. The Dring Smart Cane works by alerting a set list of contacts to a fall as soon as it happens. Users can also click the button on the cane to alert family and friends of an emergency.
360 million people suffer from hearing loss around the world. What many don’t realize is that half of them live in low income areas, leading to a sizable population without hearing aids or other assistance. Battery costs alone can make hearing aids impractical. But one company has made this problem obsolete — Solar Ear.
With easy-to-charge devices and dramatically lower prices, Solar Ear offers users a chance to hear a little better, without high battery costs. The hearing aids are claimed to last two to three years, and they can be charged with compact solar panels (pictured above). Plus, with vendors already set up in Botswana, Brazil, China, and Canada, it will only be a matter of time before anyone in the world with hearing loss will have an affordable solution.
Being confined to a wheelchair is never easy, but it can be made much worse when you have bad posture. Slouching in a chair all day isn’t good for anyone, particularly when you don’t have the option to get up and stretch your legs. Fortunately, one company has developed a product that can help keep you healthy in and out of a wheelchair.
Gaspard is a “connected mat” for wheelchairs. It has a wide range of functions designed to improve posture, eliminate back pain, and increase mobility.
By tracking push ups and time spent recumbent, the connected mobile app can help you make better choices while sitting down. Additionally, if you’re in a bad position, the app will alert you to move, so as not to agitate your back. It can prevent inactivity and promote healthy behavior for users.
Read more about gadgets and gear on TechCo
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Getting Ready for an Online Examination.
Exam preparation and revision are the essential factors influencing the success of a student. All learners with the desire to excel or achieve their online courses' objective must take their revision seriously.But thorough revision is not an easy task for both the instructors and students. This article willguide students through exam revision and preparation.
There are many types of tasks and questions that students are likely to encounter on an eLearning platform.
In certain scenarios, the moderator may be more specific on the subject, giving more illustrations on the Moodle.These guidelines are made on the principles of an excellent revision plan and preparations for online examination.The revision process aims at the learner's success by giving tips on what they must emphasize on. It uses the best methods understood by many online students and aids them with the ability to recall.
Best Practices duringOnline Examination Preparation & Revision.
A favorable learning environment is also a key factor for effective revision. Below are the best revision practices to prepare online students adequately for examination:
The exam norm is that the students must revisit coursework before going into the exam room.With proper guidance on the various taught tasks, any online student is well placed to excel in online tests.Planning for your exams will require you to look deep into the various types of questions like an essay, multiple-choice, or short answer questions that are likely to be tested.
Once you have your list, allocate each question the time your examiner may expect you to spend on each.Time is an essential factor in taking any examination because it enables you to plan well and ensure all tasks are attended to.In the course of your revision, you need to allocate the time to work out each question to help you finish your exam on time.
Remember, submitting your work in time is part of the examination regulation that must be given much attention. The normal time allocated for many exams is between one to three hours.Therefore, online students are advised to work with a good pace—not too fast or slow—to remain within the exam schedule. Next, creating a suitable environment during revision familiarizes you with the actual exam room.
Students should use a quiet room (free from distractions) to conduct their exam preparation exercises. Those sharing a room can use earplugs or use headphones to minimize all manner of distractions.And for the best study position, the learner needs a piece of flat surface furniture, for example, lockers and study tables.Learners must also organize their PC, laptops, phones, or other working devices set and confirm functionality under an IT expert's supervision.
2. Revising & practicing for online examination.
Revision and practice for online tests begin with preparing a timetable to help you balance all the topics equally.Your timetable should begin as soon as you intend to start your revision until the exam date.Plan your timetable well and give yourself breaks, or time off, to attend to other duties you would like to do, for example, washing.Take all your revisions exercises the same way you would treat your job and be passionate about it.
Ensure all your revision sessions are updated with a task to ensure you focus ahead and meet the objective set by the end.Identify all the major topics listed by the tutors or lectures during revision or the areas emphasized on assignments.Be keen on the topics that recur in past papers in different modules but be reminded that setting strategies keep changing.
Having listed all the topics, you can easily tell what you understand and what you don't and discover the areas you need to revisit before taking your tests.Simplify the revision task by dividing it into smaller sections that will enhance your level of understanding.Below is a list of revision techniques to help you prepare adequately for your online exam:
Studies have indicated that one of the best methods to pace up online revision exercise is called Pomodoro.The method requires the student to pay attention for twenty-five minutes and then take a break of five minutes.It also requires the learner to revisit the hard or complex parts of their study while the mind is still fresh.
Pomodoro encourages the student to go through simpler areas when they are almost winding up their revision or when exhausted.It also encourages the learner to repeat each title as they highlight the various theories, keywords, topics, subtitles, concepts, terminologies, or formulas that might be tested.
Come up with better ways to understand further, for example, by converting the information studied into diagrams, charts, or pictures.The learner can also use symbols, different font size, or even color to create more emphasis. The strategy also encourages you to do what can help you understand further or master the concepts properly, for example, practicing how a formula works severally.
Revision props entail using index cards where you have a set of questions on one side and the answers on the other or past papers and blank maps.The idea is to help you remember and test if you have understood the various concepts that are likely to be tested.It also requires the learner to prepare a checklist of what they ought to have revised and mark completed tasks ahead of the online examination.
Exam practice is to help you familiarize yourself with the various conditions in an examination room.
This may include:
3.The best ways to prepare a day before the actual examination.
Here are some important things to iron out a day to the exam:
Lastly, prepare a meal to eat before going into the exam room because hunger can be a major distraction.
4.What occurs during exams.
Begin taking your examination when you are set to;
For troubleshooting emergencies, quickly get your technical guide to assist you as soon as possible.
Common examination Tips
Below are a few tips that are found in most exams:
It is also advisable to start with the easier task to avoid wasting too much time thinking of how to go about the complex tasks.
Dealing with Online Examination anxiety.
Anxiety is the result of fearful thoughts that come to a student's mind during an examination. It can happen to anyone, no matter how prepared they are.
Some of the ways to deal with exam anxiety include:
As you practice the above, be sure to focus on getting the air in and out of your body.
How to reduce anxiety.
The following activities can help you reduce anxiety as you prepare to take your exams:
These activities can prove useful when trying to deal with online examination anxiety.
Failing to plan is planning to fail. Follow the above techniques to revise adequately for your oncoming and future examinations. |
Yemen is a republic with an active bicameral legislature. An elected President, an elected 301-seat House of Representatives, and an appointed 111-member Shura Council shared Constitutional power. President Ali Abdullah Saleh was the leader of the ruling party, the General People's Congress (GPC), which dominated the Government. The Constitution provides that the President be elected by popular vote from at least two candidates endorsed by Parliament. In 1999, President Saleh was directly elected in a popular vote to another 5-year term, amended in 2001 by referendum to a 7-year term. A competitive candidate did not oppose the President because his sole opponent was a member of the ruling GPC. In April parliamentary elections the GPC maintained an absolute majority. International observers judged elections to be generally free and fair and there was a marked decrease from previous years in election related violence; however, there were some problems with underage voting, confiscation of ballot boxes, voter intimidation and election related violence. The Parliament was not an effective counterweight to executive authority, although it increasingly demonstrated independence from the Government. The head of Islaah, the leading opposition party, led the elected House of Representatives, which effectively blocked some legislation favored by the Executive. Real political power rested with the executive branch, particularly the President. The Constitution provides for an "autonomous" judiciary and independent judges; however, the judiciary was weak, and corruption and executive branch interference severely hampered its independence.
The primary state security apparatus is the Political Security Organization (PSO), which reports directly to the President. The Criminal Investigative Department (CID) of the police reports to the Ministry of Interior and conducts most criminal investigations and makes most arrests. The Central Security Organization (CSO), also a part of the Ministry of Interior, maintains a paramilitary force. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces. Members of the security forces committed serious human rights abuses.
The country had a population of approximately 19.5 million; more than 40 percent of the population live in poverty and the unemployment rate was 37 percent. The country's market-based economy remained impeded by government interference and corruption. The economy was mixed; oil and remittances from workers in other Arabian Peninsula states were the primary sources of foreign exchange. The economy continued to suffer due to other Arab governments' reaction to the Government's lack of support for the U.N. coalition during the 1990-91 Gulf War. However, foreign aid and workers' remittances have since reemerged as important sources of income.
Although many problems remained, the Government's respect for human rights improved in a few areas during the year. There were limitations on citizens' ability to change their Government. Security forces continued to arbitrarily arrest, detain, and torture persons. The Government sometimes failed to hold members of the security forces accountable for abuses; however, the number of security officials tried for abuses increased since 2002. Prison conditions remained poor. Despite constitutional constraints, security officers routinely monitored citizens' activities, searched their homes, detained citizens for questioning, and mistreated detainees. Prolonged pretrial detention, judicial corruption, and executive interference undermined due process. There continued to be limits on freedom of speech and of the press, and the Government continued to harass and intimidate journalists despite a decline in detention of journalists from last year. Journalists practiced self-censorship. The Government at times limited freedom of assembly. The Government imposed some restrictions on freedom of religion and placed some limits on freedom of movement. Violence and discrimination against women remained problems. Female genital mutilation (FGM) was practiced on a limited scale. There was some discrimination against persons with disabilities and against religious, racial, and ethnic minorities. The Government imposed restrictions on labor unions. Child labor remained a problem.
RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
Section 1 Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From:
a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life
There were no political killings; however, there were some reports during the year that security forces killed or injured persons whom they believed were engaging in criminal activity and resisting arrest.
In March, security forces killed and injured demonstrators after a gunfight broke out between demonstrators and security forces protecting an embassy. Security forces used tear gas and shots in the air to disperse demonstrators. A policeman and an 11-year-old male citizen reportedly were killed during the shootout (see Section 2.b.). Amnesty International (AI) reported that police detained dozens of demonstrators and subjected some to beatings upon arrest (see Section 1.d.). The Government had previously allowed several peaceful anti-war demonstrations (see Section 1.b.); however, in this instance, the demonstrators, led by pro-Iraqi politicians, initiated violence aimed at an embassy (see Section 2.b.). Several members of the security forces were also injured.
In June, security forces took action against persons involved in an attack by elements of the Aden-Abyan Islamic Army, a militant domestic group, on a medical convoy in Abyan. Arrests were made in both incidents.
Unlike in the past, there were no reports of high-profile clashes between security forces and private bodyguards of prominent figures. There were no developments in the 2002 cases of persons killed during such clashes and there were no arrests by year's end.
During the year, approximately 40 security officials were disciplined or tried for abuses with sentences ranging from 20 days to more than 10 years imprisonment for attacks during investigation, shootings, accidental and intentional killings, fraud and extortion (see Section 1.b.). For example, one security official was tried and sentenced to one and a half years in prison for attacking a person during an investigation. In separate incidents, two security officials received 10-year sentences for attacking citizens. In 2002, in Hadramaut, three security officers were on trial for torturing two young boys. In Damar, a former Security Director was on trial for torture and bribery. These cases still were pending at year's end.
In April, election-related violence resulted in three documented deaths (see Section 3).
Tribal violence resulted in a number of killings and other abuses, and the Government's ability to control tribal elements remained limited (see Section 5). In several cases, long- standing tribal disputes were resolved through government-supported mediation by nongovernmental actors (see Section 4).
Persons continued to be killed and injured in shootings and violence during the year. In December, police arrested a suspect accused of stabbing three foreigners in Sana'a. The case remained pending at year's end. In most cases, it was impossible to determine the perpetrator or the motive, and there were no claims of responsibility. Some cases appeared to have criminal, religious, or political motives; others appeared to be cases of tribal revenge or land disputes. There were no reported developments on the President's 2001 strategy to address the phenomenon of tribal revenge.
In 2002, there were threats, attacks, and killing of high-profile persons. In December 2002, Ali al-Jarallah reportedly killed Jarallah Omar, a high ranking official of the Yemeni Socialist Party, in Sana'a. In December 2002, Abed Abdul Razak Kamal smuggled a semiautomatic rifle into the hospital in Jibla and killed three American medical workers and injured one (see Section 2.c.). Both suspects were convicted and sentenced during the year.
There was no action taken during the year to bring suspects to trial in the 2000 bombing of the USS Cole (see Section 1.e.).
There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances; however, disappearances that occurred during the pre-unity period in the former People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) and during the 1994 war of secession remained unresolved. The Government stated that the scarcity of records, resulting from the country's lack of an effective national registry, hindered its attempts to create database files for those persons who have disappeared. A media campaign to ask families for information was undertaken; however, by year's end no families had come forward. Although the Government submitted information to resolve the cases, both AI and the U.N. Working Group on Enforced and Involuntary Disappearances continued to report that there were less than 100 cases of unresolved disappearances dating from the preunity period in the former PDRY. AI has received no credible reports of new disappearances in the last 9 years.
The law stipulates severe punishments up to and including capital punishment for persons involved in kidnapping, carjacking, attacking oil pipelines, and other acts of banditry and sabotage. Unlike in previous years, there were no tribal kidnappings of foreigners for political and economic purposes during the year. There has been a marked decline in tribal kidnappings of foreigners, from six cases in 2000 and seven cases in 2001 to no cases in 2002 and during the year. This decrease was at least in part the result of the Government's establishment of a special court and special prosecutor to try kidnappers and other violent offenders. During the year, there was one reported instance of a non-citizen Arab foreigner detained briefly in a business dispute by a rival, who was later released. In the past, some tribes used kidnapping to bring their political and economic concerns to the attention of the Government. Foreign businessmen, diplomats, and tourists were the principal targets. A total of 166 foreigners have been kidnapped since 1992; however, the kidnapping victims rarely were injured and were generally released shortly thereafter.
c. Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
The Constitution is ambiguous regarding the prohibition of cruel or inhuman punishment, and members of the security forces tortured and otherwise abused persons in detention. Arresting authorities were known to use force during interrogations, especially against those arrested for violent crimes. Detainees in some instances were confined in leg-irons and shackles, despite a 1998 law outlawing this practice.
The Government has acknowledged publicly that torture occured, but claimed that torture was not official policy. The Government has taken some effective steps to end the practice or to punish those who commit such abuses. However, a government prosecutor cited illiteracy, lack of training among police and security officials and a human rights activist has suggested that corruption and pressure from superiors to produce convictions also played a role as reasons for the use of undue force. During the year, it was reported that the Government reportedly increased training and awareness programs on human rights for police and security.
The immunity of all public employees from prosecution for crimes allegedly committed while on duty also hindered accountability; prosecutors must obtain permission from the Attorney General to investigate members of the security forces, and the head of the Appeals Court formally must lift their immunity before they are tried. Low salaries for police officers of approximately $35 to $53 (6,000 to 9,000 riyals) per month also contribute to corruption and police abuse.
More than 40 security officials were tried and imprisoned for abuses committed during the year with sentences ranging from 20 days to more than 10 years' imprisonment for attacks on citizens during investigation and shootings (see Section 1.a.). During the year, there were two reported prosecutions of security officials for abuses committed in 2001. The trials of security officers charged with torture in 2002 remained ongoing at year's end.
There were numerous allegations and credible evidence that authorities tortured and abused suspects and detainees to attempt to coerce confessions before or during trial. During the year, several families of persons detained in relation to terrorist activities have alleged that torture has been used during interrogation (see Section 2.d.).
The Constitution may be interpreted as permitting amputations in accordance with Shari'a (Islamic law) and physical punishment such as flogging, for some crimes; however, the use of amputations as punishment was extremely rare and there were no reported floggings during the year. Only one reported case of amputation has occurred since 1991, although a few persons convicted of theft remained in jail awaiting their amputation. Unlike in the past, firing squads were not used for capital punishment.
In March, the Government used force to prevent a demonstration against an embassy (see Section 1.a.).
Tribal violence continued to be a problem during the year, causing numerous deaths and injuries (see Section 5).
Prison conditions were poor and did not meet internationally recognized standards. Prisons were overcrowded, sanitary conditions were poor, and food and health care were inadequate. Prison authorities often exacted bribes from prisoners to obtain privileges or refused to release prisoners who completed their sentences until family members paid. Tribal leaders misused the prison system by placing "problem" tribesmen in jail, either to punish them for noncriminal indiscretions or to protect them from retaliation or violence motivated by revenge. Authorities in some cases arrested without charge and imprisoned refugees, persons with mental disabilities, and illegal immigrants in prisons with common criminals.
Women and children were held separately from men and conditions were equally poor in women's prisons. Children were likely to be incarcerated along with their mothers. By custom and preference, babies born in prison generally remained in prison with their mothers. At times, male police and prison officials subjected female prisoners to sexual harassment and violent interrogation. The law requires male members of the families of female prisoners to arrange their release; however, female prisoners regularly were held in jail past the expiration of their sentences because their male relatives refused to authorize their release due to the shame associated with their alleged behavior.
Several nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), often with government support, undertook activities to address the legal and other problems of female prisoners (see Section 4). During the year, the Government released 10 women after making arrangements for their release via a government committee led by the Chief of the Supreme Judicial Council and composed of representatives from the Ministries of Justice, Human Rights, Public Health and Population, Technical and Vocational Education, Legal Affairs, and Interior. The Committee inspected prison conditions in several governorates and noted problems with a lack of resources and infrastructure to improve conditions and to provide job training for prisoners.
Unauthorized "private" prisons, in rural areas controlled by tribes and sometimes simple rooms in a tribal sheikh's house, remained a problem. Persons detained in such prisons often were held for strictly personal or tribal reasons and without trial or sentencing. There were credible reports of the existence of private prisons in government installations, although senior officials did not sanction these prisons.
During the year, efforts to implement directives intended to align the country's arrest, interrogation, and detention procedures more closely with internationally accepted standards continued. In 2002, the Ministry of Interior created detention and interrogation centers in each governorate (including four in Sana'a), to prevent suspects from being detained with convicted criminals.
In November, the President released 1,700 prisoners in honor of the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. The prisoners were released because they either completed three-fourths of their sentence and behaved well or, in keeping with tribal or Islamic law, were being held in prison pending payment of restitution to their victims, despite having completed their sentences.
The Government tightly controlled access to detention facilities by NGOs; however, during the year, it permitted local and international human rights monitors access to some prisoners.
Patients with mental illness, particularly those who committed crimes, were imprisoned and even shackled when there was no one to care for them. In some instances, authorities arrested persons with mental illness without charge and placed them in prisons alongside criminals. In July, the President declared the release of mentally disturbed prisoners into the custody of mental institutions. However, there were not enough mental institutions despite the International Committee for the Red Cross (ICRC), in cooperation with the Yemeni Red Crescent Society, building and staffing separate detention facilities for prisoners with mental illness.
The PSO did not permit access to its detention centers.
d. Arbitrary Arrest, Detention, or Exile
The law prohibits arbitrary arrest, detention or exile; however, security forces arbitrarily arrested and detained persons. Enforcement of the law was irregular and in some cases nonexistent, particularly in cases involving security offenses. The Police CID reports to the Ministry of Interior and conducts most criminal investigations and makes most arrests. The CSO, also a part of the Ministry of Interior, maintains a paramilitary force.
According to the law, detainees must be arraigned within 24 hours of arrest or be released. The judge or prosecuting attorney must inform the accused of the basis for the arrest and decide whether detention is required. In no case may a detainee legally be held longer than 7 days without a court order. Despite these constitutional and other legal provisions, arbitrary arrest and prolonged detention without charge remained common practices. During the year, directives were implemented to align arrest, interrogation, and detention procedures more closely with internationally accepted standards.
During the year, the Government decreased its practice of detaining journalists for questioning concerning articles critical of the Government or that the Government considered sensitive, with no cases of arbitrary detention reported. A Presidential amnesty issued in 2002 remained in effect and past specific cases against journalists were dropped (see Section 2.a.).
During the year, the Government continued to detain suspects accused of links to terrorism. In November, the Government arrested Saudi-born Mohammed Hamdi al-Ahdal (AKA Abu Assam al-Maki), who has been implicated in the 2000 attack on the USS Cole. During the year, the Government arrested Hadi Dulqum, a weapons dealer, al-Qa'ida associate, and supplier of weapons for the group. In November, the President released approximately 90 security detainees not facing charges in honor of Ramadan. A parliamentary report issued in September 2002 contained an acknowledgement by the Minister of Interior that such detentions violated the Constitution; however, it asserted that they were necessary for national security. The Government sponsored an ideological dialogue led by Islamic scholars to obtain assurances from detainees to repent past extremism, denounce terrorism, commit to obeying the laws and Government, respect non-Muslims, and refrain from attacking foreign interests. More than 150 detainees have undergone the dialogue process since 2002, most of whom were released. At year's end, more than 50 persons who were accused of specific crimes or unwilling to repent remained in detention.
