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= Running with Scissors ( " Weird Al " Yankovic album ) =
Running with Scissors is the tenth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on June 29 , 1999 . It was the fourth studio album self @-@ produced by Yankovic . It was the first of four albums to be released by Volcano Records . The musical styles on the album are built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the late @-@ 1990s , largely targeting alternative rock and hip @-@ hop . The album 's lead single , " The Saga Begins " , however , was a parody of the 1971 single " American Pie " by Don McLean , and it recounts the plot of the film Star Wars : Episode I β The Phantom Menace , which was released around the same time . None of the album 's singles charted domestically , although " Pretty Fly for a Rabbi " charted at number 67 in Australia .
The album featured five parodies . Aside from the aforementioned " The Saga Begins " and " Pretty Fly for a Rabbi " , the album also contains lampoons of " One Week " by Barenaked Ladies , " It 's All About the Benjamins " by Puff Daddy , and " Zoot Suit Riot " by Cherry Poppin ' Daddies . The other half of the album is original material , featuring many " style parodies , " or musical imitations of existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like Nine Inch Nails and The Rugburns , as well as imitations of different musical genres like zydeco , third @-@ wave ska , and truck @-@ driving country .
Running with Scissors was met with mostly positive reviews , with many critics praising " The Saga Begins " ; some , however , felt that the album was rushed . The album peaked at number 16 on the Billboard 200 . " The Saga Begins " went on to become one of Yankovic 's best @-@ known singles , although it never charted on the Billboard Hot 100 . Running with Scissors was Yankovic 's seventh Gold record in the United States , and went on to be certified Platinum for sales of over one million copies in the US . The album also was certified Gold in both Australia and Canada .
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
In June 1997 , Yankovic entered the studio to begin the first of the Running with Scissors sessions , which Yankovic produced himself . Recording with Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . The album was recorded in six sessions . The first session started on June 29 , 1997 , in which Yankovic recorded the theme song to his television show , The Weird Al Show . The second session , which occurred on October 7 , 1998 , produced the original song " Germs " , and eight days later , on October 15 , Yankovic started the third session and recorded three more originals , " Albuquerque " , " My Baby 's in Love with Eddie Vedder " , and " Truck Driving Song " . The next day , the fourth session resulted in the song " Your Horoscope For Today " . On April 19 of the following year , Yankovic recorded four parodies during the fifth session , " Pretty Fly for a Rabbi " , " Jerry Springer " , " It 's All About the Pentiums " , and " Grapefruit Diet " . The album 's sixth and final session occurred on April 20 , and resulted in " The Saga Begins " , and the album 's polka medley , " Polka Power ! "
= = = Originals = = =
The album includes " The Weird Al Show Theme " , which is the theme song to Yankovic 's short @-@ lived television series . " Germs " , a style parody of industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails that tells of the narrator 's germophobia . " Your Horoscope for Today " , is a style parody of third wave ska , features Reel Big Fish members Tavis Werts on trumpet and Dan Regan on trombone , and has lyrics about ridiculous horoscopes . Yankovic attributes the lyrics ' inspiration to the satirical newspaper The Onion . After Ophiuchus was touted by some papers as the " 13th zodiac sign " , Yankovic released new lyrics on his Twitter for the sign .
" Albuquerque " , an eleven @-@ minute " hard @-@ driving rock narrative " , is a style parody of The Rugburns , and tells the fictional life of Yankovic and his various adventures in the town of Albuquerque , New Mexico . Yankovic originally wrote the song to " annoy people for 12 minutes " . He felt that it would be an " odyssey " for fans to successfully sit through it , and so it was placed at the end of the album . Instead , to Yankovic 's surprise , the song has become a fan favorite . " My Baby 's in Love with Eddie Vedder " is a style parody of zydeco about a man 's frustration that his girlfriend is obsessed with Eddie Vedder , the lead singer for the grunge band Pearl Jam . Musically , the song is in the style of zydeco . " Truck Driving Song " , a detailed account of a truck @-@ driver working , while at the same time worrying about their clothing and makeup , is a style parody of truck @-@ driving country . While writing the song , Yankovic listened to C.W. McCall for inspiration .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
The first parody recorded for the album was " Pretty Fly for a Rabbi " , a parody of the Offspring 's 1998 single " Pretty Fly ( For a White Guy ) " , about a hip rabbi . " In order to accurately write the song , Yankovic consulted several of his Jewish friends as well as several English @-@ to @-@ Yiddish dictionaries . The song 's opening line β " Veren zol fun dir a blintsa " β is a Yiddish curse that roughly means " May you turn into a blintz . " Originally , Yankovic had wanted voice actress Mary Kay Bergman to sing the song as her South Park character Sheila Broflovski . However , due to legal restrictions , she was only able to say a few lines in the finished product . Yankovic then approached actress Fran Drescher to lend her voice to the song , but this was also unsuccessful . Finally , Yankovic was able to get actress Tress MacNeille β who had been featured in his 1983 parody " Ricky " β to appear in the song .
The second parody recorded for the album was " Jerry Springer " , a parody of Barenaked Ladies 1998 hit " One Week " . The song is about The Jerry Springer Show , hosted by the eponymous Jerry Springer . To write the song , Yankovic watched " a couple shows " until he understood the " basic formula " for how the episodes unfolded . Originally , there were plans to shoot a video for the song , and an inquiry was sent to Springer to see if he would have liked to be in the video . Before hearing the song , Springer was interested in the possibility of appearing in a video , but after hearing the lyrics , he " balked " and declined , saying that the song was too " negative " towards his show . The third parody recorded for the album was " It 's All About the Pentiums " , a parody of the rock remix of the track " It 's All About the Benjamins " by Sean " Puff Daddy " Combs . Yankovic spoke to Combs personally on the phone to make sure that the parody would not emulate the 1996 Coolio incident . Due to time constraints , Yankovic was forced to write the song a few days before the entire album had to be mastered , as Yankovic had still been waiting for Combs ' approval . By the time Combs responded to him , Yankovic was recording the last session for the album . To give him time to write the lyrics , Yankovic 's band recorded the music first . Yankovic noted that " we were mixing the last few songs on the album by the time I finished writing the lyrics to ' Pentiums , ' and I wound up recording the lead vocals just a couple days before the album had to be mastered . " The fourth parody recorded for the album was " Grapefruit Diet " , a pastiche of " Zoot Suit Riot " by the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies about an obese man going on such a diet . The song 's writer , Steve Perry , called the opportunity to be parodied " an honor " but noted that " Why Weird Al is such an icon is a mystery to me though " .
The final parody recorded for the album was " The Saga Begins " , which recounts the plot of Star Wars : Episode I β The Phantom Menace from the point of view of Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi to the tune of the 1971 single " American Pie " by Don McLean . Yankovic , who often bases his albums around significant moments in pop culture , felt that the album should have a song centered on the release of The Phantom Menace . Yankovic first considered writing his parody of " Pretty Fly ( For a White Guy ) " about the film and calling it " Pretty Fly for a Jedi " , but he quickly dismissed this idea ; he wanted to parody a classic song to commemorate how important the new movie was considered . Yankovic then chose to write a parody of " American Pie " about the film . Because Yankovic wanted the song to be topical , he began writing the lyrics in December 1998 , many months before the film was released , gleaning all of the information about the movie 's plot entirely from Internet spoilers . The song was completed two months before The Phantom Menace was released to theaters ; Yankovic had approached Lucasfilm about the prospect of an advanced screening to ensure that his lyrics were accurate , but the company declined . However , Yankovic later went to a charity screening , whose tickets cost US $ 500 each . As a result , Yankovic only had to change one line ; " He 's probably gonna marry her someday " was originally " I hear he 's gonna marry her someday " . A video which Yankovic later jokingly dubbed " Star Wars Unplugged " was filmed for the song , after The Phantom Menace premiered in theaters .
Much like Yankovic 's previous albums , Running with Scissors features a polka medley of then @-@ current hit songs called " Polka Power ! " . The song was later released as a promotional single in Germany , where Yankovic 's recording label felt a polka song might have more success . This was the second time that one of Yankovic 's polka medleys was released as a single ; in 1985 , Scotti Brothers Records released " Hooked on Polkas " , from the album Dare to Be Stupid , in Japan .
= = = Booklet and disc = = =
Since the early 1980s , Yankovic had been known for his hairdo , glasses , and moustache . However , in 1998 , Yankovic shaved his mustache and underwent LASIK eye surgery to correct his vision , and no longer needed glasses . As such , this is his first album with his new style . On the cover , he is shown running on the track at Santa Monica City College . The CD booklet contains the complete lyrics to all but one of the album 's songs ; due to the length of the closing song " Albuquerque " , not all of its lyrics fit on the final page of the booklet . Instead of continuing with the " Albuquerque " lyrics , the end of the booklet breaks off mid @-@ sentence and concludes with an apology from Yankovic , in which he states that there was no way he could have fit the rest of the song 's lyrics on the existing booklet and that he " should have used a smaller font or a bigger piece of paper or something " . Yankovic later released the complete lyrics on the " Ask Al " feature on his website , and had them printed in Weird Al : The Book .
Running with Scissors is also the first of " Weird Al " Yankovic 's albums to feature multimedia content . After placing the CD in a CD @-@ ROM drive , one can browse through the files and play a QuickTime movie file containing fourteen minutes of footage from the Disney Channel concert special " Weird Al " Yankovic : ( There 's No ) Going Home .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
Following the release of Running with Scissors , Yankovic undertook a two @-@ year @-@ long tour called " Touring With Scissors " . Starting on July 19 , 1999 , Yankovic played over 200 shows across the United States . A live video recording of one of the shows , called " Weird Al " Yankovic Live ! was released later in the year . To promote the album , two promotional websites were launched for the singles " It 's All About the Pentiums " and " The Saga Begins " : " thepentiums.com " and " sagabegins.com " respectively . Each site featured the respective song 's music video , as well as additional information such as behind @-@ the @-@ scenes notes and lyrics .
= = = Reviews = = =
The album was met with mostly positive reviews from critics . J.D. Considine of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a " B " rating and felt that , while many comedians are unable to translate jokes onto CD , " Yankovic 's jokes are eminently listenable . " He concluded that " compared with most comedy recordings these days , Running with Scissors is a cut above . " Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch graded the album a " B + " , writing , " Now on his 10th album , the weird and wacky Al tackles gems such as Don McLean 's ' American Pie , ' The Offspring 's ' Pretty Fly ( For a White Guy ) ' and Barenaked Ladies ' ' One Week . ' Most of the results are priceless . " Warren Rhodes of the Anchorage Daily News named the album the fifth best release of 1999 , writing that , " Leaving his long @-@ time label [ Scotti Brothers ] has inspired the parody king ; even his originals are pretty good this time . " He also wrote that " the intellect 's still there , and his wide @-@ ranging chameleon band has no equal . " In The Rolling Stone Album Guide , Running with Scissors was given 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , which denoted that the album averaged between good and excellent . The book wrote that Yankovic 's " nasal whine has never been put to more appropriate use than [ on ] ' Pretty Fly for a Rabbi ' . "
Not all reviews were positive . Steve Huey of Allmusic gave the album two and a half stars out of five and called it " a mixed bag " . Huey felt that both " The Saga Begins " and " Jerry Springer " were clever parodies , whereas " Pretty Fly for a Rabbi " and " It 's All About the Pentiums " were not " quite up to his usual standards . " Robert Johnson of the San Antonio Express @-@ News was critical of the album , giving it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , noting that " in his haste to stay up to the minute , [ Yankovic ] forgot to make [ ' The Saga Begins ' ] funny . " He wrote that the album " features recycled ideas ( fat jokes , alt @-@ rock hits redone as polkas ) , tunes that sound better than they play ( ' Pretty Fly for a Rabbi ' ) and weirdness for its own sake ( the 11 @-@ minute ' Albuquerque ' ) . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Running with Scissors was released on June 29 , 1999 . The album entered the Billboard 200 chart at number 35 on July 17 , and went up to its peak position of 16 the following week . The album also charted on the Top Internet Albums , a first for Yankovic , entering at number 7 , and eventually peaking at number 3 . The album was consecutively certified both Gold and Platinum by Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
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= Thinkin Bout You =
" Thinkin Bout You " is a song by American singer Frank Ocean , released as the lead single from his debut studio album Channel Orange ( 2012 ) . The song was written by Ocean and produced by Shea Taylor . Originally to be featured on Bridget Kelly 's debut album , Ocean released his original version of the track for free on his tumblr in 2011 . In May 2012 , the song was officially sent to radio and released on iTunes as a single by Ocean . Kelly would later release her own version of the track entitled " Thinking Bout Forever " .
Lyrically , the track is about a relationship just out of his reach and the turmoil that ensues . The track also explores feelings of regret and heartbreak . The song received highly positive reviews from music critics , who praised the atmospheric production , Ocean 's falsetto and writing ability . Some critics noted the possible bisexual undertones featured on the track .
In September 2012 , the song peaked at position 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 , 94 on the UK Singles Chart , and 13 on the Heatseekers Songs chart . In 2011 , the song received a music video directed by visual art group High5Collective released on September 15 . Ocean appears in the violent clip revolving around an inter @-@ dimensional love story and zombies . Ocean performed the track during his seven @-@ show tour through North America and Europe in November 2011 , at the April 2012 Coachella Musical Festival , and his supporting tour for Channel Orange . " Thinkin Bout You " has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and has sold more than one million units in the United States . The song was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2013 for Record of the Year .
= = Background = =
In early 2011 , Roc Nation recording artist Bridget Kelly and her production team had approached Ocean to write a song for her debut studio album . The song in question eventually became " Thinking About You " , which Kelly commented ; β it β s sort of a vulnerable track and I wanted everyone to feel me on it . β On July 28 , 2011 , Ocean leaked his demo version of the song onto his tumblr account , with the title stylized as " Thinking Bout You " . The song was then promptly taken down by Ocean . Kelly , who had already performed an acoustic version of the song , retitled her version " Thinking About Forever " following the release of Ocean 's version . Kelly 's version found its way onto her debut EP Every Girl ( 2011 ) . Kelly was ultimately fine with Ocean 's decision , however she noted that she didn 't like how most people thought Ocean 's version was the original , and how people assumed her version was a cover version . About the confusion of the track , Kelly stated
Now that push has come to shove , we 're going to let the song have a life of its own . I think it 's an amazing , well @-@ written record . Frank Ocean is incredibly talented , I will never say anything against that . But at the same time , you know , he 's going to do what he wants to do , he 's an artist as well .
Ocean later stated why he chose to release his own version of the song , stating that it was still extremely personal to him . On March 8 , 2012 , a re @-@ mastered version of the song premiered on IHeartRadio , intended to be the lead single from Ocean 's debut album . At a listening party in June 2012 , it was confirmed that the track would appear on Ocean 's Channel Orange , which was released on July 17 , 2012 . The version of the track eventually featured on the album was remodified for a second time , this time to include additional strings and further remastered production . It was released as a digital download on April 17 , 2012 . The song was subsequently released to mainstream radio in the United States on January 29 , 2013 .
= = Composition = =
" Thinkin Bout You " is an R & B song with an atmospheric beat . The track is a tender ballad that " retains Ocean 's signature mellow , minimalist vibe , " reinforced with shimmering synths and silky production . Ocean croons smoothly on the song , while employing a falsetto vocal range in certain sections . MTV columnist Jenna Hally Rubenstein likens Ocean 's singing on " Thinkin Bout You " to Robin Thicke , Justin Timberlake , and Maxwell . The version of the song featured on Channel Orange features an additional string section , opening the track with a swell of strings .
Lyrically , " it 's a melancholy record discussing the torturous pain that comes with thinking about someone all the time , even if they may not reciprocate the sentiment . " The track , being originally written for a woman , can be viewed as unisex composition . Following Ocean 's revelation that he has been attracted to people of the same sex , some critics noted that lines such as " my eyes don 't shed tears , but boy they pour when I 'm thinkin bout you " had another additional message , expressing his own thoughts on love . The song has been called a forbidden love track , expressing Ocean 's turmoil about his own hidden sexuality . The refrain " boy " was originally viewed synonym for β wow β , though " new urgency " was pumped into the track , adding extra pathos . Ocean reminisces about his " first time " , with an ex @-@ lover who is addressed as " boy " during the song . The track is an apology to an unnamed lover . Lines like " a tornado flew around my room before you came , " serves as a confession , and " excuse the mess it made , it usually doesn 't rain in Southern California " outlines Ocean 's own grief about the situation , admitting the situation got out of control .
About Ocean 's writing , Pitchfork Media 's Jordan Sargent stated that the " strength of his songwriting is his ability to make the unfamiliar feel intensely personal , as if you 're a friend that has long known all the particulars of his relationships . " He continued , " Thinking About You " is also more primal , though . The yearning in his falsetto is almost palpable as he flips gender roles and admits that he 's been " thinking about forever , " while simultaneously questioning if the " girl " even had that kinda thing on her mind . " Erika Ramirez of Billboard wrote that the track " gives prominence to his songwriting prowess and sonic versatility , as he intertwines the parallel styles of soul , R & B , jazz and even a bit of funk . " The song has been described as incredibly personal in nature , the " sort of thing that 's best sung by the person who wrote it . " The track telepathically serenades the person who took Ocean 's virginity , and in the " motel room of memories Frank talks eternal love , breaking into a sublime Maxwell @-@ esque falsetto that makes a good case for restoring the style to contemporary mainstream R & B. "
= = Critical reception = =
" Thinkin Bout You " received highly positive reviews from music critics . Pitchfork Media called the song " bewitching " and complimented its crossover potential . Sputnikmusic 's Sobhi Youssef praised the track , commenting that Ocean 's ability to " emote within the confines of a ballad without making it saccharine or cheesy is nearly unparalleled by any of his contemporaries " , citing " Thinkin Bout You " as the framework of most of the album . Pitchfork Media critic Jordan Sargent praised the song , and wrote " this isn 't a tale of bedroom triumph ; instead it 's a beguiling sketch of a relationship just out of his reach . Like many of his songs , the magnetism of " Thinking About You " lies not in the details , but in the lack thereof . " Billboard stated that the " Odd Future member tries out different singing styles , showing off his beautiful falsetto vocal range in certain sections . " MTV journalist Jenna Hally commented that Ocean had a " surprisingly gorgeous falsetto " and " retains Frank 's classic laid @-@ back and relaxed R & B vibe . " Katherine Asaph of Popdust wrote that the track " might as well be Ocean β s final audition for R & B stardom " and that it was a " smooth ballad version of " Novacane " without the sleaze getting in the way of its purpose is just about the best thing possible for Ocean β s burgeoning fame . The track shatters no earth , and nobody will use it as a ( flawed ) example about how Ocean β s changing the R & B game , but in everyone β s career is a time for a solid ballad . "
John Calvert of The Quietus described " Thinkin Bout You " as a " slow @-@ release torch song the colour of caramel and bathed in low voltage lighting , a buzzing but soothing synth cycle and muffled beats evoke touching and kissing in a velveteen womb . Poised , considered , classy and moving , this is uniquely Frank Ocean . " Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune stated that the track " couldn β t be any less auspicious as an opening song , little more than a delicate , yearning falsetto vocal over vaporous keyboards and a muffled rhythm track . " Rolling Stone writer Jody Rosen described the song as " woozy " , featuring Ocean 's " falsetto rippling over murmuring electronic percussion " . She stated that " it 's a bisexual black bohemian New Orleanian @-@ turned @-@ Angeleno 's avant @-@ R & B torch ballad . And , of course , it 's just a love song β an anthem for anyone , anywhere , who 's found love , and lost it . "
Hayley Louise Brown of Clash viewed the song as an important part of the album , musing " opening with a reworked version of heartbreaking ballad β Thinking About You β and an instant confrontation with the full force of Ocean β s vocal range , the whole record echoes with extra terrestrial Odd Future synths and clumsy piano chords . " Lane Billings of Paste noted the song as whispy in nature , and made a case for Ocean as an R & B revivalist . Consequence of Sound 's Harley Brown of stated that the song moves languidly , " like perfect thoughts about someone missed , until the muscle memory of Ocean β s falsetto bursts into the song β s upper register . " She continued , " while Ocean might feel this more acutely than either woman who sung those songs , there β s a reason Bey shed a tear the first time she heard it . Regardless of how much these lyrics were influenced by lines like , ' By the time I realized I was in love , it was malignant . It was hopeless , ' the ache in Ocean β s voice is universal . MSN Music 's Danielle Cheesman felt that Ocean did his followers a service by featuring the song as the album 's opener , describing the track as " the year @-@ old spacey serenade to a boy that became a fan favorite . " She continued , " despite now being enhanced with a strings intro , his falsetto - more importantly - remains in tact over the well @-@ known warped ebb and flow . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Rolling Stone named the song the 4th best song of 2012 , calling it " the year 's deepest love song [ that ] won us all . " Complex named the track the fourth best song of 2011 , writing that " Ocean 's voice explores those awkward spaces in a new relationship , making the eternal lover 's questions sound new and urgent . Whatever it is , Frank Ocean 's " Thinking About Forever " is one of those songs that will never get old . " BeyoncΓ© reportedly cried while listening to the song , and wrote Ocean a poem of support . Knowles and Ocean had previously collaborated on the track " I Miss You " . The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll ranked " Thinkin Bout You " at number four to find the best music of 2012 .
= = Music video = =
On September 15 , 2011 , a music video directed by visual art group High5Collective was released . The Direction team 's " music videos are typically unofficial affair " but according to them the clip was the official video . Pitchfork Media reported , " it sure looks official , since Frank seems to appear in the bloody , somewhat tragic clip ( in doctor 's garb ) , and Frank posted it on his Tumblr . " It featured Native American cultural imagery and interdimensional elements in its plot . The music video plays out " more like a short film than something you β d see on MTV Jams , this visionary piece sees the OFWGKTA crooner play merely a supporting cast role as a doctor . Ocean makes a cameo as a doctor , though " mostly with the back of his head , his footage refreshingly entwined with a girl @-@ saving Native American mystical ritual . " The video explores the dreams of a sick girl , a " few primitive zombie @-@ looking people " , and some " celestial activity . "
The Huffington Post wrote that " the video is a dream within a story involving a little girl , a teepee and a few deaths . Cool ! It 's a surprisingly filmic effort , with a sepia mid @-@ century creepiness that calls to mind " Mad Men " plus " Justified , " with a little " Walking Dead " thrown in for good measure . " The Smoking Section commented , " he premise might sound out there , until you watch for yourself and your assumptions become trumped by the visually and mentally stimulating succession of supernatural events . " Prefix Magazine gave the video a positive review , writing " the vid sets Ocean 's doe @-@ eyed crooning against something of an inter @-@ dimensional love story , that or a dreamcatcher @-@ inspired fever dream . Either way , pioneer triage and white @-@ eyed shaman were not what we we 're expecting , but we couldn 't be more pleasantly surprised . "
= = Promotion = =
Ocean embarked on a solo tour through North America and Europe to promote his mixtape Nostalgia Ultra and his other musical projects . The set lists to the various shows varied , though " Thinking Bout You " was performed at all shows . The track was included during Ocean 's setlist at the April 2012 Coachella Musical Festival . Complex magazine stated the " his falsetto on β Thinking About You β made women in the audience swoon . "
Electronic artist SBTRKT released a remixed version of the track onto his own personal SoundCloud account , announcing " did this whilst on tour ... not mixed or official " . Pop artists Justin Bieber and Jaden Smith recorded a cover version of the track . MTV reported , " in his smooth , pop and R & B way Justin fantasizes about Selena Gomez delivers Frank 's sexy verse like a boss : " Do you not think so far ahead ? / ' Cause I 've been thinking ' bout forever . " American singer ZZ Ward performed a version of the song in April 2013 for The A.V. Club 's A.V. Undercover series .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week of March 22 , 2012 , the song debuted at number 91 on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . It has since peaked at number 7 . Following the release of Channel Orange , the track rode a wave of momentum and charted at position 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 , 6 on the Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart , 94 on the UK Singles Chart and 16 on the UK R & B singles chart . On December 14 , 2012 , " Thinkin Bout You " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units in the United States . As of February 28 , 2013 , the song has sold over one million copies in the United States .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) =
" Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " is a song by American singer Lady Gaga , from her debut album , The Fame ( 2008 ) . It was released as the third single in Australia , New Zealand and selected European countries , and the fourth single in France . The song is a calypso @-@ styled , mid @-@ tempo ballad , and is about breaking up with one 's old partner and finding someone new . Although " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " was never released as a single in her home country , it received mostly negative reviews from US based critics ; who denoted it as " dry and lifeless " , blaming it for halting the " bad @-@ girl party atmosphere " of The Fame .
Failing to match the popularity of her previous singles , the song peaked at number fifteen on the Australian ARIA Charts and at number nine on the RIANZ charts of New Zealand . It proved to be successful in Sweden , where it managed to go as far as number two on the Sverigetopplistan chart , as well as Czech Republic , France , and Hungary where it reached the top @-@ ten of the singles charts . " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " received gold certifications from Australia , Denmark , New Zealand , and France .
The accompanying Italian @-@ American 1950s @-@ themed music video portrayed Gaga and her friends roaming around the streets of an Italian neighborhood , Gaga riding a Vespa and also singing the song while at home with her boyfriend . The video was noted for its contrasting portrayal of Gaga doing feminine work , as compared to her previous endeavours . She performed " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " on her first headlining The Fame Ball Tour , wearing a black @-@ and @-@ white leotard , and the 2009 shows of The Monster Ball Tour while standing inside a giant gyroscope .
= = Background and composition = =
" Eh , Eh " was written by Gaga with Martin Kierszenbaum , who also produced the track . It was recorded at Cherrytree Recording Studios , Santa Monica , California . In 2005 , Kierszenbaum founded Cherrytree Records along with Jimmy Iovine , then chairman of Interscope Records . After signing a number of artists , he worked with then @-@ unknown Gaga on her debut album , The Fame , producing and writing four songs with her , including the title track . One of these songs was " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " . During recording the track , Gaga fashioned a nickname for Kierszenbaum , called " Cherry Cherry Boom Boom " . They kept the nickname in all the four songs they had worked on . Kierszenbaum later carried on the nickname in all his future projects . Other personnel working on the song included Tony Ugval , who did the audio engineering , Robert Orton for audio mixing and Gene Grimaldi , who mastered the song at Oasis Mastering Studios , Burbank , California .
Musically , " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " is credited as a ballad compared to the rest of the dance fuelled tracks from The Fame . The song has a 1980s synthpop and bubblegum pop feeling in it while incorporating the " Eh , Eh " hook from Rihanna 's single " Umbrella " , according to Freedom du Lac from The Washington Post . Gaga stated that the lyrics of " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " are about love and she explained that : " ' Eh , Eh ' is my simple pop song about finding someone new and breaking up with the old boyfriend . " Writer James E. Perone mentioned in his book , The Album : A Guide to Pop Music 's Most Provocative , Influential , and Important Creations , that with the lyrics , Gaga maintained a focus on transitory relationships . Although the lyrics explained her former lover that she had found someone new and did not mean to hurt him with the news , the continuous repetition of the phrase " nothing else I can say " solidifies the transient nature of the relationship portrayed . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in the time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 94 beats per minute . Gaga 's vocal range spans from B3 to C β― 5 with the main key in which the song is set being E major . The song follows in the chord progression of E β B β F β― m β E β B β F β― m . Synthpop musician Frankmusik remixed the track for Gaga 's 2010 album , The Remix , where he manipulated Gaga 's vocals and created a dreamy quality with them , as noted by Nicki Escuedo from Phoenix New Times .
The single was first released in New Zealand on January 10 , 2009 and later in Australia on January 30 , 2009 . " Eh , Eh " was the second most added song on Australian radio on the week beginning December 15 , 2008 . It first began to receive airplay on all Today Network stations . The song was confirmed as an Australian single on Lady Gaga 's official website on January 15 , 2009 . An official remix was also posted on her website that day followed by another one featuring the official cover art . On March 5 , 2009 , a Pet Shop Boys remix β named as " Random Soul Synthetic Mix " β became available for free download on Gaga 's Australian website .
= = Critical reception = =
" Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " received mixed to negative reviews from music critics . Alexis Petridis from The Guardian noted that " Eh , Eh " bears the influence of early 1990s Europop and " is the first song in a long time that warrants comparison to the Εuvre of Ace of Base . Matthew Chisling of AllMusic gave a negative review of the song saying " The Fame has it 's [ sic ] ' ballad , ' however the breezy ' Eh , Eh ' doesn 't hold water on this album ; rather , it feels dry and lifeless , something which holds this album back " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said that " the breezy island vibe and soft demeanor of ' Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) ' is hard to buy when sandwiched between songs like ' Poker Face ' and ' Beautiful , Dirty , Rich . ' " In another article analysing about the music videos released by Gaga , Oscar Moralde from Slant Magazine noted that " Eh , Eh " as a track " is an intriguing case : rather than the tech @-@ assisted sexy @-@ androgynous dance pop that dominates a good chunk of The Fame , it and its sister tracks ' Brown Eyes ' and ' Again Again ' are evidence of a stripped @-@ down , simpler , sincere Gaga .
Evan Sawdey of PopMatters said that the song is the most embarrassing moment of the album and as a result makes the album come to an intermediate halt thus ruining the " bad @-@ girl party atmosphere " . Joey Guerra of Houston Chronicle said that " Eh , Eh " is a bouncy standout with some vocal personality . He also added that " [ It ] would have made a killer Spice Girls single . " Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club called the track scaled @-@ back and criticized Gaga 's vocal abilities in the song . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times called the song listless . Catherine P. Lewis from The Washington Post called the song a chirpy ballad . Christina Martin from The Meridian Star felt that the song , along with " Summerboy " from The Fame , is breezy and upbeat in nature . Matt Busekroos from Quinnipiac Chronicle said that the song seemed like a filler to him .
= = Chart performance = =
" Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " debuted on the ARIA Singles Chart at number 38 on the issue of January 18 , 2009 . The following week it climbed to number 32 and ultimately peaked at number 15 , on the issue of March 1 , 2009 , making it Gaga 's third single to hit the top twenty there . After thirteen weeks on the chart , " Eh , Eh " was certified gold for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In New Zealand , " Eh , Eh " debuted at number 40 on the issue dated January 19 , 2009 . The following weeks it continued its rise on the chart and ultimately peaked at number nine , spending three weeks there , and becoming her third consecutive top ten hit in New Zealand . The song was certified gold on May 24 , 2009 , by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies . The single sold 52 @,@ 000 copies in France .
On the Billboard issue dated February 21 , 2009 , " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 68 , despite not being released as a single , but dropped off the chart the following week . It entered the chart again for two weeks in August 2010 . The song also debuted at number 20 on the Swedish Singles Chart for the issue dated April 2 , 2009 , and peaked at number two . On the Digital Songs chart of Sweden , it peaked at the top in its fourth week . The song debuted on the Danish Singles Chart at number 28 on May 15 , 2009 , and peaked at number 14 . Due to the moderate chart performance in the European markets , " Eh , Eh " only reached a peak of number 40 on Billboard 's European Hot 100 Singles chart .
= = Music video = =
The Italian @-@ American 1950s @-@ inspired music video , directed by Joseph Kahn , was shot back to back with the video for the song " LoveGame " on the weekend of January 9 , 2009 in Los Angeles . About the video , Gaga explained that " I wanted to show a different side of myself β perhaps a more domestic girly side . And I wanted to create beautiful , stunning ' 50s futuristic fashion imagery that would burn holes in everyone 's brains . " She further clarified that for the fashion aspects in the video she wanted to go in an opposite direction to her usual image . She wanted a yellow based wardrobe believing the color to become a big hit in the fashion world in 2009 .
The video starts out showing Little Italy , an icon of the Madonna and Child , and then Gaga riding a Vespa . The first twenty seconds are mainly full of camera shots of different men , Gaga , and the city . The singer roams around with some friends , laughing and joking in a restaurant , while she stands on the seat . Gaga then comes from around the block walking with her friends in pace and singing in the camera . Next , she is shown sleeping in a bed , and waking up to reveal pink high @-@ heeled shoes . She sings and cooks for a man in a house while dancing . She irons clothes while the man is on phone screaming at someone . The two harlequin Great Danes who appear at the start of her " Poker Face " music video , also appear in this one . Finally she lies on a sofa with her legs up on the man . One of the last scene shows her in a yellow dress made of flowers and wearing a yellow watch while singing to the song with a unique hairstyle which shows her hair pulled up and folded over . Then the camera quickly goes back to her in bed .
David Balls from Digital Spy noted Gaga 's homage to her Italian @-@ American roots in the video , but wondered if Gaga would " overexpose herself " with the video . Like his review of the single , Moralde found the video to be complimenting the simplistic composition of the song . He believed that with the videos for previous singles , " Just Dance " and " Poker Face " , Gaga 's persona was established , but with the video for " Eh , Eh " she traversed her persona from the original Stefani Germanotta that she was born , to the character Lady Gaga . He explained : " What 's striking about it is how much it feels like Lady Gaga is playacting : the video has a nostalgic , dreamlike tone . Set in a stylized pastel 1950s Little Italy , the video plays heavily with stereotypical and historical shorthand as it displays moustached chefs , macho men in wife beaters , cute Vespas , and spaghetti and meatballs . " He noted that with all of these activities , Gaga created an essential fashion dollhouse , by playing feminine characters . But Gaga addressed the viewer directly in the video while singing the song , which led Morale to deduce that " She 's not in the moment , but is instead playing a feminized role in a dreamlike space ; this quality is accentuated by the bright and blown @-@ out color palette , and the numerous shots of Gaga in bed or sleeping . The cumulative effect is that it asserts the Lady Gaga of the previous videos to be the real one , and the Gaga in ' Eh , Eh ' is a character that she is playing . " His view was shared by Chris Kingston from The Harvard Crimson who noted during the release of the music video for Gaga 's 2010 single " Telephone " , that the video shows " the crazy party girl we know [ ... ] actually has a weirdly girlish , domestic side . " In The Oxford Handbook of Sound and Image in Digital Media , author Carol Vernallis divided Gaga 's persona into three categories . The personality portrayed in the " Eh , Eh " video was named as " Friendly Peer " archetype ; someone with a girl @-@ next @-@ door image and approachable behavior .
= = Live performances = =
" Eh , Eh " was first performed in a beatbox version at the Cherrytree Studios and was released on Gaga 's first EP , The Cherrytree Sessions . " Eh , Eh " was majorly performed at Gaga 's The Fame Ball Tour in the second segment . Gaga was dressed in a white body plate leotard with black lightning shaped stripes and wore a hat made of toppled dominoes . It was accompanied by open toe shoe @-@ boots and fishnet stockings on her leg .
As the performance of previous song " Money Honey " ended Gaga appeared on the stage beside Space Cowboy on a Vespa whence the music for " Eh , Eh " starts . The backdrops change to reveal lightning shapes in contrast to the sunny nature of the song . Gaga sang the song in its actual form backed by vocals from DJ Space Cowboy who spun the music from a corner of the stage . As the song reached the chorus Gaga asked the crowd to join her while singing and wave their arms . The New York Times called the live performance as listless . However , The Hollywood Reporter said of the performance that , " In an age of too much information , one of the most refreshing things about Gaga is her mystery . She often hid behind shades , and her mostly incomprehensible , coy and semi @-@ robotic stage patter did little to tell us who 's that Lady . "
It was also performed on The Monster Ball Tour , where the song signified her rebirth as she descended from the top amidst white lights and mechanical fog . She wore a giant human sized gyroscope around her , which was developed by the Haus of Gaga and was named " The Orbit " .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lady Gaga β vocals , songwriting
Martin Kierszenbaum β songwriting , production
Tony Ugval β audio engineering
Robert Orton β audio mixing
Gene Grimaldi β audio mastering at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California
Recorded at Cherrytree Recording Studios , Santa Monica , California
Credits adapted from The Fame album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Unitarian Universalist Church of Arlington =
Unitarian Universalist Church of Arlington ( UUCA ) , historically known as the Unitarian Church of Arlington , is a Unitarian Universalist church located at 4444 Arlington Boulevard ( U.S. 50 ) in Arlington County , Virginia . Founded in 1948 , UUCA was the first Unitarian church in Washington , D.C. ' s suburbs . Throughout its history , UUCA has taken part in progressive causes from the Civil Rights Movement to the legalization of same @-@ sex marriage in Virginia . During the Civil Rights Movement , UUCA was the only Virginia church to speak out in favor of racial integration . UUCA 's sanctuary building , designed by local architect Charles M. Goodman in 1964 , is a concrete Brutalist structure that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and Virginia Landmarks Register in 2014 . It is one of only three church buildings designed by Goodman and the only one in Virginia .
= = History = =
In the early 1940s , leaders from All Souls Church , established in 1821 as the first Unitarian church in Washington , D.C. , encouraged its suburban members to start new Unitarian communities in their respective areas . The first one established in the suburbs was the Unitarian Church of Arlington with support and funds from the " mother church " , All Souls . The first meeting was held in George A. Collier 's home , located at 832 South Courthouse Road , on September 16 , 1943 . The following services were held in various spaces on Sunday afternoons so members could still attend the morning services at All Souls . Meeting spaces included the Buckingham Community Room , Ashton Heights Women 's Club , and Kate Waller Barrett School . Gilbert A. Phillips , an associate pastor at All Souls , became the Arlington church 's minister in 1946 . Membership of the Arlington congregation reached 117 by 1948 while the church school had an enrollment of 103 . That same year members voted to establish their own independent church . Their approved resolution stated : " Be it therefore resolved that the Board of Trustees be petitioned to terminate the Fellowship as an instrumentality of All Souls Church as of March 31 , 1948 , and be it further resolved that this Fellowship then be organized as a Unitarian Church affiliated with the American Unitarian Association . "
As membership continued to grow , the congregation needed to find a permanent meeting place . The church purchased a 1 @.@ 07 acre ( 0 @.@ 43 ha ) lot at the intersection of present @-@ day Arlington Boulevard and South George Mason Drive . In November 1948 , ground was broken on the church 's first building , located at 4451 1st Place South , with assistance from the American Unitarian Association which gave the congregation a $ 15 @,@ 000 loan . The original building was designed by architect and church member Earl B. Bailey . It was a brick Colonial Revival building containing an auditorium , a kitchen , an office for the minister , and a few meeting rooms . The first service in the new building was held in June 1949 and it was dedicated on October 2 . By 1950 , church membership had reached almost 250 . The success of the Arlington church convinced All Souls minister Arthur Powell Davies to establish the Greater Washington Association for Unitarian Advance ( later renamed the Greater Washington Association for Unitarian Universalist Churches ) in 1950 . The organization was founded to assist with establishing additional Unitarian congregations in the Washington , D.C. metropolitan area , and All Souls and the Arlington church were its first members .
In 1953 a religious education wing , also designed by Bailey , was added to the church building , increasing the size of the auditorium and adding classrooms and offices . By the following year the church building had already reached its capacity and the congregation began holding two services on Sundays . The church school , with an enrollment of over 500 , also began holding two services on Sundays . The church purchased adjoining property and in 1958 constructed the parsonage , a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story brick Colonial Revival building . By 1959 , there were eight Unitarian congregations in Washington , D.C. ' s suburbs , with the Arlington church being the largest . The congregation began planning for a new facility and chose Charles M. Goodman , a prominent local architect known for his modernist work , to design the church building . A church committee wrote that it was " confident that Mr. Goodman β s concept of design , his wide experience , and his original and creative genius promise for us a distinctive building which will portray in structural form the spirit and aspiration of this congregation . " Church leaders invited the congregation to give suggestions for Goodman 's design which included " an architectural style which would express the inspiring tradition of Unitarianism in Virginia " and a " free form and no stained glass , [ resulting in ] a building to represent our cleavage with the past . " The congregation wanted the building to " reflect their liberal , progressive beliefs and that would signify the UUCA 's leadership position within the denomination . " According to one UUCA minister , " Charles Goodman spent a lot of time with the congregation and incorporating the values and theology of the congregation into the design of the building . " Goodman finished his design in late 1961 and the church began seeking financing shortly thereafter . His design included plans for a main sanctuary and adjoining wing , the latter which was not built at the time due to budget concerns . Construction of the sanctuary was carried out by the Martin Brothers contracting firm . The total cost was approximately $ 300 @,@ 000 , and the dedication was held on March 22 , 1964 , with a sermon by Dana McLean Greeley entitled " Building a Faith for the Future . " UUCA 's sanctuary is one of only three churches designed by Goodman and his only church building in Virginia . His other two church designs are Bethesda United Church of Christ in Bethesda , Maryland , and Christ Church of Washington ( now called Embassy Church ) in Washington , D.C.
In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1960s , attendance at church services and enrollment at the church school experienced dramatic decreases . The congregation replaced their minister and began a campaign to attract new members . Attendance gradually increased over the next several years and by 1974 , membership had reached 724 . The church continued to thrive throughout the next decade and by the late 1980s , church members decided more space was needed . The congregation held meetings regarding the church expansion throughout the next several years . Finally , in 1993 , members approved the construction of an addition to the sanctuary . The new wing , designed by Kerns Group Architects of Washington , D.C. and built by Dustin Construction , Inc. of Gaithersburg , Maryland , was dedicated on October 2 , 1994 . The addition included classrooms and office space , a chapel , and meetings rooms . The design of the new wing was praised by architectural critics and Kerns Group Architects received an Excellence in Architecture award from the American Institute of Architects 's Virginia chapter . An additional expansion , designed by Intec Group of Fairfax , Virginia , and built by Sully Construction of Sterling , Virginia , was added in 2013 and includes a hall space and multipurpose activity room . UUCA 's 1964 sanctuary was listed on the Virginia Landmarks Register in September 2014 and the National Register of Historic Places on November 19 , 2014 , following a two @-@ year effort for the building to be named a historic landmark . One of the church 's leaders said " We 're hoping by it being put on the national registry , people will realize that the physical presence of a group in a community matters . It says something to the world . " The 900 @-@ member congregation is currently led by Aaron McEmrys , a former union representative , and Linda Olson Peebles , an artist and musician who served on the Unitarian Universalist Board of Trustees for eight years and officiated the first same @-@ sex marriage in Virginia in 2014 . Prominent members , past and present , at UUCA include Representative William R. Ratchford of Connecticut and Arlington County Board Member Jay Fisette , Virginia 's first openly gay elected official .
= = = Activism = = =
Like other Unitarian congregations , UUCA is a liberal church that has been active in social justice causes and interfaith dialogue throughout its history . When UUCA was founded , church leaders wrote " Our Church like all Unitarian Churches , is dedicated to the progressive transformation and ennoblement of individual and social life through religion , in accordance with the advancing knowledge and the growing vision of mankind . " In 1949 , a time when most local organizations were segregated , the church operated a children 's summer camp open to all races . During the 1950s , the church was one of the few places in Northern Virginia where black and white individuals met to discuss race relations and ways to improve society . In 1951 , UUCA minister Ross Allen Weston founded the Community Council for Social Progress , an interracial , interfaith group that promoted " full development of democratic principles in human relationship " . UUCA 's members were active during the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s , protesting against segregation and other unfair treatments of minorities . UUCA minister Weston , who was also president of the Unitarian Fellowship for Social Justice , even received a letter of gratitude from Martin Luther King , Jr . Following the landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision , Bolling v. Sharpe , which made segregation in Washington , D.C. ' s public schools illegal , Virginia Governor Thomas B. Stanley sought input from the state 's citizens . UUCA was the only Virginia church who spoke out in favor of integration .
In October 1958 , the church received a bomb threat the morning of a sermon by Rabbi Emmet A. Frank of Temple Beth @-@ El . This was part of a larger effort by the American Nazi Party , headquartered in Arlington , to intimidate synagogues and other institutions affiliated with or friendly towards Judaism . The bomb threat was widely condemned by area churches and the Arlington congregation released a statement saying it would not be intimidated , harassed , or coerced to change the way it practiced religion . The church continued to support civil rights causes in the 1960s , registering black voters from Arlington County , and renaming its 1949 building ( now demolished ) Reeb Hall in honor of James Reeb , an All Souls minister who was killed by segregationists while protesting in Selma , Alabama . Since the 1970s , church members have continued to advocate social justice causes including , but not limited to , environmentalism , women 's rights , LGBT rights , and affordable housing . One of UUCA 's most prominent projects was the Culpepper Garden Senior Center , a nonprofit retirement housing community for low @-@ income senior citizens , which opened in 1975 and has expanded since then . From the 1990s until it was demolished in 2011 , Reeb Hall was rented out to nonprofit groups including the Northern Virginia chapter of Habitat for Humanity and Arlington Street People 's Assistance Network . Since the 1990s , Kol Ami , a Reconstructionist Jewish community , has met at UUCA in the library and fellowship rooms .
= = Design and location = =
The church is located on a 3 @.@ 97 acre ( 1 @.@ 61 ha ) lot on the southwest corner of Arlington Boulevard ( U.S. 50 ) and South George Mason Drive near the Arlington Forest neighborhood . The property extends south to First Place South , a residential street where the church parsonage is located . A large parking lot , where Reeb Hall once stood , is on the south and west sides of the property . Church attendees access the building 's 1994 wing from the parking lot via concrete walkways and a concrete pedestrian bridge beneath a steel canopy . South of the church is the Memorial Wall and Garden , dedicated in 1996 . The landscaped garden includes concrete walls , paths , and benches . Concrete blocks inscribed with the names of church members are also found throughout the garden . South of the garden is a playground , built in 2007 , that is enclosed by a wooden fence . The 1964 sanctuary , which faces the road intersection , is on the northeast corner of the property on a wooded knoll .
UUCA is composed of three sections : the 1964 sanctuary is a rectangular @-@ shaped , two @-@ story reinforced concrete building ; the 1994 addition is a two @-@ story rectangular @-@ shaped concrete structure on the south side of the sanctuary ; the 2013 addition is a two @-@ story square @-@ shaped concrete structure on the east side of the 1994 addition and southeast corner of the sanctuary . The two additions " complement the original building in their scale , style , material , and fenestration pattern , and fulfill Goodman β s original plans to expand the church with additional space for educational , administrative , and social functions . " They are set back and at a lower height in deference to the sanctuary .
The sanctuary is a precast concrete building designed in the brutalist style . It features an overhanging concrete flat roof , concrete block foundation , and corrugated concrete wall panels . Square clerestory windows are on the north , east , and west sides of the building 's top level and narrow fixed @-@ light windows are on the first floor . The east and west sides of the sanctuary are five bays wide while the north and south sides feature three bays , a large central bay with a smaller bay on each side . The bays are defined by tall concrete columns , spaced 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) apart , that stand from the ground to the underside of the roof . Pale blue wooden doors flanked by black wooden frames provide access to the sanctuary while there are two narrow doors on the north side . The main entrance to the sanctuary is on the south side where the 1994 addition is sited . The 1994 addition runs along the entire south side of the sanctuary and extends west past the building . It is a 26 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 2 @,@ 400 m2 ) building that includes a social hall , classrooms , and office space . Like the sanctuary , the 1994 addition features a flat roof and concrete foundation . The concrete walls are a lighter color than the sanctuary and are also smoother . A one @-@ story terrace was originally on the southeast corner of the 1994 addition , but this was replaced by the 2013 addition , named the Celebration Center . The Celebration Center is also faced with light @-@ colored concrete and has a random @-@ coursed stone facing on its east side . Similar to the sanctuary , it features an overhanging roof and wrapping clerestory windows .
The sanctuary 's meeting space measures 62 feet ( 19 m ) by 62 feet and features a polished reinforced concrete floor set in a large grid pattern . The north , east , and west walls are faced with beige brick while the ceiling is exposed concrete . The sanctuary 's design allows for the meeting space to have natural lighting which is complimented by patterned rows of light fixtures along the ceiling . The fixtures are the original black @-@ painted , metal cylinders designed by Goodman . A 2 @.@ 5 foot ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) high concrete platform stage , now covered with wood , is on the north wall . It features a wheelchair ramp obscured by a decorative wood screen . Seating in the meeting space is composed of padded , moveable pews and chairs . There are two staircase lobbies on the south side of the meeting space that lead to the first floor . The east staircase provides access to the choir balcony via concrete dogleg stairs and an elevator installed in 1974 . Goodman chose to place the choir on the south side of the space because he considered it " the most desirable location for a choir . " The balcony features stepped stairs for choir members and a large pipe organ . The ground floor is a north @-@ south corridor plan with an east @-@ west corridor on the south side giving access to the staircases . The lower floor , which includes meeting and storage spaces , features concrete floors in most areas , concrete block dividing walls , and concrete ceilings .
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= New World Order ( conspiracy theory ) =
As a conspiracy theory , the term New World Order or NWO refers to the emergence of a totalitarian world government .
The common theme in conspiracy theories about a New World Order is that a secretive power elite with a globalist agenda is conspiring to eventually rule the world through an authoritarian world government β which will replace sovereign nation @-@ states β and an all @-@ encompassing propaganda whose ideology hails the establishment of the New World Order as the culmination of history 's progress . Many influential historical and present figures have been purported to be part of a cabal that operates through many front organizations to orchestrate significant political and financial occurrences as well as significant world events as steps in an ongoing plot to achieve world domination through secret political gatherings and decision @-@ making processes .
Before the early 1990s , New World Order conspiracism was limited to two American countercultures , primarily the militantly anti @-@ government right and secondarily that part of fundamentalist Christianity concerned with the end @-@ time emergence of the Antichrist . Skeptics such as Michael Barkun and Chip Berlet observed that right @-@ wing populist conspiracy theories about a New World Order had not only been embraced by many seekers of stigmatized knowledge but had seeped into popular culture , thereby inaugurating a period during the late 20th and early 21st centuries in the United States where people were actively preparing for apocalyptic millenarian scenarios . Those political scientists were concerned that mass hysteria could have what they judged to be devastating effects on American political life , ranging from the hegemony of right @-@ wing populism in politics to escalating lone @-@ wolf terrorism .
= = History of the term = =
During the 20th century , many politicians , such as Woodrow Wilson and Winston Churchill , used the term " new world order " to refer to a new period of history characterised by a dramatic change in world political thought and the balance of power after World War I and World War II . They all saw the period as an opportunity to implement idealistic proposals for global governance in the sense of new collective efforts to address worldwide problems that go beyond the capacity of individual nation @-@ states to solve , while always respecting the right of nations to self @-@ determination . These proposals led to the creation of international organizations ( such as the UN and NATO ) , and international regimes ( such as the Bretton Woods system and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) ) , which were calculated both to maintain a balance of power in favor of the United States and to regularize cooperation between nations , in order to achieve a peaceful phase of capitalism . These creations in particular and liberal internationalism in general , however , were regularly criticized and opposed by American paleoconservative business nationalists from the 1930s on .
Progressives welcomed these new international organizations and regimes in the aftermath of the two World Wars , but argued that they suffered from a democratic deficit and were therefore inadequate not only to prevent another global war but to foster global justice . The United Nations was designed in 1945 by US bankers and State Department planners , and was always intended to remain a free association of sovereign nation @-@ states , not a transition to democratic world government . Thus , activists around the globe formed a world federalist movement , hoping in vain to create a " real " new world order .
British writer and futurist H. G. Wells went further than progressives in the 1940s , by appropriating and redefining the term " new world order " as a synonym for the establishment of a technocratic world state and planned economy . Despite the popularity of his ideas in some state socialist circles , Wells failed to exert a deeper and more lasting influence because he was unable to concentrate his energies on a direct appeal to the intelligentsias who would ultimately have to coordinate a Wellsian new world order .
During the Red Scare of 1947 β 1957 , agitators of the American secular and Christian right , influenced by the work of Canadian conspiracy theorist William Guy Carr , increasingly embraced and spread unfounded fears of Freemasons , Illuminati and Jews being the driving force behind an " international communist conspiracy " . The threat of " Godless communism " , in the form of a state atheistic and bureaucratic collectivist world government , demonized as the " Red Menace " , therefore became the focus of apocalyptic millenarian conspiracism . The Red Scare came to shape one of the core ideas of the political right in the United States , which is that liberals and progressives , with their welfare @-@ state policies and international cooperation programs such as foreign aid , supposedly contribute to a gradual process of collectivism that will inevitably lead to nations being replaced with a communist one @-@ world government .
Right @-@ wing populist advocacy groups with a paleoconservative world @-@ view , such as the John Birch Society , disseminated a multitude of conspiracy theories in the 1960s claiming that the governments of both the United States and the Soviet Union were controlled by a cabal of corporate internationalists , greedy bankers and corrupt politicians who were intent on using the U.N. as the vehicle to create a " One World Government " . This right @-@ wing anti @-@ globalist conspiracism fuelled the Bircher campaign for US withdrawal from the UN . American writer Mary M. Davison , in her 1966 booklet The Profound Revolution , traced the alleged New World Order conspiracy to the creation of the US Federal Reserve in 1913 by international bankers , who she claimed later formed the Council on Foreign Relations in 1921 as a shadow government . At the time the booklet was published , " international bankers " would have been interpreted by many readers as a reference to a postulated " international Jewish banking conspiracy " masterminded by the Rothschilds .
Claiming that the term " New World Order " is used by a secretive elite dedicated to the destruction of all national sovereignties , American writer Gary Allen β in his books None Dare Call It Conspiracy ( 1971 ) , Rockefeller : Campaigning for the New World Order ( 1974 ) , and Say " No ! " to the New World Order ( 1987 ) β articulated the anti @-@ globalist theme of much current right @-@ wing populist conspiracism in the US . Thus , after the fall of communism in the early 1990s , the main demonized scapegoat of the American far right shifted seamlessly from crypto @-@ communists , who plotted on behalf of the Red Menace , to globalists , who plot on behalf of the New World Order . The relatively painless nature of the shift was due to growing right @-@ wing populist opposition to corporate internationalism , but also in part to the basic underlying apocalyptic millenarian paradigm , which fed the Cold War and the witch @-@ hunts of the McCarthy period .
In his speech , Toward a New World Order , delivered on September 11 , 1990 during a joint session of the US Congress , President George H. W. Bush described his objectives for post @-@ Cold War global governance in cooperation with post @-@ Soviet states . He stated :
Until now , the world we 've known has been a world divided β a world of barbed wire and concrete block , conflict and cold war . Now , we can see a new world coming into view . A world in which there is the very real prospect of a new world order . In the words of Winston Churchill , a " world order " in which " the principles of justice and fair play ... protect the weak against the strong ... " A world where the United Nations , freed from cold war stalemate , is poised to fulfill the historic vision of its founders . A world in which freedom and respect for human rights find a home among all nations .
The New York Times observed that progressives were denouncing this new world order as a rationalization of American imperial ambitions in the Middle East , while conservatives rejected any new security arrangements altogether and fulminated about any possibility of a UN revival . However , Chip Berlet , an American investigative reporter specializing in the study of right @-@ wing movements in the US , writes :
When President Bush announced his new foreign policy would help build a New World Order , his phrasing surged through the Christian and secular hard right like an electric shock , since the phrase had been used to represent the dreaded collectivist One World Government for decades . Some Christians saw Bush as signaling the End Times betrayal by a world leader . Secular anticommunists saw a bold attempt to smash US sovereignty and impose a tyrannical collectivist system run by the United Nations .
American televangelist Pat Robertson , with his 1991 best @-@ selling book The New World Order , became the most prominent Christian popularizer of conspiracy theories about recent American history . He describes a scenario where Wall Street , the Federal Reserve System , the Council on Foreign Relations , the Bilderberg Group and the Trilateral Commission control the flow of events from behind the scenes , nudging people constantly and covertly in the direction of world government for the Antichrist .
Observers note that the galvanizing of right @-@ wing populist conspiracy theorists such as Linda Thompson , Mark Koernke and Robert K. Spear into militancy led to the rise of the militia movement , which spread its anti @-@ government ideology through speeches at rallies and meetings , books and videotapes sold at gun shows , shortwave and satellite radio , fax networks and computer bulletin boards . However , it is overnight AM radio shows and viral propaganda on the Internet that have most effectively contributed to their extremist political ideas about the New World Order finding their way into the previously apolitical literature of numerous Kennedy assassinologists , ufologists , lost land theorists and , most recently , occultists . From the mid β 1990s on , the worldwide appeal of those subcultures transmitted New World Order conspiracism like a " mind virus " to a large new audience of seekers of stigmatized knowledge .
Hollywood conspiracy @-@ thriller television shows and films also played a role in introducing a vast popular audience to various fringe theories related to New World Order conspiracism β black helicopters , FEMA " concentration camps " , etc . β which for decades were previously confined to radical right @-@ wing subcultures . The 1993 β 2002 television series The X @-@ Files , the 1997 film Conspiracy Theory and the 1998 film The X @-@ Files : Fight the Future are often cited as notable examples .
Following the start of the 21st century , and specifically during the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis , many politicians and pundits , such as Gordon Brown and Henry Kissinger , used the term " new world order " in their advocacy for a comprehensive reform of the global financial system and their calls for a " New Bretton Woods " that takes into account emerging markets such as China and India . These declarations had the unintended consequence of providing fresh fodder for New World Order conspiracism , which culminated in talk show host Sean Hannity stating on his Fox News Channel program Hannity that the " conspiracy theorists were right " . Fox News in general , and its opinion show Glenn Beck in particular , has been repeatedly criticized by progressive media watchdog groups , for not only mainstreaming the New World Order conspiracy theories of the radical right , but possibly agitating its lone wolves into action .
