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with or without ethyl acetate were not different but the difference became significant in case of total adult catches.On the other hand, amongst the tested food baits, date palm stem pieces or sugarcane pieces alone were found to be significantly weaker attractants (Table 3). The role of host plant tissues as food bait in synergizing the attraction by aggregation pheromones has been reported in many Rhynchophorus sp.including R. ferrugineus (Hallet et al., 1999), R. phoenicis F. (Gries et al., 1994), R. cruentatus F. (Weissling et al., 1994) and R. palmarum (Jaffe et al., 1993).Before discussing food baits, it is important to highlight that food bait without lure has been reported to be ineffective (Oehlschlager et al., 1993;Faleiro & Chellapan, 1999;Hallett et al., 1999).The bait-lure synergy for RPW attraction has been discussed before for date fruits (Faleiro, 2005), date palm stem pieces (Anonymous, 1998;Hallett et al., 1999) and sugarcane (Oehlschlager, 1994;Faleiro and Chellapan, 1999).However, in order to synergize the lure, Oehlschlager (2006) argued that food bait should contain high sugar content.As a matter of fact, date fruits boast of over 50 per cent sugar content (Zhang et al., 2015) against less than 20 per cent in case of sugarcane (Srichayet et al., 2008).When compared to date fruits, the weaker attraction by sugarcane observed in the present study, corroborates the argument.For example, in their field trial experiments with lure, co-attractant ethyl acetate and food bait, Azmi et al. (2014) reported sugarcane stem pieces to be a weaker attractant compared to Sago palm stem pieces (and pineapple fruit pieces) | 3,069,600 | 55478564 | 0 | 16 |
in a coconut plantation.Nevertheless, sugarcane has been widely reported as an effective food bait for palm weevils (Oehlschlager et al., 1993;Muralidharan et al., 1999;Nair et al., 2000;Muthiah et al., 2005).However, in the Middle-East region, fodder-grade date fruits are preferred over sugarcane and date palm stem pieces due to its high synergy with lure and easy availability (Abraham et al., 1999;Faleiro, 2000;Oehlschlager, 2006;Abuagla and Al-deeb, 2012).Like the present study, Faleiro and Satarkar (2005) compared dried date fruits and sugarcane as food baits and reported no statistical difference in their respective trap catches.Date palm stem pieces along with date fruits were used in the Al-Ahsa region of Saudi Arabia between the years 1994 and 1998 for mass trapping the RPW (Anonymous, 1998).Notably, the results of the food bait experiment in the present study showed no difference between the three tested food baits.However, an important finding which emerged from this experiment underlines the third important factor, co-attractant.Intriguingly, synergy between mutually exclusive components of the trap like food bait, lure and kairomone emerged as an important factor in augmenting the trap catches.The presence of ethyl acetate significantly differentiated between catches of traps with date fruits and rest of the two food baits, thus upgrading the synergistic coupling of bait-lure to co-attractant-bait-lure system.This finding corroborates the authors' previous field observations which repeatedly pointed towards rather holistic evaluation of the trap than the evaluation of its disparate elements.The use of ethyl acetate as co-attractant along with lure and food bait is widely known, practiced and recommended (Oehlschlager et al., 1993;Hallett, 1996;Hallett et | 3,069,601 | 55478564 | 0 | 16 |
al., 1999;Faleiro and Kumar, 2008;Al-Saoud et al., 2010;Roda et al., 2011).However, discovery of the other key odorants synergizing attraction will help in development of standardized and optimized synthetic synergist or a blend to optimize kairomonal effect without using plant material (Guarino et al., 2011;Vacas et al., 2014). Yeast and ethyl acetate Fermenting food baits are known to sustain high RPW trap catches (Hallett et al., 1999;Oehlschlager, 2016).Fermentation of food generates more variety of volatiles with their increased output (Rochat et al., 2000).Therefore in this experiment, faster fermenting date fruits due to the addition of yeast were tested to know if consequent increase in variety and amount of date fruit volatiles help in augmenting and sustaining the RPW pheromone trap catches.The respective female and male trap catches from date fruits alone were comparable with traps having both date fruits and yeast.However, the total trap catches from date fruits with yeast were significantly higher than date fruits alone (Table 4).On the other hand, El-Shafie and Faleiro (2017) recently reported no significant differences in trap catches in case of date fruits with or without yeast.Notably, the quoted study was done with two species of yeasts produced from date syrup at Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. The scope of the present study was extended further by adding a known fermenting food volatile, ethyl acetate to know if it further synergizes the RPW attraction by lure in presence of food bait and yeast.The date fruits with ethyl acetate afforded significantly higher individual female and male, | 3,069,602 | 55478564 | 0 | 16 |
and also the total trap catches than from date fruits alone (df = 3, 79; F = 16.752;P < 0.0001).Moreover, the faster fermenting date fruits may have compensated for the presence of ethyl acetate as the higher trap catches from the combination of date fruits with ethyl acetate were not statistically significant from their combination with yeast.However, the combination of date fruits with yeast or ethyl acetate could not match the trap catches from the combination of all three.Faster fermenting date fruits due to yeast in presence of ethyl acetate release source imparted significantly higher attraction to the lure as evident from the total and individual gender trap catches (df = 3, 39; F = 11.969;P < 0.0001 and df = 3, 39; F = 12.934; P < 0.0001 for female and male adults, respectively).One exception to the overall superiority of date fruits + yeast + ethyl acetate combination was male catches, which were not significantly ahead of male catches from date fruits + ethyl acetate combination.Nevertheless, the results clearly indicate that in the presence of ethyl acetate, fast fermenting date fruits become more attractive to RPW weevils (Table 4).Kurian et al. (1984) reported use of yeast with toddy (locally made alcoholic drink from coconut) in presence acetic acid to get maximum RPW catches.In a study on RPW attraction by food baits, the trap catches from coconut petioles were found to be similar with or without yeast, but in presence of acetic acid, combination of coconut petioles, toddy and yeast attracted higher number of weevils (Faleiro, | 3,069,603 | 55478564 | 0 | 16 |
2005).Interestingly, Rochat et al. (2000) reported acetic acid as a major component of sugarcane and not coconut volatiles. The trap catches in kairomone, food bait and yeast experiments were invariably female biased (Tables 2-4). Many previous studies have also reported female biased sex ratios in the pheromone trap catches (Abraham et al., 1999;Faleiro and Rangnekar, 2000;Vidyasagar et al., 2000a;Al-Saoud, 2011;Faleiro and Satarkar, 2003a;Soroker et al., 2005, Avalos andSoto, 2015).Although, a few studies (Hallett et al., 1993a;Muralidharan et al., 1999;Abbas et al., 2006) have reported no significant difference between male and female trap catches.In fact, if the trap catches are female biased, it is a significantly advantageous because each female adult captured counts towards reducing population buildup and preventing spread of infestation as most female adults recovered from pheromone traps have been reported to be young and gravid (Abraham et al., 2001;Faleiro et al., 2003).Thus, this makes masstrapping programs an important tool in the IPM of RPW.In contrast, a few studies have disputed female-bias in the RPW population, both in laboratory cultures (Poorjavad et al., 2009;Al-nujiban et al., 2015) and field studies (Abbas et al., 2006).This presents intriguing research opportunity largely overlooked so far (Soroker et al., 2005). CONCLUSION The present study highlighted several important aspects of RPW pheromone trapping system in the areas of trap placement and semiochemicals.Higher counts of weevil catches from stump trap broaden the areas of considerations in trap placement decisions than merely height from the ground.The masked differences in the lure performance become obvious in the presence of kairomones such as ethyl | 3,069,604 | 55478564 | 0 | 16 |
acetate.The first field-use of acetic acid as pheromone synergist in date palm gave encouraging results and deserves further probe.Differences in attraction of RPW adults by the food materials is another outcome of the present study which needs further exploration.Like lures, food baits also showed differences when combined with ethyl acetate and/or yeast.The coattractants therefore, are the key trap components and new discoveries in co-attractant combinations as lure synergists may lead the way towards food-bait free trap.Results from the present study further strengthen the rational and environment-benign IPM components like pheromone trapping and also underline the researchable areas to tweak the traditional trapping protocols for RPW management. Fig 1 . Fig 1. Mean number of weevils captured per trap in tree and stump traps.Bars labeled with different letters are significantly different at P < 0.05 (independent samples t-test). Fig 2 . Fig 2. Mean number of weevils captured in traps baited with Ferrolure+™ or RHYFER™ pheromone lures with or without ethyl acetate.Bars labeled with different letters are significantly different at P < 0.05 (ANOVA, Post hoc by Tukey's test).Letters with same number-subscript are comparable (week-wise). Table 2 : Mean number of female and male weevils captured in standard Saudi traps baited with different kairomones Mean±SE numbers labeled with different letters are significantly different at P<0.05 (ANOVA, Post hoc by Tukey's test) Table 3 : Mean number of female and male weevils captured in pheromone traps baited with different plant materials Mean±SE numbers labeled with different letters are significantly different at P<0.05 (ANOVA, Post hoc by Tukey's test) | 3,069,605 | 55478564 | 0 | 16 |
Table 4 : Mean number of female and male weevils captured in pheromone traps baited with date fruit with and without ethyl acetate and yeast. Mean±SE numbers labeled with different letters are significantly different at P<0.05 (ANOVA, Post hoc by Tukey's test) | 3,069,606 | 55478564 | 0 | 16 |
Music Generated Narratives: Elaborating the Da Capo Interview Technique This paper shows how we played researcher-selected extracts of music to participants in “the Da Capo technique,” to elicit narratives of their learning experiences. Previously, we used music alongside other techniques in an interview about learning; here we explore the Da Capo technique as a standalone technique to study its potential for narrative recall. To do this, we played 10 one-minute long extracts of classical music (five “Western” and five “Chinese”) to 20 participants (10 “Western” and 10 “Chinese”). After hearing each piece, participants were asked if the music recalled for them any experiences of learning. When it did so, we explored this further in dialogue and narrative recall. As expected, some narratives related to experiences of studying, academic success, and of particular times and places associated with learning. However, in many cases the music elicited narratives of learning which, surprisingly and in multiple dimensions, related to physical learning, culture, the family, and particular emotions such as sympathy, and of aspects of character, such as optimism and honesty. We provide details of using the technique, where particular music elicited learning experiences and where they did not. We provide further evidence of the value of using music either as a stand-alone method in the qualitative researcher’s toolkit, or as an additional and complementary tool. We discuss the merits, limitations, and potential applications of the Da Capo technique. Introduction In qualitative research, music has been used to reveal and re/present data (Beer, 2013), to explore aspects such as its | 3,069,607 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
relationship with aggression (Roberts & Mattern, 2014), and as a metaphor to facilitate thesis writing (van Shalkwyk, 2002). Our own previous research, somewhat surprisingly, showed how playing extracts of music to participants can elicit memories and experiences that textually based spoken interview questions did not (Pilcher, Cortazzi, & Jin, 2014). We had interviewed graduating students about their experiences of studying, primarily via more traditional oral questioning and, as a tailpiece, played these participants selected music extracts. After each piece, we asked if the music reminded participants of anything about their degrees. Among memories triggered, we found that quiet solo piano pieces often reminded students of library study, that celebratory symphonic pieces reminded students of graduating and academic success, although huge large-scale works were considered more indicative of higher degrees rather than of undergraduate studies. Such results show the potential of music to transport people towards recall and imagination to generate vivid memories, which evoke experiences that appeared to surprise and puzzle participants themselves. We called this technique the Da Capo technique, in line with the musical term "Da Capo" which is often written at the end of a musical score, and which means "from the beginning." The term resonates with Goffman's (1975) dramaturgical metaphor of narrative as "replaying a strip" of experience which suggests "reframed" remembering of the past in a present narrative performance. There were, however, additional questions and issues. Previously (Pilcher, Cortazzi, & Jin, 2014), music was used alongside oral questions in a more traditional interview approach: music only constituted a small section of | 3,069,608 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
the actual interview. Hence, the real potential of music (if any) as the sole tool to elicit data from participants awaited exploration. We wanted to push the Da Capo technique we had developed to answer questions our initial research had raised. If we used music as the sole focus of gathering data, what would be revealed? Would it be successful to gain useful data? If we focused the Da Capo on gathering narratives of learning, would similar memories to those previously generated emerge through the same or contrasting pieces of music? How would participants respond in an interview with music as the sole focus? Does music really have the potential to be a significant tool in qualitative research? Here, we present and discuss the results from an exploratory investigation that used 10 pieces of music as the sole focus of an interview intended to gather narratives of learning from participants. We first review literature in the areas of music, narratives and individual experiences. Secondly, we describe the process to using music to attempt to generate narratives of learning in interviews. Thirdly, we report and discuss the results from these interviews before concluding. It is our hope this report inspires qualitative researchers to take creative initiatives, perhaps combining music in multimodal approaches. Music, Narratives, Individual Experiences Music is strongly associated with memories and experiences (Keightley, 2009) and can evoke highly emotive responses in listeners (Meyer, 1956). The applied use of music is highly varied, including practices in music education, therapy, marketing and advertising, and health and well-being | 3,069,609 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
(Juslin & Sloboda, 2010), and its potential to add value to narratives elicited has been demonstrated in research that has focused on students' experiences of studying for undergraduate degrees (Pilcher et al., 2014). Such use of music to stimulate narratives can be compared to how other non-verbal techniques have been used to elicit narratives. These include established use of wordless film sequences to stimulate oral narratives in different languages (Chafe, 1980), and of videos as cues for narrative (Lyle, 2003). Further, there are visual techniques when participants produce their own drawn timelines, or learning journeys, in interviews to stimulate personal accounts of international study (Gu, 2011), or draw self-portraits and use self-taken photos to construct visual and textual narratives of personal language learning (Kalaya, Alanen, & Dufya, 2008;Kalaya, Dufya, & Alanen, 2013;Nikula & Pitkänen-Huhta, 2008) or compose their own multi-media individual learning histories (Menezes, 2008). Unusually, the latter make some indirect reference to music, as when participants use hyperlinks to note songs that influenced their learning of the English language. In developing classroom writing skills, teachers' long-standing practices include employing music as a stimulus for students to write creative narrative or autobiographical texts; however, these tend to be reported as pedagogic practices focussing on writing through evoked emotion rather than as research methods (e.g., Goring, 2004;Jones, Kokotsaki, & Cholevar, 2016;West End in Schools, 2013). Other research-based multimodal approaches to the elicitation and expression of narrative have suggested that the mode of analysis of narratives is an open-ended one and includes "language, image, color, typography, music, voice | 3,069,610 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
quality, dress, gesture, spatial resources, perfume, and cuisine" (Page, 2010, p. 6). Still, music is rarely included as a mode for multi-modal narrative analysis; music is absent in the major guides to narrative research which emphasize qualitative methods in social sciences (e.g., Bold, 2012;Clandinin, 2007;Czarniawska, 2004;Elliott, 2005;Goodson, 2017;Riessman, 2008) even in those which distinctively feature multi-modal approaches (Barkhuizen, Benson, & Chik, 2014;Mannay, 2016;Squire et al., 2014). Where music is mentioned, it accompanies visual and verbal expression in participants' production of narratives; it is not used to generate or elicit narratives (Doloughan, 2010;Menezes, 2008). The present study may contribute to this wider multi-modal view of stimulating narrative expression and suggest further reciprocal relations between qualitative research and multimedia. As noted by Pilcher, Cortazzi, and Jin (2014), the use of music to elicit narratives involves a number of considerations. First among these is to consider whether the music is heard in the same way by different participants. Gregory (1990) demonstrated that participants were able to distinguish three lines in polyphonic music with equal ability, thus, although participants may interpret music individually, they hear different melodies and lines similarly. Hence, when researchers choose music for melody and lines, it can be assumed that participants will also hear the same lines and melodies. A second consideration is whether musical training has any effect on participants' emotional responses to music. Waterman's research (1996) shows few differences in this regard. Thirdly, a key consideration is whether cultural background has any influence on individuals' ability to decode basic emotions in music. Research shows | 3,069,611 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
