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World War II dramatically changed the lives of Gibraltarians . The decision to enforce mass evacuation in order to increase the strength of the Rock with more military and naval personnel meant that most Gibraltarians ( some for up to ten years ) had nowhere to call ' home ' . Only those civilians with essential jobs were allowed to stay but it gave the entire community a sense of being ' British ' by sharing in the war effort .
In early June 1940 , about 13 @,@ 500 evacuees were shipped to Casablanca in French Morocco . However , following the capitulation of the French to the German armies later in June 1940 , the new Pro @-@ German French Vichy Government found the presence of Gibraltarian evacuees in Casablanca an embarrassment and sought opportunities for their removal . The opportunity soon arose when 15 British cargo vessels arrived under Commodore Crichton , repatriating 15 @,@ 000 French servicemen who had been rescued from Dunkirk . Once their own rescued servicemen had disembarked , the ships were interned until they agreed to take away all the evacuees . Although Crichton was unable to obtain permission to clean and restock his ships ( and contrary to British Admiralty orders which forbade the taking on of evacuees ) , when he saw the mass of civilians pouring through the dockyards , he opened up his gangways for boarding . Just beforehand , the British fleet had destroyed a number of French warships at Mers el @-@ Kebir in order to prevent them ending up in German hands . The attack , during which 1 @,@ 297 French sailors died , led to high tensions , which were evident when families were forced at bayonet point by French troops to board taking only what they could carry , leaving many possessions behind . However , when they arrived at Gibraltar , the Governor would not allow them to land , fearing that once the evacuees were back on the Rock , it would be virtually impossible to evacuate them a second time . Crowds gathered in John Mackintosh Square in the centre of Gibraltar as the news broke , speeches were made and two City Councillors accompanied by the Acting President of the Exchange and Commercial Library went to see the Governor ( Sir Clive Liddell ) to ask that the evacuees be allowed to land . After receiving instructions from London , a landing was allowed as long as the evacuees returned when other ships arrived to take them away from the Rock , and by 13 July the re @-@ evacuation back to Gibraltar had been completed .
British conservative politician Oliver Stanley agreed to accept the evacuees in the United Kingdom , but he argued with Gibraltar over the number of people involved . The Governor , he declared , had given the number of evacuees first as 13 @,@ 000 , then as 14 @,@ 000 and finally as 16 @,@ 000 . He asked for the situation to be clarified , stressing the shortage of accommodation in Britain and insisting that only 13 @,@ 000 could be accepted , 2 @,@ 000 of whom were to be sent to the Portuguese Atlantic island of Madeira . The situation , replied General Liddell on 19 July , " is that this is a fortress liable to heavy and immediate attack and there should be no civilians here whereas there are 22 @,@ 000 . The 13 @,@ 000 was the number sent to Morocco , and more would have been sent had the situation there not altered . " In London the evacuees were placed in the hands of the Ministry of Health , and many were housed in Kensington area . Concern for them in Gibraltar mounted as the air raids against London intensified , coupled with the arrival of harrowing letters , describing the circumstances in which the evacuees were living .
In September rumours were already circulating among the evacuees , and in Gibraltar , that the possibility of re @-@ evacuating the Gibraltarians once more was being mooted , this time the destination being Jamaica , in the West Indies . After much contention , it was decided to send a party directly from Gibraltar to the island , and 1 @,@ 093 evacuees left for Jamaica direct , on 9 October , with more following later on . However petitions followed and the demands were met , partly for strategic reasons and the lack of available shipping . The situation at the end of 1940 , therefore , was that approximately 2 @,@ 000 evacuees were in Jamaica and a lesser number in Madeira , with the bulk of around 10 @,@ 000 housed in the London area .
Construction of a solid surface runway began in late 1939 and in 1940 it was proposed to extend the existing runway to a length of 1 @,@ 550 yards ( 1 @,@ 417 m ) . The land reclamation commenced towards the end of 1941 along with the construction of an RAF camp at the " North Front " , now RAF Gibraltar . The RAF dispatched their next squadron to Gibraltar at this time and it was in September 1939 that war with Germany was declared and the strong possibility of German submarines concentrating in the Strait of Gibraltar and using Spanish port facilities , loomed large in Admiralty thinking . So at 09 : 00 ( UTC ) on the 9 September 1939 , No. 202 Squadron RAF was ordered to Gibraltar , loaded to the gunwales with equipment .
On 25 September 1939 , No 200 ( Coastal ) Group was formed as a subordinate formation to HQ RAF Mediterranean in control of No 202 Sqn . The Group 's function was the control of Royal Air Force units operating from Gibraltar . In late 1940 the Group was transferred to Coastal Command . Later a combined HQ was formed which commenced operations in early 1942 .
On 18 July 1940 , after the attack on the French Fleet at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir by the British , the Vichy government authorized a bombing raid of Gibraltar as a response . Little damage was reported to have been done .
On Tuesday , 24 September , the Italian Stefani news agency reported : " As a reprisal for the bombardment of Dakar yesterday morning , one @-@ hundred @-@ and @-@ twenty French aircraft based in Morocco attacked Gibraltar . " On the same day , the United Press Agency reported : " The French government has issued an official denial of reports , according to which French aircraft were said to have attacked Gibraltar . Up until now , no reprisals have been undertaken . " But the United Press report ended on an ominous note with : " French reprisals are imminent . "
Again , on the same day , the Vichy French government issued orders for the naval base and city of Gibraltar to be bombarded . As a result , six bomber squadrons of the Vichy French Air Force ( Armée de l 'Air de Vichy ) and four squadrons of the Vichy French Navy ( Marine nationale de Vichy ) were employed in the operation . The 64 bombers flew from bases in Oran , Tafaroui ( in Algeria ) , Meknes , Mediouna , and Port Lyautey ( in Morocco ) . The French action was approved by both the German Armistice Commission and the Italian Armistice Commission .