In 2009 , American film directors Luke Meyer and Andrew Neel released New World Order , a critically acclaimed documentary film which explores the world of conspiracy theorists , such as American radio host Alex Jones , who are committed to exposing and vigorously opposing what they perceive to be an emerging New World Order . The growing dissemination and popularity of conspiracy theories has also created an alliance between right @-@ wing populist agitators , such as Alex Jones , and hip hop music 's left @-@ wing populist rappers , such as KRS @-@ One , Professor Griff of Public Enemy and Immortal Technique , thus illustrating how anti @-@ elitist conspiracism can create unlikely political allies in efforts to oppose the political system .
= = Conspiracy theories = =
There are numerous systemic conspiracy theories through which the concept of a New World Order is viewed . The following is a list of the major ones in roughly chronological order :
= = = End Time = = =
Since the 19th century , many apocalyptic millennial Christian eschatologists , starting with John Nelson Darby , have predicted a globalist conspiracy to impose a tyrannical New World Order governing structure as the fulfillment of prophecies about the " end time " in the Bible , specifically in the Book of Ezekiel , the Book of Daniel , the Olivet discourse found in the Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Revelation . They claim that people who have made a deal with the Devil to gain wealth and power have become pawns in a supernatural chess game to move humanity into accepting a utopian world government that rests on the spiritual foundations of a syncretic @-@ messianic world religion , which will later reveal itself to be a dystopian world empire that imposes the imperial cult of an β Unholy Trinity β of Satan , the Antichrist and the False Prophet . In many contemporary Christian conspiracy theories , the False Prophet will be either the last pope of the Catholic Church ( groomed and installed by an Alta Vendita or Jesuit conspiracy ) , a guru from the New Age movement , or even the leader of an elite fundamentalist Christian organization like the Fellowship , while the Antichrist will be either the President of the European Union , the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations , or even the Caliph of a pan @-@ Islamic state .
Some of the most vocal critics of end @-@ time conspiracy theories come from within Christianity . In 1993 , historian Bruce Barron wrote a stern rebuke of apocalyptic Christian conspiracism in the Christian Research Journal , when reviewing Robertson 's 1991 book The New World Order . Another critique can be found in historian Gregory S. Camp 's 1997 book Selling Fear : Conspiracy Theories and End @-@ Times Paranoia . Religious studies scholar Richard T. Hughes argues that " New World Order " rhetoric libels the Christian faith , since the " New World Order " as defined by Christian conspiracy theorists has no basis in the Bible whatsoever . Furthermore , he argues that not only is this idea unbiblical , it is positively anti @-@ biblical and fundamentally anti @-@ Christian , because by misinterpreting key passages in the Book of Revelation , it turns a comforting message about the coming kingdom of God into one of fear , panic and despair in the face of an allegedly approaching one @-@ world government . Progressive Christians , such as preacher @-@ theologian Peter J. Gomes , caution Christian fundamentalists that a " spirit of fear " can distort scripture and history through dangerously combining biblical literalism , apocalyptic timetables , demonization and oppressive prejudices , while Camp warns of the " very real danger that Christians could pick up some extra spiritual baggage " by credulously embracing conspiracy theories . They therefore call on Christians who indulge in conspiracism to repent .
= = = Freemasonry = = =
Freemasonry is one of the world 's oldest secular fraternal organizations and arose during late 16th β early 17th century Britain . Over the years a number of allegations and conspiracy theories have been directed towards Freemasonry , including the allegation that Freemasons have a hidden political agenda and are conspiring to bring about a New World Order , a world government organized according to Masonic principles and / or governed only by Freemasons .
The esoteric nature of Masonic symbolism and rites led to Freemasons first being accused of secretly practising Satanism in the late 18th century . The original allegation of a conspiracy within Freemasonry to subvert religions and governments in order to take over the world traces back to Scottish author John Robison , whose reactionary conspiracy theories crossed the Atlantic and influenced outbreaks of Protestant anti @-@ Masonry in the United States during the 19th century . In the 1890s , French writer LΓ©o Taxil wrote a series of pamphlets and books denouncing Freemasonry and charging their lodges with worshiping Lucifer as the Supreme Being and Great Architect of the Universe . Despite the fact that Taxil admitted that his claims were all a hoax , they were and still are believed and repeated by numerous conspiracy theorists and had a huge influence on subsequent anti @-@ Masonic claims about Freemasonry .
Some conspiracy theorists eventually speculated that some Founding Fathers of the United States , such as George Washington and Benjamin Franklin , were having Masonic sacred geometric designs interwoven into American society , particularly in the Great Seal of the United States , the United States one @-@ dollar bill , the architecture of National Mall landmarks and the streets and highways of Washington , D.C. , as part of a master plan to create the first " Masonic government " as a model for the coming New World Order .
Freemasons rebut these claims of a Masonic conspiracy . Freemasonry , which promotes rationalism , places no power in occult symbols themselves , and it is not a part of its principles to view the drawing of symbols , no matter how large , as an act of consolidating or controlling power . Furthermore , there is no published information establishing the Masonic membership of the men responsible for the design of the Great Seal . While conspiracy theorists assert that there are elements of Masonic influence on the Great Seal of the United States , and that these elements were intentionally or unintentionally used because the creators were familiar with the symbols , in fact , the all @-@ seeing Eye of Providence and the unfinished pyramid were symbols used as much outside Masonic lodges as within them in the late 18th century , therefore the designers were drawing from common esoteric symbols . The Latin phrase " novus ordo seclorum " , appearing on the reverse side of the Great Seal since 1782 and on the back of the one @-@ dollar bill since 1935 , translates to " New Order of the Ages " , and alludes to the beginning of an era where the United States of America is an independent nation @-@ state ; it is often mistranslated by conspiracy theorists as " New World Order " .
Although the European continental branch of Freemasonry has organizations that allow political discussion within their Masonic Lodges and a few operate as active political lobbies for secularist causes , as exemplified by the Grand Orient of France , Masonic researcher Trevor W. McKeown argues :
The accusation that Freemasonry has a hidden agenda to establish a Masonic government ignores several facts . While agreeing on certain Masonic Landmarks , the many independent and sovereign Grand Lodges act as such , and do not agree on many other points of belief and practice . Also , as can be seen from a survey of famous Freemasons , individual Freemasons hold beliefs that span the spectrum of politics . The term " Masonic government " has no meaning since individual Freemasons hold many different opinions on what constitutes a good government .
= = = Illuminati = = =
The Order of the Illuminati was an Enlightenment @-@ age secret society founded by university professor Adam Weishaupt on 1 May 1776 , in Upper Bavaria , Germany . The movement consisted of advocates of freethought , secularism , liberalism , republicanism , and gender equality , recruited from the German Masonic Lodges , who sought to teach rationalism through mystery schools . In 1785 , the order was infiltrated , broken up and suppressed by the government agents of Charles Theodore , Elector of Bavaria , in his preemptive campaign to neutralize the threat of secret societies ever becoming hotbeds of conspiracies to overthrow the Bavarian monarchy and its state religion , Roman Catholicism .
In the late 18th century , reactionary conspiracy theorists , such as Scottish physicist John Robison and French Jesuit priest Augustin Barruel , began speculating that the Illuminati had survived their suppression and become the masterminds behind the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror . The Illuminati were accused of being subversives who were attempting to secretly orchestrate a revolutionary wave in Europe and the rest of the world in order to spread the most radical ideas and movements of the Enlightenment β anti @-@ clericalism , anti @-@ monarchism , and anti @-@ patriarchalism β and to create a world noocracy and cult of reason . During the 19th century , fear of an Illuminati conspiracy was a real concern of the European ruling classes , and their oppressive reactions to this unfounded fear provoked in 1848 the very revolutions they sought to prevent .
During the interwar period of the 20th century , fascist propagandists , such as British revisionist historian Nesta Helen Webster and American socialite Edith Starr Miller , not only popularized the myth of an Illuminati conspiracy but claimed that it was a subversive secret society which served the Jewish elites that supposedly propped up both finance capitalism and Soviet communism in order to divide and rule the world . American evangelist Gerald Burton Winrod and other conspiracy theorists within the fundamentalist Christian movement in the United States β which emerged in the 1910s as a backlash against the principles of Enlightenment secular humanism , modernism , and liberalism β became the main channel of dissemination of Illuminati conspiracy theories in the U.S .. Right @-@ wing populists , such as members of the John Birch Society , subsequently began speculating that some collegiate fraternities ( Skull and Bones ) , gentlemen 's clubs ( Bohemian Club ) , and think tanks ( Council on Foreign Relations , Trilateral Commission ) of the American upper class are front organizations of the Illuminati , which they accuse of plotting to create a New World Order through a one @-@ world government .
There is no evidence that the Bavarian Illuminati survived its suppression in 1785 .
= = = The Protocols of the Elders of Zion = = =
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion is an antisemitic canard , originally published in Russian in 1903 , alleging a Judeo @-@ Masonic conspiracy to achieve world domination . The text purports to be the minutes of the secret meetings of a cabal of Jewish masterminds , which has co @-@ opted Freemasonry and is plotting to rule the world on behalf of all Jews because they believe themselves to be the chosen people of God . The Protocols incorporate many of the core conspiracist themes outlined in the Robison and Barruel attacks on the Freemasons , and overlay them with antisemitic allegations about anti @-@ Tsarist movements in Russia . The Protocols reflect themes similar to more general critiques of Enlightenment liberalism by conservative aristocrats who support monarchies and state religions . The interpretation intended by the publication of The Protocols is that if one peels away the layers of the Masonic conspiracy , past the Illuminati , one finds the rotten Jewish core .
Numerous polemicists , such as Irish journalist Philip Graves in a 1921 article in The Times , and British academic Norman Cohn in his 1967 book Warrant for Genocide , have proven The Protocols to be both a hoax and a clear case of plagiarism . There is general agreement that Russian @-@ French writer and political activist Matvei Golovinski fabricated the text for Okhrana , the secret police of the Russian Empire , as a work of counter @-@ revolutionary propaganda prior to the 1905 Russian Revolution , by plagiarizing , almost word for word in some passages , from The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu , a 19th @-@ century satire against Napoleon III of France written by French political satirist and Legitimist militant Maurice Joly .
Responsible for feeding many antisemitic and anti @-@ Masonic mass hysterias of the 20th century , The Protocols has been influential in the development of some conspiracy theories , including some New World Order theories , and appears repeatedly in certain contemporary conspiracy literature . For example , the authors of the 1982 controversial book The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail concluded that The Protocols was the most persuasive piece of evidence for the existence and activities of the Priory of Sion . They speculated that this secret society was working behind the scenes to establish a theocratic " United States of Europe " . Politically and religiously unified through the imperial cult of a Merovingian Great Monarch β supposedly descended from a Jesus bloodline β who occupies both the throne of Europe and the Holy See , this " Holy European Empire " would become the hyperpower of the 21st century . Although the Priory of Sion itself has been exhaustively debunked by journalists and scholars as a hoax , some apocalyptic millenarian Christian eschatologists who believe The Protocols is authentic became convinced that the Priory of Sion was a fulfillment of prophecies found in the Book of Revelation and further proof of an anti @-@ Christian conspiracy of epic proportions signaling the imminence of a New World Order .
Skeptics argue that the current gambit of contemporary conspiracy theorists who use The Protocols is to claim that they " really " come from some group other than the Jews , such as fallen angels or alien invaders . Although it is hard to determine whether the conspiracy @-@ minded actually believe this or are simply trying to sanitize a discredited text , skeptics argue that it does not make much difference , since they leave the actual , antisemitic text unchanged . The result is to give The Protocols credibility and circulation .
= = = Round Table = = =
During the second half of Britain 's " imperial century " between 1815 and 1914 , English @-@ born South African businessman , mining magnate and politician Cecil Rhodes advocated the British Empire reannexing the United States of America and reforming itself into an " Imperial Federation " to bring about a hyperpower and lasting world peace . In his first will , written in 1877 at the age of 23 , he expressed his wish to fund a secret society ( known as the Society of the Elect ) that would advance this goal :
To and for the establishment , promotion and development of a Secret Society , the true aim and object whereof shall be for the extension of British rule throughout the world , the perfecting of a system of emigration from the United Kingdom , and of colonisation by British subjects of all lands where the means of livelihood are attainable by energy , labour and enterprise , and especially the occupation by British settlers of the entire Continent of Africa , the Holy Land , the Valley of the Euphrates , the Islands of Cyprus and Candia , the whole of South America , the Islands of the Pacific not heretofore possessed by Great Britain , the whole of the Malay Archipelago , the seaboard of China and Japan , the ultimate recovery of the United States of America as an integral part of the British Empire , the inauguration of a system of Colonial representation in the Imperial Parliament which may tend to weld together the disjointed members of the Empire and , finally , the foundation of so great a Power as to render wars impossible , and promote the best interests of humanity .
In 1890 , thirteen years after " his now famous will , " Rhodes elaborated on the same idea : establishment of " England everywhere , " which would " ultimately lead to the cessation of all wars , and one language throughout the world . " " The only thing feasible to carry out this idea is a secret society gradually absorbing the wealth of the world [ " and human minds of the higher order " ] to be devoted to such an object . "
Rhodes also concentrated on the Rhodes Scholarship , which had British statesman Alfred Milner as one of its trustees . Established in 1902 , the original goal of the trust fund was to foster peace among the great powers by creating a sense of fraternity and a shared world view among future British , American , and German leaders by having enabled them to study for free at the University of Oxford .
Milner and British official Lionel George Curtis were the architects of the Round Table movement , a network of organizations promoting closer union between Britain and its self @-@ governing colonies . To this end , Curtis founded the Royal Institute of International Affairs in June 1919 and , with his 1938 book The Commonwealth of God , began advocating for the creation of an imperial federation that eventually reannexes the U.S. , which would be presented to Protestant churches as being the work of the Christian God to elicit their support . The Commonwealth of Nations was created in 1949 but it would only be a free association of independent states rather than the powerful imperial federation imagined by Rhodes , Milner and Curtis .
The Council on Foreign Relations began in 1917 with a group of New York academics who were asked by President Woodrow Wilson to offer options for the foreign policy of the United States in the interwar period . Originally envisioned as a group of American and British scholars and diplomats , some of whom belonging to the Round Table movement , it was a subsequent group of 108 New York financiers , manufacturers and international lawyers organized in June 1918 by Nobel Peace Prize recipient and U.S. secretary of state Elihu Root , that became the Council on Foreign Relations on 29 July 1921 . The first of the council β s projects was a quarterly journal launched in September 1922 , called Foreign Affairs . The Trilateral Commission was founded in July 1973 , at the initiative of American banker David Rockefeller , who was chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations at that time . It is a private organization established to foster closer cooperation among the United States , Europe and Japan . The Trilateral Commission is widely seen as a counterpart to the Council on Foreign Relations .
In the 1960s , right @-@ wing populist individuals and groups with a paleoconservative worldview , such as members of the John Birch Society , were the first to combine and spread a business nationalist critique of corporate internationalists networked through think tanks such as the Council on Foreign Relations with a grand conspiracy theory casting them as front organizations for the Round Table of the " Anglo @-@ American Establishment " , which are financed by an " international banking cabal " that has supposedly been plotting from the late 19th century on to impose an oligarchic new world order through a global financial system . Anti @-@ globalist conspiracy theorists therefore fear that international bankers are planning to eventually subvert the independence of the U.S. by subordinating national sovereignty to a strengthened Bank for International Settlements .
The research findings of historian Carroll Quigley , author of the 1966 book Tragedy and Hope , are taken by both conspiracy theorists of the American Old Right ( W. Cleon Skousen ) and New Left ( Carl Oglesby ) to substantiate this view , even though Quigley argued that the Establishment is not involved in a plot to implement a one @-@ world government but rather British and American benevolent imperialism driven by the mutual interests of economic elites in the United Kingdom and the United States . Quigley also argued that , although the Round Table still exists today , its position in influencing the policies of world leaders has been much reduced from its heyday during World War I and slowly waned after the end of World War II and the Suez Crisis . Today the Round Table is largely a ginger group , designed to consider and gradually influence the policies of the Commonwealth of Nations , but faces strong opposition . Furthermore , in American society after 1965 , the problem , according to Quigley , was that no elite was in charge and acting responsibly .
Larry McDonald , the second president of the John Birch Society and a conservative Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives who represented the 7th congressional district of Georgia , wrote a foreword for Allen 's 1976 book The Rockefeller File , wherein he stated :
The drive of the Rockefellers and their allies is to create a one @-@ world government , combining super @-@ capitalism and Communism under the same tent , all under their control ... Do I mean conspiracy ? Yes I do . I am convinced there is such a plot , international in scope , generations old in planning , and incredibly evil in intent .
In his 2002 autobiography Memoirs , David Rockefeller wrote :
For more than a century ideological extremists at either end of the political spectrum have seized upon well @-@ publicized incidents ... to attack the Rockefeller family for the inordinate influence they claim we wield over American political and economic institutions . Some even believe we are part of a secret cabal working against the best interests of the United States , characterizing my family and me as ' internationalists ' and of conspiring with others around the world to build a more integrated global political and economic structure β one world , if you will . If that 's the charge , I stand guilty , and I am proud of it .
Barkun argues that this statement is partly facetious ( the claim of " conspiracy " and " treason " ) and partly serious β the desire to encourage trilateral cooperation among the U.S. , Europe , and Japan , for example β an ideal that used to be a hallmark of the internationalist wing of the Republican Party ( known as " Rockefeller Republicans " in honor of Nelson Rockefeller ) when there was an internationalist wing . The statement , however , is taken at face value and widely cited by conspiracy theorists as proof that the Council on Foreign Relations uses its role as the brain trust of American presidents , senators and representatives to manipulate them into supporting a New World Order in the form of a one @-@ world government .
In a 13 November 2007 interview with Canadian journalist Benjamin Fulford , Rockefeller countered :
I don 't think that I really feel that we need a world government . We need governments of the world that work together and collaborate . But , I can 't imagine that there would be any likelihood or even that it would be desirable to have a single government elected by the people of the world ... There have been people , ever since I 've had any kind of position in the world , who have accused me of being ruler of the world . I have to say that I think for the large part , I would have to decide to describe them as crackpots . It makes no sense whatsoever , and isn 't true , and won 't be true , and to raise it as a serious issue seems to me to be irresponsible .
Some American social critics , such as Laurence H. Shoup , argue that the Council on Foreign Relations is an " imperial brain trust " which has , for decades , played a central behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in shaping U.S. foreign policy choices for the post @-@ World War II international order and the Cold War by determining what options show up on the agenda and what options do not even make it to the table ; others , such as G. William Domhoff , argue that it is in fact a mere policy discussion forum which provides the business input to U.S. foreign policy planning . Domhoff argues that " [ i ] t has nearly 3 @,@ 000 members , far too many for secret plans to be kept within the group . All the council does is sponsor discussion groups , debates and speakers . As far as being secretive , it issues annual reports and allows access to its historical archives . " However , all these critics agree that " [ h ] istorical studies of the CFR show that it has a very different role in the overall power structure than what is claimed by conspiracy theorists . "
= = = The Open Conspiracy = = =
In his 1928 book The Open Conspiracy British writer and futurist H. G. Wells promoted cosmopolitanism and offered blueprints for a world revolution and world brain to establish a technocratic world state and planned economy . Wells warned , however , in his 1940 book The New World Order that :
... when the struggle seems to be drifting definitely towards a world social democracy , there may still be very great delays and disappointments before it becomes an efficient and beneficent world system . Countless people ... will hate the new world order , be rendered unhappy by the frustration of their passions and ambitions through its advent and will die protesting against it . When we attempt to evaluate its promise , we have to bear in mind the distress of a generation or so of malcontents , many of them quite gallant and graceful @-@ looking people .
Wells 's books were influential in giving a second meaning to the term " new world order " , which would only be used by state socialist supporters and anti @-@ communist opponents for generations to come . However , despite the popularity and notoriety of his ideas , Wells failed to exert a deeper and more lasting influence because he was unable to concentrate his energies on a direct appeal to intelligentsias who would , ultimately , have to coordinate the Wellsian new world order .
= = = New Age = = =
British neo @-@ Theosophical occultist Alice Bailey , one of the founders of the so @-@ called New Age movement , prophesied in 1940 the eventual victory of the Allies of World War II over the Axis powers ( which occurred in 1945 ) and the establishment by the Allies of a political and religious New World Order . She saw a federal world government as the culmination of Wells ' Open Conspiracy but favorably argued that it would be synarchist because it was guided by the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom , intent on preparing humanity for the mystical second coming of Christ , and the dawning of the Age of Aquarius . According to Bailey , a group of ascended masters called the Great White Brotherhood works on the " inner planes " to oversee the transition to the New World Order but , for now , the members of this Spiritual Hierarchy are only known to a few occult scientists , with whom they communicate telepathically , but as the need for their personal involvement in the plan increases , there will be an " Externalization of the Hierarchy " and everyone will know of their presence on Earth .
Bailey 's writings , along with American writer Marilyn Ferguson 's 1980 book The Aquarian Conspiracy , contributed to conspiracy theorists of the Christian right viewing the New Age movement as the " false religion " that would supersede Christianity in a New World Order . Skeptics argue that the term " New Age movement " is a misnomer , generally used by conspiracy theorists as a catch @-@ all rubric for any new religious movement that is not fundamentalist Christian . By this logic , anything that is not Christian is by definition actively and willfully anti @-@ Christian .
Paradoxically , since the first decade of the 21st century , New World Order conspiracism is increasingly being embraced and propagandized by New Age occultists , who are people bored by rationalism and drawn to stigmatized knowledge β such as alternative medicine , astrology , quantum mysticism , spiritualism , and theosophy . Thus , New Age conspiracy theorists , such as the makers of documentary films like Esoteric Agenda , claim that globalists who plot on behalf of the New World Order are simply misusing occultism for Machiavellian ends , such as adopting 21 December 2012 as the exact date for the establishment of the New World Order for the purpose of taking advantage of the growing 2012 phenomenon , which has its origins in the fringe Mayanist theories of New Age writers JosΓ© ArgΓΌelles , Terence McKenna , and Daniel Pinchbeck .
Skeptics argue that the connection of conspiracy theorists and occultists follows from their common fallacious premises . First , any widely accepted belief must necessarily be false . Second , stigmatized knowledge β what the Establishment spurns β must be true . The result is a large , self @-@ referential network in which , for example , some UFO religionists promote anti @-@ Jewish phobias while some antisemites practice Peruvian shamanism .
= = = Fourth Reich = = =
Conspiracy theorists often use the term " Fourth Reich " simply as a pejorative synonym for the " New World Order " to imply that its state ideology and government will be similar to Germany 's Third Reich . However , some conspiracy theorists use the research findings of American journalist Edwin Black , author of the 2009 book Nazi Nexus , to claim that some American corporations and philanthropic foundations β whose complicity was pivotal to the Third Reich 's war effort , Nazi eugenics and the Holocaust β are now conspiring to build a Fourth Reich .
Conspiracy theorists , such as American writer Jim Marrs , claim that some ex @-@ Nazis , who survived the fall of the Greater German Reich , along with sympathizers in the United States and elsewhere , given haven by organizations like ODESSA and Die Spinne , have been working behind the scenes since the end of World War II to enact at least some principles of Nazism ( e.g. , militarism , imperialism , widespread spying on citizens , corporatism , the use of propaganda to manufacture a national consensus ) into culture , government , and business worldwide , but primarily in the U.S. They cite the influence of ex @-@ Nazi scientists brought in under Operation Paperclip to help advance aerospace manufacturing in the U.S. with technological principles from Nazi UFOs , and the acquisition and creation of conglomerates by ex @-@ Nazis and their sympathizers after the war , in both Europe and the U.S.
This neo @-@ Nazi conspiracy is said to be animated by an " Iron Dream " in which the American Empire , having thwarted the Judeo @-@ Masonic conspiracy and overthrown its Zionist Occupation Government , gradually establishes a Fourth Reich formerly known as the " Western Imperium " β a pan @-@ Aryan world empire modeled after Adolf Hitler 's New Order β which reverses the " decline of the West " and ushers a golden age of white supremacy .
Skeptics argue that conspiracy theorists grossly overestimate the influence of ex @-@ Nazis and neo @-@ Nazis on American society , and point out that political repression at home and imperialism abroad have a long history in the United States that predates the 20th century . Some political scientists , such as Sheldon Wolin , have expressed concern that the twin forces of democratic deficit and superpower status have paved the way in the U.S. for the emergence of an inverted totalitarianism which contradicts many principles of Nazism .
= = = Alien invasion = = =
Since the late 1970s , extraterrestrials from other habitable planets or parallel dimensions ( such as " Greys " ) and intraterrestrials from Hollow Earth ( such as " Reptilians " ) have been included in the New World Order conspiracy , in more or less dominant roles , as in the theories put forward by American writers Stan Deyo and Milton William Cooper , and British writer David Icke .
The common theme in these conspiracy theories is that aliens have been among us for decades , centuries or millennia , but a government cover @-@ up enforced by " Men in Black " has shielded the public from knowledge of a secret alien invasion . Motivated by speciesism and imperialism , these aliens have been and are secretly manipulating developments and changes in human society in order to more efficiently control and exploit human beings . In some theories , alien infiltrators have shapeshifted into human form and move freely throughout human society , even to the point of taking control of command positions in governmental , corporate , and religious institutions , and are now in the final stages of their plan to take over the world . A mythical covert government agency of the United States code @-@ named Majestic 12 is often imagined being the shadow government which collaborates with the alien occupation and permits alien abductions , in exchange for assistance in the development and testing of military " flying saucers " at Area 51 , in order for United States armed forces to achieve full @-@ spectrum dominance .
Skeptics , who adhere to the psychosocial hypothesis for unidentified flying objects , argue that the convergence of New World Order conspiracy theory and UFO conspiracy theory is a product of not only the era 's widespread mistrust of governments and the popularity of the extraterrestrial hypothesis for UFOs but of the far right and ufologists actually joining forces . Barkun notes that the only positive side to this development is that , if conspirators plotting to rule the world are believed to be aliens , traditional human scapegoats ( Freemasons , Illuminati , Jews , etc . ) are downgraded or exonerated .
= = = Brave New World = = =
Antiscience and neo @-@ Luddite conspiracy theorists emphasize technology forecasting in their New World Order conspiracy theories . They speculate that the global power elite are reactionary modernists pursuing a transhumanist agenda to develop and use human enhancement technologies in order to become a " posthuman ruling caste " , while change accelerates toward a technological singularity β a theorized future point of discontinuity when events will accelerate at such a pace that normal unenhanced humans will be unable to predict or even understand the rapid changes occurring in the world around them . Conspiracy theorists fear the outcome will either be the emergence of a Brave New World @-@ like dystopia β a " Brave New World Order " β or the extinction of the human species .
Democratic transhumanists , such as American sociologist James Hughes , counter that many influential members of the United States Establishment are bioconservatives strongly opposed to human enhancement , as demonstrated by President Bush 's Council on Bioethics 's proposed international treaty prohibiting human cloning and germline engineering . Furthermore , he argues that conspiracy theorists underestimate how fringe the transhumanist movement really is .
= = Postulated implementations = =
Just as there are several overlapping or conflicting theories among conspiracists about the nature of the New World Order , so are there several beliefs about how its architects and planners will implement it :
= = = Gradualism = = =
Conspiracy theorists generally speculate that the New World Order is being implemented gradually , citing the formation of the U.S. Federal Reserve System in 1913 ; the League of Nations in 1919 ; the International Monetary Fund in 1944 ; the United Nations in 1945 ; the World Bank in 1945 ; the World Health Organization in 1948 ; the European Union and the euro currency in 1993 ; the World Trade Organization in 1998 ; the African Union in 2002 ; and the Union of South American Nations in 2008 as major milestones .
An increasingly popular conspiracy theory among American right @-@ wing populists is that the hypothetical North American Union and the amero currency , proposed by the Council on Foreign Relations and its counterparts in Mexico and Canada , will be the next milestone in the implementation of the New World Order . The theory holds that a group of shadowy and mostly nameless international elites are planning to replace the federal government of the United States with a transnational government . Therefore , conspiracy theorists believe the borders between Mexico , Canada and the United States are in the process of being erased , covertly , by a group of globalists whose ultimate goal is to replace national governments in Washington , D.C. , Ottawa and Mexico City with a European @-@ style political union and a bloated E.U.-style bureaucracy .
Skeptics argue that the North American Union exists only as a proposal contained in one of a thousand academic and / or policy papers published each year that advocate all manner of idealistic but ultimately unrealistic approaches to social , economic and political problems . Most of these are passed around in their own circles and eventually filed away and forgotten by junior staffers in congressional offices . Some of these papers , however , become touchstones for the conspiracy @-@ minded and form the basis of all kinds of unfounded xenophobic fears especially during times of economic anxiety .
For example , in March 2009 , as a result of the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis , the People 's Republic of China and the Russian Federation pressed for urgent consideration of a new international reserve currency and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development proposed greatly expanding the I.M.F. ' s special drawing rights . Conspiracy theorists fear these proposals are a call for the U.S. to adopt a single global currency for a New World Order .
Judging that both national governments and global institutions have proven ineffective in addressing worldwide problems that go beyond the capacity of individual nation @-@ states to solve , some political scientists critical of New World Order conspiracism , such as Mark C. Partridge , argue that regionalism will be the major force in the coming decades , pockets of power around regional centers : Western Europe around Brussels , the Western Hemisphere around Washington , D.C. , East Asia around Beijing , and Eastern Europe around Moscow . As such , the E.U. , the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation , and the G @-@ 20 will likely become more influential as time progresses . The question then is not whether global governance is gradually emerging , but rather how will these regional powers interact with one another .
= = = Coup d 'Γ©tat = = =
American right @-@ wing populist conspiracy theorists , especially those who joined the militia movement in the United States , speculate that the New World Order will be implemented through a dramatic coup d 'Γ©tat by a " secret team " , using black helicopters , in the U.S. and other nation @-@ states to bring about a totalitarian world government controlled by the United Nations and enforced by troops of foreign U.N. peacekeepers . Following the Rex 84 and Operation Garden Plot plans , this military coup would involve the suspension of the Constitution , the imposition of martial law , and the appointment of military commanders to head state and local governments and to detain dissidents .
These conspiracy theorists , who are all strong believers in a right to keep and bear arms , are extremely fearful that the passing of any gun control legislation will be later followed by the abolishment of personal gun ownership and a campaign of gun confiscation , and that the refugee camps of emergency management agencies such as FEMA will be used for the internment of suspected subversives , making little effort to distinguish true threats to the New World Order from pacifist dissidents .
Before year 2000 some survivalists wrongly believed this process would be set in motion by the predicted Y2K problem causing societal collapse . Since many left @-@ wing and right @-@ wing conspiracy theorists believe that the September 11 attacks were a false flag operation carried out by the United States intelligence community , as part of a strategy of tension to justify political repression at home and preemptive war abroad , they have become convinced that a more catastrophic terrorist incident will be responsible for triggering Executive Directive 51 in order to complete the transition to a police state .
Skeptics argue that unfounded fears about an imminent or eventual gun ban , military coup , internment , or U.N. invasion and occupation are rooted in the siege mentality of the American militia movement but also an apocalyptic millenarianism which provides a basic narrative within the political right in the U.S. , claiming that the idealized society ( i.e. , constitutional republic , Jeffersonian democracy , " Christian nation " , " white nation " ) is thwarted by subversive conspiracies of liberal secular humanists who want " Big Government " and globalists who plot on behalf of the New World Order .
= = = Mass surveillance = = =
Conspiracy theorists concerned with surveillance abuse believe that the New World Order is being implemented by the cult of intelligence at the core of the surveillance @-@ industrial complex through mass surveillance and the use of Social Security numbers , the bar @-@ coding of retail goods with Universal Product Code markings , and , most recently , RFID tagging by microchip implants .
Claiming that corporations and government are planning to track every move of consumers and citizens with RFID as the latest step toward a 1984 @-@ like surveillance state , consumer privacy advocates , such as Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre , have become Christian conspiracy theorists who believe spychips must be resisted because they argue that modern database and communications technologies , coupled with point of sale data @-@ capture equipment and sophisticated ID and authentication systems , now make it possible to require a biometrically associated number or mark to make purchases . They fear that the ability to implement such a system closely resembles the Number of the Beast prophesied in the Book of Revelation .
In January 2002 , the Information Awareness Office ( IAO ) was established by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) to bring together several DARPA projects focused on applying information technology to counter asymmetric threats to national security . Following public criticism that the development and deployment of these technologies could potentially lead to a mass surveillance system , the IAO was defunded by the United States Congress in 2003 . The second source of controversy involved IAO β s original logo , which depicted the " all @-@ seeing " Eye of Providence atop of a pyramid looking down over the globe , accompanied by the Latin phrase scientia est potentia ( knowledge is power ) . Although DARPA eventually removed the logo from its website , it left a lasting impression on privacy advocates . It also inflamed conspiracy theorists , who misinterpret the " eye and pyramid " as the Masonic symbol of the Illuminati , an 18th @-@ century secret society they speculate continues to exist and is plotting on behalf of a New World Order .
American historian Richard Landes , who specializes in the history of apocalypticism and was co @-@ founder and director of the Center for Millennial Studies at Boston University , argues that new and emerging technologies often trigger alarmism among millenarians and even the introduction of Gutenberg 's printing press in 1436 caused waves of apocalyptic thinking . The Year 2000 problem , bar codes and Social Security numbers all triggered end @-@ time warnings which either proved to be false or simply were no longer taken seriously once the public became accustomed to these technological changes . Civil libertarians argue that the privatization of surveillance and the rise of the surveillance @-@ industrial complex in the United States does raise legitimate concerns about the erosion of privacy . However , skeptics of mass surveillance conspiracism caution that such concerns should be disentangled from secular paranoia about Big Brother or religious hysteria about the Antichrist .
= = = Occultism = = =
Conspiracy theorists of the Christian right , starting with British revisionist historian Nesta Helen Webster , believe there is an ancient occult conspiracy β started by the first mystagogues of Gnosticism and perpetuated by their alleged esoteric successors , such as the Kabbalists , Cathars , Knights Templar , Hermeticists , Rosicrucians , Freemasons , and , ultimately , the Illuminati β which seeks to subvert the Judeo @-@ Christian foundations of the Western world and implement the New World Order through a one @-@ world religion that prepares the masses to embrace the imperial cult of the Antichrist . More broadly , they speculate that globalists who plot on behalf of a New World Order are directed by occult agencies of some sort : unknown superiors , spiritual hierarchies , demons , fallen angels and / or Lucifer . They believe that these conspirators use the power of occult sciences ( numerology ) , symbols ( Eye of Providence ) , rituals ( Masonic degrees ) , monuments ( National Mall landmarks ) , buildings ( Manitoba Legislative Building ) and facilities ( Denver International Airport ) to advance their plot to rule the world .
For example , in June 1979 , an unknown benefactor under the pseudonym " R. C. Christian " had a huge granite megalith built in the U.S. state of Georgia , which acts like a compass , calendar , and clock . A message comprising ten guides is inscribed on the occult structure in many languages to serve as instructions for survivors of a doomsday event to establish a more enlightened and sustainable civilization than the one which was destroyed . The " Georgia Guidestones " have subsequently become a spiritual and political Rorschach test onto which any number of ideas can be imposed . Some New Agers and neo @-@ pagans revere it as a ley @-@ line power nexus while a few conspiracy theorists are convinced that they are engraved with the New World Order 's anti @-@ Christian " Ten Commandments . " Should the Guidestones survive for centuries as their creators intended , many more meanings could arise , equally unrelated to the designer β s original intention .
Skeptics argue that the demonization of Western esotericism by conspiracy theorists is rooted in religious intolerance but also in the same moral panics that have fueled witch trials in the Early Modern period , and satanic ritual abuse allegations in the United States .
= = = Population control = = =
Conspiracy theorists believe that the New World Order will also be implemented through the use of human population control in order to more easily monitor and control the movement of individuals . The means range from stopping the growth of human societies through reproductive health and family planning programs , which promote abstinence , contraception and abortion , or intentionally reducing the bulk of the world population through genocides by mongering unnecessary wars , through plagues by engineering emergent viruses and tainting vaccines , and through environmental disasters by controlling the weather ( HAARP , chemtrails ) , etc . Conspiracy theorists argue that globalists plotting on behalf of a New World Order are neo @-@ Malthusians who engage in overpopulation and climate change alarmism in order to create public support for coercive population control and ultimately world government . Agenda 21 is condemned as " reconcentrating " people into urban areas and depopulating rural ones , even generating a dystopian novel by Glenn Beck where single @-@ family homes are a distant memory .
Skeptics argue that fears of population control can be traced back to the traumatic legacy of the eugenics movement 's " war against the weak " in the United States during the first decades of the 20th century but also the Second Red Scare in the U.S. during the late 1940s and 1950s , and to a lesser extent in the 1960s , when activists on the far right of American politics routinely opposed public health programs , notably water fluoridation , mass vaccination and mental health services , by asserting they were all part of a far @-@ reaching plot to impose a socialist or communist regime . Their views were influenced by opposition to a number of major social and political changes that had happened in recent years : the growth of internationalism , particularly the United Nations and its programs ; the introduction of social welfare provisions , particularly the various programs established by the New Deal ; and government efforts to reduce inequalities in the social structure of the U.S ..
= = = Mind control = = =
Social critics accuse governments , corporations , and the mass media of being involved in the manufacturing of a national consensus and , paradoxically , a culture of fear due to the potential for increased social control that a mistrustful and mutually fearing population might offer to those in power . The worst fear of some conspiracy theorists , however , is that the New World Order will be implemented through the use of mind control β a broad range of tactics able to subvert an individual 's control of his or her own thinking , behavior , emotions , or decisions . These tactics are said to include everything from Manchurian candidate @-@ style brainwashing of sleeper agents ( Project MKULTRA , " Project Monarch " ) to engineering psychological operations ( water fluoridation , subliminal advertising , " Silent Sound Spread Spectrum " , MEDUSA ) and parapsychological operations ( Stargate Project ) to influence the masses . The concept of wearing a tin foil hat for protection from such threats has become a popular stereotype and term of derision ; the phrase serves as a byword for paranoia and is associated with conspiracy theorists .
Skeptics argue that the paranoia behind a conspiracy theorist 's obsession with mind control , population control , occultism , surveillance abuse , Big Business , Big Government , and globalization arises from a combination of two factors , when he or she : 1 ) holds strong individualist values and 2 ) lacks power . The first attribute refers to people who care deeply about an individual 's right to make their own choices and direct their own lives without interference or obligations to a larger system ( like the government ) , but combine this with a sense of powerlessness in one 's own life , and one gets what some psychologists call " agency panic , " intense anxiety about an apparent loss of autonomy to outside forces or regulators . When fervent individualists feel that they cannot exercise their independence , they experience a crisis and assume that larger forces are to blame for usurping this freedom .
= = Alleged conspirators = =
According to Domhoff , many people seem to believe that the United States is ruled from behind the scenes by a conspiratorial elite with secret desires , i.e. , by a small secretive group that wants to change the government system or put the country under the control of a world government . In the past the conspirators were usually said to be crypto @-@ communists who were intent upon bringing the United States under a common world government with the Soviet Union , but the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 undercut that theory . Domhoff notes that most conspiracy theorists changed their focus to the United Nations as the likely controlling force in a New World Order , an idea which is undermined by the powerlessness of the U.N. and the unwillingness of even moderates within the American Establishment to give it anything but a limited role .
Although skeptical of New World Order conspiracism , political scientist David Rothkopf argues , in the 2008 book Superclass : The Global Power Elite and the World They Are Making , that the world population of 6 billion people is governed by an elite of 6 @,@ 000 individuals . Until the late 20th century , governments of the great powers provided most of the superclass , accompanied by a few heads of international movements ( i.e. , the Pope of the Catholic Church ) and entrepreneurs ( Rothschilds , Rockefellers ) . According to Rothkopf , in the early 21st century , economic clout β fueled by the explosive expansion of international trade , travel and communication β rules ; the nation @-@ state 's power has diminished shrinking politicians to minority power broker status ; leaders in international business , finance and the defense industry not only dominate the superclass , they move freely into high positions in their nations ' governments and back to private life largely beyond the notice of elected legislatures ( including the U.S. Congress ) , which remain abysmally ignorant of affairs beyond their borders . He asserts that the superclass ' disproportionate influence over national policy is constructive but always self @-@ interested , and that across the world , few object to corruption and oppressive governments provided they can do business in these countries .
Viewing the history of the world as the history of warfare between secret societies , conspiracy theorists go further than Rothkopf , and other scholars who have studied the global power elite , by claiming that established upper @-@ class families with " old money " who founded and finance the Bilderberg Group , Bohemian Club , Club of Rome , Council on Foreign Relations , Rhodes Trust , Skull and Bones , Trilateral Commission , and similar think tanks and private clubs , are illuminated conspirators plotting to impose a totalitarian New World Order β the implementation of an authoritarian world government controlled by the United Nations and a global central bank , which maintains political power through the financialization of the economy , regulation and restriction of speech through the concentration of media ownership , mass surveillance , widespread use of state terrorism , and an all @-@ encompassing propaganda that creates a cult of personality around a puppet world leader and ideologizes world government as the culmination of history 's progress .
Marxists , who are skeptical of right @-@ wing populist conspiracy theories , also accuse the global power elite of not having the best interests of all at heart , and many intergovernmental organizations of suffering from a democratic deficit , but they argue that the superclass are plutocrats only interested in brazenly imposing a neoliberal or neoconservative new world order β the implementation of global capitalism through economic and military coercion to protect the interests of transnational corporations β which systematically undermines the possibility of a socialist one @-@ world government . Arguing that the world is in the middle of a transition from the American Empire to the rule of a global ruling class that has emerged from within the American Empire , they point out that right @-@ wing populist conspiracy theorists , blinded by their anti @-@ communism , fail to see is that what they demonize as the " New World Order " is , ironically , the highest stage of the very capitalist economic system they defend .
= = Criticisms = =
Skeptics of New World Order conspiracy theories accuse its proponents of indulging in the furtive fallacy , a belief that significant facts of history are necessarily sinister ; conspiracism , a world view that centrally places conspiracy theories in the unfolding of history , rather than social and economic forces ; and fusion paranoia , a promiscuous absorption of fears from any source whatsoever .
Domhoff , a research professor in psychology and sociology who studies theories of power , writes in a March 2005 essay entitled There Are No Conspiracies :
There are several problems with a conspiratorial view that don 't fit with what we know about power structures . First , it assumes that a small handful of wealthy and highly educated people somehow develop an extreme psychological desire for power that leads them to do things that don 't fit with the roles they seem to have . For example , that rich capitalists are no longer out to make a profit , but to create a one @-@ world government . Or that elected officials are trying to get the constitution suspended so they can assume dictatorial powers . These kinds of claims go back many decades now , and it is always said that it is really going to happen this time , but it never does . Since these claims have proved wrong dozens of times by now , it makes more sense to assume that leaders act for their usual reasons , such as profit @-@ seeking motives and institutionalized roles as elected officials . Of course they want to make as much money as they can , and be elected by huge margins every time , and that can lead them to do many unsavory things , but nothing in the ballpark of creating a one @-@ world government or suspending the constitution .
Partridge , a contributing editor to the global affairs magazine Diplomatic Courier , writes in a December 2008 article entitled One World Government : Conspiracy Theory or Inevitable Future ? :
I am skeptical that " global governance " could " come much sooner than that [ 200 years ] , " as [ journalist Gideon Rachman ] posits . For one thing , nationalism β the natural counterpoint to global government β is rising . Some leaders and peoples around the world have resented Washington 's chiding and hubris over the past two decade of American unipolarity . Russia has been re @-@ establishing itself as a " great power " ; few could miss the national pride on display when China hosted the Beijing Olympics this summer ; while Hugo Chavez and his ilk have stoked the national flames with their anti @-@ American rhetoric . The departing of the Bush Administration could cause this nationalism to abate , but economic uncertainty usually has the opposite effect . [ ... ] Another point is that attempts at global government and global agreements have been categorical failures . The WTO β s Doha Round is dead in the water , Kyoto excluded many of the leading polluters and a conference to establish a deal was a failure , and there is a race to the bottom in terms of corporate taxes β rather than an existing global framework . And , where supranational governance structures exist , they are noted for their bureaucracy and inefficiency : The UN has been unable to stop an American @-@ led invasion of Iraq , genocide in Darfur , the slow collapse of Zimbabwe , or Iran 's continued uranium enrichment . That is not to belittle the structure , as I deem it essential , but the system β s flaws are there for all to see .
Although some cultural critics see superconspiracy theories about a New World Order as " postmodern metanarratives " that may be politically empowering , a way of giving ordinary people a narrative structure with which to question what they see around them , skeptics argue that conspiracism leads people into cynicism , convoluted thinking , and a tendency to feel it is hopeless even as they denounce the alleged conspirators .
Alexander Zaitchik from the Southern Poverty Law Center wrote a report titled " ' Patriot ' Paranoia : A Look at the Top Ten Conspiracy Theories " , in which he personally condemns such conspiracies are an effort of the radical right to undermine society .
Scholars continue to debate the psychological and sociological origins of conspiracy theories , but there is no arguing that these theories have seen a revival on the extreme right in recent years . Over the last two decades , a far @-@ right conspiracy culture of self @-@ proclaimed " Patriots " has emerged in which the United States government itself is viewed as a mortal threat to everything from constitutional democracy to the survival of the human race . This conspiracy revival β which has been accompanied by the explosive growth of Patriot groups over the last year and a half β kicked into overdrive with the 2008 election of President Barack Obama , who is seen by Patriots as a foreign @-@ born Manchurian candidate sent by forces of the so @-@ called " New World Order " to destroy American sovereignty and institute one @-@ world socialist government . [ 1 ]
Concerned that the improvisational millennialism of most conspiracy theories about a New World Order might motivate lone wolves to engage in leaderless resistance leading to domestic terrorist incidents like the Oklahoma City bombing , Barkun writes :
The danger lies less in such beliefs themselves ... than in the behavior they might stimulate or justify . As long as the New World Order appeared to be almost but not quite a reality , devotees of conspiracy theories could be expected to confine their activities to propagandizing . On the other hand , should they believe that the prophesied evil day had in fact arrived , their behavior would become far more difficult to predict .
Warning of the threat to American democracy posed by right @-@ wing populist movements led by demagogues who mobilize support for mob rule or even a fascist revolution by exploiting the fear of conspiracies , Berlet writes :
Right @-@ wing populist movements can cause serious damage to a society because they often popularize xenophobia , authoritarianism , scapegoating , and conspiracism . This can lure mainstream politicians to adopt these themes to attract voters , legitimize acts of discrimination ( or even violence ) , and open the door for revolutionary right @-@ wing populist movements , such as fascism , to recruit from the reformist populist movements .
Hughes , a professor of religion , warns that no religious idea has greater potential for shaping global politics in profoundly negative ways than " the new world order " . He writes in a February 2011 article entitled Revelation , Revolutions , and the Tyrannical New World Order :
The crucial piece of this puzzle is the identity of the Antichrist , the tyrannical figure who both leads and inspires the new world order . [ ... ] for many years , rapture theologians identified the Soviet Union as the Antichrist . But after Sept . 11 , they became quite certain that the Antichrist was closely connected with the Arab world and the Muslim religion . This means , quite simply , that for rapture theologians , Islam stands at the heart of the tyrannical " new world order . " Precisely here we discover why the idea of a " new world order " has such potential to move global politics in profoundly negative directions , for rapture theologians typically welcome war with the Islamic world . As Bill Moyers wrote of the rapture theologians , " A war with Islam in the Middle East is not something to be feared but welcomed β an essential conflagration on the road to redemption . " Further , rapture theologians co @-@ opt the United States as a tool in their cosmic vision β a tool God will use to smite the Antichrist and the enemies of righteousness . This is why Tim LaHaye , co @-@ author of the best @-@ selling series of end @-@ times books , could lend such strong support to the American invasion and occupation of Iraq . By virtue of that war , LaHaye believed , Iraq would become " a focal point of end @-@ times events . " Even more disturbing is the fact that rapture theologians blissfully open the door to nuclear holocaust . Rapture theologians have always held that God will destroy his enemies at the end of time in the Great Battle of Armageddon . But since World War II , they have increasingly identified Armageddon with nuclear weaponry , thereby lending biblical inevitability to the prospects of nuclear annihilation . As one prophecy writer put it , " The holocaust of atomic war would fulfill the prophecies . "
Criticisms of New World Order conspiracy theorists also come from within their own community . Despite believing themselves to be " freedom fighters " , many right @-@ wing populist conspiracy theorists hold views that are incompatible with their professed libertarianism , such as dominionism , white supremacism , and even eliminationism . This paradox has led Icke , who argues that Christian Patriots are the only Americans who understand the truth about the New World Order ( which he believes is controlled by a race of reptilians known as the " Babylonian Brotherhood " ) , to reportedly tell a Christian Patriot group :
I don 't know which I dislike more , the world controlled by the Brotherhood , or the one you want to replace it with .
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= Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie =
Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) is the first collection of poems by African @-@ American writer and poet , Maya Angelou . Many of the poems in Diiie were originally song lyrics , written during Angelou 's career as a night club performer , and recorded on two albums before the publication of Angelou 's first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) . Angelou considers herself a poet and a playwright , but is best known for her seven autobiographies . She began , early in her writing career , of alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Although her poetry collections have been best @-@ sellers , they have not received serious critical attention and are more interesting when read aloud .
Diiie is made up of two sections of 38 poems . The 20 poems in the first section , " Where Love is a Scream of Anguish " , center on love . Many of the poems in this section and the next are structured like blues and jazz music , and have universal themes of love and loss . The eighteen poems in the second section , " Just Before the World Ends " , focus on the experience of the survival of African Americans despite living in a society dominated by whites .
Angelou uses the vernacular of African Americans , irony , understatement , and humor to make her statements about race and racism in America . She acts as a spokesperson for her race in these poems , in which her use of irony and humor allows her to speak for the collective and to assume a distance in order to make comments about her themes , topics , and subjects . Critic Kathy M. Essick have called the poems in Diiie " protest poems " . The metaphors in her poetry serve as " coding " , or litotes , for meanings understood by other Blacks , although her themes and topics are universal for most readers to understand .
Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie has received mixed reviews from critics , but was a best @-@ seller and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize . Many critics expected that the volume would be popular despite their negative reviews , but others considered it well @-@ written , lyrical , and a moving expression of social observation .
= = Background = =
Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie is Maya Angelou 's first volume of poetry . She studied and began writing poetry at a young age . After her rape at the age of eight , as recounted in her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , she dealt with her trauma by memorizing and reciting great works of literature , including poetry , which helped bring her out her self @-@ imposed muteness .
Angelou recorded two albums of poetry and songs she wrote during her career as a night club performer ; the first in 1957 for Liberty Records and the second " The Poetry of Maya Angelou " , for GWP Records the year before the publication of her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) . They were later incorporated into her volumes of poetry , including Diiie , which was published the year after Caged Bird became a best @-@ seller . Diiie also became a best @-@ seller , and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize . Despite thinking of herself a playwright and poet when her editor Robert Loomis challenged her to write Caged Bird , she has been best known for her autobiographies . Many of Angelou 's readers identify her as a poet first and an autobiographer second , yet like Lynn Z. Bloom , many critics consider her autobiographies more important than her poetry . Critic William Sylvester agrees , and states that although her books have been best @-@ sellers , her poetry has not been perceived as seriously her prose . Bloom also believes that Angelou 's poetry is more interesting when she recites them . Bloom considers her performances dynamic , and says that Angelou " moves exuberantly , vigorously to reinforce the rhythms of the lines , the tone of the words . Her singing and dancing and electrifying stage presence transcend the predictable words and phrases " .
Angelou 's began , early in her writing career , of alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Her publisher , Random House , placed the poems in Diiie , along with her next four volumes , in her first collection of poetry , The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou ( 1994 ) , perhaps to capitalize on her popularity following her reading of her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's inauguration in 1993 . A year later , in 1995 , Angelou 's publisher placed four more poems in a smaller volume , entitled Phenomenal Woman .
= = = Title = = =
Angelou chose " Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie " as the volume 's title because of her interest in unconscious innocence , which she says is " even lovelier than trying to remain innocent . " The title is a reference to her belief that " we as individuals ... are still so innocent that we think if we asked our murderer just before he puts the final wrench upon the throat , ' Would you please give me a cool drink of water ? ' and he would do so ' " . Angelou has said that if she " didn 't believe that , [ she ] wouldn 't get up in the morning " .
= = Themes = =
Angelou uses rhyme and repetition throughout all her works , yet rhyme is only found in seven of the poems in Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ; critic Lyman B. Hagen calls her use of rhythm " rather ordinary and unimaginative " . Death is an important theme throughout many of Angelou 's works , especially in Caged Bird , which opens with it and , according to scholar Liliane K. Arensberg , is resolved at the book 's end , when her son is born . Death is directly mentioned in 19 of the 38 poems in Diiie . According to scholar Yasmin Y. DeGout , many of the poems in Diiie , along with those in Angelou 's second volume Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well , " lack the overt empowerment themes of her later , better known works " , especially And Still I Rise ( 1978 ) and I Shall Not Be Moved ( 1990 ) .
= = = Part One : Where Love is a Scream of Anguish = = =
The themes in the first section of Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie focus on love . In Southern Women Writers , Carol Neubauer states that the first twenty poems in the volume " describe the whole gamut of love , from the first moment of passionate discovery to the first suspicion of painful loss " . Kirkus Review finds more truth in the poems in this section , which describe love from the perspective of a Black woman , compared to those in the second section . Hagen feels that Angelou 's best love poem in Diiie is " The Mothering Blackness " , which uses repetition and biblical allusions to state that the Black mother loves and forgives her children unconditionally .
In " To a Husband " , Angelou praises the Black slaves who helped in the development and growth of America . She idealizes Black men , especially in " A Zorro Man " and " To a Man " ; she dedicates Diiie to the subjects of both poems . DeGout views " A Zorro Man " as an example of Angelou 's ability to translate her personal experience into political discourse and the " textured liberation " she places in all her poetry . The use of concrete imagery and abstract symbolism to describe emotional and sexual experience , but also has another meaning , that of liberation from painful and poignant memories . According to DeGout , " A Zorro Man " lacks the clear themes of liberation that Angelou 's later poems such as " Phenomenal Woman " have , but its subtle use of themes and techniques infer the liberation theme and compliment her poems that are more overtly liberating . The poem and others in Diiie , with its focus on women 's sexual and romantic experiences , challenges the gender codes of poetry written in previous eras . She also challenges the male @-@ centered and militaristic themes and messages found in the poetry of the Black Arts movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s . Angelou 's use of sexual imagery , from a woman 's point of view , provides new interpretations " and excavates it from derogatory assessments " . Although the poem 's speaker feels trapped , women 's sexuality is depicted as powerful and controls her partner , which moves away from " the patriarchal assumption of male control over the sexual act " . Angelou 's depiction allows her readers , mostly women , to identify , celebrate , and universalize their sexuality to all races . DeGout states that " A Zorro Man " " enact [ s ] empowerment by liberating the reader from stigmas placed on women 's sexuality from gender assumptions of male ( sexual ) power , and from racialized notions of women 's experience " .
Librarian John Alfred Avant states that many of Angelou 's poems could be set to music like that of jazz singer and musician Nina Simone , especially the first poem in this section , " They Went Home , " which he says " fits into the torchy unrequited love bag " . Hagen considers Angelou 's best poems to be the ones meant to be song lyrics , such as " They Went Home " . In his analysis of " They Went Home " , Hagen calls Angelou a realist because she recognizes that the married man who dates other women usually returns to his wife . He states , " While the sentiment is psychologically sound , the lines are prosaic , reflecting the pitiful state of the abandoned " . Essick , when analyzing " When I Think About Myself " , states that the poem central theme is " one 's self @-@ exultation and self @-@ pride that prevent one from losing her will in spite of experiences involving pain and degradation " .
According to Hagen , in his analysis of " No Loser , No Weeper " , the speaker expresses the common experience of loss , beginning with childish and minor ones such as losing a dime , a doll , and a watch , and ending with the loss of the speaker 's boyfriend . Kirkus Review considers this poem , along with " They Went Home " , both slight and carrying " the weight of experience " .
= = = Part Two : Just Before the World Ends = = =
The poems in the second section of Diiie are more militant in tone ; according to critic Lyman B. Hagen , the poems in this section have " more bite " and express the experience of being Black in a white @-@ dominated world . He states that Angelou acts as a spokesperson , especially in " To a Freedom Fighter " , when she acknowledges a debt owed to those involved in the civil rights movement . According to Bloom , the themes in Angelou 's poetry , which tend to be made up of short lyrics with strong , jazz @-@ like rhythms , are common in the lives of many American Blacks . Angelou 's poems commend the survivors who have prevailed despite racism and a great deal of difficulty and challenges . Neubauer states that Angelou focuses on the lives of American Black people from the time of slavery to the 1960s , and that her themes " deal broadly with the painful anguish suffered by blacks forced into submission , with guilt over accepting too much , and with protest and basic survival " .