the ability of adults from different cultures to identify lullabies (Unyk, Trehub, & Schellenberg, 1992) and suggests that basic emotions in music are decodable by adults regardless of their cultural background (Thompson & Balkwill, 2010). Fourthly, and critically, it is important to consider whether music interpreted as happy by some might be interpreted as sad by others, that is, whether the same type of music creates different affective responses. In this context, "fairly similar" responses have been found regarding interpretations of the emotional content of music (De Vries, 1991, p. 51). Fifthly, there may be an ethical consideration in the use of music in eliciting narratives: highly emotional properties of some music might possibly elicit highly emotive responses as some participants recall experiences of a sensitive or negative nature. Therefore, when using music to elicit narratives, it is ethical to inform the participants at the outset that they can withdraw at any point and that the research will be stopped if any sensitive or harrowing memories arise (cf. Hariss & Atkinson, 2011). Given these considerations, the use of music to elicit narratives has many apparent benefits. To complement classical narrative elicitation whereby participants are asked to recall and then relate narratives (Czarniawska, 2004;Riessman, 1993), the playing of music serves as a portal to transport participants back to a particular time and place. Narratives as responses to selected music are recalled musically-associated or emotionally-prompted events already in memory and verbalized in language (Chase, 2005;Riessman, 2008). Furthermore, in interview dialogues the music can serve as a sharable common-ground | 3,069,612 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
or context to focus discussion and reflection (Bakhtin & Holquist, 1981).Music represents a vast resource from which researchers may select from multiple types of music (varying the genre, tradition, instrumentation, key, style, tempo, or performance) that are available in the Da Capo technique; music is thus able to take account of multitudes (cf. Hertz, 1997) and multiplicities of selves (Deleuze & Guattari, 1988) within individuals. As researchers ourselves, we have explored the use of music to elicit narratives within our interest in narrative inquiry (e.g., Cortazzi, 1993;Cortazzi & Jin, 2006;2012) and in qualitative research methods and approaches (e.g., Cortazzi, Pilcher, & Jin, 2011;Pilcher & Cortazzi, 2016). We are interested in intercultural perspectives within international education (Jin & Cortazzi, 2011;2013). We participate actively in music-making. In using music as the sole tool to elicit narrative we explore further the potential of music to act as a portal for the elicitation of memories and experiences through the Da Capo technique (Pilcher et al., 2014). We wanted to complement our prior efforts by ascertaining the effect of music to generate narratives in a study, which honed the music alone as a narrative stimulus and might potentially expand the tools for other qualitative researchers to go beyond more traditional methods. Following, we describe the method of how we used the Da Capo technique in this study and how we approached the data analysis. Type of Qualitative Inquiry Used The type of qualitative inquiry used here is narratively oriented research into student experience of learning, solely using music to elicit personal | 3,069,613 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
narratives from participants. As noted above, we had, to the best of our knowledge, invented this Da Capo approach, yet it needed further investigation to explore its potential applicability and effectiveness. Thus, instead of more routine lines of questioning, we chose music as the exclusive focus of the interview to see how its application in this context might elicit narratives of learning. Identification and Recruitment of Participants and Selection of Musical Pieces Participants were undergraduate and postgraduate students who were studying in the UK and were known to the researchers from having previously attended our classes. In total, there were 20 participants, 10 of whom were from countries in Western Europe, and 10 of whom were from China. We selected 10 pieces of music selected for use. Previously (Pilcher et al., 2014), we had used 7 pieces of music with 15 students who were all from China, so here we expanded the number of participants, widened the geographical areas they were from, and extended the amount and type of music we played; selections are detailed in Table 1 below. Additionally, we wanted to make the research as participatory (Fontana & Frey, 2005) as we could and in return for participation in interviews that on average lasted one hour, we offered to provide suggestions on participants' current research efforts, based on our experience as faculty and researchers (although not necessarily subject matter specialists). We would provide similar feedback to any previous or current student in our classes who made a request, therefore we believe the decision to | 3,069,614 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
participate provided these students no unfair advantage with their research efforts over any non-participating students. The research was approved by appropriate university ethics committees before it was undertaken, and all data are presented here anonymously (Christians, 2011), to avoid possible identification of individuals. To recruit participants, all members of our classes were simply asked if they would be interested in participating in the study; most students who were approached expressed interest, perhaps largely through curiosity. We selected the music using several criteria. First, we wanted to play a range of Chinese and Western classical instrumental pieces. The five Western pieces were ones we had used previously (Pilcher et al., 2014); these had effectively generated recall of memories of experiences of learning. The pieces were selected to provide a suitable range of different keys (major or minor), tempi (repetitive, slow, fast) and scales (large scale orchestral or solo instrumental). Our rationale was that the type of piece would likely be associated with the recall of a type of experience. So the large scale orchestral major key pieces might be associated with the recall of celebratory type events, such as success in an exam; the slower solo instrumental pieces might be associated with recalling more reflective events, like studying in the library; slow minor pieces might evoke memories of more challenging experiences such as receiving a bad mark. For the Chinese pieces, we selected pieces that we thought, as far as possible, paired with the Western ones. So if we played a Western a solo instrumental piece, we | 3,069,615 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
followed this with a Chinese piece that was solo instrumental, or that had a similar rhythm or tempo. We chose the pieces collaboratively, through discussion about the nature of the pieces, with the goal of identifying those most suitable to sustain interest and participation. We additionally identified the mood we associated with each selection. This information is contained in Table 1. Data Generation and Collection Our approach to data collection was exploratory. In an empty and quiet room with a portable CD player and headphones, we explained that we would play them a minute of a piece of music, that there would be 10 pieces in total, and that after hearing each one we would ask them if the music recalled any memories they had of experiences of learning. Participants were asked about whether the music they heard reminded them of anything they had experienced during their undergraduate degree study, and, following, whether the music evoked any experiences of learning they had had. The extract was usually the very first minute of the piece, or occasionally, a minute from later in the piece; exact timings are specified in Table 1. While participants were listening to the music, we deliberately moved out of range of eye contact to allow participants to focus more closely on the music; we explained this in advance. If a selected piece did not remind participants of any experiences of learning, we moved on to the next piece. More often than not, the piece did remind them of an experience of learning. When | 3,069,616 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
this was the case, we solicited further information such as the type and details of the learning experience and what each participant thought it was about the music that related to that particular experience for him or her. While we acknowledge that the questions will have shaped the discussion and played a role in memory, we suggest it was the music itself that triggered these memories initially. All interviews were recorded using a portable recording device and then later transcribed. We stressed to participants how we ourselves were transcribing the data and noone else; this was partly for ethical reasons and the possibility that participants might feel more at ease to speak with the assurance that no one would hear the recording. We also found that the process of researcher-transcribing already started the analysis of the transcripts through noticing and noting (Bird, 2005;ten Have, 2007). Analysis of the Data We carefully read through the 20 transcribed interviews to identify where a piece had triggered a narrative and where it had not (see Table 2) and noted the nature of this narrative to identify whether it was a narrative of learning or about something else. Then we repeatedly read through the narratives of learning to identify and to develop and assign categories for the type of learning it related to. We found it was necessary to work through this manually rather than via use of QDAS software because the themes and categories that emerged continually changed and morphed until we had reached a final version. We believe | 3,069,617 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
our manual processes were better suited to the dynamic nature of data analysis because they allowed us to more quickly and flexibly modify categories and consider, reflect on, and reconsider interpretations and categorical alignments of selected excerpts from the data. This approach was similar to that of a constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2010) where codes and themes emerged bottom-up from the data rather than being identified prior to analysis. Organization of Results We organise our results by first tabulating where the music did and did not effectively trigger narratives of learning or other narratives. Then we present our results according to overall categories of: Academic learning experienced; Non-academic learning experiences; Memories of places; Narrative of learning about emotion; Narratives of learning the importance of certain aspects of character. Under these main headings, we provide subheadings to further categorise them. Although our focus is on the narratives generated, when relevant we note the nature of the piece of music played and sometimes whether the response was from participants from China or the West. Table 2 shows details from the first stage of analysis. In most of the 200 possible instances (20 participants x 10 pieces of music), the music triggered some experience; most often these were experiences of learning. In only 13 instances were no experiences at all triggered by the music. Experiences not related to learning included memories of movies or of restaurants. Quantitatively, therefore, in only 7% of instances did the music fail to trigger any experiences, but in 25% of cases it did not | 3,069,618 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
trigger any experiences of learning. Academic Learning Experiences Many of the narratives were related to academic learning experiences; many were narratives we had anticipated as we had chosen the music specifically to trigger such narratives. These were often recalled through references to the nature of the music. For example, the kind of music is very quick and then give me the feeling that pressure in the examinations… I find first it's very difficult to start, and then I choose avoiding that and then through the music there's a kind of a, music slow down and then I realise that I choose the easy one first, then I… overcome all the difficulty in examination.… So that kind of experience I can remember from that music. [A] Here the participant's memory of the process of doing examinations was directly "mapped on" to the experience triggered by the music: the idea of pressure associated with the repetitive nature of the music-this pressure is released, and the participant overcame this by choosing a question, associated by the participant with the music slowing in tempo. Academic success is also a memory triggered, for another participant that powerful music sounds the feeling is glory [laughs]… and the memory was the degree ceremony award.… I remember going up the steps to the stage… and getting my certificate from the president of the university… and the gestures… the feeling that now you are one of us… it was a changed moment from student to professional somehow. [C] The participant directly associated triumph and success | 3,069,619 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
with a celebratory major key orchestral piece and expressed how this then made that individual feel "changed" into becoming a professional and graduating. Deeply personal triumph. Sometimes the memory triggered was of a deeply personal triumph. For example, for one participant: in my family… my uncle… Just say… to my mother 'Yeh, your son is stupid'… [but] when I got like Master degree… this music remind me… the triumph, you go back home, you open the door and you say "See, what you said wasn't true… so don't say things that, don't try to predict the future". [G] Here, the powerful nature of the music, a very large minor key orchestral piece, triggered the association of vindication for the participant, whose success and newly established selfefficacy disproved wrong family assumptions. Another participant was reminded of a deeply personal triumph of finally passing an exam at the 5 th attempt by sheer hard study and perseverance; after doing so, the tutor finally greeted the student in the corridor: "I remember this guy [the tutor] who throughout the years I thought he didn't like me because I was one of his bad students… see me in the corridor of the university and say 'Hello' to me and I thought 'OK, I gain his respect.'" This student recalled this through the "powerful sound it remind that the feeling I get rid of this module… and the 'Hello' of my tutor," and concluded from this experience that "I learn that if I find the solution on my own… It worth | 3,069,620 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
more than my whole degree than all this" [G]. Here the powerful music directly triggered this remembered experience and led the participant to relate deriving a key lesson through this triumph: the importance of learning a solution by oneself. Successful approaches to learning. Often, the evoked academic experiences related to recalling successful approaches to learning. For example, the importance of teamwork: Well… this is a clear one… that memory is that we have the teamwork in the competition… we get the second place… and this music bring me the situation that it's a very slow movement can you imagine that? … and the number come out from the screen then we will three of members we're cheering up, but this moment is still very slow and some of other teams look some disappointed on their face or something else… Yeh then we jumped out and then we celebrate the success. [G] This student expressed learning how, teamwork is… essential… my teammate will always… let me calm down… we always can discuss in the team… the team member is very important… because… yes there's a very popular sentence in Chinese … "You don't afraid a very strong enemy but you're afraid you have team member as stupid as a pig." [G] Here it was the slow movement and memory of being awarded second place which had underlined for the participant the importance and value of teamwork. Sometimes, a successful learning technique recalled by the music was related to an association of a location. Thus, the music recalled | 3,069,621 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
how this participant would sit at different tables for studying a different topic, sensing affinity of spaces for particular subjects. Memories of failure and of struggle. Minor key and slow music could recall very detailed and vivid memories of failure and of struggle. Yet such memories could also be related to successful outcomes. Responding to one piece of music one participant commented: It's like those sleepless agonising nights when you're in the middle of having two or three things or even a really hard assignment… and you have the strange feeling that you want to go at least I try to go to bed early and… I can never fall asleep… and then the feeling drags on, drags on that you have to do something… and you end up having a horrible sleep… and having to do some work the next day… [ Here, a minor piece with slow repetitive rhythms was, for this participant, directly related to the academic difficulty of working through an assignment, yet ultimately developing a successful learning strategy that helped with this work. Non-academic Learning Experiences In addition to the above academic learning type of experiences that we had chosen the music in anticipation of eliciting, there were also quite a wide range of non-academic learning experiences that were triggered by the music. We had not anticipated that the music would trigger these types of experiences. Physical learning. Sometimes the music recalled participants' experiences of learning physical activities. These included learning to dance, to ride a bike, and experiences of the | 3,069,622 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
realization of suddenly being able to do these things. For example, one participant said in response to an orchestral piece which we thought might evoke celebratory experiences: It reminded me the moment I start cycling and the feeling I get and I start using the… roller skates… because I think… it remind the feeling of freedom… you're moving fast and also this feeling of "Waaah look what I'm doing!" [C] In telling this, the experience recounted was a response to a piece of music we had chosen in anticipation that a celebratory experience would be recalled, but we were surprised that the recounted learning experience was of a non-academic, physical nature. However, physical learning experiences were also recalled in relation to other types of music. For one participant after listening to a slow and reflective solo piano piece of music the physical learning experience evoked was of how to remain calm in order to better control a motorbike and be a better rider. Maybe sounds a little bit strange, but I think that you know I'm driving on my bike… it is very relaxing and (pause) and I'm, often when I'm driving I try to learn to handle it better… It is motorbike… So, to learn to get it smooth and nice when you're driving through corners and things… It is yeh, it's that feeling of, just to get it there…this, you know, to, to feel the bike to get the right balance in the bike it will give you a better chance to handle things | 3,069,623 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
you can't see. [I] Culturally centred narratives. Commonly with participants from China, and in response to the classical Chinese music, the learning experiences recalled were closely related to learning about traditional arts and culture. This was another surprise for us. Participants said these traditions related directly to the music and the images it recalled. For example: OK Learning and the value of family. Also, with participants from China, and again in response to Chinese music, vivid and detailed memories of family celebrations were recalled. For example, one participant remembered: For this song in the beginning I think… reminds something like when I, you know the song in China has the spring festival? ... and… all people will get together and enjoy the dinner… [I -Does it remind you of any learning experiences you had?] … maybe maybe this one, how to say is behalf of the experience people who sit in front of TV and er celebrate the spring festival and they feel very happy and warm, warm heart about that… and although they working for 300 days and I don't know actually they work for but they stop all things and a, a big family they get together… You will saw some little children or your grandfather or something and relatives and they saw the TV and they talking with each other and you forget all the annoying things and… yeh, the importance of family, family maybe. [H] Leaning to value time. Another participant from China in response to a piece of Chinese music spoke | 3,069,624 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