No British aircraft were encountered and much damage was done in the area south of the fortress . The South Mole and a large ship in the harbour were heavily damaged . In the northern part of Gibraltar , fires broke out .
On 25 September , the French returned with a larger force of eighty @-@ three bombers to cause additional damage to the naval base and harbour installations . Again , aircraft of the British Royal Air Force made no appearance . However , the French crews did report encountering heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire . One LeO 451 bomber was lost and 13 other aircraft were lightly damaged during the two days of bombing attacks . The British armed trawler HMT Stella Sirius was sunk by bombs .
The Rock came through the war relatively unscathed but , given its strategic importance , Germany made plans to capture Gibraltar . Codenamed " Felix " , the plan which was signed by Adolf Hitler himself was formulated at the highest level of command . With or without permission , Germany would take entry through Spain and attack Gibraltar driving the British out of the Western Mediterranean . The Strait would be effectively closed to the Allies once Gibraltar was in German hands , forcing Asia @-@ bound Allied shipping to steam all the way around Africa rather than to proceed to the east via the shorter route through the Mediterranean and the Suez Canal . The Rock was to be heavily dive bombed by planes leaving France but landing afterward at Spanish air bases . To deny a possible Spanish capture of the base , the German planners decided that the final attack to seize Gibraltar was to be made by German troops alone .
Diplomatic failure at the highest levels of government prevented the operation from occurring at the beginning of 1941 which had been drawn up in detail by the Wehrmacht in the summer and autumn of 1940 .
General Ludwig Kübler 's XLIX Corps would conduct the actual attack on the Rock . The assault forces would comprise the Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland , the 98th Regiment of the 1st Mountain Division , 26 medium and heavy artillery battalions , three observation battalions , three engineer battalions , two smoke battalions , a detachment of 150 Brandenburgers , and up to 150 miniature remote controlled demolition vehicles ( Goliaths ) , packed with high explosives .
As part of a combined @-@ force operation , the German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) would contribute Ju 88As , Stukas , Messerschmitts , three light AA battalions , and three heavy AA battalions . Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine would cooperate by using U @-@ boats to interfere with British naval movement and emplacing coastal batteries to further discourage the Royal Navy .
On 10 March 1941 , with Operation Barbarossa looming , Felix was amended to Operation Felix @-@ Heinrich , whereby German troops would be withdrawn from the USSR to capture Gibraltar . As a result of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco 's intransigence , the operation was postponed , modified , and ultimately abandoned .
From Sardinia , Italian Piaggio P.108 bombers attacked Gibraltar several times , mainly in 1942 . The last raids on Gibraltar were done during the 1943 Allied landing in Algeria , when those bombers hit successfully even the Oran port .
The only unit of the Regia Aeronautica ( Royal Air Force ) ever to fly the Piaggio P.108 was the " 274th Long @-@ Range Bombardment Squadron " . This unit was formed in May 1941 around the first machines that came off the assembly lines . The training of the crews lasted far longer than anticipated and only in June 1942 the 274th became operational . The most spectacular raids with the P. 108 bombers were flown in October 1942 when several night attacks against Gibraltar were undertaken from Sardinia .
After the armistice of Cassibile ( 8 September ) , the German @-@ allied Italian Social Republic launched at least two raids on Gibraltar : one on the night of 4 – 5 June 1944 with ten SM.79bis aircraft and another on 6 June with nine aircraft . Both sorties were undertaken by the Gruppo Aerosiluranti " Buscaglia – Faggioni " .
Known as the " Floating Trojan Horse of Gibraltar " , Decima Flottiglia MAS , an Italian commando frogman unit created during the Fascist government , engaged in numerous attacks against the harbour at Gibraltar .
Gibraltar was a very tempting target for the Italians , who saw it as a refuge for British warships and allied merchant shipping . The Italian frogmen originally used a Spanish villa ( Villa Carmela ) located two miles ( 3 km ) from Gibraltar owned by an Italian officer who had married a Spanish woman named Conchita Ramognino . Their base was shifted later to the Italian tanker SS Olterra , interned in Algeciras .
Lesser known than the Italian actions were the sabotage operations and limpet @-@ mine attacks carried out by Spanish and Gibraltarian agents recruited in the Campo de Gibraltar by the Germans . The Abwehr contacted a Spanish staff officer from Campo de Gibraltar , Lieutenant Colonel Eleuterio Sánchez Rubio , a Spanish officer , member of the Falange and coordinator of the intelligence operations in the Campo , to establish a network of saboteurs with access to Gibraltar . Sánchez Rubio designated Emilio Plazas Tejera , also a member of Falange , as operations chief of the organisation . Most of the recruits for the sabotage operations were Spaniards from the Campo . A combination of financial reward , ideological commitment and some threats and intimidation were used to gather a significant number of agents . According to the British intelligence , there were at least 183 Spaniards and Gibraltarians involved in the espionage and sabotage operations against Gibraltar .
Sabotage operations were ordered from Berlin in the late autumn of 1940 , but actual work did not start until early 1941 . The first operations were unsuccessful . A first attempt to smuggle a bomb into Gibraltar was aborted , as the timing device was faulty . In February there was a large explosion in the North Tunnel , and in April a bomb blew up near the airfield . In June 1941 , however , the British intelligence foiled a new attempt , by a German agent , to attach a mine alongside an Allied cargo ship . Another attempt failed when Plazas placed a bomb inside an ammunition store but was not able to bring the explosive . It was not until 1942 that the operations begun to succeed . In January 1942 , two Spanish agents manage to destroy two aircraft at the North Front landing strip .