Critic William Sylvester states that the metaphors in Angelou 's poetry serve as " coding " , or litotes , for meanings understood by other Blacks . In her poem " Sepia Fashion Show " , for example , the last lines ( " I 'd remind them please , look at those knees / you got a Miss Ann 's scrubbing " ) is a reference to slavery , when Black women had to show their knees to prove how hard they had cleaned . Sylvester states that this is true in much of Angelou 's poetry , and that it elicits a change in the reader 's emotions ; in this poem , from humor to anger . Sylvester says that Angelou uses the same technique in " Letter to an Aspiring Junkie " , in which understatement contained in the repeated phrase " nothing happens " is a litotes for the prevalence of violence in society . Hagen connects this poem with the final scene in her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name , which describes her encounter with her friend , a drug addict who shows her the effects of his drug habit . According to Hagen , the poem is full of disturbing images , such as drugs being a slave master and the junkie being tied to his habit like a monkey attached to the street vendor 's strap .
Hagen calls Angelou 's coding " signifying " and states , " A knowledge of black linguistic regionalisms and folklore enhances the appreciation of Angelou 's poems " . Line six in " Harlem Hopscotch , " for example ( " If you 're white , all right / If you 're brown , hang around / If you 're black stand back " ) , is a popular jingle used by African Americans that people of other cultures might not recognize . Hagen believes that despite the signifying that occurs in many of Angelou 's poems , the themes and topics are universal enough that all readers would understand and appreciate them .
In " When I Think About Myself " , Angelou presents the perspective of an aging maid to make an ironic statement about Blacks surviving in a world dominated by whites , and in " Times @-@ Square @-@ Shoeshine @-@ Competition " , a Black shoeshine boy defends his prices to a white customer , his words punctuated by the " pow pow " of his shoeshine rag . Her poems , such as " Letter to an Aspiring Junkie " , in this and other volumes deal with universal social problems from a Black perspective . African @-@ American literature professor Priscilla R. Ramsey , when analyzing the poem " When I Think About Myself , " states that the first @-@ person singular pronoun " I " , which Angelou uses often , is a symbol that refers to all her people . Ramsey calls this " a self @-@ defining function " , in which Angelou ironically views the world as an outsider , resulting in the loss of her direct and literal relationship to the world and providing her with the ability to " laugh at its characteristics no matter how politically and socially devastating " . Scholar Kathy M. Essick discusses the same poem , calling it and most of the poems in Diiie , Angelou 's " protest poems " .
According to critic Harold Bloom , in his analysis of " Times @-@ Square " , the first line of the fourth stanza ( " I ain 't playing dozens mister " ) is an allusion to the Dozens , a game in which the participants insult each other . The game is mentioned in later poems , " The Thirteens ( Black ) " and " The Thirteens ( White ) . " According to critic Geneva Smitherman , Angelou uses the Thirteens , a twist on the Dozens , to compare the insults of blacks and whites , which allows her to compare the actions of the two races . Bloom compares " Times @-@ Square " to Langston Hughes ' blues / protest poetry . He suggests that the best way to analyze the subjects , style , themes , and use of vernacular in this and most of Angelou 's poems is to use " a blues @-@ based model " , since like the blues singer , Angelou uses laughter or ridicule instead of tears to cope with minor irritations , sadness , and great suffering . Hagen compares the themes in " The Thirteens ( Black and White ) " with Angelou 's poems " Communication I " and " Communication II " , which appear in Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well , her second volume of poetry .
Neubauer analyzes two poems in Diiie , " Times @-@ Squares " and " Harlem Hopscotch " , that support her assertion that for Angelou , " conditions must improve for the black race " She states , " Both [ poems ] ring with a lively , invincible beat that carries defeated figures into at least momentary triumph " . In " Times @-@ Squares " , the shoeshiner claims to be the best at his trade and retains his pride despite his humiliating circumstances . " Harlem Hopscotch " celebrates survival and the strength , resilience , and energy necessary to accomplish it . Its rhythm echoes the beat of the player , and compares life to a brutal match . By the end of the poem , however , the speaker wins , both the game and in life . Neubauer states , " These poems are the poet 's own defense against the incredible odds in the game of life " .
Essick also analyzes " Times @-@ Square " , stating that the language and rhythm used by the poem 's subject , especially the repetitive onomatopoeia ( " pow pow " ) that punctuates the end of each line , parallels the sound of his work . The shoeshiner relies on the rhythm and repetition of his song to maintain his pace and to relieve his boredom . It also provides a way to help him brag about his abilities and talents . The shoeshiner takes on the role of the trickster , a common character in Black folklore , and demonstrates his control of vernacular language , especially when he refers to the Dozens .
= = Critical response = =
Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie was a best @-@ seller and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize . The poems in the volume have received mixed reviews . Critic John Alfred Avant recognized that the volume would be popular due to the success of Caged Bird , but he characterized it as " rather well done schlock poetry , not to be confused with poetry for people who read poetry " and stated , " This collection isn 't accomplished , not by any means ; but some readers are going to love it . " Martha Liddy , who reviewed the collection in the same issue of the Library Journal in 1971 , classified it , like Caged Bird , in the young adult category and called Diiie a " volume of marvelously lyrical , rhythmical poems " . Kirkus Review also found the poems in the volume unsophisticated yet sensitive to the spoken aspects of poetry , such as rhythm and diction , and considered her prose more poetic and unrestrained than her poetry .
A reviewer from Choice called the poems in Diiie " craftsmanlike and powerful though not great poetry " , and recommended it for libraries with a collection of African @-@ American literature . Critic William Sylvester , who says that Angelou " has an uncanny ability to capture the sound of a voice on a page " , places her poems , especially the ones in this volume , in the " background of black rhythms " . Chad Walsh , reviewing Diiie in Book World , calls Angelou 's poems " a moving blend of lyricism and harsh social observation " .
= = Poems = =
Of the 38 poems in Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie , twenty are in the first part , " Where Love is a Scream of Anguish , " and the remaining eighteen are in the second part , " Just Before the World Ends . " The volume is dedicated " to Amber Sam and the Zorro Man , " a reference to the poems " A Zorro Man " and " To a Man , " both of which are in the first part of the book . According to Liddy , " Part One contains poetry of love , and therefore of anguish , sharing , fear , affection and loneliness . Part Two features poetry of racial confrontation β of protest , anger , and irony " . Most of the poems are short in length and are freeform .
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= Dolphin D. Overton =
Dolphin Dunnaha Overton III ( 2 April 1926 β 25 March 2013 ) was a United States Air Force aviator who became a flying ace during the Korean War . Overton 's controversial tour in Korea led to his being removed from combat and denied his medals and victory credits , but he was subsequently reinstated with these .
Born in Andrews , South Carolina , Overton took an early interest in flying , and attended The Citadel for a year before enlisting in the United States Navy briefly during World War II . Afterward , Overton graduated from West Point and began a career flying the F @-@ 84 Thunderjet . In 1952 , Overton volunteered to fly in the Korean War and flew 102 missions in an F @-@ 84 before transferring to the 16th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron and flying the F @-@ 86 Sabre . During a four @-@ day time period in early 1953 , Overton claimed five MiG @-@ 15 victories in MiG alley , certifying him as a flying ace . However , he was subsequently returned to the United States in shame after commanders charged him with insubordination for crossing the Yalu River into Manchuria for his victories .
Subsequent research and debate has pointed to Overton as a scapegoat for an informal policy of US pilots regularly violating the Yalu River border into China , and that the US military discredited Overton as a way to prevent an international incident . Overton was finally given the medals he had earned in the war β including a Distinguished Service Cross and four Silver Star Medals β in 2009 .
= = Biography = =
Dolphin D. Overton was born on 2 April 1926 in Andrews , South Carolina . He was interested in flying from an early age , and as a boy he flew with his father . He became an avid reader of stories from World War I flying aces . At age 16 , Overton was flying solo in a Piper J @-@ 3 Cub .
Overton graduated from high school and began college at The Citadel in Charleston , South Carolina in 1943 , at the age of 16 , but one year later he dropped out in an attempt to enlist in the United States Navy . Overton attempted to become a naval aviator in 1945 but there was little demand for additional aviators at the time , as the war was nearing its end .
After being discharged from the Navy , Overton earned an appointment to the United States Military Academy , graduating in 1949 and being commissioned as a second lieutenant . Overton became one of 92 graduates to join the newly formed United States Air Force . In 1950 , Overton earned his aviator wings after a year of training at Williams Air Force Base in Phoenix , Arizona , alongside Ivan Kincheloe , who would later also become a flying ace in Korea .
= = = Air Force career = = =
Overton 's first assignment was with the 31st Fighter Group at Turner Air Force Base in Albany , Georgia , commanded by David C. Schilling , and flying the F @-@ 84 Thunderjet , a fighter @-@ bomber . Shortly after the beginning of this assignment , Overton nearly died in a training incident . On his third flight in the F @-@ 84 , as he tried to set a record for completing an obstacle course in the shortest time , he was involved in a major crash . The crash threatened to end his career , but Schilling , determined to prevent Overton from being discharged , gave him extra assignments to keep him in the military .
Overton flew F @-@ 84s with the 31st Fighter Group . He was a part of the first major trans @-@ Atlantic deployment of F @-@ 84s to the United Kingdom in late 1950 . He volunteered for deployment to South Korea to serve in the Korean War in 1951 .
= = = First Korean War tour = = =
In February 1952 , Overton joined the 8th Fighter @-@ Bomber Squadron , 49th Fighter @-@ Bomber Wing . As many of the other pilots deploying with Overton were from the Air National Guard , Overton was the most experienced jet aircraft pilot among them . Because of this , he was made a flight leader and the assistant Operations Officer of the squadron . The unit flew out of Taegu ( K @-@ 2 ) and its missions consisted primarily of close air support and interdiction missions in support of United Nations ground forces . In this time , Overton also took assignments as a forward air controller and directed air support missions to troops on the front lines . Overton spent some of this time on the USS Valley Forge ( CV @-@ 45 ) to assist US Navy pilots with their own close air support doctrine .
On 15 June 1952 , Overton led a bombing raid over Pyongyang to destroy a series of targets near the Pyongyang Air Base . The targets had been unsuccessfully bombed earlier by a similar strike force , but Overton 's group was successful in destroying almost all of the targets while none of his aircraft took major damage from the 48 antiaircraft and 100 automatic weapons , and without harming the many nearby UN prisoner of war concentrations .
On 28 June 1952 , the squadron was ordered to attack a convoy of Chinese vehicles . Overton , leading a group of 24 F @-@ 84s , directed attacks on the convoy despite taking intense anti @-@ aircraft fire himself , and the aircraft destroyed 150 vehicles . Though the circumstances in the event were lost in subsequent actions , Overton would later be decorated for this achievement .
On 4 July , Overton was on a mission near Sakchu , leading a group of 37 F @-@ 84s on an attack mission against the North Korean Military Academy when they were attacked by almost 200 MiG @-@ 15s in the largest engagement of the war . In spite of the intense fire , Overton 's group took no losses , and the results of the engagement , as well as Overton 's heroism were cause for subsequent decoration . With this unit , Overton flew 102 combat missions over the course of a 6 @-@ month tour . It concluded in August 1952 .
= = = Second Korean War tour = = =
At the end of his first tour , Overton volunteered for a second tour in Korea in a fighter unit . For this tour , Overton joined the 16th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron , 51st Fighter @-@ Interceptor Wing at Suwon Air Base . For the first several weeks in this assignment , Overton saw little action . He flew 40 missions into MiG alley without making contact with any Soviet , Chinese or North Korean pilots . He flew an F @-@ 86 Sabre , tail number 50 @-@ 631 , nicknamed Dolph 's Devil and Angel in Disguise .
During this time , Overton was known to sit in his bases ' chapel in silence for extended periods of time , not praying , to calm his nerves . He also began to grow a mustache , though he professes not to be superstitious . Overton would continue to grow this mustache until immediately before his final flight , when he shaved it off . He also believed any number with a three in it , including the number 13 , was lucky .
Overton was described by fellow pilots as being a " smart and serious professional . " He visited a radar site in his spare time to memorize the flight patterns of the Soviet and Chinese fliers . By the end of January 1953 , Overton had learned the MiG patrol and landing patterns . He had made contact with MiGs several times but had not been successful at shooting any down . This changed on 21 January when Overton began successfully downing aircraft north of the Yalu River . Over the course of four days and four missions , he downed five Soviet aircraft ; two on 21 January and one each on 22 and 23 January . Overton himself expressed surprise at how successful his strategy was , noting he was never discovered until it was too late , and he considered the victories relatively easy . He downed his fifth and final Soviet pilot on 24 January 1953 , his 49th mission of the tour . This meant he attained ace status in the shortest time of any pilot in the war . He became an ace on the same day as Harold E. Fischer , and the two were the 24th and 25th US aces in the war . Overton 's streak was briefly billed as the " hottest streak in jet fighting history , " and for a few days he was characterized as a hero by Stars and Stripes .
During a mission which occurred on a disputed date , either 23 January or 25 January , Overton and his squadron commander , ace Edwin L. Heller flew north of the Yalu River in search of MiG formations . Heller and Overton both shot down aircraft , some sources say this was one of Overton 's first five victories , while others say they were his sixth and seventh , for which he never received credit , but Heller was struck by a MiG and crashed . He was either 60 or 150 miles north of the Yalu River line , so a rescue attempt was not made . This was later seen as one of the reasons Overton was singled out for reprimand for crossing the Yalu River . Most sources attribute Overton with only five victories .
= = = Reprimand and resignation = = =
The next morning , 25 January , Overton was summoned to the office of his wing commander , Colonel John W. Mitchell . There , Colonel David C. Jones of the Fifth Air Force command staff determined he had crossed the Yalu river into China for each of his five victories . Violating Chinese airspace was officially prohibited . The next day Mitchell told him he was being grounded and sent home , and " made clear that he was not going home a hero . " The 16th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron was grounded for 10 days .
Overton was told he would not be given the decorations he had earned in Korea , including the awards from his previous tour which had not yet been written up . Overton had twice been pinned with a Distinguished Flying Cross personally by Fifth Air Force commander Lieutenant General Glenn O. Barcus , and he had been considered for several Silver Star Medals . Overton was also given a bad efficiency report which characterized him as insubordinate . Overton lost his temporary rank of captain . The military delayed official recognition of his credits and ace status until December 1953 . He became one of 40 US aces during the war . Overton resigned his commission before the war ended .
Subsequent analysis has indicated Overton may have been treated unfairly for these actions , becoming a scapegoat for the actions of many other pilots in the war . No new policies had been released warning about crossing the Chinese border , and no pilots before Overton had been punished for doing so . Overton himself expressed frustration at the move , as he had been the rearmost pilot in the formation that crossed the Yalu River on 24 January , and Mitchell himself had been known to cross the border and condoned the action . Fellow ace and unit member Francis Gabreski challenged the move , claiming that US pilots were outnumbered and it was the only way to maintain air superiority . It was later revealed that Swiss observers to the peace talks at Panmunjon were traveling through Manchuria on foot when they spotted a UN @-@ Soviet dogfight and lodged a complaint , prompting an investigation which eventually indicted Overton .
The move was seen as an effort by the US military to prevent an international incident by not acknowledging that US pilots had violated Chinese airspace . Debate remains as to whether or not these airspace violations were a necessity , as US pilots were able to maintain air superiority despite being outnumbered in the war , and Chinese and Soviet pilots , who could have launched similar strikes on UN ships at sea and on targets in Japan did not do so . Still , many missions into Chinese airspace were authorized during the war . Informally , it was known that US pilots regularly violated the rule in a rush to down MiGs .
= = = Subsequent life = = =
Following his resignation , Overton had no contact with the military . This continued for several decades until Overton reconnected with fellow West Point graduate Lieutenant General Charles G. Cleveland , and he discovered the Air Force had established Air Force Review Boards Agency to review incidents and determine if individuals had been unfairly denied medals . In the meantime , Overton became a successful businessman , owning and operating several companies .
Overton continued flying as a hobby after the military . He built a personal aviation library with 10 @,@ 000 books , and began collecting and restoring aircraft . By 1999 , Overton had acquired and restored over 90 aircraft , donating most to museums and institutions around the United States and abroad . Among this collection are several more Piper Cubs and Ford Trimotor aircraft , which he flew regularly for leisure . He was also active in the development of a state aviation museum for North Carolina . The Carolinas Aviation Museum , established in 1992 , named its library for Overton .
Overton was exonerated 25 years later when he was deemed eligible to receive two Distinguished Flying Crosses and four Silver Star Medals . However , records relating to Overton 's actions were destroyed in the 1973 National Archives Fire and the awarding of his decorations was delayed . Some sources later whitewashed the controversy by claiming Overton was on his final four missions in Korea when he became an ace , and that he was scheduled to be returned to the United States after the missions anyway . The US Air Force maintained that Overton had been denied his medals due to " clerical omissions . " The Air Force , in its citations for Overton 's medals , claimed the actions took place at Insadong and Uiju , instead of acknowledging Overton had claimed the victories in Chinese airspace .
Overton was honored by the Gathering of Eagles program of the Air Force Air Command and Staff College twice , once in 1999 and again in 2008 . On 18 September 2009 , Overton was further presented with the Distinguished Service Cross by Air Force Chief of Staff General Norton Schwartz , who in a speech noted that Overton had been " not properly recognized " for the 28 June 1952 bombing run . Overton would also finally be presented with his Distinguished Flying Cross and Silver Star Medals , 57 years after the actions . It followed a six @-@ month appeal process initiated by Overton .
Overton resided in North Carolina with his wife , Sue . The couple had five children and 10 grandchildren . He died on 25 March 2013 .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
From numerous visits to radar stations before his flights , Overton memorized where and how the Soviet pilots landed as well as how long they stayed airborne . He then told radar men at Cho @-@ do Airport to inform him when Soviet pilots took off , allowing him to ambush them . Using this information , Overton would fly in a racetrack pattern between the MiGs landing zones and the sun , preventing them from spotting him as they made their landing approaches . Overton would then fall in behind the formations of Soviet fighters as they began their landings , shooting them down with minimal resistance . All of his subsequent victories were described as " parallel intercepts , non @-@ deflection shots from close range without using the radar ranging feature on the Sabre 's gunsight . "
Most sources agree Overton had five victories . However , there is a dispute as to whether this number is higher , thanks to the disputed account of one mission . A few sources claim Overton flew one final mission on 25 January 1953 and shot down two more MiG @-@ 15s which he never received credit for . Other sources attest that this mission β the same in which Edwin Heller was shot down β took place 23 January and Overton shot down only one aircraft during the flight .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Overton was decorated numerous times during his Korean War tour , however many of these awards and medals were rescinded following his controversial removal from the country . Additionally , his records were among the 16 to 18 million which were destroyed in the 1973 National Archives fire . Most of Overton 's decorations were restored following his 2009 appeal . What follows is an incomplete list of awards confirmed to have been awarded to Overton during his service .
= = = Distinguished Service Cross citation = = =
The President of the United States of America , authorized by Act of Congress July 9 , 1918 , takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to ( then ) First Lieutenant Dolphin D. Overton , III , United States Air Force , for extraordinary heroism in action against an armed enemy of the United States as Group Leader of twenty @-@ two F @-@ 84 type Aircraft , 49th Bomber Wing , FIFTH Air Force , on 28 June 1952 . On that date , Lieutenant Overton 's group was diverted against a target of truck convoys discovered by a previous recce flight . Working in and through an overcast , Lieutenant Overton planned and executed a very difficult attack , sequencing his aircraft in such a manner as to provide maximum coverage of the target with minimum risk from heavy ground fire . With disregard for his own safety , Lieutenant Overton remained in enemy fire under the overcast so that he could visually direct the attacks and withdrawals . So successful was Lieutenant Overton 's direction of the attack , that one hundred fifty trucks were destroyed and confirmed by photograph , making it one of the largest such strikes of the war . Lieutenant Overton 's command of this strike in such adverse conditions and with such devastating results highlights his superb flying skill and extraordinary heroism in the face of fierce enemy opposition . Lieutenant Overton 's actions reflect great credit upon himself , the FAR EAST Air Force , the United States Air Force , and the United Nations Command .
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= DuSable Museum of African American History =
The DuSable Museum of African American History is dedicated to the study and conservation of African American history , culture , and art . It was founded in 1961 by Dr. Margaret Taylor @-@ Burroughs ( sometimes Margaret Burroughs or Margaret Goss Burroughs ) , her husband Charles Burroughs , Gerard Lew , Eugene Feldman , and others . Dr. Taylor @-@ Burroughs and other founders established the museum to celebrate black culture , then overlooked by most museums and academic establishments . It is located at 740 E. 56th Place at the corner of Cottage Grove Avenue on the South Side of Chicago in Washington Park . The museum is in an affiliation with the Smithsonian Institution .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
The DuSable Museum was originally chartered on February 16 , 1961 . Its origins as the Ebony Museum of Negro History and Art began following the work of Margaret and Charles Burroughs to correct the perceived omission of black history and culture in the education establishment . The museum was originally located on the ground floor of the Burroughs ' home at 3806 S. Michigan Avenue . In 1968 , the museum was renamed for Jean Baptiste Point du Sable , a Haitian fur trader and the first non @-@ Native @-@ American permanent settler in Chicago . During the 1960s , the museum and the South Side Community Art Center , which was located across the street , founded in 1941 by Taylor @-@ Burroughs and dedicated by Eleanor Roosevelt , formed an African American cultural corridor . This original museum site had previously been a social club and boarding house for African American railroad workers and is now listed as a Chicago Landmark and on the National Register of Historic Places .
The DuSable Museum quickly filled a void caused by limited cultural resources then available to African Americans in Chicago . It became an educational resource for African American history and culture and a focal point in Chicago for black social activism . The museum has hosted political fundraisers , community festivals , and various events serving the black community . The museum 's model has been emulated in numerous other cities around the country , including Boston , Los Angeles , and Philadelphia .
= = = Expansion = = =
In 1973 , the Chicago Park District donated the usage of a park administration building in Washington Park as the site for the museum . The current location once served as a lockup facility for the Chicago Police Department . In 1993 , the museum expanded with the addition of a new wing named in honor of the late Mayor Harold Washington , the first African @-@ American mayor of Chicago . In 2004 , the original building became a contributing building to the Washington Park United States Registered Historic District which is a National Register of Historic Places listing .
The DuSable Museum is the oldest and largest caretaker of African American culture in the United States . Over its long history , it has expanded as necessary to reflect the increased interest in black culture . This willingness to adapt has allowed it to survive while other museums faltered due to a weakening economy and decreased public support . The museum was the eighth one located on Park District land . Although it focuses on exhibiting African American culture , it is one of several Chicago museums that celebrates Chicago 's ethnic and cultural heritage .
Antoinette Wright , director of the DuSable Museum , has said that African American art has grown out of a need for the culture to preserve its history orally and in art due to historical obstacles to other forms of documentation . She also believes that the museum serves as a motivational tool for members of a culture that has experienced extensive negativity . In the 1980s , African American museums such as the DuSable endured the controversy of whether negative aspects of the cultural history should be memorialized . In the 1990s , the African American genre of museum began to flourish despite financial difficulties . In 2016 , the museum formed an affiliation with the Smithsonian Institution .
= = Collection = =
The new wing contains a permanent exhibit on Washington with memorabilia , personal effects and surveys highlights of his political career . The museum also serves as the city 's primary memorial to du Sable . Highlights of its collection include the desk of activist Ida B. Wells and the violin of poet Paul Laurence Dunbar .
The museum has a collection of 13 @,@ 000 artifacts , books , photographs , art objects , and memorabilia . The DuSable collection has come largely from private gifts . It has United States slavery @-@ era relics , nineteenth- and twentieth @-@ century artifacts , and archival materials , including the diaries of sea explorer Captain Harry Dean . The DuSable collection includes works from scholar W. E. B. Du Bois , sociologist St. Clair Drake , and poet Langston Hughes . The African American art collection contains selections from the South Side Community Art Center students Charles White , Archibald Motley , Jr . , Gus Nall , Charles Sebree , and Marion Perkins , as well as numerous New Deal Works Progress Administration period and 1960s Black Arts Movement works . The museum also owns prints and drawings by Henry O. Tanner , Richmond BarthΓ© , and Romare Bearden , and has an extensive collection of books and records pertaining to African and African American history and culture .
= = Facilities = =
The original north entrance contains the main lobby of the museum and features the Thomas Miller mosaics , which honor the institution 's founders . The building was designed c.1915 by D.H. Burnham and Company to serve as the South Park Administration Building in Washington Park on the city 's south side . The new wing is 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) . The museum has a 466 @-@ seat auditorium , which is part of the new wing , that hosts community @-@ related events , such as a jazz and blues music series , poetry readings , film screenings , and other cultural events . The museum also has a gift shop and a research library . As of 2001 , the museum operated with a US $ 2 @.@ 7 million budget , compared to a $ 55.7M budget for the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . The museum 's funding is partially dependent upon a Chicago Park District tax levy .
After the 1993 expansion of the new wing , the museum contained 50 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m2 ) of exhibition space . The $ 4 million expansion was funded by a $ 2 million matching funds grant from city and state officials .
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= Uyarndha Manithan =
Uyarndha Manithan ( English : The Noble Man ) is a 1968 Indian Tamil @-@ language drama film written by Javar Seetharaman and directed by Krishnan @-@ Panju . The film was produced by A. V. Meiyappan under AVM Productions and stars Sivaji Ganesan and Sowcar Janaki in the lead roles , while S. A. Ashokan , Major Sundarrajan , Vanisri and Sivakumar play pivotal roles . The film 's soundtrack and background score were composed by M. S. Viswanathan , while the lyrics for the songs were written by Vaali .
In addition to being Sivaji Ganesan 's 125th film , Uyarndha Manithan was conceived as an adaption of Chitrakar 's 1966 Bengali film Uttar Purush . The plot revolves around a wealthy industrialist 's son who secretly marries the daughter of his family estate 's accountant , only for his father to discover it and burn down the estate along with his son 's pregnant wife , who is inside . The remainder of the film reveals the truth behind how she and her progeny survives .
Released on 29 November 1968 , Uyarndha Manithan earned positive critical feedback and went on to become a commercial success . The songs " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " and " Paal Polave " remain popular today in Tamil Nadu . The film won the National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer at the 16th National Film Awards , for P. Susheela , making it the first Tamil film to win a National Award under that category . It also won four Tamil Nadu State Film Awards , including Best Film ( First prize ) and Best Director for Krishnan @-@ Panju .
= = Plot = =
Rajalingam ( alias Raju ) ( Sivaji Ganesan ) is the son of a wealthy Madurai @-@ based industrialist , Sankaralingam ( S. V. Ramadoss ) . Living with Raju is his driver and friend , Sundaram ( Major Sundarrajan ) . While vacationing in his family estate at Kodaikanal with Sundaram and his family doctor , Gopal ( S. A. Asokan ) , Raju meets Parvathi ( Vanisri ) and falls in love with her . Gopal too becomes smitten with Parvathi when he meets her whilst conducting her father 's medical treatment . Parvathi , who knows Raju through her father , as he is also an accountant of Raju 's family estate , reciprocates Raju 's feelings . Gopal decides not to reveal his love for Parvathi to Raju for Raju 's sake . Raju and Parvathi marry in secret with the help of Gopal and the consent of Parvathi 's father . The couple live together in Kodaikanal without disclosing the knowledge of their marriage to Raju 's father , Sankaralingam .
Three months later , Parvathi becomes pregnant . Sankaralingam , fearing for his son 's safety , arrives at Kodaikanal and becomes furious upon finding out Raju 's marriage to Parvathi . He orders his henchmen to set the estate on fire with Parvathi and her father inside . Raju and Gopal rush to save Parvathi , but they are stopped by Sankaralingam 's henchmen and are forcefully taken back to Madurai , leaving Parvathi and her father for dead . A few months after returning to Madurai , Raju is forced to marry his cousin Vimala ( Sowcar Janaki ) . After the marriage , Sankaralingam hands over his business affairs to Raju and dies . Nineteen years pass . Despite having mutual affection for each other , Raju and Vimala remain childless and Raju is unable to forget Parvathi .
Sathyamurthy ( Sivakumar ) , a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old who lives with his uncle Murugan ( V. S. Raghavan ) , is unable to retain any job due to his honest nature . He becomes acquainted with Gopal , with whose recommendation he becomes Raju 's personal house servant . When Sathyamurthy displays his mother 's photograph at his house to pray to her , it is revealed that Sathyamurthy is the son of Raju and Parvathi . Parvathi had survived the accident , was cared for by Murugan , and died a few years after giving birth to Sathyamurthy without divulging the identity of Raju to Sathyamurthy and Murugan . Sathyamurthy improves his reading and writing skills with the help of Sundaram 's daughter , Gowri ( Bharathi Vishnuvardhan ) and the two fall in love . When Raju learns of their love , he approves of their marriage . Gopal comes to know that Sathyamurthy is Raju 's son , but dies of a sudden heart attack before revealing it .
Jealous of Sathymurthy 's influence on Raju , Rathnam ( V. K. Ramasamy ) and his wife ( Manorama ) hide Vimala 's diamond necklace in Sathyamurthy 's suitcase in an effort to get rid of him . Vimala , upset at losing her necklace , searches the house for it . When Raju , Sundaram , Gowri , and Sathyamurthy return after attending a conference in Kodaikanal , Vimala , acting on Rathnam 's provocation , orders that Sathyamurthy 's suitcase be searched . When the necklace is found in it , Raju throws Sathyamurthy out of his house , despite Sathyamurthy proclaiming his innocence . Gowri then shows Parvathi 's photograph to Raju , who is shocked to learn that Sathyamurthy is his own son . Raju reveals the truth about Parvathi to Vimala , who also accepts Sathyamurthy as her son . Before Raju and Vimala rush to bring Sathyamurthy back , Raju learns of a fire breaking out in one of his mills . Sathyamurthy , unhappy of being wrongly accused by Raju , attempts suicide by entering the burning mill . Raju saves Sathyamurthy in time and reveals the truth about his birth to him . The family is united and Sathyamurthy marries Gowri .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Sivaji Ganesan wanted A. V. Meiyappan to produce his 125th film , which eventually became Uyarndha Manithan . Meiyappan then asked the director duo Krishnan @-@ Panju to search for a good script . One of Meiyappan 's friends , V. A. P. Iyer , suggested Meiyappan to remake the Bengali film Uttar Purush ( 1966 ) . After watching the film , Meiyappan was impressed with it and made a decision with Krishnan @-@ Panju and Javar Seetharaman to remake the film with a few alterations .
When the script was ready , Meiyappan 's sons and the film 's co @-@ producers M. Saravanan , M. Kumaran and M. Murugan narrated it to Ganesan at his residence , Annai Illam . Ganesan initially rejected it as he felt the character of Dr. Gopal had more impact than the main character , Raju , and sought to film the portions involving Dr. Gopal in four days . However , on Meiyappan 's insistence , Ganesan played the role of Raju . The role of Dr. Gopal went to S. A. Ashokan and Ganesan assisted him for acting in the scene where Dr. Gopal dies of a heart attack . S. V. Ramadoss was cast as Raju 's father Sankaralingam , Major Sundarrajan as Raju 's classmate , Vanishree as Raju 's wife Parvathi , Sowcar Janaki as Raju 's cousin Vimala , Sivakumar as Raju 's son Sathyamurthy and V. S. Raghavan portrayed Sathyamurthy 's uncle Murugan .
When M. Saravanan asked about Ganesan 's salary to Ganesan 's younger brother V. C. Shanmugham , who spoke on Ganesan 's behalf , Shanmugham said that Ganesan was willing to accept any amount that AVM Productions could afford to offer . Taking this to be a vague statement as Shanumgham did not state Ganesan 's salary properly , Saravanan discovered that Ganesan accepted βΉ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 26 @,@ 667 in 1968 ) for one of A. P. Nagarajan 's latest films . Since Thiruvilaiyadal ( 1965 ) , Nagarajan 's films were made in Eastmancolor , and because Uyarndha Manidhan was made in black @-@ and @-@ white and costume designing for the film was less as compared to those of Nagarajan 's films , M. Saravanan decided to pay βΉ 150 @,@ 000 ( US $ 20 @.@ 000 in 1968 ) to Ganesan . P. N. Sundaram served as the cinematographer , while Panju edited the film under the pseudonym " Panjabi " .
= = = Filming = = =
Ganesan 's mannerisms and acting style in the film were inspired by one of his friends who was a Coimbatore @-@ based industrialist . During the scene near the end of the film in which Ganesan enters a burning house , which he did without any hesitation , he accidentally singed his body hair . The song " En Kelvikkenna Badhil " was re @-@ shot as Meiyappan was not pleased with the earlier sequence that was shown to him by the production unit . The song " Paal Polave " was initially meant to be shot at Kodaikanal , but due to unfavourable weather conditions the production crew decided not to include the song in the final version . The film 's art director , A. K. Sekhar , wanted to include the song in the film after hearing its rendition by P. Susheela and constructed a specially erected set at AVM studios in Chennai that resembled Kodaikanal . The song was filmed there in three days .
It was speculated that a film producer bought the remake rights of The Parent Trap ( 1961 ) in Hindi and titled it as Vapas . AVM Productions had already acquired the rights to the film , which they were making under the title Do Kaliyaan ( 1968 ) . To avoid a clash with that film , AVM Production stalled the production of Uyarndha Manithan for eight months and managed to release Do Kaliyaan first . Ganesan , who thought that the project had been shelved , went to inform AVM Productions that he would commence filming with another technical crew . However , AVM Productions convinced him that the shooting was only delayed , and paid him βΉ 50 @,@ 000 ( US $ 6 @,@ 667 in 1968 ) in advance . After the release of Do Kaliyaan , filming was resumed and completed . The final length of the film 's prints were 4 @,@ 591 metres ( 15 @,@ 062 ft ) long .
= = Themes = =
In his 2015 book Madras Studios : Narrative , Genre , and Ideology in Tamil Cinema , Swarnavel Eswaran Pillai notes that the title Uyarndha Manithan , meaning " A Honourable Man " , epitomises the contradiction within the character of Raju , and in the trajectory of the rebel in Parasakthi ( 1952 ) , as he finally ends up a " meek / reactionary family man " who had forsaken his own offspring / lineage at a critical juncture .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack and musical score for Uyarndha Manithan were composed by M. S. Viswanathan , while the lyrics were written by Vaali . The soundtrack was released under the label of Saregama . In the composition and picturisation for the song " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " , Viswanathan was inspired by one of the songs in My Fair Lady ( 1964 ) , in which Rex Harrison sings with a walking stick in hand on a golf course . Due to T. M. Soundararajan 's laughter being inadequate during the recording of this song , Viswanathan himself recorded his own laughter . M. Saravanan , in his book AVM 60 Cinema , described the use of dialogues in " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " as " something new to Tamil cinema " . The song was parodied by Vikram and Vivek in Dhool ( 2003 ) , and " Paal Polave " was parodied by Santhanam in Yuvan Yuvathi ( 2011 ) .
The soundtrack was received positively by critics , with " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " and " Paal Polave " remaining popular today in Tamil Nadu . In his book Pride of Tamil Cinema : 1931 to 2013 , G. Dhananjayan wrote that Uyarntha Manithan " had memorable songs from the combination of MS Vishwanathan [ sic ] and Vaalee [ sic ] . The songs [ ... ] are popular even today " . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu praised the bossa nova portions in the song " Velli Kinnamthan " . News Today described " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " as " testament to the capabilities of two legends - TM . Soundarajan and Sivaji Ganesan " , adding that the " transition from Sivaji panting and TMS taking over is seamless " .
Track list
All lyrics written by Vaali .
= = Release and reception = =
Uyarndha Manithan was released on 29 November 1968 . It earned positive critical feedback and went on to become a commercial success , completing a theatrical run of 125 days . The 125th day commemorative celebrations were held in the presence of C. N. Annadurai , the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu . This was also the last function which Annadurai attended before his death .
G. Dhananjayan appreciated the performances of the cast and the quality of Javar Seetharaman 's dialogues , calling them " crispy " . On Ganesan 's performance , Ananda Vikatan , wrote in its 1968 review of the film : " Can anyone show both hate and love at the same time ? Sivaji proves that he can ! No more than words of ' natural acting ' is enough for Sivaji " . The magazine praised the film by stating that it " attracts our hearts " .
Baradwaj Rangan of The Hindu , when asked by an anonymous person how someone like Sivaji Ganesan can be called a great actor , replied , " Watch Uyarndha Manidhan [ sic ] and Motor Sundaram Pillai , and let β s continue this conversation . " Historian and columnist Randor Guy labelled Major Sundarrajan 's performance in the film , along with his role in Gnana Oli ( 1972 ) , as " memorable " .
= = = Awards = = =
The National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer was introduced in 1968 . Since Susheela won the first award for her rendition of " Paal Polave " , Uyarndha Manithan became the first Tamil film to win a National Film Award under the Best Female Playback Singer category . It was also Ganesan 's first film to win a Tamil Nadu State Film Award .
= = Cancelled remake = =
After the success of Uyarndha Manithan , AVM Productions was keen to remake it in Hindi and approached Dilip Kumar . After watching the film , Kumar was hesitant to play the lead role as he felt he would not match Ganesan 's performance in the original version . K. Balachander was signed up to be the director of the remake , which led to Kumar being initially convinced that he could be successful .
After a fortnight , Kumar met Balachander in Chennai and watched Uyarndha Manithan again for a second time to study his character . This time , however , Kumar hesitated to portray Ganesan 's role and requested Balachander to direct the remake of Babu ( 1971 ) . Balachander showed concern with Kumar 's change of heart and refused the offer , leading to both the remakes of Uyarndha Manithan and Babu being shelved .
= = Legacy = =
The song " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " was considered one of the most memorable songs written by Vaali that featured in a Sivaji Ganesan film . Rediff ranked it alongside " Madhavi Pon Mayilaal " from Iru Malargal ( 1967 ) and " Potri Paadadi Penne " from Thevar Magan ( 1992 ) .
Susheela chose " Paal Polave " along with " Unnai Ondru Ketpen " and " Paartha Gnaabagam Illaiyo " as her favourite songs that she had recorded . Singer Swarnalatha , who made her debut with the song " Chinnanchiru Kiliye " from Neethikku Thandanai ( 1987 ) , was chosen to sing the song by M. S. Viswanathan after he was impressed with her rendition of " Paal Polave " , which he had asked her to sing during the song 's audition . The song was rendered twice by the contestants of the fourth season of the Star Vijay reality show Airtel Super Singer , and once each by the contestants of the second and third season of its junior version , Airtel Super Singer Junior .
Ganesan 's biographer T. S. Narayanswami included Uyarndha Manithan in his list of Ganesan 's " all @-@ time greats " . In March 2009 , Sharadha Narayanan of The New Indian Express rated Sundarrajan 's performance in the film among his other noted films in which he featured like Vennira Aadai ( 1965 ) , Major Chandrakanth ( 1966 ) and Gnana Oli . In her review of the 2011 film Seedan , Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu said that the premise of the film was " on the lines of Sivaji Ganesan 's poignant Uyarndha Manidhan [ sic ] " . Uyarndha Manithan was included with other Sivaji Ganesan @-@ starrers in the compilation DVD 8th Ulaga Adhisayam Sivaji , featuring Ganesan 's " iconic performances in the form of scenes , songs and stunts " . It was released in May 2012 .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Norma ( constellation ) =
Norma is a small constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere between Scorpius and Centaurus , one of twelve drawn up in the 18th century by French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille and one of several depicting scientific instruments . Its name is Latin for normal , referring to a right angle , and is variously considered to represent a rule , a carpenter 's square , a set square or a level . It remains one of the 88 modern constellations
Four of Norma 's brighter stars β Gamma , Delta , Epsilon and Eta β make up a square in the field of faint stars . Gamma2 Normae is the brightest star with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 0 . Mu Normae is one of the most luminous stars known , with a luminosity half- to one million times that of the Sun . Four star systems are known to harbour planets . The Milky Way passes through Norma , and the constellation contains eight open clusters visible to observers with binoculars . The constellation also hosts Abell 3627 , also called the Norma Cluster , one of the most massive galaxy clusters known .
= = History = =
Norma was introduced in 1751 β 52 by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille with the French name l β Equerre et la Regle , " the Square and Rule " , after he had observed and catalogued 10 @,@ 000 southern stars during a two @-@ year stay at the Cape of Good Hope . He devised 14 new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe . All but one honored instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment . Lacaille portrayed the constellations of Norma , Circinus and Triangulum Australe , respectively , as a set square and ruler , a compass , and a surveyor 's level in a set of draughtsman instruments , in his 1756 map of the southern stars . The level was dangling from the apex of a triangle , leading some astronomers to conclude he was renaming l β Equerre et la Regle to " le Niveau " " the level " . In any case , the constellation 's name had been shortened and Latinised by Lacaille to Norma by 1763 .
= = Characteristics = =
Norma is bordered by Scorpius to the north , Lupus to the northwest , Circinus to the west , Triangulum Australe to the south and Ara to the east . Covering 165 @.@ 3 square degrees and 0 @.@ 401 % of the night sky , it ranks 74th of the 88 constellations in size . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Nor ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by EugΓ¨ne Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of ten segments ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 15h 12m 13.6119s and 16h 36m 08.3235s , while the declination coordinates are between β 42 @.@ 27 Β° and β 60 @.@ 44 Β° . The whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 29 Β° N.
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Lacaille charted and designated ten stars with the Bayer designations Alpha through to Mu in 1756 , however his Alpha Normae was transferred into Scorpius and left unnamed by Francis Baily , before being named N Scorpii by Benjamin Apthorp Gould , who felt its brightness warranted recognition . Though Beta Normae was depicted on his star chart , it was inadvertently left out of Lacaille 's 1763 catalogue , was likewise transferred to Scorpio by Baily and named H Scorpii by Gould . Norma 's brightest star , Gamma2 Normae , is only of magnitude 4 @.@ 0 . Overall , there are 44 stars within the constellation 's borders brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 .
The four main stars β Gamma , Delta , Epsilon and Eta β make up a square in this region of faint stars . Gamma1 and Gamma2 Normae are an optical double , and not a true binary star system . Located 129 Β± 1 light @-@ years away from Earth , Gamma2 Normae is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III around 2 to 2 @.@ 5 times as massive as the Sun . It has swollen to a diameter 10 times that of the Sun and shines with 45 times the Sun 's luminosity . It also is half of a close optical double , with a magnitude 10 companion star related by line of sight only . Gamma1 Normae is a yellow @-@ white supergiant , located much further away at around 1500 light @-@ years from Earth . Epsilon Normae is a spectroscopic binary , with two blue @-@ white main sequence stars of almost equal mass and spectral type ( B3V ) orbiting each other every 3 @.@ 26 days . There is a third star separated by 22 arcseconds , which has a magnitude of 7 @.@ 5 and is likely a smaller B @-@ type main sequence star of spectral type B9V . The system is 530 Β± 20 light @-@ years distant from Earth , Eta Normae is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 65 . It shines with a luminosity approximately 66 times that of the Sun .
Iota1 Normae is a multiple star system . The AB ( mag 5 @.@ 2 and 5 @.@ 76 ) pair orbit each other with a period of 26 @.@ 9 years ; they are 2 @.@ 77 and 2 @.@ 71 times as massive as the Sun respectively . The pair are 128 Β± 6 light @-@ years distant from Earth . A third component is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G8V with an apparent magnitude of 8 @.@ 02 .
Mu Normae is a remote blue supergiant of spectral type O9.7Iab , one of the most luminous stars known . Uncertainties regarding its distance leave open the possibility that Mu Normae could be up to a million times as luminous and 60 times as massive as the Sun , though it is more likely to have around 500 @,@ 000 times the Sun 's luminosity and 40 times its mass . It is suspected of being an Alpha Cygni variable , with a magnitude range of 4 @.@ 87 β 4 @.@ 98 . QU Normae is another hot blue @-@ white star that is a variable , ranging from magnitude 5 @.@ 27 to 5 @.@ 41 over 4 @.@ 8 days . Lying near Eta Normae is R Normae , a Mira variable . Its visual magnitude range is 6 @.@ 5 β 13 @.@ 9 and its average period is 507 @.@ 5 days . Located halfway between Eta Normae and Gamma Circini is T Normae , another Mira variable . It ranges from magnitude 6 @.@ 2 to 13 @.@ 6 , with a period of 244 days . S Normae is a well @-@ known Cepheid variable with a magnitude range of 6 @.@ 12 β 6 @.@ 77 and a period of 9 @.@ 75411 days . It is located at the centre of the open cluster NGC 6087 . It is a yellow @-@ white supergiant of spectral type F8 @-@ G0Ib that is 6 @.@ 3 times as massive as the Sun . A binary , it has a 2 @.@ 4 solar mass ( M β ) companion that is a blue @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V.
IM Normae is one of only ten recurrent novae known in the Milky Way . It has erupted in 1920 and 2002 , reaching magnitude 8 @.@ 5 from a baseline of 18 @.@ 3 . It was poorly monitored after the first eruption , so it is possible that it erupted in between . Norma hosts two faint R Coronae Borealis variable stars of magnitude 10 β RT Normae and RZ Normae β rare degenerate stars thought to have formed from the merger of two white dwarfs that fade by several magnitudes periodically as they eject large amounts of carbon dust . A faint object of magnitude 16 , QV Normae is a high mass X @-@ ray binary star system 15 @,@ 000 β 20 @,@ 000 light @-@ years distant from Earth . It is composed of a neutron star orbiting a blue @-@ white supergiant approximately 20 times as massive as the Sun . The stellar wind from the more massive star is drawn to the magnetic poles of the neutron star , forming an accretion column and producing X @-@ rays . Located 19 @,@ 000 light @-@ years away , QX Normae is an active low mass X ray binary composed of a neutron star and its companion star that is smaller and cooler than the Sun . The neutron star is 1 @.@ 74 Β± 0 @.@ 14 times as massive as the Sun , yet its radius is a mere 9 @.@ 3 Β± 1 @.@ 0 km . 1E161348 @-@ 5055 is a neutron star found in the centre of RCW103 supernova remnant . A periodic X @-@ Ray source with a period of 6 @.@ 67 hours , it is approximately 2000 years old and 10 @,@ 000 light @-@ years away from Earth . It is unusual in that it is spinning much too slowly for its young age , behaving instead like a multi @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old star . SGR J1550 @-@ 5418 is a soft gamma repeater ( SGR ) β a magnetar that is emitting gamma ray flares , located some 30 @,@ 000 light @-@ years distant from Earth . The rotation period , of approximately 2 @.@ 07 seconds , is the fastest yet observed for a magnetar . XTE J1550 @-@ 564 is another X @-@ ray binary , this time composed of a large black hole around 10 times as massive as the Sun and a cool orange donor star . The black hole is a microquasar , firing off jets of material most likely from its accretion disk .
Four star systems are known to harbour planets . HD 330075 is a sunlike star around 164 light @-@ years distant that is orbited by a hot Jupiter every 3 @.@ 4 days . Announced in 2004 , it was the first planet discovered by the HARPS spectrograph . HD 148156 is a star 168 Β± 7 light @-@ years distant . Slightly larger and hotter than the Sun , it was found to have a roughly Jupiter @-@ size planet with an orbital period of 2 @.@ 8 years . HD 143361 is a binary star system composed of a sunlike star and a faint red dwarf separated by 30 @.@ 9 AU . A planet roughly triple the mass of Jupiter orbits the brighter star every 1057 Β± 20 days . HD 142415 is approximately 113 light @-@ years distant and has a Jupiter @-@ sized planet with an orbital period of around 386 days .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Due to its location on the Milky Way , this constellation contains many deep @-@ sky objects such as star clusters , including eight open clusters visible through binoculars . NGC 6087 is the brightest of the open clusters in Norma with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 4 . It lies in the southeastern corner of the constellation between Alpha Centauri and Zeta Arae . Thought to be around 100 million years old , it is about 3300 light @-@ years away and is around 14 light @-@ years in diameter . Its brightest member is the Cepheid variable S Normae . A rich background star field makes it less distinct , though around 36 member stars are visible though a 10 cm telescope at 150x magnification . Located 0 @.@ 4 Β° north of Kappa Normae is NGC 6067 , which has an integrated magnitude of 5 @.@ 6 though it is indistinct as it lies in a rich star field . It is thought to be around 102 million years old , and contain 891 solar masses . Two Cepheid variables β QZ Normae and V340 Normae β have been identified as members of the cluster . Fainter open clusters include NGC 6134 with a combined magnitude of 7 @.@ 2 and located 4000 light @-@ years away from Earth , the spread @-@ out NGC 6167 of magnitude 6 @.@ 7 , NGC 6115 near Gamma Normae , NGC 6031 and NGC 5999 .
Located around 4900 light @-@ years distant is Shapley 1 ( or PK 329 + 02 @.@ 1 ) , a planetary nebula better known as the Fine @-@ Ring Nebula . Appearing ring @-@ shaped , it is thought that it actually is cylindrical and oriented directly at Earth . Around 8700 years old , it lies about five degrees west @-@ northwest of Gamma1 Normae . Its integrated magnitude is 13 @.@ 6 and its mean surface brightness is 13 @.@ 9 . The central star is a white dwarf of magnitude 14 @.@ 03 . Mz 1 is a bipolar planetary nebula , thought to be an hourglass shape tilted at an angle to observers on Earth , some 3500 light @-@ years distant . Mz 3 β known as the Ant Nebula as it resembles an ant β has a complex appearance , with at least four outflow jets and two large lobes visible .
Approximately 200 million light @-@ years from Earth with a redshift of 0 @.@ 016 is Abell 3627 ; also called the Norma Cluster , it is one of the most massive galaxy clusters known to exist , at ten times the average cluster mass . Abell 3627 is thus theorized to be the Great Attractor , a massive object that is pulling the Local Group , the Virgo Supercluster , and the Hydra @-@ Centaurus Supercluster towards its location at 600 β 1000 kilometres per second .
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= Jason Jones ( programmer ) =
Jason Jones ( born June 1 , 1971 ) is a video game developer and programmer who co @-@ founded the video game studio Bungie with Alex Seropian in 1991 . Jones began programming on Apple computers in high school , assembling a multiplayer game called Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete . While attending the University of Chicago , Jones met Seropian and the two formed a partnership to publish Minotaur .
Following the modest success of Minotaur , Jones programmed Bungie 's next game , Pathways Into Darkness , and worked on code , level design and story development for Bungie 's Marathon and Myth series . For Bungie 's next projects , Halo : Combat Evolved and Halo 2 , Jones took on a more managerial role as project lead . He worked as design lead on the 2014 video game Destiny .
= = Early life = =
Jones became interested in programming in high school , and learned Applesoft BASIC and 6502 Assembly on an Apple II series computer . When Apple released its Macintosh line , Jones 's family purchased a Macintosh 128K , but Jones never programmed much for it . After high school Jones got a job programming for a computer @-@ aided design company on PCs , before going to college the next year . In his off time Jones said that all he ever did on the Apple II was write games , " and it seemed logical to continue that on the Mac , " he said . " The first thing I did on the Mac was to port a modem game I 'd written called Minotaur from 6502 Assembly on the Apple II into MPW C on the Mac . I was still finishing that when I came to college . By that time , I knew I wanted to write games . "
= = Bungie = =
Jones met Alex Seropian in his second year at the University of Chicago . In 1991 Seropian had founded Bungie and published his own game , Operation Desert Storm . Seropian was looking for another game to publish , and they decided to work together to finish Minotaur . While Seropian did design and marketing , Jones finished the programming . Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete shipped in April 1992 ; while the game sold only around 2 @,@ 500 copies ( it required a then @-@ rare modem for network play ) , it developed a devoted following . After publishing Minotaur , Jones and Seropian formed a partnership ; " What I liked about him was that he never wasted any money " , Jones said of his partner .
Bungie focused on the Mac platform due to familiarity with the platform and ease of use . " The PC market was really cutthroat , but the Mac market was all friendly and lame . So it was easier to compete , " Jones said . After Minotaur , Bungie began work on a 3D graphics version of the game , but realized that the game 's format was not suited to a 3D environment . Instead , Jones and Seropian wrote a brand @-@ new story for what became Pathways Into Darkness . Since Bungie had no money and Jones was the only one with the available time , he single @-@ handedly coded the game on a Mac IIfx , passing art chores to his friend Colin Brent . Pathways was successful enough that Bungie moved from a one @-@ bedroom apartment to an actual office .
Bungie 's next project started as an update of Pathways but evolved into a science fiction shooter game , Marathon . The game included state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art graphics , network multiplayer , and voice support , and won a number of awards on release in 1994 . Jones recalled that he was surprised anyone ever completed the game and sought to atone for some of its shortcomings with its sequel , Marathon 2 : Durandal , which was also released for Windows PCs . The Marathon series was followed by a series of real @-@ time strategy games , starting with Myth : The Fallen Lords in 1996 .
Bungie continued to expand , and in 1997 work began on a new project , codenamed Blam ! ( Jones had changed the name from Monkey Nuts because he could not bring himself to tell his mother about the new game under that title . ) Blam ! evolved from a real @-@ time strategy game to a third @-@ person shooter to a first @-@ person shooter called Halo : Combat Evolved . Jones role in development was unlike Marathon and Myth , where Jones was involved in developing more than half the levels and much to most of the story . Instead , he was the project lead and a manager , barely providing any code to the game . He would read war journals by authors such as John Kinkaid and Winston Churchill .
In 2000 , Microsoft acquired Bungie , moving the team from Chicago to Washington State . Jones recalled that the buyout was a " blur [ ... ] We 'd been talking to people for years and years β before we even published Marathon , Activision made a serious offer [ to buy us ] . But the chance to work on [ the Microsoft Xbox console ] β the chance to work with a company that took the games seriously . Before that we worried that we 'd get bought by someone who just wanted Mac ports or didn 't have a clue . " Around the same time , a glitch in versions of Myth II was found to entirely erase a player 's hard drive ; this led to a massive recall of the games right before they shipped , costing Bungie nearly one million dollars . Composer Martin O 'Donnell said that this recall created financial uncertainty in the studio , though accepting the offer was not something " Bungie had to do . " Jones and Seropian refused to accept Microsoft 's offer until the entire studio agreed to the buyout .
Combat Evolved was highly successful , selling more than a million units in its first six months and driving Xbox sales . Jones led the development team that created its sequel , Halo 2 , and he worked as design lead on a new video game series , Destiny . He was listed in Next Generation Magazine 's top 100 Developers in 2006 and 2007 .
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= Cyclone Hyacinthe =
Tropical Cyclone Hyacinthe was the wettest tropical cyclone on record in the world . The eighth named storm of the season , Hyacinthe formed on January 15 , 1980 , to the northeast of Mauritius in the southern Indian Ocean . Initially it moved to the west @-@ southwest , and while slowly intensifying it passed north of the French overseas department of RΓ©union . On January 19 , MΓ©tΓ©o @-@ France estimated that the storm had intensified to a tropical cyclone . Hyacinthe looped to the south of eastern Madagascar and weakened , although it restrengthened after turning to the east . The storm executed another loop to the southwest of RΓ©union , passing near the island for a second and later third time . Hyacinthe became extratropical on January 29 after turning southward , dissipating two days later .
For twelve days , Hyacinthe dropped torrential rainfall on RΓ©union ; nearly all of the island received more than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) of precipitation . Over a 15 day period from January 14 to January 28 , 6 @,@ 083 mm ( 239 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall were recorded at Commerson 's Crater , a volcano . The heaviest rainfall occurred through a process called orographic lift in the mountainous interior , leading to hundreds of landslides . Widespread floods damaged half the roads on RΓ©union and isolated three villages . Hyacinthe caused heavy damage to crops and damaged or destroyed 2 @,@ 000 houses . Losses from the storm totaled $ 167 million ( 1980 USD , 676 million francs ) , and 25 people were killed .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the middle of January 1980 , the Intertropical Convergence Zone persisted along 10 Β° S , spawning a small low @-@ level circulation near St. Brandon . According to MΓ©tΓ©o @-@ France ( MFR ) , a tropical depression formed about 355 km ( 220 mi ) northeast of Mauritius on January 15 . It tracked to the west @-@ southwest , passing north of the island on January 17 . That day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also reported that a tropical depression had developed , labeling it " 08S " . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm , and the MFR followed suit on January 18 , naming the storm Hyacinthe . The storm gradually intensified as it passed north of RΓ©union , with 1 @-@ minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) by January 19 , according to the JTWC . That day , an eye developed , and MFR estimated that Hyacinthe intensified to tropical cyclone status , with 10 @-@ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . A strengthening anticyclone to the south turned the storm northwestward , and on January 20 Hyacinthe executed a small loop to the south just offshore eastern Madagascar .
While moving to the south , Hyacinthe 's winds steadily decreased . On January 21 , the storm weakened below tropical cyclone intensity , and on January 22 the JTWC estimated winds decreased to 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . The next day , it turned to the east while slowly re @-@ intensifying . On January 24 , the JTWC upgraded Hyacinthe to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . After approaching within 175 km ( 120 mi ) west @-@ southwest of RΓ©union , the cyclone turned to the northwest and executed another loop . The JTWC estimated that Hyacinthe reached peak winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) on January 25 , which the storm maintained for about 24 hours . During that time , Hyacinthe turned to the southeast and later weakened . On January 26 , it moved near RΓ©union for the third time , passing about 105 km ( 65 mi ) to the south . The storm turned southward , becoming extratropical on January 29 . Over the next two days , the remnants of Hyacinthe accelerated , turned to the east , and dissipated over the southern Indian Ocean .