of the family, remembering the death of a grandfather, and how for the participant this had taught the lesson of the need to value time. Once again this referred to an event remote in the participant's past: Only learning the value of something after it has been lost. For one participant, in response to the slow minor key music, the experience recalled was of learning that sometimes you only realise the value of something when it is gone, and you no longer have it. In the participant's words: It teach me… like when you've got something you don't what it is, how it is important for you… and then when you just take it away from you… You just realise that OK this thing is, was important. [E] Struggling to replicate a feeling of motivation. For another participant, in response to slow, minor key music, the experience triggered was of gaining a strong feeling of control after managing to direct "a big force" of motivation and dedication in order to succeed. However, this had led to a feeling of regret as the participant struggled to replicate the strong feeling from this success: It's interesting because that period of time is not like, like crazy and exciting and play all the time… on the other hand it's, I feel that drive inside my body… But I use them, and I manage them and when you use a big force and you supress it and control it… It's It's a it's a quiet and peaceful but but strong | 3,069,625 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
feeling yeh…… It actually erm, brings me problem afterwards because it's so, it's so strong that I want it, I want it back but it just won't come back, because the feeling of changing everything slowly and come like myself really dedicated, it's good, it's even addictive but it doesn't come easily. [E] Learning the need to sacrifice for success. One lesson recalled in response to the music, was that of the need to sacrifice or relinquish something sometimes in order to be successful. Here one participant spoke of learning the need to lose something to gain success: if you want to get success you must feel lonely, experience, you must experience lonely… if you want to get something you must leave some [I -Leave something] … Lose something… That make sense? [J] Another participant spoke of how this sacrifice was often made by the individual but done for others. This participant narrated a reluctant choice to go to a military school, against the participant's personal will but with the knowledge it would benefit the entire family in the long term, concluding that, "sometimes the thing you want to do and you know is necessary and is important but it's not good for yourself It's for someone else" [F]. Listening to a slow piece of reflective solo piano music evoked the importance of learning about unrequited love. Here one participant stressed the importance of this lesson, and of how the music sounded romantic and melancholic, and that this in turn meant the participant was inevitably drawn | 3,069,626 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
to thinking about learning the importance of unrequited love: Probably most people find this the most romantic melancholic.… It's like can't help but thinking about some unrequited love… it's just the simple lesson of learning that sometimes things don't work out the way that you thought they would or.… Not necessarily everyone's interested who you think would be interested or could be interested… and it's actually one of the most useful lessons that you learn from your beautiful neighbours at the door sometimes. [I] Learning that achievement is relative to others' achievement. Some minor key slow music triggered for one participant a challenging experience of having to do a very difficult mathematics test which the participant believed resulted in a failing grade. However, the participant received, surprisingly, a passing grade, and concluded that this experience demonstrated that so long as others around you achieve less than you do, it is satisfactory. In the participant's words: "by the end of it I kind of find out that as long as people around you do less than you it's OK" [E]. Learning the lesson: you are only human. In response to the large scale orchestral piece we had chosen anticipating that it would recall challenging academic experiences, one participant did indeed recall one, but concluded it had a non-academic nature. The participant related how the intermingled feelings arising when a gratifying experience was followed closely by a challenging experience was grounding and emphasized the need to remember humility and the human potential to make mistakes, no matter how | 3,069,627 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
elated, elevated or exalted people sometimes feel. The music reminded the participant of a Memories of Places Academic places of study. We had anticipated that the music would stimulate participants' memories of being in places where they had been studying: this did indeed happen. In response to a Chinese piece paired with a Western piece that we anticipated might evoke memories of studying in the library, this is exactly what happened for one participant. it reminds me… the good… moments… the image was me in library studying book and make progress I realised at that moment… that books are helping me a lot to… gain the knowledge that I want, in this case was good version of a book… remind me specifically… about electro-magnetics. [B] Other places not related to study. In contrast, the music often returned participants thoughts to sites that were not remotely connected with academic study but were still connected with learning. For example, in response to a Chinese piece of music, one participant had memories of the past: I heard this music before but I don't know where but it reminds me my grandpa… and the holiday I spent with him in the countryside… Yes and… I try to learn swim… but I failed. [B] Sometimes the remembered location related to a particular activity as in this example: Wow this music… it's like the music they played in the sports competition… reminded me of in the Junior High School or the High school I take part in the running competition. [C] These | 3,069,628 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
recalled places could be associated with sad memories, for example in response to a melancholic piece of solo instrumental Chinese music, one participant remembered their fear of the dark, of primary school, and living away from their parents: It's being afraid of the dark night… it reminded me the, when I was in the primary school… and I didn't live with my parents as well I live in the primary school… So yeh it's really depressed. [F] The remembered place was vividly described, showing the noticeable ability of the music to transport participants back to these places. A different participant, again in response to the solo instrumental Chinese music, vividly recalled a park where they walked, close to the university: Narratives of Learning about Emotions Although music has a known intrinsic connection with emotion (Meyer, 1956), and the music played here would, we thought, likely engage emotional responses, we had not anticipated that the pieces would recall any experiences of learning about emotions. Probably, like most education professionals, we focussed initially largely on academic learning because this is default idea of learning in universities. Nevertheless, narrative responses included actual experiences of learning about emotions or learning the value of particular emotions. Learning the experience of stress and about coping with depression. For one participant, an extract of piano music with a repetitive pattern and rhythm evoked memories of stress: So the feeling was it makes me nervous, stress, it makes me feel stress… and I had the flashback through my years of education… some images of | 3,069,629 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
the university… elementary and high school as well… my… whole education… was affected… it's mostly focused on feeling of stress… through education throughout all those years I have to, I have an aim and I have to pass through all of these stages and achieve this aim. [A] In response to a slow minor key extract of music, one participant related the importance of being able to cope with difficulties, being upset, and feeling depressed, and conclude that such difficult experiences were beneficial: This song's very depress me… make me upset and… when I was hearing this song I was asking me who I am and er maybe I met some difficulties… and I began to suspect myself…. rethinking my life, something like that, yeh… it's a necessary experience, you see it for the peoples' grow up… it's good for teenager… they should experience a lot of difficulty. [E] Learning to express emotions and to cope with despair and fear. For another participant, this slow minor key music reminded them of feeling very sad and lonely, possibly with a sense of loss, but they underlined the importance of the need to open up and express such feelings rather than keep the pain inside themself: This is so sad… It remember me like a with loneliness… some parts are like a like a very deep and increasing cry as well, but very deep… like when you feel… so when you have some lost… It's also how you learned… to know how to manage this process… when you | 3,069,630 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
lost something that is really important for you, you feel very deep… and you have to, and you want to scream but you because you need to open yourself… to express… or learning or… it's your, expression, your pain…but it's something that you need to do you cannot stay with this pain inside of you, you need to… express. [E] In response to a melancholic solo piece of Chinese music, one participant recalled moments of utter despair when they had no idea how to deal with their situation or plan what to do. They expressed how, in the midst of such despair, they had learned not to combat these feelings directly, but let them pass naturally and, therefore, they would pass more quickly: Despair when everything falls down, you know dead end… that kind of happens a lot… in your life, even if you're studying.… You have these situations when there is just nothing beyond that and you can imagine going to the sea, smoking a cigarette… or standing in the rain it's just one of those hopeless moments when you have to, when you actually can't even figure out what you need to do… Just when you have to go with it and be depressed for some time… because I found that sometimes it doesn't help to try to cheer yourself up you just have to let it follow and eventually if you're lucky it blows over.… And then you can start being a bit more upbeat again [I -And do you learn things from | 3,069,631 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
that?] I learned not to fight it to a certain extent… I mean it's good to feel hopeless and in despair for a few hours… Maybe for a day but I think that eventually you surrendered yourself to it knowing that it will blow over… Then you can recuperate much faster.… At least I hope so. [F] For one participant, the slow reflective music recalled a distant childhood memory and learning how to face fears, remembering the supportive care and tender comfort from their mother to confront their fear of the dark: I remind when I was a child and I was afraid of darkness… and my mum comes to, to say "Don't worry… be calm, nothing's happened," and I got my bear… and I would like "Uhh, nothing happens, sure?" and with the tenderness of my mother nurse me, it happen "I'm going to put the light this and don't worry" maybe it's learning to confront life you know… your fears. [I] Learning the importance of empathy. For one participant, the slow piece of solo instrumental Chinese music was perceived as expressing sadness, and evoked epiphanies of learning about empathy and sympathy: Because it's very sad… make me feel sad and I remember the experience when I have travelled… and I saw the very old lady… and she sold something, cucumber or something in the basket. I feel uncomfortable, I want to help them… sympathetic… it was not good way to do that, I wanted to give the original price to buy all of them, | 3,069,632 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
not all of them, some of them… now, maybe in some cities… I also saw some, some situations like this where some poor guy er pick up some, pick up some boxes someone's thrown it and you know it's quite like rubbish, but he picked it up and eat something from it so make me er sympathetic er show sympathetic to him… [I -But do you learn that? Or is that just a feeling?] No I learn now, I want to maybe in the future I got some little rich, although I can, maybe I can be the richest person but I wanted to go in to the mountain and help some children. [F] Narratives of Learning the Importance of Certain Aspects of Character Another type of narrative of learning experience recalled through music concerned aspects of character. These participants' narratives stressed the importance of certain features of character or personality and their experience of learning the value of these qualities. Optimism. One participant responded to the Chinese piece of music paired with a Western piece of repetitive tempo and rhythm, by emphasizing the value of the need to be optimistic: "When I heard this music… remind me should optimistic with my life… similar as the first music I need to hurry up I need to keep steps everyday…" [B]. Being uncomplaining, patient and not arguing with others. In response to the reflective solo piano Western piece, one participant envisaged peaceful places with family memories: Learning not to be too proud. Another lesson related through the | 3,069,633 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
piece of music chosen in anticipation of triggering memories of challenges was of the danger of self-pride: [I -Does it remind you of any learning experiences?] Learning, er, it seems I too prouded of my study, too prouded… So if people have too prouded hisself or herself maybe… he won't help the others he think he's the best one… maybe will lost some friend, some study skills… And he won't want to study anymore because he think, he thought he's the best one. [G] Learning to be tolerant and honest. The music also triggered memories related to the importance of being tolerant and being honest. For example, in response to the slow reflective piece of solo piano music, some participants' narrations concluded that on reflection they had learned to be tolerant: Learning to trust others and have faith. In relation to the paired pieces chosen in anticipation of triggering celebration, participants spoke of the need to have trust in others and to keep faith: Just like I face on the river and… exciting but also… scary [I -What did you learn from that experience?] I think the faith is very important.… If you have faith you can keep conduct and if you not very strong faith you just mess up. [D] Learning the right temperament to be an artist. One participant recalled through the music a far distant childhood memory of how they learned to sketch from their mother. As this participant related: In my childhood I learned sketching from my mother.… She's a artist.… And | 3,069,634 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
sometimes she will play some music like this type… so I really I learn enjoy [I -OK, so Learning how to be brave and strong. In another narrative, the music recalled old Chinese movies, then lanterns and festivals and walking across an iron bridge with their grandmother. Much story-telling experience from their grandmother had taught them the importance of being brave and strong. In their strongly visualized account: It's hard to say… But I've, I've related like old Chinese movie… And people walking, walking on the street… just watch beautiful lanterns… we have a festival for to see the lanterns… and…when I was a young boy… my grandmother took me… to go the city centre… to see this, it's very deep memorise… and… if you want go the city centre you have a cross the iron bridge… It's very long bridge… And my grandmother will told me lots of story about she's young… [N -What did you learn from those experiences] All those stories, most part about she lives on the very poor… Er social environment… And she wants to leave… I think she is very brave… and… strong… and also… teach me… be a good man like she, brave and strong. [H] The importance of controlling your feelings. One participant, in response to a Chinese piece of music, recalled learning the importance of having the strength of character to keep focused, to remain hardworking, and not give up. The music had evoked a martial arts movie starring Jet Li, which connected with their own learning | 3,069,635 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
of the martial arts and how studying these arts had helped them learn to control their emotions. They had used this self-control significantly during their studies which helped them remain focused and calm in exams: A movie… Romeo Must Die… it just reminded me of Ju Jitsu… Er self-defense or, which I have been doing for many years ago… from that… I learned to maybe keep focus well I have actually learned really a lot from that… compared to, in relation to schools and stuff like that coz, you always see people like really stressed before an exam and, oh, don't know where to put their feelings and… I think I learned to control that from that action yeh, that's a good learning experience I've, I've probably used that a lot… doing my studies, also without knowing it when I think about it… I've used it. [J] Learning the value of hard work. In response to another Chinese piece of music, one participant, from China, narrated their graduation from primary school and how they got a big hug from their parents and teacher because of their hard work. They had thus learned to associate hard work with doing well, and that it was important to work hard in order to do well: Learning you need to try and persist. In response to a Western piece anticipated to recall studying through repetitive rhythms, one participant narrated how as a child they had made a toy car but because they were shy they had not entered it for | 3,069,636 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
a competition; they later learned that they would have won if they had joined the competition. In evaluating this experience, they learned the importance of the need to try: Also in relation to repetitive rhythmic music, another participant spoke of learning the need to persist, in the face of difficulties, narrating how when they were starting kite surfing they faced hard mental challenges but nevertheless they kept going: Discussion Here we've extended a previous Da Capo study of using music to elicit narratives (Pilcher et al., 2014) by exploring how music worked when it was used purely by itself; we broadened the scope to investigate experiences beyond the academic learning found in a degree program degree program Additionally, we extended the study to include both Western and Chinese music and also to play pieces both to participants from China and from Europe. Given our previous findings in which music generated narrative recall (Pilcher et al., 2014) we were anticipating that the music would generate experiences like those of graduation and of studying hard, and that narratives would recall learning in academic places such as the library. Also, that some participants would likely respond more to the music than others. Both these anticipations transpired to be accurate. First, a key finding here is that often the music chosen for its potential to trigger anticipated recall of types of learning experiences and memories did so with expected narratives of learning. Next, it is a clear limitation that the technique does not work successfully for everyone. However, when it | 3,069,637 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