Financed , trained and equipped by the Germans , the saboteurs sank the armed trawler HMT Erin , and destroyed the auxiliary minesweeper HMT Honju , which resulted in the deaths of six British seamen on 18 January 1942 . Plazas was assisted by the Spanish naval commander of Puente Mayorga , Manuel Romero Hume , who allowed him to beach a rowboat there . The British intelligence was able however to counteract the sabotage operations . In March 1942 , a Gibraltarian , José Key , one of the most prominent agents working for the Germans , responsible for the collection of information on military movements for the Abwehr was arrested and executed in Wandsworth Prison in late 1942 . By September 1942 , Plazas , whose activities were closely monitored by the British at that time , resigned and left Carlos Calvo , his second in command , in charge of the operations . In late 1942 , the German headquarters in Berlin ordered the sabotage operations being expanded . In early 1943 , the arrival of an experienced head of Abwehr operations in Spain improved the outreach of the operations .
In March 1943 an ammunition dump was blown up by Calvo 's agents . The British , growing suspicious of some of the saboteurs , banned them from entering Gibraltar . This forced the Abwehr to ask Calvo for new personnel . A Spaniard working on the Rock , José Martín Muñoz , was responsible for the explosion and fire at a large fuel tank at Coaling Island on 30 June 1943 ; this mission , however , would be the first and the last for Muñoz , because he was cornered and arrested by British authorities in August , when he tried to smuggle a bomb into a weapons magazine inside Ragged Staff Cave . After being sentenced to death , he was hanged on 11 January 1944 in Gibraltar by British executioner Albert Pierrepoint . A member of an unrelated Abwehr sabotage network , Luis López Cordón @-@ Cuenca ( also arrested in 1943 ) was executed by Pierrepoint on the same day . Calvo himself was put under arrest by the Spanish police and neutralized . He would be a free man again in December , when he rejoined the Abwehr in Madrid , under direct orders of Wolfgang Blaum , aka Baumann , head of the sabotage section in Spain . After a Falangist attempt against the life of pro @-@ allied General José Enrique Varela , perpetrated by Sánchez Rubio network 's agent Juan José Domínguez and a meeting between Anthony Eden and the Spanish ambassador at London , Jacobo Fitz @-@ James Stuart , Abwehr activities around Gibraltar came to an end .
Operation Tracer was a top @-@ secret British stay @-@ behind spying mission that was only to be implemented if Gibraltar was captured by the Axis Powers . Six men were to be sealed in a cave and left with only enough supplies for a year . The volunteers — two doctors , three signalmen and their leader — would run an observation post with one 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) by 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) slit looking over the harbour and a concealed outdoor terrace over the Mediterranean . The team would then wire back all shipping movements to the British Admiralty .
They were told there would be no way out and anyone who died within the chamber would have to be embalmed and cemented into the brick floor . Only if Germany was defeated within their first year would they be released .
As the threat of invasion was clearly felt in late 1941 , an idea for a series of secret observation posts ( first in Gibraltar and later in other places like Malta and Aden ) was put together under Operation Tracer .
Work in Gibraltar began immediately under Commander Geoffrey Birley and his chief engineer Colonel Fordham . The site chosen at Lord Airey 's Battery on the southern tip of the Rock already had an existing tunnelling scheme for a shelter . Extensive trials of the equipment began in January 1942 under the eye of MI6 radio expert Colonel Richard Gambier @-@ Parry . Much thought was also given to the type of men needed for such a strange and demanding task . A member of Scott ’ s ill @-@ fated expedition to the Antarctic , George Murray Levick was called up as Surgeon @-@ Commander to advise on survival techniques . There were practical matters such as diet , exercise , sanitation , and clothing to consider as well as vital " psychology of the personnel " . The full team was in place by the end of summer 1942 and their cavern fully equipped and ready for occupation . A comprehensive manual was prepared on all aspects of the operation and it was considered that similar secret lookout posts should be prepared throughout the world in the event of future wars . However , Operation Tracer was never needed , as Adolf Hitler turned his attention away from Gibraltar and towards the Eastern Front .
The operation had been clouded in mystery until the discovery of papers at the Public Record Office in Kew UK . Previously in the 1960s , details of the story were told to a journalist by his intelligence service contacts and he wrote these up as " Operation Monkey " , yet facts were very sparse .
In 1997 " Stay Behind Cave " ( as it was nicknamed ) was discovered in Gibraltar by the Gibraltar Caving Group , but no account was ever obtained from anyone associated with the mission . The discovery came about when the group encountered a strong gust of wind in a tunnel . Further searching led them to break through a wall into chambers which had never been used and had remained sealed for over 50 years .
In November 2006 Jim Crone and Sergeant Major Pete Jackson , senior tunnel guide with the Royal Gibraltar Regiment , met possibly the only member of Operation Tracer still alive when they travelled to meet Dr. W. A. Bruce Cooper at his home in England . Cooper , 92 at the time , provided an opportunity to shed light on the operation with his direct involvement in the mission as a Surgeon @-@ Lieutenant in the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve ( RNVR ) . He recalled stories about his colleagues , his training , and his feelings about the task .
The Mediterranean U @-@ boat Campaign lasted approximately from 21 September 1941 to May 1944 . The Kriegsmarine tried to isolate Gibraltar , Malta , and Suez and disrupt Britain 's trade routes . More than sixty U @-@ boats were sent to interdict Allied shipping in the Mediterranean Sea . Many of these U @-@ boats were themselves attacked negotiating the Strait of Gibraltar controlled by Britain . Nine U @-@ boats were sunk while attempting passage and ten more were damaged .
Plans for the Allied counter offensive after the attack on Pearl Harbor were ongoing by mid @-@ 1942 . An invasion of Europe in 1943 would be unworkable , but the allies could attack the " soft underbelly of Europe " through the Mediterranean , as Prime Minister Winston Churchill put it . Devised by President Franklin Roosevelt and Churchill and code named Operation Torch , the plan was to occupy French North Africa : Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia . From these French colonies , attacks could be launched that would drive Italy out of the war .
In July 1942 , Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed Allied Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Operation Torch . Churchill placed Gibraltar under the command of General Eisenhower as the temporary headquarters for this , the first large @-@ scale Anglo @-@ American operation of the war . He arrived in Gibraltar on 5 November 1942 to take over , not just command of Operation Torch itself , but also military command of Gibraltar .