= = Impact = =
For twelve days , the circulation of the storm produced cloudiness and thunderstorms over RΓ©union . Hyacinthe broke several rainfall records for tropical cyclones , becoming the wettest tropical cyclone on record . From January 14 to January 28 , the storm dropped 6 @,@ 083 mm ( 239 @.@ 5 in ) at Commerson , just north of the Piton de la Fournaise volcano . Over ten days , Hyacinthe produced 5 @,@ 678 mm ( 223 @.@ 5 in ) , also at Commerson . In twelve hours , Hyacinthe dropped 1 @,@ 095 mm ( 43 @.@ 1 in ) of rainfall at Grand Ilet , just 49 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) shy of the record set by Cyclone Denise in 1966 . The highest daily total was on January 25 , when 1 @,@ 140 mm ( 45 in ) fell at Commerson . Over a three @-@ day period , the storm dropped 3 @,@ 240 mm ( 127 @.@ 6 in ) at Commerson , as well as 4 @,@ 300 mm ( 169 in ) over a five @-@ day period ending on January 28 . Only a small portion of the island near Saint @-@ Pierre received less than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) of rainfall , and totals increased further inland , with over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) recorded at four locations . Such heavy rainfall typically occurs on the island when tropical cyclones approach , owing to orographic enhancement in the mountainous interior .
In addition to the rainfall , Hyacinthe produced a minimum barometric pressure of 977 @.@ 8 mbar ( 28 @.@ 87 inHg ) at Saint @-@ Pierre on January 27 . Wind gusts reached 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) in Saint @-@ Denis , although the mountainous portion of the island reported winds as strong as 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Wave action was not severe due to the quick changes in track and lack of significant intensity . There was some beach erosion along western @-@ facing beaches , and Pointe des Galets sustained damage to coastal properties . However , any major damage caused by the storm was largely due to the heavy rainfall . The RiviΓ¨re Langevin reported increased flow , reaching a discharge of about 300 m Β³ / s ( 10 @,@ 500 ft Β³ / s ) . Along RiviΓ¨re @-@ du @-@ Mat les Bas , river flooding entered five houses . Floods washed out a 30 m ( 98 ft ) and a 60 m ( 200 ft ) portion of a highway along a ravine near Chaudron . Along Route nationale 1 , traffic was disrupted after rocks blocked the roadway . In Petite @-@ Γle , floods washed out a bridge and 200 m ( 660 ft ) of roads . About half of the roads on RΓ©union were damaged , and road damage was estimated at $ 40 million ( 1980 USD , 161 @.@ 3 million francs ) . The rain caused widespread mudslides , including hundreds near Salazie and Cilaos . Three towns were temporarily isolated , including Hell @-@ Bourg which was cut off for about eight days , Helicopters delivered food and clothing to the villages .
Throughout RΓ©union , Hyacinthe killed 25 people and left 7 @,@ 000 homeless . Four of the deaths occurred after a house was washed away at Petite @-@ Γle . A school was destroyed in Saint @-@ Louis . The storm caused power and water outages , and about 30 % of the island temporarily lost phone service . Hyacinthe damaged 1 @,@ 712 houses and destroyed another 288 ; housing damage totaled about $ 42 million ( 1980 USD , 170 million francs ) . Flooding caused $ 48 million ( 1980 USD , 194 million francs ) in agricultural damage , including about 1 @,@ 000 killed cattle and near @-@ total losses to bananas , mangoes , and avocados . Overall damage was estimated at $ 167 million ( 676 million francs ) . Many records set by the storm were broken by Cyclone Gamede in 2007 , including the rainfall accumulations from three to eight days . However , Hyacinthe retained its status as the wettest overall tropical cyclone .
Elsewhere , Hyacinthe affected Madagascar as a weaker storm . Wind gusts reached 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) at Mananjary and 111 km / h ( 69 mph ) on Γle Sainte @-@ Marie . At the same two locations , rainfall reached 207 mm ( 8 @.@ 1 in ) and 134 mm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) , respectively . On Mauritius , the storm 's passage forced the main port to close .
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= Robert C. Stebbins =
Robert Cyril Stebbins ( March 31 , 1915 β September 23 , 2013 ) was an American herpetologist and illustrator known for his field guides and popular books as well as his studies of reptiles and amphibians . His Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians , first published in 1966 , is still considered the definitive reference of its kind , owing to both the quality of the illustrations and the comprehensiveness of the text . A professor of zoology at the University of California , Berkeley , for over 30 years , he was the first curator of herpetology at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology , a 1949 Guggenheim fellow , and author of over 70 scientific articles . His discovery of the ring species phenomenon in Ensatina salamanders is now a textbook example of speciation , and he performed extensive research on the parietal eye of reptiles . He produced nature films , supported science education in primary grades , and organized conservation efforts that aided in the passing of the 1994 California Desert Protection Act . After retirement he continued to paint , collect field notes , and write books . Stebbins is commemorated in the scientific names of three species : Batrachoseps stebbinsi , the Tehachapi slender salamander ; Anniella stebbinsi , a legless lizard ; and Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi , the endangered Sonora tiger salamander .
= = Early life = =
Robert Stebbins was born on March 31 , 1915 , in Chico , California , to parents Cyril and Louise Stebbins ( nΓ©e Beck ) . His father , born in Wisconsin of English descent , was an instructor at Chico State Normal School who had also published on birds and agriculture , stressing the importance of gardening in education . The oldest of seven children , young Robert grew up learning about local birds and exploring the wildlife of Northern California . His mother , born in Switzerland and educated at the Normal School , instilled a sense of artistry in Robert , painting pictures for Robert and his siblings in her spare time . When Stebbins was seven , his family moved to the San Francisco Bay Area , where his father worked on agricultural curriculum for children and taught at the University of California , Berkeley . Around the age of nine , his family moved to Southern California , living first in Pomona , then in Sherman Oaks , Los Angeles . Stebbins spent time hiking in the nearby Santa Monica Mountains , exploring the wildlife and amassing a collection of bird and mammal specimens which he prepared and mounted himself . Stebbins attended North Hollywood High School , where his father taught hygiene and agriculture . Robert graduated in 1933 . He discovered his artistic talents around sixteen years old . His early work consisted of cartoons : he drew illustrations on classmates ' clothing and contributed cartoons to youth magazines , winning several awards .
= = University and early career ( 1933 β 1945 ) = =
Shortly after graduating high school , Stebbins enrolled in the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) . He initially majored in civil engineering , thinking it a better career option than biology , but became unhappy with the program . Struggling with poor performance and health issues related to congenital heart problems , he took a leave for year and a half . During his time in recuperation , he turned his attention back to natural history , and was persuaded to return to UCLA by Raymond Cowles , a biology professor there . Stebbins returned with enthusiasm despite the perceived lack of job security , remarking in 1985 : " I was cautious because of the Great Depression , but I was determined to pursue biology even if it meant standing on a corner with a tin cup . " He switched his major to zoology and graduated in 1940 with highest honors .
After graduating , Stebbins split his time between a summer job as a naturalist at Lassen Volcanic National Park and pursuing graduate school at UCLA . Over the next few years he also obtained teaching credentials in junior college , high school , and elementary education . Stebbins initially planned to study birds , with an eye towards roadrunners , but felt the field of ornithology was too crowded , while herpetology , the study of reptiles and amphibians , offered more opportunities for new research . Cowles became his graduate advisor . The main focus of Stebbins ' graduate research was the biology of fringe @-@ toed lizards , a group of sand @-@ dwelling lizards of the American Southwest . For his master 's degree ( completed in 1942 ) he studied the anatomical structure of the nasal passages of the lizards , documenting in detail the looped , horseshoe @-@ shaped structure of the nasal passages that functions as a u @-@ trap , preventing sand grains from being inhaled while the lizards lay buried at the sand 's surface . His Ph.D dissertation ( completed in 1943 ) further explored the anatomical , behavioral , and physiological adaptations of the lizards . During this time he also published on the behavior of the sidewinder rattlesnake , and , with his father , produced two field guides to birds , providing illustrations to his father 's text . Their first book , What Bird is That ? , was pressed in the family garage . Stebbins considered his father " a pioneer of sorts in the extensive use of drawings in teaching natural history , " a tradition he later strove to continue in his own works .
On June 8 , 1941 , Stebbins married Anna @-@ rose Cooper , who would eventually type the text of all of Stebbins ' field guides . Part of their honeymoon was spent camping in the Owens Valley of southeastern California .
= = Career ( 1945 β 1978 ) = =
In 1945 Stebbins was hired an assistant professor of zoology at the University of California , Berkeley , and became the first curator of herpetology at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology , where he would remain throughout his career . The first faculty member to teach herpetology at Berkeley , he wrote new lab manuals , created the herpetology teaching collection , and co @-@ taught a popular course on vertebrate natural history .
= = = Ring species in salamanders = = =
Stebbins soon became interested in Ensatina salamanders , which occur from British Columbia to Baja California and are present in both the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges of California but absent in the Central Valley . Finding the salamanders in Berkeley much different than the ones he was used to seeing in the mountains of Southern California , he embarked upon a research program examining color differences throughout California . In his resulting monograph , published in 1949 , he proposed that the color varieties β many previously regarded as distinct species β were actually various races or subspecies of a single species that in most locations interbreed where two forms co @-@ occur , creating hybrids that partially resemble both forms . However , at the southern edge of the Central Valley , where the Sierra foothill populations come into contact with those of the Coast Range , the populations do not interbreed , instead acting as distinct species . This phenomenon is known as a ring speciation , with different populations representing different stages of speciation , the process by which one species becomes two . Zoologist Arnold Grobman called Stebbins ' research " without doubt , the most outstanding study of a genus of American salamanders that has yet appeared . " The Ensatina complex has been the focus of research ever since , and is a widely used textbook example of evolutionary processes .
= = = Reptilian parietal eye = = =
Stebbins ' early work with lizards in the southern California desert led to a series of papers from the 1950s through the 1970s exploring the parietal eye of reptiles ( also called the " third eye " , a tiny light @-@ sensitive organ on the forehead ) and the associated pineal gland , both of which are now known to influence circadian rhythms . Aided by a Senior Postdoctoral Fellowship from the National Science Foundation , Stebbins and colleagues found that lizards with the parietal eye surgically removed changed their behavior : they became active much earlier in the day , spent more time in the sun , and remained active much later than control lizards . Further studies over the next few decades focused on the parietal eye of the tuatara , the pineal gland 's effects on lizard reproductive behavior , and parietal skull openings in fossil " mammal @-@ like reptiles " such as Lystrosaurus . His work had implications beyond reptile biology : Nobel laureate Julius Axelrod , after reading the work of Stebbins and others , began investigating the pineal gland in mammals , with emphasis on the effect of melatonin on activity cycles . Melatonin has since been found to influence human health . Stebbins was proud of his parietal and pineal work , calling it " possibly the single piece of research which gives me the most satisfaction . "
= = = Other research , conservation , and field guides = = =
In 1949 Stebbins received a Guggenheim Fellowship that allowed him to extend his studies throughout the western United States and to collect enough material to begin preparing his first amphibian field manuals . The first of these to appear was Amphibians of Western North America ( 1951 , University of California Press ) , covering the U.S. and Canada roughly west of the 102nd meridian . Praised for its thoroughness as well as its illustrations , the book " unquestionably provides more information concerning the 51 species β¦ covered than any preceding it , " wrote Charles M. Bogert : " The maps provided for each species and subspecies are on the whole the most detailed and accurate of any thus far published . " Stebbins ' second herpetological field guide , Amphibians and Reptiles of Western North America ( 1954 , McGraw @-@ Hill ) , was similarly praised .
In 1964 Stebbins visited the GalΓ‘pagos Islands on a research expedition and studied the ecology and behavior of marine iguanas and lava lizards . Also on the expedition was Roger Tory Peterson , who recalled " While the rest of were enjoying high adventure on the more remote islands and sea @-@ girt rocks , he patiently snared 200 frisky lizards with a noose of thread suspended from a rod . He took their cloacal temperatures , marked them with dye , and then dosed them with radioactive iodine , which enabled him to locate the elusive reptiles later with a Geiger counter . " In 1966 , Stebbins produced what became his best @-@ known book , A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians ( Peterson Field Guides ) , which Peterson called " a classic ... one of the most beautiful as well as scholarly works in the series " .
Stebbins was also committed to education and conservation . He made appearances on the TV series Science in Action , traveled to Asia to promote science education , and chaired a U.C. elementary school science project which recommended that science be taught to children as early as six . In conjunction with the Sierra Club he produced two educational films : Nature Next Door ( 1962 ) and No Room for Wilderness ? ( 1967 ) . Stebbins co @-@ authored revisions of the widely used textbooks General Zoology ( 5th ed . , 1972 ; 6th ed . , 1979 ) and Elements of Zoology ( 4th ed . , 1974 ) , books originally written by Tracy Storer and Robert Usinger .
In the late 1960s Stebbins became concerned about the impacts that increasingly popular off @-@ road vehicle ( ORV ) driving was having on desert ecosystems of southern California β witnessing environmental degradation in some of the same places he had studied during graduate school β and became actively involved in over a decade of conservation efforts . Stebbins and colleagues studied the diversity of organisms in and around ORV areas , communicated research to Bureau of Land Management officials , and petitioned President Jimmy Carter to limit all @-@ terrain vehicle use in deserts . Stebbins faced opposition from ORV riders and their lobbyists : American Motorcyclist magazine called him a " staunch abolitionist in the war against motorized vehicles in the desert . " Stebbins ' efforts eventually helped secure the passing of the California Desert Protection Act of 1994 which established the Mojave National Preserve and elevated Joshua Tree and Death Valley from national monuments to more protected national parks . In 1998 Stebbins was recognized in the U.S. Congress by Representative George Miller and the Contra Costa Times as one of 10 environmental leaders deemed " national treasures " for their activism .
Other research included field work in Colombia , South Africa , and Australia , and the description of the Jemez Mountains salamander , southern torrent salamander and yellow @-@ eyed ensatina , and the panamint alligator lizard . Two salamanders were named in his honor during his time at Berkeley : the Tehachapi slender salamander ( Batrachoseps stebbinsi ) and the Sonora tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi ) . Over his 32 years at Berkeley , Stebbins was the advisor to 29 graduate students , including Wade Fox , Richard G. Zweifel , and R. Bruce Bury . Upon his retirement from UC Berkeley in 1978 , Stebbins was awarded the highest faculty honor , the Berkeley Citation .
= = Retirement years ( 1978 β 2013 ) = =
After retiring , Stebbins remained active in painting , conservation , and education , and continued to make natural history observations . He revised his well @-@ known and widely used Field Guide in 1985 and again in 2003 . He co @-@ wrote the non @-@ specialist book A Natural History of Amphibians with former student Nathan Cohen in 1997 , and revised his Field Guide to California Amphibians and Reptiles in 2012 , with new contributions by Samuel McGinnis , another former student . In 2009 he produced Connecting With Nature : A Naturalist 's Perspective , a book intended to help connect children with nature . He took additional art lessons , broadened his subject matter to include landscapes , African wildlife , portraits , and still lifes , and took up the violin , which he had studied decades earlier . His paintings have been shown and sold in galleries and museums in Berkeley , Palm Springs , and Oregon .
Stebbins was a fellow of the California Academy of Sciences , which awarded him its highest honor , the Fellows Medal , in 1991 .
Stebbins died at age 98 at his home in Eugene , Oregon on September 23 , 2013 , having been in declining health over the previous year . He was survived by his wife and three children . Only one week before his death , he was honored in the scientific name of a newly described species of legless lizard , Anniella stebbinsi . His collected field notes , comprising over 35 bound volumes , are archived in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology .
= = The " Stebbins " = =
Stebbins ' book A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians , first published in 1966 and revised in 1985 and 2003 , has widely been considered " the bible of the field " for American herpetologists . Often referred to simply as " Stebbins " , the book has educated and inspired generations of naturalists and herpetologists . On the impact of the guide , professor Samuel Sweet of UC Santa Barbara stated " Before that book , if people went out to look for snakes , it was so they could gather them up to sell to pet shops or just show off to their buddies . What [ Stebbins ] did was help make a transition to a similar situation as bird watching , where it became OK to just look at the animals and leave them alone . "
In 1966 , the Houghton @-@ Mifflin Company first published A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians as part of its Peterson Field Guide series . While including some illustrations from Stebbins ' previous books , the high quality of the artwork was immediately recognized , as was the quality and thoroughness of the writing . Biologist David Wake , then of the University of Chicago but later to work with Stebbins at Berkeley , considered the only " serious defect " to be absence of any coverage of snake @-@ bite first aid . Wake also noted that the geographic area covered left a gap ranging from 75 miles to over 400 miles wide when paired with the earlier Peterson Guide to eastern reptiles and amphibians by Roger Conant .
The second edition , published in 1985 , included several changes such as 37 new species , 12 new plates of illustrations , the inclusion of endemic species of the Baja California Peninsula , and new common names chosen to enhance clarity . In his 1986 review , Sweet remarked on the frankness of imperfect knowledge : " For the first time we have a field guide that indicates clearly which taxonomic interpretations are tentative and where distributions and life history features remain poorly known . " Concerned about the impact of over @-@ collecting , Stebbins reduced coverage of collecting and keeping animals , and also removed a section on handling venomous snakes .
The third edition , published in 2003 , included 36 new species and several new paintings . Stebbins considered keeping up @-@ to @-@ date with current scientific literature the most daunting task due to the volume of recent publications .
= = Books = =
Cyril A. Stebbins ; β β ( 1941 ) . What Bird is That ? . Van Nuys , CA : Valley Vista Press .
Cyril A. Stebbins ; β β ( 1942 ) . Birds of Lassen Volcanic National Park and Vicinity . Van Nuys , CA : Valley Vista Press .
Loye H. Miller ; β β ( 1947 ) . Birds of the Campus , University of California Los Angeles . University of California Press .
β β ( 1951 ) . Amphibians of Western North America . University of California Press .
β β ( 1954 ) . Amphibians and Reptiles of Western North America . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill Press .
β β ( 1960 ) . Reptiles and Amphibians of the San Francisco Bay Region . University of California Press .
Alden H. Miller ; β β ( 1964 ) . The Lives of Desert Animals in Joshua Tree National Monument . University of California Press .
β β ( 1966 ) . Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians ( 1st ed . ) . Boston : Houghton @-@ Mifflin Co . Second edition : 1985 ; Third edition ; 2003
β β ( 1972 ) . California Amphibians and Reptiles . University of California Press .
Tracy I. Storer , Robert L. Usinger , β β , and James W. Nybakken ( 1972 ) . General Zoology ( 5th ed . ) . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill Press . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Cyril A. Stebbins ; β β ( 1974 ) . Birds of Yosemite National Park . Yosemite National Park : Yosemite Natural History Association .
β β ; Nathan W. Cohen ( 1997 ) . A Natural History of Amphibians . Princeton University Press .
β β ( 2009 ) . Connecting With Nature : A Naturalist 's Perspective . National Science Teachers Association .
β β ; Samuel M. McGinnis ( 2012 ) . Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of California ( Revised ed . ) . University of California Press .
= = Films = =
Nature Next Door . Sierra Club , National Press . Palo Alto , California . ( 1962 )
No Room for Wilderness ? Lawrence Dawson Productions , San Francisco . ( 1967 )
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= SpaceX reusable launch system development program =
The SpaceX reusable launch system development program is a privately funded program to develop a set of new technologies for an orbital launch system that may be reused many times in a manner similar to the reusability of aircraft . The company SpaceX is developing the technologies over a number of years to facilitate full and rapid reusability of space launch vehicles . The project 's long @-@ term objectives include returning a launch vehicle first stage to the launch site in minutes and to return a second stage to the launch pad following orbital realignment with the launch site and atmospheric reentry in up to 24 hours . SpaceX 's long term goal is that both stages of their orbital launch vehicle will be designed to allow reuse a few hours after return .
The program was publicly announced in 2011 and the design for returning the rocket to its launchpad using only its own propulsion systems was completed in February 2012 . SpaceX 's active test program began in late 2012 with testing low @-@ altitude , low @-@ speed aspects of the landing technology . High @-@ velocity , high @-@ altitude aspects of the booster atmospheric return technology began testing in late 2013 and continued to late 2015 , when SpaceX first achieved a successful landing and recovery of a first stage .
The reusable launch system technology is under development for the first stages of the Falcon family of rockets . It is particularly well @-@ suited to the Falcon Heavy where the two outer cores separate from the rocket earlier in the flight , and are therefore moving more slowly at stage separation . On flight 20 the speed at separation was close to 6000 km / h and this allowed a return to near the launch site . On flight 22 , going to GTO , the speed was faster between 8000 and 9000 km / h . At faster speeds it is not possible to return the booster to near the launch site and a landing , if attempted , would need to be hundreds of kilometres downrange likely on an autonomous drone ship . The process involves flipping the rocket around , a boostback burn to slow the rocket , a reentry burn , controlling direction to arrive at the landing site and a landing burn .
It is intended that the reusable technology will be extended to both the first and upper stages of the future launch vehicle for the Mars Colonial Transporter and is considered paramount to the plans SpaceX is developing to colonize Mars .
The first controlled vertical splashdown of an orbital rocket stage on the ocean surface was achieved in April 2014 on the ninth flight of a Falcon 9 . Two subsequent flights in January and April 2015 attempted to land the returning first stage on a floating platform . Although both boosters were guided accurately to the target , they did not succeed in landing vertically on the drone ship and were destroyed . A historic vertical landing was finally achieved on December 21 , 2015 , when the first @-@ stage booster of Falcon 9 Flight 20 successfully touched down at Landing Zone 1 , Cape Canaveral . On April 8 , 2016 , Flight 23 achieved the first soft landing on a drone ship in the Atlantic Ocean .
= = History = =
The broad outline of the reusable launch system was first publicly described on September 29 , 2011 . SpaceX said it would attempt to develop powered descent and recovery of both Falcon 9 stages β a fully vertical takeoff , vertical landing ( VTVL ) rocket . The company produced a computer @-@ animated video depicting a notional view of the first stage returning tail @-@ first for a powered descent and the second stage with a heat shield , reentering head first before rotating for a powered descent . In September 2012 , SpaceX began flight tests on a prototype reusable first stage with the suborbital Grasshopper rocket . Those tests continued into 2014 , including testing of a second and larger prototype vehicle , F9R Dev1 .
News of the Grasshopper test rocket become public earlier in September 2011 , when the US Federal Aviation Administration released a draft Environmental Impact Assessment for the SpaceX Test Site in Texas , and the space media had reported it by September 26 . In May 2012 , SpaceX obtained a set of atmospheric test data for the recovery of the Falcon 9 first stage based on 176 test runs in the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center wind tunnel test facility . The work was contracted for by SpaceX under a reimburseable Space Act Agreement with NASA .
In 2012 , it was noted that for the technology projected for use on a reusable Falcon 9 rocket the first @-@ stage separation would occur at a velocity of approximately 2 @.@ 0 km / s ( 6 @,@ 500 km / h ; 4 @,@ 100 mph ; Mach 6 ) rather than the 3 @.@ 4 km / s ( 11 @,@ 000 km / h ; 7 @,@ 000 mph ; Mach 10 ) for an expendable Falcon 9 , to provide the residual fuel necessary for the deceleration and turnaround maneuver and the controlled descent and landing .
In November 2012 , CEO Elon Musk announced SpaceX 's plans to build a second , much larger , reusable rocket system , this one to be powered by LOX / methane rather than LOX / RP @-@ 1 used on Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy . The new system will be " an evolution of SpaceX 's Falcon 9 booster " , and SpaceX reiterated their commitment to develop a breakthrough in vertical landing technology . By the end of 2012 , the demonstration test vehicle , Grasshopper , had made three VTVL test flights β including a 29 @-@ second hover flight to 40 meters ( 130 ft ) on December 17 , 2012 . In early March 2013 , SpaceX successfully tested Grasshopper for a fourth time when it flew to an altitude of over 80 meters ( 260 ft ) .
In March 2013 , SpaceX announced that it would instrument and equip subsequent Falcon 9 first @-@ stages as controlled descent test vehicles , with plans for over @-@ water propulsively @-@ decelerated simulated landings beginning in 2013 , with the intent to return the vehicle to the launch site for a powered landing β possibly as early as mid @-@ 2014 . The April 2013 draft Environmental Impact Statement for the proposed SpaceX South Texas Launch Site includes specific accommodations for return of the Falcon 9 first @-@ stage boosters to the launch site . Elon Musk first publicly referred to the reusable Falcon 9 as the Falcon 9 @-@ R in April 2013 .
In September 2013 , SpaceX successfully relit three engines of a spent booster on an orbital launch , and the booster re @-@ entered the atmosphere at hypersonic speed without burning up . With the data collected from the first flight test of a booster @-@ controlled descent from high altitude , coupled with the technological advancements made on the Grasshopper low @-@ altitude landing demonstrator , SpaceX announced it believed it was ready to test a full land @-@ recovery of a booster stage . Based on the positive results from the first high @-@ altitude flight test , SpaceX advanced the expected date of a test from mid @-@ 2014 to early 2015 , with the intention of doing so on the next Space Station cargo resupply flight pending regulatory approvals . That flight took place on April 18 , 2014 .
Musk stated in May 2013 that the goal of the program is to achieve full and rapid reusability of the first stage by 2015 , and to develop full launch vehicle reusability following that as " part of a future design architecture " .
In February 2014 , SpaceX made explicit that the newly defined super @-@ heavy launch vehicle for the Mars Colonial Transporter would also make use of the reusable technology . This is consistent with Musk 's strategic statement in 2012 that " The revolutionary breakthrough will come with rockets that are fully and rapidly reusable . We will never conquer Mars unless we do that . It 'll be too expensive . The American colonies would never have been pioneered if the ships that crossed the ocean hadn 't been reusable . "
Also in May 2014 , SpaceX publicly announced an extensive test program for a related reusable technology : a propulsively @-@ landed space capsule called DragonFly . The tests will be run in Texas at the McGregor Rocket Test Facility in 2014 β 2015 .
In June 2014 , COO Gwynne Shotwell clarified that all funding for development and testing of the reusable launch system technology development program is private funding from SpaceX , with no contribution by the US government . SpaceX has not publicly disclosed the cost of the development program .
For the first time , SpaceX stated in July 2014 that they are " highly confident of being able to land successfully on a floating launch pad or back at the launch site and refly the rocket with no required refurbishment . "
By late 2014 , SpaceX suspended or abandoned the plan to recover and reuse the Falcon 9 second stage ; the additional mass of the required heat shield , landing gear , and low @-@ powered landing engines would incur too great a performance penalty .
= = Technologies = =
Several new technologies needed to be developed and tested to facilitate successful launch and recovery of both stages of the SpaceX reusable rocket launching system . Following the completion of the third high @-@ altitude controlled @-@ descent test , and the completion of the third low @-@ altitude flight of the second @-@ generation prototype test vehicle ( plus eight flights of the first @-@ generation Grasshopper prototype flight test vehicle ) , SpaceX indicated that they are now able to consistently " reenter from space at hypersonic velocity , restart main engines twice , deploy landing legs and touch down at near zero velocity . "
The technologies that were developed for this program , some of which are still being refined , include :
restartable ignition system for the first @-@ stage booster Restarts are required at both supersonic velocities in the upper atmosphere β in order to decelerate the high velocity away from the launch pad and put the booster on a descent trajectory back toward the launch pad β and at high transonic velocities in the lower atmosphere β in order to slow the terminal descent and to perform a soft landing .
new attitude control technology β for the booster stage and second stage β to bring the descending rocket body through the atmosphere in a manner conducive both to non @-@ destructive return and sufficient aerodynamic control such that the terminal phase of the landing is possible . This includes sufficient roll control authority to keep the rocket from spinning excessively as occurred on the first high @-@ altitude flight test in September 2013 , where the roll rate exceeded the capabilities of the booster attitude control system ( ACS ) and the fuel in the tanks " centrifuged " to the side of the tank shutting down the single engine involved in the low @-@ altitude deceleration maneuver . The technology needs to handle the transition from the vacuum of space at hypersonic conditions , decelerating to supersonic velocities and passing through transonic buffet , before relighting one of the main @-@ stage engines at terminal velocity .
hypersonic grid fins were added to the booster test vehicle design beginning on the fifth ocean controlled @-@ descent test flight . Arranged in an " X " configuration , the grid fins control the descending rocket 's lift vector once the vehicle has returned to the atmosphere to enable a much more precise landing location .
throttleable rocket engine technology is required to reduce engine thrust because the full thrust of even a single Merlin 1D engine exceeds the weight of the nearly empty booster core .
terminal guidance and landing capability , including a vehicle control system and a control system software algorithm to be able to land a rocket with the thrust @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of the vehicle greater than one , with closed @-@ loop thrust vector and throttle control
navigation sensor suite for precision landing
a large floating landing platform in order to test pinpoint landings prior to receiving permission from the US government to bring returning rocket stages into US airspace over land . In the event , SpaceX built the autonomous spaceport drone ship in 2014 , and conducted an initial flight test and landing attempt in January 2015 .
large @-@ surface @-@ area thermal protection system to absorb the heat load of deceleration of the second stage from orbital velocity to terminal velocity
lightweight , deployable landing gear for the booster stage . In May 2013 , the design was shown to be a nested , telescoping piston on an A @-@ frame . The total span of the four carbon fiber / aluminum extensible landing legs is approximately 18 meters ( 60 ft ) , and weigh less than 2 @,@ 100 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 600 lb ) . Deployment system uses high @-@ pressure Helium as the working fluid . With Flight 25 it was announced that each landing leg contained a " crush core " , to absorb the impact of landing for particularly hard landings .
= = Economics of rocket reuse = =
In order to make the Falcon 9 reusable and return to the launch site , extra propellant and landing gear must be carried on the first stage , requiring around a 30 percent reduction of the maximum payload to orbit in comparison with the expendable Falcon 9 . Reflight of a previously used stage on a subsequent flight is dependent on the condition of the landed stage , and is a technique that has seen little use outside of the Space Shuttle 's reusable solid rocket boosters . In September 2013 , SpaceX said that if all aspects of the test program were successful and if a customer is interested , the first reflight of a Falcon 9 booster stage could happen as early as late 2014 . In December 2015 , following the recovery of the first stage from the 22 December launch , SpaceX projected that the first reflight of a recovered booster would likely occur in 2016 , but that their plan was to not refly the 22 December recovered stage for that purpose . Musk projects that the reflight step of the program will be " straightforward , " because of the multiple full duration firings of the engines that have been done on the ground , and the multiple engine restarts that have already been demonstrated , with no significant degradation seen . Several industry analysts continue to see potential problems that could prevent economic reuse because costs to refurbish and relaunch the stage are not yet demonstrated . Moreover , the economic case for reuse will be highly dependent on launching frequently , and that is simply unknown as of 2015 .
If SpaceX is successful in developing the reusable technology , it is expected to significantly reduce the cost of access to space , and change the increasingly competitive market in space launch services . Michael Belfiore wrote in Foreign Policy in 2013 that , at a published cost of US $ 56 @.@ 5 million per launch to low Earth orbit , " Falcon 9 rockets are already the cheapest in the industry . Reusable Falcon 9s could drop the price by an order of magnitude , sparking more space @-@ based enterprise , which in turn would drop the cost of access to space still further through economies of scale . " Even for military launches , which have a number of contractual requirements for additional launch services to be provided , SpaceX 's price is under US $ 100 million .
Space industry analyst Ajay Kothari has noted that SpaceX reusable technology could do for space transport " what jet engines did for air transportation sixty years ago when people never imagined that more than 500 million passengers would travel by airplanes every year and that the cost could be reduced to the level it is β all because of passenger volume and reliable reusability . " SpaceX said in January 2014 that if they are successful in developing the reusable technology , launch prices of around US $ 5 to 7 million for a reusable Falcon 9 were possible , and following the successful first stage recovery in December 2015 , Musk said that " the potential cost reduction over the long term is probably in excess of a factor of 100 . "
As of March 2014 launch service providers who compete with SpaceX were not planning to develop similar technology or offer competing reusable launcher options . Neither ILS , which markets launches of the Russian Proton rocket ; Arianespace ; nor SeaLaunch are planning on developing and marketing reusable launch vehicle services . SpaceX was the only competitor that projected a sufficiently elastic market on the demand side to justify the costly development of reusable rocket technology and the expenditure of private capital to develop options for that theoretical market opportunity .
SpaceX pricing and payload specifications published for the non @-@ reusable Falcon 9 v1.1 rocket actually include about 30 percent more performance than the published price list indicates ; the additional performance is reserved for SpaceX to do reusability booster demonstration flight tests while still achieving the specified payloads for customers .
In order to achieve the full economic benefit of the reusable technology , it is necessary that the reuse be both rapid and complete β without the long and costly refurbishment period or partially reusable design that plagued earlier attempts at reusable launch vehicles . SpaceX has been explicit that the " huge potential to open up space flight " is dependent on achieving both complete and rapid reusability . CEO Musk stated in 2014 that success with the technology development effort could reduce " the cost of spaceflight by a factor of 100 " because the cost of the propellant / oxidizer on the Falcon 9 is only 0 @.@ 3 percent of the total cost of the vehicle .
Separate from the market competition brought about by SpaceX lower launch prices and the potential future of even more radically lower launch prices if the technology can be completed successfully , Aviation Week has said that " SpaceX reusable launch work is an R & D model " β " The audacity of the concept and speed of the program β s progress make it an exemplar . ... [ the ] breakneck pace of development has been almost Apollo @-@ like in its execution ... [ even while ] success is far from guaranteed . "
On 9 March 2016 SpaceX President Gwynne Shotwell gave a more realistic appraisal of the potential savings of a reused launch now that attempts to reuse the second stage had been abandoned due to cost and weight issues . She said at $ 1m cost of refueling and $ 3m cost of refurbishing a used first stage could potentially allow a launch to be priced as low as $ 40m , a 30 % saving . SpaceX biggest customer SES has said it wants to be the first to ride a reused vehicle , however it wants a launch price of $ 30m or a 50 % saving to offset the risk of pioneering the process .
According to Elon Musk , almost every piece of the Falcon should be reused over 100 times . Heat shields and a few other items should be reused over 10 times before replacement .
= = Technical feasibility = =
Prior to the reusability program 's success in December 2015 , the return of an orbital launch system had never been accomplished . And even after this success , the rapid reuse of a rocket is still yet to be attempted . Developing a reusable rocket is extremely challenging due to the small percentage of a rocket 's mass that can make it to orbit . Typically , a rocket 's payload is only about 3 % of the mass of the rocket which is also roughly the amount of mass in fuel that is required for the vehicle 's re @-@ entry .
Elon Musk said at the beginning of the program that he believed the return , vertical landing and recovery was possible because the SpaceX manufacturing methodologies result in a rocket efficiency exceeding the typical 3 % margin . A SpaceX rocket operating in the reusable configuration has approximately 30 % less payload lift capacity than the same rocket in an expendable configuration .
= = Test program = =
SpaceX is currently testing reusable technologies both for its first @-@ stage booster launch vehicle designs β with three test vehicles β and for its new reusable Dragon V2 space capsule β with a low @-@ altitude test vehicle called DragonFly .
SpaceX has publicly disclosed a multi @-@ element , incremental test program for booster stages that includes four aspects :
low @-@ altitude ( less than 760 m / 2 @,@ 500 ft ) , low @-@ velocity testing of its single @-@ engine Grasshopper technology @-@ demonstrator at its Texas test site
low @-@ altitude ( less than 3 @,@ 000 m / 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , low @-@ velocity testing of a much larger , second @-@ generation , three @-@ engine test vehicle called F9R Dev1 . The second generation vehicle includes extensible landing legs and will be tested at the Texas test site
high @-@ altitude , mid @-@ velocity testing was planned but discontinued . It would use F9R Dev2 ) at a SpaceX leased facility at Spaceport America in New Mexico .
high @-@ altitude ( 91 km / 300 @,@ 000 ft ) , very @-@ high @-@ velocity ( approximately 2 @.@ 0 km / s ; 6 @,@ 500 km / h ; 4 @,@ 100 mph ; Mach 6 ) ballistic reentry , controlled @-@ deceleration and controlled @-@ descent tests of post @-@ mission ( spent ) Falcon 9 booster stages following a subset of Falcon 9 launches that began in 2013
Eight low @-@ altitude booster flight tests were made by Grasshopper in 2012 and 2013 . The first booster return controlled @-@ descent test from high @-@ altitude was made in September 2013 , with a second test in April , a third test flight in July and a fourth test in September 2014 . All four test flights to date were intended to be over @-@ water , simulated landings . Five low @-@ altitude booster flight tests of F9R Dev1 were flown during April β August 2014 , before the vehicle self @-@ destructed for safety reasons on the fifth flight .
= = = Flight testing vehicles = = =
Grasshopper is a set of experimental technology @-@ demonstrator , suborbital reusable launch vehicles ( RLV ) . Two versions of the prototype reusable test vehicles was built , the 106 @-@ foot tall Grasshopper ( formerly designated as Grasshopper v1.0 ) and the 160 @-@ foot tall Falcon 9 Reusable Development Vehicle , or F9R Dev1 β formerly known as Grasshopper v1.1. Grasshopper was built in 2011 @-@ 2012 for low @-@ altitude , low @-@ velocity hover testing at the SpaceX Rocket Test Facility in McGregor , Texas , that began in September 2012 and concluded in October 2013 after eight test flights . The second prototype vehicle design , F9R Dev1 , was built on the much larger Falcon 9 v1.1 booster stage was used for higher @-@ altitude and higher @-@ velocity flight testing .
The low @-@ altitude , low @-@ speed flights of the first test vehicle β Grasshopper β were conducted . F9R Dev1 was also tested at the Texas facility .
= = = = Grasshopper = = = =
Grasshopper , the company 's first VTVL test vehicle , consisted of a Falcon 9 v1.0 first @-@ stage tank , a single Merlin @-@ 1D engine , and four permanently attached steel landing legs . It stood 106 feet ( 32 m ) tall . SpaceX built a 0 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 20 ha ) concrete launch facility at its Rocket Development and Test Facility in McGregor , Texas to support the Grasshopper flight test program . Grasshopper was also known as Grasshopper version 1 @.@ 0 , or Grasshopper v1.0 , prior to 2014 during the time the followon Grasshopper @-@ class test vehicles were being built .
In addition to three test flights in 2012 , five additional tests were successfully flown by the end of October 2013 β including the fourth test overall in March 2013 β in which Grasshopper doubled its highest leap to rise to 80 @.@ 1 meters ( 263 ft ) with a 34 @-@ second flight . In the seventh test , in August 2013 , the vehicle flew to 250 meters ( 820 ft ) during a 60 @-@ second flight and executed a 100 @-@ meter ( 330 ft ) lateral maneuver before returning to the pad . Grasshopper made its eighth and final test flight on October 7 , 2013 , flying to 744 meters ( 2 @,@ 441 ft ) ( 0 @.@ 46 miles ) before making its eighth successful landing . The Grasshopper test vehicle is now retired .
= = = = Falcon 9 Reusable Development Vehicle ( F9R Dev ) = = = =
Beginning in October 2012 , SpaceX discussed development of a second @-@ generation Grasshopper test vehicle , which would have lighter landing legs that fold up on the side of the rocket , a different engine bay , and would be nearly 50 % longer than the first Grasshopper vehicle . In March 2013 , SpaceX announced that the larger Grasshopper @-@ class suborbital flight vehicle would be constructed out of the Falcon 9 v1.1 first @-@ stage tank that was used for qualification testing at the SpaceX Rocket Development and Test Facility in early 2013 . It has been rebuilt as the F9R Dev1 with extensible landing legs .
The second VTVL flight test vehicle β F9R Dev1 , built on the much longer Falcon 9 v1.1 first @-@ stage tank , and with retractable landing legs β made its first test flight on April 17 , 2014 . F9R Dev1 was used for low @-@ altitude test flights in the McGregor , Texas area with projected maximum altitude below 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) . This vehicle self @-@ destructed as a safety measure during a test flight on August 22 , 2014 .
As of April 2014 , a third flight test vehicle β F9R Dev2 β was being built and was planned to be flown at the high @-@ altitude test range available at Spaceport America in New Mexico where it was expected to be flown at altitudes up to 91 @,@ 000 meters ( 300 @,@ 000 ft ) -plus .
= = = = DragonFly = = = =
DragonFly is a prototype test article for a propulsively @-@ landed version of the SpaceX Dragon space capsule , a suborbital reusable launch vehicle ( RLV ) , intended for low @-@ altitude flight testing . It will undergo a test program in Texas at the McGregor Rocket Test Facility , in 2014 β 2015 .
The DragonFly test vehicle is powered by eight SuperDraco engines , arranged in a redundant pattern to support fault @-@ tolerance in the propulsion system design . SuperDracos utilize a storable propellant mixture of monomethyl hydrazine ( MMH ) fuel and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer ( NTO ) , the same propellants used in the much smaller Draco thrusters used for attitude control and maneuvering on the first @-@ generation Dragon spacecraft . While SuperDraco engines are capable of 73 @,@ 000 newtons ( 16 @,@ 400 lbf ) of thrust , during use on DragonFly flight test vehicle each will be throttled to less than 68 @,@ 170 newtons ( 15 @,@ 325 lbf ) to maintain vehicle stability .
A test flight program of thirty flights has been proposed , including two propulsive assist ( parachutes plus thrusters ) and two propulsive landing ( no parachutes ) on flights dropped from a helicopter at an altitude of approximately 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) . The other 26 test flights are projected to take off from a pad : eight to be propulsive assist hops ( landing with parachutes plus thrusters ) and 18 to be full propulsive hops , similar to the Grasshopper and F9R Dev booster stage test flights .
The DragonFly test program is not expected to start until after the completion of the F9R Dev1 booster testing at the McGregor facility .
= = = Falcon 9 booster post @-@ mission flight tests = = =
In an arrangement unusual for launch vehicles , some first stages of the SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.1 rockets are being used for propulsive @-@ return controlled @-@ descent flight tests after they complete the boost phase of an orbital flight . These boosters would ordinarily just be discarded in the ocean after setting their payloads on their way . The over @-@ water tests take place in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans south of Vandenberg Air Force Base and east of Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . The first flight test occurred on September 29 , 2013 , after the second stage with the CASSIOPE and nanosat payloads separated from the booster . These descent and simulated landing tests continued over the next two years , with the second flight test taking place on April 18 , 2014 , and four subsequent tests conducted in 2015 .
= = = = Perfecting re @-@ entry and controlled descent = = = =
Following analysis of the flight test data from the first booster @-@ controlled descent in September 2013 , SpaceX announced it had successfully tested a large amount of new technology on the flight , and that coupled with the technology advancements made on the Grasshopper low @-@ altitude landing demonstrator , they were ready to test a full recovery of the booster stage . The first flight test was successful ; SpaceX said it was " able to successfully transition from vacuum through hypersonic , through supersonic , through transonic , and light the engines all the way and control the stage all the way through [ the atmosphere ] " . Musk said , " the next attempt to recovery [ sic ] the Falcon 9 first stage will be on the fourth flight of the upgraded rocket . This would be [ the ] third commercial Dragon cargo flight to ISS . "
This second flight test took place during the April 2014 Dragon flight to the ISS . SpaceX attached landing legs to the first stage , decelerated it over the ocean and attempted a simulated landing over the water , following the ignition of the second stage on the third cargo resupply mission contracted to NASA . The first stage was successfully slowed down enough for a soft landing over the Atlantic Ocean . SpaceX announced in February 2014 the intent to continue the tests to land the first @-@ stage booster in the ocean until precision control from hypersonic all the way through subsonic regimes has been proven . Five additional controlled @-@ descent tests were conducted in the remainder of 2014 through April 2015 , including two attempts to land on a floating landing platform β a SpaceX @-@ built Autonomous Spaceport Drone Ship β on the Atlantic Ocean east of the launch site , both of which brought the vehicle to the landing platform , but neither of which resulted in a successful landing .
= = = = First landing success aground = = = =
During the 2015 launch hiatus , SpaceX requested regulatory approval from the FAA to attempt returning their next flight to Cape Canaveral instead of targeting a floating platform in the ocean . The goal was to land the booster vertically at the leased Landing Zone 1 facility β the former Launch Complex 13 where SpaceX had recently built a large rocket landing pad . The FAA approved the safety plan for the ground landing on 18 December 2015 . The first stage landed successfully on target at 20 : 38 local time on December 21 ( 01 : 38 UTC on December 22 ) .
SpaceX does not plan to fly the Falcon 9 Flight 20 first stage again . Rather , the rocket was moved a few miles north to Launch pad 39A , recently refurbished by SpaceX at the adjacent Kennedy Space Center , to conduct a static fire test on 15 January 2016 . This test aimed to assess the health of the recovered booster and the capability of this rocket design to fly repeatedly in the future . The tests delivered good overall results except for one of the outer engines experiencing thrust fluctuations . Elon Musk reported that this may have been due to debris ingestion .
= = = = Near @-@ misses on the oceans = = = =
Falcon 9 Flight 21 launched the Jason @-@ 3 satellite on January 17 , 2016 and attempted to land on the floating platform Just Read the Instructions , located for the first time about 200 miles ( 320 km ) out in the Pacific Ocean . Approximately 9 minutes into the flight , the live video feed from the drone ship went down due to the losing its lock on the uplink satellite . The vehicle landed smoothly onto the vessel but one of the four landing legs failed to lock properly , reportedly due to ice from the heavy pre @-@ launch fog preventing a lockout collet from latching . Consequently the booster fell over shortly after touchdown and was destroyed in a deflagration upon impact with the pad .
Flight 22 was carrying a heavy payload of 5 @,@ 271 kilograms ( 12 @,@ 000 lb ) to geostationary transfer orbit ( GTO ) . This was heavier than previously advertised maximum lift capacity to GTO being made possible by going slightly subsynchronous . Following delays caused by failure of Flight 19 SpaceX agreed to provide extra thrust to the SES @-@ 9 satellite to take it supersynchronous . As a result of these factors , there was little propellant left to execute a full reentry and landing test with normal margins . Consequently the Falcon 9 first stage followed a ballistic trajectory after separation and re @-@ entered the atmosphere at high velocity , making it less likely to land successfully . The atmospheric re @-@ entry and controlled descent were successful despite the higher aerodynamical constraints on the first stage due to extra speed . However the rocket was moving too fast and was destroyed when it collided with the drone ship . SpaceX collected valuable data on the extended flight envelope required to recover boosters from GTO missions .
= = = = First landings on drone ship = = = =
On April 8 , 2016 , Falcon 9 Flight 23 , the third flight of the full @-@ thrust version , delivered the SpaceX CRS @-@ 8 cargo on its way to the International Space Station while the first stage conducted a boostback and re @-@ entry maneuver over the Atlantic ocean . Nine minutes after liftoff , the booster landed vertically on the drone ship Of Course I Still Love You , 300 km from the Florida coastline , achieving a long @-@ sought @-@ after milestone for the SpaceX reusability development program .
A second successful drone ship landing occurred on May 6 , 2016 , with the next flight which launched JCSAT @-@ 14 to GTO . This second landing at sea was more difficult than the previous one because the booster at separation was traveling about 8 @,@ 350 km / h ( 5 @,@ 190 mph ) compared to 6 @,@ 650 km / h ( 4 @,@ 130 mph ) on the CRS @-@ 8 launch to low Earth orbit . Pursuing their experiments to test the limits of the flight envelope , SpaceX opted for a shorter landing burn with three engines instead of the single @-@ engine burns seen in earlier attempts ; this approach consumes less fuel by leaving the stage in free fall as long as possible and decelerating more sharply , thereby minimizing the amount of energy expended to counter gravity . Elon Musk indicated this first stage may not be flown again instead being used as a life leader for ground tests to confirm others are good .
A third successful landing followed on May 27th , again following deceleration from the high speed required for a GTO launch . The landing crushed a " crush core " in one leg , leading to a notable tilt to the stage as it stood on the drone ship .
= = = = Future tests = = = =
SpaceX aims to return a number of first stages to both land and drone ships in 2016 to clarify the procedures needed to re @-@ use the boosters rapidly . The company hopes to begin offering pre @-@ flown Falcon 9 rocket stages commercially by the end of the year , aiming at relaunching such a stage in the near future . In January 2016 Elon Musk estimated the likelihood of success to 70 percent for all landing attempts in 2016 , hopefully rising to 90 percent in 2017 ; he also cautioned that we should expect " a few more RUDs " ( Rapid Unscheduled Disassembly , Musk 's euphemism to denote destruction of the vehicle on impact ) .
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= Mr. Hooper =
Mr. Harold Hooper ( played by Will Lee ) , was one of the first four human characters to appear on the television series Sesame Street . Created by producer and writer Jon Stone , Mr. Hooper is the original proprietor of Hooper 's Store , the neighborhood variety store and combination diner / corner store that serves as a place for Muppets and humans to meet and interact . Lee , a character actor and instructor who had been blacklisted during the McCarthy era , was " perfectly cast " as Mr. Hooper . Mr. Hooper ranked first of all human characters of the show in recognition by young viewers . Mr. Hooper , who has been described as " slightly cranky but good @-@ hearted " and " curmudgeonly " , bridges the gap between the older generation and its young audience . Hooper 's Store , " an idealized social institution " , is an extension of his personality . He had a special relationship with the Muppet Big Bird .
At the time of Lee 's death , instead of recasting the role , or explaining his departure by saying he had moved , quit or retired , the writers and producers of Sesame Street decided to have the character of Mr. Hooper pass away as well , in order to create an episode that taught their young audience about the difficult topic of death . Research was conducted to ascertain the messages they wanted to convey about the topic , as well as the effect the episode would have on the young children who watched it . They were advised by experts in the fields of child psychology , child development , and religion . Studies conducted after the episode was produced showed that most children understood its messages about death , and that they experienced no long @-@ term ill effects . The episode , written by head writer Norman Stiles , aired on Thanksgiving Day 1983 ; the cast and crew reported that filming it was an emotional and touching experience . The episode , which set the standard for dealing with difficult topics on children 's television , was called heartbreaking yet affirming , and one of the proudest moments in the show 's history .
= = Development and description = =
Mr. Hooper , played by Will Lee from the premiere of Sesame Street in 1969 until his death in 1982 , was one of the first four human characters that appeared on the show . Created by producer and writer Jon Stone , Lee was the first actor to be cast . Lee came to Stone 's attention through writers Bruce and Carole Hart . Mr. Hooper was inspired by the Bob Keeshan character , Captain Kangaroo ; Stone previously worked on the Captain Kangaroo program , which greatly influenced him as he developed Sesame Street . Mr. Hooper is the original proprietor of Hooper 's Store , the neighborhood variety store and combination diner / corner store that serves as a place for Muppets and humans to meet and interact . Stone 's original conception of Mr. Hooper was that he would be , like most owners of such establishments at the time , older , male , Caucasian , and Jewish .
Lee was a character actor and acting instructor with a range of roles in the theater and who had been blacklisted during the McCarthy era . According to writer Michael Davis , Lee played Mr. Hooper , known for his bowtie and hornrimmed glasses , " with such certainty and naturalness he made adults suspend their sense of disbelief " . Writer Louise A. Gikow stated that Lee was " perfectly cast " as Mr. Hooper . According to fellow cast member Bob McGrath , who also appeared in Sesame Street 's first episode with Lee , " Will had a broader dimension to his character than perhaps the rest of us did ... He convinced me that no matter how simple the scene was with a child , you had to bring a tremendous integrity and an honesty and credibility to it " . Joan Ganz Cooney , Sesame Street co @-@ creator and president of the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , said , " He gave millions of children the message that the old and the young have a lot to say to each other " . The New York Times reported that Mr. Hooper ranked first of all human characters of the show in recognition by young viewers .
Davis described Mr. Hooper as " slightly cranky but good @-@ hearted " . Gikow called Mr. Hooper " curmudgeonly " . Davis stated that since Mr. Hooper 's appearance in the first episode of Sesame Street , he had become many things to many young children , " ... the guy in the apron at the far side of the generation gap , his half @-@ lens glasses slipping down his nose " . Davis also stated that Hooper 's Store , which he called " an idealized social institution " , is an extension of Mr. Hooper 's personality . Mr. Hooper has a special relationship with the Muppet character Big Bird , who would often come into Hooper 's Store for a birdseed milkshake and a chat . A running gag in the show was that Big Bird would often mispronounce Mr. Hooper 's name , although most attempts ended in " ooper , " such as " Looper " or " Cooper " . Mr. Hooper 's first name , Harold , was not revealed until the character earned a GED during night school .
Mr. Hooper 's last appearances on Sesame Street aired in 1983 , but Lee 's last segments for the show were taped in November 1982 and Lee participated in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade with other Sesame Street characters a few days before he died of a heart attack on December 7 , 1982 .
= = " Death of Mr. Hooper " = =
When Will Lee died on December 7 , 1982 , instead of recasting the role , or explaining Mr. Hooper 's departure by saying that he had moved away , quit or retired , the producers of Sesame Street decided have the character of Mr. Hooper pass away as well in order to create an episode that taught their young audience about the difficult topic of death . According to CTW researcher Rosemarie Truglio and her colleagues , the episode was one of the many social issues relevant to preschoolers the show has dealt with throughout its history . Executive producer Dulcy Singer stated : " if we left it unsaid , kids would notice . One way out was to avoid the issue of death entirely . " According to Big Bird 's actor Carroll Spinney , producers had considered the idea of writing Mr. Hooper out of the script : " we didn 't know what to do . We thought perhaps he could just retire , move to Florida or something , but then the producers thought that the best thing to do would be to actually deal with death . " The episode aired on Thanksgiving Day 1983 and to this day is considered one of the proudest and most groundbreaking moments in Sesame Street history .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The Sesame Street episode ( # 1839 ) in which the death of Mr. Hooper was discussed was structured as all episodes were structured at the time , with individual segments that took place on the main brownstone set ( called " street scenes " ) and interrupted by inserts , or puppet skits , short films , and animations . The episode begins with a scene between Gordon , played by Roscoe Orman , and the Muppet Forgetful Jones , played by puppeteer Richard Hunt . Gordon helps Forgetful remember something that had made him happy ; as Davis states , " Later , Big Bird forgets something that makes him sad " . After several inserts , Big Bird walks backward with his head between his legs ; when Gordon asks him why , he answers , " Just because " . Later , Big Bird listens to the adults conversing about a new baby who is due to visit Sesame Street with his mother .
Two segments later , Big Bird interrupts the adults β Maria ( Sonia Manzano ) , David ( Northern Calloway ) , Bob ( Bob McGrath ) , Susan ( Loretta Long ) , Gordon , Luis ( Emilio Delgado ) and Olivia ( Alaina Reed Hall ) β discussing politics by giving them pictures he had drawn of each of them . He gets to Mr. Hooper 's picture , saying that he would give it to him when he returns . The adults tearfully and emotionally explain to Big Bird that if Mr. Hooper has died , to which Bird Bird simply says he 'll give him the picture when he comes back . Susan then explains to Big Bird that when people die they never come back ; Big Bird reacts by getting upset , expressing his confusion and sadness . The adults reassure him that they love him and will take care of him and David reveals that he would take over the store , because Mr. Hooper left it to him in his will . Big Bird asks , " Why does it have to be this way ? Give me one good reason ! " and Gordon answers , " Big Bird , it has to be this way ... just because . " Bob and Susan then tell Big Bird that even through Mr. Hooper won 't be around anymore , they still have their fond memories Looking at Mr. Hooper 's picture , Big Bird says , mispronouncing his name as he had done many times in the past , " I 'm going to miss you , Mr. Looper . " Maria tearfully corrects Big Bird and everyone gathers around him in support .
According to Carroll Spinney , when Big Bird said the line " I 'm going to miss you , Mr. Looper " , he had started to say " Mr. Lee " before correcting himself . The filming crew decided to keep the take despite Spinney 's slip of the tongue due to the heavy emotions the cast members were feeling .
The episode ends with Big Bird hanging Mr. Hooper 's picture near his nest , and leaving to go see the new baby . Big Bird says , " You know , the one thing is about new babies , one day they 're not here and next day , here they are ! " He puts his head between his legs once again as the credits roll .
= = = Research = = =
Similar to what they had done with other social issues and in developing their curriculum , the CTW researched the topic of death and how preschoolers understand it . The first step in their research process was to assemble a team of experts , led by CTW research director Lewis Bernstein , in the fields of child psychology , child development , and religion . The team advised the show 's writers and producers how to handle the topic , in what they called " a curriculum bath " ; Bernstein described it in this way : " We bring in the experts to allow the writer to soak in expertise . We in Research bring in people to provide the information , and then the artistry of the writer takes over , as they integrate what they 've heard " . The experts advised the producers to provide their viewers with a sense of closure about Mr. Hooper 's death . They decided not to focus on how Mr. Hooper died , since explaining that he was old and ill might increase children 's fears about death . They chose to deal with his death in a single episode , and convey simple messages like : " Mr. Hooper is dead ; Mr. Hooper will not be coming back ; and Mr. Hooper will be missed by all " . Gikow stated that the episode they created was an example of the writers and producers ' skills as educators as well as entertainers .