did, we were surprised by the extent to which the music transported participants back to varied times and places in multi-dimensional learning experiences. Second, different types of music elicited different kinds of memories and greatly varied narratives of learning. Reflective music often evoked memories of reflection; large scale celebratory pieces often recalled narratives of success and minor key slow and melancholic extracts often elicited memories of challenging experiences. Yet, when this happened, some emerging narratives were not types we had expected, and some degree of unpredictability is both a risk and fascinating potential for qualitative exploration given individual responses and the emotive nature of music. A third major finding relates to dimensions of narratives of learning evoked by music here. They include: cognitive dimensions of academic learning; physical skill learning; learning life-lessons of character, morality and values; social, collaborative and teamwork learning; learning arts and aesthetics; affective dimensions of learning about emotions. Few of these dimensions were predicted. These outcomes demonstrate the potential of music to recall vividly remembered, multifaceted and unexpected ideas of learning. Based on a considerable range of examples which illustrate an unexpectedly broad range of dimensions of narratives of learning, we conclude that pre-selected music in qualitative inquiries can allow access to areas of richness and depth of experience that would not necessarily be recalled in response to other stimuli such as textually based questions. Regarding content, the nature and range of narratives of learning involved here shows wide potential application of music for qualitative researchers investigating other narrative areas. In addition | 3,069,638 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
to the cognitive learning experiences such as writing academic essays, taking exams, doing projects, giving presentations and graduating, we found physical learning experiences including: learning to ride a bike, roller skating, climbing and gymnastics. Memories of places, times and events evoked by the music turned out to be vivid and extensive in range, with describing the lifecycle of frogs, the colours of lamps, and details of childhood family activities. The range of arts featured learning experiences related to painting and calligraphy, dance, drama, poetry, film and storytelling, suggesting an aesthetic dimension: "Artists …they love the beauty and they feel more beautiful from the product"; "experience with companion…being able to see the beauty of the different aspects." In a dimension of morality, values and personal development participants highlighted aspects of character such as optimism, honesty, keeping faith, avoiding hubris, trusting others and always learning to try. Learning wider life-lessons included the need to retain a positive perspective on life, coming to terms with human nature, and the importance of family. Music is by nature very closely linked to emotion, and to a whole range of emotions (Meyer, 1956). Participants spontaneously affirmed this linkage: "I often tie emotions and music together," "I'm tying emotions and experience a lot to music." Experiences of learning emotions and of affective roles in learning permeated a surprising range of responses. The music unlocked memories of learning to manage stress, of coping with depression and despair, dealing with loss and loneliness, but also of experiencing tenderness and peacefulness, love, joy, empathy and hope, | 3,069,639 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
reveals the potential of affective dimensions of using a Da Capo technique. Clearly, there are caveats and limitations which go beyond the limited choice of music extracts and numbers or range of participants. The ability of music to access to such deep areas as character, values and emotions raises ethical issues (negative emotions mentioned quite often included stress, anxiety, struggle, pain, loneliness, failure, sadness, loss and despair). Whilst we initially stressed to participants that they should feel no need to relate anything they did not feel comfortable about, the range and nature of narratives elicited here suggests that this aspect should be highlighted. The surprise we sometimes felt when some narratives were recounted was also felt by the participants, and this possibility of surprise might also be signalled in advance as an ethical precaution. At this stage in our research of using music to stimulate narratives, there is much more to explore about how the technique works: this study is still only very preliminary. Nevertheless, some applications can be envisaged. Some narratives are useful material for workshops related to learning and personal, social and academic development, such as those illustrating experiences of coping with problems arising during academic study. Such workshops might be held for students starting at university, or to learners in secondary schools, for reflective discussion around issues of learning and both successes and challenges. These narratives show the integrated and holistic nature of "learning" (cognitive-physicalsocial-affective-moral-aesthetic dimensions) and how learning takes place often symbiotically in and outside formal educational settings. Although narrative experiences are | 3,069,640 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
often highly individual in context, they have general value when used in discussion sessions with other students, say concerning the importance and role that non-academic learning and social experiences play in someone's academic success. Beyond this, we believe these recounted narratives indicate wider application of the use of the Da Capo technique that may have the greatest implications for researchers seeking in-depth data that could complement or combine with data obtained through more conventional methods. This applies to a wide range of areas such as marketing (Alpert & Alpert, 2006) and therapy (Kemper & Danhauer, 2005). For example, music-inspired narratives could stimulate the verbalization of past or present everyday experiences of patients with dementia (Sixsmith & Gibson, 2007) or those recovering from a long-term illness to recall critical past memories. Narratives inspired by music can extend experiential ways to integrate dimensions of learning as presented to teachers and students; this could combine cognitive, social and cultural aspects of academic learning (Illeris, 2018;Joyce, Calhoun, & Hopkins, 2008) or integrate social, cultural, moral and spiritual views of learning (Best, 2000;Eaude, 2008) or physical and aesthetic learning (Abbs, 1994;Bresler, 2004). In comparative or cross-cultural directions, the traditional Chinese music used here could inspire participants from China to gather more details about childhood and life perspectives of different generations. Similarly, traditional music from other countries could help to explore cross-cultural studies or collect life stories of migrant families. Music could be used to stimulate narratives with senior managers, executives and staff nearing retirement about key career moments in their careers | 3,069,641 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
and life work. Most obviously, in narrative research (e.g., Chafe, 1980;Cortazzi, 1993), there could be fuller exploration and analysis of narratives themselves gained through the Da Capo technique. Our aim here was to study the potential of music itself as a standalone research approach to generate narratives. Any narrative or narrative category could have been explored in more depth, say to explore narrative expression of loneliness, anxiety, stress and fear, or of trust, sacrifice and family values, perhaps oriented to social-moral education, guidance and counselling. Here we have chosen the music we used. Alternatively, in future research, participants could be invited to bring their own pieces of music which they feel mean a lot to them and the discussion and narrating could then focus on these; a combination of researcher-and participant-chosen pieces could be used. We hope that developing the Da Capo technique has successfully demonstrated the innovative potential and power of music to evoke and stimulate narratives for qualitative researchers to take such research further and use music in their own qualitative studies. To do so is, in a way, to go back over something already played (as in music) but usually engaging in it in a different way with other nuances (Da Capo). | 3,069,642 | 192781698 | 0 | 16 |
Molecular characterization of organic aerosol in Himalayas : insight from 1 ultra-high resolution mass spectrometry 2 Abstract. An increasing trend in aerosol concentration has been observed in Himalayas in recent years, but the understanding of the chemical composition and sources of aerosol remains poor. In this study, molecular chemical composition of water soluble organic matter (WSOM) from two filter samples (denoted as F30 and F43) collected during high aerosol loading periods at a high altitude station (Qomolangma Station, QOMS, 4276 m a.s.l.) in the northern Himalayas were identified by positive electrospray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (ESI-FTICR-MS). More than 4500 molecular formulas were identified in each filter sample which were classified into two compound groups (CHO and CHON) based on their elemental composition with both accounting for nearly equal contributions in number (45 %–55 %). The relative abundance weighted mole ratio of O / Cw for F30 and F43 are 0.43 and 0.38, respectively, and the weighted double bond equivalent (DBEw), an index for the saturation of organic molecules, were 6.26 and 6.92, respectively, suggesting their medium oxidation and saturation degrees. Although the O / Cw mole ratio was comparable for CHO and CHON compounds, the DBEw was significant higher in CHON compounds than CHO compounds. More than 50 % molecular formulas in Van Krevelen (VK) diagram (H / C vs. O / C) located in 1–1.5 (H / C) and 0.2–0.6 (O / C) regions, suggesting potential lignin-like compounds. The distributions of CHO and CHON compounds in VK diagram, DBE vs. number | 3,069,643 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
of C atoms, and other diagnose diagrams showed highly similarities between each other suggesting their similar source and/or atmospheric processes. Detailed molecular information in the common formula of these two filters was explored. Many formulas with their homologous series of compounds formed from biogenic volatile organic compounds and biomass mass burning emitted compounds were found in the WSOM with high relative abundance suggesting the important contribution of these two sources in Himalayas. The high DBE and high nitrogen containing of aerosol would have important implication for aerosol light absorption and biogeochemical cycle in this remote region. Introduction Elevated pollutant concentrations has been frequently observed over Himalayas during premonsoon period (March to June) (Bonasoni et al., 2010).The high aerosol loading plume are originated from the southern regions of Himalayas such as northwestern India and/or Indian Gangetic region based on air mass back trajectory analysis and satellite observation (Liu et al., 2008;Lu et al., 2012;Lüthi et al., 2015).In recent decades, due to increased consumption on fuels (including biofuels and fossil fuels) by industry and residents, air pollution has been a serious issue in South Asia (Gustafsson et al., 2009).Accompany with favorable atmospheric circulation, air pollutants emitted or formed in these regions can be fast transported to Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau (HTP) (Xia et al., 2011). Elevated aerosol concentration for the pristine region of the HTP is thought to have essential climate and environment effects.For example, the transported aerosol could heat the air at the higher layer of troposphere over the HTP and impact on the monsoon system of | 3,069,644 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
south Asia and accelerate the melting of glacier in Himalayas (Lau et al., 2006;Ramanathan et al., 2007).This heating effect is predominantly from the light absorbing particular aerosol (LAPA) such as black carbon (BC) and brown carbon which is part of organic aerosol (OA) (Ram et al., 2010;Zhang et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2017).BC come from incomplete combustion and dominates the absorption of LAPA; Brown carbon could from many processes such as primary emission and secondary process and have an increasing contribution (up to ~20%) to the light absorption in recent years (Laskin et al., 2015).Many studies show that open biomass burning is an important source of BC and brown carbon (e. g., Saleh et al., 2014), which is very popular in developing regions in the southern of Himalayas.However, high elevation and mixed biomass fuels in these regions could make the evolution of biomass burning emission more complicated and the chemical information of OA remains poorly characterized so far (Fleming et al., 2018). The details on the molecular composition of OA are important for understanding the sources and chemical evolution of OA (Laskin et al., 2018).Previous studies conducted in the HTP have focused on a limited number of molecular markers such as organic acids which are closely related with biomass burning emission (Cong et al., 2015), and some toxicology species such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) which are related with anthropogenic activities (Wang et al., 2015;Wang et al., 2016).In addition, online measurement using Aerodyne high resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) had | 3,069,645 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
provided more details on the OA chemistry and sources with high time resolution (Xu et al., 2018).However, different instrument has its limitations on OA detection and ultra-high mass resolution of mass spectrometry which can identify a large number of molecular formulas is lacking. Electrospray ionization (ESI) with ultrahigh-resolution Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS) can be used to identify the individual molecular formula of complex mixture because of its extremely high resolution and mass accuracy (Mazzoleni et al., 2010).In this study, we focus on the comprehensive characterization of the molecule composition of water soluble organic compound in fine particle aerosol collected in the northern slope of central Himalayas using positive mode ESI-FTICR-MS. Aerosol sampling Field study was conducted at the Qomolangma Station (QOMS, 28.36° N, 86.95° E, 4276 m a.s.l.) located at the toe of Mt.Qomolangma from Apr. 12 to May 12, 2016 using a suit of instruments (Zhang et al., 2018b), and the instruments used in this study includes a HR-ToF-AMS (Aerodyne Research Inc., Billerica, MA, USA) for 5-min size-resolved chemical compositions (organics, sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, and chloride) of non-refractory submicron particulate matter (NR-PM 1 ) and a photoacoustic extinctionmeter (PAX, DMT Inc., Boulder, CO, USA) for BC mass concentration.The QOMS observatory locates at a remote site with sparse local residents and anthropogenic activities around it, except for a high way for the tourism to the west about 500 m.The tourists are normally increased from June each year due to the warmer weather during summer.The weather at the QOMS during the field study was | 3,069,646 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
dominated by westerlies with the prevailed wind from west and southwest with an average air temperature of 5.7 ± 5.0 °C.A low-volume (16.7 L min -1 ) particular matter (PM) sampler (BGI, USA, model PQ 200) with an aerodyne diameter cutoff of 2.5 µm at the inlet was used to collect PM 2.5 filter samples on pre-baked quartz fiber filters (47 mm, Pall Life Science, NY, USA).Due to the low aerosol loading at this remote region, two days sampling strategy was adapted for each filter collection starting from 8:00 am to 7:45 am at the day after tomorrow (local time).A total of 18 filter samples were collected during the field study with three procedure blanks which were used to assess potential contamination during sampling and transportation.The sampling air volume ranged from 35.1 to 48.1 m 3 at ambient conditions.Two filter samples collected during Apr. 25 -27 (F30) and Apr.29 -May 1 (F43) were chosen in this study due to the relative higher aerosol loading based on HR-ToF-AMS results (section 3.1) and distinct particulate matter on the filter.In addition, the temporal variations of aerosol concentration recorded by HR-ToF-AMS during these two filter periods shown a smoothly increase indicating a regional transportation which could be typical long-range transport events at this region. Chemical analysis For FTICR-MS analysis, these two filters were firstly extracted in 20 mL Milli-Q water in an ultrasonic bath for 30 min and filtered using 0.45 µm pore-size Acrodisc syringe filters to remove water insoluble matter (Pall Science, USA).Prior to FTICR-MS analysis, the extraction was | 3,069,647 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
concentrated and purification using PPL (Agilent Bond Elut-PPL cartridges, 500 mg, 6 mL) solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridges for water soluble organic matter (WSOM).Note that through SPE cartridge, the most hydrophilic compounds such as inorganic ions, and lowmolecular-weight organic molecules such as organic acids and sugars were removed, whereas the relatively hydrophobic fraction was retained.The details on the SPE method using PPL cartridges and analysis by FTICR-MS can be found in our previous paper (Feng et al., 2016). Briefly, the mass spectrometry analyses of these samples were performed using a SolariX XR FT-ICR-MS (Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Bremen, Germany) equipped with a 9.4 T refrigerated actively shielded superconducting magnet (Bruker Biospin, Wissembourg, France) and a Paracell analyzer cell.The samples were ionized in positive ion modes using the ESI ion source (Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Bremen, Germany).A typical mass-resolving power of >400 000 was achieved at m/z 400 with an absolute mass error of <0.5 ppm.Molecular formulas were assigned to all ions with signal-to-noise ratios of greater than 10 with a mass tolerance of ±1.5 ppm using custom software.Molecular formulas with their maximum numbers of atoms were defined as: 30 12 C, 60 1 H, 20 16 O, 3 14 N, 1 32 S, 1 13 C, 1 18 O and 1 34 S. Identified formulas containing isotopomers (i.e., 13 C, 18 O or 34 S) were not considered.Compounds were detected as either sodium adducts, [M + Na] + , or protonated species, [M + H] -.We report all detected compounds as neutral species, unless stated otherwise. Data processing | 3,069,648 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
The assigned molecular formulas were examined using the van Krevelen diagram (Wu et al., 2004), double-bond equivalents (DBEs), Kendrick mass defects (KMD) series, and aromatic indices (AI mod ).The O/C and H/C ratios were calculated by dividing the number of O and H atoms, respectively, by the number of C atoms in a formula.DBE analysis was used to determine the number of rings and double bonds in a molecule.The DBE was calculated using equation 1, where c, h, and n are the numbers of C, H, and N atoms, respectively, in the formula. The KMD can be used to search for potential oligomeric units (Hughey et al., 2001).The Kendrick mass (KM) and KMD for CH 2 series were calculated using equations 2 and 3, KM = observed mass × 14/14.01565,(2) where 14 is the nominal mass (NM) of CH 2 , 14.01565 is the exact mass of CH 2 , and NM is KM rounded to the nearest integer.A homologous series of compounds differing only by the number of base units form a horizontal line in a plot of KMD against KM. AI mod is a measure of the probable aromaticity of a molecule assuming that half the O atoms are double bonded and half have only σ bonds (Koch and Dittmar, 2006).AI mod was calculated using equation 4, where c, o, and h are the number of C, O, H, and N atoms in the formula.AI mod ranges from 0 for a purely aliphatic compound to higher values being found for compounds with more double | 3,069,649 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