General Eisenhower stayed at The Convent , the official Governor 's residence , but his operational headquarters were in a small chamber in a tunnel in the heart of the Rock . In his memoirs General Eisenhower wrote :
The subterranean passages under the Rock provided the sole available office space , and in them was located the signal equipment by which we expected to keep in touch with the commanders of the three assault forces . The eternal darkness of the tunnels was here and there partially pierced by feeble electric bulbs . Damp , cold air in block @-@ long passages was heavy with stagnation and did not noticeably respond to the clattering efforts of electric fans . Through the arched ceilings came a constant drip , drip , drip of surface water that faithfully but drearily ticked off the seconds of the interminable , almost unendurable , wait which always occurs between completion of a military plan and the moment action begins .
One hundred thousand soldiers on the high seas in a multitude of transports converged on Gibraltar . More than 400 aircraft of all types were crammed into the dispersal areas around the Gibraltar runway . Fighters had been shipped in crates and assembled on the airfield . Every available area of storage was taken up with ammunition , fuel , and other essential supplies . 168 American pilots were housed in the RAF messes at North Front .
From their headquarters in Gibraltar , General Eisenhower and Admiral Sir Andrew Browne Cunningham directed Operation Torch , the first major combined combat operation during World War II involving American and British forces .
Given that Gibraltar was a small town with only a few defences protecting it , the solution was to build a massive series of tunnels and chambers inside the natural protection of the Rock of Gibraltar . This " town " inside the Rock contained its own power station , water supply , and hospital . Some soldiers posted here would not see the light of day for months on end . Two Canadian engineer companies , the only soldiers with diamond @-@ tipped drills and 5 British engineer companies , added some 30 miles ( 48 km ) of such tunnels , a feat thought impossible at the time . That was enough to hold all 30 @,@ 000 troops on the rock . Today , the rock has more underground tunnels than roads .
On 4 July 1943 , a Liberator bomber from RAF Transport Command took off from Gibraltar for England . On board was General Władysław Sikorski , Prime Minister of Poland 's London @-@ based government in exile and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of its armed forces , returning from visiting Polish troops in the Middle East .
The aircraft climbed normally from the runway , levelled off to gather speed but then suddenly lost height and crashed into the harbour . The 62 @-@ year @-@ old general died , along with 15 others . The sole survivor was the Czech @-@ born pilot , Eduard Prchal , who was rescued by an RAF launch . The bodies of five passengers and crew , including Sikorski 's daughter , were never found .
The coffins of General Sikorski and his Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff , General Kilimecki , were draped in the Polish National Flag and lay in state in the Cathedral of St. Mary the Crowned . After a Requiem Mass , the bodies were carried in procession to the H.M. Dockyard with full Military Honours to be shipped to London in anticipation that General Sikorski 's remains would one day be returned to a liberated Poland . The route to the dockyard was lined by British troops and the coffins carried and escorted by Polish Servicemen .
In 1943 a British Court of Inquiry investigated the crash of Sikorski 's Liberator II AL523 , but was unable to determine the probable cause , finding only that it was an accident and the " aircraft became uncontrollable for reasons which cannot be established " . A popular theory was insufficient technical maintenance leading to jamming aircraft controls . Despite this finding , the political context of the event , coupled with a variety of curious circumstances , immediately gave rise to speculation that Sikorski 's death had been no accident , and may in fact have been the direct result of a Soviet , British or even Polish conspiracy .
The surrender of Italy in September 1943 lifted any possible objections to the return of the evacuees to the Rock . As a result , a Resettlement Board was established in November , and at a meeting of the Board on 8 February 1944 repatriation priorities were finally agreed . On 6 April 1944 the first group of 1 @,@ 367 repatriates arrived on the Rock directly from the United Kingdom and on 28 May , the first repatriation party left Madeira , and by the end of 1944 only 520 non @-@ priority evacuees remained on the island .
In London , home @-@ comers were making claims on the evacuees ’ wartime accommodation and 500 Gibraltarians were re @-@ evacuated to Scotland and 3 @,@ 000 to camps in Northern Ireland . Although the Governor , Lt. General Sir Noel Mason @-@ MacFarlane , fought valiantly on behalf of the evacuees and did not accept the lack of accommodation as a sufficient reason for the delays . As late as 1947 there were still 2 @,@ 000 in Northern Irish camps . The last of the evacuees did not see the Rock again until 1951 .
Nerva ( Latin : Marcus Cocceius Nerva Caesar Augustus ; 8 November , 30 AD – 27 January , 98 AD ) was Roman Emperor from 96 to 98 . Nerva became Emperor at the age of sixty @-@ five , after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the rulers of the Flavian dynasty . Under Nero , he was a member of the imperial entourage and played a vital part in exposing the Pisonian conspiracy of 65 . Later , as a loyalist to the Flavians , he attained consulships in 71 and 90 during the reigns of Vespasian and Domitian respectively .
On 18 September 96 , Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy involving members of the Praetorian Guard and several of his freedmen . On the same day , Nerva was declared emperor by the Roman Senate . This was the first time the Senate elected a Roman Emperor . As the new ruler of the Roman Empire , he vowed to restore liberties which had been curtailed during the autocratic government of Domitian .
Nerva 's brief reign was marred by financial difficulties and his inability to assert his authority over the Roman army . A revolt by the Praetorian Guard in October 97 essentially forced him to adopt an heir . After some deliberation Nerva adopted Trajan , a young and popular general , as his successor . After barely fifteen months in office , Nerva died of natural causes on 27 January 98 . Upon his death he was succeeded and deified by Trajan .
Although much of his life remains obscure , Nerva was considered a wise and moderate emperor by ancient historians . Nerva 's greatest success was his ability to ensure a peaceful transition of power after his death , thus founding the Nerva – Antonine dynasty .