Before the episode aired , the CTW conducted a series of studies to guide the writers and producers in creating the episode . Their goal was to answer four key questions : ( 1 ) Will children understand the messages they wanted to convey about death ? ( 2 ) How attentive will they be to the storyline ? ( 3 ) How will parents respond to the treatment of such a sensitive topic ? and ( 4 ) Will children be disturbed by the messages , and if so , for how long ? The researchers broke up children into three groups : children who only watched the scenes in which the storyline was played out and who were interviewed afterwards ; children who watched the entire episode and whose attention was recorded while they viewed it ; and children who watched the episode without the inserts , with their parents , who were interviewed 9 or 10 days later .
The researchers found that 73 % of 4- and 5 @-@ year @-@ olds in their study understood that Mr. Hooper was dead and that 88 % of this group understood that he was not coming back , although only about one @-@ fourth of the 3 @-@ year @-@ old viewers responded correctly . Most of the 4- and 5 @-@ year @-@ olds understood that Big Bird and the adults were sad . Most children ( 80 % ) were attentive during the episode . The parents interviewed had " overwhelmingly positive " reactions to the show , and that half reported that they had discussed death with their children after viewing it . None of the parents reported negative reactions from their children , either immediately after watching the episode or at a later time .
= = = Development and legacy = = =
Sesame Street head writer Norman Stiles was chosen to write the segments about Mr. Hooper 's death . The episode focused on the life cycle of birth and death by also mentioning the birth of a baby , and by remembering Mr. Hooper . Stiles said , " We decided to say that while Mr. Hooper was not here anymore , we will always have that part of him that lives within the heart , that we have our love and that it will always stay " . Stiles wanted to convey that expressing grief for someone who had died was difficult for both adults and children . Instead of providing an explanation , the adults of Sesame Street tell Mr. Hooper 's friend Big Bird , when he asked why Mr. Hooper had died , that there was no real reason , that it happened , as Gordon tells Big Bird , " Just because " . The show 's outside experts advised Stiles and the producers to remove the line because they were concerned that an open @-@ ended explanation would not be enough for children , but Stiles kept the line because it was an acknowledgement , as Gikow stated , that there is never a good explanation about why people die .
The episode aired on Thanksgiving Day 1983 , a year after Lee 's final appearance as Mr. Hooper at the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day parade . The producers chose to air it the first week of the new season in order to explain Mr. Hooper 's absence as soon as possible , for maximum exposure , and to ensure that parents were at home with their children in order to discuss it . The illustrations used for the episode were drawn by Caroll Spinney , who performed Big Bird . Mr. Hooper 's picture remained on the set from then on , as a continuing memorial to Lee and Mr. Hooper . Spinney , speaking of the scene in which the pictures were passed out , reported , " When we finished that scene there wasn 't one of us whose face wasn 't streaked with tears " , even Spinney underneath his costume . Jon Stone , who directed the episode , wanted to do another take , although Spinney later said , " There was nothing wrong with that take . It was perfect " . Cameraman Frankie Biondo was touched by the performance .
A book , entitled I 'll Miss You , Mr. Hooper and based upon the script for the episode , was published in 1984 . The book was also written by Stiles . According to RenΓ©e Cherow @-@ O 'Leary , Stiles and the editorial staff of the CTW 's book division worked with the show 's research staff and used the same educational content information and research the show 's producers used to create the episode .
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= 1984 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1984 Atlantic hurricane season was the busiest since 1971 . It officially began on June 1 , 1984 , and lasted until November 30 , 1984 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The 1984 season was an active one in terms of named storms , but most of them were weak and stayed at sea . Most of the cyclones tracked through the northwest subtropical Atlantic west of the 50th meridian to near the Eastern coast of the United States between mid @-@ August and early October . The most damaging storm was Hurricane Diana , which caused $ 65 @.@ 5 million ( 1984 dollars ) in damage in North Carolina . Diana was the first hurricane to strike a nuclear power plant without incident ; it was also the first major hurricane to strike the U.S. East Coast in nearly 20 years . Also of note was Hurricane Lili , which lasted well after the official end of the season . It was downgraded from a named storm on December 24 . Damage overall from the tropical cyclones in 1984 totaled $ 66 @.@ 4 million ( 1984 USD ) .
= = Season summary = =
Six storms during the season had subtropical characteristics at some point in their track , those being Subtropical Storm One , Tropical Storm Cesar , Hurricane Hortense , Hurricane Josephine , Hurricane Klaus , and Hurricane Lili .
The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 84 , which is classified as " near normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
By June 11 , an upper level low caused thunderstorm development off the Florida coast , which caused the formation of a tropical depression . Moving westward , the depression moved into St. Augustine , causing a total of 5 @.@ 02 inches ( 128 mm ) of rainfall at Jacksonville Beach , Florida as its main thunderstorm activity was concentrated north of the center . It dissipated as a tropical cyclone on June 14 while moving through the Florida panhandle . The small remnant low continued moving westward inland of the Gulf coast , causing occasional redevelopment of thunderstorm activity as the system moved into Louisiana , before both the thunderstorm activity and low pressure area dissipated by June 17 .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
An upper level low moving across the southern Gulf of Mexico spawned an area of thunderstorm activity over the Mexican isthmus on June 16 . The thunderstorm area moved northwest , pulsing in intensity , until flaring up into a larger area of deeper convection early in the morning of June 18 . A surface low formed , and the system was considered well @-@ enough organized to be a tropical depression , the second of the season , while located southeast of Brownsville , Texas . On June 19 , vertical wind shear from the west @-@ southwest halted further development , and the tropical depression began a general weakening trend which continued past its landfall point in northeast Mexico . By early morning of June 20 , the system completely dissipated .
= = = Tropical Depression Three = = =
A tropical depression formed on July 25 and moved westward , producing rainfall up to six inches in Barbados on July 26 . The depression dissipated on July 26 . Two commercial fisherman were reported missing near St. Lucia .
= = = Subtropical Storm One = = =
A weak front generated a low pressure system that organized into a subtropical depression north of Bermuda on August 18 . The depression headed northeast and strengthened to a subtropical storm . It is believed to have merged with a front on August 21 . The history of Subtropical Storm One is not entirely certain , as satellite images were largely unavailable due to a failure of the VISSR unit on GOES EAST ( then GOES @-@ 5 ) , and this system remained at the fringe of the GOES WEST and Meteosat throughout its existence . Winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) was reported on the southwest coast of Newfoundland . In addition , a weather office on the island reported rainfall at 2 @.@ 1 in ( 53 mm ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Arthur = = =
The 1984 season 's first named storm occurred later than usual , forming on August 28 . Arthur formed east of the Windward Islands and tracked generally northwest . It was downgraded to a depression on September 1 after being negatively impacted by vertical wind shear , and dissipated several days later . Arthur was a minimal tropical storm , and caused no significant weather on land .
= = = Tropical Storm Bertha = = =
Bertha was a short @-@ lived tropical storm that formed in the mid @-@ Atlantic on August 31 , in close proximity to the east of Arthur . The storm took a parabolic path to the north and northeast before merging with a cold front on September 4 . Bertha never approached land and caused no reported damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Cesar = = =
A second storm formed on August 31 as a non @-@ tropical low strengthened into Tropical Storm Cesar off the East Coast of the United States . Cesar traveled east @-@ northeast and strengthened gradually until it became extratropical and merged with another system off the coast of Newfoundland on September 2 .
= = = Tropical Depression Seven = = =
A tropical wave moved across Central America into the far eastern north Pacific ocean by August 28 . The system moved westward with no signs of development until September 1 , when an upper level low to its north across the Gulf of Mexico caused an area of thunderstorms to form just south of the Mexican coastline . An upper trough developed across the southern Plains of the United States , which slowly lured the northern portion of this increasingly large disturbance northward through the Mexican Isthmus . The southern portion moved westward , developing into Hurricane Marie . For a short while , Marie acted as a source of vertical wind shear from the west for this system , halting further development .
By September 6 , the disturbance had emerged into the southwest Gulf of Mexico and consolidated into a smaller system which had enough organization to be classified as a tropical depression , the seventh of the season . The depression moved north @-@ northwest into northeast Mexico on the afternoon of September 7 , dissipating completely on September 8 .
= = = Hurricane Diana = = =
On September 8 , an extratropical cyclone organized into Tropical Storm Diana north of the Bahamas . Diana proved difficult for meteorologists to forecast , initially moving westward towards Cape Canaveral , but then turned to the north and paralleled the coastline . On September 11 , the storm reached hurricane strength , and continued to intensify to a Category 4 hurricane . Diana moved north @-@ northeast , and performed a small anti @-@ cyclonic loop before striking near Cape Fear as a minimal Category 2 hurricane on September 13 . A weakened Tropical Storm Diana curved back out to sea and headed northeast until it became extratropical near Newfoundland on September 16 .
Damage estimates were set at $ 65 @.@ 5 million . Three indirect deaths were associated with Diana . Diana was the first hurricane to strike a nuclear power plant β the Carolina Power and Light Brunswick Nuclear Power Plant recorded sustained hurricane @-@ force winds , but there was no damage to the facility .
= = = Tropical Storm Edouard = = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Edouard are unclear , but an area of persistent organized storms formed in the Bay of Campeche , which strengthened into a tropical storm on September 14 . Edouard rapidly intensified , with wind speeds reaching 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) in 18 hours . Following its strengthening , Edouard dissipated even more quickly , degenerating into an area of thunderstorms the next day . The remnants of Edouard moved over land near the port of Veracruz .
= = = Tropical Storm Fran = = =
On September 14 , a well @-@ defined tropical wave exited the coast of Africa . The next day , it had rapidly organized into a tropical depression . On the afternoon of September 16 the depression attained tropical storm strength , and it was given the name Fran . It turned to the northwest , and passed very near the Cape Verde . 31 people were killed in the country . Fran continued between the northwest and west @-@ northwest on September 17 β 18 as it continued to organize . During this period satellite imagery indicated that Fran peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and a minimum surface pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . As Fran passed the Cape Verde islands weather stations reported 35 miles per hour ( 56 km / h ) winds , which is tropical depression force . During the period of September 19 β 20 Fran turned towards westward and began to encounter strong upper level wind shear , which caused Fran to dissipate on September 20 .
= = = Tropical Storm Gustav = = =
Gustav spent most of its life as a well @-@ organized tropical depression , which formed on September 16 in the open Atlantic south of Bermuda . The depression moved north , and its motion stalled over Bermuda on September 17 . A day later , the depression had strengthened to a tropical storm and was named Gustav . Tropical Storm Gustav headed northeast until it was absorbed by a front on September 19 .
= = = Hurricane Hortense = = =
A large frontal system spawned a subtropical depression early on September 23 , about 385 miles ( 620 km ) east of Bermuda . Ship and satellite data confirmed its development , and indicated the system intensified into a subtropical storm later on September 23 . Initially the cyclone moved toward the south @-@ southwest , although on September 24 it turned to the west . That day , the Hurricane Hunters reported that the system transitioned into a tropical cyclone ; as such , it was named Tropical Storm Hortense . The newly @-@ tropical storm quickly intensified while turning to the northwest , and late on September 25 Hortense attained hurricane status , about 300 miles ( 475 km ) southeast of Bermuda .
Twelve hours after reaching hurricane status , Hortense began a sharp weakening trend while passing east of Bermuda . By September 27 it was a minimal tropical storm , and subsequently it executed a clockwise loop to the southwest . The intensity of Hortense fluctuated slightly over the subsequent few days , although it never regained its former intensity . On September 30 , after turning to the west and later to the north , the storm passed just 7 mi ( 11 km ) west of Bermuda . As the storm was so weak , the island only reported winds of 18 mph ( 30 km / h ) . Hortense accelerated to the northeast , moving rapidly across the north Atlantic before being absorbed by a larger extratropical storm late on October 2 , northwest of the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Isidore = = =
A tropical depression formed on September 25 off the southeastern Bahamas . The depression headed west , and was upgraded to a tropical storm in the central Bahamas on September 26 . It struck the US coast near Jupiter , Florida . Retaining tropical storm strength , Isidore curved to the northeast , emerging over water near Jacksonville , Florida . Isidore continued northeast until it was absorbed by a front on October 1 . Total damages were estimated at over $ 750 @,@ 000 ( 1984 US dollars ) . One death from electrocution was reported .
= = = Hurricane Josephine = = =
Josephine became a named storm on October 8 while northeast of Puerto Rico . It briefly moved west then turned almost due north . While it stayed well away from the U.S. coast , Josephine was a large storm and sustained tropical storm winds were measured at the Diamond Shoals of Cape Hatteras . When it passed 36 Β° N latitude ( roughly level with Norfolk , Virginia ) , Josephine curved to the southeast , then back to the northeast . It continued on this path until it made a cyclonic loop beginning on October 17 while becoming extratropical . The storm lost its identity on October 21 . The hurricane caused wave damage to coastal areas , but primarily posed a threat to the shipping lanes of the North Atlantic .
Offshore , a sailboat with six crewmen on it became disabled due to high waves , estimated to have exceeded 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) , produced by the hurricane . All of the people on the ship were quickly rescued after issuing a distress signal by a nearby tanker vessel . In Massachusetts , one man drowned after falling off his boat on North River amidst large swells produced by the storm . In Long Island , New York and parts of New Jersey , tides between 2 and 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 and 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal resulted in minor coastal flooding .
= = = Tropical Depression Seventeen = = =
This system was recognized as the seventeenth tropical depression of the season by the National Hurricane Center after the season ended . A retrograding upper @-@ level low spurred the development of a low east of the Bahamas on October 25 . The system tracked westward with limited shower and thunderstorm activity , crossing Florida on October 26 before moving into the Gulf of Mexico . Once the system moved into the north @-@ central Gulf , deep convection began to develop near its center , expanding in intensity and coverage near and after landfall in extreme southeast Mississippi . The small system accelerated rapidly to the north and northeast ahead of an approaching cold front , moving across the Tennessee Valley and central Appalachians before linking up with the front and becoming a weak extratropical cyclone . The nontropical cyclone then moved through coastal New England .
= = = Hurricane Klaus = = =
Forming from a broad area of low pressure on November 5 , Klaus maintained a northeast movement throughout much of its path . After making landfall on extreme eastern Puerto Rico , it passed to the north of the Leeward Islands , resulting in strong southwesterly winds and rough seas . Klaus attained hurricane status and reached peak winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) before becoming extratropical over cooler waters on November 13 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico , causing minor flooding and light damage . Klaus caused heavy marine damage in the Leeward Islands , including wrecking at least three ships . The Virgin Islands experienced heavy damage , as well . Damage from the storm totaled to $ 152 million ( 1984 USD ) , and the hurricane killed two on Dominica .
= = = Tropical Depression Nineteen = = =
A low pressure system formed east of Florida on November 22 and rode up the East Coast of the United States producing heavy rain before curving back out to sea and dissapating on November 26 . The storm left one fatality and $ 7 @.@ 4 million ( 1984 USD ) in damage . There has been evidence that the November storm may have become a subtropical cyclone east of Bermuda . The remnants of the cyclone contributed to the Late November 1984 Nor 'easter .
= = = Hurricane Lili = = =
Hurricane Lili was one of only four Atlantic tropical cyclones on record to reach hurricane status in the month of December . Lili developed as a subtropical cyclone which originated from a frontal trough to the south of Bermuda on December 12 . It tracked southeastward , then northward , slowly attaining tropical characteristics and becoming a hurricane on December 20 . Lili turned to the south and southwest , briefly threatening the northern Caribbean islands before weakening and dissipating near the coast of the Dominican Republic . Lili was the longest lasting tropical cyclone outside of the Atlantic hurricane season , as well as the strongest hurricane to form during the month of December . It briefly threatened to pass through the Leeward Islands as a minimal hurricane , though upon passing through the area as a dissipating tropical depression Lili produced light rainfall and no reported damage .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1984 . No names were retired , so the same list of names was used again in the 1990 season . This is the first time these names were used since the post @-@ 1978 naming change , except for Bertha and Fran which were previously used in 1957 and 1973 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
The World Meteorological Organization did not retire any names used in the 1984 season .
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= Maryland Route 318 =
Maryland Route 318 ( MD 318 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 11 @.@ 32 miles ( 18 @.@ 22 km ) from MD 16 and MD 331 at Preston east to the Delaware state line near Federalsburg , where the highway continues east as Delaware Route 18 ( DE 18 ) . MD 318 connects Federalsburg with Preston and Bridgeville , Delaware . The state highway follows the Dorchester β Caroline county line for most of its length between Linchester and Federalsburg . The county line road is considered to be in Caroline County for maintenance purposes . Further east , MD 318 runs concurrently with MD 313 to bypass Federalsburg . The portion of MD 318 west of Federalsburg was originally numbered Maryland Route 319 and assumed by MD 318 in the mid @-@ 1950s . The MD 319 section was constructed in the late 1910s near Federalsburg and completed west to MD 331 and MD 16 in the late 1920s . MD 318 east of Federalsburg was built in the mid @-@ 1920s . MD 318 was placed on the bypass of Federalsburg in the early 1960s ; its old alignment through Federalsburg became MD 315 .
= = Route description = =
MD 318 begins at an intersection with MD 16 and MD 331 at Linchester , just south of the Caroline β Dorchester county line . MD 16 and MD 331 head south from the intersection as East New Market Ellwood Road and west as a continuation of Preston Road toward Preston . MD 318 heads east as Preston Road , a two @-@ lane road that intersects Langrell Road and Beulah Road a short distance east of its western terminus . Langrell Road is unsigned MD 817B , which follows the county line west to a dead end at Hunting Creek . MD 318 continues east on top of the county line through farmland between Dorchester County to the south and Caroline County to the north . The state highway intersects American Corner Road and passes Magennis Farm Airport in the hamlet of Hynson . MD 318 fully enters Caroline County shortly after passing Lovers Road , then intersects MD 313 ( Federalsburg Highway ) and MD 315 ( Bloomingdale Avenue ) . MD 315 ( Bloomingdale Avenue ) , the old alignment of MD 318 , continues straight east toward downtown Federalsburg , while MD 318 turns south and runs concurrently with MD 313 on a bypass of Federalsburg .
MD 313 and MD 318 intersect MD 307 ( Williamsburg Road ) at the Federalsburg Roundabout . The highway crosses the Seaford Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad at @-@ grade as the highway gently curves to the east . After passing Main Street , which is unsigned MD 308 , MD 313 and MD 318 cross Marshyhope Creek . East of the creek , MD 313 turns south onto Reliance Road ; the old alignment of MD 313 , heads north toward downtown Federalsburg as Reliance Avenue . MD 318 continues east through an industrial area along Federalsburg Highway , which crosses the Seaford Line track again . The state highway crosses Tanyard Branch before meeting the other end of MD 315 ( Liberty Road ) . MD 318 continues east as Bridgeville Road to the Delaware state line , where the highway heads toward Bridgeville as DE 18 ( Federalsburg Road ) .
= = History = =
The portion of MD 318 between Linchester and Federalsburg was originally MD 319 , which was constructed as a state @-@ aid road from Federalsburg to about halfway to Hynson around 1919 . The state highway was completed west to U.S. Route 213 ( now MD 331 ) and MD 16 near Preston by 1930 . MD 318 from Federalsburg to the Delaware state line was built between 1924 and 1926 . MD 318 was extended west through Federalsburg and over the whole length of MD 319 in 1956 . The state highway west of Federalsburg was widened around 1958 and extended west fully into Dorchester County to its present terminus when MD 331 and MD 16 were relocated around Ellwood in 1960 . MD 318 was placed on the Federalsburg Bypass when the highway was extended south and east around the town to the present intersection with MD 315 in 1964 ; MD 318 through the town was renumbered MD 315 . The Federalsburg Roundabout was constructed in 1998 . The Federalsburg Bypass bridge over Marshyhope Creek , which was originally built in 1962 , will be rehabilitated in 2012 . During the project , which will replace the bridge 's deck , alternating one @-@ way traffic will cross the bridge directed by traffic lights at either end of the construction area .
= = Junction list = =
MD 318 follows the Caroline β Dorchester county line between the intersection with MD 817 near Preston and a point between Lovers Road and MD 313 near Federalsburg . The county line portion is considered to be in Caroline County for maintenance purposes .
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= SS Czar =
SS Czar , or Π¦Π°ΡΡ in Russian , was an ocean liner for the Russian American Line before World War I. The ship was later known as Estonia for the Baltic American Line , PuΕaski for the Gdynia America Line and as a British Ministry of War Transport troopship , and as Empire Penryn after World War II . The liner was built in Glasgow for the Russian American Line in 1912 and sailed on North Atlantic routes from Libau to New York . On one eastbound voyage in October 1913 , Czar was one of ten ships that came to the aid of the burning Uranium Line steamer Volturno .
After the Russian Revolution , the ship came under the control of the British Shipping Controller and was managed by the Wilson Line and later , the Cunard Line . Under Cunard management in 1918 as HMT Czar , she was employed as a troopship carrying United States troops to France as part of the United States Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force . After the end of World War I , the ship was returned to the East Asiatic Company , the parent company of the Russian American Line , who placed her on their Baltic American Line sailing in roundtrip passenger service to New York under the name Estonia . She was sold to the Polish Gdynia America Line in 1930 , and renamed SS PuΕaski the following year for Polish passenger service to North and South America .
After the outbreak of World War II , PuΕaski was initially used as a French and , after the Fall of France , a British troopship . PuΕaski sailed variously in the North Atlantic , between African ports , and in the Indian Ocean . In 1946 , the ship 's name was changed to Empire Penryn and continued trooping duties under the management of Lamport & Holt . She was scrapped in 1949 at Blyth .
= = Launching and early career = =
Ocean liner SS Czar was launched on 23 March 1912 by Barclay Curle & Company of Glasgow , Scotland , for the Russian American Line , a subsidiary of the Danish East Asiatic Company . Czar had a 6 @,@ 503 gross tonnage ( GT ) and measured 425 feet ( 130 m ) long by 53 @.@ 2 feet ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) abeam and had two funnels and two masts . She was driven by twin screw propellers at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) by two steam engines . Czar had accommodations for 30 passengers in first class , 260 in second class , and 1 @,@ 086 in third class and steerage .
Czar sailed on her maiden voyage on 30 May 1912 from Libau ( present @-@ day LiepΔja , Latvia ) to Copenhagen and New York , arriving in the latter city on 13 June . She replaced Lituania on the Libau β New York route , and sailed opposite various combinations of Kursk , Russia , Birma , and Dwinsk through July 1914 .
On her 5 August 1913 sailing from Libau , Czar carried a young Mark Rothko and his family on their way to join his father in the United States ; Rothko went on to become a well @-@ known American abstract expressionist painter and printmaker . On her October 1913 eastbound crossing , Czar responded to the distress calls of the Uranium Line steamer Volturno on fire in the middle of the Atlantic The liner joined nine other ships that came to the aid of the stricken ship . Amidst stormy seas , Czar 's crew rescued 102 passengers from Volturno , more than any other of the rescue ships , apart from the SS Grosser KurfΓΌrst which rescued 105 . In March 1914 , King George V of the United Kingdom , on recommendation of the Board of Trade , awarded 19 of Czar 's crew the Silver Sea Gallantry Medal , along with a Β£ 3 award each .
= = World War I = =
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Czar switched to service from Archangel to New York , but ran only sporadically through 1916 . After the Russian Revolution , the East Asiatic Company suspended service on the Russian American Line , and transferred several ships , including Czar , to British registry . The British shipping controller initially placed the liner under the management of John Ellerman 's Wilson Line , but Czar was transferred to the Cunard Line management by the end of 1917 .
Known by this time as HMT Czar , the ship , along with former Russian American Line ships Czaritza , Kursk , and Dwinsk , was attached to the Cruiser and Transport Force of the United States Navy , and made three trips carrying American troops to France . Czar sailed on her first voyage with American troops on 16 April 1918 , when she departed from the Hoboken Port of Embarkation , with U.S. Navy transports Maui , Calamares , Pocahontas , El Oriente , and British troopship HMT Czaritza . The convoy was joined by transport Mount Vernon and was escorted by American cruiser Seattle . The convoy arrived safely in France on 28 April . Sources do not report when Czar returned to the United States , but she had done so by early June .
Czar loaded troops at Newport News , Virginia , and set out on her second U.S. convoy crossing on 14 June , sailing with American transports Princess Matoika , Wilhelmina , Pastores , and Lenape . On the morning of 16 June , lookouts on Princess Matoika spotted a submarine and , soon after , a torpedo missed that ship by a few yards . Later that morning , the Newport News ships met up with the New York portion of the convoy β which included DeKalb , Finland , Kroonland , George Washington , Covington , Rijndam , Italian steamer Dante Alighieri , and British steamer Vauben β and set out for France . The convoy was escorted by American cruisers North Carolina and Frederick , and destroyers Stevens and Fairfax ; battleship Texas and several other destroyers joined in escort duties for the group for a time . The convoy had a false alarm when a floating barrel was mistaken for a submarine , but otherwise uneventfully arrived at Brest on the afternoon of 27 June .
When she departed Newport News on 7 October , Czar began her last voyage ferrying American troops to France . Sailing in company with U.S. Navy transports Tenadores , Susquehanna , and America , she rendezvoused with American transport Kroonland , Italian steamer Caserta , and British steamer Euripides out of New York . The convoy ships were escorted by cruisers Seattle and Rochester , and destroyers Murray and Fairfax . The ships arrived safely in France on 20 October .
Throughout 1919 and into 1920 , HMT Czar continued transporting Commonwealth troops under Cunard management . The troopship primarily sailed between British ports and Mediterranean ports such as Trieste , Malta , Alexandria , and Constantinople . One typical voyage from Alexandria returned 1 @,@ 600 officers and men β who had been serving in Palestine , Syria , and Egypt β to Plymouth in January 1920 . Czar also played a role in the North Russia Campaign of the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War when the liner departed Hull for North Russia on 28 August 1919 . H.M.T. Czar arrived in the Tyne , from Murmansk last Friday ( 15 August 1919 ) , with about 1 @,@ 800 British and Italian troops from the Syren Force North Russia . Amongst them were about 100 officers , N.C.O 's and men of the 6th and 13th Battalions Yorkshire Regiment .
= = Interwar civilian service = =
By late 1920 , Czar had been returned to the East Asiatic Company , which placed her in service for the Baltic American Line under the new name of Estonia . For her first Baltic American trip she sailed from Glasgow on 11 January 1921 for New York , Danzig , and Libau , arriving at the latter by mid @-@ February . Departing from Libau on 23 February , she began a regular Libau β Danzig β Boston β New York service , sailing opposite Lituania and Polonia .
In February 1925 , Estonia was reconditioned and outfitted with accommodations for 290 cabin @-@ class and 500 third @-@ class passengers . The following March , her accommodations were altered for 110 cabin @-@ class , 180 tourist @-@ class , and 500 third @-@ class passengers . Her last voyage for the Baltic American Line began on 31 January 1930 when she sailed from Danzig to Copenhagen , Halifax , and New York . Sold to the Polish @-@ owned Gdynia America Line , she sailed 13 March for one more trip on the Danzig β New York route under the name Estonia . Before her next voyage on 25 April , she was renamed PuΕaski , after Polish soldier and American Revolutionary War general Kazimierz PuΕaski . SS PuΕaski continued sailing the same route through August 1935 , when she was moved to Gdynia β Buenos Aires service . She began her last voyage on this route on 21 April 1939 .
= = World War II = =
With the signing of the Anglo @-@ Polish military alliance impending , PuΕaski sailed from Gdynia to Falmouth on 24 August 1939 . On 26 September , the ship left Dartmouth for Gibraltar ( calling there on 2 September ) and Piraeus , where she arrived on 13 October . Picking up Polish soldiers there , she sailed five days later for Marseille , where she eventually arrived on 2 December . Until March 1940 , PuΕaski underwent a refit in Marseille after which she sailed under charter to the French Fabre Line . At the end of the 1930s , the Fabre Line sailed ships on a Marseille β Dakar route with intermediate stops in other African ports .
On 10 March , PuΕaski departed Marseille on the first of three voyages from that port . She sailed to Algiers and from there to Dakar on 13 March . PuΕaski left Dakar for Freetown , Sierra Leone , and Konakry , French Guinea , returning to Dakar in early April . Sailing for Marseille on 5 April , the ship returned on 13 April as a part of convoy DF 29 . Leaving again about two weeks later , she repeated the trip and returned to Marseille on 29 May as a part of convoy DF 41 . By the time of her return , the German invasion of France had been underway for nearly three weeks .
PuΕaski sailed on her third and final French voyage on 6 June . The liner arrived at Dakar on 15 June , and sailed the next day for Freetown , where she arrived on 18 June . Likely because of the confusion surrounding the French surrender on 22 June , PuΕaski 's movements over the next days are unrecorded , but she was detained at Konakry on 8 July by Vichy authorities . That evening , PuΕaski 's crew raised steam and sailed the ship out of the harbor in defiance of the detainment . After taking fire from shore batteries at Konakry , the ship arrived back at Freetown on 9 July .
= = = British trooping duties = = =
On 14 August , PuΕaski , KoΕciuszko ( the latest name of the former Czaritza ) , and Batory were chartered by the Ministry of War Transport for trooping duties and placed under the management of Lamport & Holt of Liverpool . All three ships retained their Polish crews but also carried a Lamport & Holt liaison officer aboard . Four days later , PuΕaski joined convoy SL 44 , the 44th wartime convoy from Sierra Leone to Liverpool , with nearly 30 other ships and 10 escorts . PuΕaski and about half of the ships departed the convoy at Liverpool on 7 September , while the other half continued on for Methil .
PuΕaski next made her way to the Clyde in late October . Between 10 May and 12 June 1941 , she sailed on three roundtrip trooping runs between Clyde and Iceland . In late June , PuΕaski , loaded with 2 @,@ 047 troops , sailed from Clyde to join convoy WS 9B headed for Freetown . The convoy arrived at its destination on 13 July . After three days , PuΕaski and four other ships sailed on to Cape Town , arriving on 27 July . Leaving behind one ship at Cape Town , PuΕaski and the others sailed on 30 July to their final destination of Aden , where they arrived in mid August .
Over the next seven months , PuΕaski operated in the Indian Ocean , primarily sailing between Middle Eastern and East African ports . Beginning in late August , PuΕaski sailed between Aden and ports of Suez , Durban , Berbera , Mombasa , Massawa , Port Sudan , and Kilindini . From Kilindini , in March 1942 , the liner sailed to Colombo and back to Durban on 8 April . While at Durban , a fire gutted the bridge in what may have been sabotage .
The damaged PuΕaski made her way to East London in South Africa on 11 April where she remained under repair until June . Departing East London on 25 June , she resumed her Middle Eastern and African runs between Aden , Suez , and Durban . In November , the transport departed Aden and called at Basra , Bandar Abbas , and Karachi , before returning to Durban in early December . After nearly a two @-@ month stay at Durban , PuΕaski returned to her trooping duties in the Indian Ocean on 1 February 1943 . She made her first visits to Diego Suarez , Zanzibar , and Tamatave in March , and Djibouti in April .
After a return to East London from Durban on 30 May , the ship put in for another extended stay , this time for four months . Resuming her trooping runs on 29 September , PuΕaski began a year of almost continuous sailing . During this span , which lasted until mid @-@ September 1944 , the ship called at Bombay twice in addition to numerous stops in Aden , Suez , Durban , and Kilindini . Putting in at Durban on 15 September , PuΕaski had a general refit over the next four months .
PuΕaski resumed her Indian Ocean service when she left Durban on 21 January 1945 , headed for Kilindini . She visited Dar es Salaam for the first time in April , and departed from her first visit to Madras on Victory in Europe Day , 8 May 1945 . Headed to Akyab , Burma , she started the first of five India β Burma roundtrips through July . Over the next months , she shuttled between Rangoon , Calcutta ( where she was docked on Victory over Japan Day ) , Chittagong , Madras , and Colombo , arriving at the latter port for the final time on 12 September . From Colombo she sailed into the Western Pacific for Singapore where she arrived for the first of several visits on 14 September , two days after the Japanese garrison there surrendered . Through the end of 1945 , PuΕaski continued sailing between Singapore and India , making additional stops at Port Swettenham , Chittagong , Sourabaya , and Batavia .
PuΕaski arrived at Calcutta on 23 December 1945 . After this time , the ship continued to sail in trooping duties in the Indian Ocean , though her specific movements are not known . In March 1946 , PuΕaski was purchased by the Ministry of War Transport for Β£ 100 @,@ 000 . It was around this time the Polish crews of PuΕaski and KoΕciuszko refused to be repatriated to Soviet @-@ occupied Poland . The crew members all signed British articles . On 16 April 1946 , PuΕaski was formally handed over to British authorities , who renamed the vessel Empire Penryn : Empire to match the naming convention for miscellaneous British auxiliary ships ; Penryn for the port of Penryn , Cornwall . Remaining under Lamport & Holt management , Empire Penryn performed trooping duties in the Mediterranean . The ship was taken out of service in 1948 , and was scrapped at Blyth in 1949 .
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= Interstate 470 ( Missouri ) =
Interstate 470 ( I @-@ 470 ) is a 16 @.@ 72 @-@ mile ( 26 @.@ 91 km ) loop of the Interstate Highway System that serves to link southeast Kansas City to Independence via Lee 's Summit in Jackson County , Missouri . The western terminus of the freeway is at the Grandview Triangle interchange with I @-@ 49 , I @-@ 435 , U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) , and US 71 while the northern terminus is an cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 70 . The freeway travels west to east through southern Kansas City , curving towards the north at the Lee 's Summit Municipal Airport and becoming concurrent with Missouri Route 291 ( Route 291 ) as the highway travels north towards Independence .
An intermediate interchange with US 50 provides access to southern Jackson County , and to Raytown to the north via Route 350 , a former alignment of US 50 before the construction of I @-@ 470 . Plans for a southern freeway were first published in 1955 , and the first portions of I @-@ 470 were completed in 1970 . By 1983 the entire freeway was open to traffic . Since construction two new interchanges have been constructed , along with the expansion of the US 50 cloverleaf . In 2010 , part of the freeway was closed by the Grandview Triangle due to a landslide underneath the freeway . Between about 38 @,@ 000 and 75 @,@ 000 vehicles use the freeway on an average day .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 470 begins in southern Kansas City at the Grandview Triangle interchange with I @-@ 49 , I @-@ 435 , US 50 , and US 71 . The freeway , concurrent with US 50 , travels east through grasslands before meeting the westernmost interchange , a diamond interchange with Blue Ridge Boulevard . A rail line belonging to Kansas City Southern Railway passes under the freeway west of the interchange . The concurrent highways continue east through lightly populated Jackson County past a light residential zone , towards an interchange with Raytown Road . Raytown Road provides access to Longview Lake to the south of I @-@ 470 . Crossing into urbanized Lee 's Summit , the Kansas City Metropolitan Junior College is accessible from the View High Drive interchange . The city line between Kansas City and Lee 's Summit is near View High Drive . Exit 7 consists of a cloverleaf interchange with the southern end of Route 350 and US 50 , as well as Northwest Blue Parkway and Northwest Pryor Road . Two rail lines surround the cloverleaf interchange , both operated by the Union Pacific Railroad , however only the eastern line is operational . US 50 leaves the freeway and travels southeast as I @-@ 470 curves to the north near the Lee 's Summit Municipal Airport .
A partial interchange with Northeast Colburn Road is quickly followed by a partial interchange with Route 291 , which becomes concurrent with I @-@ 470 as it heads north towards Independence . Just north of the airport is an interchange with Strother Road , followed by an interchange with Woods Chapel Road . Lakewood Lakes , a pair of connected lakes , passes to the west of the freeway as it travels north . Lakewood Lakes was home to the Lollapalooza music festival in 1996 . An interchange with Northeast Bowlin Road serves as an access road to Blue Springs Lake to the east of the freeway . US 40 , which parallels I @-@ 70 through most of Missouri is the penultimate exit , serving the southern portions of Independence and Blue Springs . US 40 is named after Corporal Michael E. Webster , a Missouri State Highway Patrol officer who was killed in the line of duty by a drunk driver . The northern terminus of I @-@ 470 is at a cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 70 southwest of the Independence Center mall . The roadway continues north after the interchange with I @-@ 70 as Route 291 towards its ultimate end point at an interchange with I @-@ 435 .
Every three years , the Missouri Department of Transportation ( MoDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , MoDOT calculated that as few as 38 @,@ 152 vehicles traveled along the highway at the northern terminus just north of the interchange with I @-@ 70 , and as many as 75 @,@ 647 vehicles used the highway just east of the Grandview Triangle . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
Plans for a freeway linking southeast Kansas City to Independence were first published in 1955 in a document titled General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas . The first portions of the highway that were signed I @-@ 470 were established in 1970 , between I @-@ 70 and US 40 in Independence . The north @-@ south portion of the highway , then designated US 71 Bypass had been in existence since 1970 and was renumbered to Route 291 between 1970 and 1971 . Between 1979 and 1980 , the portion of the freeway between the Grandview Triangle and the Exit 7 cloverleaf had been completed . US 50 's alignment was changed to follow I @-@ 470 west to the Grandview Triangle , and the old routing of US 50 was renumbered Route 350 . The section of freeway between US 50 and Route 291 was opened to traffic in 1983 , completing the route . Between 1980 and 1983 , the portion of the route that is concurrent with Route 291 was upgraded to freeway standards and included in the I @-@ 470 loop .
Since construction of the highway , three interchanges have been added or expanded . The first addition was an interchange with View High Drive , which was constructed in early 1993 costing about $ 2 million to complete . The second was an addition to the existing cloverleaf at US 50 in Lee 's Summit , adding access roads to Pryor Road and Northwest Blue Parkway . Construction on that interchange began in July 2007 , and was completed by September 2008 . The third interchange , with Strother Road was first planned to be constructed in 2008 . The road served to provide access to the industrial park west of the freeway , and to spur new development on land pending sale by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints to the east of the freeway . The interchange was opened to traffic in August 2010 at a final construction cost of around $ 18 million .
In July 2010 , MoDOT closed the westbound lanes of I @-@ 470 near the Grandview Triangle due to large cracks that formed in the roadway . A buildup of ground water underneath the westbound lanes caused a 42 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 13 m ) retaining wall to fail . A landslide occurred on July 17 which created a 35 @-@ by @-@ 200 @-@ foot ( 11 m Γ 61 m ) hole in the roadway . The eastbound lanes were not affected and were not closed . The affected area was replaced by a 225 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 69 m ) bridge extension that opened in the following month .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Jackson County .
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= Mind Games ( John Lennon album ) =
Mind Games is the fourth studio album by John Lennon . It was recorded at Record Plant Studios in New York in summer 1973 . The album was released in the US 29 October 1973 and the UK 16 November 1973 . The album was Lennon 's first self @-@ produced recording without help from Phil Spector . Like his previous album , the politically topical and somewhat abrasive Some Time in New York City , Mind Games was poorly received by some music critics upon release . It reached number 13 in the UK and number 9 in the US , where it was certified gold .
The album was recorded while Lennon was having difficulties with US immigration and at the beginning of his 18 @-@ month separation from Yoko Ono . The title track was released as a single at the same time as the album . The album itself was later reissued several times throughout the 1970s and 1980s .
= = Background = =
By the start of 1973 , John Lennon began distancing himself from the political and social issues he had embraced in the previous 18 months . It was also around this time that he and his wife , Yoko Ono , were going through marital problems . As Ono was completing her fourth album , Feeling the Space , Lennon decided he also wanted to record a new album , and liked the studio musicians that their assistant and production coordinator May Pang had assembled for Ono 's album . Shortly thereafter , he asked Pang to book them for his sessions . Wanting to produce an album that would be more accepted than his previous politically charged commercial flop Some Time in New York City , Lennon began writing and demoing a few songs for Mind Games in his Greenwich Village apartment . He began composing after a period of almost a year of not writing any material .
Amid frequent court appearances battling to stay in the United States , Lennon became stressed , a situation that was only worsened by constant surveillance by the FBI , due to his political activism . Lennon said " I just couldn 't function , you know ? I was so paranoid from them tappin ' the phone and followin ' me . " All this combined made Lennon begin to feel emotionally withdrawn . Lennon put his suffering aside to write the songs for Mind Games , writing all the songs for it in a week .
Under the moniker of " The Plastic U.F.Ono Band " , Lennon engaged the services of session drummer Jim Keltner , guitarist David Spinozza , Gordon Edwards on bass , Arthur Jenkins on percussion , Michael Brecker on saxophone , Ken Ascher on piano and organ , and the vocal backing of a group called Something Different . Difficulties between Lennon and Ono became more and more noticeable around this time . Just as the sessions were to get under way in June at New York 's Record Plant Studios , John and Yoko separated . At Ono 's urging , Pang became Lennon 's companion and lover in what would become an 18 @-@ month relationship later renowned as Lennon 's ' lost weekend ' .
= = Recording and content = =
Mind Games was recorded between July and August 1973 in Lennon 's characteristic quick fashion , and was mixed over a two @-@ week period . Lennon produced the album by himself , following his previous three @-@ year partnership with Phil Spector . When the album was remixed in 2002 , many audio anomalies hidden in the original mixing were uncovered . Some rough mixes appear on bootlegs and on 1997 's John Lennon Anthology .
The album continued Lennon 's previous attempts to chronicle his life through his songs , the tone of which displays a range of mixed feelings . Among the sombre and melodic songs directed to Ono , " Aisumasen ( I 'm Sorry ) " was originally titled " Call My Name " , a song in which Lennon was offering to comfort someone , whereas the final version sees him asking for forgiveness . In " One Day ( At a Time ) " , Lennon sings about his devotion to Ono . " Out the Blue " also reflects Lennon 's devotion to his wife , and reflects its author 's self @-@ doubt as a result of their separation . " Out the Blue " incorporates several musical genres , starting with a gentle , melancholy acoustic guitar and moving through gospel , country and choral music portions . Another love song , " You Are Here " took its title from Lennon 's one @-@ off art exhibition at the Robert Frazer Gallery . By the time of the Mind Games sessions , the composition had gone through several different themes , before Lennon settled on the theme of love and peace . The original master take of " You Are Here " featured an extra verse , that was about Japan and England .
Other songs on the album are more light @-@ hearted and optimistic , marking the return of Lennon 's humour and wit after the uncompromising doctrine espoused on Some Time in New York City . These tracks include " Intuition " , in which Lennon relates how life experience has honed his instincts and how it 's good to have gotten through it . While demoing the song on piano in early 1973 , with the lyrics still incomplete , he added a few lines from two previously released tracks β " How ? " , from Imagine ( 1971 ) , and " God " , from John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 ) . " Only People " reflects his and Ono 's personal philosophy . Lennon later said that it failed as a song , however ; in an interview with Playboy Magazine , he remarked : " It was a good lick , but I couldn 't get the words to make sense . "
Also appearing on Mind Games are songs that indulged Lennon 's affinity for pure rock ' n ' roll , such as " Tight A $ " , the title of which was a pun on the expressions " tight as " and " tight ass " . The track is in the rockabilly style with a 1950s sound , along the lines of songs that inspired Lennon in his youth . Another rock track , " Meat City " contains lyrics more in keeping with Lennon 's earlier penchant for obscure imagery over the personal . The song was a boogie piece until late in 1971 , when it began to take its final form , although with improvised lyrics . By late 1972 , Lennon had rewritten the words and finished developing the melody .
The song " Mind Games " , with its " love is the answer " refrain and call to " make love not war " , recalls Lennon 's work with the Beatles in 1967 . He started writing the track during the band 's Get Back sessions , in early 1969 , with the title " Make Love , Not War " . Lennon finished it after reading the book Mind Games : The Guide to Inner Space . Lennon had recorded demos of the retitled " Mind Games " on 28 and 29 December 1970 , at his home studio , Ascot Sound Studios .
" Bring on the Lucie ( Freeda Peeple ) " dated from late 1971 , having started out as little more than a chorus , after Lennon acquired a National guitar . Once he had worked on the lyrics , the song went from a simple political slogan to a full @-@ blown statement that hints at his earlier work , such as " Imagine " and " Power to the People " . " Only People " and the three @-@ second silent " Nutopian International Anthem " were the only political tracks on the album . The latter referred to " Nutopia : The Country of Peace " , a conceptual country which the Lennons had announced at a press conference in New York City on April Fool 's Day 1973 . " I Know ( I Know ) " features lyrics in which Lennon apologises for his thoughtlessness and discusses the causes of his insecurity . On some of the rough mixes available on bootlegs , the time @-@ consuming overdubbing on the song is apparent , as Lennon gradually refined the arrangement . The final track on Mind Games , " Meat City " contains a Lennon curse , " Fuck a pig ! " , sped up and backwards , while the mix used as the B @-@ side to the " Mind Games " single gave the same treatment to the phrase " Check the album ! "
" Rock and Roll People " was also recorded during the album 's sessions and given to Johnny Winter for his John Dawson Winter III album . Lennon 's version remained unreleased until 1986 's posthumous Menlove Ave. album .
= = Release and promotion = =
Tony King , vice @-@ president of Apple Records in Los Angeles at the time , convinced Lennon to promote Mind Games , arranging interviews for Lennon with Billboard and Record World . He also persuaded Lennon to do a television commercial in which King dressed up as the Queen of England and waltzed with Lennon ( the commercial session can be seen in the 1988 film Imagine : John Lennon ) . King reprised his role as the Queen for two radio spots promoting the album .
Lennon created the Mind Games album cover himself , hand @-@ cutting the photos . The front and back covers are similar ; on the back sleeve Lennon is more toward the foreground , representing his symbolic walking away from Ono and her apparent mountainous influence on him .
Mind Games was released on 29 October in America and 16 November in Britain , around the same time as Ono 's Feeling the Space . Apple Records issued the title track as a single , with the release dates matching those of the album in the US and UK . The single reached number 26 in the UK , and peaked at number 18 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US . The album charted at number 13 in the UK and peaked at number 9 on Billboard 's Top LP 's listings . Although Mind Games sold better than Some Time in New York City , its release " came and went with barely a ripple " , according to Beatles biographer Chris Ingham . Author Peter Doggett similarly writes that the album " did nothing to alter [ Lennon 's ] status as the least commercially successful Beatle " .
= = Reception = =
Jon Landau of Rolling Stone magazine assessed the songs on Mind Games as " his worst writing yet " and considered that Lennon was " helplessly trying to impose his own gargantuan ego upon an audience β¦ [ that ] is waiting hopefully for him to chart a new course " . While finding the music " listenable " , Landau identified the album 's lyrics as " misguided in so underrating his audience 's intelligence " and added : " But then , perhaps Lennon 's didacticism , preaching and banality are part of the mind game of the album 's title β¦ " More impressed , Melody Maker 's Ray Coleman found that " The raw nerves of a Lennon battered by America 's curious logic and sheer hard @-@ heartedness seem to have spurred him to write incisively β¦ " Coleman concluded of Mind Games : " Musically or melodically this may not be a stand @-@ out album , but if you warm to the rasping voice of Lennon and , like me , regard him as the true fulcrum of much of what came from his old group , then like any new Lennon album , it will be enjoyable and even important . " In a mixed review , Robert Christgau described the album as " A step in the right direction , but only a step " . He complimented " Mind Games " as well as the songs " One Day ( At a Time ) " and " You Are Here " , but criticised Lennon for " falling back on ideas that have lost their freshness for him " .
Writing in their 1975 book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , NME journalists Roy Carr and Tony Tyler opined that Mind Games " bears all the hallmarks of being made without any definite objective in mind β other than to redeem the unpleasantness of Some Time In New York City " . While noting the singer 's attempts to re @-@ create " the lyricism and melodic inventiveness " of Imagine , Carr and Tyler continued : " The reason the total album is not more effective can be laid at the door of Lennon 's personal situation , and on his tendency to react to events , instead of initiating them . " In The Beatles Apart ( 1981 ) , Bob Woffinden considered that , aside from the " excellent " title track and " Bring on the Lucie " , Mind Games " consisted of so @-@ so songs that hardly lodged in the memory " , and that " The best one can say of the album is that it 's exceptionally well produced . "
In a more recent review , for AllMusic , critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine writes that " confusion β¦ lies at the heart of the album . Lennon doesn 't know which way to go , so he tries everything . " Erlewine adds : " While the best numbers are among Lennon 's finest , there 's only a handful of them , and the remainder of the record is simply pleasant . "
= = Reissues = =
The album was reissued in the US on Capitol Records in 1978 and 1980 , with the latter being a budget reissue . In the UK , the album was reissued on EMI 's budget label , Music for Pleasure ( MFP ) , on 28 November 1980 , featuring a different album cover . After Lennon 's death in December 1980 , the album , along with seven other Lennon albums , was reissued by EMI as part of a box set , which was released in the UK on 15 June 1981 . It was first issued on CD on 3 August 1987 , this time on the Parlophone label , and several months later on 22 March 1988 in the US on the Capitol label .
In 2002 , a remixing of Mind Games for its remastered reissue , containing three previously unreleased demo recordings , was overseen by Allan Rouse , which was released on 21 October 2002 in the UK , and almost a month later in the US , on 5 November 2002 . It was reissued again by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab in 2004 on CD and LP . In 2010 , the original mix was remastered as part of the re @-@ release of Lennon 's entire catalogue , the album was available separately or as part of the John Lennon Signature Box .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by John Lennon .
Side one
" Mind Games " β 4 : 13
" Tight A $ " β 3 : 37
" Aisumasen ( I 'm Sorry ) " β 4 : 44
" One Day ( At a Time ) " β 3 : 09
" Bring on the Lucie ( Freda Peeple ) " β 4 : 12
" Nutopian International Anthem " β 0 : 03
Side two
" Intuition " β 3 : 08
" Out the Blue " β 3 : 23
" Only People " β 3 : 23
" I Know ( I Know ) " β 3 : 49
" You Are Here " β 4 : 08
" Meat City " β 2 : 45
Bonus tracks
= = Personnel = =
Personnel per album sleeve and Bruce Spizer .
John Lennon β lead , harmony and backing vocals ; rhythm , slide and acoustic guitars ; clavichord ; percussion
Ken Ascher β piano , Hammond organ , Mellotron
David Spinozza β lead guitar
Gordon Edwards β bass
Jim Keltner β drums
Rick Marotta β drums on " Bring on the Lucie " and " Meat City " ( with Keltner )
Michael Brecker β saxophone
Sneaky Pete Kleinow β pedal steel guitar
Something Different β backing vocals
Roy Cicala , Dan Barbiero β engineers
Tom Rabstanek β mastering
= = Charts = =
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= When It Rains , It Pours ( 30 Rock ) =
" When It Rains , It Pours " is the second episode of the fifth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 82nd overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ show runner and executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by series producer Don Scardino . " When It Rains , It Pours " originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on September 30 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include Joanna Adler , Ben Bailey , Elizabeth Banks , Craig Castaldo , Paul Giamatti , Andrea Mitchell , Chris Parnell , Sherri Shepherd , and Brian Williams .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) uses her newfound confidence of men noticing her to solve Pete Hornberger 's ( Scott Adsit ) problem with a difficult television editor named Ritchie ( Paul Giamatti ) . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) decides to teach his unborn child with his girlfriend Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) how to live . Elsewhere , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) is determined to be with his wife Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) when she gives birth , and a mysterious individual is making sure Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) page duties at the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) at NBC are still getting done .
" When It Rains , It Pours " received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 688 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 β 49 demographic . For his work in the episode , Robert Carlock won the Writers Guild of America Award for Episodic Comedy .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is surprised that men have been noticing her , instead of resenting or ignoring her as they usually do . Her friend Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) tells Liz that she is coming off as more confident since starting her relationship with her boyfriend Carol ( Matt Damon ) . Liz decides to use her new @-@ found confidence to help TGS with Tracy Jordan producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) with a problem he has had with a difficult television editor named Ritchie ( Paul Giamatti ) . Liz visits him in the editing room and hopes to convince him to get TGS 's show 's opener footage finished as soon as possible in which she is successful after flirting with Ritchie . Later , Liz learns that Ritchie is spreading a rumor that the two are sleeping together . She confronts Ritchie about it , he admits to starting the rumor in order to get the attention of his assistant editor Donna ( Joanna Adler ) . Later , Liz and Ritchie have a pretend break @-@ up in front of Donna , and Donna becomes interested in Ritchie .
Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) and his girlfriend CNBC host Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) tell Liz that they are expecting a son . Liz congratulates them , and tells the two that their son will have an old dad as Jack is in his early 50s . As a result of what Liz said , Jack fears that he will not be around so he decides to teach his unborn son how to live by recording a video containing advice for him . Later , Jack learns that he and Avery are in fact expecting a daughter and not a son . Jack realizes that he needs to make new tapes and in the tape he says to his unborn daughter " If you have the blondeness and self @-@ esteem of your mother , you will need no advice . "
At the same time , Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) wife , Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) , is going into labor . Tracy , who after missing the birth of his sons does not want to miss the birth of his daughter , has Grizz Griswold ( Grizz Chapman ) and " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) guard him in his dressing room in the 30 Rock building so that he would not wander off . A fire drill occurs so everyone must exit the building . Outside , however , the two lose track of Tracy , who wanders around the city . He hails a cab to get to the hospital Angie is at , but realizes that he does not have money on him , however , the driver does not mind . Once inside the cab , the driver , Ben Bailey β the host of the game show Cash Cab β informs Tracy that he is a contestant . As part of the game , Tracy must answer questions to win money and reach his destination . As a result , Tracy answers all the questions correctly and arrives at the hospital in time to witness the birth of his daughter .
In addition , Liz and Jenna are surprised how smoothly everything is running in the TGS set without Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , a former NBC page . Unbeknownst to everyone , there is a " mystery man " going around TGS in a black cape completing all of the tasks that Kenneth would do . While Jack is recording a video , he catches Kenneth in his office , revealing that Kenneth has been the one completing all of his old tasks . Kenneth says that he is there because he knows how much he is needed , but Jack tells him that they do not need him and he must move on with his life . Hurt and bewildered , Kenneth leaves , and Jack says in the video for his unborn child that the exchange between him and Kenneth was really " tough love " and he had just sent Kenneth on a journey . Meanwhile , Kenneth Parcell gets a phone call from Angie , who is delirious on pain killers . At the same time , as Tracy is on the game show , Angie tells Kenneth to find Tracy . Unable to do so , Kenneth takes a cardboard cut @-@ out of Tracy and pretends to be him as she is giving birth until Tracy comes in and pushes Kenneth out of the way . Later , Jack tells Kenneth that he is truly needed back at TGS and offers to talk to human resources to get his job back , but Kenneth refuses and says he will re @-@ apply to the page program , following the proper procedures .
= = Production = =
This episode of 30 Rock was written by co @-@ show runner and executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by series producer Don Scardino . This was Carlock 's sixteenth writing credit , and Scardino 's twenty @-@ eighth directed episode . " When It Rains , It Pours " originally aired in the United States on September 30 , 2010 , on NBC as the second episode of the show 's fifth season and the 82nd overall episode of the series . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on August 30 , August 31 , September 2 , September 5 , and September 8 , 2010 .
In August 2010 , series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey revealed to Entertainment Weekly correspondent Michael Ausiello that actor Paul Giamatti would guest star in the upcoming season playing a " grouchy " television editor named Ritchie . Giamatti is due to appear in a future episode of 30 Rock . Actress Elizabeth Banks returned as her 30 Rock character Avery Jessup , a CNBC television host and Jack Donaghy 's girlfriend , in this episode , and reprised the Avery role for the eighth time . Comedian actress Sherri Shepherd reprised her role as Angie Jordan , the wife of Tracy Jordan , for the seventh time . Comedian actor Chris Parnell , who played Dr. Leo Spaceman , the doctor who assisted in the birth of Angie and Tracy 's daughter in the episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 .
News anchors Brian Williams and Andrea Mitchell played themselves in the episode in which the two tease the Liz Lemon character of her supposed relationship with Giamatti 's Ritchie . This was Williams ' fourth appearance on the show , having appeared in the episodes " The Ones " , " Audition Day " , and " Future Husband " , and Mitchell 's first appearance on 30 Rock . Ben Bailey , the game show host of the Discovery Channel program Cash Cab played himself . In the beginning of the episode , several men hit on Liz , which surprises her , and one of those men who hits on her was credited as " Moonvest " and was played by Craig Castaldo , or known as Radio Man . Castaldo has made numerous appearances on the program .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " When It Rains , It Pours " drew in 5 @.@ 688 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . The show claimed a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 β 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The rating / share was the same number as the previous week 's season premiere episode , " The Fabian Strategy " ; in the week that " When It Rains , It Pours " originally aired , 30 Rock was the only Thursday program whose ratings did not fall from its season premiere . In February 2011 , Robert Carlock won the Writers Guild of America Award for Episodic Comedy for his work in this episode of 30 Rock .