bonds and that are more aromatic. Chemical characterization of PM 1 during F30 and F43 measured by HR-ToF-AMS The average mass concentration and chemical composition measured by HR-ToF-AMS during F30 and F43 periods were shown in Fig. 1.The mass concentration of PM 1 were 9.2 and 10.6 µg m -3 , respectively, which were at the high range of all filters (1.3 -10.6 µg m -3 ) because of a continuous long-range transport event at the QOMS (Zhang et al., 2018b).Due to our sample processing error, the mass concentration of filter measured gravimetrically could not be used and thus the fractions of PM 1 to PM 2.5 are not available.However, most of WSOM in PM 2.5 is in accumulation size mode (less than 1µm) which could be detected by HR-ToF-AMS.The chemical composition of PM 1 during F30 and F43 were all dominated by OA (55% and 57%), followed by BC (26% and 22%), sulfate (7% and 8%), nitrate (5% and 6%), and ammonium (5% and 6%).The OA was comprised by biomass burning emitted OA (BBOA), nitrogen-contained OA (NOA), and more-oxidized oxygenated OA (MO-OOA) decomposed by positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis (Fig. 1).The mass contribution of BBOA was higher during F43 than F30 (32% vs. 22%), whereas the contribution of MO-OOA was higher during F30 than F43 (24% vs. 16%).The mass spectra of OA for these two filter periods were closely similar with a person correlation efficiency (r) being 0.9.The elemental ratios of oxygen (O) to carbon (C) of OA were 1.04 and 0.97 for F30 and | 3,069,650 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
F43 periods (IA method, Canagaratna et al., 2015), respectively, and accordingly the ratios of hydrogen (H) to C were 1.26 and 1.32.These suggest that the OA during F43 was relatively less oxidized than that during F30 (t-test, p<0.05).The six there were many fire spots during these two periods (Fig. 2).The air mass during F43 was partly (13%) transport with low wind speed and short distance (less than 100 km) indicating some potential fresh OA. The chemical characteristics of WSOM from ESI-FTICR-MS A total of 4554 and 5192 molecular formulas was identified by ESI(+)-FTICT-MS over the mass range of 100-700 Da for F30 and F43, respectively.The identified molecular formulas were grouped into two subgroups based on their elemental composition, i.e., CHO and CHON, all of which had equal important contribution (45% -55%) in number (Fig. 3).Note that individual species in the ESI-FTICR-MS mass spectra could have many different isomeric structures, then the percentages reflect only the number of unique molecular formulas and do not reflect the number of unique molecular formulas in each category.Although there exists the difference on ionization sensitivity of ESI(+) between different studies, the contribution of CHON in our study is higher than the results before (10% -30%) (Laskin et al., 2009;Dzepina et al., 2015).The distinct contribution of CHON compounds in ESI-FTICR-MS mass spectra is consistent with the results of HR-ToF-AMS which identified a separate NOA factor in PMF analysis.The mass spectra of these two samples were highly similar in the distributions of molecular relative intensity (RI) (Fig. 3).The most abundant peaks were a | 3,069,651 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
series of CHO compounds cationized by Na + (RI>20%, C 19 H 28 O 3 (C 2 H 4 O) n=0-6 Na + ).These compounds were most likely to contain carboxylic acid groups that readily form [M + Na] + ions in the positive mode electrospray ionization (Smith et al., 2009).The average weighted element ratios of F30 and F45 were 0.43 vs. 0.38 for O/C w , 1.38 vs. 1.33 for H/C w , and 1.72 vs. 1.67 for OM/OC w (Table 1), suggesting a relative higher oxidation and saturation degree for F30 than F43.These trends are similar with those of HR-ToF-AMS results, although the elemental ratios are different between them which is due to the difference on the detection range of m/z and the ionization efficiency of different mass spectrometry (ESI vs. EI) (Yu et al., 2016).The elemental ratios of WSOM from ESI-FTICR-MS in our study are similar with those results observed in aerosol samples in remote site using ESI-FTICR-MS (e.g., 0.35 -0.53 for O/C) (Table 2).The CHO compounds had relatively higher O/C w ratio than that of CHON compounds in these two samples and CHO compounds were more saturated with a higher H/C w ratio than CHON (Table 1).The O/C and H/C in Van Krevelen diagrams (Wu et al., 2004) for these two filters and the subgroup molecular show similar distributions and all concentrate in 1.2-1.8 for H/C and 0.3-0.7 for O/C (Fig. 3) suggesting their similar aerosol sources and atmospheric processes.The similar distributions for these two filters are also observed in KMD vs. | 3,069,652 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
KM plots and located in a narrow and uniform distribution, which are similar with highly processed aerosol found at the Pico Mountain Observatory (Dzepina et al., 2015). Structural information for the assigned molecular formulas is inferred from the DBE w value which was higher for F43 than that of F30 (6.92 vs. 6.26)(Table 1).Comparing with other studies, the DBE values in our filter is relative lower than those in fresh emitted aerosol from fuel combustion (5 -9.5) (Song et al., 2018), but close to the results from biomass burning aerosol and aerosol samples from remote sites (Table 2) (Dzepina et al., 2015).The DBE w values for each molecule subgroup were higher for CHON than that of CHO (Table 1), especially for F43 (7.46 vs. 6.69)suggesting more rings and double bonds in CHON molecular.The AI mod , reflecting the minimum number of carbon-carbon double bonds and rings (Koch and Dittmar, 2006), was correspondingly higher in F43 which contained 49.1% aliphatic (60.4% in F30), 45.9% olefinic (36.8% in F30), and 5.1% aromatic compounds (2.9% in F30).For aromatic compounds (AI mod >=0.5) in F43, ~60% of them were CHON formulas (39% for F30) (Table 1). A distinct group of CHON aromatic compounds is shown in lower left corner in Van Krevelen diagram for F43 but not for F30 (Fig. 3).Higher DBE and AI mod values in CHON compounds suggest more unsaturated compounds with them which could contain a certain number of chromophores.The distribution of DBE vs. carbon number of two filters showed a systematic increase in a concentrated region | 3,069,653 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
and a highly similarity with each other.This similarity further suggests the consistent source and chemical processes for the aerosol of these two filters. There were 3700 common molecular formulas between these two filters with the number contribution of CHO by 47% and CHON by 53%.These common molecular formulas accounted for 81% (F30) and 71% (F43) of two filters, respectively.There were 619 unique molecular formulas in F30 with 91% being CHO compounds; whereas there were 1142 unique molecular formulas in F43 with 62% being CHON compounds.For more confidence on molecule assignment, we focus on the common molecular formulas detected in these two samples in the section below. CHO compounds CHO compounds have been frequently detected in ambient aerosol samples (Altieri et al., 2009a;Mazzoleni et al., 2010;Lin et al., 2012;Fleming et al., 2018), which could comprise of high molecule weight humic-like substances (HULIS) or oligomers, and from primary emission or secondary formation of different aerosol sources (Mazzoleni et al., 2012;Wozniak et al., 2014;Lin et al., 2016;Cook et al., 2017).In our samples, the weighted molecule weight of CHO compounds was 363.7 with an average C atom of 19.1 ± 5.3 per molecule; the most abundant O atoms located in 5-10 with an average value of 7.6 ± 2.9 per molecule (Fig. 4a and b).Among the 1744 common CHO formulas, 388 of them (22%) are observed as [M + Na + ] ions with the majority of detected as protonated species.The most abundant sodiated molecules in the ESI/MS ranged in m/z 350-550, whereas the most abundant protonated species ranged in | 3,069,654 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
m/z 200-350. The DBE of CHO increased with the carbon number with the DBE w being 5.96 (Fig. 3); the carbon-normalized DBE w (DBE/C w ) was 0.33 (Table 1).These two values were close to the results from biomass burning aerosol samples in other studies (Table 2) (Lin et al., 2012;Mazzoleni et al., 2012).A threshold DBE/C value of 0.7 usually serves as a criterion to identify species with condensed aromatic ring structures and therefore the CHO compounds in our samples were relative low aromaticity likely due to the relative long oxygenation time during long-range transport.The Carbon oxidation state (OSc) values (Kroll et al., 2011), a useful metric for the degree of oxidation of organic species in the atmosphere, exhibited between -1 and 0 with 25 or less carbon atoms, suggesting that they are semi-and low-volatile organic compounds corresponding to "fresh" (BBOA) and "aged" (LV-OOA) SOA by multistep oxidation reactions (Fig. 4c). There are several possible sources and chemical formation pathways for high oxygen-containing CHO compounds.Ozonolysis of α-pinene has been found to form highly oxygenated molecules, (Claeys et al., 2007;Kleindienst et al., 2007;Zhang et al., 2018a).We also observed formulas that could be lignin pyrolysis products such as vanillic acid (Fleming et al., 2018) were also found in our samples. CHON compounds The frequency distribution for n o and n c in CHON formulas were shown in with DBE w being 6.79 (Fig. 5b).In the CHON + class, compounds contained one or two nitrogen (1N or 2N) atoms with 1N compounds accounting for 70.5% and 2N for 29.5%, | 3,069,655 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
respectively. Most (98%) of 1N compounds contained more than 3 oxygen atoms and could up to 13 oxygen atoms, whereas about 62.5% of 2N compounds contained more than 6 oxygen atoms (Fig. 6a). The average O atom containing in each molecular formula was therefore higher for 1N compounds than 2N compounds (8.1 ± 2.9 vs. 6.3 ± 2.3).The high O atom containing in CHON formula suggest that nitrogen was in the form of organic nitrate or nitro groups with excess oxygen forming additional oxygenated groups.The ratios of O/C w and OSc w for 1N compounds were accordingly higher than that of 2N compounds (0.42 vs. 0.37 for O/C w ; −0.48 vs. −0.54for OSc w ), suggesting higher oxidation state for 1N compounds (Fig. 5c).In contrast, the DBE w and AI mod values for 2N compounds were higher than that of 1N compounds (Table 1).With higher H/C w for 2N compounds (Table 1), it suggests that 2N compounds could contain amount of aromatic N-heterocyclic compounds.For 1N compounds, longer and higher relative intensity CH 2 homologous series compounds were found based on the Kendrick mass defect plot (Fig. 6b); 1073 of the 1378 detected 1N compounds can be grouped into 145 homologous.The abundant long CH 2 homologous series in 1N compounds contained 7-10 O atoms, while 5-8 O atoms for 2N compounds (Fig. 6). There are many potential sources for CHON compounds, such as amino acids, reduced N compounds, nitro compounds, and organic nitrate (Altieri et al., 2009b;Laskin et al., 2009;O'Brien et al., 2013).Biomass burning has been | 3,069,656 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
found to be an important source for nitrogencontaining compounds in atmosphere (Hoffmann et al., 2007).Laskin et al. (2009) identified amount of N-heterocyclic alkaloid compounds from kinds of fresh biomass burning aerosol.Fleming et al. (2018) conducted study in Nepal by collecting fresh emitted aerosol from dung and brushwood burning household cookstoves and identified amount of nitrogen-containing aerosol.Oxygenated organic nitrogen compounds in ambient aerosol (Dzepina et al., 2015), rain water (Altieri et al., 2009b), and fog water (Mazzoleni et al., 2010) from biomass burning emission influenced regions were also observed.Although the dominated CHN compounds in fresh aerosol in Laskin et al. (2009) and Fleming et al. (2018) were not found in our study which was likely due to the highly oxygenated OA in our samples, biomass burning emissions could be an important source for CHON compounds in our study.Recent studies have proven that burning of dung-fuel in Nepal can emit amount of nitrogen species such as NH 3 , NO x , HCN, benzene, and organics, and the emission factors for these species are higher than that of wood (Stockwell et al., 2016;Jayarathne et al., 2018).In addition, it is likely that smoldering burning of bio-fuels in high elevation area is also responsible for the presence of a large number of nitrogencontaining compounds in BBOA.Nitroaromatic compounds such as Methyl-Nitrocatechols (C 7 H 7 NO 4 ) are introduced to be tracer for biomass burning secondary organic aerosols (Iinuma et al., 2010).Although C 7 H 7 NO 4 formula is not found in our measurement, C 14 H 14 N | 3,069,657 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
2 O 8 were found in our measurement, of which is probably its dimer formula.In addition, the homologous series compounds which C 7 H 7 NO 4 serve as the core molecule was also found in our samples.(Song et al., 2018). Besides primary emission and/or secondary formation from biomass burning emission, nitrogencontaining OA could also be formed through other chemical processes.For example, biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOC) can react with NO 3 radical or RO 2 +NO into organic nitrate (Ng et al., 2017).Although organic nitrate is not favored to be ionized in positive ESI-MS (Wan and Yu, 2006), organic nitrate formed from BVOC could be highly functionalized (Lee et al., 2016) and ionized in positive MS through other alkaline functional groups.Recent studies have shown that BVOC, including isoprene (C 5 H 8 ) and monoterpenes (C 10 H 16 ), dominate the organic nitrate formation in the southeastern United States under the condition of the mixed anthropogenic NO x and BVOC (Xu et al., 2014;Lee et al., 2016;Zhang et al., 2018a) (Lee et al., 2016;Zhang et al., 2018a).Additionally, some alkaloids, such as imidazole, imidazole-2-carboxaldehyde and 1N-glyoxal-substittuted imidazole, are also reported to be major products of BVOC reaction with ammonium ions or primary amines on SOA (De Haan et al., 2009;Galloway et al., 2009;Updyke et al., 2012).Imidazole signal was found in our HR-ToF-AMS measurement. Implications This study analyzed the WSOM using ESI(+)-FTICR-MS in fine particular aerosol from Himalayas and found that the molecular compositions of WSOM were mainly comprised by CHO and CHON compounds with equal | 3,069,658 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
important contribution.The two compounds could be originated from biomass burning emission and BVOC oxidation of which many markers were found in these molecular compounds.All our compounds had relatively high DBE values suggesting potential high light absorption feature.Due to their relative high mass concentration and high contribution of nitrogen-containing compounds (7.6% of PM 1 ) based on HR-ToF-AMS results, it is believe that the aerosol transported to Himalayas have important application in atmospheric radiative forcing and biogeochemical effects.Ramanathan and Carmichael (2008) found distinct warming effect of light absorbing aerosol over Himalayas through estimating aerosol radiative forcing by BC.However, light-absorbing OA (brown carbon) could also be another important light absorbing aerosol due to their large fraction of atmospheric aerosol loading (Laskin et al., 2015).Zhang et al. (2017) estimated the light absorption contribution of brown carbon from inland of the TP which was up to ~13% of that of BC.The high DBE and nitrogen-containing OA in our study suggested aerosol in Himalayas could contain amount of light-absorbing organic matter because light absorption properties of organic molecules are closely related with the number of double bonds and rings in the molecule and nitrogen atoms.Many studies had found that the dominated chemical molecules in the brown carbon were related with nitrogen-containing aerosol (e.g., Lin et al., 2016).This kind of aerosol combined with BC could have higher radiative forcing than before in this area. In addition, nitrogen is an important nutrient for plant and microbial in terrestrial and aquatic systems especially for arid and semi-arid areas (Andreae and Crutzen, 1997).Chen et al. | 3,069,659 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
(2013) evaluated the potential biogeochemical cycle in the TP under the current rapidly climate change and suggested that nitrogen availability plays a critical role in controlling ecological production because nitrogen is a limited nutrient in many ecosystems.To our knowledge, there was no study focusing on the organic nitrogen deposition in this remote region, but only on inorganic nitrogen species (Liu et al., 2015).Organic nitrogen is an important source of nitrogen (Neff et al., 2002), and should be taken account in the future study. | 3,069,660 | 56134976 | 0 | 16 |
Identification of Notch-1 expression in the limbal basal epithelium Purpose To determine whether Notch-1, a ligand-activated transmembrane receptor known to maintain cells in an undifferentiated state, primarily progenitor cells in other systems, could be used as a stem cell marker in human limbal epithelium. Methods Human corneoscleral tissues obtained from the Doheny Eye & Tissue Transplant Bank were prepared for cross section and whole mount analysis. Tissue for whole mount was incubated in dispase; the epithelial sheet was removed and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde. Sections and whole mount were stained with antibodies against Notch-1, Notch-2, β-1 integrin, α-6, and the G2 subtype member of the ATP binding cassette transporter (ABCG2). Specificity of the Notch-1 antibody was determined by western blot analysis with Cos-7 cells transfected with Notch-1. Explant culture was performed and only primary cultures were used in this experiment. Results Notch-1 was found to be expressed in the limbal basal region where stem cells reside. Notch-1 antigenicity was more pronounced in cell clusters, mainly in the palisades of Vogt. The central cornea was almost devoid of Notch-1. The intensity of Notch-1 staining in cultured cells from the limbal explants was high in only a few cells. The Notch-1 signal was diminished in dividing cells. Expression in cultured cells was more cytoplasmic; few cells showed additional nuclear staining. The Notch-1-stained whole mount showed only a few cells in the limbal region. A 300 kDa and a 110 kDa band confirmed the specificity of the antibody in Cos-7 cells transfected with Notch-1. Double staining for ABCG2 and | 3,069,661 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
Notch-1 showed some ABCG2-positive cells co-expressing Notch-1 in the limbal basal epithelium, indicating that Notch-1-expressing cells might be a unique subpopulation of cells with stem cell properties. Conclusions Immunofluorescence data shows that Notch-1 could be a possible marker for the stem cells in the limbal basal epithelium. Further studies and characterization of the Notch pathway in corneal development will provide valuable clues for the identification of stem cells. The cornea is a complex, multilayered, multifunctional structure that provides photo protection, refraction, and transparency and helps protect internal ocular structures. Its outermost layer is the corneal epithelium, which plays a significant role in maintaining transparency. Corneal epithelium undergoes continuous self-renewal, through the actions of the stem cells in the palisades of Vogt in the corneal limbus [1][2][3]. These slow cycling, relatively undifferentiated, limbal stem cells have high proliferative potential [4,5]. The limbal stem cells generate transient amplifying cells (TAC) that migrate to the central cornea, which is devoid of stem cells [6]. The TAC, with only limited proliferative capacity, subsequently enter into a terminal differentiation pathway. A deficiency of limbal stem cells, caused by chemical trauma (chemical injury) or by eye diseases such as Stevens-Johnson syndrome or ocular cicatricial pemphigoid, is a major cause of visual impairment in humans. In persons with limbal stem cell deficiency, the adjacent conjunctival cells migrate to the cornea, causing corneal opacification and subsequent functional blindness. Since limbal stem cells are re-quired to restore the corneal epithelium, conventional corneal transplantation is unsuccessful for the above diseases. Recent therapeutic interventions demonstrate that stem | 3,069,662 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