Amar Mahmoud Ali Abdo al-Madhagi, who was arrested in 2001 for providing inaccurate information regarding terrorist attacks in 2000, reportedly remained in prison awaiting trial at year's end.
The law prohibits incommunicado detentions and provides detainees with the right to inform their families of their arrests and to decline to answer questions without an attorney present. There are provisions for bail. However, in practice, many authorities abide by these provisions only if bribed.
Citizens regularly claimed that security officials did not observe due process procedures when arresting and detaining suspects, particularly those accused of involvement in political violence. There also were claims that private individuals hired lower-level security officials to intervene on their behalf and harass their business rivals. Security forces at times detained demonstrators (see Section 2.b.). Members of security forces continue to arrest and detain citizens for varying periods of time without charge or notification to their families.
In cases in which a criminal suspect was at large, security forces in some instances detained a relative while the suspect was being sought. The detention may continue while the concerned families negotiate compensation for the alleged wrongdoing. Arbitration commonly was used to settle cases.
The Government failed to ensure that detainees and prisoners were incarcerated only in authorized detention facilities. The Ministry of Interior and the PSO operated extrajudicial detention facilities.
A large percentage of the total prison population consisted of pretrial detainees, many of whom have been imprisoned for years without charge.
Some government inspection missions and local human rights groups helped in the release of some persons held without charge; however, overall the Government did not investigate or resolve these cases adequately.
Unauthorized private prisons also exist (see Sections 1.c. and 1.e.).
The law does not permit forced exile and the Government did not use forced exile. During the year, with the encouragement of the Government, prominent southern journalists, military officers, and their families who fled the country during the 1994 war of secession returned to the country, including prominent persons from the secessionists of the Democratic Republic of Yemen (DRY) (see Section 1.e.).
During the year, the Government continued to deport foreigners, many of whom were studying at Muslim religious schools and believed to be in the country illegally. The Government claimed that these persons were suspected of inciting violence or engaging in criminal acts by promoting religious extremism. The Government deported them using existing laws that require all foreigners to register with the police or immigration authorities within a month of arrival in the country.
e. Denial of Fair Public Trial
The Constitution provides for an "autonomous" judiciary and independent judges; however, the judiciary was weak and corruption and executive branch interference severely hampered it. The executive branch appointed judges, and some have been harassed, reassigned, or removed from office following rulings against the Government. Many litigants maintained, and the Government acknowledged, that a judge's social ties and bribery at times influenced the verdict more than the law or the facts. Many judges were poorly trained; some closely associated with the Government often render decisions favorable to it. The judiciary further hampered by the Government's frequent reluctance to enforce judgments. Tribal members at times threatened and harassed members of the judiciary.
There are five types of courts: Criminal; civil and personal status; kidnapping/terrorism; commercial; and court-martial.
All laws are codified from Shari'a, under which there are no jury trials. A judge, who played an active role in questioning witnesses and the accused, adjudicates criminal cases. Under the Constitution and by law, the Government must provide attorneys for indigent defendants; however, in practice this never occured. Judges at times appointed attorneys present in their courtrooms to represent indigent defendants; however, most accepted to avoid displeasing judges before whom they must appear later.
By law, prosecutors are a part of the judiciary and independent of the Government; however, in practice prosecutors considered themselves an extension of the police.
Defense attorneys are allowed to counsel their clients, address the court, and examine witnesses. Defendants, including those in commercial courts, have the right to appeal their sentences. Trials generally were public; however, all courts may conduct closed sessions "for reasons of public security or morals." Foreign litigants in commercial disputes have complained of biased rulings. However, some foreign companies have won cases against local defendants, and some such decisions have been enforced.
In addition to regular courts, the law permits a system of tribal adjudication for noncriminal issues; however, in practice, tribal "judges" often adjudicated criminal cases as well. The results of such mediation carry the same if not greater weight as court judgments. Persons jailed under the tribal system usually were not charged formally with a crime but stood publicly accused of their transgression.
A special court existed to try persons charged with kidnapping, carjacking, attacking oil pipelines, and other acts of banditry and sabotage (see Section 1.b.).
The Government continued its ongoing program begun in 1997 to reform the judiciary. The newly appointed Minister of Justice undertook a series of conferences around the country to reinvigorate the reform process and establish a written plan for reform. Some improvements include a reduction in the number of Supreme Court justices, an increase in judges' salaries, an increase in the Ministry of Justice's budget and participation by judges in workshops and study tours conducted by foreign judicial officials.
During the year, the country's Higher Judicial Council, chaired by the President, dismissed more than a dozen judges and prosecutors for violating the law. In 2002, 35 judges and prosecutors were dismissed.
The security services continued to arrest, charge, and try persons alleged to be linked to various shootings, explosions, and other acts of violence. Citizens and human rights groups alleged that the judiciary did not observe due process in these cases.
During the year, the Government conducted a release program for detainees held in connection with terrorist groups and activities. In 2002, Parliament issued a report, on detainees held in connection with terrorist activities. In the report, detainees' family members alleged that detainees were held without family notification, counsel, charges, and basic privileges such as health care. Family members alleged that some were held in isolation and tortured. The Minister of Interior acknowledged that the detainees were held but asserted that it was necessary for national security. He denied the torture charges and said that the detainees related to the USS Cole attacks would be charged and prosecuted after investigation in cooperation with international law enforcement partners. By year's end, the investigation into the attack was transferred to the General Prosecutor to prepare for trial, and several suspects were in custody. On April 10 suspects in the USS Cole bombing escaped from prison. They remained at large at year; end and no suspects went to trial during the year (see Section 1.a.). In 2001, the lawyer claimed that authorities denied him access to his clients. However, there have been no reports of allegations of torture from persons detained in connection with the USS Cole investigation.
The Government claimed that it did not hold political prisoners. Local opposition politicians and human rights activists generally accepted this claim; however, some international human rights groups and members of the opposition-in-exile disputed it.
At the end of the 1994 war of secession, the President pardoned nearly all who had fought against the central Government, including military personnel and most leaders of the secessionists. In previous years, the Government tried in absentia the leaders of the so-called 16. By May, the President had granted amnesty to all 16.
f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home or Correspondence
The Constitution prohibits interference with privacy; however, security forces routinely searched homes and private offices, monitored telephones, read personal mail, and otherwise intruded into personal matters for alleged security reasons. Such activities were conducted without legally issued warrants or judicial supervision. Security forces regularly monitored telephone conversations and interfered with the telephone service of government critics and opponents. Security forces sometimes detained relatives of suspects while the suspect was being sought (see Section 1.d.). Government informers monitored meetings and assemblies (see Section 2.b.).
The Government reportedly blocked sexually explicit Web sites but did not block politically oriented sites (see Section 2.a.). The Government claimed that it did not monitor Internet usage, but some persons suspected security authorities read their e-mail messages.
The law prohibits arrests or the serving of a subpoena between the hours of sundown and dawn. However, persons suspected of crimes in some instances were taken from their homes in the middle of the night, without search warrants. Jews traditionally faced social (but not legal) restrictions on their residence and their employment; however, there were no reported cases during the year.
No citizen may marry a foreigner without Interior Ministry permission (see Section 5). This regulation does not carry the force of law and appears to be enforced irregularly.
Section 2 Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:
a. Freedom of Speech and Press
The Constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press "within the limits of the law"; however, the Government influenced the media and restricted press freedom. Some security officials attempted to influence press coverage by threatening and harassing journalists. Although most citizens were uninhibited in their private discussions of domestic and foreign policies, some were cautious in public, fearing harassment for criticism of the Government. The Penal Code criminalizes, with fines and sentences up to 5 years in jail, "the humiliation of the State, the Cabinet, or parliamentary institutions," the publication of "false information" that "threatens public order or the public interest," and "false stories intended to damage Arab and friendly countries or their relations" with the country.
An atmosphere of government pressure on independent and political party newspapers continued at a lower level than in 2002, due to a reduction in cases of detention after a presidential amnesty to all journalists in July 2002. The Government dropped previous cases against journalists and media outlets but continued to use censorship and intimidation directed at journalists. Self-censorship was practiced despite the decrease in detention and prosecution.
The Ministry of Information influenced the media through its control of most printing presses, subsidies to certain newspapers, and its ownership of the country's sole television and radio outlets. Only two newspapers, the weekly Al-Shumu and the daily Aden independent Al-Ayyam, owned their own presses. The Government selected the items to be covered in news broadcasts, and it often did not permit broadcast reporting critical of the Government. The Government televised parliamentary debates, but it edited them selectively to remove criticism.
Press Law regulations specify that newspapers must apply annually to the Government for licensing renewal, and that they must show continuing evidence of approximately $4,375 (700,000 riyals) in operating capital. There were no reports of denied registrations during the year.
Although newspapers ostensibly were permitted to criticize the Government, journalists at times censored themselves, especially when writing on such sensitive issues as government policies toward the southern governorates, relations with Saudi Arabia and other foreign governments, official corruption, and combating terrorism. Journalists were subject to arrest for libel, dismissal from employment, or extrajudicial harassment. Editors-in-chief legally were responsible for everything printed in their newspapers, regardless of authorship. Some journalists have reported threats from security officials to change the tone and substance of their reporting. Journalists must have a permit to travel abroad; however, there were no reports that this restriction was enforced during the year (see Section 2.d.). During the year, the Government continues to enforce a 2001 circular prohibiting publication of information or news pertaining to the armed forces before "consulting" with the Ministry of Defense.
In 2002 the President issued an amnesty for all journalists in detention or awaiting trial. The amnesty directed the General Prosecutor to stop all cases filed against journalists awaiting prosecution. The orders also required journalists to pledge to discontinue reporting that went against the law, national norms, or national unity. The General Prosecutor dropped past cases. Some journalists claimed that most harassment came from the police, in particular the CID.
Unlike in previous years, there were no journalists detained; however, harassment and intimidation continued. For example, the Press Freedom and Press Training Center, an NGO that tracks human rights violations against journalists and newspapers, still had not received a license to operate, since it applied in 2002. The Ministry of Information on occasion confiscated specific issues of opposition newspapers that contained anti-government reports. In 2002, the PSO arrested Abdul-Rahim Muhsen, a journalist for the Yemeni Socialist Party's newspaper Al-Thawri, for writing articles critical of the Government. In 2002, Ibrahim Hussein, an Al-Thawri journalist, was also sentenced to 5 months in jail for violating the press law. Two weeks later, the PSO rearrested and imprisoned Hussein; he was held incommunicado for more than 2 weeks until release. The cases were later dropped pursuant to the President's July 2002 amnesty.
In January, the Sana'a Appeals Court acquitted Jamal Ahmed Amer in a 2000 case involving an article that criticized the Government of Saudi Arabia.
The 2001 case of al-Shumu's editor-in-chief Seif al-Hadri was dropped during the year.
All cases against Hisham Ba Sharahil were dropped pursuant to the President's amnesty: The 2000 case the editor of al-Ayyam who was charged with "instigating the use of force and terrorism" and "publishing false information" for publishing an interview with Islamic militant Abu Hamza al-Masri in 1999, and with "insulting public institutions" for publishing an article critical of the Director of Aden Security from the secessionist Movement of Self-Determination for South Arabia.
The Yemeni Journalists Syndicate defended freedom of the press and publicized human rights concerns. Critics claim that the syndicate was ineffective because it had too many non-journalist members who supported government policy. In 2002, the Press Freedom and Training Center, under the leadership of Mohammed Sadeq Al-Udaini, was established to document abuses against journalists and defend their rights; however, it still does not have a license to operate by year's end.
Customs officials confiscate foreign publications regarded as pornographic or objectionable because of religious or political content. There were some reports during the year that the Ministry of Information delayed the distribution of international Arabic-language dailies in an effort to decrease their sales in the country. Authorities monitored foreign publications, banning those that they deem harmful to national interests.
An author must obtain a permit from the Ministry of Culture to publish a book. The author is required to submit copies of the book to the Ministry. Officials at the National Library must read and endorse the text, and then it is submitted to a special committee for final approval. If a book is not deemed appropriate for publication, the Ministry simply does not issue a decision. Publishers usually did not deal with an author who had not yet obtained a permit. Most books were approved, but the process was time-consuming.
The Government did not impose restrictions on Internet use, but most persons claimed that equipment and subscriptions costs were prohibitively high. Teleyemen, a parastatal company under the Ministry of Telecommunications, and YemenNet were the country's Internet service providers. The Government did not block politically oriented web sites.
The Government restricted academic freedom to some extent because of the extreme politicization of university campuses. A majority of professors and students aligned themselves with either the ruling GPC party or the opposition Islaah party. Each group closely monitored the activities of the other. Top administrative positions were usually awarded to political allies of these two major parties. There were several clashes between GPC- and Islaah-affiliated students during the year, but no serious violence.
b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association
The Constitution provides for freedom of assembly; however, the Government limited this right in practice. The Government claimed that it banned and disrupted some demonstrations to prevent them from degenerating into riots and violence. The Government required a permit for demonstrations, which it issued routinely. Government informers monitored meetings and assemblies. The opposition claimed that the Government sometimes detained activists for questioning to prevent them from organizing demonstrations.
In March, security forces killed and injured demonstrators after a gunfight broke out between demonstrators and security forces protecting a foreign embassy. Security forces used tear gas and shots in the air to disperse demonstrators. A policeman and an 11-year-old male citizen reportedly were killed during the shootout (see Section 1.a.). AI reported that police detained dozens of demonstrators and subjected some to beatings upon arrest (see Sections 1.c. and 1.d.). The Government had previously allowed several peaceful anti-war demonstrations (see Section 1.b.); however, in this instance, the demonstrators, led by pro-Iraqi politicians, initiated violence aimed at a foreign embassy. Several members of the security forces were also injured. There were also a number of peaceful demonstrations during the year.
Authorities arrested and were prosecuting the soldier allegedly responsible for the April 2001 killing of a demonstrator in al-Dalah governorate.
The Constitution provides for the freedom of association, and the Government generally respected this right in practice. Associations must obtain an operating license from the Ministry of Social Affairs or the Ministry of Culture, usually a routine matter. Government informants monitored meetings and assemblies.
The Government cooperated to some extent with NGOs, although NGOs complained that there was a lack of response to their requests from officials. Some part of the Government's limited responsiveness was due to a lack of material and human resources. In 2001, Parliament passed the controversial Law for Associations and Foundations, which regulates the formation and activities of NGOs (see Section 4).
All political parties must be registered in accordance with the Political Parties Law, which stipulates that each party must have at least 75 founders and 2,500 members (see Section 3).
c. Freedom of Religion
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, there were some restrictions. The Constitution declares that Islam is the state religion and that Shari'a is the source of all legislation.
Followers of other religions were free to worship according to their beliefs and to wear religiously distinctive ornaments or dress; however, the Government forbids conversion from Islam, requires permission for the construction of new places of worship, and prohibits non-Muslims from proselytizing and holding elected office. The Government did not keep track of an individual's religious identity.
Under Islam, the conversion of a Muslim to another religion is considered apostasy, which the Government interprets as a crime punishable by death. There were no reports of cases in which the crime was charged or prosecuted by authorities.
Official policy does not prohibit or prescribe punishment for the possession of non-Islamic religious literature; however, there were unconfirmed reports that police have harassed foreigners for its possession. In addition, ostensibly to prevent proselytizing, some members of the security forces occasionally censored the mail of Christian clergy who ministered to the foreign community.
The Government did not allow the building of new non-Muslim public places of worship without permission. Weekly services for Catholic, Protestant, and Ethiopian Christians were held in various locations in Sana'a without government interference. Christian church services were held regularly in other cities without harassment in private homes or facilities such as schools, and these facilities appeared to accommodate the small numbers involved.
There were unconfirmed reports that some police, without the authorization or knowledge of their superiors, on occasion have harassed and detained persons suspected of apostasy to compel them to renounce their conversions.
Public schools provided instruction in Islam but not in other religions. However, almost all non-Muslims were foreigners who attended private schools.
The Government has taken steps to prevent the politicization of mosque activities in an attempt to curb extremism. This included the monitoring of mosques for sermons that incited violence or other political statements that it considered harmful to public security. Private Islamic organizations may maintain ties to pan-Islamic organizations and, in the past, have operated private schools; however, the Government monitored their activities.
In 2001, the Government mandated the implementation of a 1992 law to unify educational curriculums and administration of all publicly funded schools. The process of absorbing publicly funded Islamic schools into the national system was ongoing at year's end.
In 2000, the Government suspended its policy of allowing Yemeni-origin Israeli passport holders to travel to the country on laissez-passer documents. However, Yemeni, Israeli, and other Jews may travel freely to and within the country on non-Israeli passports (see Section 2.d.).
Following unification of North and South Yemen in 1990, owners of property previously expropriated by the Communist government of the former PDRY, including religious organizations, were invited to seek restitution of their property. However, implementation of the process, including for religious institutions, has been extremely limited, and very few properties have been returned to previous owners.
Shari'a-based law and social customs discriminated against women (see Section 5).
Nearly all of the country's once sizable Jewish population has emigrated. There were no legal restrictions on the few hundred Jews who remained, although there were traditional restrictions on places of residence and choice of employment (see Section 5).
For a more detailed discussion, see the 2003 International Religious Freedom Report.
d. Freedom of Movement Within the Country, Foreign Travel, Emigration and Repatriation
The Government placed some limits on freedom of movement. In practice, the Government did not obstruct domestic travel; however, the army and security forces maintained checkpoints on major roads. There were a few reports during the year that security forces at checkpoints injured persons whom they believed were engaging in criminal activity and resisting arrest.
In certain areas, armed tribesmen occasionally manned checkpoints alongside military or security officials, and subjected travelers to physical harassment, bribe demands, or theft.
The Government did not routinely obstruct foreign travel or the right to emigrate and return. However, journalists must have a permit to travel abroad. There were no reports that the restriction on journalists was enforced during the year (see Section 2.a.). Women must obtain permission from a male relative before applying for a passport or departing the country.
Immigrants and refugees traveling within the country often were required by security officials at government checkpoints to show that they possessed resident status or refugee identification cards.
During the year, the government deported foreigners who were in the country illegally or whom it suspected of inciting violence or engaging in criminal acts.
Although the law does not include provisions for the granting of refugee status or asylum to persons who meet the definition in the 1951 U.N. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees or its 1967 Protocol, there were no reports of the forced return of persons to a country where they feared persecution. However, the Government continues to grant refugee status on a group basis to Somalis who arrived in the country after 1991.
The Government cooperated with the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees in assisting refugees and asylum seekers from Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and various other countries.
At times, authorities arrested without charge and imprisoned refugees (see Section 1.d.).
Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government
The Constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government; however, there were limitations in practice. By law the Government is accountable to the Parliament; however, the Parliament was not an effective counterweight to executive authority. Decisionmaking and real political power still rested in the hands of the executive branch, particularly the President. In addition, the Constitution prohibits the establishment of parties that are contrary to Islam, oppose the goals of the country's revolution, or violate the country's international commitments.
The President appoints the Prime Minister, who forms the Government. The cabinet consists of 35 ministers. Parliament is elected by universal adult suffrage; the first such election was held in 1993. International observers judged April Parliamentary elections to be "generally free and fair"; however, there were some problems with underage voting, confiscation of ballot boxes, voter intimidation, and vote buying. In addition, international observers reported that some officials were allegedly prevented from approving results that gave victory to opposition parties. At least three people were reportedly killed and one person wounded in shootings involving supporters of rival candidates. Approximately 28 persons were killed and 47 injured in election-related violence in 1997 (see Section 1.a.). President Saleh's ruling GPC party maintained its large majority in Parliament. Eight million voters or 75 percent of eligible voters went to the polls, of which 43 percent were women. Throughout the country, 1396 candidates represented 21 political parties competed for 301 seats.