Television columnist Alan Sepiwall for HitFix called this the best overall episode since season four 's December 2009 episode " Dealbreakers Talk Show # 0001 " . He wrote that the episode had " some incredibly funny jokes " , but noted that the " most hilarious moments " from " When It Rains , It Pours " came from the main characters themselves . Sepinwall enjoyed Jack 's videos to his unborn son , noting it was " ... the [ Jack ] I know and love best : supremely confident and ... oblivious to his own insanity . " Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club liked that the series had moved on from making the Liz character " asexual and vaguely repellent " for men . In his recap , Rabin much enjoyed the episode and said " If the rest of the season is as good as the first two episodes , we could have a big @-@ time comeback on our hands . " Juli Weiner of Vanity Fair wrote that Paul Giamatti was a delight as his 30 Rock character . Entertainment Weekly contributor Annie Barrett was thrilled that the Tracy character was a contestant on Cash Cab , noting once the game began " everything felt so right " . Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News preferred " When It Rains , It Pours " to the episodes of Community and The Office , which aired on NBC the same night . Brad Sanders of the Indiana Daily Student wrote that Giamatti played his part brilliantly , and that his involvement in the main plot was " well @-@ written , well @-@ organized , and by far the best thing about the episode " .
Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad commented that Giamatti " seems like he could be an editor at NBC , so the guest role didn 't irritate or grate " . Sassone enjoyed Kenneth and Tracy 's stories here , and was glad that Jack and Avery have remained a couple . Verne Gay of Newsday noted that this episode of 30 Rock was a " spectacular piece of television , and comedy writing , and acting " . Scott Eidler of The Cornell Daily Sun called Tracy 's plot " very believable " , and opined that " any reservations I have had about this show being less than completely real are gone " after watching this episode . Meredith Blake of the Los Angeles Times deemed this a stellar episode , explaining that the Tracy , Liz , and Jack characters had storylines that allowed them " to strut their comedic stuff " . Time contributor James Poniewozik reported that " When It Rains , It Pours " was a very good episode . He noted that Jack 's storyline was the " simplest recipe for comedy : just turn on a camera and let Alec Baldwin be hilarious . But it came within the story of his accepting having a [ child ] assessing his mortality , and trying to distill what matters in his life " . Poniewozik was positive towards Liz 's plot with Giamatti , reporting that the her plot " involved one of the best guest roles in a sometimes too guest @-@ heavy role " and enjoyed the traits from Giamatti 's Ritchie .
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= One South Broad =
One South Broad , also known as the Lincoln @-@ Liberty Building or PNB Building , is a 28 @-@ story 472 @-@ foot ( 144 m ) office tower in Center City , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The art deco tower , designed by architect John Torrey Windrim as an annex for Wanamaker 's department store , was completed in 1932 . Wanamaker 's Men 's Store opened in the first seven floors of the building , which is located a block from Wanamaker 's main store , and was intended to rival European department stores with its size and selection . In 1952 , the Philadelphia National Bank ( PNB ) bought the building and converted it into offices and banking space . Until 2014 , the building 's bell tower was decorated on all four sides with PNB 's initials in stainless steel 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) tall . Wells Fargo is the main tenant , occupying almost half the building . The former banking space at street level was converted to retail and restaurant space in 2000 .
Containing 465 @,@ 000 square feet ( 43 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space , One South Broad features a three @-@ story gallery lobby that connects to the Widener Building , adjacent to the south . The 24th and 25th floors originally featured a luxurious penthouse designed for Rodman Wanamaker and his wife ; it was converted to office use in 2000 by independent advertising agency Red Tettemer O 'Connell + Partners . The tower houses the 17 @-@ ton Founder 's Bell , one of the largest in the world , a tribute to John Wanamaker by his son Rodman ; listed on the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places by the Philadelphia Historical Commission , the bell is rung hourly , except for Sundays .
= = History = =
In the late 1920s , numerous high @-@ rises were being built in Center City Philadelphia . Among the businesses constructing their own skyscrapers was Wanamaker 's department store . Under direction of Wanamaker President William L. Nevin , Wanamaker 's decided to expand its Philadelphia store by constructing a new building that would contain a store catering to the " Philadelphia gentleman " . Nevin directed Wanamaker 's to buy property on South Broad Street across the street from Philadelphia City Hall . The land was the site of two late @-@ 19th @-@ century 13 @-@ story high @-@ rises . On the corner of Broad and Penn Square stood the Lincoln Building , originally called the Betz Building . South of that stood the Liberty Building on the corner of Broad and Chestnut Streets . Both buildings were demolished in 1926 to make way for the Lincoln @-@ Liberty Building .
The Lincoln @-@ Liberty Building , completed in 1932 , was intended to partly house a large men 's department store and offices . The building 's cornerstone was set on October 1 , 1932 with a ceremony attended by William L. Nevin and Wanamaker executives from New York City , Paris and London . The Wanamaker Men 's Store opened on October 12 , 1932 , with four Wanamaker buglers blowing a reveille and the ringing of the building 's Founders Bell . Opening during the Great Depression , Nevin said the new building was a sign of the store 's faith that the economy would improve . Intended to rival European department stores in size and selection , the men 's store ordered US $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worth of merchandise and was the largest store of its kind in the world . As early as 1939 there were rumors the men 's store would close , but Wanamaker 's would not close the store unless a replacement tenant would agree to rent the space . When a new tenant was ready to take the store 's place in the 1950s , the men 's store was relocated to the Wanamaker Building down the street .
In the early 1950s , the Philadelphia National Bank ( PNB ) needed to expand into a larger space than it currently occupied . On November 3 , 1952 , the bank bought the Lincoln @-@ Liberty Building for US $ 8 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 . PNB president Frederic A. Potts said , " The purchase of this building will enable the Philadelphia National Bank more adequately and efficiently to support the large @-@ scale industrial and commercial expansion under way in this city . " The bank spent millions of dollars modernizing the building and converting the former department store floors to banking space . Among the changes was the addition of a sign with the bank 's initials in 1955 . The bank officially opened in what was now called the PNB Building on January 16 , 1956 . The opening included turning on a rooftop weather indicator and celebration of the 250th anniversary of Benjamin Franklin 's birth .
The building was owned by the PNB and later its parent company CoreStates until it was sold to the JPMorgan Strategic Property Fund in 1996 for almost US $ 28 @.@ 5 million . In 1998 the building 's second @-@ largest tenant , law firm Drinker Biddle & Reath , left for One Logan Square . The resulting vacancy prompted the owners to renovate the building , renamed One South Broad , at a cost of US $ 10 million . Renovations included modernizing the elevators , security and safety systems and converting the lower floors to retail and restaurant space . The renovations took eighteen months and One South Broad was officially rededicated on May 3 , 2000 .
In April 2003 JPMorgan sold One South Broad to real @-@ estate investor David Werner for US $ 48 million . Ninety @-@ percent occupied in 2003 , One Broad Street 's largest tenant was Wachovia . Wachovia had gained office space in the tower after merging with First Union Corporation , which had merged with CoreStates in 1998 . In 2006 Wachovia re @-@ negotiated its lease , which was set to expire in 2010 . After looking at other potential space in Center City , Wachovia made a deal to stay in One South Broad and three nearby properties , the Witherspoon Building , Wells Fargo Building , and the neighboring Widener Building , until the 2020s .
= = Architecture = =
One South Broad is a 28 @-@ story 472 feet ( 144 m ) art deco office tower on south Broad Street in Center City Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Designed by architect John Torrey Windrim , the skyscraper contains 465 @,@ 000 square feet ( 43 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space . One South Broad originally had an ornate lower facade with a lot of detail and fluting that was removed in the 1950s renovation . Philadelphia National Bank 's renovations included the addition of granite black slabs on the street level facade . These were removed in the 2000 renovation and replaced with imported Italian granite to better match the skyscraper 's original architecture . The 2000 renovation also created a new entrance on the building 's Broad Street front , which leads to a three @-@ story gallery lobby . The lobby was expanded by demolishing a wall and connecting it to the lobby of the neighboring Widener Building .
Containing 9 @,@ 000 square feet ( 840 m2 ) each , the 24th and 25th floors were used as a penthouse apartment for Rodman Wanamaker , consisting of five bedrooms , six baths , and outdoor terraces . The rooms featured hardwood floors , marble fireplaces , and detailed cast @-@ plaster crown molding . Originally the penthouse apartment was to be for Rodman Wanamaker and his wife but Wanamaker died in 1928 before the building was completed . Rodman Wanamaker 's wife lived there only briefly , as she did not like the ringing bell in the tower overhead . The penthouse floors were converted to office use in 2000 by creative agency Red Tettemer + Partners . The firm Agoos / Lovera Architects modernized the basic office space on the 24th floor while preserving the ornate molding and materials that decorate the rest of the former penthouse space .
The Philadelphia National Bank 's initials adorned the top of the building , surrounding the top of the structure 's bell tower , until 2014 . The letters , which were made of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) stainless steel , each weighed 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 400 kg ) . Until the 1970s , PNB used the sign to forecast weather by lighting the letters in red to indicate a warming trend , or green to predict the opposite . Wachovia considered removing the PNB sign in 2003 to replace it with its own signage , but , in response , some Philadelphians expressed nostalgia for the name of the former Philadelphia institution and hoped the sign would stay . The Philadelphia Historical Commission stated that the sign was not an integral part of the building 's design or as significant to the city as the nearby PSFS Building 's sign . On August 17 , 2014 , three of the PNB letters were removed from the building by helicopter , and the remaining nine were removed the following November 16 .
= = = Founder 's Bell = = =
Within the bell tower is the 17 @-@ ton Founder 's Bell . The bell was cast in 1925 under a commission by Rodman Wanamaker to honor his father John Wanamaker , founder of the department store . Cast by Gillett & Johnston in the United Kingdom , the bell is 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) at the rim and 7 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 36 m ) high and is one of the largest bells in the world . The bell was brought in 1926 by the Cunard liner Ascania to New York City , from which it was conveyed to Philadelphia by rail . The bell was carried on a flatcar and had clearance of only 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) in some of the tunnels the train passed through .
Tuned to a low D bass clef , the bell 's original home was the Wanamaker Building , a block from One South Broad . It hung 325 feet ( 99 m ) above the street in a specially built tower on the building 's roof . Hung on December 23 , 1926 , the bell was first rung on New Year 's Eve of that year . The bell is rung every hour , except on Sundays . The bell was originally intended to swing in the tower on top of One South Broad , but when it was it shook the building . A hammer driven by a 230 @-@ volt electric motor was later installed and currently rings the bell . The ringing of the bell , which can be heard for 25 miles ( 40 km ) , is often mistakenly assumed to come from City Hall 's clock tower across the street .
Philadelphia Orchestra conductor Leopold Stokowski wrote in 1962 that the bell had " one of the finest sounds I have heard anywhere in America , Europe or Russia " . In June 2000 the Founder 's Bell was added to the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places by the Philadelphia Historical Commission .
= = Tenants = =
The Wanamaker 's Men 's Store occupied the first seven floors of the skyscraper until 1952 when the Philadelphia National Bank moved into the building . Over the years PNB became CoreStates , First Union Corp , Wachovia and finally Wells Fargo . Wells Fargo , which bought Wachovia in 2008 , is One Broad Street 's main tenant , occupying about half the building . Other tenants include various law firms , advertising firm Nitrogen US , public relations firm Tonic Life Communications , consulting company Electronic Ink , and the advertising agency Red Tettemer O 'Connell + Partners . Past tenants have included Sylvania Electric Products , law firm Drinker Biddle & Reath , and advertising and public relations firm Earle Palmer Brown .
The street @-@ level space was converted into a bank once PNB bought the building . The bank branch closed in the 1990s and was converted into two roughly 8 @,@ 000 square feet ( 740 m2 ) areas intended for retail or restaurant use . A McCormick & Schmick 's restaurant opened in the Broad @-@ Street β Penn @-@ Square corner in 2001 . In late 2002 , the Broad and Chestnut Streets corner was occupied by a Borders bookstore , which moved into the two @-@ story @-@ plus @-@ mezzanine 27 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 500 m2 ) space after vacating the 1727 Walnut Street location it had occupied since 1990 . Borders closed its store in 2011 . A three @-@ story Walgreens presently occupies the site ( 2014 ) and areas of the exceptionally beautiful Wanamaker Men 's Store plasterwork ceiling are visible at the upper stories .
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= U.S. Route 13 in Maryland =
U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) is a U.S. Highway running from Fayetteville , North Carolina north to Morrisville , Pennsylvania . In the U.S. state of Maryland , the route runs 42 @.@ 48 mi ( 68 @.@ 36 km ) from the Virginia border south of Pocomoke City in Worcester County north to the Delaware border in Delmar , Wicomico County , where the route intersects Route 54 , which runs along the state line . The majority of the route within Maryland is a four @-@ lane divided highway that passes through rural areas of woodland and farmland . The route also runs through a few municipalities including Pocomoke City and Princess Anne and it bypasses Salisbury and Fruitland to the east on the Salisbury Bypass , which is a freeway . US 13 intersects many major roads including the southern terminus of US 113 in Pocomoke City , Maryland Route 413 ( MD 413 ) in Westover , and MD 12 and US 50 where the route is on the Salisbury Bypass . The route shares a concurrency with US 50 along a portion of the Salisbury Bypass .
US 13 was designated through Maryland when the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 , running along existing roads . It formed a part of the Ocean Highway , a road that connected the New York City area to Florida , and still carries that name for much of its route in Maryland . Many realignments of the route occurred over the years . The route was realigned between Princess Anne and Fruitland in 1933 and between Westover and Princess Anne in 1935 . Between 1938 and 1942 , Salisbury Boulevard was built to carry US 13 through Salisbury ; the route previously followed Camden Avenue and Division Street . In the 1950s , portions of the route were widened to a divided highway and a bypass of Delmar was built . US 13 was rerouted to bypass Princess Anne in 1959 and Pocomoke City in 1963 . The remainder of US 13 in Maryland was widened into a divided highway in the 1960s . In 1973 , construction began to build the limited @-@ access Salisbury Bypass to the east of the city . US 13 was moved onto the completed Salisbury Bypass in 1981 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Worcester County = = =
Entering the state from Virginia , US 13 heads north on Ocean Highway , a four @-@ lane divided highway that runs a short distance to the east of the Bay Coast Railroad line . Upon entering Maryland , US 13 features a welcome center in the northbound direction . It continues north through wooded areas before heading into a mix of farmland and woodland with some residences and businesses along the road . As the road approaches Pocomoke City , more businesses start to line the road . Before entering Pocomoke City , US 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) heads northwest from US 13 on Market Street into the downtown area . Past this intersection , the road enters Pocomoke City . The route crosses MD 366 ( Stockton Road ) , which itself has its western terminus at US 13 Bus . , and continues north past a shopping center , meeting the southern terminus of US 113 , as well as MD 250A ( Old Virginia Road ) , along the eastern edge of town . Continuing around the northern edge of the town , the route passes residential areas to the southwest and rural areas to the northeast before heading into a commercial district and intersecting MD 756 ( Old Snow Hill Road ) . US 13 turns west into wooded areas before crossing the Pocomoke River upstream of US 13 Bus ..
= = = Somerset County = = =
Upon crossing the Pocomoke River , US 13 heads into Somerset County and intersects the northern terminus of US 13 Bus. and the southern terminus of MD 364 ( Dividing Creek Road ) . From here , the route curves to the northwest and runs through rural countryside . It features an intersection with the eastern terminus of MD 667 ( Rehobeth Road ) , and the route continues from farmland into heavy woodland . US 13 heads back into agricultural areas where it intersects many unsigned suffixed segments of MD 920 which are mostly short , dead @-@ end roads . The route continues west and northwest before it intersects MD 673 ( Sam Barnes Road ) , which provides a connection to southbound MD 413 and Crisfield . Past MD 673 , US 13 turns north and meets the northern terminus of MD 413 ( Crisfield Highway ) , with access to that route only in the southbound direction .
Now running north @-@ northeast , the highway heads through heavy woodland , with trees in the median . US 13 intersects MD 640 ( Revells Neck Road ) , which heads west to serve the Eastern Correctional Institution . From here , the road heads north through a mix of woods and farms , running a short distance to the west of a Norfolk Southern rail line . It is eventually paralleled to the west by the main segment of unsigned MD 920 ( Market Lane ) , which serves as a frontage road . Along this stretch , more development starts to line the road as it approaches Princess Anne . After the northern terminus of MD 920 , MD 675 heads north from US 13 into downtown Princess Anne on Somerset Avenue ( US 13 's original alignment through Princess Anne ) . The route curves northwest again as it bypasses the town .
Skirting the western edge of the town , the route intersects MD 363 ( Deal Island Road / Manokin Avenue ) next to Manokin River Park . Continuing north , the route soon intersects MD 362 and passes by some businesses past that intersection . The next intersection is for MD 822 ( UMES Boulevard ) , which heads east to provide access to the University of Maryland Eastern Shore campus . US 13 curves northeast and exits the town , intersecting the northern terminus of MD 675 in the town 's outskirts . It continues through wooded areas , again closely paralleling the Norfolk Southern rail line . US 13 intersects the northern terminus of MD 529 , a rural route that heads south back to Princess Anne on Loretto Road . Past MD 529 , the road continues northeast , intersecting Peggy Neck Road . From here , the highway heads through more woodland before passing through the community of Eden and continuing into open farmland .
= = = Wicomico County = = =
US 13 crosses the Passerdyke Creek into Wicomico County , where it continues northeast as South Fruitland Boulevard through a mix of woods and farms . Shortly after entering Wicomico County , the route diverges from US 13 Bus. at a semi @-@ directional wye junction . US 13 Bus. continues towards Fruitland and downtown Salisbury on South Fruitland Boulevard while US 13 turns northeast and upgrades into the Salisbury Bypass , a four @-@ lane freeway .
Bypassing the Salisbury area to the east , the route heads through farmland and meets MD 513 ( St. Lukes Road ) at a diamond interchange . MD 513 provides access from the US 13 bypass into Fruitland . Continuing northeast through a mix of farmland and woodland , with some housing developments nearby , US 13 meets MD 12 ( Snow Hill Road ) at a partial cloverleaf interchange . MD 12 serves as a direct link between Salisbury and Snow Hill , connecting with US 113 in Snow Hill . Turning north near Parker Pond the highway crosses over MD 350 ( Mt . Hermon Road ) with no interchange between the routes , and continues north to another partial interchange with US 50 and US 50 Bus. to the east of Salisbury .
The interchange between US 13 , US 50 , and US 50 Bus . , modified from a full cloverleaf with the completion of the Salisbury Bypass west of US 13 to US 50 , is the site of the eastern terminus of US 50 Bus . , US 50 's original route through Salisbury . US 50 joins US 13 at this interchange , and the two routes run concurrent along 3 miles ( 5 km ) of the Salisbury Bypass . Just beyond the interchange , the road passes over MD 346 ( Old Ocean City Road ) with no interchange . The Salisbury Bypass turns to the west and meets the northern terminus of US 13 Bus . ( North Salisbury Boulevard ) at the original northern terminus of the bypass . US 13 separates from US 50 at this interchange and rejoins its original northward route , while US 50 continues west on the Salisbury Bypass to rejoin its original route northwest of Salisbury .
US 13 , now known as North Salisbury Boulevard , continues north into a commercial area on a six @-@ lane divided highway , immediately passing by The Centre at Salisbury shopping mall . The road passes numerous businesses before crossing Leonard Pond , as the road narrows to five lanes ( with two lanes southbound and three lanes northbound ) , and becomes Ocean Highway again . It passes by a set of weigh stations located on both sides of the road and intersects the southern terminus of a separate MD 675 , which follows US 13 's original route through Delmar on Bi State Boulevard . US 13 continues north as a four @-@ lane highway ( with two lanes in each direction ) , through a mix of farms and woods with some businesses , skirting Delmar to the east . The route intersects DE / MD 54 ( Maryland Delaware Line Road ) , which runs along the Delaware @-@ Maryland border , and US 13 continues north into Delaware .
= = History = =
The original north β south highway through Fruitland and Salisbury followed Allen Road north from Allen on Wicomico County 's border with Somerset County to near the present intersection of Division Street and Camden Avenue on the west side of Fruitland . Division Street continued east to pass through the center of Fruitland before heading north to Salisbury , while Camden Avenue bypassed Fruitland to the west and headed directly toward Salisbury . The two roads reunited in downtown Salisbury just south of Main Street . Division Street continued north out of Salisbury toward Delmar . When the Maryland State Roads Commission ( SRC ) designated a state road system in 1909 , the highway between Allen and Salisbury using Camden Avenue was designated a state road . In 1911 , the road between Westover and Princess Anne was completed as a state highway while the portion between Salisbury and south of Delmar was completed as a state @-@ aid road . At this time , the road between Pocomoke City and Salisbury was proposed as a state road . The state road was completed from the southern limit of Salisbury to Main Street in Fruitland in 1912 and from there to Allen in 1913 . In 1914 , the state highway between Princess Anne and Allen was completed . The highway between the Virginia border through Pocomoke City to Westover and between Salisbury and Delmar was completed by 1921 .
With the creation of the U.S. Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , US 13 was designated through Maryland from the Virginia border south of Pocomoke City north to the Delaware border in Delmar . The route headed north to Pocomoke City , northwest to Westover , north to Princess Anne , northeast to Fruitland and Salisbury , and north to Delmar . The entire route of US 13 in Maryland became part of the Ocean Highway , an Atlantic coastal highway stretching from Jacksonville , Florida to New Brunswick , New Jersey that served as the quickest route between the New York City area and Florida before the introduction of the Interstate Highway System . US 13 is one of only four U.S. Routes that form the highway and Maryland was one of the states that participated in the highway 's formation .
In 1930 , US 13 along Division Street north of downtown Salisbury was placed on an overpass over the New York , Philadelphia and Norfolk Railroad . US 13 was relocated between Princess Anne and Fruitland in 1933 to bypass the circuitous route via Loretto Road and Allen Road and to eliminate two railroad crossings , running parallel to the Pennsylvania Railroad on a straight alignment . The former alignment became MD 529 in 1939 . US 13 was relocated between Princess Anne and Westover in 1935 , bypassing what is now known as Old Princess Anne Road . This former alignment became MD 598 in 1939 , and was removed from the state highway system by 1961 . The first portion of the first Salisbury Bypass , now named Salisbury Boulevard , was completed in 1938 between College Avenue and Main Street in Salisbury . The second segment , between the present intersection of US 13 Bus. and Camden Avenue south of Fruitland and College Avenue , was completed in 1939 . Upon completion of the first two sections , US 13 was moved to the bypass and Camden Avenue was designated MD 663 . The third and final section , from Main Street to Zion Road on the north side of Salisbury , was completed by 1942 . After US 13 moved to the new highway , Division Street north of Main Street was designated MD 475 . By 1946 , US 13 was realigned to a straighter alignment to the south of Pocomoke City , with the former alignment along Old Virginia Road becoming MD 250 . In 1949 , US 13 was rerouted to bypass Costen on a straight alignment to the southwest , with the former route through Costen becoming MD 673 .
In 1951 , a second bridge over the railroad was completed in north Salisbury and US 13 north of Zion Road was relocated and expanded to a divided highway . US 13 's present divided highway bypass of Delmar was completed in 1954 concurrent with the adjacent section of the route in Delaware bypassing Laurel and Seaford . The former alignment through Delmar was designated as US 13 Alt. between 1954 and 1957 and became MD 675 by 1983 . US 13 from Princess Anne to College Avenue in Salisbury was also dualized between 1954 and 1956 . In 1957 , US 13 was widened into a divided highway between the Virginia border and Pocomoke City . US 13 's bypass of Princess Anne was constructed between 1957 and 1959 . MD 675 was marked on the former alignment through Princess Anne by 1978 . In 1963 , US 13 was rerouted to bypass Pocomoke City to the northeast , with the former alignment through Pocomoke City becoming MD 675 , which was replaced by US 13 Bus. in 1994 . US 13 was expanded to a divided highway from the southern end of the Princess Anne bypass south past Kings Creek in 1962 , south through Westover in 1963 , and south to about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of MD 667 in 1964 . The Princess Anne bypass was expanded to a divided highway in 1965 . US 13 's expansion to a four @-@ lane highway in Maryland was completed in 1966 when the federal highway was expanded to a divided highway from north of MD 667 south past West Pocomoke to the southern end of the Pocomoke City bypass .
The next major upgrade to US 13 was the construction of the limited @-@ access Salisbury Bypass beginning from the northern end around 1973 . The Salisbury Bypass was completed south to MD 12 , including the interchange with US 50 , in 1975 . The US 13 portion of the bypass was completed in 1981 ; US 13 Bus. was assigned to the bypassed highway through Fruitland and Salisbury by 1983 . The interchange at the northern end of US 13 's part of the Salisbury Bypass had several ramps added during the extension of the bypass west to US 50 between 2000 and 2002 , which was completed on October 19 , 2002 , six months before it was originally planned to open . The extension of the bypass resulted in US 50 running concurrent with US 13 to the northeast of the city . This concurrent section features separate mile markers for both US 13 and US 50 , with shields on the mile markers to differentiate between the two routes .
= = Junction list = =
= = Related routes = =
= = = Pocomoke City business route = = =
U.S. Route 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) is a business route of U.S. Route 13 that passes through Pocomoke City in Worcester and Somerset Counties in Maryland . The route begins south of Pocomoke City ; US 13 's four @-@ lane divided mainline curves away to the right around the town , while US 13 Bus. continues straight ahead as a two @-@ lane town street . After intersecting MD 366 the route connects with the original southern terminus of US 113 , the latter having been rolled back to terminate at mainline US 13 . For a time , the marooned segment was part of MD 250 , but is now designated MD 250A . Continuing north the route heads towards the city waterfront and business district . The route soon reaches the Pocomoke River , crossing it on a drawbridge . After crossing the river the route heads out of town into rural surroundings before terminating on US 13 at the southern terminus of MD 364 . The route is the former alignment of US 13 that was bypassed in 1963 . The route was designated as MD 675 and was replaced by US 13 Bus. in 1994 .
= = = Salisbury business route = = =
U.S. Route 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) is a business route of U.S. Route 13 in the U.S. state of Maryland . The highway runs 8 @.@ 14 mi ( 13 @.@ 10 km ) between US 13 south of Fruitland and US 13 and US 50 on the north side of Salisbury . US 13 Bus. is a four @-@ lane highway with divided and undivided sections that provides access to downtown Salisbury , where the highway intersects US 50 Bus . , Salisbury University , and Fruitland , where the highway meets MD 513 . US 13 Bus. was constructed as a new alignment of US 13 in several steps in the 1930s and early 1940s . The section of the highway through Salisbury was originally constructed with four lanes , while the portion of the highway through Fruitland and at the northern end was expanded to a divided highway in the first half of the 1950s . US 13 Bus. was designated when US 13 was moved to the Salisbury Bypass upon its completion in 1982 .
= = = Auxiliary route = = =
US 13A runs along Camden Avenue from US 13 Bus. west to Disharoon Road in Fruitland , Wicomico County . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
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= French battleship JaurΓ©guiberry =
JaurΓ©guiberry was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy ( French : Marine Nationale ) , launched in 1893 . She was one of the class of five roughly similar battleships built in the 1890s , including MassΓ©na , Bouvet , Carnot , and Charles Martel ; JaurΓ©guiberry and the latter two are sometimes erroneously referenced as a single class . She was named after Admiral Bernard JaurΓ©guiberry .
JaurΓ©guiberry was in the Mediterranean when World War I began and she spent most of 1914 escorting troop convoys from North Africa and India to France . She supported French troops during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 before she became guardship at Port Said from 1916 for the rest of the war . Upon her return to France in 1919 she became an accommodation hulk until 1932 . She was sold for scrapping in 1934 .
= = Design and description = =
The Charles Martel group of battleships all shared the same layout for their main and secondary armament β a design that minimised the cramped upper decks produced by the pronounced tumblehome favoured by French designers , and capitalised on the bulging sides of the vessels . The bow and stern turrets had only a single gun and were placed uncomfortably close to the extremities of the ship in JaurΓ©guiberry because she was some 7 metres ( 23 ft ) shorter than the other ships in the group . The single turrets of the secondary armament were mounted on the ship 's beam , while the 138 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns were mounted in four twin turrets sited symmetrically behind and outboard of the main gun turrets .
= = = General characteristics = = =
JaurΓ©guiberry was 111 @.@ 9 metres ( 367 ft 2 in ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 23 metres ( 75 ft 6 in ) and a draught of 8 @.@ 45 metres ( 27 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 818 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 631 long tons ) at normal load and 12 @,@ 229 tonnes ( 12 @,@ 040 long tons ) at full load . In 1905 her captain described her as an excellent sea @-@ boat and a good fighting ship , although her secondary armament was too light . He also said that she was stable and well laid @-@ out with good living conditions .
= = = Propulsion = = =
JaurΓ©guiberry had two vertical triple expansion steam engines , also built by Forges et Chantiers de la MΓ©diterranΓ©e . On trials they developed 14 @,@ 441 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 769 kW ) and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 17 @.@ 71 knots ( 32 @.@ 80 km / h ; 20 @.@ 38 mph ) . Each engine drove a 5 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 18 ft 8 in ) propeller . Twenty @-@ four Lagraffel d 'Allest water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for the engines at a pressure of 15 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 471 kPa ; 213 psi ) . She normally carried 750 tonnes ( 738 long tons ) of coal , but could carry a maximum of 1 @,@ 080 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 063 long tons ) . This gave her a radius of action of 3 @,@ 920 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 260 km ; 4 @,@ 510 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
JaurΓ©guiberry 's main armament consisted of two 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm ModΓ¨le 1887 guns in two single @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . Each turret had an arc of fire of 250 Β° . The guns could probably be depressed to β 5 Β° and elevated to 15 Β° . They fired 340 @-@ kilogram ( 750 lb ) projectiles at the rate of 1 round per minute at a muzzle velocity of 780 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) which gave a range of 12 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation .
Her secondary armament consisted of two 274 @-@ millimetre ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) Canon de 274 mm Modèle 1887 guns in two single @-@ gun turrets , one amidships on each side , sponsoned out over the tumblehome of the ship 's sides . Eight 45 @-@ calibre 138 mm Canon de 138 @.@ 6 mm Modèle 1891 guns were mounted in manually operated twin turrets at the corners of the superstructure with 160 ° arcs of fire . The guns could depress to -10 ° and elevate to + 25 ° . They fired 36 @.@ 5 @-@ kilogram ( 80 lb ) armour @-@ piercing shells at a muzzle velocity of 725 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 380 ft / s ) which gave a range of 15 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation . Their rate of fire was about 4 rounds per minute .
Defense against torpedo boats was provided by a variety of light @-@ caliber weapons . Sources disagree on the number and types , possibly indicating changes over the ship 's lifetime . All sources agree on four 50 @-@ calibre 65 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) ( 9 @-@ pounder ) guns . These fired a 4 @.@ 1 @-@ kilogram ( 9 @.@ 0 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 715 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ) . Gibbons and Gardiner agree on twelve , later eighteen , although d 'Ausson lists fourteen , 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns that were mounted in the fighting tops and on the superstructure . They fired a 1 @.@ 49 @-@ kilogram ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) projectile at 610 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . Their theoretical maximum rate of fire was fifteen rounds per minute , but only seven rounds per minute sustained . Gibbons and Gardiner agree that eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns were mounted on the fore and aft superstructures , although none are listed by d 'Ausson . They fired a shell weighing about 1 @.@ 1 lb ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of about 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 610 m / s ) at a rate of 30 rounds per minute to a range about 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) .
Six 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were initially fitted . Two each were above water in the bow and stern and one was on each broadside underwater . The above @-@ water tubes were removed during a refit in 1906 .
= = = Armour = = =
JaurΓ©guiberry had a total of 3 @,@ 960 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 897 long tons ) of nickel steel armour ; equal to 33 @.@ 5 % of her normal displacement . Her waterline belt ranged from 160 β 400 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 β 15 @.@ 7 in ) in thickness . Above it was the upper belt that was 120 β 170 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 β 6 @.@ 7 in ) thick ; the thicker portions protecting the above @-@ water torpedo tubes . The 90 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) armoured deck rested on the top of the waterline belt . Her main gun turrets were protected by 280 β 370 mm ( 11 β 15 in ) of armour while her secondary turrets had 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of armour . Her conning tower walls were 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick .
= = Service = =
JaurΓ©guiberry was ordered on 8 April 1891 and laid down that November at Forges et Chantiers de la MΓ©diterranΓ©e in La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . She was launched on 27 October 1893 and was complete enough to begin her trials on 30 January 1896 . A tube in one of her boilers burst on 10 June during a 24 @-@ hour engine trial , killing six and wounding three . Two months later she suffered an accident during firing trials of her main armament . She was finally commissioned on 16 February 1897 , although the explosion of a torpedo 's air chamber on 30 March delayed her assignment to the Mediterranean Fleet until 17 May .
On 20 January 1902 the air chamber of another torpedo exploded , killing one sailor and wounding three . In September she transported the Minister of the Navy to Bizerte . JaurΓ©guiberry was transferred to the Northern Squadron in 1904 and arrived at Brest on 25 March . She was lightly damaged when she touched a rock while entering Brest in fog on 18 July and in another incident her steering compartment was flooded when a torpedo air flask burst between her screws during a torpedo @-@ launching exercise on 18 May 1905 . While visiting Portsmouth on 14 August JaurΓ©guiberry ran aground for a short time in the outer harbour . She returned to the Mediterranean Fleet in February 1907 where she was assigned to the Reserve Division , and the following year was reassigned to the Third Division . In 1909 the 3rd and 4th Divisions were reformed into the 2nd Independent Squadron and transferred to the Atlantic in 1910 . Beginning on 29 September 1910 her boiler tubes were renewed at Cherbourg . In October 1912 the Squadron was reassigned to the Mediterranean Fleet and a year later , in October 1913 , JaurΓ©guiberry was transferred to the Training Division of which she became the flagship in April 1914 .
After the start of World War I JaurΓ©guiberry was assigned to escort troop convoys between North Africa and France . She also escorted a convoy of Indian troops in September 1914 . She was stationed at Bizerte from December 1914 to February 1915 when she sailed to Port Said to become flagship of the Syrian Division . JaurΓ©guiberry departed Port Said on 25 March for the Dardanelles to replace the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Suffren and Bouvet and upon her arrival became the flagship of Admiral GuΓ©pratte during the subsequent operations . She provided gunfire support to the troops during the initial landings on 25 April and subsequently until 26 May . She was lightly damaged by Turkish artillery on 30 April and 5 May , but continued to fire her guns as needed .
JaurΓ©guiberry was recalled to Port Said on 19 July and bombarded Turkish @-@ owned Haifa on 13 August . She resumed her role as flagship of the Syrian Division on 19 August . She participated in the occupation of Ile Rouad on 1 September and other missions off the Syrian coast until she was transferred to Ismailia in January 1916 to assist in the defense of the Suez Canal , although she returned to Port Said shortly afterward . JaurΓ©guiberry was refitted at Malta between 25 November and 26 December 1916 , returning to Port Said . She landed some of her guns to help defend the Canal in 1917 and was reduced to reserve in 1918 .
She arrived at Toulon on 6 March 1919 where she was decommissioned and transferred to the Engineer 's Training School on 30 March for use as an accommodation hulk . She was stricken from the Navy List on 20 June 1920 , but remained assigned to the Engineer 's School until 1932 . JaurΓ©guiberry was sold for scrapping on 23 June 1934 for the price of 1 @,@ 147 @,@ 000 F.
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= Italian cruiser Fiume =
Fiume was a Zara @-@ class heavy cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina . She was the second of four ships in the class , and was built between April 1929 and November 1931 . Armed with a main battery of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns , she was nominally within the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limit imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty , though in reality she significantly exceeded this figure .
Fiume saw extensive service during World War II , having participated in several sorties to catch British convoys in the Mediterranean . She was present during the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 , Battle of Cape Spartivento in November , and ultimately the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 . In the last engagement , Fiume and her sister ships Zara and Pola were sunk in a close @-@ range night engagement with three British battleships .
= = Design = =
Fiume was 182 @.@ 8 meters ( 600 ft ) long overall , with a beam of 20 @.@ 62 m ( 67 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 2 m ( 24 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 944 long tons ( 14 @,@ 168 t ) at full load , though her displacement was nominally within the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) restriction set in place by the Washington Naval Treaty . Her power plant consisted of two Parsons steam turbines powered by eight oil @-@ fired Yarrow boilers , which were trunked into two funnels amidships . Her engines were rated at 95 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 71 @,@ 000 kW ) and produced a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . She had a crew of 841 officers and enlisted men .
She was protected with a armored belt that was 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships . Her armor deck was 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick in the central portion of the ship and reduced to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) at either end . The gun turrets had 150 mm thick plating on the faces and the barbettes they sat in were also 150 mm thick . The main conning tower had 150 mm thick sides .
She was armed with a main battery of eight 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) Mod 29 53 @-@ caliber guns in four gun turrets . The turrets were arranged in superfiring pairs forward and aft . Anti @-@ aircraft defense was provided by a battery of sixteen 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) 47 @-@ cal. guns in twin mounts , four 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns in single mounts and eight 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) guns in twin mounts . She carried a pair of IMAM Ro.43 seaplanes for aerial reconnaissance ; the hangar was located in under the forecastle and a fixed catapult was mounted on the centerline at the bow .
Fiume 's secondary battery was revised several times during her career . Two of the 100 mm guns and all of the 40 mm and 12 @.@ 7 mm guns were removed in the late 1930s and eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 54 @-@ cal. guns and eight 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) guns were installed in their place . Two 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) 15 @-@ cal. starshell guns were added in 1940 .
= = Service history = =
Built in the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino in Trieste , Fiume was laid down on 29 April 1929 , the first member of the class to be laid down . She was launched nearly a year later on 27 April 1930 , the same day as her sister ship Zara . Fitting @-@ out work lasted another year and a half , and the new cruiser was commissioned into the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) on 23 November 1931 . In January 1935 , tests with autogyros were conducted aboard Fiume ; a wooden platform was built on the stern of the ship to support the aircraft . The experiments proved to be successful , although the autogyros themselves had very limited range and were unreliable . Fiume took part in a lavish ceremony held for the visit of Adolf Hitler , the dictator of Nazi Germany , in May 1938 . She and Zara conducted a gunnery demonstration while Hitler and the dictator of Italy , Benito Mussolini , observed from the battleship Conte di Cavour .
= = = World War II = = =
When Italy formally joined the Second World War by declaring war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940 , Fiume was assigned to the 1st Division with Zara and the four destroyers of the 9th Destroyer Flotilla . The unit was assigned to the 1st Squadron , under the command of Admiral Inigo Campioni . Two days later , Fiume and the rest of the 1st Division , along with the 9th Division , sortied in response to British attacks on Italian positions in Libya . While they were at sea , the British submarine HMS Odin unsuccessfully attacked Fiume and her sister Gorizia . On 6 July , a convoy left Naples , bound for North Africa ; the following day , Italian reconnaissance reported a British cruiser squadron to have arrived in Malta . The Italian naval high command therefore ordered the 1st Division and several other cruisers and destroyers to join the escort for the convoy . The battleships Conte di Cavour and Giulio Cesare provide distant support . Two days later , the Italian fleet briefly clashed with the British Mediterranean Fleet in an inconclusive action off Calabria .
In late September , the Italian fleet , including Fiume , made a sweep for a British troop convoy from Alexandria to Malta , but it made no contact with the British ships . Fiume was present in the harbor at Taranto when the British fleet launched the nighttime carrier strike on Taranto on the night of 11 β 12 November , but she was not attacked in the raid . Another attempt to intercept a British convoy in late November resulted in the Battle of Cape Spartivento . The Italian fleet left port on 26 November and clashed with the British fleet the next day , in an engagement that lasted for about an hour . Campioni broke off the action because he mistakenly believed he was facing a superior force , the result of poor aerial reconnaissance . The British heavy cruiser HMS Berwick was hit twice by 203 mm rounds during the engagement , either fired by Fiume or her sister Pola .
= = = = Battle of Cape Matapan = = = =
The Italian fleet , now commanded by Admiral Angelo Iachino , made another attempt to intercept a British convoy in late March 1941 . The fleet was supported by the Regia Aeronautica and the German Fliegerkorps X ( 10th Air Corps ) . This operation resulted in the Battle of Cape Matapan ; early in the battle , Fiume and the rest of the 1st Division were to the northeast of the rest of the Italian fleet , which had encountered the British to the southwest . The battleship Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed by British aircraft and forced to withdraw during this phase of the battle . The 1st Division remained on the port side of the Italian fleet as it began its return to port to screen against another possible British attack . A second British airstrike later in the day failed to locate the retiring Vittorio Veneto and instead torpedoed Pola , which left the cruiser immobilized . Fiume , Zara , and four destroyers were detached to protect Pola . The British fleet , centered on the battleships Valiant , Warspite , and Barham , was at this point only 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) away .
Guided by radar , the British fleet closed in on the crippled Pola in the darkness while Fiume , Zara , and the destroyers approached from the opposite direction . At 10 : 27 , the searchlights aboard Warspite , the leading British battleship , illuminated Fiume at a range of 2 @,@ 900 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) , followed immediately by a salvo of six 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) shells from her main battery ; five struck Fiume and caused serious damage . Her superfiring rear turret was blown overboard before a second salvo from Warspite struck the ship . Shortly thereafter , Valiant fired four 15 @-@ inch shells into Fiume , causing further devastation . Fiume , now a burning wreck , was spared further destruction as the British battleships turned their attention to Zara . Fiume fell out of line , listing badly to starboard , as Zara was similarly hammered by 15 @-@ inch broadsides . Fiume remained afloat for about 45 minutes before she capsized and sank stern first at 23 : 15 . Two of the destroyers , Alfieri and Carducci , were also sunk , as were Zara and Pola . The action had lasted a mere three minutes . 812 men were lost with Fiume , among them her commanding officer Capt. Giorgio Giorgis ; the survivors were picked up by British destroyers on the following morning , Greek destroyers in the evening of 29 March and the Italian hospital ship Gradisca between 31 March and 3 April .
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= Antonin Scalia =
Antonin Gregory Scalia ( / skΙΛliΛΙ / ; March 11 , 1936 β February 13 , 2016 ) was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1986 until his death in 2016 . Appointed to the Court by President Ronald Reagan in 1986 , Scalia was described as the intellectual anchor for the originalist and textualist position in the Court 's conservative wing .
Scalia was born in Trenton , New Jersey . He attended public grade school , Xavier High School in Manhattan , and then college at Georgetown University in Washington , D.C. He obtained his law degree from Harvard Law School and spent six years in a Cleveland law firm , before he became a law school professor at the University of Virginia . In the early 1970s , he served in the Nixon and Ford administrations , eventually as an Assistant Attorney General . He spent most of the Carter years teaching at the University of Chicago , where he became one of the first faculty advisers of the fledgling Federalist Society . In 1982 , Ronald Reagan appointed him as judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit . In 1986 , Reagan appointed him to the Supreme Court . Scalia was unanimously confirmed by the Senate , becoming the first Italian @-@ American justice .
Scalia served on the Court for nearly thirty years , during which time he espoused a conservative jurisprudence and ideology , advocating textualism in statutory interpretation and originalism in constitutional interpretation . He was a strong defender of the powers of the executive branch , believing presidential power should be paramount in many areas . He opposed affirmative action and other policies that treated minorities as special groups . He filed separate opinions in many cases and often castigated the Court 's majority in his minority opinions using scathing language .
= = Early life and education = =
Antonin Scalia was born on March 11 , 1936 , in Trenton , New Jersey , and was an only child . His father , Salvatore Eugene Scalia ( 1903 β 1986 ) , an Italian immigrant from Sommatino , Sicily , was a graduate student at Columbia University and clerk at the time of his son 's birth . The elder Scalia would become a professor of Romance languages at Brooklyn College , where he was an adherent to the formalist New Criticism school of literary theory . His mother , Catherine Louise ( nΓ©e Panaro ) Scalia ( 1905 β 1985 ) , was born in Trenton to Italian immigrant parents and worked as an elementary school teacher .
In 1939 , Scalia and his family moved to the Elmhurst section of Queens , New York , where he attended P.S. 13 . After completing eighth grade in public school , he obtained an academic scholarship to Xavier High School , a Jesuit military school in Manhattan , where he graduated first in the class of 1953 and served as the valedictorian . He later stated that he spent much of his time on schoolwork , and admitted , " I was never cool . " While a youth , he was also active as a Boy Scout and was part of Scouting 's national honor society the Order of the Arrow .
Classmate and future New York State official William Stern remembered Scalia in his high school days :
This kid was a conservative when he was 17 years old . An archconservative Catholic . He could have been a member of the Curia . He was the top student in the class . He was brilliant , way above everybody else .
In 1953 , Scalia enrolled at Georgetown University , where he graduated valedictorian and summa cum laude in 1957 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history . While in college , he was a champion collegiate debater in Georgetown 's Philodemic Society and a critically praised thespian . He took his junior year abroad at the University of Fribourg , Switzerland . Scalia studied law at Harvard Law School , where he was a Notes Editor for the Harvard Law Review . He graduated magna cum laude from Harvard in 1960 , becoming a Sheldon Fellow of Harvard University . The fellowship allowed him to travel throughout Europe during 1960 β 1961 .
= = Early legal career ( 1961 β 1982 ) = =
Scalia began his legal career at the international law firm Jones , Day , Cockley and Reavis in Cleveland , Ohio , where he worked from 1961 to 1967 . He was highly regarded at the law firm and would most likely have been made a partner , but later stated he had long intended to teach . He became a Professor of Law at the University of Virginia in 1967 , moving his family to Charlottesville .
After four years in Charlottesville , Scalia entered public service in 1971 . President Richard Nixon appointed him as the General Counsel for the Office of Telecommunications Policy , where one of his principal assignments was to formulate federal policy for the growth of cable television . From 1972 to 1974 , he was the chairman of the Administrative Conference of the United States , a small independent agency that sought to improve the functioning of the federal bureaucracy . In mid @-@ 1974 , Nixon nominated him as Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel . After Nixon 's resignation , the nomination was continued by President Gerald Ford , and Scalia was confirmed by the Senate on August 22 , 1974 .
In the aftermath of Watergate , the Ford administration was engaged in a number of conflicts with Congress . Scalia repeatedly testified before congressional committees , defending Ford administration assertions of executive privilege regarding its refusal to turn over documents . Within the administration , Scalia advocated a presidential veto for a bill to amend the Freedom of Information Act , greatly increasing its scope . Scalia 's view prevailed and Ford vetoed the bill , but Congress overrode it . In early 1976 , Scalia argued his only case before the Supreme Court , Alfred Dunhill of London , Inc. v. Republic of Cuba . Scalia , on behalf of the U.S. government , argued in support of Dunhill , and that position was successful . Following Ford 's defeat by President Jimmy Carter , Scalia worked for several months at the American Enterprise Institute . He then returned to academia , taking up residence at the University of Chicago Law School from 1977 to 1982 , though he spent one year as a visiting professor at Stanford Law School . In 1981 , he became the first faculty adviser for the University of Chicago 's chapter of the newly founded Federalist Society .
= = D.C. Circuit Court Judge and nomination to the Supreme Court ( 1982 β 1986 ) = =
When Ronald Reagan was elected President in November 1980 , Scalia hoped for a major position in the new administration . He was interviewed for the position of Solicitor General of the United States , but the position went to Rex E. Lee , to Scalia 's great disappointment . Scalia was offered a seat on the Chicago @-@ based United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in early 1982 , but declined it , hoping to be appointed to the highly influential United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ( D.C. Circuit ) . Later that year , Reagan offered Scalia a seat on the D.C. Circuit , which Scalia accepted . He was confirmed by the US Senate on August 5 , 1982 , and was sworn in on August 17 , 1982 .
On the D.C. Circuit , Scalia built a conservative record , while winning applause in legal circles for powerful , witty legal writing , which was often critical of the Supreme Court precedents he felt bound as a lower @-@ court judge to follow . Scalia 's opinions drew the attention of Reagan administration officials , who , according to The New York Times , " liked virtually everything they saw and ... listed him as a leading Supreme Court prospect . " In 1985 , though there was then no vacancy on the Court , Reagan administration officials put Scalia on a short list with fellow D.C. Circuit Judge Robert Bork , to be considered if a justice left the Court . In 1986 , Chief Justice Warren Burger informed the White House of his intent to retire . Reagan first decided to nominate Associate Justice William Rehnquist to become Chief Justice . This choice meant that Reagan would also have to choose a nominee to fill Rehnquist 's seat as associate justice . Attorney General Edwin Meese , who advised Reagan on the choice , seriously considered only Bork and Scalia . Feeling that this might well be Reagan 's last opportunity to pick a Supreme Court justice , the President and his advisers chose Scalia over Bork . Many factors influenced this decision . Reagan wanted to appoint the first Italian @-@ American justice . In addition , Scalia was ten years younger , and would likely serve longer on the Court . Scalia also had the advantage of not having Bork 's " paper trail " ; the elder judge had written controversial articles about individual rights . Scalia was called to the White House , and accepted Reagan 's nomination .
When Senate Judiciary Committee hearings on Scalia 's nomination opened in August 1986 , he faced a committee that had just argued divisively over the Rehnquist nomination . Witnesses and Democratic senators contended that , before becoming a judge , Rehnquist had engaged in activities designed to discourage minorities from voting . Committee members had little taste for a second battle over Scalia and were in any event reluctant to oppose the first Italian @-@ American Supreme Court nominee . The judge was not pressed heavily on controversial issues such as abortion or civil rights . Scalia , who attended the hearing with his wife and nine children seated behind him , found time for a humorous exchange with Democratic Ohio Senator Howard Metzenbaum , whom he had defeated in a tennis match in , as the nominee put it , " a case of my integrity overcoming my judgment " .
Scalia met no opposition from the committee . The full Senate debated Scalia 's nomination only briefly , and confirmed him 98 β 0 on September 17 , 1986 , creating the first Italian @-@ American Justice . This vote followed Rehnquist 's confirmation as Chief Justice by a vote of 65 β 33 on the same day . He took his seat on September 26 , 1986 . One committee member , Democratic Delaware Senator Joe Biden , later stated that he regretted not having opposed Scalia " because he was so effective " .
= = Jurisprudence ( 1986 β 2016 ) = =
= = = Governmental structure and powers = = =
= = = = Separation of powers = = = =
It was Scalia 's view that clear lines of separation among the legislative , executive , and judicial branches follow directly from the Constitution , with no branch allowed to exercise powers granted to another branch . In his early days on the Court , he authored a powerful β and solitary β dissent in 1988 's Morrison v. Olson , in which the Court 's majority upheld the Independent Counsel law . Scalia 's thirty @-@ page draft dissent surprised Justice Harry Blackmun for its emotional content ; Blackmun felt " it could be cut down to ten pages if Scalia omitted the screaming " . Scalia indicated that the law was an unwarranted encroachment on the Executive Branch by the Legislative . He warned , " Frequently an issue of this sort will come before the Court clad , so to speak , in sheep 's clothing ... But this wolf comes as a wolf . "
The 1989 case of Mistretta v. United States challenged the United States Sentencing Commission , an independent body within the judicial branch whose members ( some of whom were federal judges ) were removable only for good cause . The petitioner argued that the arrangement violated separation of powers , and that the United States Sentencing Guidelines promulgated by the Commission were invalid . Eight justices joined in the majority opinion written by Blackmun , upholding the Guidelines as constitutional . Scalia dissented , stating that the issuance of the Guidelines was a lawmaking function that Congress could not delegate , and dubbed the Commission " a sort of junior @-@ varsity Congress " .
In 1996 , Congress passed the Line Item Veto Act which allowed the President to cancel items from an appropriations bill ( a bill authorizing spending ) once passed into law . The statute was challenged the following year . The matter rapidly reached the Supreme Court , which struck down the law as violating the Presentment Clause of the Constitution , which governs what the President may do with a bill once it has passed both Houses of Congress . Scalia dissented , seeing no Presentment Clause difficulties and feeling that the act did not violate separation of powers . Scalia indicated that he felt that authorizing the President to cancel an appropriation was no different from allowing him to spend an appropriation at his discretion , which had long been accepted as constitutional .
= = = = Detainee cases = = = =
In 2004 , in Rasul v. Bush , the Court held that federal courts had jurisdiction to hear habeas corpus petitions brought by detainees at the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp . Scalia accused the majority of " spring [ ing ] a trap on the Executive " by ruling that it could hear cases involving persons at Guantanamo when no federal court had ever ruled that it had the authority to hear cases involving people there .
Scalia ( joined by Justice John Paul Stevens ) also dissented in the 2004 case of Hamdi v. Rumsfeld , involving Yaser Hamdi , an American citizen detained in the United States on the allegation he was an enemy combatant . The Court held that although Congress authorized Hamdi 's detention , Fifth Amendment due process guarantees give a citizen held in the United States as an enemy combatant [ Hamdi ] the right to contest that detention before a neutral decision maker . Scalia wrote that the AUMF could not be read to suspend habeas corpus and that the Court , faced with legislation by Congress which did not grant the President power to detain Hamdi , was trying to " Make Everything Come Out Right " .
In March 2006 , Scalia gave a talk at the University of Fribourg , in Switzerland , where he was asked about detainee rights . He responded , " Give me a break ... I had a son on that battlefield and they were shooting at my son , and I 'm not about to give this man who was captured in a war a full jury trial . I mean it 's crazy . " Though Scalia was not referring to any particular individual , the Supreme Court was about to consider the case of Salim Ahmed Hamdan , supposed driver to Osama bin Laden , who was challenging the military commissions at Guantanamo Bay . A group of retired military officers that supported Hamdan 's position asked Scalia to recuse himself , or step aside from hearing the case , which he declined to do . The Court held , 5 β 3 , in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld , that the federal courts had jurisdiction to consider Hamdan 's claims ; Scalia , in dissent , contended that any ability by the Court to consider Hamdan 's petition had been eliminated by the jurisdiction stripping Detainee Treatment Act of 2005 .
= = = = Federalism = = = =
In federalism cases , pitting the powers of the federal government against those of the states , Scalia often took the states ' positions . In 1997 , the Supreme Court considered the case of Printz v. United States , a challenge to certain provisions of the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act which required chief law enforcement officers of localities in states to perform certain duties . In Printz , Scalia wrote the Court 's majority decision . The Supreme Court ruled the provision which imposed those duties unconstitutional as violating the Tenth Amendment , which reserves to the states and to the people those powers not granted to the federal government . In 2005 , Scalia concurred in Gonzales v. Raich , which read the Commerce Clause to hold that Congress could ban the use of marijuana even where states approve its use for medicinal purposes . Scalia opined that the Commerce Clause , together with the Necessary and Proper Clause , permitted the regulation . In addition , Scalia felt that Congress may regulate intrastate activities if doing so is a necessary part of a more general regulation of interstate commerce . He based this decision on Wickard v. Filburn , which he now writes " expanded the Commerce Clause beyond all reason . "
Scalia rejected the existence of the negative Commerce Clause doctrine , calling it " a judicial fraud " .
Scalia took a broad view of the Eleventh Amendment , which bars certain lawsuits against states in the federal courts . In his 1989 dissent in Pennsylvania v. Union Gas Co . , Scalia stated that there was no intent on the part of the Framers to have the states surrender any sovereign immunity , and that the case that provoked the Eleventh Amendment , Chisholm v. Georgia , came as a surprise to them . Professor Ralph Rossum , who wrote a survey of Scalia 's constitutional views , suggests that the justice 's view of the Eleventh Amendment is actually contradictory to the language of the Amendment .
= = = Individual rights = = =
= = = = Abortion = = = =
Scalia argued that there is no constitutional right to abortion , and that if the people desire legalized abortion , a law should be passed to accomplish it . Scalia wrote in his dissenting opinion in the 1992 case of Planned Parenthood v. Casey ,
The States may , if they wish , permit abortion on demand , but the Constitution does not require them to do so . The permissibility of abortion , and the limitations upon it , are to be resolved like most important questions in our democracy : by citizens trying to persuade one another and then voting .
Scalia repeatedly called upon his colleagues to strike down Roe v. Wade . Scalia hoped to find five votes to strike down Roe in the 1989 case of Webster v. Reproductive Health Services , but was not successful in doing so . Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor authored the decision of the Court , allowing the abortion regulations at issue in the case to stand , but not overriding Roe . Scalia concurred only in part . Scalia wrote that , " Justice O 'Connor 's assertion , that a ' fundamental rule of judicial restraint ' requires us to avoid reconsidering Roe , cannot be taken seriously . " He noted , " We can now look forward to at least another Term of carts full of mail from the public , and the streets full of demonstrators . "
The Court returned to the issue of abortion in the 2000 case of Stenberg v. Carhart , in which it invalidated a Nebraska statute outlawing partial @-@ birth abortion . Justice Stephen Breyer wrote for the Court that the law was unconstitutional as it did not allow an exception for the health of the mother . Scalia dissented , comparing the Stenberg case with two of the most reviled cases in Supreme Court history : " I am optimistic enough to believe that , one day , Stenberg v. Carhart will be assigned its rightful place in the history of this Court 's jurisprudence beside Korematsu and Dred Scott . The method of killing a human child ... proscribed by this statute is so horrible that the most clinical description of it evokes a shudder of revulsion . "
In 2007 , the Court upheld a federal statute banning partial @-@ birth abortion in Gonzales v. Carhart . University of Chicago law professor Geoffrey R. Stone , a former colleague of Scalia 's , criticized Gonzales , stating that religion had influenced the outcome as all five justices in the majority were Catholic , whereas the dissenters were Protestant or Jewish . This angered Scalia to such an extent that he stated he would not speak at the University of Chicago as long as Stone is there .