cell allograft transplantation can restore vision in patients with limbal stem cell deficiency [7][8][9]. The ex vivo expansion of limbal stem cells was a significant milestone for restoration of corneal epithelial integrity through transplantation [10][11][12]. However, since the limbal epithelium consists of three cell types: stem cells, TAC, and differentiated cells, isolating a pure population of stem cells is difficult [6]. Although a wide variety of stem cell markers have been proposed, no known marker or method is available to differentiate stem cells from TAC in the corneal epithelium. However, advances in stem cell research in hematopoietic, neural, and epidermal systems help us to borrow some of the stem/ progenitor cell markers and might also be usable as limbal stem cell markers. In a hematopoietic system, stem cells can be isolated using specific markers and with side scatter as the main parameter [13]. Beta-1 integrin showed a two-to threefold increase in intensity in epidermal stem cells, compared with the epidermal TAC [14]. This same phenomenon is observed in human hair follicles [15][16][17]. Because corneal epithelium and epidermal keratinocytes have similar characteristics, we undertook an immunohistochemical characterization of the β-1 integrin and α-6 integrin. Some reports suggest that the G2 subtype member of the ATP binding cassette transporter (ABCG2) may act as a stem cell marker since it is expressed exclusively in the limbal zone and believed to be responsible for the side population phenotype of the ocular surface epithelium [18,19] which exhibits stem cell properties. We also analyzed the expression pattern of ABCG2 in the limbal | 3,069,663 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
and central corneal epithelium. Previous reports suggest the role played by Notch family members in maintaining stem cells in neural and hematopoietic systems might also apply to corneal epithelial stem cells. Notch transmembrane receptor 1 (Notch 1) and the other family members are highly conserved, and play crucial roles in determining cell fates and developmental processes through cell to cell interactions [20,21]. In the presence of the ligand, notch receptors undergo sequential proteolytic cleavage steps that ultimately release the intracellular domain from the membrane. Modulation of the Notch pathway revealed its role in differentiation, proliferation, and self-renewal mainly in the neural and hematopoietic systems [22]. In the hematopoietic system, Notch receptors are found in early stem cells and their ligands are found in the bone marrow stroma [23]. Notch members are reportedly essential for maintenance, but not for the generation, of neural stem cells in mammals [24]. In mice, the Notch signals have a profound effect on the proliferative potential of the progenitors in the intestine [25]. Inactivation of Notch-1 in young mice caused the development of opaque plaques in the cornea, leading to blindness [26]. Impaired differentiation of prostatic epithelial cells was found in Notch-1 conditional knockout mice [27]. Because Notch-1 plays an active role in maintaining progenitor cells in an undifferentiated manner in several systems, we decided to evaluate its role in limbal stem cells to determine whether it could be a marker for isolating and enriching stem cells to improve transplantation. METHODS Reagents: Epilife corneal growth medium was purchased from Cascade Biologicals (Portland, | 3,069,664 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
OR). Notch-1 and Notch-2 antibodies were purchased from the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank, University of Iowa (Iowa City, IA), and α-6 integrin (GOH3) from Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc (Santa Cruz, CA). GAPDH antibody, β-1 integrin antibody, and ABCG2 antibody were purchased from Chemicon (Temecula, CA).The secondary antibodies for immunofluorescence and the HRP conjugated secondary antibody for western blotting were purchased from Jackson Immunoresearch (West Grove, PA). The research grade chemicals for western blot were obtained from Roche Applied Sciences (Indianapolis, IN). Cell culture: Research grade human corneoscleral tissues were obtained from the Doheny Eye & Tissue Transplant Bank (Los Angeles, CA). All tissues used for this study were stored for less than 4 days in preservative (Optisol-GS; Baush and Lomb, Rochester, NY). Human tissue was handled according to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Explant culture was done according to established protocols [28,29] after minor modifications. Briefly, the central portions of cornea were removed by careful trephination. The excess sclera, conjunctiva, and iris were also removed. The limbal rim was cut into pieces of about 2x2 mm 2 . Each piece was put on a cover slip inside a culture dish and covered with a drop of Epilife growth media with human corneal growth supplement (HCGS). The explants were then cultured in the same media. Only primary cultures were used in this experiment. Immunofluorescence: Immunofluorescence staining was performed according to previously reported methods [30]. In brief, cells were washed once with phosphate-buffered saline, fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 10 min, and then washed and blocked | 3,069,665 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
with 5% bovine serum albumin for 15 min. The cells were incubated in primary antibody (α-6 1:50, β-1 1:100, Notch-1 1:10, and ABCG2 1:20) for 1 h at 37 °C, then washed with phosphate-buffered saline 3 times for 5 min each. The cells were then incubated in secondary antibody at a dilution of 1:40 for 45 min, washed 3 times, and mounted with antifade mounting medium (Vectashield, Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA). Cryosectioned corneal buttons were stained with the antibodies using a similar protocol and analyzed by confocal microscope (Carl Zeiss Meditec, Oberkochen, Germany). The epithelial sheet was removed from the stroma by dispase digestion using the established protocol and processed for whole mount [31]. Briefly, after the rims were rubbed off, the endothelium and uvea were put in dispase 50 mg/ml for 18 h at 4 °C with moderate shaking. Under a dissecting microscope, the already loose epithelial sheet was separated with a flat-edged spatula. The whole mount was stained for β-1 integrin, Notch-1, and ABCG2. All immunofluorescence was performed with negative controls by incubating the sections with PBS in place of the primary antibody. Western blot analysis: Notch-1 cDNA, obtained as a gift from Dr. Spyros Artavanis-Tsakonas, was transfected into the Cos-7 cell line. The Cos-7 cells were plated one day before transfection. When the cells attained 60-80% confluence, they were transfected with DNA-TransFectin (Bio Rad, Hercules, CA) complex (a reaction mixture consisted of 2 ug of Notch 1 plasmid DNA in 100 µl of the media and 8 µl of the TransFectin reagent). Twenty-four | 3,069,666 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
h after transfection, cells were collected and lysed for protein extraction and used for western blotting. Protein concentration was determined using the Bradford assay (BioRad). Identical amounts of protein were separated on 10% SDS/PAGE and electroblotted onto polyvinylidene fluoride membrane (Pall Life Sciences, Ann Arbor, MI). The transfer was monitored by a prestained protein molecular weight marker (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). After transfer, blots were probed with hybridoma supernatant for Notch-1 at a dilution of 1:10, then incubated with a 1:10,000 dilution of horseradish peroxidase conjugated anti-rat antibody for Notch-1. Immunodetection was performed using the chemiluminescence method according to manufacture's reccomendations (Roche Applied Science, Indianapolis, IN). Membranes were stripped and reprobed with GAPDH antibody to visualize equal protein loading. RESULTS Intensity of the β-1 integrin staining was increased in the limbal region where limbal stem cells reside. Integrin-bright 338 and -dull patterns of cellular staining were seen in the limbus and corneal zones, respectively (Figure 1). In tissue sections stained with β-1 integrin, limbal basal cells showed a brighter pattern than corneal basal cells. α-6 antibody stained the suprabasal cells of the limbus and cornea. α-6 integrin strongly stained a group of cells in the limbal basal region in some sections (Figure 1). When the limbal whole mount was stained with β-1 integrin, a cluster of cells was strongly labeled in a region of palisades of Vogt (Figure 2). The immunofluorescence data using Notch-1 monoclonal antibody revealed Notch-1 expression in limbal basal cells (Figure 1). Expression in the limbal basal region was not continuous, and Notch-1 antigenicity | 3,069,667 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
was more pronounced in clusters of cells that were mainly located in the palisades of Vogt, the area believed to contain highest number of stem cells in the human limbus. The corneal zone was almost devoid of Notch-1-expressing cells. Notch-2 showed no specific staining in the limbal or corneal zones (data not shown). In tissue sections, the expression pattern of Notch-1 was clearly in the membrane. Immunofluorescence detected the expression of ABCG2 protein in the limbal epithelia, but the central cornea was devoid of cells expressing ABCG2. The antigenicity was not only in the basal cells in the limbus, some of the proximal cells also showed positive staining. Interestingly, double staining with Notch-1 and ABCG2 demonstrated that some of the ABCG2-positive cells also expressed Notch-1. The number of cells positive for both was limited and all Notch-1 positive cells coexpressed ABCG2 (Figure 3). The cells from the limbal explants stained with Notch-1.The staining intensity was high in only a few cells compared to the large number of cells in the confluent culture. The Notch-1 signal disappeared in dividing cells (Figure 4). Notch-1 expression in cultured cells was more prominent in the cytoplasm, ( Figure 4) but additional nuclear staining was detectable in a few other cases (data not shown). In the Notch- 1-stained whole mount, only a few cells were stained in the limbal region ( Figure 2). Western blot analysis was performed to determine the specificity of the Notch-1 antibody, using human myeloma cell line ARH 77 (expresses endogenous Notch-1) as the positive control and | 3,069,668 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
U266 (which is devoid of endogenous Notch-1) as the negative control. Western blot analysis revealed a band of approximately 300 kDa that might be full-length Notch-1 expressed in ARH77. Because the ARH 77 showed some processed forms of Notch other than the 110 kDa (data not shown), we transfected the Notch-1 into the Cos-7 cell line. The protein extract was used as a positive control. Notch-1-transfected Cos-7 showed the unprocessed 300-kDa band and the activated 110-kDa band ( Figure 5). DISCUSSION Corneal epithelium is continually renewed by cells in the basal limbal epithelium, which is thought to be the site where stems cells reside [2,4]. We sought to separate a true stem cell population from the limbal epithelium, which may not include the TAC. β-1 and α-6 integrins are known to show an intensity difference in the staining of epidermal keratinocytes, with bright cells in the basal region. We observed a similar staining pattern with brightly stained β-1 and α-6 cells in limbal basal cells compared to the basal or suprabasal corneal cells. Our results with β-1 integrin were analogous to Jensen's epidermal stem cell findings of a two-to threefold increase in β-1 intensity compared to that seen in TAC [14]. A recent study of limbal stem cells revealed abundant integrin beta-1 expression by cell membranes of corneal and limbal epithelia with a much higher level of expression by the limbal basal cells [32]. Earlier, α-6 integrin was also proposed as a stem cell marker since epidermal keratinocytes, which have a high level of α-6 integrin | 3,069,669 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
expression, showed stem cell characteristics [33,34]. α-6 and β-1 bright cells had much more specific properties of stem cells when compared to β-1 positive and α-6 marginal cells, indicating that α-6 integrin was a potential epidermal stem cell marker. However, the alpha-6 integrin in corneal epithelial stem cells was found more in the suprabasal cells of the limbus than in the limbal basal cells [32]. Our corneal epithelium study showed a different pattern, comparable to β-1 integrin staining, with brighter cells in the limbal basal region rather than in the suprabasal region. Since integrins mediate cell matrix adhesion, the abundance of β-1 and α-6 integrin in the limbal basal cells may help explain the strong adhesion of the limbal basal cells to the extra cellular matrix. This is evident in the resistance of the limbus to shear forces compared to the central corneal cells. At this stage it is difficult to differentiate between the stem cells and the TAC in the corneal epithelium. All markers we have tried have been inconclusive. Notch-1 is known to play an important role in maintenance of undifferentiated cells in neural and hematopoietic systems. We hypothesized that Notch-1 may be present only in the limbal basal cells, especially in the stem cells of the corneal epithelium. It is likely that Notch-1 plays a role in keeping corneal stem cells in an undifferentiated manner in the limbal epithelium, as it was expressed only in a small group of cells in the limbal basal region and was undetected in the central corneal cells. | 3,069,670 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
Our findings demonstrate that Notch-1 antibody is specific, It showed a full-length 300 kDA band with Notch-1-transfected COS 7 cells. Our results also showed additional bands, other than 300 kDa, in western blot analysis, a finding that has also been reported in baby hamster kidney cells transfected with Notch-1. The most prominent among the processed forms was 110 kDa, and a precursor/product relationship was found between full-length Notch and the 110 kDa Notch fragment [30]. A similar pattern of expression was seen in rat retina [35]. The Notch-1 signal identified in the cytoplasm and nucleus in cultured cells might be an activated form of Notch-1. The activated form is usually found in differentiated cells. Immunohistochemical analysis has regularly failed to reveal the nuclear translocation of Notch-1, [36] but, in rare instances, Notch-1 was expressed in the nucleus in differentiated human cervical epithelium and in some human cervical neoplasms [30]. There are also reports of the Notch-1 signal in the nucleus in differentiated neurons in the rat retina [35]. In our studies, the staining pattern was similar in sections of corneal limbal region and in whole mount. In both cases the signal was entirely found in a few cells in the limbal basal region, and very specifically membrane staining. When the Notch signal in the culture is compared with the sections of limbus and whole mount, the cells with Notch -1 expression in the limbal basal region might be undifferentiated cells with stem cell properties. We have identified cells which coexpress ABCG2 and Notch-1. Expression of ABCG2 | 3,069,671 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
was previously suggested as a corneal stem cell marker [18] and the side population cells over expressed the ABCG2 [19]. Prostatic stem cells also expressed ABCG2 [37], but the prostatic transient amplifying cells stained negative [38]. Several studies identified an ABCG2-dependent side population in a wide variety of adult tissues in different species [37,39,40]. A recent report demonstrated the presence of an ABCG2-dependent side population of cells in the human periodontal ligaments [41]. In limbal basal cells the ABCG2 expression was found to be high [32] and considered to be stem cell-associated marker. Connexin 43 (Cx43) marginal cells from the limbal basal region expressed more ABCG2-positive cells compared to Cx43 positive cells, with little to no positive staining [42]. One critical question that needs to be addressed is whether TAC stain negative for ABCG2. In the present study we found that ABCG2positive cells were found more in the limbal region compared to Notch-1 positive cells. Given the limited number of Notch-1 and ABCG2-double positive cells, Notch-1 may be a potential stem cell marker Notch keeps cells in their proliferative state by inhibiting differentiation, as was found with the crypts of intestinal cells in the mice [25]. The Notch family members and their ligands maintain a balance between cell proliferation and differentiation. Notch receptors are expressed in hematopoietic cells, and they control stem cell induction and lineage cell fate decisions [43]. The Notch signaling pathway is active in adult hematopoietic stem cells and is down regulated in terminally differentiated progeny [44]. Our study found the same phenomenon, | 3,069,672 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
with Notch-1 expressed in the limbal basal cells but barely detected in the terminally differentiated corneal epithelial layer. Notch pathway activation inhibits myogenic differentiation [45,46]. Notch is also thought to contribute to neural precursor cell maintenance, inhibiting the differentiation of these cells to neurons and oligodendrocytes [47,48]. It is likely that Notch-1 plays a similar role in keeping corneal stem cells in an undifferentiated manner in the limbal epithelium. Our data provide a rationale for future work to focus on the role of Notch members in the development and maintenance of corneal stem cells. Manipulating the Notch pathway may provide a way to enrich stem cells, thus providing new therapeutic strategies to treat corneal stem cell deficiencies. Further studies are underway to examine the role of Notch-1 in corneal development. | 3,069,673 | 5696915 | 0 | 16 |
CONTROVERSY OF ISLAMIC LAW ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITANCE TO THE HEIRS OF DIFFERENT RELIGION The ability and willingness to have sufficient property is always desired by people because the generations that have enough supply of life is better than the begging ones. However, the ownership or transfer of property rights in Islam is clearly regulated through inheritance, sale, gifts, grants, endowments, alms, and other lawful means, such as loans and mortgages. The ownership or transfer of property through inheritance is an important part of Islam. Inheritance relationship between offspring was not easily done, both based on the particular culture and religion. Among the Hindus, especially in Bali, girls do not receive inheritance. The same also applies to Western society in England some time ago. In Padang-Muslim society, men do not receive it. In Javanese society, inheritance is divided equally, without differentiating boys and girls. Such inheritance is based on the cultural standards and anthropocentric paradigm (man as the center of everything). Interesting to be studied is the case in which Muslim whose parents or relatives are still non Muslims or live in a non Muslim state, when they died, the children are legally entitled to the inheritance of their parents or relatives, while in the hadith narrated in Bukhari and Muslim explicitly stated the prohibition of inheritance of different religion. Abstrak. Kemampuan kemauan memiliki bekal yang memadai selalu dicita-citakan oleh setiap orang dan hiasan hidup manusia karena generasi yang cukup memiliki perbekalan hidup lebih baik dari yang meminta-minta. Namun, kepemilikan atau pindahnya hak milik dalam | 3,069,674 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
Islam sudah diatur dengan jelas melalui kewarisan, jual-beli, hadiah, hibah, wakaf, sedekah, wasiat, dan cara-cara lain yang halal, seperti pinjaman dan gadai. Kepemilikan atau pindah hak milik lewat warisan merupakan bagian penting Vol. 14, Number 2, December 2017: 377-403 378 Hunafa: Jurnal Studia Islamika dalam Islam. Hubungan kewarisan antar keturunan ternyata tidak mudah dan tidak begitu saja dapat dilakukan, baik yang berdasarkan kebudayaan tertentu maupun agama. Di kalangan Hindu, (Mazhab Bali khususnya) anak perempuan tidak menerima warisan, sebagaimana masyarakat Barat (Inggris) beberapa waktu lalu, sementara di masyarakat PadangMuslim, justru laki-laki tidak menerimanya. Masyarakat Jawa, lain lagi. warisan dibagi rata, gono-gini, dengan tidak membedakan anak laki-laki dan perempuan. Demikianlah kewarisan dengan standar kebudayaan dan paradigma antroposentris (manusia sebagai pusat segalanya). Menarik untuk dikaji adalah orang muslim yang orang tuanya atau kerabatnya masih kafir, bahkan yang tinggal di negara kafir. Ketika mereka meninggal, secara undang-undang anaknya berhak menerima warisan orang tua atau kerabatnya, sementara dalam hadis Bukhari dan Muslim secara eksplisit disebutkan larangan warisan beda agama. Introduction Indonesian as a society that have different ethnic groups, cultures, and religions demands its people the ability to create harmonious social relationships.Religion is certainly very influential on family formation.In a society, it is frequently found one family which have different religions.They can live harmoniously without being disturbed by the different beliefs.Nevertheless, this harmony is often disturbed by the issue of the division of inheritance. In the past, it is commmon in the view of the majority of the community that religious differences are believed to be one of the factors that | 3,069,675 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