Ali Abdullah Saleh, the President and leader of the GPC, was elected to a 5-year term in the country's first nation-wide direct presidential election in 1999, winning 96.3 percent of the vote. In 2001, the 5-year term was later amended to a 7-year term. The Constitution provides that the President is elected by popular vote from at least two candidates endorsed by Parliament, and the election was generally free and fair; however, there were some problems, including the lack of a credible voter registration list. In addition, the President was not opposed by a truly competitive candidate because the candidate selected by the leftist opposition coalition did not receive from the GPC-dominated Parliament the minimum number of votes required to run (the other opposition party chose not to run its own candidate, despite its seats in Parliament). The President's sole opponent was a member of the GPC.
The Constitution permits Parliament to initiate legislation; however, to date it has not done so. Parliament debated policies that the Government submitted; however, it increasingly and successfully revised or blocked draft legislation submitted by the Government. In addition, the Government routinely consulted senior parliamentary leaders when it drafted important national legislation. Although the President's party, the GPC, enjoyed an absolute majority, Parliament has rejected or delayed action on major legislation introduced by the Government and has forced significant modification. The Parliament also has criticized the Government for some actions, including the issue of detainees and aspects of the Government's counterterrorism campaign. Ministers frequently were called to Parliament to defend actions, policies, or proposed legislation, although they may and sometimes did refuse to appear. Parliamentarians, at times, were sharply critical during these sessions. Parliamentarians and staff attended foreign NGO-sponsored training workshops designed to increase their independence and effectiveness.
In a national referendum in 2001, citizens approved several amendments to the Constitution, including amendments that extend the terms of Members of Parliament from 4 to 6 years and the President from 5 to 7 years, allow the President to dissolve Parliament without a referendum in rare instances, and abolish the President's ability to issue decrees while Parliament was in recess. Another approved amendment transformed the 59-member Consultative Council, an advisory board to the President, into an appointed 111-member Shura Council. The new Council, like the old, advised the President on a range of issues and consisted of appointed members chaired by a former prime minister. However, unlike its predecessor, which had no constitutional role, the Shura Council has limited legislative and candidate approval powers. In general, the elections and referendum in 2001 appeared to be free and fair; however, there were problems. Approximately 28 persons were killed and 47 injured in election-related violence. There were some reports of fraud, as well as logistical problems in voting procedures.
Formal government authority is centralized in Sana'a; many citizens, especially in urban areas, complain about the inability of local and governorate entities to make policy or resource decisions. The Local Authority Law, decentralizes authority by establishing locally elected district and governorate councils, headed government-appointed governors. The first elections for the councils were held concurrently with the constitutional referendum in 2001. A few local councils still were not constituted at year's end and many continued to lack sufficient resources.
In some governorates, tribal leaders exercised considerable discretion in the interpretation and enforcement of the law. Central government authority in these areas was often weak.
The GPC dominated Parliament, and Islaah was the only other party of significance in Parliament. All parties must be registered in accordance with the Political Parties Law of 1991, which stipulates that each party must have at least 75 founders and 2,500 members. Some oppositionists contended that they were unable to organize new parties because of the prohibitively high legal requirements regarding the minimum number of members and leaders. The Yemeni Socialist Party and several smaller parties boycotted the country's first nationwide direct presidential election in 1999, but they returned to active political life by participating in the 2001 local elections, constitutional referendum, and the April parliamentary election.
The Government provided financial support to political parties, including a small stipend to publish their own newspapers. However, the YSP claimed that the Government has not returned the assets that it seized from the party during the 1994 war of secession.
In May, an extensive cabinet change occurred after the parliamentary election, with more than half of the ministries receiving new ministers.
Although women voted and held office, cultural norms and religious customs often limited these rights, and the numbers of women in Government and politics did not correspond to their percentage of the population. There was one woman in the 301-seat legislature and in the Cabinet, and none in the Supreme Court. During the year, one woman was elected to Parliament. Two women were elected to the Parliament in 1997. An increasing number held senior leadership positions in the Government or in the GPC. The country's first female minister was appointed in April 2001 and its second this year and 35 women were elected to the local councils in 2001. International observers reported that more than 40 percent of the electorate were women.
Many Akhdam, a small ethnic minority who may be descendants of African slaves, did not participate in the political process. There were no credible reports that citizen members of religious minorities were not permitted to participate in the political process (see Section 2.c.).
Section 4 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights
A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials sometimes were cooperative and responsive to their views; however, NGOs complained that at times there was a lack of response to their requests. Some part of the Government's limitation in responsiveness was due to a lack of material and human resources. During the year, several government-sponsored initiatives were aimed at furthering cooperation with NGOs. In 2001, Parliament passed the Law for Associations and Foundations, which regulates the formation and activities of NGOs.
The Taiz-based Human Rights Information and Training Center placed particular emphasis on education, NGO training, and increasing human rights awareness in the country and in the region via workshops and public awareness campaigns.
During the year, the Sana'a-based NGO Forum for a Civil Society held training programs on prison reform and human rights in the family and community and distributed the Transparency International report on corruption.
During the year, the Yemen Institute for Democracy Development monitored the parliamentary elections, held discussion fora on the impact of elections on the democratization process and advocated on behalf of specific human rights cases.
The NGO Sisters Arabic Forum for Human Rights conducted several advocacy conferences on women in the law, women in elections, and women's political participation.
The NGO Civic Democratic Forum (CDF) monitored the April parliamentary election, including both pre- and post-election periods. CDF also conducted programs to train women candidates.
The Government gives AI, Human Rights Watch (HRW), the Parliament of the European Union, and the Committee to Protect Journalists broad access to officials, records, refugee camps, and prisons (see Section 1.c.). For example, the ICRC maintained a resident representative to inspect prisons during the year.
The Supreme National Committee for Human Rights, which reported to the Prime Minister, was dissolved in December under a Republic Decree establishing the mandate of the Ministry of Human Rights. The Ministry's by-laws outline its general functions and tasks, the responsibilities of the Minister, Deputy Minister, Board and staff, and its regulatory structure. The Ministry's primary functions include: Proposing "policies, programs and procedures required for the enhancement of human rights and their protection in coordination with the bodies concerned"; studying legislation and laws to judge compatibility with international human rights conventions and treaties ratified by the country and proposing amendments as necessary; receiving complaints from citizens and organizations to study them and treat them in accordance with jurisdictions of Ministry of Human Rights in coordination with bodies concerned; enhancing "fields of cooperation" with civil society organizations; contributing to the preparation of human rights studies; reporting on the country's international human rights commitments; and coordinating and developing cooperation with the human rights-related international organizations.
During the year, the Ministry of Human Rights raised awareness of human rights via public information campaigns and provided training to activists on human rights. The Ministry resolved human rights cases through coordination with other Ministries and human rights NGOs and a newly established complaint mechanism. The Ministry cooperated with a U.N. Development Program (UNDP) project to increase its ability to combat human rights abuses by improving ministry management and staff training and establishing an information center and complaint mechanism.
Section 5 Discrimination Based on Race, Sex, Disability, Language, or Social Status
The Constitution provides for equal rights and equal opportunity for all citizens; however, discrimination based on race, sex, and disability existed. Entrenched cultural attitudes often affected women's ability to enjoy equal rights.
The law provides for protection against violence against women; however, such provisions rarely were enforced. Although spousal abuse reportedly was common, it generally was undocumented. Violence against women and children was considered a family affair and usually was not reported to the police. In the country's traditional society, an abused woman was expected to take her complaint to a male relative (rather than the authorities), who should intercede on her behalf or provide her sanctuary if required. A small shelter for battered women in Aden assisted victims, and telephone hotlines operated in Aden and Sana'a.
The law prohibits rape; however, it was a widespread problem. The punishment for rape is imprisonment up to 15 years depending on circumstances; however, it was seldom imposed.
The press and women's rights activists continued to investigate or report on violations of women's rights. During the year, NGO-sponsored conferences attempted to raise the media's awareness of violence against women
The law prohibits FGM; however, it was practiced. The prevalence of the practice varied substantially by region. Citizens of African origin or those living in communities with strong African influence were more likely to practice FGM. Government health workers and officials continued to discourage the practice actively and publicly. During the year, the National Women's Committee (NWC) in Aden provided awareness programs targeting health professionals, schools, and rural communities.
Prostitution is illegal; however, it occurred in practice. The punishment for prostitution is imprisonment up to 3 years or a fine.
The Penal Code allows for leniency for persons guilty of committing a "crime against honor," violent assaults or killings committed against a female for her perceived immodest or defiant behavior. Legal provisions regarding violence against women state that an accused man should be put to death for murdering a woman. However, a husband who murders his wife and her lover may be fined or imprisoned for a term not to exceed 1 year. Despite the apparent sanctioning of honor killings, most citizens, including women's activists, believed the phenomenon was not widespread. Some international NGOs claimed that the practice was more prevalent, but admitted to a lack of evidence to support such claims.
The law, social custom, and Shari'a, as interpreted in the country, discriminated against women. Men are permitted to take as many as four wives, although very few did so. By law the minimum age of marriage is 15; however, the law largely was not enforced, and some girls married as early as age 12.
The law stipulates that the wife's "consent" to the marriage is required; consent is defined as "silence" for previously unwed women and "pronouncement of consent" for divorced women. The husband and the wife's "guardian" (usually her father) signed the marriage contract; in Aden and some outlying governorates, the wife also signed. The practice of bride-price payments was widespread, despite efforts to limit the size of such payments.
The law provides that the wife must obey the husband. She must live with him at the place stipulated in the contract, consummate the marriage, and not leave the home without his consent. Husbands may divorce wives without justifying their action in court. A woman has the legal right to divorce; however, she must provide a justification, such as her husband's nonsupport, impotence, or taking of a second wife without her consent. However, the expense of hiring a lawyer was a significant deterrent, as was the necessity for rural women to travel to a city to present their case. A woman seeking a divorce also must repay the mahr (a portion of her bride price), which created an additional hardship. As a woman's family usually retains the mahr, the refusal by a family to pay the mahr effectively could prevent a divorce. The family's refusal to accept the woman back into the home also could deter divorce, as few other options were available to women. When a divorce occurs, the family home and older children often were awarded to the husband. The divorced woman usually returned to her father's home or to the home of another male relative. Her former husband must continue to support her for another 3 months, since she may not remarry until she proves that she is not pregnant.
Women who seek to travel abroad must obtain permission from their husbands or fathers to receive a passport and to travel (see Section 2.d.). Male relatives were expected to accompany women when travelling. However, enforcement of this requirement was not consistent.
Shari'a-based law permits a Muslim man to marry a non-Muslim woman; however, no Muslim woman may marry a non-Muslim.
Women do not have the right to confer citizenship on their foreign-born spouses; however, they may confer citizenship on children born of foreign-born fathers under certain circumstances as stipulated by law and determined by the Government.
According to an Ministry of Interior regulation, any citizen who wishes to marry a foreigner must obtain the permission of the Ministry. A woman wishing to marry a foreigner must present proof of her parents' approval to the Ministry of Interior. A foreign woman who wishes to marry a citizen man must prove to the Ministry that she is "of good conduct and behavior," and "is free from contagious disease." There are no corresponding requirements for men to demonstrate parental approval, good conduct, or freedom from contagious diseases.
The Government continued to support women's rights as exemplified by local law and the expansion of the public role of women. The President and Government strongly encouraged women to vote and strongly supported several NGO-sponsored conferences to increase the role of women in political life. The number of women in positions of leadership in government ministries increased during the year.
According to 2002 government statistics, approximately 67.5 percent of women were illiterate, compared with approximately 27.7 percent of men. The fertility rate was 6.5 children per woman. Most women had little access to basic health care.
In general women in the south, particularly in Aden, were better educated and had somewhat greater employment opportunities than their northern counterparts. However, since the 1994 war of secession, the number of working women in the south appears to have declined, due not only to the stagnant economy but also to increasing cultural pressure from the north. According to the UNDP, female workers accounted for 19 percent of the paid labor force. During the year, the Government amended a law to require that every public or private institution employing more than 50 female workers must provide assistance with the care of their children. There were no laws prohibiting sexual harassment, and it occurred in practice.
Prior to unification, approximately half of the judges working in the PDRY were women. However, after the 1994 war of secession, conservative leaders of the judiciary reassigned many southern female judges to administrative or clerical duties. Although several female judges continued to practice in Aden, there were no female judges in northern courts.
In July 2001, the NWC completed a 6-month review of 58 significant national laws to find and rectify provisions that discriminated against women or violated equal status requirements agreed to by the Government in international conventions. The NWC's seven-member legal committee identified problems and recommended legal changes. The Cabinet has approved the recommended changes in principle, with some revisions. Parliament passed several amendments relating to civil status by year's end and efforts continued to amend further laws. During the year and in 2002, the NWC also pushed for a quota system to reserve at least 10 percent of parliament any seats for women, but failed.
There were a number of NGOs working for women's advancement, including the Social Association for Productive Families, promoting vocational development for women; the Women and Children's Department of the Center for Future Studies, organizing seminars and publishing studies on women and children; the Woman and Child Development Association, focusing on health education and illiteracy; and the Yemeni Council for Motherhood and Childhood, providing microcredit and vocational training to women.
While the Government asserted its commitment to protect children's rights, it lacked the resources necessary to ensure adequate health care, education, and welfare services for children. Malnutrition was common. Most recent figures showed that the infant mortality rate in 1999 was 75 deaths per 1,000 births, down from 105 per 1,000 in 1998. Male children received preferential treatment and had better health and survival rates.
The law provides for universal, compulsory, and free education from ages 6 to 15; however, the provision regarding compulsory attendance was not enforced. Many children, especially girls, did not attend primary school. According to a UNDP report released during 2001, average student attendance in primary schools was 76 percent for boys and 40 percent for girls. In rural areas, 52 percent of children attended school; the rate in urban areas was 81 percent
Child marriage was common in rural areas. Although the law requires that a girl be 15 years of age to marry, the law was not enforced, and marriages of girls as young as age 12 occurred.
The law does not prohibit child abuse and it was a problem.
FGM was practiced on a limited scale (see Section 5, Women).
In 2002, the Supreme Council for Childhood and Motherhood developed the Child Rights Law passed by Parliament, which explicitly prohibits child labor.
Persons with Disabilities
Persons with mental and physical disabilities faced social prejudices, as well as discrimination in education and employment. The Government mandated the acceptance of persons with disabilities in universities, exempted them from paying tuition, and required that schools be made more accessible to persons with disabilities; however, it was unclear to what extent these laws have been implemented. There is no national law mandating the accessibility of buildings for persons with disabilities.
Public awareness regarding the need to address the concerns of persons with disabilities appeared to be increasing. In 2001, NGOs established a privately funded center for persons with hearing and speaking impairments in Taiz.
At times authorities arrested without charge imprisoned persons with mental disabilities (see Section 1.d.).
During the year, the Handicapped Society and the Challenge Society were involved in assisting persons with disabilities. These two NGOs provided rehabilitation assistance and vocational training and sponsored cultural and sports activities.
A small group of persons claiming to be the descendants of ancient Ethiopian occupiers of the country, who later were enslaved, were considered the lowest social class. Known as the "Akhdam" (servants), they lived in poverty and endure persistent social discrimination. The Government's Social Fund for Development for "special needs groups" focused particularly on the Akhdam. In 2001, several Akhdam-origin citizens in Taiz governorate established the Free Black People's Charitable Organization to fight discrimination and improve conditions for their community.
Human rights groups have reported that some immigrants of African origin had difficulty in securing Interior Ministry permission to marry citizens. An Interior Ministry regulation requires that marriages of citizens and foreigners be approved in advance by the Ministry (see Section 1.f.).
Tribal violence continued to be a problem during the year, and the Government's ability to control tribal elements responsible for acts of violence remained limited. Tensions, which periodically escalated into violent confrontations, continue between the Government and some tribes.
Citizens with a non-citizen parent, at times faced discrimination in employment and in other areas. Persons who sought employment at Sana'a University or admission to the military academy by law must demonstrate that they have two citizen parents. Nonetheless, many senior officials, including Members of Parliament and ministers, had only one citizen parent; at times, naturalization of the non-citizen parent fulfilled this requirement
Section 6 Worker Rights
a. The Right of Association
The Constitution and Labor Law provide that citizens have the right to form and join unions; however, this right was restricted in practice. The Government sought to place its own personnel in positions of influence inside unions and trade union federations.
The law permitts trade unions to establish only under federation. The General Federation of Trade Unions of Yemen (GFWTUY) remained the sole national umbrella organization. The GFWTUY claimed approximately 350,000 members in 14 unions and denied any association with the Government, although it worked closely with the Government to resolve labor disputes through negotiation. Observers suggest that the Government likely would not tolerate the establishment of an alternative labor federation unless it believed such an establishment to be in its best interest.
Only the General Assembly of the GFWTUY may dissolve unions. The law provides equal labor rights for women, and it confirms the freedom of workers to associate. The Labor Law does not stipulate a minimum membership for unions, or limit them to a specific enterprise or firm. Thus citizens may associate by profession or trade.
The law generally protects employees from anti-union discrimination. Employers do not have the right to dismiss an employee for union activities. Employees may appeal any disputes, including cases of anti-union discrimination, to the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor. Employees also may take a case to the Labor Arbitration Committee, which is chaired by the Ministry of Labor and also consists of an employer representative and a GFWTUY representative. Such cases often were disposed favorably toward workers, especially if the employer was a foreign company.
The GFWTUY is affiliated with the Confederation of Arab Trade Unions and the Brussels-based International Confederation of Free Trade Unions.
b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively
The Labor Law provides workers with the right to organize and bargain collectively. The Government permitted these activities; however, it sought to influence them by placing its own personnel inside groups and organizations. The Ministry of Labor has veto power over collective bargaining agreements, a practice criticized by the International Labor Organization (ILO). Several such agreements existed. Agreements may be invalidated if they are "likely to cause a breach of security or to damage the economic interests of the country." Unions may negotiate wage settlements for their members and may resort to strikes or other actions to achieve their demands. Public sector employees must take their grievances to court.
The Labor Law provides for the right to strike; however, strikes were not permitted unless a dispute between workers and employers is "final" and "incontestable" (a prior attempt must have been made to settle through negotiation or arbitration). The proposal to strike must be submitted to at least 60 percent of all concerned workers, of whom 25 percent must vote in favor of the proposal. Permission to strike also must be obtained from the GFWTUY. Strikes for explicit "political purposes" were prohibited.
There were some peaceful strikes during the year.
There are reports that private sector employers discriminated against union members by transfers, demotions, and dismissals.
There are no export processing zones (EPZs) in operation.
c. Prohibition of Forced or Bonded Labor
The Constitution prohibits forced or bonded labor, and there were no reports that such practices occurred.
d. Status of Child Labor Practices and Minimum Age for Employment
The law prohibits child labor. The established minimum age for employment is 15 years in the private sector and 18 years in the public sector. By special permit, children between the ages of 12 and 15 may work. The Government rarely enforced these provisions, especially in rural and remote areas. The Government also did not enforce laws requiring 9 years of compulsory education for children.
Child labor was common, especially in rural areas. Many children were required to work in subsistence farming because of the poverty of their families. Even in urban areas, children worked in stores and workshops, sold goods on the streets, and begged. Many school-aged children worked instead of attending school, particularly in areas in which schools were not easily accessible.
In 2000, the Shura Council adopted the ILO's Child Labor Strategy to address persistent child labor problems. A special council, under the leadership of the Minister of Social Affairs and Labor, used the strategy as a government-wide guideline for enforcing existing child labor laws and formulating and implementing new laws. In late 2002, the Supreme Council for Childhood and Motherhood developed the Child Rights Law later passed by Parliament that explicitly prohibits child labor.
The Child Labor Unit at the Ministry of Labor is responsible for implementing and enforcing child labor laws and regulations. The unit is responsible for investigating and addressing cases and issuing guidelines to prevent child labor. They had offices in 11 provinces and have established specific guidelines to prevent child labor under the age of 12. The Government was an active partner with the ILO's International Program to Eliminate Child Labor.
e. Acceptable Conditions of Work
There was no established minimum wage for any type of employment. The Labor Law provides equal wages for workers and civil servants. During the year, the Government again increased selected civil servants' wages. Private sector workers, especially skilled technicians, earned a far higher wage. The average wage did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family. The minimum civil service wage during the year did not meet the country's poverty level.