= = = = Race , gender , and sexual orientation = = = =
Scalia generally voted to strike down laws that make distinctions by race , gender , or sexual orientation . In 1989 , he concurred with the Court 's judgment in City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co . , in which the Court applied strict scrutiny to a city program requiring a certain percentage of contracts to go to minorities , and struck down the program . Scalia did not join the majority opinion , however . He disagreed with O 'Connor 's opinion , for the Court , that states and localities could institute race @-@ based programs , if they identified past discrimination , and if the program was designed to remedy the past racism . Five years later , in Adarand Constructors , Inc. v. PeΓ±a he concurred in the Court 's judgment and in part with the opinion which extended strict scrutiny to federal programs . Scalia noted in that matter his view that government can never have a compelling interest in making up for past discrimination by racial preferences ,
To pursue the concept of racial entitlement β even for the most admirable and benign of purposes β is to reinforce and preserve for future mischief the way of thinking that produced race slavery , race privilege and race hatred . In the eyes of government , we are just one race here . It is American .
In the 2003 case of Grutter v. Bollinger , involving racial preferences in the University of Michigan 's law school , Scalia mocked the Court majority 's finding that the school was entitled to continue using race as a factor in admissions to promote diversity , and to increase " cross @-@ racial understanding " . Scalia noted ,
This is not , of course , an " educational benefit " on which students will be graded on their Law School transcript ( Works and Plays Well with Others : B + ) or tested by the bar examiners ( Q : Describe in 500 words or less your cross @-@ racial understanding ) . For it is a lesson of life rather than law β essentially the same lesson taught to ( or rather learned by , for it cannot be " taught " in the usual sense ) people three feet shorter and twenty years younger than the full @-@ grown adults at the University of Michigan Law School , in institutions ranging from Boy Scout troops to public @-@ school kindergartens .
Scalia argued that laws that make distinctions between genders should be subjected to intermediate scrutiny , requiring that the gender classification be substantially related to important government objectives . When , in 1996 , the Court upheld a suit brought by a woman who wished to enter the Virginia Military Institute in the case of United States v. Virginia , Scalia filed a lone , lengthy dissent . Scalia felt that the Court , in requiring Virginia to show an " extremely persuasive justification " for the single @-@ sex admissions policy , had redefined intermediate scrutiny in such a way " that makes it indistinguishable from strict scrutiny " .
In one of the final decisions of the Burger Court , the Court ruled in 1986 in Bowers v. Hardwick that homosexual sodomy was not protected by the right of privacy and could be criminally prosecuted by the states . In 1995 , however , that ruling was effectively gutted by Romer v. Evans , which struck down a Colorado state constitutional amendment , passed by popular vote , which forbade anti @-@ discrimination laws being extended to sexual orientation . Scalia dissented from the opinion by Justice Kennedy , believing that Bowers had protected the right of the states to pass such measures , and that the Colorado amendment was not discriminatory , but merely prevented homosexuals from gaining favored status under Colorado law . Scalia later said of Romer , " And the Supreme Court said , ' Yes , it is unconstitutional . ' On the basis of β I don 't know , the Sexual Preference Clause of the Bill of Rights , presumably . And the liberals loved it , and the conservatives gnashed their teeth . "
In 2003 , Bowers was formally overruled by Lawrence v. Texas , from which Scalia dissented . According to Mark V. Tushnet in his survey of the Rehnquist Court , during the oral argument in the case , Scalia seemed so intent on making the state 's argument for it that the Chief Justice intervened . According to his biographer , Joan Biskupic , Scalia " ridiculed " the majority in his dissent for being so ready to cast aside Bowers when many of the same justices had refused to overturn Roe in Planned Parenthood v. Casey . In March 2009 , openly gay Congressman Barney Frank described him as a " homophobe " . Maureen Dowd described Scalia in a 2003 column as " Archie Bunker in a high @-@ backed chair " . In an op @-@ ed for The New York Times , federal appeals judge Richard Posner and Georgia State University law professor Eric Segall described as radical Scalia 's positions on homosexuality , reflecting an apparent belief that the religious stances supposedly held by the majority of US citizens should take precedence over the Constitution and characterizing Scalia 's " political ideal as verg [ ing ] on majoritarian theocracy . "
= = = = Criminal law = = = =
Scalia believed that the death penalty is constitutional . He dissented in decisions that hold the death penalty unconstitutional as applied to certain groups , such as those who were under the age of 18 at the time of offense . In Thompson v. Oklahoma ( 1988 ) , he dissented from the Court 's ruling that the death penalty could not be applied to those aged 15 at the time of the offense , and the following year authored the Court 's opinion in Stanford v. Kentucky sustaining the death penalty for those who killed at age 16 . However , in 2005 , the Court overturned Stanford in Roper v. Simmons and Scalia again dissented , mocking the majority 's claims that a national consensus had emerged against the execution of those who killed while underage , and noted that less than half of the states that permitted the death penalty prohibited it for underage killers . He castigated the majority for including in their count states that had abolished the death penalty entirely , stating that doing so was " rather like including old @-@ order Amishmen in a consumer @-@ preference poll on the electric car . Of course they don 't like it , but that sheds no light whatever on the point at issue . " In 2002 , in Atkins v. Virginia , the Court ruled the death penalty unconstitutional as applied to the mentally retarded . Scalia dissented , stating that it would not have been considered cruel or unusual to execute the mildly mentally retarded at the time of the 1791 adoption of the Bill of Rights , and that the Court had failed to show that a national consensus had formed against the practice .
Scalia strongly disfavored the Court 's ruling in Miranda v. Arizona , which held that a confession by an arrested suspect who had not been advised of his rights was inadmissible in court , and voted to overrule Miranda in the 2000 case of Dickerson v. United States , but was in a minority of two with Justice Clarence Thomas . Calling the Miranda decision a " milestone of judicial overreaching " , Scalia stated that the Court should not fear to correct its mistakes .
Although , in many areas , Scalia 's approach was unfavorable to criminal defendants , he took the side of defendants in matters involving the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment , which guarantees defendants the right to confront their accusers . In multiple cases , Scalia wrote against laws that allowed alleged victims of child abuse to testify behind screens or by closed @-@ circuit television . In a 2009 case , Scalia wrote the majority opinion in Melendez @-@ Diaz v. Massachusetts , holding that defendants must have the opportunity to confront lab technicians in drug cases ; a certificate of analysis is not enough to prove a substance was drugs .
Scalia maintained that every element of an offense that helps determine the sentence must be either admitted by the defendant or found by a jury under the Sixth Amendment 's jury guarantee . In the 2000 case of Apprendi v. New Jersey , Scalia wrote the Court 's majority opinion that struck down a state statute that allowed the trial judge to increase the sentence if he found the offense was a hate crime . Scalia found the procedure impermissible because whether it was a hate crime had not been decided by the jury . In 2004 , he wrote for the Court in Blakely v. Washington , striking down Washington state 's sentencing guidelines on similar grounds . The dissenters in Blakely foresaw that Scalia would use the case to attack the federal sentencing guidelines ( which he had failed to strike down in Mistretta ) , and they proved correct , as Scalia led a five @-@ member majority in United States v. Booker , which made those guidelines no longer mandatory for federal judges to follow ( they remained advisory ) .
In the 2001 case of Kyllo v. United States , Scalia wrote the Court 's opinion in a 5 β 4 decision that cut across ideological lines . That decision found thermal imaging of a home to be an unreasonable search under the Fourth Amendment . The Court struck down a conviction for marijuana manufacture based on a search warrant issued after such scans were conducted , which showed that the garage was considerably hotter than the rest of the house because of indoor growing lights . Applying that Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable search and seizure to arrest , Scalia dissented from the Court 's 1991 decision in County of Riverside v. McLaughlin , allowing a 48 @-@ hour delay before a person arrested without a warrant is taken before a magistrate , on the ground that at the time of the adoption of the Fourth Amendment , an arrested person was to be taken before a magistrate as quickly as practicable . In a 1990 First Amendment case , R.A.V. v. St. Paul , Scalia wrote the Court 's opinion striking down a St. Paul , Minnesota , hate speech ordinance in a prosecution for burning a cross . Scalia noted , " Let there be no mistake about our belief that burning a cross in someone 's front yard is reprehensible . But St. Paul has sufficient means at its disposal to prevent such behavior without adding the First Amendment to the fire . "
= = = = Litigation and " Standing " = = = =
Following the death of Scalia , Paul Barrett writing for Bloomberg News Weekly , reported that : " Translating into liberal argot : Scalia changed the rules for who could sue . " The issue elevated the recognition of Scalia as a notable influence on establishing and determining the conditions under which cases could be brought to trial and for litigation , and by whom such litigation could take place . David Rivkin , from the conservative standpoint , stated that : " He ( Scalia ) did more to clarify and limit the bounds and scope of judicial power than any Supreme Court Justice in history , particularly in the area of standing and class actions . " Scalia indicated his long held position from the time his 1983 law review article titled " The Doctrine of Standing as an Essential Element of the Separation of Powers " . As summarized by Barrett , " He ( Scalia ) wrote that courts had misappropriated authority from other branches of government by allowing too many people to sue corporations and government agencies , especially in environmental cases . " In a practical sense , Scalia brought to the attention of the Court the ability to restrict " standing " in class action suits in which the litigants may be defined in descriptive terms rather than as well @-@ defined and unambiguous litigants .
= = = Other cases = = =
Scalia concurred in the 1990 case of Cruzan v. Director , Missouri Department of Health in which the family of a woman in a vegetative state sought to have her feeding tube removed so she would die , believing that to have been her wish . The Court found for the State of Missouri , requiring clear and convincing evidence of such a desire . Scalia stated that the Court should have remained away from the dispute , and that the issues " are [ not ] better known to the nine Justices of this Court any better than they are known to nine people picked at random from the Kansas City telephone directory " .
Scalia joined the majority per curiam opinion in the 2000 case of Bush v. Gore , which effectively ended recounts of ballots in Florida following the 2000 US Presidential election , and also both concurred separately and joined Rehnquist 's concurrence . In 2007 , he said of the case , " I and my court owe no apology whatever for Bush v. Gore . We did the right thing . So there ! ... get over it . It 's so old by now . " During an interview on the Charlie Rose show , he defended the Court 's action :
The decision was not close , it was 7 β 2 on the principal issue of whether there had been a constitutional violation ... But what if it was unconstitutional to have that recount ? You 're going to let it continue and come to a conclusion ? And then overturn it ? The reason to stop it sooner was not , " Ooh , we 're worried that it 's going to come out the wrong way . " ... you forget what was going on at the time . We were the laughingstock of the world . The world 's greatest democracy that couldn 't conduct an election . We didn 't know who our next president was going to be . The lengthy transition that has become standard when you change from one president to another could not begin because you didn 't know who the new president was going to be . It was becoming a very serious problem . The issue before the United States Supreme Court is : having decided the case , having decided this is unconstitutional , should we nonetheless let the election go on ? Or is it time cut it off and let 's move on ?
In 2008 , the Court considered a challenge to the gun laws in the District of Columbia . Scalia wrote the majority opinion in District of Columbia v. Heller , which found an individual right to own a firearm under the Second Amendment . Scalia traced the word " militia " , found in the Second Amendment , as it would have been understood at the time of its ratification , and stated that it then meant " the body of all citizens " . The Court upheld Heller 's claim to own a firearm in the District .
Scalia 's opinion for the Heller Court was widely criticized by liberals , and applauded by conservatives . However , Seventh Circuit judge Richard Posner disagreed with Scalia 's opinion , stating that the Second Amendment " creates no right to the private possession of guns " . Posner called Scalia 's opinion " faux originalism " and a " historicizing glaze on personal values and policy preferences " . In October 2008 Scalia stated that the court 's originalists only needed to show that at the time the Second Amendment was ratified , the right to bear arms did not have an exclusively military context , and that they were successful in so showing .
= = Legal philosophy and approach = =
= = = Judicial performance = = =
During oral argument before the Court , Scalia asked more questions and made more comments than any other justice β and a 2005 study found that he provoked laughter more often than any of his colleagues . His goal during oral arguments was to get across his position to the other justices . University of Kansas social psychologist Lawrence Wrightsman wrote of Scalia 's style , " he communicates a sense of urgency on the bench , and his style is forever forceful " . Since Chief Justice John Roberts joined the Court in 2005 , he has taken to questioning counsel in a manner similar to Scalia 's and sometimes the two questioned counsel in seeming coordination . Dahlia Lithwick of Slate described Scalia 's technique :
Scalia doesn 't come into oral argument all secretive and sphinxlike , feigning indecision on the nuances of the case before him . He comes in like a medieval knight , girded for battle . He knows what the law is . He knows what the opinion should say . And he uses the hour allocated for argument to bludgeon his brethren into agreement .
Scalia wrote numerous opinions from the start of his career on the Supreme Court . During his tenure , he wrote more concurring opinions than any other justice , and only two justices have written more dissents . According to Kevin Ring , who compiled a book of Scalia 's dissenting and concurring opinions , " His opinions are ... highly readable . His entertaining writing style can make even the most mundane areas of the law interesting . " Conor Clarke of Slate comments on Scalia 's written opinions , especially his dissents :
His writing style is best described as equal parts anger , confidence , and pageantry . Scalia has a taste for garish analogies and offbeat allusions β often very funny ones β and he speaks in no uncertain terms . He is highly accessible and tries not to get bogged down in abstruse legal jargon . But most of all , Scalia 's opinions read like they 're about to catch fire for pure outrage . He does not , in short , write like a happy man .
At the Supreme Court , justices meet after the case is briefed and argued , and vote on the result . The task of writing the opinion is assigned by the Chief Justice , or if they are in the minority or not participating , by the senior justice in the majority . After the assignment , the justices generally communicate about a case by sending notes and draft opinions to each other 's chambers . In the give and take of opinion writing , Scalia did not compromise his views in order to attract five votes for a majority ( unlike the late Justice William J. Brennan , Jr. who would accept less than he wanted in order to gain a partial victory ) . Scalia , known to his friends and colleagues as " Nino " , attempted to influence his colleagues by sending them " Ninograms " β short memoranda aimed at trying to get them to include his views in their opinions .
In an October 2013 issue of New York magazine , Scalia revealed that he scanned the Wall Street Journal and the Washington Times , got most of his news from talk radio and did not read The New York Times or The Washington Post . The latter he described as " shrilly liberal . "
= = = Statutory and constitutional interpretation = = =
Scalia was a textualist in statutory interpretation , believing that the ordinary meaning of the statute should govern . In 1998 , Scalia vociferously had opposed the idea of a living constitution , or the power of the judiciary to modify the meaning of constitutional provisions to adapt them to changing times . Scalia warned that if one accepted that constitutional standards should evolve with a maturing society , " the risk of assessing evolving standards is that it is all too easy to believe that evolution has culminated in one 's own views . " He compared the Constitution with statutes , which he contended were not understood to change their meaning through time . Constitutional amendments , such as the 1868 Fourteenth Amendment , according to Scalia , were to be interpreted based on their meaning at the time of ratification . Scalia was often asked how this approach justified the result in the 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education , which held that segregated schools were unconstitutional , and which relied on the Fourteenth Amendment for the result .
In interpreting statutes , Scalia did not look to legislative history . In the 2006 case of Zedner v. United States , he joined the majority opinion written by Justice Samuel Alito β all except one paragraph of the opinion , in which Alito cited legislative history . In a concurring opinion in that case , Scalia noted , " The use of legislative history is illegitimate and ill advised in the interpretation of any statute . " His dislike of legislative history may have been a reason why other justices have become more cautious in its use . Gregory Maggs wrote in the Public Interest Law Review in 1995 that by the early 1990s , legislative history was being cited in only about forty percent of Supreme Court cases involving the interpretation of statutes , and no case of that era used legislative history as an essential reason for the outcome . Maggs suggested ,
With Justice Scalia breathing down the necks of anyone who peeks into the Congressional Record or Senate reports , the other members of the Court may have concluded that the benefit of citing legislative history does not outweigh its costs . It is likely for this reason that the percentage of cases citing it has decreased dramatically . No one likes an unnecessary fight , especially not one with as formidable an opponent as Justice Scalia .
Scalia described himself as an originalist , meaning that he interpreted the United States Constitution as it would have been understood when it was adopted . According to Scalia in 2008 , " It 's what did the words mean to the people who ratified the Bill of Rights or who ratified the Constitution . " In 2006 , before George W. Bush appointees Roberts and Alito had time to make an impact , Rossum , wrote that Scalia had failed to win converts among his conservative colleagues for his use of originalism , whereas Roberts and Alito , as younger men with an originalist approach greatly admired Scalia battling for what he believed in .
In a 2009 public conversation , Justice Stephen Breyer questioned Scalia , indicating that those who ratified the Fourteenth Amendment did not intend to end school segregation . Scalia called this argument " waving the bloody shirt of Brown " , and indicated that he would have joined the first Justice Harlan 's solitary dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson , the 1896 case that Brown overruled .
Scalia 's originalist approach came under attack from critics , who viewed it as " a cover for what they see as Scalia 's real intention : to turn back some pivotal court decisions of the 1960s and 70s " , reached by the Warren and Burger Courts . Ralph Nader argued in 2008 that Scalia 's originalist philosophy was inconsistent with the justice 's acceptance of the extension of certain constitutional rights to corporations when at the time of the Fourteenth Amendment 's ratification , corporations were not commonly understood to possess constitutional rights . Nader 's view preceded the Court 's 2010 decision in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission . Scalia , in his concurrence in that case , traced his understanding of the rights of groups of individuals at the time of the adoption of the Bill of Rights . His argument was based on the lack of an exception for groups such as corporations in the free speech guarantee in the Bill of Rights , and on several examples of corporate political speech from the time of the adoption of the Bill of Rights . Professor Thomas Colby of The George Washington University National Law Center argued that Scalia 's votes in Establishment Clause cases do not stem from originalist views , but simply from conservative political convictions . Scalia responded to his critics that his originalism " has occasionally led him to decisions he deplores , like his upholding the constitutionality of flag burning " , which according to Scalia was protected by the First Amendment .
In 2009 , after nearly a quarter century on the Court , Scalia characterized his victories as " damn few " .
Writing in The Jewish Daily Forward in 2009 , J.J. Goldberg described Scalia as " the intellectual anchor of the court 's conservative majority " . He traveled to the nation 's law schools , giving talks on law and democracy . His appearances on college campuses were often standing room only . Ginsburg indicated that Scalia was " very much in tune with the current generation of law students ... Students now put ' Federalist Society ' on their resumes . " John Paul Stevens , who served throughout Scalia 's tenure until his 2010 retirement , said of Scalia 's influence , " He 's made a huge difference . Some of it constructive , some of it unfortunate . " Of the nine sitting justices , Scalia was most often the subject of law review articles .
= = Public attention = =
= = = Requests for recusals = = =
Scalia recused himself from Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow ( 2004 ) , a claim brought by atheist Michael Newdow alleging that the recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance ( including the words " under God " ) in school classrooms violated the rights of his daughter , who he said was also an atheist . Shortly after the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled in Newdow 's favor , but before the case came before the Supreme Court , Scalia spoke at a Knights of Columbus event in Fredericksburg , Virginia , stating that the Ninth Circuit decision was an example of how the courts were trying to excise God from public life . The school district requested that the Supreme Court review the case , and Newdow asked that Scalia recuse himself because of this prior statement , which he did without comment .
Scalia declined to recuse himself from Cheney v. United States District Court for the District of Columbia ( 2005 ) , a case concerning whether Vice President Dick Cheney could keep secret the membership of an advisory task force on energy policy . Scalia was asked to recuse himself because he had gone on a hunting trip with various persons including Cheney , during which he traveled one way on Air Force Two . Scalia issued a lengthy in @-@ chambers opinion refusing to recuse himself , stating that though Cheney was a longtime friend , he was merely being sued in his official capacity , and that were justices to step aside in the cases of officials who are parties because of official capacity , the Supreme Court would cease to function . Scalia indicated that it was far from unusual for justices to socialize with other government officials , recalling that the late Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson played poker with President Harry Truman , and that Justice Byron White went skiing with Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy . Scalia stated that he was never alone with Cheney during the trip , the two had not discussed the case , and the justice had saved no money since he had bought round @-@ trip tickets , the cheapest available . Scalia was part of the 7 β 2 majority once the case was heard which generally upheld Cheney 's position .
= = = Religious views = = =
Scalia was a devout Roman Catholic , and his son Paul entered the priesthood . Uncomfortable with the changes brought about following Vatican II , Scalia drove long distances to parishes that he felt were more in accord with his beliefs , such as the Tridentine Latin Mass in both Chicago and Washington and also the Latin version of the Mass of Paul VI at St. Catherine of Siena in Great Falls , Virginia . In a 2013 interview with Jennifer Senior for New York magazine , Scalia was asked if his beliefs extended to the Devil , and he stated , " Of course ! Yeah , he 's a real person . Hey , c 'mon , that 's standard Catholic doctrine ! Every Catholic believes that " . When asked if he had seen recent evidence of the Devil , Scalia replied , " You know , it is curious . In the Gospels , the Devil is doing all sorts of things . He 's making pigs run off cliffs , he 's possessing people and whatnot ... What he 's doing now is getting people not to believe in him or in God . He 's much more successful that way " . In another 2013 interview , Scalia stated that " In order for capitalism to work , in order for it to produce a good and stable society , traditional Christian virtues are essential " .
In 2006 , Scalia was asked by a reporter upon leaving church , if being a traditionalist Catholic had caused problems for him and responded by asking , " You know what I say to those people ? " , and with a gesture , cupping his hand under his chin and flicking his fingers out . The gesture , which was captured by a photographer , was initially reported by the Boston Herald as obscene . Scalia responded to the reports with a letter to the editor accusing the news staff of watching too many episodes of The Sopranos and stating that the gesture was a strong brush @-@ off . Roger Axtell , an expert on body language , described the gesture as possibly meaning " I 've had enough , go away " and noted , " It 's a fairly strong gesture " . The gesture would later be parodied by comedian Stephen Colbert during his performance at the White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner later that year , with the justice in attendance : cameras showed that unlike most of the butts of Colbert 's jokes that evening , Scalia was laughing .
= = = 1996 presidential election = = =
According to John Boehner , as chairman of the House Republican Conference , he sought to persuade Scalia to run for election as vice president with Bob Dole in 1996 . As related by Boehner , Scalia listened to the proposal and dictated the same reply Justice Charles Evans Hughes had once given to a similar query : " The possibility is too remote to comment upon , given my position . " Dole did put Scalia on his list of potential running mates , but eventually settled on Jack Kemp .
= = Personal life = =
On September 10 , 1960 , Scalia married Maureen McCarthy at St. Pius X church in Yarmouth , Massachusetts . The two had met on a blind date while he was at Harvard Law School . Maureen was an undergraduate student at Radcliffe College when they met and subsequently obtained a degree in English from the school .
The couple raised nine children , five boys and four girls . Two of the sons , Eugene Scalia and John Scalia , are attorneys . Paul Scalia is a Catholic priest , Matthew had a career in the Army , and Christopher is a writer . All four daughters , Catherine , Ann , Margaret and Mary , have families . According to Scalia , Maureen raised all nine children " with very little assistance from me . "
He resided in McLean , Virginia , a suburb of Washington , D.C.
Scalia enjoyed a warm relationship with fellow Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg , considered a member of the court 's liberal wing , with the two attending the opera together , and even appearing together onstage as supernumeraries in Washington National Opera 's 1994 production of Ariadne auf Naxos . Ginsburg was a colleague of Scalia 's on the D.C. Circuit , and the Scalias and Ginsburgs had dinner together every New Year 's Eve .
= = = Death = = =
Scalia died in his sleep on the night of February 12 or the morning of February 13 , 2016 , following an afternoon of quail hunting and dining at the Cibolo Creek Ranch in Shafter , Texas . He was pronounced dead of apparent natural causes . His physician , Rear Admiral Brian P. Monahan , said that Scalia had a history of heart trouble , including high blood pressure , and had recently been deemed too weak to undergo surgery for a torn rotator cuff .
For the month following Scalia 's death , his chair in the Supreme Court chamber and the front of the bench where he sat were draped with black wool crΓͺpe , with more over the court 's entrance , a tradition dating from the death of Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase in 1873 . Flags on the Court 's front plaza were flown at half @-@ staff for 30 days . Scalia 's body lay in repose in the Great Hall of the Supreme Court of the United States on February 19 , 2016 . His son , Rev. Paul Scalia , delivered the homily at a Catholic funeral Mass the next day at the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington , D.C. The interment was private , at Fairfax Memorial Park , Fairfax , Virginia .
= = Succession = =
Scalia 's death β only the second death of a serving justice in a span of sixty years β left eight justices remaining on the Supreme Court , split 4 β 4 between being fairly conservative and fairly liberal , during a presidential election year . Cases that were not decided before Scalia 's death will be decided by the remaining eight members of the Court . When the Court issues a split 4 β 4 ruling , the ruling of the lower court will be upheld , but the Supreme Court 's decision will have no precedential effect and the Court will not publish a written opinion with respect to the merits of the case . Citing the Court 's practices following the death of Justice Robert H. Jackson in 1954 , Tom Goldstein wrote that the Court is more likely to rehear evenly @-@ divided cases after a new justice is appointed to the Court .
In a 2012 interview , Scalia said that he would prefer Judge Frank H. Easterbrook of the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals as his successor . President Barack Obama said at the time of Scalia 's death that he would nominate his successor in " due time " . On March 16 , 2016 , he nominated Merrick Garland , Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit , to fill Scalia 's seat on the Court .
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= Australia and the American Civil War =
Despite being across the world from the conflict , the Australian colonies were affected by the American Civil War both economically and by immigration . The Australian cotton crop became more important to England , which had lost its American sources , and it served as a supply base for Confederate blockade runners . Immigrants from Europe seeking a better life also found Australia preferable to war @-@ torn North America .
The Australian public was shocked by the revelation by a turncoat Russian officer , who claimed that a direct engagement was secretly planned by Russia in case the Confederacy was recognised by Britain . The Russian navy had just paid Australia a visit in preparation for launching attacks . Fear of a possible military confrontation led to a massive buildup of coastal defences and to the acquisition of an ironclad warship .
Australia became directly involved when the Confederate navy visited in order to repair one of their warships . This led to protests from the Union representative at Melbourne , while the citizenry of nearby Williamstown entertained the Confederates and some Australians joined the crew . Accounts disagree as to whether Australians generally favored the Union or the Confederacy , as sorrowful demonstrations were held in Sydney when news arrived of Abraham Lincoln 's assassination .
= = Economics = =
Together , 140 Australians and New Zealanders were veterans of the American Civil War , 100 of whom were native @-@ born . Some of these were originally Americans who came to Australia during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s . Officers during the war included one who gave Tasmania its first telegraph service , and another officer who mined for gold in Ballarat .
Confederate blockade runners occasionally obtained supplies there , despite a historic fear of possible naval attack by Americans , a fear rooted in the actions of American privateers during the War of 1812 .
The war also caused the Lancashire Cotton Famine . As a result , Queensland saw a rise in its cotton industry , while the National Colonial Emigration Society in Britain was founded , although it had little ongoing relevance . This came about as a result of so many individuals from northern England being affected by the inability of the Southern United States to ship cotton during the war . Once the war ended , little cotton from Southern Australia was imported to England . However , in the aftermath of the war some Australians were interested in acquiring the Fiji Islands and their cotton fields .
Another impact was the competition with Canada that Australia and New Zealand had with Irish immigration . The increasing Irish immigration was seen as an economic boon by these antipodean countries . One of the reasons for the increase was due to many Irish deciding against emigrating to the warring nations of North America .
= = Imperial Russian Navy = =
During the Civil War , the Union and Russia were allies against what they saw as their potential enemy , Britain . The Russian blue @-@ water navy was stationed in San Francisco and from 1863 in New York β with sealed orders to attack British naval targets in case war broke out between the United States and Britain . This was threatened if Britain gave diplomatic recognition to the Confederacy .
The flagship of the Russian Pacific squadron , Bogatyr under Rear Admiral Andrey Alexandrovich Popov , officially made a friendly visit to Melbourne in early 1863 . According to information passed on to Australian authorities in June 1864 , Rear Admiral A.A. Popov had in the first half of the year 1863 received orders and a plan of attack on the British naval ships positioned near the Australian shore . The plan also included shelling and destruction of the Melbourne , Sydney and Hobart coastal batteries . The information was attributed to the Polish lieutenant WΕadysΕaw Zbyszewski of the Bogatyr , who had deserted from service in Shanghai soon after Bogatyr left Australia , and found his way to Paris to join the Polish January Uprising . This information about Popov 's plans was forwarded by a fellow Pole , a certain S. Rakowsky . Similar attack orders are known to have been given to the Atlantic squadron under Rear Admiral Lessovsky , that was sent to New York at the same time .
= = CSS Shenandoah = =
The CSS Shenandoah arrived in Australian waters on January 17 , 1865 . Off the coast of South Australia at 39 Β° 32 ' 14 " S and 122 Β° 16 ' 52 " E , her crew spotted an American @-@ made sailing ship named the Nimrod and boarded it . Having ascertained it was an English ship , the Shenandoah left it alone .
On January 25 , 1865 the Shenandoah made harbor at Williamstown , Victoria , near Melbourne , in order to repair damage received while capturing Union whaling ships . At seven o 'clock in the evening , Waddell sent a Lieutenant Grimball to gain approval from local authorities to repair their ship , with Grimball returning three hours later saying they were granted permission . The United States consul , William Blanchard , insisted that the Victorian government arrest the Confederates as pirates , but his pleas were ignored by Victoria 's governor , Sir Charles Henry Darling , who was satisfied with the Shenandoah β s pleading of neutrality when requesting to be allowed to undertake repairs . Aside from a few fist fights between Americans , there was no direct conflict between the two warring sides . However , there were eighteen desertions while ashore , and there were constant threats of Northern sympathisers joining the crew in order to capture the ship when it was at sea .
The local citizenry was very interested in the Confederate ship being in Port Phillip Bay . While at Williamstown , James Iredell Waddell , the captain of the Shenandoah and his men participated in several " official functions " the local citizens arranged in their honour , including a gala ball with the " cream of society " at Craig 's Royal Hotel in Ballarat and at the Melbourne Club . Thousands of tourists came to see the ship every day , requiring special trains to accommodate them . After being treated as " little lions " , the officers of the Shenandoah later reflected that the best time of their lives was given to them by the women of Melbourne .
After leaving Australia , the Shenandoah captured twenty @-@ five additional Union whaling ships before finally surrendering at Liverpool , England in November , 1865 . Those surrendering included 42 Australians who had joined the crew at Williamstown ; sources differ as to whether the Australians were stowaways or illegally recruited . Waddell did refuse Australian authorities to see if Australians were aboard the ship prior to sailing from Williamstown on February 18 . Four Australians were arrested to prevent them from joining the Confederate ships , and Governor Darling allowed the Shenandoah to sail away , instead of firing upon it . Waddell 's official report said that on February 18 they " found on board " the 42 men , and made 36 sailors and enlisted six as marines . One of the original Confederate crewmen , midshipman John Thomson Mason , stated that they just happened to find the stowaways , of various nationalities , and enlisted them outside of Australian waters . He further said one of the stowaways was the captain of an English steamer that was at Melbourne at the time ; the Englishman became the captain 's clerk .
= = Assassination of Abraham Lincoln = =
The news of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln on 15 April , 1865 caused demonstrations of sorrow in Sydney . An editorial in Melbourne 's " The Age " newspaper on June 27 , 1865 reported that in Sydney the assassination of Lincoln had caused great indignation . There were many Australian sympathisers that wanted to put an end to slavery , a central issue with Lincoln and his Emancipation Proclamation . A memorial service was held in Sydney 's Prince of Wales Opera House on Sunday afternoon July 9 , 1865 . There were strong feelings of anger at public meetings against the killer of Lincoln , a person so dedicated to his country . They figured he was a genius who rose " from a log cabin to the White House . "
A public meeting was held in Sydney to express sympathy for Lincoln 's death and a meeting of American citizens held on June 26 , 1865 had decided to forward a letter of condolence to Mrs. Lincoln , to contribute for a monumental tablet , and wear mourning for a month . There was a letter of sympathy sent to Lincoln 's wife from the mayor of the city of Sydney expressing the city 's condolences .
News of Lincoln 's assassination was reported in the Melbourne 's " The Age " on June 24 , 1865 . In the Melbourne newspapers , editorials were prominent . There was mention in the Melbourne Herald for June 26 , 1865 that many of the American houses in town carried their national ensign at half @-@ mast as a mark of respect to the memory of the late President . William Blanchard , the U.S. Consul in Melbourne at the time , on finding out the news of Lincoln 's death , caused the consular flag to be kept at half @-@ mast until July 4 , 1865 . The City Council of Melbourne passed a resolution " expressive of its horror and detestation of the atrocious murder of the late Chief Magistrate . "
There were other letters of sympathy from Australia . They came from the Polish and Hungarian Refugees in Melbourne dated July 4 , 1865 ; Citizens of the Swiss Republic Residents in New South Wales ; Sydney Irish National League , NSW Branch , dated July 22 , 1865 ; and from the mayor of Sydney Municipal Council dated July 17 , 1865 . Another letter of sympathy came from the town of Geelong in Victoria , addressed to " Mrs. Lincoln , Washington , America " dated August 22 , 1865 .
= = Aftermath = =
The residents of Melbourne , realising they were vulnerable to attack by others , especially the Russians due to the events during the war , hurried to build coastal defence forts . This included the government of Victoria requesting an ironclad ship to be sent to protect the colony , after the values of ironclads were demonstrated during the American Civil War 's Battle of Hampton Roads . The monitor HMVS Cerberus was constructed during the late 1860s , and duly arrived in Victoria in 1871 .
In 1872 the British government paid the United States $ 3 @,@ 875 @,@ 000 as a result of the assistance provided to CSS Shenandoah and other Confederate ships in Victoria and other ports controlled by Great Britain , after an international jury ruled on the case in Geneva , Switzerland .
In 1972 , the American Civil War Round Table of Australia was founded . Its secretary , Barry Crompton , has the largest library dedicated to the American Civil War outside the United States , with over 4 @,@ 000 pieces as of 2005 .
= = = Self @-@ government = = =
When the six colonies of the Australian continent federated to form a self @-@ governing nation in 1901 , Australia favoured the British model of government as they had misgivings about America 's powerful postwar " monarchical " presidency . Australians also opposed the importation of " coloured labour " , in part due to fears of a similar civil war breaking out in Australia . A further precautionary measure was evident in the addition of the word " indissoluble " to the Federal Constitution of 1897 β 1898 in Adelaide , to prevent the " political heresy " of secession as engaged in by the Confederacy .
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= Fossil Creek =
Fossil Creek ( Yavapai : Hakhavsuwa or Vialnyucha ) is a perennial stream near the community of Strawberry in the U.S. state of Arizona . A tributary of the Verde River , Fossil Creek flows from its headwaters on the Mogollon Rim to meet the larger stream near the former Childs Power Plant .
Fossil Springs , near the headwaters , emits upwards of 20 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 76 m3 ) per minute that flow into the creek year @-@ round . Calcium carbonate , precipitating from the 72 Β° F ( 22 Β° C ) water from the springs , creates travertine dams and deposits for several miles downstream . The Fossil Creek system is the fourth largest producer of travertine in the United States .
Fossil Creek is one of only two streams in Arizona included in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System . The creek and its riparian corridor provide habitat for a wide variety of flora and fauna , some listed as endangered or otherwise imperiled . Its former power @-@ plant complex is listed as a National Historic District . Since restoration of the stream 's natural flow in 2008 , an increase in recreational visits has raised concerns about overuse and has led to road closings and other restrictions .
= = Course = =
Fossil Creek arises at an elevation of 6 @,@ 510 feet ( 1 @,@ 980 m ) above sea level on the Mogollon Rim in Coconino County north of Strawberry . For about the first 3 miles ( 5 km ) , the creek 's flow is intermittent .
From high on the rim , the creek runs generally north , entering Gila County almost immediately . It continues north through the wilderness to the confluence of an intermittent stream in Calf Pen Canyon , which enters from the right . Turning west , the creek receives another intermittent stream from the right in Sandrock Canyon , at the head of Fossil Creek Canyon . Before it reaches Fossil Springs , the creek becomes the boundary between Gila County on the stream 's left and Yavapai County on its right , and it remains the boundary all the way to the Verde River .
The perennial stretches of the stream begin at Fossil Springs , at river mile ( RM ) 14 or river kilometer ( RK ) 23 , in the Fossil Springs Wilderness of the Coconino National Forest at an elevation of about 4 @,@ 100 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) . Below the springs , the creek flows west and southwest , passing the remnants of a former dam . Unnamed intermittent streams enter from left and right . Before Fossil Creek reaches the former Irving Power Plant , it leaves the Fossil Springs Wilderness , and below the plant , it enters the Mazatzal Wilderness of the Tonto National Forest . Forest Road 708 ( Fossil Creek Road ) follows the creek for 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) along this stretch , crossing the creek once at Fossil Creek Bridge .
After Cimarron Creek Wash enters from the right , Fossil Creek turns sharply south . In the next stretch , Stehr Lake is to the right and Deadman Mesa to the left . Hardscrabble Creek enters from the left just before Fossil Creek turns west again and enters the Verde River .
= = = Discharge = = =
The flow of water from Fossil Springs has been estimated to range from 43 to 56 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 6 m3 / s ) ( 320 β 420 gal / s ) year @-@ round , and it emerges from underground at a constant 72 Β° F ( 22 Β° C ) . The United States Geological Survey installed a stream gauge at the Fossil Creek Bridge in 2010 . The maximum daily discharge at that station was 885 cubic feet per second ( 25 @.@ 1 m3 / s ) on February 19 , 2011 , and the minimum was 39 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 1 m3 / s ) on August 6 , 2011 .
= = Geology = =
Fossil Creek Canyon is about 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 490 m ) deep and varies in width from 2 miles ( 3 km ) at Fossil Springs to less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in places further downstream . Rocks in the canyon vary in age from the Precambrian through the Cenozoic . North of the springs the canyon cuts through Paleozoic sedimentary rocks including the Redwall Limestone , Naco Group , Supai Group , and Schnebly Hill Formations ; Coconino Sandstone , and Kaibab Formation . South of the springs , the canyon 's rocks are Tertiary volcanic , mostly dark @-@ gray basalt and yellow @-@ gray tuff .
Fossil Springs , the source of about 80 percent of the water in Fossil Creek , issues from several vents in close proximity to one another at the base of the Mogollon Rim . The rim is the southern edge of the Colorado Plateau . Water percolating through limestone layers in the rim becomes laden with dissolved carbon dioxide and calcium carbonate . When the water emerges at the springs , it begins to release carbon dioxide as a gas and calcium carbonate as travertine , a porous form of calcite often found around hot springs such as Mammoth Hot Springs in Yellowstone National Park . The release , affected by stream turbulence and other factors , does not occur all at once but continues downstream .
Nineteenth @-@ century observers of the creek reported seeing many naturally occurring travertine dams with deep pools behind them . A study conducted in 1996 identified the eroded remnants of at least 80 such dams . After the creek 's natural flow was restored in 2008 , hundreds of new travertine dams began to form along a 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) stretch below Fossil Springs . About 13 short tons ( 12 t ) of travertine per day are deposited along the stream . This rate of deposition makes Fossil Creek the fourth largest travertine system in the United States ; the three larger systems are Mammoth Hot Springs , Havasu Creek , and Blue Springs of the Little Colorado River .
= = History = =
= = = Early = = =
Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric use of the Fossil Creek watershed , and it is possible that people lived here as long as 10 @,@ 000 years ago . More recently , Yavapai and Apache peoples have lived in the area , also used by 19th @-@ century cattlemen and shepherds .
Fossil Creek first appeared on maps in Arizona in the 1860s , when Arizona Territory 's first governor , John Noble Goodwin , passed through the region . Members of the Goodwin group noted " petrifactions " , travertine @-@ encased rocks and twigs that looked like fossils , hence the name Fossil Creek .
= = = Hydroelectric plants = = =
Few streams in Arizona have a flow as large and steady as Fossil Creek 's . Although remote , the stream was seen in the early 20th century as a good place to produce electricity for the copper mines of Jerome and the gold and silver mines of the Bradshaw Mountains . In 1908 , construction began on a hydropower plant on the Verde River at Childs under the authority of the Arizona Power Company , later part of the Arizona Public Service Company ( APS ) . The project included creating a diversion dam , 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high , across the creek . About 8 @,@ 800 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) of concrete flumes carried water from the dam to the Childs plant . An artificial reservoir , Stehr Lake , held enough water to keep the plant operating at normal capacity for up to 3 @.@ 5 days when the flume system was closed for maintenance . In 1916 , the company constructed a second plant , the Irving Power Plant , along Fossil Creek .
Childs @-@ Irving was the first hydroelectric power plant built in Arizona , and in 1920 it was supplying as much as 70 percent of the power used by Phoenix . The complex was named an Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark in 1976 and a National Historic District in 1991 .
= = = Stream restoration = = =
In 2004 invasive species were removed from the creek to maximize native fish survival . A fish barrier 5 miles ( 8 km ) from the mouth prevents invasive species from swimming further upstream . In 2005 , after assessing costs , the plants ' low output , and the goodwill to be generated from stream restoration , APS closed both power plants , and in 2008 APS removed the diversion dam .
In 2009 President Barack Obama signed legislation designating Fossil Creek as a National Wild and Scenic River , after a long campaign by the Arizona Nature Conservancy . The legislation , passed by Congress , protects 16 @.@ 8 miles ( 27 @.@ 0 km ) of stream . The 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) segment from the confluence of Sand Rock and Calf Pen canyons to where the stream leaves the Fossil Spring Wilderness is " wild " . The 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) stretch from there to the Mazatzal Wilderness boundary is " recreational " , and the remaining 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) of the stream is " wild " . Fossil Creek is one of only two streams in Arizona with Wild and Scenic segments ; the other is the Verde River .
= = Fauna and flora = =
The creek and its riparian zone support about 200 species of birds , mammals , reptiles , and amphibians . The list includes many special @-@ status species such as the southwestern willow flycatcher and Chiricahua leopard frog . The watershed supports 27 species of neotropical migratory birds such as the sage sparrow and 20 species such as the common black hawk that are rated sensitive by the U.S. Forest Service . Mammals found in or near Fossil Creek include otter and beaver , Merriam 's shrew , a variety of bats , and other species . Among the reptiles and amphibians are the Arizona toad , and the reticulated Gila monster .
Native fish in Fossil Creek include headwater chub , roundtail chub , speckled dace , longfin dace , Sonora sucker , and desert sucker . Between 2007 and 2010 , the Arizona Game and Fish Department and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service added native spikedace , loach minnows , Gila topminnows , and razorback suckers as well as more longfin dace above the barrier . All except speckled dace are special @-@ status fish listed as endangered , threatened , or sensitive by federal or state agencies . In addition , more than 100 macroinvertebrate species live in the Fossil Creek watershed . One , the fossil springsnail , is listed sensitive by the U.S. Forest Service .
Fossil Creek 's riparian zones provide high @-@ quality habitat for plant species native to the area . These include deciduous trees such as the Arizona alder and Fremont cottonwood as well as a wide variety of shrubs , grasses , ferns , and other understory plants . Species diversity is higher above the site of the former power @-@ plant dam , especially near Fossil Springs . In 1987 , a 26 @-@ acre ( 11 ha ) plot above the dam was set aside as the Fossil Springs Botanical Area . Plant inventories taken between 2003 and 2005 identified 166 plant species in the botanical area and 314 species of flowering plants and ferns in the larger Fossil Creek area .
= = Recreation = =
Fossil Creek 's steady flow , warmth , deep pools , and small waterfalls attract visitors who wade , swim , float , kayak , and snorkel in its waters . Four named hiking paths intersect the Fossil Creek corridor : the Flume β Irving , Fossil Springs , Mail , and Deadman Mesa trails . The U.S. Forest Service allows dispersed camping in some parts of the area but has made other parts , such as riparian zones , off @-@ limits to overnight stays . Other activities in the area include wildlife viewing , photography , fishing , and visits to the remains of the Childs @-@ Irving infrastructure .
Restoring the stream has made the area , a two @-@ hour drive from Phoenix , highly popular . As recreational use of Fossil Creek increased after 2008 , accumulations of trash and human waste as well as damage to forests and stream banks became problematic . The Forest Service at times closes parts of Forest Road 708 ( Fossil Creek Road ) to limit danger from traffic jams . Campfires are prohibited between the Fossil Creek headwaters and the dry bed of Stehr Lake , and other restrictions apply . Since 2009 , the Forest Service has been working on a comprehensive management plan for Fossil Creek .
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= Borneo shark =
The Borneo shark ( Carcharhinus borneensis ) is a species of requiem shark , and part of the family Carcharhinidae . Extremely rare , it is known only from inshore waters around Mukah in northwestern Borneo , though it may once have been more widely distributed . A small , gray shark reaching 65 cm ( 26 in ) in length , this species is the only member of its genus with a row of enlarged pores above the corners of its mouth . It has a slender body with a long , pointed snout and a low second dorsal fin placed posterior to the anal fin origin .
Almost nothing is known about the natural history of the Borneo shark . It is viviparous like other requiem sharks ; the females bear litters of six pups , which are provisioned through gestation by a placental connection . The International Union for Conservation of Nature last assessed this species as Endangered , at which time it had not been seen since 1937 . While an extant population has since been found , the Borneo shark continues to merit conservation concern given its highly limited range within heavily fished waters .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Dutch ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker originally described the Borneo shark as Carcharias ( Prionodon ) borneensis in an 1858 issue of the scientific journal Acta Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Indo @-@ NeΓͺrlandicae . He based his account on a newborn male 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) long , caught off Singkawang in western Kalimantan , Borneo . Later authors have recognized this species as belonging to the genus Carcharhinus . Before 2004 , only five specimens of the Borneo shark were known , all of them immature and collected before 1937 . In April and May 2004 , researchers from Universiti Malaysia Sabah discovered a number of additional specimens while surveying the fishery resources of Sabah and Sarawak .
The evolutionary relationships of the Borneo shark are uncertain . Jack Garrick , in his 1982 morphological study , did not place it close to any other member of the genus . Leonard Compagno in 1988 tentatively grouped it with the smalltail shark ( C. porosus ) , blackspot shark ( C. sealei ) , spottail shark ( C. sorrah ) , creek whaler ( C. fitzroyensis ) , whitecheek shark ( C. dussumieri ) , hardnose shark ( C. macloti ) , and Pondicherry shark ( C. hemiodon ) . The Borneo shark resembles the sharpnose sharks ( Rhizoprionodon ) in certain traits , for example the enlarged pores by its mouth . Nevertheless , other aspects of its morphology firmly place it within Carcharhinus .
= = Description = =
The Borneo shark is slim @-@ bodied , with a long , pointed snout and oblique , slit @-@ like nostrils preceded by narrow , nipple @-@ shaped flaps of skin . The eyes are rather large and circular , and equipped with nictitating membranes . The corners of the sizable mouth bear short , indistinct furrows , and immediately above are a series of enlarged pores that are unique within the genus . There are 25 β 26 upper and 23 β 25 lower tooth rows . The upper teeth have a single , narrow , oblique cusp with strongly serrated edges , and large cusplets on the trailing side . The lower teeth are similar , but tend to be more slender and finely serrated . The five pairs of gill slits are short .
The pectoral fins are short , pointed , and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) , while the pelvic fins are small and triangular with a nearly straight trailing margin . The first dorsal fin is fairly large and triangular , with a blunt apex sloping down to a sinuous trailing margin ; its origin lies over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is small and low , and originates over the middle of the anal fin base . There is no ridge between the dorsal fins . The caudal peduncle bears a deep , crescent @-@ shaped pit at the origin of the upper caudal fin lobe . The asymmetrical caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a longer , narrow upper lobe with a strong ventral notch near the tip . The dermal denticles are small and overlapping , each with three horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . This species is slate @-@ gray above , darkening towards the tips of the dorsal fins and upper caudal fin lobe ; some specimens have irregular rows of small , white blotches , which may be an artifact of handling . The underside is white , which extends onto the flanks as a vague pale band . There are faint , lighter edges on the pectoral , pelvic , and anal fin trailing margins . The largest known specimen measures 65 cm ( 26 in ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
All recent specimens of the Borneo shark have been collected solely from fishery landing sites at Mukah in Sarawak , despite thorough surveys across the rest of Borneo ( including at the locality of the type specimen ) . Thus , its range may now be restricted to shallow , inshore waters in northwestern Borneo . Of the five earlier specimens , four came from Borneo and one from Zhoushan Island in China , hinting at a wider historical distribution . This species was also recorded from Borongan in the Philippines in 1895 , and Java in 1933 ; these records cannot be substantiated and there have been no subsequent sightings from these areas .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Bony fishes are probably the main food of the Borneo shark . It is viviparous like other requiem sharks , with the developing embryos provisioned by the mother through a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac . The litter size is six , and the pups are born at close to 24 β 28 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 β 11 @.@ 0 in ) long . From the available specimens , the length at sexual maturity can be surmised to be under 55 β 58 cm ( 22 β 23 in ) in males and under 61 β 65 cm ( 24 β 26 in ) in females .
= = Human interactions = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature last assessed the Borneo shark as Endangered , based on 2005 data that do not include the recent specimens from Mukah . Previously , several fishery surveys within its supposed historical range had failed to find it . The Borneo shark 's conservation status remains precarious given its very small range in waters subjected to intensive artisanal and commercial fishing . It is caught by line gear and used for meat , though it has minimal commercial significance .
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= Gone Too Soon =
" Gone Too Soon " is a ballad recorded and popularized by American musician Michael Jackson . It was written and composed by Larry Grossman and Buz Kohan . Dionne Warwick first performed the song in 1983 as a dedication to Janis Joplin and Karen Carpenter .
Jackson 's version of " Gone Too Soon " was dedicated to the memory of Jackson 's friend Ryan White , a teenager from Kokomo , Indiana who came to national attention , after being expelled from his school for having HIV / AIDS . This version was produced by Jackson and co @-@ produced by Bruce Swedien for Jackson 's eighth studio album , Dangerous ( 1991 ) . The song was also mixed by Swedien , and featured instrumentation by artists such as David Paich , Steve Porcaro , Michael Boddicker , Abraham Laboriel and Paulinho Da Costa .
The song was released on December 1 , 1993 , as the ninth and final single from the Dangerous album . Following its release β on World AIDS Day of 1993 β " Gone Too Soon " became a moderate chart success in several countries : France , Germany , The Netherlands , New Zealand , Switzerland and the UK . The song was released as a cassette single in the US , and became a hit in Zimbabwe , where it charted at number 3 . " Gone Too Soon " was not a significant critical success , as it received mixed reviews from music critics .
" Gone Too Soon " was promoted with a music video directed by Bill DiCicco , which showed footage of Jackson and White together , as well as scenes from the latter 's funeral . A live performance by Jackson at Bill Clinton 's inaugural celebration also served as a promotional platform , for both the song and AIDS @-@ related funding . " Gone Too Soon " later received more exposure , following the deaths of both Diana , Princess of Wales , and Jackson himself .
= = Background and production = =
Ryan White was an American teenager from Kokomo , Indiana who became a national poster child for HIV / AIDS in the United States after being expelled from school because of his infection . A hemophiliac , he became infected with HIV from a contaminated blood treatment and , when diagnosed in 1984 , was given six months to live . Though doctors said he posed no risk to other students , AIDS was poorly understood at the time , and when White tried to return to school , many parents and teachers in Kokomo rallied against his attendance . A lengthy legal battle with the school system ensued , and media coverage of the struggle made White into a national celebrity and spokesman for AIDS research and public education .
During this time , White was befriended by singer Michael Jackson . White 's mother Jeanne commented on the friendship , " It 's a really good relationship . They have a good time . [ Michael Jackson ] treats [ Ryan White ] like he 's not sick . And Ryan treats Michael like he 's not a celebrity . " The pop star bought the teenager a red Ford Mustang , and invited White and his mother to spend time at his Neverland Ranch in Santa Barbara County , California . Surprising his doctors , White lived five years longer than initially predicted and died in April 1990 , shortly before he would have completed high school . His funeral was attended by Jackson , as well as English musician Elton John , media personality Phil Donahue , First Lady of the United States Barbara Bush , and 1000 other mourners .
" Gone Too Soon " was written and composed by Larry Grossman and Buz Kohan and was originally performed by Dionne Warwick in February 1983 on a TV special as a tribute to many performers , including Janis Joplin and Karen Carpenter who had died days earlier . Later on the same day , Jackson called Kohan explaining he had wept while watching the performance and that he felt he wanted to record it some day .
Other projects took precedence for years , but Jackson ended up recording the song for his Dangerous album , in memory of White . The prelude to the song was composed , arranged and conducted by American musician Marty Paich . Bruce Swedien , who had worked extensively on Jackson 's Thriller , was drafted to record and mix the ballad . The music engineer also served as the co @-@ producer for " Gone Too Soon " , with Jackson producing the song . Prior to the production of the finalized version of " Gone Too Soon " , Jackson had recorded a demo version of the song , which featured different vocals and a " perfect sunflower " lyric . To date , the demo has not received an official release , but that lyric was used in the song by Jackson when he sung it at the 1993 Presidential Gala for then President @-@ Elect Bill Clinton .
= = Release and reception = =
" Gone Too Soon " was released on December 1 , 1993 β World AIDS Day β as the ninth and final single from the Dangerous album . It charted in numerous countries outside of the US . In the UK singles chart , " Gone Too Soon " β which featured an instrumental version on its B @-@ side β reached number 33 , becoming Jackson 's ninth Top 40 hit from the one album ( Dangerous ) . He thus equalled his own record , set with Bad and its accompanying singles . Outside of the UK , in the African country of Zimbabwe , " Gone Too Soon " became a hit , charting at number 3 on their singles chart . The song reached number three in The Netherlands , number 32 in France , and number 33 in Switzerland . In Germany , " Gone Too Soon " peaked at number 45 .
The Toronto Star 's Peter Howell described the song as a " simply beautiful ode to youthful AIDS victim Ryan White " . The staff of the Kansas City Star alleged that " Gone Too Soon " made syrup seem " tart in comparison " . The Miami Herald noted that Jackson " rediscover [ ed ] " his falsetto voice on the track , while the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel compared his tenor to that featured on a Broadway ballad . Edna Gundersen of USA Today , reviewing the songs on Dangerous , offered the opinion that Jackson 's " heartfelt " delivery redeemed the " fairy @-@ tale cliches " of " Gone Too Soon " . She felt that the song was " shamelessly Disneyesque " . The Worcester Telegram Gazette added to the reviews , stating that " Gone Too Soon " was a " orchestra @-@ drenched ballad full of insipid little boy innocence " . Journalist David Browne , writing for Entertainment Weekly , claimed that the song " recasts the equally melodramatic Off the Wall hit " She 's Out of My Life " ; he noted that Jackson sobs during the finale of both songs .
= = Promotion = =
" Gone Too Soon " was promoted with a short music video directed by Bill DiCicco . The footage in the music video featured scenes of Jackson and White together , as well as brief coverage from White 's funeral . Home movies , donated by White 's mother Jeanne , were also shown in the short film . At the time of its creation , Jeanne White revealed that the video for " Gone Too Soon " would demonstrate how much Jackson cared for her ill son . The music video was later featured on Jackson 's 1993 VHS Dangerous - The Short Films . An alternate video was released a few months after Michael 's death , and was later released on Michael Jackson 's Vision .
The song was further promoted with a live performance of " Gone Too Soon " at President @-@ elect Bill Clinton 's inauguration celebration , An American Reunion : The 52nd Presidential Inaugural Gala . The pop star dedicated his performance to White , and used the occasion to plead with the incoming president for funding toward AIDS @-@ related research :
I would like to take a moment from this very public ceremony to speak of something very personal . It concerns a dear friend of mine who is no longer with us . His name is Ryan White . He was a hemophiliac who was diagnosed with the AIDS virus when he was eleven . He died shortly after turning eighteen , the very time most young people are beginning to explore life 's wonderful possibilities . My friend Ryan was a very bright , very brave , and very normal young man who never wanted to be a symbol or a spokesperson for a deadly disease . Over the years , I 've shared many silly , happy , and painful moments with Ryan and I was with him at the end of his brief but eventful journey . Ryan is gone and just as anyone who has lost a loved one to AIDS , I miss him deeply and constantly . He is gone , but I want his life to have meaning beyond his passing . It is my hope , President @-@ elect Clinton , that you and your administration commit the resources needed to eliminate this awful disease that took my friend , and ended so many promising lives before their time .
= = Cover versions = =
Babyface and Stevie Wonder duetted on the song during an MTV Unplugged performance in 1997 , with the former performing and dedicating the song to Jackson in June and July 2009 . American hip @-@ hop artist b @-@ Rabbit recorded a song entitled " Broken Hearts ( R & B Remix ) " that sampled Jackson 's vocals in early 2012 .
= = Death of Diana , Princess of Wales = =
Following the death of Diana in August 1997 , Jackson permitted " Gone Too Soon " to be included on a Diana commemorative album entitled Tribute . The proceeds from the sale of the album went to the Diana , Princess of Wales Memorial Fund .