prevent a person from obtaining inheritance from his or her parents.But such a view seems to be neglected in society today.Religious differences are sometimes unquestioned in distribution of inheritance.This is supported by some progressive court decisions that win the demands of children or wives to gain inheritance from parents or husbands of different religions. 1 the Islamic perspective, one of the barriers to inheritance rights is religious differences.The children who have different religious beliefs from their Muslim parents are automatically prevented from obtaining the right of inheritance.The division of inheritance in Islam is described in the Quran (Chapter al-Nisa') as the legal basis for the division of inheritance.The division of the property aims to avoid disputes in distributing inheritance.Inheritance is distributed if the deceased person leaves a useful property for his or her heirs.However, before the inheritance is given to the heirs, there are three things that must first be spent from the heritage; all costs associated with the funeral process of the deceased, the testament of the deceased, and debts.When the three things above have been fulfilled, the property inherited from the deceased is given to the family and also the eligible relatives. The law of Islamic inheritance basically applies to Muslims anywhere in the world.The style of an Islamic state and people's life in that country or region has an influence over the law of inheritance, including in Indonesia.Islamic inheritance law is also an important expression for Islamic family law, and every Muslim should study the law of Islamic inheritance.Prophet Muhammad affirmed that studying | 3,069,676 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
Islamic inheritance law means studying the 1 The High Religious Court (Pengadilan Tinggi Agama) Jakarta and the Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) considered that although Sri Widyastuti was not among the heirs because of different religion, she remained entitled to the inheritance of her parents.The High Religious Court argued that the right of inheritance of the sons of different-religion is based on a mandatory testimony (wasiat wajibah), but the amount is only three quarters of the share of a daughter of an heir.While the Supreme Court alters the amount is equal to the share earned by a female heir.Considerations and decisions of the Supreme Court that recognize the rights of children of different religions are contained in the case register no.368K / AG / 1995."Putusan MA Saudara Beda Agama Boleh Mendapatkan Harta Warisan," Hukum Online, last modified 2017, accessed November 15, 2017, http://www.hukumonline.com//hol13857/putusan-masaudara-beda-agama-boleh-mendapatkan-harta-warisan. half of the knowledge possessed by humans, that had existed for a long time and still continue to operate in the midst of Muslim society since the early days of Islam until medieval and contemporary times. The law of inheritance in Islam gets a great attention because the distribution of inheritance often leads to unfavorable consequences for the families left by their testators.2A person's death often results in a dispute among the heirs regarding his or her heritage.Such a thing is very likely to occur, when the parties are inconsistent with the established signs.One of the things that make disputes of inheritance occur is the religious difference between the owner of the property and | 3,069,677 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
the heirs in the family. The inheritance of the people of different religions is one of the contemporary issues in Islamic legal thought today.Along with the development of time, the cases that occur in the law of inheritance of the people of different religions are increasingly widespread.One of the contributing factors is disagreement of the heirs (non-Muslims) to the unfair division of property.Based on the consideration of this case, the Supreme Court is encouraged to issue new decisions in the law of inheritance of the people of different religions.However, the Supreme Court's verdict is judged to be incompatible with what Islamic law regulates on the inheritance of the people of different religions.This paper will discuss this controversy in Islamic law about the division of inheritance of the people of different religions. Law of Inheritance in Islam In the Islamic perspective, the law of inheritance is governed fairly and transparently.Islam establishes the right of the ownership of property for every individual both male and female in a very humanist way.Islamic law also prescribes the right of transfer of ownership of a person after death to his or her heirs, of all his or her relatives and offsprings, without distinction between men and women. The Quran has explained the laws relating to the right of inheritance based on a sense of justice for anyone. 3The Quran becomes the main reference of the determination of the distribution of inheritance, in addition to the hadith of the Prophet and a consensus of the scholars (ijma').Even in Islamic shariah, there are | 3,069,678 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
few Quranic verses speak about a normative law in detail, except the law of this inheritance.This is because inheritance is one form of legal ownership justified by AlIah. The Definition of Law of Inheritance Law of inheritance according to Islamic law is laws on the distribution of estate to those who are entitled to receive it.In Arabic, the word mirāṡ is infinitive word from wariṡa-yariṡu-irṡanmīrāṡan, which means, "transfer of something from one person to another, or from people to the other". 4While in terminology, the meaning of mirāṡ (inheritance) 5 is the transfer of ownership rights Mulyadi, Hukum Waris Tanpa Wasiat (Semarang: Badan Penerbit Universitas Diponegoro Semarang, 2008), 33. 5 The law of inheritance, according to the Civil Code, is the laws or rules that govern the rights and duties concerning one's wealth at the time of his death and how they are to be transferred to another living person.See Idris Ramulyo, Perbandingan Hukum Kewarisan Islam Dengan Kewarisan Kitab UU Hukum Perdata (Jakarta: Sinar Grafika, 2004), 89. from the deceased to his or her heirs, either in the form of property (money), land or other properties which are legal according to the Sharia. 6e law of inheritance in Islam is known as farā'iḍ which describes the procedure of dividing the property of a deceased person to the heirs entitled to receive it.The word inheritance itself can mean either the inherited as a subject or a process.The first refers to "the one who receives the inheritance", while the second refers to "the transfer of property from the | 3,069,679 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
deceasedd to the living".The latter is used in legal terms. According to the Compilation of Islamic Law, Article 171 letter a, the law of inheritance is a law that regulates the transfer of ownership rights from the deceased as a testator, determines who is entitled to be the heirs, and the portion for each heirs. 7In a more general context, inheritance can be interpreted as the transfer of material rights from the deceased to the living heirs. 8he inheritance includes all properties related to the assets and rights that depend on it, such as debits and credits, and compensation rights. In Indonesian, the inheritance is called as heritage, that is, the property and the right left by the deceased to be distributed to the rightful to receive it. 9The division of inheritance in Islam is 6 H.R. Otje Salman and Mustofa Haffas, Hukum Waris Islam (Bandung: Refika Aditama, 2006), 6. 7 Mulyadi,Hukum Waris Tanpa Wasiat,76. 8 In another text, Hasby Ash-Shiddieqy argued that the law of inheritance is the law that governs who inherits and who does not, the portion of inheritance and the ways to disribute.See Ahmad Rofiq, Fiqh Mawaris (Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada, 2002), 4. 9 The meaning of heritage among the Muslim jurists (fuqaha') is everything left by the testator, either in the form of property (money) or other.Therefore, in principle everything left by the deceased is declared as inheritance.Included in it is debits and credits either related to the essence of the property (such as loot property) or personal liability that must | 3,069,680 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
be fulfilled such as credit or dowry payments not yet given to his wife).See Suhrawardi K. commonly referred to as farā'iḍ, that is, the division of estate for those who are entitled to receive it.According to Syamsul Rijal Hamid the definition of inheritance is the transfer of rights and obligations on everything both property and guarantee from the deceased to his surviving family. 10heritance law is a part of family law that plays an important role, even it determines and reflects the system and form of law that occurs in society.The law of inheritance in Islam is a form of law that specifically regulates the transfer of the property from the deceased to the living, because the law of inheritance contains the rules to regulate the process of transfer of property and goods from one generation of another. The wealth of a deceased person under Islamic law of inheritance is distributed in such a way that all children, wives or husbands, fathers, mothers and siblings (male or female) as the immediate family receive the portion of estate.Similarly, it regulates the heritage of the deceased and the ways to calculate it properly.The law of inheritance in Islam contains principles which are also valid in the law of inheritance which is solely derived from human reason.In addition, Islamic inheritance law has its own characteristics. Rights Related to Inheritance The rights to be fulfilled in relation to the estate include; first, all funeral financing should be from the deceased's property, with the annotation that it should not be excessive.The | 3,069,681 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
funeral financing includes everything that is required of the dead, from his death to his funeral such as, among others, bathing costs, purchase of shrouds, funeral expenses, and so on.Secondly, the debts of the deceased should be payed first.That is, the entire property of the deceassed is not allowed to be distributed to the heirs before the debt is first payed.This is based on the hadit, "The soul of the believer depends on his debt until it is fulfilled."The hadith speaks about the debt of the deceased towards his or her fellow human beings.As for if the debt is related to Allah, such as not paying alms (zakat), or not yet paying a vow to God (naẓar), or not yet fulfilling fines (kaffārat), the scholars have little difference of opinion on this issue. The scholars of the Hanafi school believe that the heirs are not obliged to fulfill it.While the majority of scholars argued that it is mandatory for the heirs to fulfill it before the inheritance is distributed to the heirs.The scholars of the Hanafi school argued that performing this act is deemed as worship, whereas the obligation of worship falls if someone died. 11In fact, according to them, the practice of worship should be accompanied by intention and sincerity, and it can not be done by the deceased.However, even though the obligation is declared void for the deceased, he or she will still be subject to sanctions on the Day of Judgment because he or she did not fulfill his/her duties while they are | 3,069,682 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
still alive.This is certainly God's decision. While the majority of ulama, who argued that the heir is obliged to pay the debt of the deceased against Allah, reasoned that it is the same as debt to fellow human beings.According them, this is a practice that does not require intention because it does not include pure worship ('ibadah mahḍah), but it is included in the rights related to the estate of the deceased.It is therefore mandatory for the heirs to fulfill it, whether or not the heirs are entrusted.Even in the view of the scholars from Shafi'i school of law, it must be fulfilled before fulfilling the rights relatied to the right of fellow human beings.While the Maliki school of law argued that the rights associated with God must be fulfilled by the heirs just as they are required to pay the debts of the deceased to fellow human beings.However, this school more prioritized the debt related to fellow servants rather than debt to God.Meanwhile, the scholars from the Hanbali school equates between debt to fellow servants with debt to God.Both shall be simultaneously fulfilled before all the estate of the deceased is distributed to every heirs. Third, it is obligatory to fulfill all testament of the testator for as far as it is not exceeding one third of the total property.This is if it is intended for the non-beneficiary, and there is no protest from one or even all of his heirs.The testament is done after a portion of the property is taken to finance a | 3,069,683 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
deceased's funeral needs, including his or her debts.Only then will all the heritage be distributed to the heirs according to the rules of the Quran, al-Sunnah, and the consensus of the scholars (ijma').In this case, it begins by giving inheritance to aṣhāb al-furūḍ (the prescribed heirs whose their share and portion are determined, such as mother, father, wife, husband, etc.), then to 'aṣabah (relatives of the dead who are entitled to receive the inheritance if available) Controversy of Inheritance from the People of Different Religions Inheritance from the people of different religions is the practice of dividing inheritance involving two or more persons of different faiths between one Muslim and another non-Muslim either as a testator or heir.Inheritance from the people of different religions is a very complicated practice in modern times, especially when those who are entitled to inheritance are Muslims from non-Muslim parents or relatives, as it is the case in some places in Indonesia. In Islamic law, there are obstacles to accept inheritance.It is called mawani' al-irṡ or things prevent the heirs from receiving the inheritance of testator (al-muwāris).This includes murder, different religion and slavery. 12 relation to inheritance between Muslims and non-Muslims, it has been determined that the different religions which becomes a barrier is if between the testator and heirs, one of whom is Muslim, the other is not Muslim.For example, the testator is Muslim and the heir is non-Muslim, or vice versa.So if there is person who died as Buddhist, while the heirs are Hindus, there is no obstacle to | 3,069,684 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
inherit.Nor does it fall within the sense of different religion, if the Muslims are in different sect, one Sunni and the other Shi'a. 13e urgent case that occur at this time is the number of Muslims whose parents or children are not Muslims.When they die, children by law are entitled to receive the inheritance of their parents or relatives.Nevertheless, Umar ibn Khatab, in certain cases, differed from the Companions' view, that the Muslims received inheritance from non-Muslim for some reason, though the truth of this narration is still disputed.The heirs of different religious are also a barrier to receive estate in the law of Yusuf Qaradhawi, Fiqih Minoritas Fatwa Kontemporer Terhadap Kehidupan Kaum Muslimin Di Tengah Non Muslim, Indonesian translated by Abdilah Obid (Jakarta: Zikrul Hakim, 2004), 176. 13 By law children are entitled to receive the inheritance of their parents or relatives, while in the hadith narrated by Bukhari and Muslim explicitly stated, "Lā yariṡu al-muslim al-kāfir walā al-kāfir al-muslim" (Muslim does not inherit the unbelievers, and vice versa).In another hadith, it is mentioned, "Lā yatawāraṡu ahl millatain syatta" (people from two different religions do not inherit each other) (narrated by Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah).The above hadiths are the basis of the majority of scholars's view, and it has even been imposed since the time of Khulafa al-Rashidin and became one of the important points of discussion of the four leaders of schools of islamic law.inheritance.14Thus, the unbelievers cannot inherit the Muslims' property and vice versa.The Muslim jurists agreed that the unbelievers can | 3,069,685 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
inherit each other when they have the same belief. The majoriy of scholars argued that all religions or beliefs other than Islam are considered one.With this opinion, then the disbelievers can mutually inherit one another, whether one religion or not, because all religions besides Islam is basically error.According to the scholars from Maliki school of law, other non-Muslim groups are divided into three, namely Jewish, Christians and other religions which are considered a religion.According to the scholars of Hanbali, the unbelievers have a diverse religion, so the adherents of a religion (other than Islam) can not inherit from different believers. In addition, there are other opinions, in which apostates do not inherit others and are not inherited by others.Inheritance belongs to the Baitulmal (state treasury).Meanwhile, the Hanafi scholar argued that what they had gained before apostasy was inherited by their Muslim relatives, and what he had gained after apostasy became the property of the Baitulmal. In the Compilation of Islamic Law (Kompilasi Hukum Islam, KHI), article 172 reads: Heirs are considered to be Muslims if they are known from Identity Cards or recognition or practice or testimony, whereas newborn infants who are immature, their religion is according to their father or environment.Inheritance essentially is transferred from the hands of the deceased to all heirs in the form of property in a clean state, which means it is free from debts and other payments caused by the death of the person who inherit. In the KHI book II, chapter I on general provisions, it can be concluded | 3,069,686 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
that Islamic inheritance law separates the concept between heritage and inheritance. 15Heritage are treasures left by the the testator in the form of property and rights belonging to him.In Islamic law of inheritance, there are two inheritors, that is, the asabat which is considered as the heirs by itself since long time ago before Islam according to the law in Arab land, and aṣḥāb alfurūḍ, that is, those who are added by the Qur'an as the heirs. According to the majority of Muslim jurists, the measure to determine of religious difference is the time of testator's death.When a Muslim dies, his or her sons of different religion are hindered from inheritance even if he or she converts to Islam before the division of inheritance takes place.This means, the territory of inheritance law does not apply to non-Muslims.In addition, the relationship between relatives of different religions in everyday life is limited in communication and social relations, and this does not include the implementation of sharia law, including the right to obtain the inheritance or heritage from the parents or husband of different beliefs or religion. 1615 Akhmad Haries, Hukum Kewarisan Islam, 2nd ed.(Samarinda: P3M STAIN Samarinda, 2010), 77. 16In a legal perspective, there are different ways of resolving issues of inheritance of different religions.The example includes the case of married couple, Mr. Armaya Renreng who embraced Islam and Ms. Evie Lany, who is a Protestant Christian in the verdict of Supreme Court.16K/AG/2010.Mr Armaya died in a Muslim state and according to the Islamic law of inheritance, he | 3,069,687 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