The law specifies a maximum 48-hour workweek with a maximum 8-hour workday, but many workshops and stores operate 10- to 12-hour shifts without penalty. The 35-hour workweek for government employees was 7 hours per day from Saturday through Wednesday.
The Ministry of Labor is responsible for regulating workplace health and safety conditions. The requisite legislation for regulating occupational health is contained in the Labor Law, but enforcement was weak to nonexistent. Many workers regularly were exposed to toxic industrial products and developed respiratory illnesses. Some foreign-owned companies and major manufacturers implemented higher health, safety, and environmental standards than the Government required. Workers have the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations and may challenge dismissals in court. These laws were generally respected in practice.
f. Trafficking in Persons
The law prohibits trafficking in persons, and there were no reports that persons were trafficked to, from, or within the country. |
Search for nearly anything in the world today (July 19) and you'll be reminded of the Apollo 11 moon landing as Google celebrates the feat's anniversary with an animated doodle.
Clicking on the doodle starts a 4.5-minute-long video narrated by Michael Collins, one of the three NASA astronauts who was en route to the moon 50 years ago right now.
He shares what it was like to be perched at the top of a massive Saturn V rocket as it blasted away from Earth, what it was like to see the moon for himself, and how good his coffee tasted as he orbited alone while his colleagues Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin made history.
"The first time we saw the moon up close, it was a magnificent spectacle," Collins said. "It was huge. The sun was coming around it, cascading and making a golden halo and filled our entire window."
In the video, Collins also shares some of the logistical details about the flight from Earth to the moon. "We were in constant sunlight between the Earth and the moon," Collins said. "In order to regulate the temperatures on Apollo 11, we had to perform a maneuver which some called a 'barbecue roll,' in which we rotated sideways like a chicken on a spit."
But perhaps the most touching moment of the video comes when Collins talked about not spaceflight itself or the stunning views of the moon he was so privileged to visit. Instead, it comes when he shared his newfound perspective on the world he left behind.
"As impressive as the view was of this alien moon seen up close, it was nothing compared to the sight of the tiny Earth," Collins said. "The Earth was the main show. The Earth was it."
- Relive the Apollo 11 Moon Landing Mission in Real Time
- Apollo 11 Moon Landing Giveaway with Simulation Curriculum & Celestron!
- Apollo 11 at 50: A Complete Guide to the Historic Moon Landing |
In her years as a mental health practitioner, Kyaien Conner saw a system that fell short for people of color.
Most of her clients were white, even though she worked at mental health agencies in communities of color. And the tools used for diagnosis had been fine-tuned for predominantly white communities, leading to care that was insufficient for people of other races.
Today, as an assistant professor in the University of South Florida’s Department of Mental Health Law and Policy, Conner uses research to drive change in her profession.
But the disparities she saw on the front lines are still very much in place, as evidenced by a report released early Wednesday by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that takes a snapshot of the nation’s pre-pandemic mental health.
In the past year, according to the report, non-Hispanic white adults were more likely to have received mental health treatment than any other race or Hispanic-origin group. The percentage of Black and Hispanic adults who received mental health treatment was about 10 points lower. Hispanic adults were the least likely to have received any mental health treatment.
And while Black adults were as likely as White adults to experience symptoms of depression in the two weeks before being surveyed, they were less likely to have received mental health treatment over the previous year.
Disparities also exist across gender, according to the data. Women were more likely than men to receive counseling or therapy or take prescription medication in the past year.
The data is based on a nationally representative sample of nearly 32,000 adults and 6,800 children aged five to 17. The individuals span more than 33,000 households.
The Florida Department of Health’s most recent State Health Assessment in 2017 echoes the national results.
That year, among adults with a serious mental illness, more than 70 percent of white women received mental health care, compared to 50 percent of Hispanic women and just over 60 percent of Black women, the state data showed. Similarly, about 60 percent of white men received care, compared to about 50 percent of Hispanic and Black men.
Aside from those disparities, Florida is one of the most difficult places in the nation to find mental health care, according to a 2020 ranking by Mental Health America, a national nonprofit. The ranking, which placed Florida at 40th for access, measured the availability of treatment, insurance and special education, among other factors.
At NAMI Pinellas County, a group serving people with mental health conditions and their families, the number of Black and Hispanic people participating in support groups and other services is low, said executive director Denise Whitfield.
Whitfield said the disparities are in part due to barriers in access to care as well as lack of mental health providers from communities of color.
However, to address those barriers, “it might be easier for us to go into those communities,” she said. “Sometimes we need to go to them."
While physical health disparities tend to focus on illness and disease disparities, “in behavioral health or mental health, the biggest health disparity is really access to care,” said Conner, the USF professor, who focuses her research on African American mental health.
Black and Hispanic people “are more likely to experience barriers when they want to seek mental health services," Conner said. "And even when those initial barriers have been overcome and they do happen to make an appointment or see a therapist, they’re more likely to terminate treatment prematurely.”
She said those barriers include increased likelihood of living in poverty or areas where quality mental health services are not readily available, limited access to insurance, the stigma within minority communities surrounding mental illness, and a deep-rooted mistrust of the American health care system driven in part by experiencing implicit bias on the part of health care providers.
“Racial and ethnic minorities often have reasons to be mistrustful of our health care system," Conner said. African Americans in particular are experiencing significant race-based trauma, which many of the systems in place are not designed to assess and treat adequately, she said.
The pandemic is also shining a light on disparities, local crisis workers say.
The number of suicide calls from those who identify as Black have increased 19 percent this year, according to data from the Crisis Center of Tampa Bay. Calls for mental health issues in general went up 25 percent among the same group.
The increases were similar for Hispanic callers.
“It’s the pandemic. It’s the hurt that’s been experienced within minority communities. It’s the election causing stress," said Ken Gibson, the center’s senior director of marketing and public relations.
“It’s a soup that’s kind of brewing together," he said. "Frankly, it’s almost a tsunami that’s brewing.”
This story was funded in part through a grant from the Foundation for a Healthy St. Petersburg. Donors are not involved in the reporting or editing process. |
Doing homework is often a dreaded task for both student and parent. Not understanding key concepts discussed in class, falling behind the class’s pace, being afraid to ask for help, and lacking interest in the lesson can lead to frustration and procrastination.
Studies have proven that doing homework not only helps students achieve their academic goals, it also prepares them for the work force. The Literary Tutor will give your child the tools and knowledge they need to confidently complete their homework, as well as encourage them to practice the valuable skill of time management.
Your child will learn how to:
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Linking Life Zones, Life History
Traits, Ecology, and Spatial Cognition
in Four Allopatric Southwestern Seed Caching Corvids
This report will review the similarities and differences of
four species of pine seed caching members of the avian
family Corvidae that live on the slopes and base of the San
Francisco Peaks in north-central Arizona. The four species
include the Clark’s nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana),
pinyon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus), western
scrub-jay (Aphelocoma californica), and Mexican jay (A.
ultramarina). These corvids demonstrate a specialization
gradient for the harvesting, transporting, caching and
recovering of buried pine seeds. This gradient is reflected
in their dependence on cached pine seeds for winter and
early spring survival and reproduction. Species most
dependent on these cached seeds have the greatest number of
adaptations for utilizing these seeds which is especially
evident in their spatial memory abilities to locate their
caches. The two most dependent species, nutcrackers and
pinyon jays have spatial memory abilities more accurate than
in the species less dependent on cached seeds, western
scrub-jays and Mexican jays. Using converging operations to
test these memory abilities, comparative tests were
conducted in an open field cache/recovery experiment, an
analogue radial maze test and operant tests of spatial and
non-spatial memory. Also discussed are the techniques used
by nutcrackers to recognize and relocate caching sites.
These birds have the ability to learn and generalize
geometric rules about the placement of landmarks. This
geometry, especially using multiple landmarks, aids this
species greatly. The use of the sun compass by pinyon jays,
scrub jays and nutcrackers reveal that in experimental
conditions where birds are clock-shifted they respond to
this shift, thus digging for caches in locations predicted by
the shift. It appears that pinyon jays are converging on a
distant relative the nutcracker in many characteristics,
thus diverging from their close relatives the western
scrub-jay and Mexican jay. Each species has a suite of
adaptive traits that reflects its natural history and life
Chapter Outline and Navigation
Figure 1. C. H. Merriam (white shirt)
Temperate and alpine
regions experience large climatic shifts between summer and
winter. To survive, animals must deal with these seasonal
changes. Tactics used to address with these changing
conditions include migration, hibernation, laying
over-wintering eggs, or living off the land (finding food
and shelter under changing conditions). Animals that live
off the land are referred to as permanent residents. Often
these animals have to change the amount and types of foods
they eat to accommodate the energetic and nutritional
demands imposed by the physiological needs of the different
seasons of the year. For example, most permanent
resident birds eat insects and arachnids during the summer
when these food types are abundant, and seeds, berries, and
over-wintering eggs and larvae, during the winter when these
food items may be abundant. Some birds, however, do
something quite different. They prepare for the
upcoming winter by provisioning food in the late summer and
autumn and then recover and consume it during the harsh
winter season, days, weeks, or even months after the items were
initially stored. In this chapter we will define the
ecological conditions under which these behaviors occur and
the suite of adaptive behaviors used by the birds in their
quest for survival and reproduction.
Figure 2. Cover of North American .Fauna No. 3.
Food-storing adaptations have been observed in many avian taxa, including
woodpeckers, nuthatches, chickadees and tits (see Vander Wall, 1990 for review
of this topic). In this chapter, we will concentrate on a group of seed caching
birds of the family Corvidae, the Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga
columbiana), pinyon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus), Western
scrub jay (Aphelocoma californica) and Mexican jay
(Aphelocoma ultramarine). These birds co-exist in a relatively
small area of north-central Arizona, the San Francisco Peaks.
These peaks are geographically compact and isolated from other mountainous
areas, thus providing an unusual natural laboratory to study food-storing,
particularly for describing similarities and differences among the four
species. In the first part of this chapter, we describe the
habitats occupied and utilized by the seed caching corvids. In
succeeding sections, we use this background information to illustrate the how
and why these conditions, acting as selective forces, have affected the
behavioral patterns of these birds.
The San Francisco
Peaks were made famous in the 1880's when they were studied
by C. Hart Merriam, an early ecologist and the first
Director of the present U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(Figure 1). He described the distribution of plants
and animals along an elevational gradient on the sides of the Peaks and compared
this distribution to the latitudinal distribution of plants and
animals from temperature to artic regions of the eastern U.S. He
published a famous monograph on this topic in 1889 (Figure
2). Bands of like plants and animals that had the same elevational
distribution were referred to as life zones (Figure
Because the mountain is rather simple, both geologically and
geographically, the zones were relatively easy to identify and
describe. It was possible to visit all the life zones on the
Peaks in half a day. This made it easy to record the similarities
and differences in the behaviors of the birds of interest. A brief description
of the life zones on the San Francisco Peaks, beginning with the
highest elevations and moving downward, will set the stage for
understanding the ecological reasons that these seed caching birds
behave as they do.
Figure 3A. San Francisco Peaks.
Figure 3B. Life Zone Distribution on San Francisco
1. Alpine Tundra. (Figure 4)
Figure 4. Alpine Tundra.
This zone exists on the very top of the Peaks, 3,865 m
(12,670 ft). Vegetation at this elevation is sparse. This area is
above tree line and supports only two small species of
At tree line there are snall gnarled patches of Engelmann spruce (Picea
engelmannii) and bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata). In
winter, the tundra zone is subjected to strong winds, low temperatures and
heavy snow that may be present in protected pockets well into summer. Summer
rains can be torrential. The growing season is short as freezing
temperatures can occur in May and August. The single seed caching corvid that
regularly visits this zone is the Clark's nutcracker and it does so in late
summer and early fall before the snow flies. Here it can be found with its
offspring of the year, foraging, digging in the soil, catching insects, and
caching seeds of bristle cone pine, limber pine (Pinus flexilis),
and southwestern white pine (Pinus strobiformes) that are carried
upward by the adults as the seeds mature at lower elevations in late summer and
early fall. All or most of this activity by nutcrackers ceases once the zone is
covered with snow. Thus, these cached seeds are not recovered until the area is
free of snow the next spring and summer, some 8-10 months later.
2. Spruce-fir Forest. (Figure 5)
Figure 5. Spruce-Fir Forest.
This zone of
dense coniferous trees consisting of Engelmann spruce,
alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpus), limber pine, and bristle cone pine
exists directly below the tundra at elevations from about 2,745 m (9,000 ft.)
to 3,660 m (12,000 ft). Forests can be dense with a continuous layer of
canopy cover so thick that few under story plants can thrive in
this extreme shade. A thick layer of litter and duff
covers the ground in most areas. Grassy alpine meadows are interspersed with tree covered areas.
This zone is characterized by high winds, heavy snow fall in winter and rain
fall in summer, cold winter temperatures and cool summer temperatures. Clark's
nutcrackers and Steller's jays (Cyanocitta stelleri) are common
inhabitants of this zone. Both nest here, extract seeds from the cones of both
species of pine, and readily cache seeds here. (Although Steller's jays are
industrious cachers we have studied them little because they do not do well in
captivity.) Occasionally in late summer and early fall flocks of pinyon jays
can be seen and heard traveling through the area. Presumably, these birds are
searching for pine seeds.
3. Mixed Coniferous Forest. (Figure 6)
Figure 6. Mixed Coniferous Forest.
This zone exists
at elevations between 2,287 m (7,500 ft) and 2,745 m (9,000
ft). The principal trees are firs, primarily Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesi) with occasional white firs (Abies
concolor) and ponderosa pines (Pinus ponderosa) found on
exposures. Here, two closely related species of pine intergrade, the
southwestern white pine (Pinus strobiformis) and the limber pine
(Pinus flexilus), and form large stands on the side of the
Peaks. A deciduous tree, Gambel oak (Quercus gambeli) is
present in low numbers. The canopy is complete so the forest floor is well
shaded and contains a thick mat of litter and duff. Alpine meadows and stands
of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) are interspersed among the
conifer stands. Winters are cold and windy, with heavy snows at times and
modest amounts of summer rains. Climatic conditions in this zone are more
moderate than in the above spruce-fir zone, but still rather harsh in
winter. Clark's nutcrackers and Steller's jays are the principal seed
caching corvids inhabiting this zone with occasional visitations by flocks of
4. Ponderosa Pine Forest. (Figure 7)
Figure 7. Ponderosa Pine Forest.
This zone is present from 2,105 m (6,900
ft) to 2,287 m (7,500 ft) .This forest is a monoculture, as the
dominant and predominant tree is ponderosa pine. In some areas Gambel oak may be
present at modest densities. Ponderosa pine forest form open stands of large trees, in contrast to
the above forests where the canopy is
complete. Pine nettles and cones from past years accumulate on the
forest floor and can form a thick mat of 5-10 cm. In some areas pine
trees are dense and small forming dog-hair thickets. Winters are
modest with snowfall amount below those experiences in the above
zones with summer rains also occurring in moderation. The growing
season extends from late April to early September.
In recent years
wild fires have commonly consumed large tracts of this forest. This
is the lowest elevational extension of the coniferous forest on the
peaks. Steller's Jays occur at maximum densities here and
readily caches the seeds of ponderosa pines. These jays also descend
to the upper reaches of the next lower zone to harvest and carry
pine seeds up into this forest. Flocks of pinyon jays roam through
portions of this forest, harvesting and caching ponderosa pine seeds
and, like the Steller's jay descending into the woodland to harvest
and carry seeds up into this zone. Pinyon jays commonly nest in this
forest. At the lower edges of this zone and on drier sites Western
scrub-jays and Mexican jays occur. They also harvest and cache
ponderosa pine and pinyon pine seeds here.
5. Pinyon-Juniper Woodland. (Figure 8)
Figure 8. Pinyon-Juniper Woodland.
This extensive zone occupies the base of the mountain and lies
between 1,680 m (5,500 ft) and 2,135 m (7,000 ft). This zone
occupies the largest amount of area of all the zones because there
is more land mass at the lower elevation where these trees live.
predominant trees are Colorado pinyon (Pinus edulis)
and a host of junipers (Juniperus
osteosperma, J. monophylla, J. scopulorum, J. depppeana). The
upper elevations are dominated by pinyon pine and the lower
regions may consist solely of junipers. Because moisture is
limiting, trees are spread out with large openings between them. The
under story supports some shrubs, succulents and cacti. The
climate is mild in winter and hot in summer. Modest rains occur in
summer and winter moisture is in the form of both rain and snow.
Winter snows melt relatively quickly. Insects and arachnids and some
small mammals are active throughout the year. Populations of
western scrub jays and Mexican jays reached their highest levels
here. These jays harvest and cache pinyon pine seeds when available.
Also resident, are flocks of pinyon jays that use the pinyon pines
in great numbers. Steller's jays and Clark's nutcrackers descend the
mountain and collect large amounts of pine seeds that they then
carry up into their normal habitats. The pinyon pine is the most
heavily sought after pine on the San Francisco Peaks.
Some important ecological patterns
emerge along the Life Zone gradient. At the top of the mountain it
is cold in winter, with heavy snow, but cool in summer with heavy
rains, and frequent clouds that obscure the sun, especially in
winter and mid-summer. Plant and animal productivity is restricted
by a short growing season in late spring and summer. In the higher
coniferous forests, tree density is high and canopies are closed,
with a thick layer of decomposing plant parts on the ground. At
lower elevations, it is cool but mild in winter, with little snow,
but hot in summer, with sparse rains. Clouds are much less frequent
than at higher elevations. Plant and animal productivity is spread
out over a 9-10 month period and most animals remain active year
round due to the mild and hospitable climatic conditions. The pine
forest and woodland have an open canopy with sunlight reaching
ground level throughout. Almost no plant decomposition is occurring
on the woodland floor and bare ground is often exposed.
Consequently, each Life Zone has a
unique set of ecological properties and constraints that act as
selective forces shaping the adaptive traits of the creatures
inhabiting it. Because of the compactness of the mountain and the
compressed nature of these adaptive zones it was relatively easy to
observe the similarities and differences among the seed caching corvids. There is a general trend of increasing
numbers of seed caching corvids species with decreasing elevation
throughout the forest and woodland zones. For example, only
the nutcracker visits the alpine tundra, but all five species
(nutcracker, Steller's jay, pinyon jay, western scrub jay, and
Mexican jay) visit the pinyon-juniper woodland. In the high
coniferous forests the nutcracker and Steller's jay are resident
whereas in the low woodland three species of jays (pinyon jay,
Western scrub jay and Mexican jay) are resident. Only the
scrub jay apparently uses the grassland which occurs below
On the slopes of the San Francisco
peaks, four species of pines produce seeds that are
harvested, transported, cached and later recovered by the seed caching corvids.
In order of descending importance to the birds these are: pinyon pine,
limber/southwestern pine, ponderosa pine, and bristlecone pine. A brief
description of the characteristics of each that make them attractive to the
seed caching birds follows in order of descending elevational distribution.
1. Bristlecone pine.
This species is the rarest of the pines and exists at the highest elevations,
usually at or near tree line in the spruce-fir forest. The seeds are tiny,
ranging in size of between 10-13 mm (Schopmeyer, 1974) and contain a 10-13 mm
wing. The seeds are grey to brown to black. The cone, as the trees name
indicates, is armed with narrow, sharp, pointed needle-like spines to protect
the seeds from predators. The cone is oriented downward on the branch.
Bristlecone pine produces some cones most every year, and seeds readily fall
when they open. This pine relies mainly on wind to disperse its seeds, and
little is known about the harvest transport, caching and recovery of this
species by seed caching corvids, primarily Clark's nutcrackers and Steller's
jays. This pine is probably not a significant source of food for either of
2. Limber and southwestern white pine complex.
This species complex reaches its high densities in the mixed coniferous
forest with a few individuals extending upward in the spruce-fir forest and
down into the upper edge of the ponderosa pine forest. (On the San Francisco
Peaks these two species interbreed thus we refer to them here as ?a species
complex?) The wingless seeds are relatively small (10-15 mm in length) and
brown in color. The cone contains either weak spines or no spines at all.
Cones are oriented downward. This pine is prized by nutcrackers and Steller's
jays which work with great industry to harvest the seeds, which are cached
within this forest type and in nearby open meadows (Benkman et al., 1984).