Marcus Cocceius Nerva was born in the village of Narni , 50 kilometers north of Rome , to the family of Marcus Cocceius Nerva , Suffect Consul in 40 , and Sergia Plautilla . Ancient sources report the date as either 30 or 35 . He had at least one attested sister , named Cocceia , who married Lucius Salvius Titianus Otho , the brother of the future Emperor Otho .
Like Vespasian , the founder of the Flavian dynasty , Nerva was a member of the Italian nobility rather than one of the elite of Rome . Nevertheless , the Cocceii were among the most esteemed and prominent political families of the late Republic and early Empire , attaining consulships in each successive generation . The direct ancestors of Nerva on his father 's side , all named Marcus Cocceius Nerva , were associated with imperial circles since the time of Emperor Augustus ( 27 BC – AD 14 ) .
His great @-@ grandfather was Consul in 36 BC ( in replacement , and abdicated ) , and Governor of Asia in the same year . His grandfather became Consul Suffect in July of either 21 or 22 , and was known as a personal friend of Emperor Tiberius ( AD 14 – 37 ) , accompanying the emperor during his voluntary seclusion on Capri from 23 onwards , dying in 33 . Nerva 's father , finally , attained the consulship in 40 under emperor Caligula ( 37 – 41 ) . The Cocceii were connected with the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty through the marriage of Sergia Plautilla 's brother Octavius Laenas , and Rubellia Bassa , the great @-@ granddaughter of Tiberius .
Not much of Nerva 's early life or career is recorded , but it appears he did not pursue the usual administrative or military career . He was praetor @-@ elect in the year 65 and , like his ancestors , moved in imperial circles as a skilled diplomat and strategist . As an advisor to Emperor Nero , he successfully helped detect and expose the Pisonian conspiracy of 65 . Exactly what his contribution to the investigation was is not known but his services must have been considerable , since they earned him rewards equal to those of Nero 's guard prefect Tigellinus . He received triumphal honors — which was usually reserved for military victories — and the right to have his statues placed throughout the palace .
According to the contemporary poet Martial , Nero also held Nerva 's literary abilities in high esteem , hailing him as the " Tibullus of our time " . Another prominent member of Nero 's entourage was Vespasian , an old and respected general who had celebrated military triumphs during the 40s . It appears Vespasian befriended Nerva during his time as an imperial advisor , and may have asked him to watch over Vespasian 's youngest son Domitian when Vespasian departed for the Jewish war in 67 .
The suicide of Nero on 9 June 68 brought the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty to an end , leading to the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors , which saw the successive rise and fall of the emperors Galba , Otho and Vitellius , until the accession of Vespasian on 21 December 69 . Virtually nothing is known of Nerva 's whereabouts during 69 , but despite the fact that Otho was his brother @-@ in @-@ law , he appears to have been one of the earliest and strongest supporters of the Flavians .
For services unknown , he was rewarded with a consulship early in Vespasian 's reign in 71 . This was a remarkable honour , not only because he held this office early under the new regime , but also because it was an ordinary consulship ( instead of a less prestigious suffect consulship ) , making him one of the few non @-@ Flavians to be honoured in this way under Vespasian . After 71 Nerva again disappears from historical record , presumably continuing his career as an inconspicuous advisor under Vespasian ( 69 – 79 ) and his sons Titus ( 79 – 81 ) and Domitian ( 81 – 96 ) .
He re @-@ emerges during the revolt of Saturninus in 89 . On 1 January , 89 , the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , and his two legions at Mainz , Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax , revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of a tribe of the Chatti . The governor of Germania Inferior , Lappius Maximus , moved to the region at once , assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia , Titus Flavius Norbanus . Within twenty @-@ four days the rebellion was crushed , and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished . The mutinous legions were sent to the front of Illyricum , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded .
Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Nerva . Again , the honour suggested Nerva had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy , perhaps in a fashion similar to what he did during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero . Alternatively , Domitian may have selected Nerva as his colleague to emphasise the stability and status @-@ quo of the regime . The revolt had been suppressed , and the Empire could return to order .
On 18 September , 96 , Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy organised by court officials . The Fasti Ostienses , the Ostian Calendar , records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor . Despite his political experience , this was a remarkable choice . Nerva was old and childless , and had spent much of his career out of the public light , prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian 's assassination .
According to Cassius Dio , the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination , which indicates that he was at least aware of the plot . Suetonius by contrast does not mention Nerva , but he may have omitted his role out of tactfulness . Considering the works of Suetonius were published under Nerva 's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian , it would have been less than sensitive of him to suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder . On the other hand , Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire , and as a known Flavian loyalist his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators . The precise facts have been obscured by history , but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , within hours after the news of the assassination broke .
Although he appeared to be an unlikely candidate on account of his age and weak health , Nerva was considered a safe choice precisely because he was old and childless . Furthermore , he had close connections with the Flavian dynasty and commanded the respect of a substantial part of the Senate . Nerva had seen the anarchy which had resulted from the death of Nero ; he knew that to hesitate even for a few hours could lead to violent civil conflict . Rather than decline the invitation and risk revolts , he accepted . The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war , but neither the Senate nor Nerva appears to have been involved in the conspiracy against Domitian .
Following the accession of Nerva as emperor , the Senate passed damnatio memoriae on Domitian : his coins and statues were melted , his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records . In many instances , existing portraits of Domitian , such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs , were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva . This allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material . In addition , the vast palace which Domitian had erected on the Palatine Hill , known as the Flavian Palace , was renamed the " House of the People " , and Nerva himself took up residence in Vespasian 's former villa in the Gardens of Sallust .
The change of government was welcome particularly to the senators , who had been harshly persecuted during Domitian 's reign . As an immediate gesture of goodwill towards his supporters , Nerva publicly swore that no senators would be put to death as long as he remained in office . He called an end to trials based on treason , released those who had been imprisoned under these charges , and granted amnesty to many who had been exiled .