cannot bequeath his property to Ms. Evie Lany.Nevertheless all the Armaya's wealth is still in the mastery of Ms. Evie Lany, who in fact is the legal wife of the deceased.The mother and siblings of the deceased objected to this and decided to settle the distribution of this inheritance in the Religious Court in order to solved according to the Islamic law of inheritance (faraidh).In this case, when connected with the Islamic law of inheritance, the wife is not entitled to inheritance rights because of different religions as in Article 171 point (c) the Compilation of Islamic Law (KHI) which states that the heirs must be Muslim.Nevertheless, it is unfair for a non-Muslim wife whose husband left her to death because during her lifetime she has served her husband sincerely and has devoted herself long enough.Then Ms. Evie Lany submitted a request for a The majority of ulama, including four leaders of school of Islamic law, argued that people of different religions should not inherit each other.This is different from the opinion of some ulama who claim to rely on the opinion of Mu'adz bin Jabal who said that a Muslim may inherit the unbelievers, but not bequeath to them.Their reason is that Islam is "superior, and no one surpass it" (ya'lū wa lā yu'lā 'alaih).Some scholars added one more thing that inhibits the right of inheritance, that is, apostasy.People who came out of Islam are declared apostates.In this case, scholars come to an agreement that apostates fall into the category of religious differences.Therefore, apostates cannot | 3,069,688 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
inherit Muslims.Meanwhile, there are different views among scholars about relatives of apostates, whether or not they inherit.Or, can a Muslim inherit the property of his/her relatives who converted to other religions? According to the Maliki, Shafii, and Hanbali schools of law, a Muslim has no right to inherit the property of relatives who had apostatized, because, they argued, the apostate had come out of the teachings of Islam so that he or she automatically had become kafir.Therefore, as the Prophet said, "Between Muslims and nonbelievers cannot inherit each other."Meanwhile, according to the Hanafi school of law, a Muslim may inherit the property of relatives who had apostatized.Even the Hanafi scholars agree that all the wealth left by the apostates are passed on to their Muslim relatives.This opinion is narrated from Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Ali ibn Abi Talib, Ibn Mas'ud, and others. 17cassation and from that consideration, she was granted a mandatory testimony (wasiat wajibah) for the appellant in the verdict of the Constitutional Court No.16K / AG / 2010 as a form of legal discovery on this case which is basically not regulated in the KHI. 17According to the author, the opinion of the Hanafi scholars is stronger than others, because the inheritance of the deceased who does not have the heirs must be submitted to the Baitulmal.However, in the present time, we do not meet Baitulmal which is managed properly, both nationally or internationally. As for the case of inheritance of different religions in which the testator is non-Muslims and the heirs are Muslims, the | 3,069,689 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
scholars are divided into two groups: first, the group that rejects with the argument that most of the salaf scholars claimed that a Muslim does not inherit non-Muslims, as the unbelievers do not get the inheritance from Muslims.This opinion is known among the four leaders of school of law and their followers.They claim that the hadith of the prohibition of inheriting due to different religions is absolute and cannot be made an analogy. Secondly, the group that allows argued that the hadith which prohibits the inheritance of different religions, used the letter lā nafyiyah, 18 which means "negation", not lā nahyi, which means "prohibition".The letter lā nafyiyah contains the "negation" in which there is no legal action taken.However, it does not become consensus (ijma'), because some Companions do not agree and argue that the infidel (kāfir) in the hadith is still general and requires specialization (takhṣīṣ), if this word is when considered general (muṭlaq).The word kāfir (the infidel) here refers to kāfir ḥarb, not kāfir żimmī. Umar bin Khatab, Muadz and Mu'awiyah did not apply the practice of hadith above.Even, as it is narrated, they take the heirs of the unbelievers, but not vice versa.Of the contemporary Muslim scholars apparently agreed with the opinion of the above scholars. 19However, the validity of this narration is doubted by Ibn 18 The words of the Prophet related to the prohibition of inheriting between people of different religions: (1) Hadith narrated from Usamah bin Zaid from the Prophet "Lā yariṡu al-Muslim al-kāfir walā al-kāfir al-muslim", does not inherit the | 3,069,690 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
disbelievers to Muslims, so Muslims to kafir (Hadith narrated by Bukhari and Muslim).Another Hadith from Amr bin Syaib from his grandfather Abdullah bin Amr who narrated from the Prophet, "Lā yatawāraṡu ahl millatain syatta," (The adherents of two different religions do not inherit each other" (Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah). 19 This is the opinion of Muadz bin Jabal, Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyah, Abu Ja'far al-Baqir, Said ibn al-Musayyab, Masruq bin Ajda, Abdullah ibn Mughaffal, al-Syu'bi, al-Nakha'i, Yahya bin Ya'mur, and Ishaq ibn Rahawaih .They said, "We get their inheritance and they do not get it Qudamah.Among Hanbali scholars there is difference of opinion regarding this kind inheritance.It is true that rejection of inheritance between Muslims and the unbelievers (kāfir) is essentially based on the two hadiths above.So, this becomes the basis for rejecting the inheritance of the atheist (zindīq), hypocrite (munāfiq), and apostate (murtad).In fact, according to Ibn Taymiyya, in a sunnah mutawatirah, it is clear that the Prophet made them apparantly the same as Muslims, in terms of mutual inheritance. From the two hadiths above, the following problems arise: (1).The property that Muslims should have taken may fall on others, even to non-Muslim religious institutions which are subsequently used to convert Muslims to other religions; (2) Many new Muslim converts are miserable, while their families are rich; (3) It is possible that someone who does not convert to Islam for being fear of not getting the inheritance from his or her rich parents.(4).The mastery of property from non-Muslims is justified | 3,069,691 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
by the legislation of the state that is set in modern countries now. It maybe in the form hibah (grant), wasiat (testimony), hadiyah (gift), or even buying and selling.It is a loss if the property is left no "owner". In the hadith lā yariṡu al-Muslim al-kāfir walā al-kāfir almuslim, what is meant by the word kafir is kāfir ḥarb, not kafir żimmī as Hanafi scholars said.If it is from sharia still objected and is considered to violate the principles of shariah, the wealth may be taken in a moderate way (tawassuṭ), as Yusuf al-Qardawi argued, "The heirs take the property in accordance with the laws of the country, but for public benefit, Islamic da'wah and education, while another take personally in order to cover the basic needs of from us, as we can marry their women, but not vice versa" Riyanta, "Keawarisan Beda Agama (Studi Pandangan Muaz Bin Jabal)," 169.his life rather than asking people for help everywhere, especially a Muslim new convert (muallaf). 20 it is known, the principles of implementation of inheritance been determined in the Quran (al-Nisa: 11-14, 176; al-Anfal: 72-75).In the Quran itself, there are about 24 words of waris with various derivations and different meanings.Furthermore, the hadiths of the Prophet have much to say about this inheritance.Nevertheless, the ideas of inheritance had developed in the early days of Islam. Since the days of the companions, a progressive idea or ijtihad to understand the distribution of inheritance has developed, especially when the complicated things happen, such as the case of of al-radd | 3,069,692 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
and al-'awl.That means, although the division of inheritance law is absolute (qaṭ'i) with explicit numbers in certain respects, more analysis is still needed in the form of qawa'id ushuliyah (rules of Islamic laws) and qawā'id fiqhiyah (legal maxims) in deriving Islamic law. In the Quran, it is clear that the provision of inheritance is Allah's instruction (wasiat), which in the verses, it is referred to as "mandatory from Allah" (farīḍatan min Allāh) and "those are Allah's laws" (tilka hudūd Allah).The words waṣiyyah, farīḍah and hudūd certainly indicate to the obligations, which must be implemented.This means, no heir is harmed under that provision, as far as the principles of justice and trutworthy are always held firmly. 20Someone who just converted to Islam is called muallaf.Among muallafs there are those who live below a standard of life, whereas the property of their parents or brother who are infidels is quite a lot.On the one hand, they desperately needed the money, and on the other hand the Prophet warned not to be accepted.Then, the other issue is that if the money is not taken by the child, the state will give it to religious institutions, NGOs, perhaps missionaries, as funds to convert Muslims from Islam.Istiqamah, "Tinjauan Yuridis Pembagian Harta Warisan Pasangan Suami Istri Beda Agama, Perspektif Hukum Islam dan KUHP," in Jurnal Jurisprudentie, Vol. 4 No. 1 (June 2017), 79. The provision of inheritance in Islam has been conceptualized in such a way that it is not necessarily disputed, even if in terms of blood relationship, for example, a | 3,069,693 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
person is entitled to inheritance, but in certain cases, he or she may be blocked because of the presence of a more eligible person or somethings that block it, such as different religion or murder.However, there is other meaning regarding the recipients of inheritance who are blocked in the case of religious differences.The hadith about it is interpreted based on public welfare (almaṣlahah al-'āmmah). Inheritance in any part of the world is not only regulated by religion or customs, but also by state law.So if it is based on particular reasons, the person does not inherit due to obstacles according to the system of Islamic inheritance law, and without receiving the share of inheritance, it will endanger the religion, the wealth, and the people, so what should the mujtahids do?In this case, a mujtahid should be smart in using method of deriving laws, in order this teaching of Islam is in harmony with the general goals of Islamic law (maqāṣid al-sharī'ah al-'āmmah) which certainly does not violate the basic principles of sharia (uṣūl al-sharī'ah). Rights of the Heirs of Different Religion The basic principles used in establishing the law is amānah (trustworthy), 'adālah (justice), and maṣlaḥat 'āmmah (public welfare), and does not violate the principle of monotheism.These principles are used as method of deriving laws that is implemented by the Muslim scholars from the beginning.Indeed, the change of law or fatwa (taghayyur al-fatwa wa al-aḥkām) possibly occurs, if there is a different ratio legis ('illah).Ibn Qayyim in I'lam al-Muwaqqi'in 'an Rabbil 'Alamin formulated a method, "taghayyur | 3,069,694 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
al-fatwa bi taghayyur al-azminah, wa al-amkinah wa al-aḥwāl wa al-'awāid" (the fatwa changes according to changes in times, places, conditions, and habits). with the heirs, Muslim and are not hindered by law to become the heirs." Explicitly KHI requires the same religion, that is, Islam, in order to mutually inherit.KHI does not regulate if the testator is an apostate, whether or not his or her property can be inherited by Muslims or not.The system of Islamic inheritance embraces the kinship system, both in nasabiyah (relationship of blood) as well as hukmiyah.This kinship system is more important if compared with religious differences as inheriting barriers, because inheritance law contains more elements of social relations (mu'amalah). The kinship between a person and another will never be severed even if their religion is different.A child still recognizes her biological mother even if her birth mother is not the same religion as him or her.Islam does not teach hostility by breaking horizontal ties with non-Muslims, especially those with blood connections. Since Islamic law of inheritance in Indonesia contains an egalitarian principle (one should be treated equally), non-Muslims relatives who have blood relation with the testator, are still entitled to part of inheritance though mandatory testimony (wasiat wajibah) as far as not exceeding equivalent the share of the heirs.The judges of the Religious Court should prescribe them as the recipient of wasiat wajibah, and not as the heirs, due to different religions from the Muslim testator. 21om the previous discussion of inheritance law, it is mentioned that one of the barriers | 3,069,695 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
to inheritance rights is religious differences between the testator and the heirs.For example, a testator is non-Muslim, while the heirs are Muslims, or vice versa.Difference of religions is a serious impediment to the existence of inheritance rights, as the hadith narrated by Bukhari states, "A Muslim does not inherite a kāfir, and vice versa."Another hadith also says, "Lā yatawāraṡu ahl millatain syattā." In the context of the rights of non-Muslims to inheritance, the classical and contemporary Muslim scholars differ.Imamiyah scholars argue that a Muslim has the right to inherit non-Muslims.If one of the deceased's children is a non-Muslim, and then converted to Islam after the testator died, and the estate has been distributed to the owner, then, according to the agreement of the scholars of the school of law, the person is not entitled to the inheritance. But in the above context, the classical scholars disagreed if the non-Muslim child converts to Islam after the inherited person dies but his property has not yet been distributed.The scholars from Imamiyah and Hanbali schools of law argued that the person is entitled to inheritance, while Abu Hanifah, Malik and Shafi'i said that the person is not entitled to the inheritance. 22vertheless, in general, schools of, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali agree that Muslims cannot inherit each other with non-Muslims.They hold on to the literal of hadith.However, Shia Imamiyyah said that if the Muslim heir is only one, then only he who receives inheritance.A person's Islam then has no effect whatsoever on the right to inherit. Included in the | 3,069,696 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
barrier of inheritance due to religious differences is apostates.Apostasy is generally defined by the classical scholars as the discharge of someone who originally embraced Islam and then denied it.The exodus of a person either by converting or not embracing a religion is generally considered by Islamic teachings as kufr.In relation to inheritance, the status of apostates is likened to the unbelievers.It means that they have the same position as the unbelievers.Therefore, apostates cannot 22 Miftahul Hakim, "Tinjauan Hukum Islam Tentang Ahli Waris Beda Agama (Analisis Terhadap Putusan Mahkamah Agung RI Nomor 16K/AG/2010)" (Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN) Walisongo Semarang, 2014), 90.become the testators (muwarriṡ) for their Muslim heirs or vice versa.The legal basis in this case is the hadith narrated by Usama bin Zaid. Rabi'a ibn Abdul Aziz and Ibn Abi Al-Lail said that "if a Muslim has apostatized , then his property cannot be inherited by the Muslim heirs.Therefore, his property becomes the right of Muslims placed in Baitulmal."Al-Zarqani said that the hadith of Usamah bin Zaid had become the agreement of the earlier scholars and was followed by later scholars.There is no dispute between them. Imam al-Shafi'i also commented on the hadith of Usamah bin Zaid with a question, regarding apostate, which is closer?to kufr or Islam.According to him, apostate is clearly kāfir; therefore, he or she is included in the category of hadith above.Ibn Hazm also argued that apostates and unbelievers are the same, and as a result, their inheritance are the same.All the wealth obtained after the apostacy automatically become the right of | 3,069,697 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
Muslims and submitted to the Baitulmal whether he or she died in a state of apostasy, murdered or joined in the enemy country. Ibn Qudamah also mentions some narrations of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal about the inheritance of apostates.One opinion said that apostates's treasures become fay' submitted to the Baitulmal for the benefit of Muslims.Others said that apostates' property becomes the right of their Muslim heirs, and while others said the property of the infidels is the right of their heirs of the same religion.However, Ibn Qudama declares that the first opinion becomes his school of law's opinion. The opinion of Al-Qurtubi and Al-Kiya Al-Harrasi is the same as the general opinion of the above scholars.According to them, the status of apostates and unbelievers in the matter of inheritance is that they are prevented from inheriting each other with their Muslim inheritors.They based their opinion on the hadith of Usama ibn Zaid ibn Kahab which covers infidels in general, either because of apostasy or not. The classical ulama generally said that religious differences are preventing inheritance.This is opposed by some contemporary thinkers.Abdullah Ahmad An-Na'im, for example, said that one of the discrimination of family law and sharia law is related to the difference of religion.Religious difference is a barrier of all inheritance, so a Muslim will not be able to inherit from non-Muslim, and vice versa.According to An-Na'im, ignoring historical justifications, various issues of discrimination against women and non-Muslims under sharia are no longer justified. Abdullah Ahmed An-Na'im also said that discrimination in the name of religion | 3,069,698 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
and gender under the Shari'ah has also violated the enforcement of human rights. 23Discrimination on the basis of religion has been built with the great causes of international conflict and war because these countries agree with non-Muslim minorities which were torture, and then may be encouraged to act in favor of victims of religious discrimination, thereby creating a situation of international conflict and war.Discrimination based on both gender and religion is morally opposed and politically unacceptable now.An-Na'im emphasized that the provisions of sharia that teach discrimination should be abrogated by the more universal sharia provisions. In line with the opinion of An-Na'im is Asgar Ali Engineer.According to Asgar, Islamic society do not recognize any discrimination of any kind, whether based on race, ethnicity, religion, or class.According to Asgar, monotheism is not merely pure monotheism, but extends to the sociological dimension.It must be remembered that human unity should not be reduced only to unity of faith alone.Because, in principle, the real humanity crossed the lines of belief.Asgar said, the spirit of the Quran is one thing more important than the opinions of medieval jurists, and hence, in this case, the whole books of Islamic jurisprudence as formulated by the early Muslim jurists (fuqaha) should be reviewed in depth .The Justice should be more emphasized. The formation of Islamic law must be linked to the existing context and the circumstances under which the law was born, all of which are intended for human benefit.In modern times, the of context of human benefit (maṣlaḥat) must be associated with freedom, | 3,069,699 | 55842779 | 0 | 16 |
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