Both Steller's jays and nutcrackers extract the seeds from open cones. Pinyon jays occasionally visit these trees in late autumn, harvest seeds and
carry them down hill into the ponderosa pine forest and pinyon-juniper
woodland where they are cached.
3. Ponderosa pine.
This species exists in almost pure stands below the mixed coniferous forest.
The tree produces some cones in almost every year and huge crops in some
years. The small seeds (3-4 mm in length) are attached to a wing that may be
five times as long as the seed (16 mm in length). The seed coat is brown with
occasional dark mottling. Cones contain many sharp, decurved spines for
protective armament. Cones are oriented downward on the end of branches and
seeds are readily released from ripe cones. All four jays (Steller's, pinyon,
scrub and Mexican) and Clark's nutcracker harvest,
transport, cache, and recover the seeds from this tree,
even though this species relies mainly on wind for the
dispersal of its seeds. Wings are broken off the seeds
before they are transported. Nutcrackers clip them off
with their bills while the jays use a branch or other
stationary object to smash the wing with a strong swipe
of the bill.
4. Colorado pinyon pine. (Figure 9)
Figure 9. Pinyon pine tree.
Figure 10. Yellow
seeds (right); dark brown seeds (left).
This species lives below the
ponderosa pine forest. Trees are spaced more openly than any
of the above. This species is the only masting species of
the conifers harvest by the birds. Usually a few cones are
produced on many trees every year but in extreme years no
cones are produced, or just the opposite, with most trees
producing thousands of cones per tree. When trees produce such a large crop of seeds this is known as a
"mast" crop. These extremes occur about once every seven years (Table 1).
Table 1. Qualitative Measures of Pine Cone Density
& Cache Intensity
1. No Cones (2 of 7 years)
No cones = No seeds = NO CACHING
2. Low Cone Crop (2 of 7 years)
Few cones = Few seeds = NO CACHING
3. Modest Cone Crop (2 of 7 years)
Modest cones = Modest seeds = CACHING
4. Heavy Cone Crop (1 of 7 years)
Many cones = Many seeds = INTENSE
It has been suggested that masting
insures that the seed caching birds and other seed predators
are unable to harvest and consume all available seeds and
thus the predators are "swamped". They cannot build up
populations of sufficient numbers to totally decimate the
seed crop (Vander Wall, 1990; Vander Wall & Balda, 1977). This species places its cones near the end of branches,
where they are positioned to point outward or upward. Cones open
asynchronously on each tree and in different regions. Seeds are
relatively large (10-15 mm) and wingless and held in deep grooves on
the cone scale. The cone scales are relatively short and contain
flanges that act to hold the seeds in the cones so they are not
easily dislodged. The flange disintegrates after the first frost in
autumn and then the seeds fall out of the cone. Seed coat color
differs drastically between seeds that are full of female
gametophyte material (dark, chocolate brown) and those that
are empty (light yellow) (Figure 10).
All five seed caching corvids are
attracted to the cones of pinyon pine to
extract seeds. The Clark's
nutcracker and pinyon jay are able to open tightly closed green
cones, whereas the three other jays must wait for the cones to open
naturally. The scrub-jay may not recognize that the yellow hulled
seeds are empty (Vander Wall & Balda, 1981). This species of tree enjoys the widest elevational range of any pine on the San Francisco Peaks. Trees grow
from 1,680 m (5,500 ft) to over 3,600 m (11,000 ft). These higher
stands were most likely "planted" by nutcrackers, as we have seen
them transport seeds to these areas (Vander Wall & Balda, 1977).
When pine cones are present, the seed caching corvids expend considerable time
and energy harvesting, transporting, and caching pine seeds each autumn. Each
species shows different types of morphological, ecological and behavioral
specializations for this task. Here we describe these specializations for each
1. Clark's nutcracker. (Figure 11)
Figure 11. Clark's nutcracker in snow.
This species lives and nests at the
highest elevations on the San Francisco Peaks, of all the seed
caching corvids. They nests in spruce-fir, mixed conifer and
ponderosa pine zones. Nutcrackers have a number of morphological
adaptations that are used for the harvest, transport, caching, and
eating of pine seeds. A conspicuous example is the long, heavy,
sharp bill. This bill is used for hacking open green, closed cones,
many of which are covered with pitch. Nutcrackers can open the green
cones of most of the pines mentioned above. The bill is also used to
thrust seeds into the substrate with strong japes of the head and
neck. As their name implies, nutcrackers can open thick-hulled pine
seeds by crushing them in their bills (Johnson et al., 1987).
During transport, seeds are held in a
unique sublingual pouch that is located in the floor of the mouth in
front of the tongue (Bock et al., 1973, Figure12). When full of
seeds the sublingual pouch is greatly distended but it is not
conspicuous when empty. This structure can be filled with up to 95 pinyon pine seeds and weigh up to 13% of the total weight of the
Figure 12. Sublingual pouch.
Muscle names in Bock et al., 1973.
Nutcrackers have long, pointed wings for
strong flight. They often fill their sublingual pouches with pinyon
pine seed and the fly up to 22 km to a caching area (Vander Wall & Balda 1977, 1981). The also can carry seeds 1,900 m up the side of
Nutcrackers can distinguish between
pinyon pine seeds that contain female gametophyte material (nut
meat) and those that are empty by observing the color of the hull or
shell. The other species of pines do not label their seeds.
Nutcrackers also use Bill clicking, the rapid opening and closing of
the mandibles, to help determine if the seed is full (Ligon & Martin, 1974) and also help determine the thickness of the seed coat
(Johnson et al., 1987). In an autumn when the pinyon pines have
masted, thousands of discarded cones occur on the ground containing
a large numbers of seeds with yellow hulls.
The daily sequence of events during the
autumn caching season proceeds as follows. Birds open seeds and
consume pine seeds at first light. Then seed collecting begins and
pouches are filled. Birds continue to harvest seeds for the entire
day traveling 5-7 times from harvest area to caching area and back.
Seeds are cached in the substrate at
depths of 2-3 cm. (Figure 13) These caches are
from view as birds often place soil, litter, pine needles, pine
cones and even small stones on top of the hidden seeds. These
objects seldom remain in place for long due to wind, water, and
gravity. Most likely these objects are placed on top of the cache to
conceal the soil disturbance made by creating caches, not to
conspicuously mark the location of the cache.
Figure 13. Exposed pine seed cache.
Figure 14. Cache site where nutcracker has recovered
cache through snow.
Caches are created in a wide variety of sites, including
meadows, tundra, open woodlands, closed canopy forest, rocky
outcrops, thick needle layers, cinders, and bare soil. Many of these
sites experience low amounts of snowfall or early snow melt thus
allowing birds' ready access to their caches. Often nutcrackers
cache seeds at sites used by numerous other nutcrackers for caching.
However, even though the site may be communal the caches are not, as
birds can only locate the caches they have created (Vander Wall,
1982; Vander Wall & Balda, 1977).
Nutcrackers often proceed to cache in
two stages. First, when seeds are plentiful birds will extract them
and cache them near the harvest tree. Second, after the cones have
been depleted these caches are recovered and the seeds transported
some distance and then recached (Tomback, 1998) The former may
be a technique to get as many seeds as possible out of the
conspicuous cones and into hidden sites, the locations of which are
known only to the cacher. Later seeds may be moved to more
protected sites or sites with fewer seed predators present.
In a year with a heavy cone crop a single nutcracker can
cache between 22,000 and 33,000 seeds in over 7,000 individual cache
sites (Vander Wall & Balda, 1977). Birds may place between one and
14 seeds per cache. Birds continue caching until the crop is
depleted or snow covers the caching areas (Vander Wall & Balda, 1977). Possibly, birds curtail caching after snow
remains on the ground because to cache in these conditions would
reveal cache location by their foot prints left in the snow.
Seed caches may be harvested
immediately after the harvest is finished. Often, birds eat the
recovered seeds directly at the site of recovery, thus providing a
measure of recovery accuracy. Most workers report that nutcrackers
recover seeds from about 80% of their probe holes (Tomback, 1980; Turek & Kelso,
1968). This estimate must be low as some seeds
recovered from caches are carried off before consumption, and some
sites must be pilfered by cache robbers. This high estimate is a
truly a tribute to the spatial memory ability of the Clark's
nutcracker when one considers: 1) nutcrackers spend less than 30
sec. making a cache (Kamil et al., 1999); 2) they make thousands of
caches each autumn; 3) they returned to
accurately recover their caches many months after creating them; 4)
they recover through a substrate that has been greatly altered
between the time of caching and recovery. This means that caches
created under one set of substrate characteristics are recovered
under a very different set of substrate characteristics. For
example, caches made in the fall
before snow is present are recovered through snow (Figure 14).
Caches made when green vegetation is present are recovered after
this vegetation has died and disintegrated. This suggests that these
local cues or landmarks are not used by the birds as the sole
source of information about the location of their caches.
Nutcrackers are heavily dependent on
their cached seeds for survival in winter and as food for their
offspring. Giuntoli and Mewaldt (1978) found that between 80 and
100% of the winter diet of nutcrackers was made up of conifer seeds,
most likely recovered from caches. Other foods are consumed, when
present, as the nutcracker becomes a feeding generalist during
warmer weather. Clark's nutcrackers are among the
earliest nesting species of North American birds initiating nesting
at high elevations in the San Francisco Peaks in February or early
March (Tomback, 1998). Early breeding may occur because of having
stored enough food to provide the energy and nutrients for this
early reproductive effort. To withstand the cold temperatures,
nutcrackers build large, sturdy, well insulated nests. Both males
and females have brood patches and can thus share in the duties of
incubating eggs and brooding nestlings. This also allows each member
of the pair to go off, individually, to locate its own pine seed
caches. The diet of nestling nutcrackers is almost exclusively
conifer seeds (Bendire, 1889; Johnson, 1900; Mewaldt, 1956). This is
a highly unusual food for nestling birds and requires a major
adaptive change in the digestive physiological of the birds to
produce specific digestive enzymes to digest these seeds. After
fledging, young birds follow their parents to caching areas where
they are also fed pine seeds. This event normally occurs 9-11 months
after the seeds have been stored (Vander Wall & Hutchins, 1983).
In late spring and early summer adult
nutcrackers are often seen far from their normal haunts. These birds
fly slowly just above the tips of trees. We suspect these birds are
assessing the location and size of the cone crop that will be
harvested in the coming months (RPB, pers. obs.). In years when cone crops fail
nutcrackers leave their high mountain haunts and fly long
distances in search of alternate foods. These irruptions take birds
hundreds of km from their normal range (Vander Wall et al., 1981;
Westcott, 1964). Thus, nutcrackers are highly specialized
in morphology, physiology, and behavior for the extraction,
transport, caching and recovery of conifer seeds and these
specializations form a suite of adaptations that extend into all
aspects of the bird's life history.
2. Pinyon Jay. (Figure 15)
Figure 15. Adult male (above), adult female (middle), and juvenile (lower)Pinyon pine with cones.
This species, as its name implies, is closely linked to the pinyon pine which lives that the base of the San Francisco Peaks.
In the San Francisco Peaks, however, these jays interact with most species
of pines across all Life Zones. They nest in the pinyon-juniper
woodland and ponderosa pine zones, where seeds are readily cached.
In fall, they also roam far above these zones in search of seeds.
Pinyon jays possess a number of adaptations for
harvesting, transporting, caching and recovering seeds. They have a
relatively long, sharp bill that is featherless at its base.
Consequently, the bird's nostrils are exposed and can be a source of
heat loss under cold conditions. However, the loss of these feathers
means that the featherless length of the bill is effectively
lengthened, an adaptation especially useful for extracting seeds
from pitch laden pine cones. The trade-off must be in favor of the
longer, feather-free bill compared to the amount of heat potentially
lost. The sharp bill is used to hack open closed pine cones and also
the hulls of pine seeds, thrust seeds into the soil, and probe into
the soil to recover hidden seeds. A special articulation of the jaw
allows birds to absorb the bill's impact during strong pounding
Seeds are held during transport in an expandable esophagus which
when full, can hold about 40 seeds. This amounts to about 12%
of its body weight (Vander Wall & Balda, 1981). Pinyon jays can distinguish between empty and full pinyon pine
seeds using the color of the seed coat. Pinyon pine seeds are also
"Bill Weighed" and "Bill Clicked" as done by nutcrackers (see above)
(Ligon & Martin, 1974). Cones can be opened on the tree branch or broken off and carried
and wedged tightly into a forked branch. When wedged in a fork, the
bird can grip the surrounding branches tightly with both feet and
forcibly hammer the cone open. Shredded cones commonly
accumulate under such sites.
Cone opening, seed harvesting, pouching, transporting, and
caching seeds is a flocking event. These behaviors are performed by
all members of the flock in synchrony. These flocks have
permanently mated pairs, stable membership, contain extended family
units, and remain on permanently delineated home ranges. Pine seeds are transported to
traditional caching areas that
are used year-after-year. Flocks have between 8 -10 of these traditional caching areas on their home ranges. These
"traditional" areas are often located where the substrate is loosely
packed, contains patches of exposed soil, rocks, and cinders, and
has a shallow litter layer. These characteristics indicate a well
drained soil (Balda, 1987, 2002). Flocks move in synchronous fashion from harvest to caching area
and can make between 5-9 round trips per day from harvesting to
caching areas depending on density of the cones, and distance from
the caching areas. Flocks may fly up to 11 km, on long strong wings,
between harvest and caching areas
Pinyon jays seem to favor specific microhabitats as cache
sites. They appear to prefer to cache near objects, including the
base of cliffs, large boulders and especially tree trunks, often on
the south side. These southern exposures are first to melt free of
snow or accumulate less snow following a winter storm (Balda &
Bateman, 1971, 1972). Jays however, have been observed digging
through a layer of snow 5 cm deep to recover caches. Pinyon jays use sites other than the substrate for caching.
Stotz and Balda (1995) found that 86% of 114 above ground cache
sites were crevices in tree bark. Other sites include in rock piles,
grass tuffs, and pine nettle clusters high in trees..
Caches are created as the flock walks slowly and silently over
the substrate. Birds continuously thrust their bill into the soil
and litter as they deposit one or more seeds per site (Stotz & Balda, 1995). A single bird can make a dozen caches in less than a
minute. Generally, flock members move in a particular
direction during caching but individual birds may move in any
direction. Pinyon jays normally place a single seed in a cache but
on occasion they may place up to seven seeds per cache. At
times, however, birds will thrust their bills into the substrate but
not deposit a seed. This if often referred to as false caching
(Balda, 2002) and may be a technique used to confuse potential intra-
and inter-specific cache pilferers. In a year when cone crops are dense, a single bird can cache up
to 26,000 seeds in up to 20,000 individual sites (Marzluff & Balda,
1992). Ligon (1978) estimated that a flock of 250 birds in New
Mexico could collectively cache 4.5 million seeds in a single autumn
when cone crops are heavy.
Although caches are made synchronously by the flock, field
observations (Balda & Bateman, 1969, 1971) suggest that birds
accurately recover their own caches. This is especially interesting
for pinyon jays because they: 1) cache within the structure of the
flock which means birds move in unison over the terrain when
creating caches, so individuals have little control over the general
area where they can cache; 2) have little time for individual
decisions about where to make specific caches because the flock is
always on the move; 3) make caches in rapid succession resembling
the needle of a sewing machine; 4) must be concerned with pilfering.
Young-of-the-year pinyon jays and adult Steller's jays often
watch intently as flock members are caching and then attempt to
locate their caches when they move on. Most attempts appear to fail,
but sometimes the bird that has created the cache will respond by
either chasing the potential pilferer away or digging up the cache
and moving it to a new location (RPB pers. obs.). Mated pairs of pinyon jays appear to coordinate their movements
during caching so that they can observe the creation of each others
caches (Chen, 2000; Shulzitski, 1999). These findings come solely from
laboratory studies. It is difficult to follow individual birds in a
flock because of the sheer numbers and continual movement, thus
these observations have not been confirmed for pairs in the wild.
Pinyon jays nest in late winter and early spring when cone crops
are large. Nests are large and well insulated, and often constructed
on the south side of the tree (Balda & Bateman, 1972). The
female is the sole incubator of the eggs as only she possesses a
brood patch. Males must feed their females during the incubation and
early brooding phase of nesting because of low temperatures. Adult
jays rely heavily on pine seeds in winter when they may constitute
between 70 and 90 percent of the diet (Ligon, 1978). At this time,
seeds are no longer present in cones so these seeds must come from
caches created by the birds. Males must procure and deliver these
seeds to the nesting female. Young pinyon jays are also feed pine
seeds as a portion of their diet. Bateman and Balda (1972) found
that pine seeds comprised 11% of the nestling's diet while Ligon
(1978) found pine seeds made up 32% of the diet. As mentioned
for nutcrackers, the ability of nestlings to digest plant material
is a rare adaptation in song birds, requiring major changes in the
digestive enzymes possessed by the birds. Juvenile birds first began caching when 3 weeks post-fledging.
For the first 9 weeks of caching young birds cached primarily
non-food items such as rotten pinyon and ponderosa pine seeds,
flakes of tree bark, rabbit scat, dead insects, and a roofing nail.
After 12 weeks of age jay began caching edible pine seeds (Stotz & Balda, 1995)
In years when pinyon pine cone crops are low, pinyon jays cache
seeds of the other pines, many of which have large wings. Birds are
efficient at removing the wing by holding the seed in there mouth
with the wing protruding directly outward and then knocking the wing
off on a branch or other object. This behavior differs from that of
the nutcracker which appears to simply bite off the wing (RPB, pers.
obs.) No detailed studies are available of the use of these
pines by pinyon jays. However, Balda and Bateman (1971) report that
pinyon jays are highly industrious in the harvest and caching of
ponderosa pine seeds. When there is a general failure of the pines to produce cones
pinyon jays may irrupt from their normal range and emigrate hundreds
of km in search of food (Westcott, 1964). These irruptions may
consist of huge numbers of birds or small bands of birds that scour
the country side for food (RPB pers. obs.).
3. Steller's Jays. (Figure 16)
Figure 16 Steller's Jay.
This species is a permanent
resident of the coniferous forest zones on the San Francisco Peaks.
It readily caches ponderosa and pinyon pine seeds in autumns when
cone crops are available. Steller's jays also cache acorns of local
oaks. This jay does not have a strong, sharply pointed bill
for opening green cones and thus must wait for cones to open before
it can extract seeds. It does have an expandable esophagus, for
about one-third of its length that can hold up to 20 seeds during
transport. Birds can carry seeds about 5 km (Vander
Wall & Balda, 1981) from pinyon pine trees in the woodland
and cache them in the ponderosa pine forest. This jay appears to
cache in small family units or pairs. Steller's jays appear highly
motivated to harvest and cache seeds. A single bird may make 5-7
trips with seeds per day between woodland and ponderosa pine forest.
Thus, at this intensity one bird can cache about 7,800 seeds per
When pinyon pine seeds are placed on a feeder
Steller's jays are quick to collect these seeds in their expandable
esophagus (RPB pers. obs.). Few studies have been done on their
relationship to pine seeds and acorns (Abbot, 1929;
Christensen & Whitham, 1991; Vander
Wall & Balda, 1981). At a feeding station where inedible (hollow) seeds were dyed
dark brown to make them look edible, these jays carried them off.
Steller's jays have never been seen to test the quality of seeds by
bill-clicking or bill weighing so it is possible they cannot
discriminate seeds as well as the above two species (Vander Wall & Balda,
1981). Steller's jays may be efficient cache robbers on
nutcrackers and pinyon jays, (Burnell & Tomback, 1985). When a
flock of pinyon jays comes through areas inhabited by Steller's jays
they sit silently in trees observing where pinyon jays are creating
Little is know about the caching and recovery behavior of
Steller's jays even though they share habitats with humans and
readily come to feeders and picnic tables to collect and carry off
seeds (Brown, 1994). In a year of heavy cone production Steller's
jays were observed to cache 46% of the time in soil, 22% of the time
in bark crevices, 18% of the time in rock and stump crevices, and in
ponderosa pine needle clusters 15%. Most often one seed is placed
per cache. (Vander Wall & Balda, 1981). Around dwellings birds will
cache under litter in gardens, in lawns, in tree crevices, in storm
gutters, under roofing shingles, in depressions and cracks in wood
siding and decks, and in cracks in sidewalks (RPB pers. obs.).