All properties which had been confiscated by Domitian were returned to their respective families . Nerva also sought to involve the Senate in his government , but this was not entirely successful . He continued to rely largely on friends and advisors that were known and trusted , and by maintaining friendly relations with the pro @-@ Domitianic faction of the Senate , he incurred hostility which may have been the cause for at least one conspiracy against his life .
Having been proclaimed emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , Nerva had to introduce a number of measures to gain support among the Roman populace . As was custom by this time , a change of emperor was expected to bring with it a generous payment of gifts and money to the people and the army . Accordingly , a congiarium of 75 denarii per head was bestowed upon the citizens , while the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard received a donativum which may have amounted to as much as 5000 denarii per person . This was followed by a string of economic reforms intended to alleviate the burden of taxation from the most needy Romans .
To the poorest , Nerva granted allotments of land worth up to 60 million sesterces . He exempted parents and their children from a 5 % inheritance tax , and he made loans to Italian landowners on the condition that they pay interest of 5 % to their municipality to support the children of needy families ; alimentary schemes which were later expanded by Trajan , Antoninus Pius , and Marcus Aurelius . Furthermore , numerous taxes were remitted and privileges granted to Roman provinces . Namely , he probably abolished the Fiscus Iudaicus , the additional tax which all Jews throughout the Empire had to pay : some of his coins bear the legend FISCI IUDAICI CALUMNIA SUBLATA ( abolition of malicious prosecution regarding the Jewish tax ) .
Before long , Nerva 's expenses strained the economy of Rome and , although perhaps not ruinous to the extent once suggested by Syme , necessitated the formation of a special commission of economy to drastically reduce expenditures . The most superfluous religious sacrifices , games and horse races were abolished , while new income was generated from Domitian 's former possessions , including the auctioning of ships , estates , and even furniture . Large amounts of money were obtained from Domitian 's silver and gold statues , and Nerva forbade that similar images be made in his honor .
Because he reigned only briefly , Nerva 's public works were few , instead completing projects which had been initiated under Flavian rule . This included extensive repairs to the Roman road system and the expansion of the aqueducts . The latter program was headed by the former consul Sextus Julius Frontinus , who helped to put an end to abuses and later published a significant work on Rome 's water supply , De Aquis Urbis Romae . The only major landmarks constructed under Nerva were a granary , known as the Horrea Nervae , and a small Imperial Forum begun by Domitian , which linked the Forum of Augustus to the Temple of Peace . Little remains , partly because the Via dei Fori Imperiali cuts across it .
Despite Nerva 's measures to remain popular with the Senate and the Roman people , support for Domitian remained strong in the army , which had called for his deification immediately after the assassination . In an attempt to appease the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard , Nerva had dismissed their prefect Titus Petronius Secundus — one of the chief conspirators against Domitian — and replaced him with a former commander , Casperius Aelianus .
Likewise , the generous donativum bestowed upon the soldiers following his accession was expected to swiftly silence any protests against the violent regime change . The Praetorians considered these measures insufficient , however , and demanded the execution of Domitian 's assassins , which Nerva refused . Continued dissatisfaction with this state of affairs would ultimately lead to the gravest crisis of Nerva 's reign .
While the swift transfer of power following Domitian 's death had prevented a civil war from erupting , Nerva 's position as an emperor soon proved too vulnerable , and his benign nature turned into a reluctance to assert his authority . Upon his accession , he had ordered a halt to treason trials , but at the same time allowed the prosecution of informers by the Senate to continue . This measure led to chaos , as everyone acted in his own interests while trying to settle scores with personal enemies , leading the consul Fronto to famously remark that Domitian 's tyranny was ultimately preferable to Nerva 's anarchy . Early in 97 , a conspiracy led by the senator Gaius Calpurnius Piso Crassus Frugi Licinianus failed , but once again Nerva refused to put the conspirators to death , much to the disapproval of the Senate .
The situation was further aggravated by the absence of a clear successor , made more pressing because of Nerva 's old age and sickness . He had no natural children of his own and only distant relatives , who were unsuited for political office . A successor would have to be chosen from among the governors or generals in the Empire and it appears that , by 97 , Nerva was considering to adopt Marcus Cornelius Nigrinus Curiatius Maternus , the powerful governor of Syria . This was covertly opposed by those who supported the more popular military commander Marcus Ulpius Traianus , commonly known as Trajan , a general of the armies at the German frontier .
In October 97 these tensions came to a head when the Praetorian Guard , led by Casperius Aelianus , laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage . He was forced to submit to their demands , agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian 's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians . Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius , Domitian 's former chamberlain , were sought out and killed . Nerva was unharmed in this assault , but his authority was damaged beyond repair .
He realized that his position was no longer tenable without the support of an heir who had the approval of both the army and the people . Shortly thereafter , he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor , and with this decision all but abdicated . Trajan was formally bestowed with the title of Caesar and shared the consulship with Nerva in 98 :
Contrary to the view here popularized by Cassius Dio , however , Nerva had in fact little choice with regard to his successor . Faced with a major crisis , he desperately needed the support of a man who could restore his damaged reputation . The only candidate with sufficient military experience , consular ancestry , and connections was Trajan . Likewise , Edward Gibbon 's assertion that Nerva hereby established a tradition of succession through adoption among the Five Good Emperors has found little support among modern historians .
On 1 January , 98 , at the start of his fourth consulship , Nerva suffered a stroke during a private audience . Shortly thereafter he was struck by a fever and died at his villa in the Gardens of Sallust , on 28 January . He was deified by the Senate , and his ashes were laid to rest in the Mausoleum of Augustus .