Steller's jays probably use their cached food solely for winter
survival as there are no reports of them feeding cached seeds or
acorns to nestlings. Possible all cached food is consumed before
nesting is initiated. No observations have been reported on the
accuracy of recovery of stored food in the wild. Observations near
homes would suggest the jay is quite accurate when recovering cached
food (RPB pers. obs.). Steller's jays nest in late April and early May. Thus, they show
no tendency for unusually early nesting and do not build
bulky, well insulated nests.
This bird has not been studied under closely controlled
laboratory conditions because it is extremely difficult to hold in
cages and aviaries (RPB pers. obs.). Consequently little is known
about its spatial memory abilities. However, the amount of food
stored, the presence of an expandable esophagus, and the amount of
time birds spend caching would suggest that the bird is readily able
to find the seeds it caches. This species does not nest in late winter, does not build a
large nest and does not feed its young pine seeds. Also, it does not
usually undergo huge irruptions when cone crops fail. Thus, many of
the Steller's jay's life history traits are not affected by the
presence or absence of pine seeds.
4. Mexican Jays (Figure 17) and Western Scrub Jays.
Figure 17. Photograph of Mexican Jay by
Photograph of Western Scrub Jay by D. Von Gausig.
These two species (Figures 17,
18), closely related congeners, are
permanent resident species in the pinyon-juniper woodland on and
at the base of the San Francisco Peaks. Both species harvest and
cache pinyon pine seeds from open cones. The western scrub-jay
is the most common species in the woodland habitat and may
maintain permanent, year round territories occupied by a single
pair of birds. The Mexican jay is highly social with 5-25 birds
occupying permanent territories (Brown, 1994). Neither
species posses any specialized structures for the collecting,
transporting, caching or recovery of pine seeds. Scrub jay
bills, for example are relatively short (x = 19.6 mm, n = 20),
rather blunt, and therefore relatively poorly adapted for
opening green cones (Balda, 1987).Scrub jays that cache pinyon
pine seeds have slightly more pointed, but rather thin bills,
used for extracting seeds from open pine cones, holding the
seeds during transport and thrusting seeds into the substrate
Neither species is able to open green
cones and must wait for cones to ripen. Scrub jays have been
observed silently watching nutcrackers and pinyon jays opening green
cones then flying rapidly at them while vocalizing loudly. The
startled birds drop the partly opened cones and fly up into the
trees. Scrub jays proceed to retrieve the cone and extract the
exposed seeds (Vander Wall & Balda, 1981). These jays have no specialized
structure for carry seeds from tree to cache site except in mouth
and bill. Consequently they can only carry 3-5 seeds per trip. These
jays do not have strong long wings, but relatively short rounded
ones. They usually carry pinyon pine seeds no more than 500 m to 1
km. Scrub jays do possess the buttress complex which makes the lower
mandible effective for pounding open hard shelled seeds (Zusi,
Both species may be able to distinguish
good (dark brown hulled) seeds from empty (yellow hulled) seeds but
they are not known to bill click or bill weigh seeds. Both species usually cache one seed per
cache and make repeated caches within one m of each other. Cache
sites are primarily along edges of trees and stumps and under dense
foliage. Of 62 observed caches made by scrub jays, 29 were under
pinyon pine trees, 8 were under junipers, 8 were near a bush, 3 were
near logs, and 14 were out in open meadows (Hall & Balda,
unpublished MS). The majority of caches placed under trees were
south of the trunk. These observations indicate that scrub jays have
a set of preferred caching sites that are frequently used.
Scrub jays and Mexican jays nest in late
April and early May, showing no tendency to nest earlier when cone
crops are heavy. Neither species builds a large well insulated nest,
nor is known to feed pine seeds to its nestlings. These two species are the most general
feeders in the group and although they store pine seeds in autumn
they are not as motivated as the nutcracker, pinyon and Steller's
jay. Scrub jays store about 6,000 seeds in an autumn when the cone
crop is large. They do not spend every waking moment harvesting,
transporting and caching pine seeds. If the did so they could easily
double the number of seeds cached (Balda, 1987). This is so because
they transport seeds relatively short distances compared to the
other species, and have many more snow-free days to cache. These two jays do not undergo major
eruptive movements when cone crops fail. This may be an indication
that these species are not as heavily dependent on cached food as
the nutcracker and pinyon jay.
The corvids of the San Francisco Peak region show an ecological,
morphological and behavioral gradient in their adaptations for the
harvest, transport, and storage of pine seeds. Ecologically,
species living in the harshest environments where winter
productivity is nil are most dependent on cached seeds during
winter, whereas species living where winter is milder are less
dependent on cached seeds. Morphological features that show this
pattern include bill size and shape (Figure 19), the structures used
to carry seeds, and variation in wing length and shape for
long, flights. Behaviorally, the number of seeds that can be
transported is highly correlated with the distance they are carried
(Figure 20), and the presence of a specialized structure for doing
so. The Clark's nutcracker and pinyon jay, the two species living at
the highest elevations, cache huge numbers of seeds compared to the
two jays that inhabit the lower, warmer woodlands. Of the five
species discussed above only nestling nutcrackers and pinyon jays
are equipped to digest pinyon pine seeds. The scrub jay and
Mexican jay do not show the same levels of intensity to harvest
seeds as is shown by the nutcracker and pinyon jay.
Figure 19. Bill sizes and shapes of four seed caching corvids.
Figure 20. The relationship of distance seeds are transported and average
number of seeds carried. Nutcracker is far right, Western Scrub
jay far left, Steller's jay, second from left with pinyon jay in
There can be no doubt that these birds
have an adaptive suite of characteristics for the harvest,
transport, and caching of seeds. The components of this adaptive
suite vary depending on the selective forces present in the Life
Zones each species inhabits, and the life history strategy employed
by each species. The four species show a clear specialization
gradient from more highly specialized species, to more generalist
Figure 21. Distribution of four species on San Francisco Peaks. The
hypothesis is listed on the left side.
The phenomenon we described above makes it clear that there is a
complex interaction of natural history and ecology on the one hand,
and behavior and physiology on the other. While these
phenomena strongly suggest that the ability to find stored food is
critical for the survival of these species, they do little to
explain how the different species manage to perform the
extraordinary task of relocating hidden seeds from thousands of
sites months after they were created. However, the pattern in
behavioral and physiological traits strongly suggests a similar
pattern may exist in certain cognitive traits. This led us
(Balda & Kamil 1989; Kamil & Balda, 1990) to propose the
following hypothesis: Species that are
most dependent on cached seeds for survival in winter and early
spring when no other foods are available will have better spatial
memory abilities than those species that are less dependent on
stored food for winter survival.
More specifically, we predicted that Clark's nutcrackers and
pinyon jays have spatial memory abilities that are superior to those
of scrub jays and Mexican jays (Figure 21). Findings to
support this hypothesis will strongly support the suggestion that
spatial memory ability is another trait in the adaptive arsenal
employed by species to enhance their fitness.
Although field observations suggest an accurate spatial memory in seed cachers,
these observations are incomplete because simply observing the act of
recovering a cache is inconclusive. The observer does not know the
identity of the recovering bird, what bird made the cache, how long the cache
was present, if the seeds were visually apparent to the bird, if the soil was
disturbed in such a manner to suggest that a cache of seeds was present at this
location, etc. Also, most birds are highly secretive when creating caches and
avoid making caches when being observed. Pinyon jays are an exception, but they
cache at such a rapid rate it is almost impossible to keep track of their cache
sites. They also create false caches which makes finding their caches very
difficult. Consequently, in order to study the accuracy of spatial memory for
finding cached seeds, it was necessary to develop laboratory techniques that
could control or hold constant many potentially intervening variables. Below we
will describe our methods in detail.
When using controlled laboratory experiments to explore species differences in
mental capabilities there are many potential problems. Species may respond
differently to the experimental apparatus, or to the stimuli used to elicit a
response. Also, some species may simply be able to adjust to captivity or to
the experimental manipulations better than others. In addition, some species
may simply be better test takers than others. In our attempt to overcome these
potential problems we employed three different experimental paradigms, in a
process referred to as converging operations (Kamil, 1988). If the pattern of
results across species remains consistent over these three different tests, we
can then be more confident of the reality of these species differences than we
could on the basis of a single task.
Photograph of large experimental room. Note objects on
the floor and wall.
Figure 23. Distribution of holes
in experimental room.
In order to directly
test for accuracy of spatial memory when recovering caches we
conducted a series of experiments in large free-flying, experimental
rooms. These rooms contained raised floors with holes at regularly
spaced distances (Figure 22, 23). Each hole was 5.5 cm in diameter
and could be filled with a sand-filled cup for caching or a wooden
plug to prevent caching. These rooms contained many landmarks,
posters on the wall, observations windows, a porthole through which
the bird entered and exit the room, a door, and a centrally located
feeder. Because the experimental rooms were designed to
enhance the internal validity (Kamil, 1988) of our experiments there
was a question if the birds would cache in the sand-filled cups
Clark's nutcracker caching in a sand filled cup.
Birds were captured
from the wild and tested in numerous experiments. Birds were of
unknown age and sex. Nutcrackers, pinyon
jays and Mexican Jays were housed individually in 0.51 x 0.51 x 0.72
m metal cages. All birds were held on a 10:14 hr light:dark cycle.
They were fed a daily diet of pigeon pellets, meal worms (Tenebrio
larva), sunflower seeds, turkey starter, cracked corn, and a vitamin
supplement. They had constant access to ground oyster shell and
fresh water. Between experiments birds were also fed a ration of
pinyon pine seeds. During experiments, however, these seeds were
withheld and used as the experimental stimuli. Before each caching
and recovery session, birds were deprived of all food for 24 hr.
Scrub jays, because of their smaller size were housed in smaller
cages but all other conditions were the same as described.
During experiments birds were allowed to enter the experimental
room directly from their cages through a porthole in the wall.
Before entering the room the cages were darkened and the
experimental room was illuminated. Birds thus flew into the lighted
room. After a session was completed the lights in the room were
extinguished and the cage illuminated. The birds then left the
experimental room and flew directly through the porthole into
their cages. Thus, birds were not handled before, during or after an
experiment. For caching sessions a predetermined number of holes
were opened and were filled with sand in a predetermined pattern. A
feeder was placed in the center of the room and contained a
predetermined number of pinyon pine seeds. For recovery sessions all
signs of digging in the sand-filled holes was swept up from the
floor, one seed was placed into cups where caches had been made, and
the feeder was empty. There were no signs of digging or presence of
seeds in the cups that the birds could have used as cues to locate
Figure 25. Mean accuracy for three species of seed caching birds in the
15 and 90 hole conditions of the experiment.
Figures 26, 27, 28. Diagram of
the distribution of cache sites used by a pinyon jay, a
nutcracker, and a western scrub jay in the 90 hole condition.
This test of spatial memory was conducted in a 3.4 x 3.4 m
experimental room with 180 holes in the raised floor. The accuracy
of recovery was tested under two conditions. In one condition 90
holes were available for caching and in the other condition only 15
holes were opened for caching. The rationale for this two stage
design was to assess the accuracy of the three species after they
the birds were given free choice of cache placement so that a
placement strategy could have been employed (90 hole condition).
This accuracy can then be compared to that achieved after severely
limiting the number of available cache sites (15 hole condition).
Under this condition a cache site placement strategy would be
severely inhibited. Seven days after making caches birds were
allowed back into the experimental room to recover their caches.
Accuracy was assessed as the proportion of holes probed that
contained a seed.
In most of the recovery trials birds preformed better than
chance (40 out of 42) and all three species performed better in the
90 hole condition than they did in the 15 hole condition.
Nutcrackers and pinyon jays were significantly more accurate than
scrub jays in both conditions (Figure 25). There was no significant
difference between nutcrackers and pinyon jays in recovery accuracy.
Pinyon jays appeared to be most affected by the 15 vs. 90 hole
condition. During the 90 hole condition they placed their caches in
conspicuous clumps. The average distance between caches was 0.81 m
for pinyon jays, 1.22 m for nutcrackers and 1.5 m for scrub jays.
These results support our hypothesis that recovery accuracy is a
function of the ecology and natural history of the species being
investigated. Nutcrackers and pinyon jays which have morphological,
and physiological adaptations for this behavior and are also most
dependent on their cached seeds for winter survival and
reproduction, performed significantly better than scrub jays. However, pinyon jays could have used a nonmnemonic technique
such as area restricted search to find their caches. If caches are
placed in all available cups in a cluster then birds need to only
search in this small restricted area. The clumping of caches may be
a result of the social nature of pinyon jays as they cache as a
social unit (Figure 26, 27, 28).
Because of this, they may be prone
to place caches close together as their movements may be restricted
by the presence of other group members. In nature pinyon jays appear
to place caches close to one another (RPB pers. obs.). In a follow up experiment (Romonchuk, 1995) allowed nutcrackers
and pinyon jays to create 25 caches in 330 sand filled cups in the
floor of a large experimental room (9.1 x 15.3 x 2.8m) The mean intercache distance was measured by averaging the intercache
distances between all possible unique pairs of caches. Mean
intercache distance was significantly closer for pinyon jays (mean =
2.66 m) than for nutcracker (x = 3.86). These results corroborate
the findings of the first experiment.
This experiment set out to test if
pinyon jay cache recovery accuracy was dependent on placing caches
close together so an area restricted search pattern can be used
rather than employing spatial memory. This was a follow up to A1.
The experiment was conducted in the
large room in which the floor contained 330 holes. This experiment
used two unique sets of holes chosen from the 330 holes available.
In one condition, 72 evenly spaced holes were opened and in the
other 36 evenly spaced holes were opened. Birds were allowed to make
15 caches. In the former condition the jays could clump caches but
the in the latter condition clumping should have been prevented.
If birds use area restricted search to locate caches than accuracy
should be higher during recovery in the 72-hole condition than in
the 36 hole condition. Mean intercache distances were not
significantly different between the two conditions but was smaller
for the 72-hole condition (mean = 3.62) than for the 36-hole
condition (mean = 4.01). However, both of these distances are much
greater than the distances found by Balda and Kamil (1989) and
described above for all three species.
Accuracy was measured using a single
cache recovery attempt procedure (SCRAP) developed by Kamil and
Balda (1990). During recovery sessions caches were presented to the
bird as a series of clusters. Each cluster consisted of four holes
arranged in a square. The cache was one of the holes in this square.
The other three holes had not been cached in. The number of probes
that were used to find a cache within a cluster could vary from zero
(found cache on first probe) to three (found cache on fourth probe
after probing the three none-caching holes. If a bird was probing at
random the mean number of errors would be 1.5. For each cluster
containing a cache site another cluster was opened but did not
contain a cache site. Thus, during recovery birds had a choice of
which cluster to visit (those with a cache site imbedded and those
without cache sites) and which hole to probe within a cluster (hole
with seeds or hole without seed).
Pinyon jays performed impressively under
both conditions making about 0.75 errors per cluster. There was no
significant difference in accuracy between the two conditions. Birds
also visited good clusters significantly sooner than they visited
bad clusters. This experiment provides strong evidence that it is
not necessary for pinyon jays to place their caches in clumps and
then use area restricted search to find them. Pinyon jays have
precise spatial memories for the location of their caches.
Figure 29. Mean errors per cluster for the four species of corvids at
retention intervals of 50, 100,
150, 200 and 250 days.
Above we have shown that nutcrackers and pinyon jays have better
spatial memory than scrub jays. These finding however, are for
relatively short durations. In fact, much shorter than those
expected in nature (based on the natural history observations
presented earlier). In this experiment we asked if the duration of
memory for cache sites varied among the four species. Earlier
research (Balda & Kamil, 1992) indicated that Clark's nutcrackers
accurately remembered the location of caches sites for up to 285
days. Here we tested nutcrackers, pinyon jays, Mexican jays and
scrub jays for recovery accuracy at 10, 60, 150,and 250 days after
caching. The SCRAP procedure (describe above) with cache sites
imbedded in a cluster of 6 open holes in a 2 x 3 rectangle was used.
Chance performance would thus be 2.5 errors per recovery.
Nutcrackers and pinyon jays were highly accurate at the 10 and 60
day interval but only modestly accurate at intervals of 150 and 250
days. The scrub jays and Mexican jays performed at above chance
levels at all intervals but were generally less accurate than the
former species. (Figure 29). A species by interval ANOVA of
the mean number of errors, showed that nutcrackers and pinyon jays did not
differ significantly from each other, and the scrub and Mexican jay did not differ significantly from each other, but the
two groups differed significantly. Thus, these results support the
hypothesis that species most dependent on their caches to survive
the winter and for reproduction have more accurate spatial memory
than species less dependent on their caches.
Although the comparative tests of spatial memory reveal that the species more
dependent on their caches for survival and reproduction than less dependent
species, these differences might be due to the effects of contextual variable
that could result in this consistent pattern of species differences. As
mentioned above, one or more species might be better suited for this type of
research paradigm than other species. Also, is this spatial memory gradient
limited to cache recovery or can this ability be generalized to other tests of
spatial memory? To address these potential problems, we conducted a series of
spatial memory experiments using procedures other than direct tests of cache
recovery (Kamil, 1988).
Figure 30. Photograph of radial arm experimental room.
Figure 31. Comparative Radial
Maze. Performance of the four species of seed caching corvids during acquisition of the radial maze experiment.
This experiment was carried out in a
small room (3.6 x 3.2m) where birds could fly free as they searched
for seeds. The raised floor contained 12 holes arranged in a circle
(Figure 30). Numerous objects were present on the floor and
posters were hung on the walls. Birds entered and exited the room through a porthole in the
wall. Members of each species were habituated to the room and
learned to dig for seeds in holes that were filled with sand. After
habituation birds were given 60 acquisition trials. Each trial
consisted of three parts, a pre-retention stage, a retention
interval, and a post retention stage. During the pre-retention stage
the room contained four randomly selected open holes. Each hole
contained a carefully buried seed. The bird entered the room and
proceeded to harvest and eat the seeds. This stage continued until
the bird found and ate the four food rewards. The bird then departed
the room and the retention interval started. During the retention
interval the room was swept clean of all signs of digging, and four
additional holes were opened and a seed buried in each. After the
five minute retention interval the bird was allowed
back into the room. The room now contained eight open holes, the
four original holes that the bird had previously emptied and the
four newly opened holes. Only the newly opened holes contained
seeds. During the post-retention stage the bird remained in the room
until it located the four food rewards or it made six probes. For
each bird to perform accurately it had to remember the four holes it
had visited during the pre-retention stage, avoid them, and visit the
newly opened holes. A different set of randomly selected holes were
used daily. Trials were run six days per week. During the 60
acquisition trials, all four species initially had similar levels of
performance, but they rapidly diverged (Figure 31). Nutcrackers and pinyon jays learned the task faster and performed more accurately
than the western and Mexican jay.
These results compliment our earlier
findings about dependence and spatial memory. They also show
that spatial memory is general and not simply a specialization for
finding hidden food caches made by an individual. What other
tasks these species with highly accurate and robust spatial memory
can perform is unknown at the present time. However, the
possibilities are numerous and potentially exciting.
Test of spatial memory in an operant
chamber strips away most all environmental influences from the
organisms taking the test, and allows exacting control of the
subject and the stimuli. Thus, this task allows us to enhance and
maximize the intrinsic validity of the experiment (Kamil, 1988). For
example, birds are rewarded when they peck at the correct spot when
illuminated. This is a huge difference from pecking at a spot in the
ground where a cache has been previously created.
Olson (1991) found that nutcrackers out
performed western scrub jays in this type of task. The present
experiment was designed to extend those findings and also to
determine if the species differences we had observed in other tasks
were also present in nonspatial tasks. In the nonspatial task, birds were
asked if they could remember a color in order to receive a food
reward. The experiment was conducted in an operant chamber with a
computer monitor at one end and a pecking key and feeder at the
other. Trials were initiated when an illuminated spot appeared in
the middle of the monitor. The spot was either red or green, chosen
randomly for each trial. When the bird pecked this spot, the screen
became clear. Now, a yellow light was illuminated behind the key.