Nerva was succeeded without incident by his adopted son Trajan , who was greeted by the Roman populace with much enthusiasm . According to Pliny the Younger , Trajan dedicated a temple in honour of Nerva , yet no trace of it has ever been found ; nor was a commemorative series of coins for the Deified Nerva issued until ten years after his death . According to Cassius Dio , however , the Guard prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva , Casperius Aelianus , was ' dismissed ' upon Trajan 's accession .
Due to the lack of written sources on this period , much of Nerva 's life has remained obscure . The most substantial surviving account of the reign of Nerva was written by the 3rd @-@ century historian Cassius Dio . His Roman History , which spans nearly a millennium , from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy until the year 229 , was composed more than one hundred years after Nerva had died . Further details are added by an abridged biography from the Epitome de Caesaribus , a work alleged to have been authored by the 4th @-@ century historian Aurelius Victor .
A more comprehensive text , presumed to describe the life of Nerva in closer detail , is the Histories , by the contemporary historian Tacitus . The Histories is an account of the history of Rome covering three decades from the suicide of emperor Nero in 69 until the death of Domitian in 96 . Unfortunately , a substantial part of the work has been lost , with only the first five books covering the Year of the Four Emperors remaining . In the introduction to his biography of Gnaeus Julius Agricola however , Tacitus speaks highly of Nerva , describing his reign as " the dawn of a most happy age , [ when ] Nerva Caesar blended things once irreconcilable , sovereignty and freedom " .
The surviving histories speak equally positively of Nerva 's brief reign , although none offer a substantial commentary on his policies . Both Cassius Dio and Aurelius Victor emphasize his wisdom and moderation , with Dio commending his decision to adopt Trajan as his heir . These views were later popularized by the 18th @-@ century historian Edward Gibbon in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Gibbon considered Nerva the first of the Five Good Emperors , five successive rulers under whom the Roman Empire " was governed by absolute power , under the guidance of wisdom and virtue " from 96 until 180 . Nevertheless , even Gibbon notes that , compared to his successors , Nerva may have lacked the necessary qualifications for a successful reign :
Modern history has expanded upon this sentiment , characterizing Nerva as a well @-@ intentioned but weak and ineffectual ruler . The Roman Senate enjoyed renewed liberties under his rule , but Nerva 's mismanagement of the state finances and lack of authority over the army ultimately brought Rome near the edge of a significant crisis . The mutiny led by Casperius Aelianus was never intended as a coup , but a calculated attempt to put pressure on the emperor . The adoption of Trajan expanded his power base with a respected , reliable general as his successor . Murison concludes that Nerva 's real talents were in fact ill @-@ suited to the emperorship :
His place in Roman history is therefore summarized as a necessary , if tumultuous stop @-@ gap before the Trajanic @-@ Antonine dynasties . It is a fact of irony that even the only major public work completed during his reign , the Forum of Nerva , ultimately became known as the Forum Transitorium , or transitional forum .
Two modern statues which commemorate Nerva can be found in towns associated with him . There is an equestrian statue in Gloucester , England , a town which was founded in his honour . It is at the entrance to Southgate Street . There is also a statue at his alleged birthplace , Narni in Italy , at Cocceio Nerva street .
Pelham , Henry Francis ( 1911 ) . " Nerva , Marcus Cocceius " . In Chisholm , Hugh . Encyclopædia Britannica 19 ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press. pp. 393 – 394 .
The Hustler is a 1961 American drama film directed by Robert Rossen from Walter Tevis 's 1959 novel of the same name , adapted for the screen by Rossen and Sidney Carroll . It tells the story of small @-@ time pool hustler " Fast Eddie " Felson and his desire to break into the " major league " of professional hustling and high @-@ stakes wagering by high @-@ rollers that follows it . He throws his raw talent and ambition up against the best player in the country ; seeking to best the legendary pool player " Minnesota Fats . " After initially losing to Fats and getting involved with unscrupulous manager Bert Gordon , Eddie returns to try again , but only after paying a terrible personal price .
The film was shot on location in New York City . It stars Paul Newman as " Fast " Eddie Felson , Jackie Gleason as Minnesota Fats , Piper Laurie as Sarah , and George C. Scott as Bert .
The Hustler was a major critical and popular success , gaining a reputation as a modern classic . Its exploration of winning , losing , and character garnered a number of major awards ; it is also credited with helping to spark a resurgence in the popularity of pool . Real @-@ life pool player Rudolf Wanderone , known at the time as " New York Fats " and " Chicago Fats " , claimed to be the real life inspiration for Gleason 's character , Minnesota Fats , and adopted the name as his own .
Small @-@ time pool hustler " Fast Eddie " Felson travels cross @-@ country with his partner Charlie to challenge the legendary player " Minnesota Fats " . Arriving at Fats ' home pool hall , Eddie declares he will win $ 10 @,@ 000 that night . Fats arrives and he and Eddie agree to play straight pool for $ 200 a game . After initially falling behind , Eddie surges back to being $ 1 @,@ 000 ahead and suggests raising the bet to $ 1 @,@ 000 a game ; Fats agrees . He sends out a runner , Preacher , to Johnny 's Bar , ostensibly for whiskey , but really to get professional gambler Bert Gordon to the hall . Eddie gets ahead $ 11 @,@ 000 and Charlie tries to convince him to quit , but Eddie insists the game will end only when Fats says it is over . Fats agrees to continue after Bert labels Eddie a " loser . " After 25 hours and an entire bottle of bourbon , Eddie is ahead over $ 18 @,@ 000 , but loses it all along with all but $ 200 of his original stake . At their hotel later , Eddie leaves half of the remaining stake with a sleeping Charlie and leaves .
Eddie stashes his belongings at the local bus terminal , where he meets Sarah Packard , an alcoholic who is supported by her father , attends college part @-@ time , and walks with a limp . He meets her again at a bar . They go back to her place but she refuses to let him in , saying he is " too hungry " . Eddie moves into a rooming house and starts hustling for small stakes . He finds Sarah again and this time she takes him in , but with reservations . Charlie finds Eddie at Sarah 's and tries to persuade him to go back out on the road . Eddie refuses and Charlie realizes he plans to challenge Fats again . Eddie realizes that Charlie held out his percentage and becomes enraged , believing that with that money he could have rebounded to beat Fats . Eddie dismisses Charlie as a scared old man and tells him to " go lie down and die " by himself .