The bird now was required to go to the rear of the chamber and
pecked the yellow light causing it to extinguish. At this time two
lights were illuminated on the monitor, one red and one green. Now,
when two pecks were delivered to either color, the trial was ended.
A trial was considered correct, and a food reward given, if the bird
choice the new color. The bird was required to remember what color
it had seen and pecked during the initial part of the trial and then
avoid that color and peck the alternate color during the final stage
of the trial. This type of test is known as a non-matching to sample
After the birds learned to perform this
test we wanted to determine how long the birds could remember the
color presented during the first portion of the trial. To do this we
introduced a titration procedure. A retention interval was added
between the first peck at the illuminated color on the monitor and
the final choice test. This retention interval increased when the
bird made a correct choice and decreased when the bird made an
incorrect response. A correct response caused the retention interval
to increase by 0.1 seconds and an incorrect response caused the
retention interval to decline by 0.2 seconds.
Figure 32. Performance of each species during color memory nonmatching-to-sample titration.
The results of this experiment were
unambiguous and did NOT correlate with our earlier findings. Species
most dependent on cached food did not perform more accurately than
species less dependent on hidden food. None of the species
differences were statistically significant (Figure 32).
However, the speed of acquisition and retention interval did appear to be correlated withsocial organization. The best performance was
by pinyon jays and Mexican jays. Both species live in permanent
social groups. The worst performance was by nutcrackers and scrub
jays that have a more solitary life style. Sociality may require
certain types of cognitive abilities not found in non-social species
(Balda et al., 1996).
Immediately after the above experiment
was finished we placed these same birds into another, almost
identical test. This time, however, they were tested for spatial
memory rather than for color memory. All details of the experiment
remained the same, however, when the monitor was first illuminated
one of two locations, chosen at random, lit up. Then during the
choice phase of the test two identical spots were illuminated. One
of the spots was at the exact location on the monitor where the
initial spot had appeared. The second spot occurred at a new
location. Again employing the non-matching to sample paradigm,
the novel location was the correct one. This time very different
results emerged. Clark's nutcrackers were far superior to the three
species of jays, thus duplicating the findings of Olson for
nutcrackers and scrub jays. These findings are consistent with the
results from radial maze and cache recovery tests. It is, however,
the first test to demonstrate a difference between nutcrackers and
pinyon jays as the latter specie's performance could not be
separated from that of the scrub and Mexican jay.
The results of these tests are
particularly important as they allow us to rule out some alternative
explanations for the species differences we found in spatial memory
tests. We can eliminate explanations such as general intelligence or
general adaptability or compatibility to laboratory experimental
procedures. If any of the above factors were involved, then we
should have found the same rank order of species differences in the
non-matching to sample color test as we found in spatial tests. We
Figures 33, 34, 35. Accuracy of
caching and observing pinyon jays, Mexican jays, and Clark's
nutcrackers when recovering caches. Observer is recovering
caches made by the cacher.
In the wild, pinyon jays and Mexican
jays live in integrated flocks and may cache together as a unit each
fall when pine cones ripen. In contrast, Clark's nutcrackers cache
either as single individuals, pairs, or small family groups. We
asked if the three seed caching species had the ability to locate
caches made by conspecifics. We hypothesized that species
differences may occur that reflect their social life style. If so
then pinyon jays and Mexican jays should be able to locate caches
made by flock members but nutcrackers should not.
To test this hypothesis we used a small
caching room (3.7 x 3.4 m) with 237 holes in a raised floor. Twenty
holes contained a sand-filled cups were available for caching. A
bowl with 70 pinyon pine seeds was placed on the floor. One caged
bird was placed on a 1 m high platform in the center of the room. A
second bird was allowed into the room to cache in the 20 holes.
After caches were created both birds were removed from the room for
24 hrs. During this time all signs of digging were swept up and one
seed was placed into each cache site. Cachers and observers were now
allowed to individually recover caches in the room. Pinyon jay and Mexican jay observers
were just as accurate as their respective cachers (Figures 33,
34, 35). Nutcracker observers, however, were not accurate at
locating caches made by the cachers, even though the cachers
themselves were the most accurate of the three species when locating
caches they had made (Figure 38). These results support our
hypothesis that social species may have the ability to locate caches
made by conspecifics and therefore must take special precautions
when creating caches to avoid being detected.
These findings also raised some
interesting mechanistic issues. This experiment demonstrates that
neither traveling to a specific cache site nor creating a particular
cache are necessary for locating that cache. These findings also
show that pinyon jays and Mexican jays are not simply matching the
view from the cache site during caching because they never cached at
these sites. Also, birds did not follow a particular route to the
cache site. If so, they would have landed on the platform where
their cage was originally located and then preceded to the cache
site. These results suggest that the evolution of caching behavior
may have been different for social and nonsocial species and
suggests a number of studies with other caching species, i.e. the
relatively nonsocial western scrub jays and the closely related but
social Florida scrub jays.
Clearly, the ability of Clark's
nutcrackers (and other seed-caching birds) to relocate their
cache sites is remarkable, and based on spatial memory. But
this raises a very interesting question: When a nutcracker is
searching for stored pine seeds, exactly how does it recognize that
a particular location is a cache site? That is, exactly what
is it about that location that the nutcracker has encoded and
remembered? This question is particularly compelling given the
precision with which they return to a specific location that has no
marker or beacon, sometimes even digging through snow to find seeds
(Crocq, 1978). Nutcracker caches are often located in the
middle of open meadows with few local features (Tomback, 1977, 1980;
Vander Wall & Balda, 1981). There are landmarks (henceforth
abbreviated "LMs"), but many of them are distant from the cache
sites, and there is usually no surface feature identifying the cache
site within the surrounding terrain. Yet the nutcracker
lands on the spot and digs up seeds that it buried months ago.
Its bill is a relatively small shovel, requiring it to dig within a
few centimeters of the buried seeds, which are themselves quite
small. Indeed, Bednekoff and Balda (1997) demonstrated that
nutcrackers are extremely accurate when they use response topography
of vertical head movements, with little side-to-side motion, for
Although these characteristics of cache
recovery imply that nutcrackers navigate with exceptional accuracy,
little is known about how the task is accomplished, except that it
is based on the location of LMs. Balda (1980), Vander
Wall (1982), and Balda and Turek (1984) showed that if LMs are either
removed or shifted between caching and recovery, accuracy of seed
recovery deteriorates markedly, to chance levels in some cases.
This suggests that the geometry of the relationships among LMs and
cache positions might affect search behavior.
Kamil, Balda, and Good (1999) analyzed
videotapes of caching and recovery to try to understand how
movements during caching were related to those during cache
recovery. Among caching behaviors quantified were time spent
and number of probes at individual sites and the compass direction
used to approach and leave the site. There was no evidence
that any of these measures correlated with recovery accuracy.
Especially important in its implications for LM use, birds recovered
caches very quickly and accurately when approaching or probing the
cache site from a completely different direction than that used
during caching. Consistency of direction of approach was
completely unrelated to recovery accuracy. Because the birds'
view of the LMs in the room varies with the direction of movement,
this suggests that, as implied by Basil (1993), multiple
relationships between goal locations and LM arrays were being used.
We then began a series of studies using
what has been called the transformational design (Cheng & Spetch,
1998), a powerful technique for investigating LM use.
Animals are first trained to find a hidden goal (such as a buried
piece of food) located at a fixed place relative to an array of LMs.
During training, the LM array is presented in different locations
(but with constant relationships among the LMs within the array) to
ensure that the LM array is the only feature that accurately
predicts goal location. Once the animal has learned to find
the goal, occasional trials are conducted with the goal absent and
the LM array transformed in some way. Response to the
transformation is used to infer how the LM array is being used.
Gould-Beierle and Kamil (1996) examined
how nutcrackers integrated information when a landmark was located
near an edge. Like the pigeons and black-capped chickadees studied
by Cheng and Sherry (1992), nutcrackers responded more to shifts in LM
position that were parallel to the edge than to shifts perpendicular
to the edge. In two subsequent studies (Gould-Beierle & Kamil,
1998, 1999) , we found that global cues had more control over search
when local cues were further from the goal. This
extends previous work suggesting that cues close to a goal location
can exercise more control over search than LMs further away (e.g.,
Cheng et al., 1987; Morris, 1981; Spetch, 1995).
The transformational approach has been
applied to the question of how many LMs are remembered. A
location of an object in space can usually be defined in multiple
ways. For example, consider a cache site located in a meadow
within 6 m of three big rocks. The cache location could be
defined in terms of its distance and direction from any one of the
rocks, or in terms of its directional relationship to any two of the
rocks, or its distance from one rock and direction from another,
etc. Thus, it is logically possible to use only a single
LM to define and remember a goal location. And the phenomenon
known as overshadowing suggests that this may be the case, at least
under certain circumstances.
In a typical overshadowing experiment,
animals are trained to find a goal whose position is defined by a
set of LMs whose distance from the goal varies, and are the tested
during occasional probe trials with only a single LM present.
The accuracy of search during the probe trials. Several
studies with pigeons have found that search is most accurate when
the LM present during the probe trial is that LM that was located
closest to the goal during training (Cheng, 1988; Spetch,1995).
However, these experiments employed landmarks that were very close
to the goal location and the results may not generalize to the use
of more distant landmarks. Furthermore, the results of several
studies with nutcrackers indicate that these birds remember the
spatial relationships amongst multiple LMs and a goal location.
For example, Vander Wall (1982)
had nutcrackers cache seeds in a large outdoor aviary. Then,
during recovery sessions, LMs in one part of the aviary were shifted
20 cm east, with seeds remaining in their original locations.
In the area in which LMs were shifted, the birds' search was also
shifted east by 20 cm. But on the edge of that area, where
some LMs had been shifted and others had not, search was
intermediate between the shifted and nonshifted locations. The
birds must have been averaging information from different LMs.
In another instance, Basil (1993) used
nutcrackers with a technique similar to Bennett (1993) with European
jays. Birds were trained to find a goal location defined by a
LM array that was presented in many different locations and
orientations within the test room. LMs in the array varied in
size and distance from the goal. Probe trials with some LMs
removed showed that large, close LMs were more important than
smaller ones further away from the goal, as in Bennett (1993).
However, Basil conducted a more extensive set of probe tests than
Bennett (1993), obtaining clear evidence that the nutcrackers
learned multiple rules for locating the goal. Basil had 9 LMs
in her array, and tested for ability to find the goal with various
sets of 3 LMs each. Although the birds performed better with
some arrays than others, they could find the goal regardless of
which set of three LMs was present. Clearly, they had learned
more than one small set of the available goal-LM relationships.
(This result was different from that of Bennett, who found that only
the two tall LMs nearest the goal controlled search. This may
be a species difference but is more likely due to Bennett's placing
these LMs only 30 cm from the goal, producing an overshadowing'
effect (Spetch, 1995). Basil used distances of 40-60cm.)
A recent study by Goodyear and Kamil
(2004) examined overshadowing and the effects of goal-LM distance in
nutcrackers. Three groups of Clark's nutcrackers were
trained to find a goal location defined by a landmark array.
Each group was trained with an array of four LMs, with the goal
located in the midst of the array. The different groups were
trained with arrays that varied in the goal-LM distances (Figure
Figure 36. Diagram of landmark array for the three
experimental groups of Goodyear and Kamil (2004). Gray circles represent landmarks while black
circles represent the goal location. Goal-landmark
distances are labeled for each landmark. Lines are not
drawn to scale.
These goal-LM distances were chosen so
that the effects of both relative and absolute goal-landmark
distance could be assessed. All three groups readily learned
the task and were subsequently tested in probe tests with only
single landmarks from the array available. Search error in
tests with landmarks the same distance away from the goal was
compared across groups where only the relative position of the
landmarks varied. When the LM array was located relatively
close to the goal, overshadowing occurred, and only that LM closest
to the goal resulted in accurate search. As the goal-LM
distance of the array increased, however, this effect diminished.
Thus the results of this study indicate that multiple LMs are more
likely to be simultaneously encoded when goal-LM distances are
Figure 37. Mean total error in single landmark tests for each group. Error
bars represent standard error.
The next step in the development of our
thinking about the use of LMs during cache recovery was provided by
a study by Kamil and Jones (1997) that suggest that directional
evidence is emphasized when the goal-LM distance is relatively
great. Nutcrackers were trained to dig for a seed hidden
halfway between two LMs. Five interLM training distances were
used. The birds readily learned the task, generalizing to new
distances interpolated between training distances. Detailed
analysis of the distribution of search behavior showed the birds
were very accurate with both the interLM distances with which they
were trained and the new interLM distances (Figure 37).
The nutcrackers appeared to have learned
a general principle, although the exact nature of that principle
remained to be specified. These results have been extended in
several additional studies. Kamil and Jones (2000) showed that the
birds could learn and generalize geometric rules other than halfway,
while Jones and Kamil (2001) found that the birds could learn the
geometry of arrays that were rotated during training. However,
the most important result regarding the general use of LMs was an
unanticipated feature of the data from the halfway learning
experiment. Error in judging distance from a LM increased more
rapidly than error in judging direction as goal-LM distance
Because the birds had been trained to
find a goal that was located on the line connecting the two LMs, it
was possible to measure distance error and direction error
separately. Simply put, error in the axis of the line from
goal to LM reflects error in the estimation of the distance to the
LM while error in the axis perpendicular to that line reflects error
in the judgment of direction from goal to LM. Furthermore, as
the axes are perpendicular, the estimates are independent. We
have repeatedly found that the functions relating search error to
goal-LM distance are ions relating search error to goal-LM distance
are very different for distance and direction estimation (Kamil &
Jones, 1997, 2000). The problem of locating a point on a line
has two components: locating the LM-LM line and finding the correct
position along it. These are problems in direction and
distance estimation, respectively. When the search error of
birds trained to find a point on the LM-LM line was partitioned into
the two appropriate axes, we have always found that error in each
axis increases as goal-LM distance increases, but with much steeper
slope in the distance than the direction axis (Figure 38). This
suggests that when the LMs that control search are far from the
goal, information about the direction from goal to LM will produce
more accurate search than information about the distance from the
goal to the LM.
Figure 38. As the distance between the landmarks increased from 60 to 105 cm, distance and direction error both increased, but the rate of increase was greater for distance error.
However, when the direction error was calculated in degrees, it
did not change as interlandmark distance increased.
This conclusion raises the question of
how search accuracy can be achieved in the face of error in the
compass used for the estimation of direction. The task of
locating a buried seed calls for a high degree of accuracy. A
compass with an error of measurement of 1% will induce an error of
"6.3 cm in search location when the goal is 1 m from the LM (and an
additional "6.3 cm for each additional meter of goal-LM distance).
Kamil and Cheng (2001) suggested that the use of multiple LMs
provides a powerful way to reduce the effects of error in
directional estimation and achieve precise search. If the
direction from the goal to each of a number of different LMs is the
primary information in the representation of the goal location,
these multiple bearings can be used to overcome inaccuracies caused
by compass errors.
Suppose a goal location has been encoded
in terms of n bearings, one to each of n different LMs. What
happens to search accuracy as n increases, given error in the
compass used to determine bearings? The information provided
by increases in n can decrease search error. Consider n = 2.
In most cases (it depends on the angular separation of LMs) there
will be two intersecting bearings. However, if there is
compass error, the point of intersection will not be at the goal and
there will be no information available about size or direction of
the error. Now consider n = 3. In many cases, the three
bearings will describe a triangle, whose size will contain
information about magnitude of the compass error.
Kamil and Cheng (2001) investigated this
issue with a Monte Carlo simulation in which the compass measurement
of bearing to each LM was given a random error of "2%. Search
accuracy decreased significantly as n, the number of LMs encoded,
increased. In fact, search error was reduced by 35% by
increasing the number of LMs being used from two to four.
There can be little doubt that increasing the number of LMs
represented in directionally based encoding can dramatically
increase search accuracy.
Based on these empirical results and
their simulation, Kamil and Cheng (2001) proposed the
multiple-bearings hypothesis: goal locations that are relatively far
from LMs will be remembered in terms of the directional bearings
from the goal to each of several LMs. This hypothesis makes
many specific predictions. Search accuracy should increase as
the number of available LMs increases, which was confirmed by Kamil,
Cheng, and Goodyear (2001), and should be sensitive to the detailed
geometrical relationships among the available LMs and the goal.
As of this writing, several studies are underway testing predictions
of the model in Clark's nutcrackers.
Evidence from several experiments
suggests that when caching in the field, nutcrackers, pinyon jays
and scrub jays do use a compass based on the sun as one of their
sources of directional information. It is well known that migratory
birds use a number of different compasses, including the sun
compass, to find their way during migration (Wiltschko & Wiltschko,
1998), and this ability may also be present in non-migratory seed
Wiltschko and Balda (1989), Balda and Wiltschko (1991), and Wiltschko, Balda, Jahnel,
and Wiltschko (1999)
studied the role of the sun compass in Clark's nutcrackers, pinyon
jays and scrub jays in a series of cache recovery experiments.
An octagonal outdoor aviary with a diameter of 4.90 m served as the
experimental chamber. The floor of the aviary was divided into eight
pie-shaped segments, each containing six holes that could be filled
with a sand-filled cup for caching or a wooden plug that prevented
caching. This aviary was placed within a courtyard surrounded by
four high buildings of different heights and shapes, each having a
unique set of window and door patterns.
Birds were habituated to this aviary and
then allowed to create between one and four caches in 12 holes
contained in two adjacent segments of the floor. These two segments
are referred to as the caching sectors and were varied among birds
and tests. After caching, birds were removed from the aviary and
placed in their home cage in a light-tight holding room. For
all recovery sessions all 48 holes were opened and one seed was
placed into each cup the birds had cached in. The experiments were
performed in the following manner:
1. Control 1: Each bird was allowed to recover the seeds it had
cached 4-7 days earlier. The location of all probes in this control
served as a reference for comparison with the manipulated sessions.
2. Six hour slow clock shift. After caching each bird was
returned to its home cage and its internal clock was reset 6 hrs.
slow. Now the artificial photoperiod began and ended six hours
after normal sunrise and sunset. Birds were confined for at least
five days under these conditions. That is, if the sun normally rose
at six a.m., then the lights in the room would go on at 12 o'clock
noon. If sunset was a 6 p.m., then the lights in the room would go
off at midnight. On the first sunny day after the birds had
experienced the shifted condition for five days, the birds were
allowed to recover their caches. All 48 holes were now open and
filled with sand. A single seed was placed in the holes where the
bird had originally cached. In addition, a single seed was also
placed in the cups 90 degrees clockwise from the original set. If
the birds were using their sun compass, then these 90 degrees
clockwise locations would be the probed by the searching bird.
3. Re-shift to normal photoperiod. While birds were still in the
clock-shifted condition they were again allowed to cache in the
octagonal aviary. After caching, however, the internal clock of the
birds was shifted back to normal, which is a six-hour fast clock
shift. Now the light would go on and off at the time coinciding with
the normal outdoor light/dark cycle. Recoveries were conducted as in
#2 above with both original and shifted holes containing a seed.
4. Control 2. Same as in Control 1.
Figure 39. Distribution of Probing. Arrows representing the center of probing for
individual birds, with the mean heading of each bird indicated
by a triangle at the edge of the circle.
Figure 39 gives the vectors indicating the center of probing
activity when recovering caches for individual birds of the three
species. In Control 1, the majority of the vectors are pointed
toward the segment originally cached in. After the six hour clock
shift, the majority of the pinyon jays and scrub jays show the
clockwise deflection indicating that the sun compass is being
employed to relocate their caches. The Clark's nutcracker, however,
continued to mainly search in the original sectors. Under the
reshift condition all three species show expected counterclockwise
deflection. The rather short vectors for the nutcracker, however,
indicate a large amount of scatter. In Control 2, the pinyon jay and
scrub jay showed a tendency to probe left of the caching sector.
These experiments show that resetting
the internal clock influences the location where birds probe for
previously hidden seeds. This strongly suggests that compass
information is also involved, in some manner, in the spatial memory
system of these birds. These findings are especially of interest
because the courtyard where the aviary was located was rich with a
diverse set of landmarks.
Species difference in response to the
resetting of the internal clock were evident. Nutcrackers showed a
response in only the reshift condition, and that was weak.
Pinyon jays and scrub jays, on the other hand showed significant
responses to both shift and reshift manipulations. Thus, it appears
that the sun compass is a more important component of spatial memory
in these jays and is less important for nutcrackers. We can suggest
some possible reasons for this difference.
Nutcrackers live at high elevations
where the trees of the coniferous forests often form complete
canopies, impeding any sunlight from reaching the forest floor. In
spring, autumn and winter these high elevation habitats have many
cloudy, overcast, rainy days. Also, maybe the sun compass is not
effective when nutcrackers must dig through deep snow to recover
their caches. The pinyon and scrub jay live at lower
elevations where the canopy of the ponderosa pine forest and pinyon-juniper
woodlands are open as there are fewer trees present. Sunny
days are more prevalent at these lower elevations, and less snow is
present in winter, especially in the woodlands.
Therefore the general habitat structure
and prevailing weather conditions in the environments of the two jay
species may be more conducive for sun compass use. For the Clark's
nutcracker the sun compass may represent a factor not always
present, or easy to use, so they rely on other cues to locate their
Figure 40. Colonization of North America by nutcrackers and
southwestern U.S. jays. Nutcrackers used the Bering Land Bridge
and jays differentiated on the Mexican Plateau.
We began this chapter with a description
of the environment within which these four species live, the San
Francisco Peaks in north central Arizona. How did this particular
set of species end up on this mountain?
The origins and dispersal patterns of
these species is well understood. The Clark's nutcracker is
undoubtedly of Old World origin, a close relative of the Eurasian
nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes). It probably invaded the new
World by crossing the Bering Land Bridge about one million years ago
during the Pleistocene. It may even have carried a pouch full of
seeds across the strait (pers. communication,
Lanner, 1981; Stegmann, 1934; Tomback 1983)! The mountains of
Alaska, Canada, and western
North American were covered with alpine coniferous forest. This
habitat supplied the early invaders with the requisites needed for
survival and reproduction. The corridor stretched from Berangia to
central Arizona, allowing the nutcracker ease of passage from north
to south (Figure 40). Nutcrackers have strong, long wings for rapid, long
distance flights so latitudinal movements and flights up and down
mountains were probably swift and efficient.
The origin of the jays in this study
probably occurred on the Mexican Plateau located in the southwestern
USA and northern Mexico (Pitelka, 1951) The three species are closely
related (de los Monteros & Cracraft, 1997) These birds then
dispersed from their ancestral home and were possibly in their
present locations by the end of Pleistocene, about 11,000 years ago.
The difference in origin between the jays and the nutcracker brings
a whole series of issues to bear on the evolution of the seed
caching traits (Table 2).
Table 2. Convergence& Divergence Among Some Seed Caching Corvids
||Pinyon jay and Nutcracker
||Western scrub-jay and Mexican jay
|Seed Harvest and Transport
|1. Sturdy, sharp, bill
|2. Long, strong wings
|3. Structure for holding seeds
|4. Open green cones
|5. Cache huge numbers of seeds
|6.Rely on cached food
|1. Highly accurate in ache recovery
|2. Highly accurate in radial maze
|3. Highly accurate in operant test
|1. Large hippocampus
Large, insulated nest
|2. Nest in winter
|3. Feed seeds to nestings
|4. Male has incubation patch
A reoccurring pattern in the results
from our various experiments was the specialization gradient whereas
species most dependent on their seed caches were most specialized in
morphology, behavior, physiology, and psychology, particularly in
spatial memory ability. In this specialization gradient Clark's
nutcrackers and pinyon jays demonstrated the most accurate spatial
memory, and the Mexican and western scrub jay showed only modest
spatial memory. The evidence reviewed above suggests that the
differences among scrub jays, Mexican jays and pinyon jays represent
divergence while the similarities between nutcracker and pinyon jays
represent a case of convergence. According to this view seed caching
behavior has evolved in the family Corvidae at least twice, once in
the Old World and once in the New World. The pinyon jay
appears to be a nutcracker "want-to-be."
The degree of convergence between
Clark's nutcrackers and pinyon jays is intriguing in terms of the
kinds of and degrees of adaptations. The three tables are designed
to show the different types of traits that show divergence and
convergence among the four seed caching species of corvids.
The cognitive abilities of the seed
caching species reveals some interesting patterns of
adaptations. The responds of the four species to the presence of
pinyon pine seeds differs dramatically. Two species show a major
integration of adaptations in all aspects of their lives, while two
other species show only modest adaptations for this habit. These
adaptations all build on one another. For example, the caching of
thousand of seeds would be wasteful if the cacher forgot the
locations of the caches, or placed them were other animals could
easily find them.
Of interest here is the fact that only
the nutcracker has a larger than expected hippocampus. The other
seed specialist, the pinyon jay does not (Basil et al., 1996). Thus,
either the hippocampus does extra duty or other areas of the
brain have been recruited to aid in the memory for seed caches in
the pinyon jay. However, new evidence suggests that hippocampus size
does not correlate with spatial memory ability.
Another example of the integration of
these adaptations is the life history trait of early breeding by
nutcrackers and pinyon jays in response to a large crop of pine
seeds. Breeding in February and March would be highly
ineffective if the breeders did not build large well insulated nest
to counter the cold weather, and effectively locate caches (even
through deep snow). The energy from these seeds provides the
reproductive energy to form eggs, provides heat for incubation and
brooding, and provides food for the nestlings. To utilize this food
nestlings must have the physiological ability to digest these pine
seeds. Many more examples of this integration could be given for
these seed caching species. In conclusion, cognitive abilities are
interlinked with all other characteristics of the species to form an
integrated adaptive suite of characters that contributes to the
biological fitness of the species possessing these suites.
Figure 41. Dead pinyon pine that is at least 150 years old.
Figure 42 (Right). Dead ponderosa
pines. One live pinyon pine in far left.
that are stressed because of low soil moisture are particularly
susceptible to infestation by bark beetles. Due to the combination
of moisture stress and beetle attack, hundreds of thousands
(possibly millions) of pinyon and ponderosa pine trees are dying on
our study area (Figure 41, 42).
Also, there has been no cone crop in
the past four years. This massive mortality event coupled with the
lack of pine cone production in trees that are still alive, posses a severe selective event
for all the resident birds and could have especially serious fitness
consequences for the seed caching corvids. One could predict, based
on the specialization gradient described above, that the nutcracker
and pinyon jays will be most heavily impacted and the western scrub
jay and Mexican jay would be affected to a lesser extent. This
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The findings presented in this chapter are the results of support
from the National Science Foundation and the National Institute of
Mental Health. We also thank our respective institutions for their
continuous support and encouragement during all phases of this
research. We are deeply indebted to the hundreds of students, both
graduate and undergraduates that participated in these studies
(obviously there are far too many to list). Without their help
this story could not be told. We must thank the four species
of seed caching corvids for their cooperation and willingness to
participate in these studies. One must see to believe what these
birds can accomplish!
copyrights for the individual chapters are retained by the authors.
All other material in this book is copyrighted by the editor, unless
noted otherwise. If there has been an error with regards to
unacknowledged copyrighted material, please contact the editor
immediately so that this can be corrected. Permissions for using
material in this book should be sent to the editor. |
Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) affects approximately 2?4% of domestic cats in the United States, according to the Feline Health Center at Cornell University. Like the human immunodeficiency virus, FIV compromises a cat?s ability to fight infection, and although there are ways to manage the illness, it is ultimately fatal.
The only way to fully protect cats from FIV is to prevent exposure. The virus is transmitted primarily through deep bit wounds, so veterinarians urge owners to keep their cats indoors.
An FIV vaccine exists, but Laurie Hester, DVM, of AAHA-accredited Cats Limited Veterinary Hospital in West Hartford, Conn., says, ?The effectiveness of the vaccine is poorly supported by current research, which is why many clinics do not use it.?
It may also cause cancer at the injection site. Susan Cotter, DVM, at Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine says, ?There is a small risk of sarcomas developing after this vaccine ? so it is not recommended for the vast majority of cats.?
FIV cannot be transmitted to humans
Caring for Your FIV+ Cat
Finding out your cat has tested positive for FIV can be heartbreaking. Hester says, ?On average, [FIV-positive cats] live five years post-diagnosis.? Managing the disease with nutritional support, consistent veterinary care, and immediate treatment of secondary infections can help your cat stay healthy longer.
Hester recommends feeding FIV+ cats a well-balanced diet and avoiding raw foods. Uncooked meat can contain parasites and potentially harmful microorganisms that a cat with a suppressed immune system may not be able to fight.
Carolyn McDaniel, VMD, of Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine and the Cornell Feline Health Center, says, ?Many veterinarians believe that the ideal diet for ?healthy? FIV-positive cats should be relatively high protein and low carbohydrate,? but she emphasizes tailoring that diet to each cat?s unique needs, which may change as the disease progresses. Veterinarians at Point Vicente Animal Hospital your best resource for nutritional advice and food recommendations specific to your pet.
FIV+ cats of any age should receive wellness exams at least twice each year. ?Since they are immunosuppressed, we need to make sure they do not contract other illnesses, and blood and urine screening should be done at these visits,? explains Hester. Early intervention and aggressive treatment of secondary illnesses is crucial to your cat?s survival.
To lower your FIV+ cat?s risk of contracting other diseases and to prevent the spread of FIV to other cats, it is important to keep your cat indoors at all times. But infected cats don?t have to live in isolation. Some veterinarians recommend an FIV+ cat live as the only cat, or with other FIV+ cats. Other veterinary professionals feel it is safe to have an FIV+ cat with an FIV- cat in the same household. As long as they get along well and don?t fight, the risk to the uninfected cat is low.
FIV infection doesn?t have to be a death sentence. Ask us for more information and help in creating a management plan that will give your cat a chance to alternately love and ignore you for many years to come. |
Various The process of working metal to a desired shape by impact or pressure in hammers, forging machines (upsetters), presses, rolls, and related forming equipment. processes conducted at or near ambient temperatures to produce metal components to close tolerances and net shape. These include A preliminary forging operation to give the piece approximately the correct shape for subsequent forming., Faults produced in a forging by incorrect tool design or incorrect flow of steel that results in the formation of a crack in the forging surface. (1) A forging operation in which the cross section of forging stock is reduced and the stock lengthened between flat or simple contour dies. See also Fullering. (2) in heat treating, the same as tempering., Plastically deforming metal at ambient temperatures to increase the cross-sectional area of the stock (either solid bar or tubing) at one or more points along the longitudinal axis. See also Heading and Upsetting., (1) A post-forging process—on hot or cold parts—used to attain closer tolerances or improved surfaces. (2) A closed-die squeezing operation in which all surfaces of a workpiece are confined or restrained, resulting in a well-defined imprint of the die on the work.... More, The process of forcing metal to flow through a die orifice in the same direction in which energy is being applied (forward extrusion); or in the reverse direction (backward extrusion), in which case the metal usually follows the contour of the punch or moving forming tool. The extrusion principle is used in many impression die forging applications.... More (forward or backward), punching, thread rolling and others. |
MOOCs continue to feature highly at conferences, seminars and events in the Technology Enhanced Learning community and are a subject of some debate and contention. Given the fast moving discussions, this section can only aim to summarise some of the subjects of debate.
There are now hundreds of open online courses available through branded MOOC platforms such as Coursera, Udemy, FutureLearn and Iversity along with self‐hosted courses direct from Universities and even individual lecturers offering open courses outside of their institutions. The vision of the MOOC is exactly that, Massive ‐ anyone can join in, Open ‐ materials available free of charge for all to use and repurpose, Online Course. The extent of the openness of many courses branded as MOOC is questionable, most materials are locked behind logins, passwords and time limits. Some courses come with a fee. As described above, a MOOC is not always a MOOC.
Research by the UK Department for Business Innovation and Skills (BIS) in 2013 highlighted two conflicting strands of thought amongst MOOC professionals.
A strand of enthusiasts welcomes the shake‐up and energy MOOCs bring to learning, teaching and assessment. They report positively on learning experiences and innovative formats of pedagogy, and spotlight themes such as access, empowerment, relationship building and community. This strand is particularly prevalent in the general press. Examples include Shirky and Legon.A strand of sceptics tempers the general enthusiasm along two themes. The supposed benefits of MOOCs were already realised in previous generations of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) innovation – and the innovations of MOOCs are the victory of packaging over content. The MOOC format itself suffers from weaknesses around access, content, quality of learning, accreditation, pedagogy, poor engagement of weaker learners, exclusion of learners without specific networking skills.
The themes emerging from both sides of the argument are those of access and inclusion of learners, quality of content, teaching and learning, networks and communities, and accreditation.
A recent study of MOOCs run by MIT showed that the most typical registrant in the courses were males aged 26 or older with a Bachelor’s degree. However, when the data is viewed in context it is notable that this demographic accounts for less than one in three registrants. Other statistics collected from 17 courses comprising over 600,000 registrants showed that 33% had high school or lower levels of education, 6.3% were over 50, and 2.7% had IP or mailing addresses from countries on the United Nations’ list of least‐developed countries (Rutter, 2014, Ho et.al., 2014, DeBoer et.al., 2014).
The formulaic structure of the branded courses such as Coursera make it easy for a course provider to quickly create an attractive looking sequence of lessons with video, text and assignments. One downside to this method is that there are now hundreds of identical looking courses consisting of video lectures, further reading and the occasional multiple choice quiz. The format has been referred to by critics as “The sage on a stage” and pedagogically reflects the paradigm that teaching is a one‐way process of giving knowledge to another. It is of course possible to use such a platform without being a slave to the formula, but more interaction with students requires more input and more time on the part of the course providers. The issue for the course facilitator is that online courses take time; a survey of professors running MOOCs recently reported that over 100 hours of work occurs before the course has started with a further 8 to 10 hours a week on upkeep (Kolowich, 2013). Factor in that the number of enrolled students on a MOOC can be as high as 160,000 (Rodriguez, 2012) and it becomes evident that dealing with individuals can be an almost impossible task.
Research carried out by MIT into 17 courses on the edX platform suggests that course completion may not be a valid success criteria for online courses or learners. “Course completion rates, often seen as a bellwether for MOOCs, can be misleading and may at times be counterproductive indicators of the impact and potential of open online courses.”
The researchers found evidence of large numbers of registrants who may not have completed a course but still accessed substantial amounts of course content.” (Rutter, 2014)
One of the most contentious debates has been dropout and completion rates. MOOCs in general have a very high dropout rate when compared to conventional courses (both face to face and online). Critics have pointed to this as evidence of the poor quality of courses and the lack of support for learning. Proponents of MOOCs have countered by pointing out how easy it is to sign up for free and open courses and that many learners join only wishing to undertake part of a programme. Openness, they say, is allowing more learners to embark on courses and that conventional measurements of quality such as completion rates are inappropriate for MOOCs.
The openness and availability of the resources will have some impact on the uptake of an online course by students. Participants can be put off by long registration processes or constant requests for login information. It is interesting to note that when materials are easy to access a number of students continue to access, study and participate in online courses beyond the official synchronous running times. Campbell (2014) describes these participants as “archived‐learners”;
“Despite the lack of a defined cohort, deadlines, strong instructor‐ presence, and the ability to earn a Statement of Accomplishment, archived‐learners indicate similar intent and exhibit similarbehavior to live‐learners. And this behavior extends beyond watching videos to completion of assessments and interaction on the discussion forums.” (Campbell, 2014)
The way in which students interact with online course content can be compared to the way in which people interact with other Web‐based media such as video or social network sites. (Rutter, 2014).
Research shows that students tend to navigate a non‐linear pattern through course content with students deemed successful (in that they achieved the certification available for the course) skipping around 20% of the content (Guo & Reinecke, 2014).
BIS (2013) summarises that “Learners who have completed MOOCs emerge from the literature as relatively enthusiastic about the MOOC format. Different kinds of learner experience have been identified, and passive consumption or lurking in a MOOC is a common pattern. The consensus is growing that lurking and auditing have validity as a learning activity within MOOCs, and that non‐completion is not a significant problem in this learning format.”
The early cMoocs were developed using a mixture of Open Source and homegrown software and some providers continue to follow such an approach. The last two years have seen the rapid emergence of MOOC platforms, driven in part by the need to ensure scalability and in part by attempting to standardise and facilitate MOOC design. Most, although not all, of these platforms have been developed by private organisations, often backed by venture capital funding and working in partnership with academic organisations for providing content. There have been some innovations, for instance in allowing designers to annotate video.
There has been some criticism by course developers of the limitations of platforms, particularly the xMooc platforms.
It is likely that more platforms will be released over the next two years and that some will be available as Open Source Software |
Hunger and health are deeply connected.
Healthy bodies and minds require nutritious meals at every age. But when people don’t have enough food or have to choose inexpensive foods with low-nutritional value, it can seriously impact their health. And once the cycle of poor diet and poor health begins, it can be hard to break. Watch the video below to learn how hunger can affect the daily lives of 1 in 9 Americans:
Put simply, hunger’s toll can be life-altering.
When someone is sick, having to choose between food and treatment can lead to serious complications. For example, for food-insecure adults living with diabetes, the choice between food and controlling the disease can even lead to complications like kidney disease, eye disease and nerve damage.
- Food insecurity can lead to Type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease and obesity.
- More than half the households the Feeding America network serves have at least one member living with high blood pressure and more than one-third have a member with diabetes.
- Children at risk of hunger are more likely to be in poor health and struggle in school.
Family members in food-insecure households are also more likely to struggle with psychological and behavioral health issues. And kids struggling to get enough to eat are more likely to have problems in school and other social situations.
Feeding America is helping build the foundation for good health.
One of the primary goals of Feeding America is providing access to healthy food in all of our communities. This means supplying food banks with more fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy and lean proteins. In fact, 69 percent of the food received by the Feeding America network could fall into one of these categories. Read more about how we’re working to create a healthier America.
When our communities — especially children — have access to healthy, well-balanced diets, everyone benefits. That's the kind of future Feeding America is trying to create, but we can't do it with your help.
Give to Feeding America today — every dollar donated helps provide 10 meals for people in need. With your help, we can help create a healthier, hunger-free America. |
What is Test Anxiety
Test anxiety is a combination of physical symptoms and emotional reactions that is perhaps the most common struggle experienced by students. This anxiety causes blackouts and confusion and as a result, affects test scores and future life options. Our mental training program has proven successful in relieving anxiety and helping students reach their potential.
38% of students have moderate to high Test Anxiety
83% of teachers reported that exam stress impacts negatively on student outcomes
*IEPS & ISC Research
*American Test Anxieties Assoc.
WE HAVE A SOLUTION
By combining psychology with technology, we provide a digital platform as well as one on one training to help develop mental toughness, confidence and control when the pressure is on. Goaceit is first in the market to offer a comprehensive solution that provides anxiety relief with focus based training.
We deliver results!
HOW WE DO IT
The Goaceit app is a revolution in test prep training: a series of tools and techniques designed to help students manage the mental side of the test. It features a mixture of interactive mobile games, audio tools and engaging video content. In addition, for those students who prefer a more structured learning environment, one on one meetings with a sport psychologist are available.
The Goaceit algorithm uses game based assessments
to create a personal profile for each user
Once students have their personal profile, they become aware of what happens to them when they are stressed and why this happens. They then receive relevant tools to manage the stress and build a routine which they use before and during the exam. The routine helps them feel confident and in control when the pressure is on.
Neal Jacover, Principal
American International School
“This app will undoubtedly be helpful for students.”
Megan Stubbendeck, PhD.
Executive Director of Instruction,
"Students who used Goaceit enjoyed the tool and felt empowered. Our parents felt that for the first time someone was listening to them and doing something about test anxiety."
Matthew Larriva, Owner
“I love having this tool in my arsenal. I love being able to have a very professional, researched product to offer to families and students who struggle with test stress.”
WHAT STUDENTS SAY
We are a tech company with a global staff of certified sport psychologists and mental trainers. We work with competitive athletes to help them manage the stress of competing when the stakes are high. Our approach is grounded in our experience and research in cognitive behavioral psychology, positive psychology and sport psychology. These evidence based strategies that help athletes perform at their best apply to the pressure of test taking as well.
Do it yourself
Learn independently using the Goaceit App
Option for on demand training with a sport psychologist
Enterprises & schools
For partnerships and volume discounts
Conact us for more
Analysis of performance under pressure
Building a personalized training plan
Individualized tool box
Personalized messaging for focused training |
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