At Johnny 's Bar , Eddie joins a poker game where Bert is playing , and loses $ 20 . Afterward , Bert tells Eddie that he has talent as a pool player but no character . He figures that Eddie will need at least $ 3 @,@ 000 to challenge Fats again . Bert calls him a " born loser " but nevertheless offers to stake him in return for 75 % of his winnings ; Eddie refuses .
Eddie humiliates a local pool shark , exposing himself as a hustler , and the other players punish him by breaking his thumbs . As he heals , Sarah cares for him and tells him she loves him , but he cannot say the words in return . When Eddie is ready to play , he agrees to Bert 's terms , deciding that a " 25 % slice of something big is better than a 100 % slice of nothing " .
Bert , Eddie , and Sarah travel to the Kentucky Derby , where Bert arranges a match for Eddie against a wealthy local socialite named Findley . The game turns out to be carom billiards , not pool . When Eddie loses badly , Bert refuses to keep staking him . Sarah pleads with Eddie to leave with her , saying that the world he is living in and its inhabitants are " perverted , twisted , and crippled " ; he refuses . Seeing Eddie 's anger , Bert agrees to let the match continue at $ 1 @,@ 000 a game . Eddie comes back to win $ 12 @,@ 000 . He collects his $ 3 @,@ 000 share and decides to walk back to the hotel . Bert arrives first and subjects Sarah to a humiliating sexual encounter . After , she scrawls " PERVERTED " , " TWISTED " , and " CRIPPLED " in lipstick on the bathroom mirror . Eddie arrives back at the hotel to learn that she has killed herself .
Eddie returns to challenge Fats again , putting up his entire $ 3 @,@ 000 stake on a single game . He wins game after game , beating Fats so badly that Fats is forced to quit . Bert demands a share of Eddie 's winnings and threatens that Eddie will be injured unless he pays . But Eddie says that if he is not killed he will kill Bert when he recovers ; invoking the memory of Sarah , he shames Bert into giving up his claim . Instead , Bert orders Eddie never to walk into a big @-@ time pool hall again . Eddie and Fats compliment each other as players , and Eddie walks out .
Pool champion Willie Mosconi has a cameo appearance as Willie , who holds the stakes for Eddie and Fats 's games . Mosconi 's hands also appear in many of the closeup shots .
The Tevis novel had been optioned several times , including by Frank Sinatra , but attempts to adapt it for the screen were unsuccessful . Director Rossen 's daughter Carol Rossen speculates that previous adaptations focused too much on the pool aspects of the story and not enough on the human interaction . Rossen , who had hustled pool himself as a youth and who had made an abortive attempt to write a pool @-@ themed play called Corner Pocket , optioned the book and teamed with Sidney Carroll to produce the script .
According to Bobby Darin 's agent , Martin Baum , Paul Newman 's agent turned down the part of Fast Eddie . Newman was originally unavailable to play Fast Eddie regardless , being committed to star opposite Elizabeth Taylor in the film Two for the Seesaw . Rossen offered Darin the part after seeing him on The Mike Wallace Interview . When Taylor was forced to drop out of Seesaw because of shooting overruns on Cleopatra , Newman was freed up to take the role , which he accepted after reading just half of the script . No one associated with the production officially notified Darin or his representatives that he had been replaced ; they found out from a member of the public at a charity horse race .
Rossen filmed The Hustler over six weeks , entirely in New York City . Much of the action was filmed at two now @-@ defunct pool halls , McGirr 's and Ames Billiard Academy . Other shooting locations included a townhouse on East 82nd Street , which served as the Louisville home of Murray Hamilton 's character Findley , and the Manhattan Greyhound bus terminal . The film crew built a dining area that was so realistic that confused passengers sat there and waited to place their orders . Willie Mosconi served as technical advisor on the film and shot a number of the trick shots in place of the actors . All of Gleason 's shots were his own ; they were filmed in wide @-@ angle to emphasize having the actor and the shot in the same frames . Rossen , in pursuit of the style he termed " neo @-@ neo @-@ realistic " , hired actual street thugs , enrolled them in the Screen Actors Guild and used them as extras . Scenes that were included in the shooting script but did not make it into the final film include a scene at Ames pool hall establishing that Eddie is on his way to town ( originally slated to be the first scene of the film ) and a longer scene of Preacher talking to Bert at Johnny 's Bar which establishes Preacher is a junkie .
Early shooting put more focus on the pool playing , but during filming Rossen made the decision to place more emphasis on the love story between Newman and Laurie 's characters . Despite the change in emphasis , Rossen still used the various pool games to show the strengthening of Eddie 's character and the evolution of his relationship to Bert and Sarah , through the positioning of the characters in the frame . For example , when Eddie is playing Findley , Eddie is positioned below Bert in a two shot but above Findley while still below Bert in a three shot . When Sarah enters the room , she is below Eddie in two shot while in a three shot Eddie is still below Bert . When Eddie is kneeling over Sarah 's body , Bert again appears above him but Eddie attacks Bert , ending up on top of him . Eddie finally appears above Bert in two shot when Eddie returns to beat Fats .
The Hustler is fundamentally a story of what it means to be a human being , couched within the context of winning and losing . Describing the film , Robert Rossen said : " My protagonist , Fast Eddie , wants to become a great pool player , but the film is really about the obstacles he encounters in attempting to fulfill himself as a human being . He attains self @-@ awareness only after a terrible personal tragedy which he has caused — and then he wins his pool game . " Roger Ebert concurs with this assessment , citing The Hustler as " one of the few American movies in which the hero wins by surrendering , by accepting reality instead of his dreams . "