= = Death of Michael Jackson = =
Michael Jackson died in June 2009 , after suffering a cardiac arrest . His memorial service was held on July 7 , 2009 , at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , preceded by a private family service at Forest Lawn Memorial Park 's Hall of Liberty . The event was reported to have been viewed by more than one billion people . At the memorial , R & B singer Usher performed " Gone Too Soon " as a tribute to the late singer . During the performance , the entertainer β wearing dark sunglasses and a yellow rose pinned to the lapel of his jacket β approached Jackson 's gold @-@ plated casket , which was in attendance . Usher placed his left hand upon the coffin , before completing the final lyric β " gone too soon " β through tears .
= = Personnel = =
Music by Larry Grossman
Lyrics by Buz Kohan
Produced by Michael Jackson
Co @-@ Produced by Bruce Swedien
Recorded and mixed by Bruce Swedien
Solo vocal by Michael Jackson
Rhythm arrangement by David Paich
Orchestra arranged and conducted by Marty Paich
David Paich β keyboards
David Paich , Steve Porcaro and Michael Boddicker β synthesizers
Abraham Laboriel β bass
Paulinho Da Costa β percussion
Prelude composed , arranged and conducted by Marty Paich
= = Track listing = =
CD single
" Gone Too Soon " β 3 : 22
" Human Nature " β 4 : 06
" She 's Out of My Life " β 3 : 38
" Thriller " β 5 : 57
CD promo
" Gone Too Soon " β 3 : 22
" Gone Too Soon " ( Instrumental ) β 3 : 22
= = Charts = =
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= Off the Deep End =
Off the Deep End is the seventh studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released in 1992 . This album was the first album self @-@ produced by Yankovic , after six albums with Rick Derringer . Recorded between June 1990 and January 1992 , the album was a follow @-@ up to the unsuccessful soundtrack to Yankovic 's 1989 film UHF . Off the Deep End and its lead single " Smells Like Nirvana " helped to revitalize Yankovic 's career after a lull in the late 80s .
The musical styles on Off the Deep End are built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the late 1980s and early 1990s , including the newly arisen grunge movement . Half of the album is made up of parodies of Nirvana , MC Hammer , New Kids on the Block , Gerardo , and Milli Vanilli . The other half of the album is original material , featuring many " style parodies , " or musical imitations of existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like The Beach Boys and Jan and Dean .
Off the Deep End was met with mostly positive reviews and peaked at number seventeen on the Billboard 200 . The album also produced one of Yankovic 's most famous singles , " Smells Like Nirvana , " a parody of Nirvana 's major rock hit " Smells Like Teen Spirit , " which peaked at number thirty @-@ five on the Billboard Hot 100 . This song was Yankovic 's second @-@ highest charting single , after " Eat It , " which was released in 1984 . The cover also parodies the cover of Nirvana 's album , Nevermind . The original had a naked baby in the water with a dollar bill cast by a fishing rod , Yankovic 's replaced the baby with himself , and the dollar bill by a doughnut . Off the Deep End was Yankovic 's fourth Gold record , and went on to be certified Platinum for sales of over one million copies in the United States . In addition , the album was later nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1993 .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1989 , Yankovic starred in a full @-@ length feature film , co @-@ written by himself and manager Jay Levey , and filmed in Tulsa , Oklahoma called UHF . A satire of the television and film industries , also starring Michael Richards , Fran Drescher , and Victoria Jackson , it brought floundering studio Orion their highest test scores since the movie RoboCop . Although the movie made a little over six million domestically β out of a budget of five million β it was considered unsuccessful .
Yankovic also released a quasi @-@ soundtrack for the film in late 1989 , entitled UHF β Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff , which featured songs ( and commercials ) from the movie as well as new unrelated studio material from Yankovic . The album failed to be successful , charting at only 146 on the Billboard 200 and quickly falling off . After the release of UHF , Yankovic returned to the studio to record his follow @-@ up album .
= = = Originals = = =
On June 6 , 1990 , recording for Off the Deep End officially began at Santa Monica Sound Records , in Santa Monica , California . The first recording session started with " Airline Amy " . These recording sessions marked the first time Yankovic self @-@ produced his songs , after six albums with Rick Derringer . By late 1990 five originals β " Airline Amy , " " Trigger Happy " , " When I Was Your Age " , " You Don 't Love Me Anymore , " and " Waffle King " β were recorded .
" You Don 't Love Me Anymore " was one of the last original songs recorded during the 1990 sessions . The song is written as a soft acoustic ballad . However , the lyrics are of a β literally β destructive relationship between Yankovic and an unnamed girl . Although they were formerly in love , the " flames died down " and they are no longer passionate - in fact the girl hates Yankovic to such an extent that she repeatedly attempts to kill him . In 1992 , when the album was finally released , Yankovic desired to release the song as a single . His record label , Scotti Brothers , allowed it under the stipulation that the music video be a parody of another music video . " You Don 't Love Me Anymore " was subsequently released to radio on June 19 , 1992 . While the song was an original composition , the video was a parody of " More Than Words " by Extreme . Yankovic later explained that when the song was released , many people erroneously believed it was a parody of " More Than Words " , and thus , Yankovic crafted the music video to be a parody of " More Than Words . " The single received moderate radio attention , which surprised Yankovic , because he had always thought that radio stations " usually just go for the parodies . "
One of the original songs recorded in the 1990 sessions was " Waffle King . " However , when Yankovic resumed recording in 1992 , he recorded a new original called " I Was Only Kidding . " Originally , " Waffle King " was supposed to appear on Off the Deep End . However , by the time the recording of the parodies for this album began , Al had written all the original songs that were to appear on his next album , Alapalooza . Because he was concerned that one of the jokes from the song " I Was Only Kidding " might be dated by the time his next album would finally be released β a line that references the movie Wayne 's World : " I really love you ... not ! " β Yankovic included " I Was Only Kidding " on Off the Deep End in place of " Waffle King " . " Waffle King " was instead used as the b @-@ side of the " Smells Like Nirvana " single and would later resurface on Alapalooza .
The album also contains a hidden track at the end called " Bite Me . " The " song " , which consists of several seconds of loud music and Yankovic screaming , appears after 10 minutes of silence following " You Don 't Love Me Anymore " . According to Yankovic , the song was supposed to " come on [ ... ] and scare you to death . " Later pressings of Off the Deep End by Volcano and pressings outside the USA took away the hidden track and silence . The track is a nod to Nirvana ; certain pressings of Nevermind featured a hidden track entitled " Endless , Nameless " .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
After recording the first batch of originals in 1990 , Yankovic focused his attention on parodies . By early 1991 , only three parodies had been recorded . Two of them , the cookie @-@ inspired New Kids on the Block parody " The White Stuff " and the television @-@ centric MC Hammer parody " I Can 't Watch This , " were slated to be released as singles . In fact , several cartons of promo singles were pressed , but they were deleted by the record company at the last second . These CDs were later discovered by Yankovic and his drummer , Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz , and have since become collector 's items . " The Plumbing Song , " a double parody of Milli Vanilli 's hit singles " Baby Don 't Forget My Number " and " Blame It on the Rain " was also recorded . Yankovic later described the parody as " redundant , " a reference to lip @-@ synching scandal that effectively destroyed the band .
Yankovic waited for almost two years for the next " big thing " to emerge . " I don 't have any really good reason why it took so long other than the fact that I was waiting for Michael Jackson 's new album to come out , " Yankovic explained . Unfortunately for Yankovic , the new album hit several snags . On November 26 , 1991 , Michael Jackson 's new album , Dangerous was released . After hearing the hit single " Black or White , " Yankovic approached Jackson about a potential parody entitled " Snack All Night . " Although Jackson was a big supporter of Yankovic 's work , he felt that a parody might damage the song 's message . Jackson told Yankovic that he could , if he wanted to , parody another song off his album , but just not " Black or White " .
Yankovic soon turned his attention in another direction . Guns N ' Roses had just released a version of Wings 's 70 's hit " Live and Let Die " . Yankovic approached Paul McCartney , leader of Wings , about a parody idea entitled " Chicken Pot Pie . " Although McCartney was a supporter of Yankovic 's work and he wanted to give Yankovic the chance to parody one of his songs , he begrudgingly turned him down due to the fact that , as a vegetarian , he could not condone the eating of animal flesh . Yankovic , a fellow vegetarian , has stated that he respects McCartney 's decision .
It was around this time that Nirvana 's Nevermind was making waves in the rock and pop scene . As the popularity of 80 's pop gave way to alternative rock , Yankovic decided it was time to record a parody of the Seattle @-@ based band 's huge hit single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . Yankovic later said , " I wanted to make sure that when I came back after that long hiatus , it was with something strong , and it wasn 't until Nirvana that I felt I had a real contender . " To secure permission for the parody , Yankovic wanted to approve it with Kurt Cobain . After learning that Nirvana was to perform on Saturday Night Live , Yankovic called up his UHF co @-@ star , Victoria Jackson , who was , at the time , a regular cast member on the show . Jackson got Cobain on the phone so that Yankovic could make his request . Cobain agreed , although he asked if the new parody was " going to be a song about food " . Yankovic reassured him that it would actually be about how " no one can understand [ the ] lyrics " to the original , which Cobain thought was funny . After receiving permission , Yankovic wrote and recorded " Smells Like Nirvana " on January 27 , 1992 .
After " Smells Like Nirvana , " Yankovic recorded " Taco Grande , " a Mexican food @-@ themed parody of Gerardo 's " Rico Suave . " The latter features a cameo appearance from comedian Cheech Marin . Originally , Yankovic had wanted Marin to rap in Spanish , but it turned out that Marin knew only some basic Spanish . However , a bilingual secretary translated what Yankovic wanted him to say from English to Spanish and Marin read the resulting rap phonetically . One of the last songs to be recorded for the album was the obligatory polka medley , " Polka Your Eyes Out . " Yankovic had already performed the medley at Dr. Demento 's 20th Anniversary Special on Comedy Central before the album had been released .
= = Artwork = =
The cover for Off the Deep End parodies the famous cover of Nirvana 's album Nevermind , which depicts an infant in the deep end of a pool chasing after a dollar bill on a hook and line . The Off the Deep End cover shows Yankovic in the baby 's place apparently chasing after a doughnut on a string . While the Nirvana cover has a fully nude baby , Yankovic instead wore a bathing suit in a way that his body position hid it , as he jokingly explained , " I never really anticipated going full @-@ frontal on any of my album covers . " The CD , liner notes , and artwork continue the parody of Nirvana 's album , borrowing the same blue , wave @-@ light graphics from the printed surface of Nevermind .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical response to Off the Deep End was generally positive . Many critics praised not only Yankovic 's parodies , but also his originals . Barry Weber , of Allmusic , wrote , " In addition to re @-@ establishing his satirical craftsmanship , Deep End showcases some of Yankovic 's best originals ever ; " Trigger Happy , " " When I Was Your Age , " and " You Don 't Love Me Anymore " prove to be the album 's greatest songs . " Christopher Thelen , of the Daily Vault , wrote , " In fact , it 's strange to admit , but the originals on Off The Deep End actually are , at times , stronger than the parodies . " In The Rolling Stone Album Guide , Off the Deep End was awarded 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , denoting that the album averaged between good and excellent . Not all reviews were so positive , however . Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne noted that the video for Off the Deep End ' lead single " Smells Like Nirvana " was " an old @-@ fashioned laugh riot " , but that half of Yankovic 's humor was merely visual , meaning that the songs without videos were not as funny .
The music video for " Smells Like Nirvana " achieved similar praise . Spy Magazine named it the " Video Of The Year " in 1993 , Rolling Stone ranked it as # 68 on their list of the Top 100 Videos of All Time , and it was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Best Male Performance in 1992 . At the 35th Grammy Awards
in 1993 , Off the Deep End was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album . However , the album lost to Peter Schickele 's Music for an Awful Lot of Winds and Percussion . In addition , Off the Deep End was also named the Best Selling Comedy Recording in 1992 by NARM .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Off the Deep End was released April 1992 , and up to that point , became Yankovic 's best selling album . On June 17 , 1992 , Off the Deep End was certified gold . On January 25 , 2006 , the album was certified platinum . The album 's lead @-@ off single , " Smells Like Nirvana " was a hit on the Billboard Hot 100 , charting at number 35 . It also charted on Hot 100 Singles Sales at number 12 and the U.S. Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart at number 35 . Both the album and hit single helped propel Yankovic into the 1990s .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Post @-@ traumatic epilepsy =
Post @-@ traumatic epilepsy ( PTE ) is a form of epilepsy that results from brain damage caused by physical trauma to the brain ( traumatic brain injury , abbreviated TBI ) . A person with PTE suffers repeated post @-@ traumatic seizures ( PTS , seizures that result from TBI ) more than a week after the initial injury . PTE is estimated to constitute 5 % of all cases of epilepsy and over 20 % of cases of symptomatic epilepsy ( in which seizures are caused by an identifiable organic brain condition ) .
It is not known how to predict who will develop epilepsy after TBI and who will not . However , the likelihood that a person will develop PTE is influenced by the severity and type of injury ; for example penetrating injuries and those that involve bleeding within the brain confer a higher risk . The onset of PTE can occur within a short time of the physical trauma that causes it , or months or years after . People with head trauma may remain at a higher risk for seizures than the general population even decades after the injury . PTE may be caused by several biochemical processes that occur in the brain after trauma , including overexcitation of brain cells and damage to brain tissues by free radicals .
Diagnostic measures include electroencephalography ( EEG ) and brain imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging , but these are not totally reliable . Antiepileptic drugs do not prevent the development of PTE after head injury , but may be used to treat the condition if it does occur . When medication does not work to control the seizures , surgery may be needed . Modern surgical techniques for PTE have their roots in the 19th century , but trepanation ( cutting a hole in the skull ) may have been used for the condition in ancient cultures .
= = Classification = =
Seizures may occur after traumatic brain injury ; these are known as post @-@ traumatic seizures ( PTS ) . However , not everyone who has post @-@ traumatic seizures will continue to have post @-@ traumatic epilepsy , because the latter is a chronic condition . However , the terms PTS and PTE are used interchangeably in medical literature . Seizures due to post @-@ traumatic epilepsy are differentiated from non @-@ epileptic post @-@ traumatic seizures based on their cause and timing after the trauma . A person with PTE suffers late seizures , those occurring more than a week after the initial trauma . Late seizures are considered to be unprovoked , while early seizures ( those occurring within a week of trauma ) are thought to result from direct effects of the injury . A provoked seizure is one that results from an exceptional , nonrecurring cause such as the immediate effects of trauma rather than a defect in the brain ; it is not an indication of epilepsy . Thus for a diagnosis of PTE , seizures must be unprovoked .
Disagreement exists about whether to define PTE as the occurrence of one or more late , unprovoked seizures , or whether the condition should only be diagnosed in people with two or more . Medical sources usually consider PTE to be present if even one unprovoked seizure occurs , but more recently it has become accepted to restrict the definition of all types of epilepsy to include only conditions in which more than one occur . Requiring more than one seizure for a diagnosis of PTE is more in line with the modern definition of epilepsy , but it eliminates people for whom seizures are controlled by medication after the first seizure .
As with other forms of epilepsy , seizure types in PTE may be partial ( affecting only part of one hemisphere of the brain ) or generalized ( affecting both hemispheres and associated with loss of consciousness ) . In about a third of cases , people with PTE have partial seizures ; these may be simple or complex . In simple partial seizures , level of consciousness is not altered , while in complex partial seizures consciousness is impaired . When generalized seizures occur , they may start out as partial seizures and then spread to become generalized .
= = Causes = =
It is not clear why some patients get PTE while others with very similar injuries do not . However , possible risk factors have been identified , including severity and type of injury , presence of early seizures , and genetic factors .
= = = Genetics = = =
Genetics may play a role in the risk that a person will develop PTE ; people with the ApoE @-@ Ξ΅4 allele may be at higher risk for PTE . The haptoglobin Hp2 @-@ 2 allele may be another genetic risk factor , possibly because it binds hemoglobin poorly and thus allows more iron to escape and damage tissues . However , most studies have found that having family members with epilepsy does not significantly increase the risk of PTS , suggesting that genetics are not a strong risk factor .
= = = Severity of trauma = = =
The more severe the brain trauma is , the more likely a person is to suffer late PTE . Evidence suggests that mild head injuries do not confer an increased risk of developing PTE , while more severe types do . In simple mild TBI , the risk for PTE is about 1 @.@ 5 times that of the uninjured population . By some estimates , as many as half of sufferers of severe brain trauma experience PTE ; other estimates place the risk at 5 % for all TBI patients and 15 β 20 % for severe TBI . One study found that the 30 @-@ year risk of developing PTE was 2 @.@ 1 % for mild TBI , 4 @.@ 2 % for moderate , and 16 @.@ 7 % for severe injuries , as shown in the chart at right .
= = = Nature of trauma = = =
The nature of the head trauma also influences the risk of PTE . People who suffer depressed skull fractures , penetrating head trauma , early PTS , and intracerebral and subdural haematomas due to the TBI are especially likely to suffer PTE , which occurs in more than 30 % of people with any one of these findings . About 50 % of patients with penetrating head trauma develop PTE , and missile injuries and loss of brain volume are associated with an especially high likelihood of developing the condition . Injuries that occur in military settings carry higher @-@ than @-@ usual risk for PTE , probably because they more commonly involve penetrating brain injury and brain damage over a more widespread area . Intracranial hematomas , in which blood accumulates inside the skull , are one of the most important risk factors for PTE . Subdural hematoma confers a higher risk of PTE than does epidural hematoma , possibly because it causes more damage to brain tissue . Repeated intracranial surgery confers a high risk for late PTE , possibly because people who need more surgery are more likely to have factors associated with worse brain trauma such as large hematomas or cerebral swelling . In addition , the chances of developing PTE differ by the location of the brain lesion : brain contusion that occurs on in one or the other of the frontal lobes has been found to carry a 20 % PTE risk , while a contusion in one of the parietal lobes carries a 19 % risk and one in a temporal lobe carries a 16 % chance . When contusions occur in both hemispheres , the risk is 26 % for the frontal lobes , 66 % for the parietal , and 31 % for the temporal .
= = = Post @-@ traumatic seizures = = =
The risk that a person will develop PTE is heightened but not 100 % if PTS occur . Because many of the risk factors for both PTE and early PTS are the same , it is unknown whether the occurrence of PTS is a risk factor in and of itself . However , even independent of other common risk factors , early PTS have been found to increase the risk of PTE to over 25 % in most studies . A person who has one late seizure is at even greater risk for having another than one who has early PTS ; epilepsy occurs in 80 % of people who have a late seizure . Status epilepticus , a continuous seizure or multiple seizures in rapid succession , is especially strongly correlated with the development of PTE ; status seizures occur in 6 % of all TBIs but are associated with PTE 42 % of the time , and quickly halting a status seizure reduces chances of PTE development .
= = Pathophysiology = =
For unknown reasons , trauma can cause changes in the brain that lead to epilepsy . There are a number of proposed mechanisms by which TBI causes PTE , more than one of which may be present in a given person . In the period between a brain injury and onset of epilepsy , brain cells may form new synapses and axons , undergo apoptosis or necrosis , and experience altered gene expression . In addition , damage to particularly vulnerable areas of the cortex such as the hippocampus may give rise to PTE .
Blood that gathers in the brain after an injury may damage brain tissue and thereby cause epilepsy . Products that result from the breakdown of hemoglobin from blood may be toxic to brain tissue . The " iron hypothesis " holds that PTE is due to damage by oxygen free radicals , the formation of which is catalyzed by iron from blood . Animal experiments using rats have shown that epileptic seizures can be produced by injecting iron into the brain . Iron catalyzes the formation of hydroxyl radicals by the Haber @-@ Weiss reaction ; such free radicals damage brain cells by peroxidizing lipids in their membranes . The iron from blood also reduces the activity of an enzyme called nitric oxide synthase , another factor thought to contribute to PTE .
After TBI , abnormalities exist in the release of neurotransmitters , chemicals used by brain cells to communicate with each other ; these abnormalities may play a role in the development of PTE . TBI may lead to the excessive release of glutamate and other excitatory neurotransmitters ( those that stimulate brain cells and increase the likelihood that they will fire ) . This excessive glutamate release can lead to excitotoxicity , damage to brain cells through overactivation of the biochemical receptors that bind and respond to excitatory neurotransmitters . Overactivation of glutamate receptors damages neurons ; for example it leads to the formation of free radicals . Excitotoxicity is a possible factor in the development of PTE ; it may lead to the formation of a chronic epileptogenic focus . An epileptic focus is the part of the brain from which epileptic discharges originate .
In addition to chemical changes in cells , structural changes that lead to epilepsy may occur in the brain . Seizures that occur shortly after TBI can reorganize neural networks and cause seizures to occur repeatedly and spontaneously later on . The kindling hypothesis suggests that new neural connections are formed in the brain and cause an increase in excitability . The word kindling is a metaphor : the way the brain 's response to stimuli increases over repeated exposures is similar to the way small burning twigs can produce a large fire . This reorganization of neural networks may make them more excitable . Neurons that are in a hyperexcitable state due to trauma may create an epileptic focus in the brain that leads to seizures . In addition , an increase in neurons ' excitability may accompany loss of inhibitory neurons that normally serve to reduce the likelihood that other neurons will fire ; these changes may also produce PTE .
= = Diagnosis = =
To be diagnosed with PTE , a person must have a history of head trauma and no history of seizures prior to the injury . Witnessing a seizure is the most effective way to diagnose PTE . Electroencephalography ( EEG ) is a tool used to diagnose a seizure disorder , but a large portion of people with PTE may not have the abnormal " epileptiform " EEG findings indicative of epilepsy . In one study , about a fifth of people who had normal EEGs three months after an injury later developed PTE . However , while EEG is not useful for predicting who will develop PTE , it can be useful to localize the epileptic focus , to determine severity , and to predict whether a person will suffer more seizures if they stop taking antiepileptic medications .
Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) is performed in people with PTE , and CT scanning can be used to detect brain lesions if MRI is unavailable . However , it is frequently not possible to detect the epileptic focus using neuroimaging .
For a diagnosis of PTE , seizures must not be attributable to another obvious cause . Seizures that occur after head injury are not necessarily due to epilepsy or even to the head trauma . Like anyone else , TBI survivors may suffer seizures due to factors including imbalances of fluid or electrolytes , epilepsy from other causes , hypoxia ( insufficient oxygen ) , and ischemia ( insufficient blood flow to the brain ) . Withdrawal from alcohol is another potential cause of seizures . Thus these factors must be ruled out as causes of seizures in people with head injury before a diagnosis of PTE can be made .
= = Prevention = =
Prevention of PTE involves preventing brain trauma in general ; protective measures include bicycle helmets and child safety seats . No specific treatment exists to prevent the development of epilepsy after TBI occurs . In the past , antiepileptic drugs were used with the intent of preventing the development of PTE . However , while antiepileptic drugs can prevent early PTS , clinical studies have failed to show that prophylactic use of antiepileptic drugs prevents the development of PTE . Why antiepileptic drugs in clinical trials have failed to stop PTE from developing is not clear , but several explanations have been offered . The drugs may simply not be capable of preventing epilepsy , or the drug trials may have been set up in a way that did not allow a benefit of the drugs to be found ( e.g. drugs may have been given too late or in inadequate doses ) . Animal studies have similarly failed to show much protective effect of the most commonly used seizure medications in PTE trials , such as phenytoin and carbamazepine . Antiepileptic drugs are recommended to prevent late seizures only for people in whom PTE has already been diagnosed , not as a preventative measure . On the basis of the aforementioned studies , no treatment is widely accepted to prevent the development of epilepsy . However , it has been proposed that a narrow window of about one hour after TBI may exist during which administration of antiepileptics could prevent epileptogenesis ( the development of epilepsy ) .
Corticosteroids have also been investigated for the prevention of PTE , but clinical trials revealed that the drugs did not reduce late PTS and were actually linked to an increase in the number of early PTS .
= = Treatment = =
Antiepileptic drugs may be given to prevent further seizures ; these drugs completely eliminate seizures for about 35 % of people with PTE . However , antiepileptics only prevent seizures while they are being taken ; they do not reduce the occurrence once the patient stops taking the drugs . Medication may be stopped after seizures have been controlled for two years . PTE is commonly difficult to treat with drug therapy , and antiepileptic drugs may be associated with side effects . The antiepileptics carbamazepine and valproate are the most common drugs used to treat PTE ; phenytoin may also be used but may increase risk of cognitive side effects such as impaired thinking . Other drugs commonly used to treat PTE include clonazepam , phenobarbitol , primidone , gabapentin , and ethosuximide . Among antiepileptic drugs tested for seizure prevention after TBI ( phenytoin , sodium valproate , carbamazepine , phenobarbital ) , no evidence from randomized controlled trials has shown superiority of one over another .
People whose PTE does not respond to medication may undergo surgery to remove the epileptogenic focus , the part of the brain that is causing the seizures . However surgery for PTE may be more difficult than it is for epilepsy due to other causes , and is less likely to be helpful in PTE than in other forms of epilepsy . It can be particularly difficult in PTE to localize the epileptic focus , in part because TBI may affect diffuse areas of the brain . Difficulty locating the seizure focus is seen as a deterrent to surgery . However , for people with sclerosis in the mesial temporal lobe ( in the inner aspect of the temporal lobe ) , who comprise about one third of people with intractable PTE , surgery is likely to have good outcome . When there are multiple epileptic foci or the focus cannot be localized , and drug therapy is not effective , vagus nerve stimulation is another option for treating PTE .
People with PTE have follow @-@ up visits , in which health care providers monitor neurological and neuropsychological function and assess the efficacy and side effects of medications . As with sufferers of other types of epilepsy , PTE sufferers are advised to exercise caution when performing activities for which seizures could be particularly risky , such as rock climbing .
= = Prognosis = =
The prognosis for epilepsy due to trauma is worse than that for epilepsy of undetermined cause . People with PTE are thought to have shorter life expectancies than people with brain injury who do not suffer from seizures . Compared to people with similar structural brain injuries but without PTE , people with PTE take longer to recover from the injury , have more cognitive and motor problems , and perform worse at everyday tasks . This finding may suggest that PTE is an indicator of a more severe brain injury , rather than a complication that itself worsens outcome . PTE has also been found to be associated with worse social and functional outcomes but not to worsen patients ' rehabilitation or ability to return to work . However , people with PTE may have trouble finding employment if they admit to having seizures , especially if their work involves operating heavy machinery .
The period of time between an injury and development of epilepsy varies , and it is not uncommon for an injury to be followed by a latent period with no recurrent seizures . The longer a person goes without developing seizures , the lower the chances are that epilepsy will develop . At least 80 β 90 % of people with PTE have their first seizure within two years of the TBI . People with no seizures within three years of the injury have only a 5 % chance of developing epilepsy . However , one study found that head trauma survivors are at an increased risk for PTE as many as 10 years after moderate TBI and over 20 years after severe TBI . Since head trauma is fairly common and epilepsy can occur late after the injury , it can be difficult to determine whether a case of epilepsy resulted from head trauma in the past or whether the trauma was incidental .
The question of how long a person with PTE remains at higher risk for seizures than the general population is controversial . About half of PTE cases go into remission , but cases that occur later may have a smaller chance of doing so .
= = Epidemiology = =
Studies have found that the incidence of PTE ranges between 1 @.@ 9 and more than 30 % of TBI sufferers , varying by severity of injury and by the amount of time after TBI for which the studies followed subjects .
Brain trauma is one of the strongest predisposing factors for epilepsy development , and is an especially important factor in young adults . Young adults , who are at the highest risk for head injury , also have the highest rate of PTE , which is the largest cause of new @-@ onset epilepsy cases in young people . Children have a lower risk for developing epilepsy ; 10 % of children with severe TBI and 16 β 20 % of similarly injured adults develop PTE . Being older than 65 is also a predictive factor in the development of epilepsy after brain trauma . One study found PTE to be more common in male TBI survivors than in females .
= = History = =
Records of PTE exist from as early as 3000 BC . Trepanation , in which a hole is cut in the skull , may have been used to treat PTE in ancient cultures . In the early 19th century , the surgeons Baron Larrey and WC Wells each reported having performed the operation for PTE . The French @-@ educated American surgeon Benjamin Winslow Dudley ( 1785 β 1870 ) performed six trepanations for PTE between the years of 1819 and 1832 in Kentucky and had good results despite the unavailability of antisepsis . The surgery involved opening the skull at the site of injury , debriding injured tissue , and sometimes draining blood or fluid from under the dura mater . Dudley 's work was the largest series of its kind that had been done up to that point , and it encouraged other surgeons to use trepanation for post @-@ traumatic seizures . His reports on the operations came before it was accepted that surgery to relieve excess pressure within the skull was effective in treating epilepsy , but it helped set the stage for trepanation for PTE to become common practice . The procedure became more accepted in the late 19th century once antisepsis was available and cerebral localization was a familiar concept . However , in 1890 , the prominent German physician Ernest von Bergmann criticized the procedure ; he questioned its efficacy ( except in particular circumstances ) and suggested that operations had been declared successful too soon after the procedures to know whether they would confer a long @-@ term benefit . The late 19th century saw the advent of intracranial surgery , operating on brain lesions believed to be causing seizures , a step beyond cranial surgery which involved just the skull and meninges . By 1893 , at least 42 intracranial operations had been performed for PTE in the US , with limited success .
Surgery was the standard treatment for PTE until the years following World War II , when the condition received more attention as soldiers who had survived head trauma developed it . The increased need for drugs to treat PTE led to trials with antiepileptics ; these early trials suggested that the drugs could prevent epileptogenesis ( the development of epilepsy ) . It was still thought that antiepileptic drugs could prevent epileptogeneis in the 1970s ; in 1973 , 60 % of physicians surveyed used them to prevent PTE . However , the clinical trials which had supported a protective effect of antiepileptics were uncontrolled ; in later , controlled trials the drugs failed to demonstrate an antiepileptogenic effect . Studies did show that antiepileptics prevented seizures occurring within a week after injury , and in 1995 the task force of the Brain Trauma Foundation published a recommendation suggesting their use to protect against seizures early after trauma . However , recommendations were published against the prophylactic use of antiepileptic drugs more than a week after injury by the Brain Injury Special Interest group of the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation in 1998 and by the American Association of Neurological Surgeons in 2000 .
= = Research = =
How epilepsy develops after an insult to the brain is not fully understood , and gaining such understanding may help researchers find ways to prevent it , or make it less severe or easier to treat . Researchers hope to identify biomarkers , biological indications that epileptogenesis is occurring , as a means to find drugs that can target pathways by which epilepsy develops . For example , drugs could be developed to interfere with secondary brain injury ( injury that does not occur at the moment of trauma but results from processes initiated by it ) , by blocking pathways such as free radical damage to brain tissue . An increase in understanding of age differences in epilepsy development after trauma may also help researchers find biomarkers of epileptogenesis . There is also interest in finding more antiepileptic drugs , with the potential to interfere with epileptogenesis . Some new antiepileptic drugs such as topiramate , gabapentin , and lamotrigine have already been developed and have shown promise in treatment of PTE . No animal model has all the characteristics of epileptogenesis in humans , so research efforts aim to identify one . Such a model may help researchers find new treatments and identify the processes involved in epileptogenesis .
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= Palanga Amber Museum =
The Palanga Amber Museum ( Lithuanian : Palangos gintaro muziejus ) , near the Baltic Sea in Palanga , Lithuania , is a branch of the Lithuanian Art Museum . It is housed in the restored 19th @-@ century TiΕ‘keviΔiai Palace and is surrounded by the Palanga Botanical Garden . The museum 's collection of amber comprises about 28 @,@ 000 pieces , of which about 15 @,@ 000 contain inclusions of insects , spiders , or plants . About 4 @,@ 500 pieces of amber are exhibited ; many of these are items of artwork and jewelry .
= = History and background = =
The Baltic Sea coast has been a source of Eurasian amber trade since prehistoric times ( see Amber Road ) . Neolithic artifacts made of amber were discovered in nearby JuodkrantΔ in the 19th century - these artifacts unfortunately disappeared during the 20th century . Lithuanian mythology , folklore , and art have long associations with amber ; the legend of JΕ«ratΔ and Kastytis imagines an undersea palace of amber under the Baltic , which was shattered by PerkΕ«nas , the god of thunder . Its fragments were said to be the source of the amber that still washes up on the beaches nearby .
Amber workshops appeared in Palanga during the 17th century ; guilds devoted to the material functioned in BrΓΌgge , LΓΌbeck , Danzig , and KΓΆnigsberg . By the end of the 18th century Palanga was the center of the Russian Empire 's amber industry . In the years preceding World War I about 2 @,@ 000 kilograms of raw amber were processed in Palanga annually .
In 1897 Feliks Tyszkiewicz , a member of an old Ruthenian / Lithuanian noble family that had long had a presence in Palanga , built the Neo @-@ Renaissance @-@ style palace that now houses the museum . Designed by the German architect Franz Heinrich Schwechten , it fell into disrepair after the disruptions of World War I and World War II . The palace was restored in 1957 according to plans by the architect Alfredas Brusokas . It opened as an amber museum in 1963 as a branch of the Lithuanian Museum of Fine Arts , with a small collection of about 480 pieces ; it received its millionth visitor on August 13 , 1970 . The palace was incorporated into the Lithuanian Art Museum during the 1990s , and continues to expand .
= = Exhibits = =
The exhibition areas open to the public include 15 rooms covering about 750 square meters ; a chapel connected to the palace houses temporary exhibitions . The museum is thematically divided into the scientific and cultural / artistic aspects of amber .
The first floor is dedicated to displays that illustrate the formation and composition of amber . Amber in the area arose from deltaic deposits of rivers flowing from Fennoscandia in the Eocene Period , about 40 to 45 million years ago . The processes via which resin is changed into amber by microorganisms , oxidation , and polymerization are illustrated . Samples of microdrops and microicicles ( i.e. " amber within amber " ) are among the displayed items . The museum holds Europe 's third largest amber specimen , the " Sun Stone " , of size 210x190x150 mm and weighing 3 @,@ 526 grams , which has been stolen twice . Amber from other areas of the world is also part of the collection .
The cultural and artistic exhibits include a 15th @-@ century ring , a 16th @-@ century cross , and amber jewelry from the past four centuries , as well as a number of rosaries , cigarette holders , and decorative boxes . The missing amber artifacts that were dated to the Neolithic era have been reconstructed by archeologists . Selections of modern amber work are part of the collection , including pieces by the Lithuanian artists Horstas Taleikis , Dionyzas Varkalis , Jonas Urbonas , and others .
= = Botanical garden = =
The gardens surrounding the museum cover about 100 hectares . They were designed by the French landscape architect and botanist Γdouard AndrΓ© ( 1840 β 1911 ) and his son Rene Eduard Andre , assisted by the Belgian gardener Buyssen de Coulon . Local historians have estimated that they originally contained about 500 varieties of trees and shrubs , some brought from gardens in Berlin . About 250 imported and 370 native plant species are now represented at the park ; 24 of these are included in Lithuania 's 1992 list of endangered species . Pine and fir trees adapted to the sandy soil predominate .
The park features a rose garden , greenhouse , rotunda , a sculpture of EglΔ , the Queen of Serpents , a Holocaust memorial , ponds , and gazebos ; during the summer it hosts concerts and festivals . It contains an ancient forested sand dune , known as BirutΔ 's Hill ( Lithuanian : BirutΔs kalnas ) , topped with a chapel dedicated to Saint George that was built in 1869 . According to legend , this dune is the place where Grand Duke of Lithuania KΔstutis met his wife BirutΔ , a pagan priestess , and where she is supposed to have been interred in 1382 ; it has been a pilgrimage site ever since .
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= Operation Graffham =
Operation Graffham was a military deception employed by the Allies during the Second World War . It formed part of Operation Bodyguard , a broad strategic deception designed to disguise the imminent Allied invasion of Normandy . Graffham provided political support to the visual and wireless deception of Operation Fortitude North . These operations together created a fictional threat to Norway during the summer of 1944 .
Planning for the operation began in February 1944 . In contrast to the other aspects of Bodyguard , Graffham was planned and executed by the British , with no American involvement . Graffham 's aim was to convince German intelligence that the Allies were actively building political ties with Sweden , in preparation for an upcoming invasion of Norway . It involved meetings between several British and Swedish officials , as well as the purchase of Norwegian securities and the use of double agents to spread rumours . During the war , Sweden maintained a neutral stance and it was hoped that if the government were convinced of an imminent Allied invasion of Norway this would filter through to German intelligence .
The impact of Graffham was minimal . The Swedish government agreed to few of the concessions requested during the meetings , and few high @-@ level officials were convinced that the Allies would invade Norway . Overall , the influence of Graffham and Fortitude North on German strategy in Scandinavia is disputed .
= = Background = =
Operation Graffham formed part of Operation Bodyguard , a broad strategic military deception intended to confuse the Axis high command as to Allied intentions during the lead @-@ up to the Normandy landings . One of the key elements of Bodyguard was Operation Fortitude North , which promoted a fictional threat against Norway via wireless traffic and visual deception . Fortitude North played on German , and particularly Adolf Hitler 's , belief that Norway was a key objective for the Allies ( although they had earlier considered and rejected the option ) .
The Allies had previously employed several deceptions against the region ( for example Operation Hardboiled in 1942 and Operation Cockade in 1943 ) . As a result , John Bevan , head of the London Controlling Section ( LCS ) and charged with overall organisation of Bodyguard , was concerned that visual / wireless deception would not be enough to create a believable threat .
Bevan suggested a political deception with the aim of convincing the Swedish government that the Allies intended to invade Norway . During the war Sweden maintained a neutral position , and had relations with both Axis and the Allied nations . It was therefore assumed that if Sweden believed in an imminent threat to Norway this would be passed on to German intelligence . Graffham was envisioned as an extension of existing pressure the Allies were placing on Sweden to end their neutral stance , one example being the requests to end the export of ball bearings ( an important component in military hardware ) to Germany . By increasing this pressure with additional , false requests , Bevan hoped to further convince the Germans that Sweden was preparing to join the Allied nations .
= = Planning = =
On 3 February 1944 , the LCS proposed a plan " to induce the enemy to believe that we are enlisting the help of Sweden in connection with the British and Russian contemplated operations against northern Norway in the Spring of this year . " The department received approval to move forward with Graffham on 10 February 1944 . It would be an entirely British operation with no American involvement ( in contrast to the other Bodyguard components ) . Based on recommendations from the Chiefs of Staff , the LCS outlined seven requests to present to the Swedish government :
Access to Swedish airspace for the passage of Allied aircraft , including permission for emergency landings
Access to repair facilities at Swedish airfields for up to 48 hours
Permission for reconnaissance flights within Swedish airspace
Collaboration between British and Swedish transport experts to organise transport of equipment across Sweden following German withdrawal
Permission for Colonel H. V. Thornton ( the former military attachΓ© to Sweden ) to meet Swedish officials
Agreement to the purchase of Norwegian securities by the British government
False wireless traffic between the two countries and the option for Norwegian exiles to move from Britain to Sweden
After some discussion , it was decided that requests to land at Swedish airfields and those related to Norwegian exiles would be dropped . The LCS devised a plan to present the requests in stages rather than all at once . Various envoys would build relations with the Swedish government and present the proposals over a period of time .
= = Operation = =
The first stage of Graffham began in March and April 1944 . Sir Victor Mallet , the British Minister to Sweden , was recalled to London for a briefing on the operation . On 25 March , Wulf Schmidt , a double agent with the code name Tate , transmitted a message to his handlers explaining that Mallet was in the country to receive instructions and would be returning to Sweden for " important negotiations " .
Mallet traveled to Stockholm on 4 April where he met with Erik Boheman , the Swedish State Secretary for Foreign Affairs . During the meeting he presented the proposals for British reconnaissance flights and for the transport collaboration . The Swedish government rejected the former but accepted the latter . However , privately Boheman indicated that Sweden 's air force would not pursue Allied planes in their airspace , and also that limitations of the transport collaboration meant it would have little benefit for the British .
This was not an encouraging start for the operation but despite this , the LCS decided to continue with the deception . Colonel Thornton 's trip was approved and he travelled to Stockholm toward the end of April . Thornton spent two weeks in Sweden , meeting with the head of the Royal Swedish Air Force , General Bengt NordenskiΓΆld . The conferences were treated with a high degree of secrecy in the hope this would emphasise their importance . It had the required effect ; Thornton 's conversations were recorded by a pro @-@ German chief of police and forwarded to Germany . Despite siding with the Allies , NordenskiΓΆld communicated very little sensitive information to Thornton . NordenskiΓΆld was convinced that the Allies intended to invade Norway , but he kept this conviction to himself , contrary to Allied hopes . Thornton returned to England on 30 April .
In tandem with these approaches , the British government began purchasing Norwegian securities . The operation was replaced by Operation Royal Flush in June 1944 , an expanded political deception also targeting Spain and Turkey .
= = Impact = =
Overall the operation appeared to meet few of its initial aims . The political approach did lead to an increased discussion amongst the lower levels of Swedish officialdom as to the possibility of an invasion in Norway . However , it failed to convince the higher levels of government ( with the exception of NordenskiΓΆld , who did not communicate his beliefs to anyone ) . Even the purchase of Norwegian securities went unnoticed . The overriding belief within the Swedish government was that any invasion of Norway would be diversionary , and that the European mainland would always be the main target of the Allies .
Graffham was envisioned as a way to bolster the aims of Fortitude North , and overall this aspect of the plan was successful . German documents , captured after the war , showed that , although they did not believe Norway to be the main invasion target , the Fortitude North units were considered capable of a diversionary attack . As a result of the deceptions , German forces in Scandinavia were put on higher alert and were not transferred south to reinforce France .
The extent to which both Graffham and Fortitude North influenced German strategy in Scandinavia is disputed , with some historians arguing that very little of either deception reached the enemy . While others argue that the existence of fictional units in Scotland helped confirm German fears of a diversionary attack in the region .
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= Leslie Groves =
Lieutenant General Leslie Richard Groves Jr . ( 17 August 1896 β 13 July 1970 ) was a United States Army Corps of Engineers officer who oversaw the construction of the Pentagon and directed the Manhattan Project , a top secret research project that developed the atomic bomb during World War II . As the son of a United States Army chaplain , Groves lived at a number of Army posts during his childhood . He graduated fourth in his class at the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1918 and was commissioned into the US Army Corps of Engineers . In 1929 , he went to Nicaragua as part of an expedition whose purpose was to conduct a survey for the Inter @-@ Oceanic Nicaragua Canal . Following the 1931 Nicaragua earthquake , Groves took over responsibility for Managua 's water supply system , for which he was awarded the Nicaraguan Presidential Medal of Merit . He attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , in 1935 and 1936 , and the Army War College in 1938 and 1939 , after which he was posted to the War Department General Staff .
In 1940 Groves , who " had a reputation as a doer , a driver , and a stickler for duty " , became special assistant for construction to the Quartermaster General , tasked with inspecting construction sites and checking on their progress . In August 1941 , he was given responsibility for the gigantic office complex to house the War Department 's 40 @,@ 000 staff which would ultimately become the Pentagon . In September 1942 , Groves took charge of the Manhattan Project . He was involved in most aspects of the atomic bomb 's development . He participated in the selection of sites for research and production at Oak Ridge , Tennessee ; Los Alamos , New Mexico ; and Hanford , Washington . He directed the enormous construction effort , made critical decisions on the various methods of isotope separation , acquired raw materials , directed the collection of military intelligence on the German nuclear energy project and helped select the cities in Japan that were chosen as targets . Groves wrapped the Manhattan Project in security but failed to prevent the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics from conducting a successful espionage program that stole some of its most important secrets .
After the war , Groves remained in charge of the Manhattan Project until responsibility for nuclear weapons production was handed over to the United States Atomic Energy Commission in 1947 . He then headed the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , which had been created to control the military aspects of nuclear weapons . Groves realized that in the rapidly shrinking postwar military he would not be given any assignment approaching in importance the one he had held in the Manhattan Project , and he decided to leave the Army in 1948 . He was promoted to lieutenant general just before his retirement on 29 February 1948 in recognition of his leadership of the bomb program . By a special Act of Congress , his date of rank was backdated to 16 July 1945 , the date of the Trinity nuclear test . Groves went on to become a vice @-@ president at Sperry Rand .
= = Early life = =
Leslie Richard Groves Jr. was born in Albany , New York , on 17 August 1896 , the third son of four children of a pastor , Leslie Richard Groves Sr. , and his wife Gwen nΓ©e Griffith . A descendant of French Huguenots who came to America in the 17th century , Leslie Groves Sr. resigned as pastor of the Sixth Presbyterian church in Albany in December 1896 to become a United States Army chaplain . He was posted to the 14th Infantry at Vancouver Barracks in Washington in 1897 . Following the outbreak of the Spanish β American War in 1898 , Chaplain Groves was sent to Cuba with the 8th Infantry . On returning to Vancouver Barracks , he was ordered to rejoin the 14th Infantry in the Philippines ; service in the Philippine β American War and the Boxer Rebellion followed . The 14th Infantry returned to the United States in 1901 and moved to Fort Snelling , Minnesota . The family relocated to there from Vancouver , then moved to Fort Hancock , New Jersey , the next year , and returned to Vancouver in 1905 . Chaplain Groves was hospitalized with tuberculosis at Fort Bayard in 1905 . He decided to settle in southern California and bought a house in Altadena . His next posting was to Fort Apache , Arizona . The family spent their summers there and returned to Altadena where the children attended school .
In 1911 , Chaplain Groves was ordered to return to the 14th Infantry , which was now stationed at Fort William Henry Harrison , Montana . Here young Dick Groves met Grace ( Boo ) Wilson , the daughter of Colonel Richard Hulbert Wilson , a career Army officer who had served with Chaplain Groves with the 8th Infantry in Cuba . In 1913 , the 14th Infantry moved once more , this time to Fort Lawton , Washington . Dick Groves entered Queen Anne High School in nearby Seattle in 1913 . In September of that year , he commenced his final year of high school , and also enrolled at the University of Washington . He attempted to secure an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1914 , earning a nomination from the president , which allowed him to compete for a vacancy , but did not score a sufficiently high enough mark on the examination . Charles W. Bell from California 's 9th congressional district accepted Groves as an alternate for one of his appointments , but the principal nominee accepted . Instead , Groves enrolled at Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In 1916 , Groves took the examinations for admission to West Point again and this time he was accepted . " Entering West Point fulfilled my greatest ambition . I had been brought up in the Army , and in the main had lived on Army posts all my life , " Groves said after the fact .
Groves ' class entered West Point on 15 June 1916 , but the United States declaration of war on Germany in April 1917 led to the course being shortened to what was known as the War Emergency Course ( WEC ) , which graduated early on 1 November 1918 . Groves came fourth in his class , and was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the United States Army Corps of Engineers . The Corps of Engineers was the usual appointment for the highest @-@ ranking cadets in a class .
= = Between the wars = =
After the traditional month 's leave following graduation from West Point , Groves reported to Camp A. A. Humphreys , Virginia , in December 1918 , where he was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 May 1919 . He was sent to France in June on an educational tour of the European battlefields of World War I. After returning from Europe , Groves became a student officer at the Engineer School at Camp Humphreys in September 1919 . On graduation he was posted to the 7th Engineers at Fort Benning , Georgia , as a company commander . He returned to Camp Humphreys in February 1921 for the Engineer Basic Officers ' Course . On graduation in August 1921 , he was posted to the 4th Engineers , stationed at Camp Lewis , Washington . He was then posted to Fort Worden in command of a survey detachment . This was close to Seattle , so he was able to pursue his courtship of Grace Wilson ( 1897 β 1986 ) , who had become a kindergarten teacher . They were married in St. Clement 's Episcopal Church in Seattle on 10 February 1922 . Their marriage produced two children : a son , Richard Hulbert , born in 1923 , and a daughter , Gwen , born in 1928 .
In November 1922 , Groves received his first overseas posting , as a company commander with the 3rd Engineers at the Schofield Barracks in Hawaii . He earned a commendation for his work there , constructing a trail from Kahuku to Pupukea . In November 1925 he was posted to Galveston , Texas , as an assistant to the District Engineer , Major Julian Schley . Groves ' duties included opening the channel at Port Isabel and supervising dredging operations in Galveston Bay . In 1927 he became commander of Company D , 1st Engineers , at Fort DuPont , Delaware . During the New England Flood of November 1927 he was sent to Fort Ethan Allen , Vermont , to assist with a detachment of the 1st Engineers . After a pontoon bridge they constructed was swamped and swept away by the flood waters , Groves was accused of negligence . A month later Groves and several of his men were seriously injured , one fatally , when a block of TNT prematurely detonated . Groves ' superior wrote a critical report on him , but the Chief of Engineers , Major General Edgar Jadwin , interceded , attributing blame to Groves ' superiors instead . Groves was returned to Fort DuPont .
In 1929 , Groves departed for Nicaragua in charge of a company of the 1st Engineers as part of an expedition whose purpose was to conduct a survey for the Inter @-@ Oceanic Nicaragua Canal . Following the 1931 Nicaragua earthquake , Groves took over responsibility for Managua 's water supply system , for which he was awarded the Nicaraguan Presidential Medal of Merit . Groves was promoted to captain on 20 October 1934 . He attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , in 1935 and 1936 , after which he was posted to Kansas City , Missouri , as assistant to the commander of the Missouri River Division . In 1938 and 1939 he attended the Army War College . On 1 July 1939 , he was posted to the War Department General Staff in Washington , D.C.
= = World War II = =
= = = Construction Division = = =
Groves was promoted to major on 1 July 1940 . Three weeks later , he became special assistant for construction to the Quartermaster General , Major General Edmund B. Gregory . The two men had known each other a long time , as Groves ' father was a close friend of Gregory 's . At this point , the US Army was about to embark on a national mobilization , and it was the task of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps to prepare the necessary accommodations and training facilities for the vast army that would be created . The enormous construction program had been dogged by bottlenecks , shortages , delays , spiralling costs , and poor living conditions at the construction sites . Newspapers began publishing accounts charging the Construction Division with incompetence , ineptitude , and inefficiency . Groves , who " had a reputation as a doer , a driver , and a stickler for duty " , was one of a number of engineer officers brought in to turn the project around . He was tasked with inspecting construction sites and checking on their progress .
On 12 November 1940 , Gregory asked Groves to take over command of the Fixed Fee Branch of the Construction Division as soon as his promotion to colonel came through . Groves assumed his new rank and duties on 14 November 1940 . Groves later recalled :
During the first week that I was on duty there , I could not walk out of my office down the corridor to Hartman 's office without being literally assailed by the officers or civilian engineers with liaison responsibility for various camps . It is no exaggeration to state that during this period decisions involving up to $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 [ $ 84 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with inflation ] were made at the rate of about one every 100 feet of corridor walked .
Groves instituted a series of reforms . He installed phone lines for the Supervising Construction Quartermasters , demanded weekly reports on progress , ordered that reimbursement vouchers be processed within a week , and sent expediters to sites reporting shortages . He ordered his contractors to hire whatever special equipment they needed and to pay premium prices if necessary to guarantee quick delivery . Instead of allowing construction of camps to proceed in whatever order the contractors saw fit , Groves laid down priorities for completion of camp facilities , so that the troops could begin moving in even while construction was still under way . By mid @-@ December , the worst of the crisis was over . Over half a million men had been mobilized and essential accommodations and facilities for two million men were 95 per cent complete . Between 1 July 1940 and 10 December 1941 , the Construction Division let contracts worth $ 1 @,@ 676 @,@ 293 @,@ 000 ( $ 26 @,@ 968 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 with inflation ) , of which $ 1 @,@ 347 @,@ 991 @,@ 000 ( $ 21 @,@ 686 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 with inflation ) , or about 80 per cent , were fixed @-@ fee contracts .
On 19 August 1941 , Groves was summoned to a meeting with the head of the Construction Division , Brigadier General Brehon B. Somervell . In attendance were Captain Clarence Renshaw , one of Groves ' assistants ; Major Hugh J. Casey , the chief of the Construction Division 's Design and Engineering Section ; and George Bergstrom , a former president of the American Institute of Architects . Casey and Bergstrom had designed an enormous office complex to house the War Department 's 40 @,@ 000 staff together in one building , a five @-@ story , five @-@ sided structure , which would ultimately become the Pentagon . The Pentagon had a total square footage of 5 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 470 @,@ 000 m2 ) β twice that of the Empire State Building β making it the largest office building in the world . The estimated cost was $ 35 million ( $ 563 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 with inflation ) , and Somervell wanted 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 46 @,@ 000 m2 ) of floor space available by 1 March 1942 . Bergstrom became the architect @-@ engineer with Renshaw in charge of construction , reporting directly to Groves . At its peak the project employed 13 @,@ 000 persons . By the end of April , the first occupants were moving in and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space was ready by the end of May . In the end , the project cost some $ 63 million ( $ 1 @,@ 013 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 with inflation ) .
Groves steadily overcame one crisis after another , dealing with strikes , shortages , competing priorities and engineers who were not up to their tasks . He worked six days a week in his office in Washington , D.C. During the week he would determine which project was in the greatest need of personal attention and pay it a visit on Sunday . Groves later recalled that he was " hoping to get to a war theater so I could find a little peace . "
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
The Manhattan Engineer District ( MED ) was formally established by the Chief of Engineers , Major General Eugene Reybold on 16 August 1942 . The name was chosen by Groves and MED 's district engineer , Colonel James C. Marshall . Like other engineer districts , it was named after the city where its headquarters was located , at 270 Broadway . Unlike the others , however , it had no geographic boundaries , only a mission : to develop an atomic bomb . Moreover , Marshall had the authority of a division engineer head and reported directly to Reybold . Although Reybold was satisfied with the progress being made , Dr. Vannevar Bush was less so . He felt that aggressive leadership was required , and suggested the appointment of a prestigious officer as overall project director . Somervell , now Chief of Army Service Forces , recommended Groves . Somervell met Groves outside the hearing room where Groves had been testifying before a United States Congress committee on military housing and informed him that " The Secretary of War has selected you for a very important assignment , and the President has approved the selection ... If you do the job right , it will win the war . " Groves could not hide his disappointment at not receiving a combat assignment : " Oh , that thing , " he replied .
Groves met with Major General Wilhelm D. Styer in his office at the Pentagon to discuss the details . They agreed that in order to avoid suspicion , Groves would continue to supervise the Pentagon project . He would be promoted to brigadier general , as it was felt that the title " general " would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the Manhattan Project . Groves therefore waited until his promotion came through on 23 September 1942 before assuming his new command . His orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than Reybold , with Marshall now answerable to Groves . Groves was given authority to sign contracts for the project from September 1 , 1942 . Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson ( retrospectively ) delegated his authority from the President under the War Powers Act of 1941 in a memorandum to Groves dated April 17 , 1944 . Groves delegated the authority to Nichols , except that contracts of $ 5 million or more required his authority . The written authority was only given in 1944 when Nichols was about to sign a contract with Du Pont , and it was found that Nichols original authority to sign project contracts from Colonel Marshall was based on a verbal authority from Styer , and Nichols only had the low delegated authority of a divisional engineer .
Groves soon decided to establish his project headquarters on the fifth floor of the New War Department Building ( now known as the Harry S Truman Building ) in Washington , D.C. , where Marshall had maintained a liaison office . In August 1943 , the MED headquarters ( and Nichols , who was in charge of the production facilities at Hanford and Oak Ridge ) moved to Oak Ridge , Tennessee , but the name of the district did not change .
Construction accounted for roughly 90 percent of the Manhattan Project 's total cost . The day after Groves took over , he and Marshall took a train to Tennessee to inspect the site that Marshall had chosen for the proposed production plant at Oak Ridge . Groves was suitably impressed with the site , and steps were taken to condemn the land . Protests , legal appeals , and congressional inquiries were to no avail . By mid @-@ November US Marshals were tacking notices to vacate on farmhouse doors , and construction contractors were moving in .
Meanwhile , Groves had met with J. Robert Oppenheimer , the University of California , Berkeley physicist , and discussed the creation of a laboratory where the bomb could be designed and tested . Groves was impressed with the breadth of Oppenheimer 's knowledge . A long conversation on a train in October 1942 convinced Groves and his deputy Kenneth Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area . These were features that Groves found lacking in other scientists , and he knew that broad knowledge would be vital in an interdisciplinary project that would involve not just physics , but chemistry , metallurgy , ordnance and engineering .
In October 1942 Groves and Oppenheimer inspected sites in New Mexico , where they selected a suitable location for the laboratory at Los Alamos , New Mexico . Unlike Oak Ridge , the ranch school at Los Alamos , along with 54 @,@ 000 acres ( 22 @,@ 000 ha ) of surrounding forest and grazing land , was soon acquired . Groves also detected in Oppenheimer something that many others did not , an " overweening ambition " which Groves reckoned would supply the drive necessary to push the project to a successful conclusion . Groves became convinced that Oppenheimer was the best and only man to run the laboratory .
Few agreed with him in 1942 . Oppenheimer had little administrative experience and , unlike other potential candidates , no Nobel Prize . There was also concern about whether Oppenheimer was a security risk , as many of his associates were communists , including his brother Frank Oppenheimer , his wife Kitty and his girlfriend Jean Tatlock . Oppenheimer 's Communist Party connections soon came to light , but Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer a clearance on 20 July 1943 . Groves ' faith in Oppenheimer was ultimately justified . Oppenheimer 's inspirational leadership fostered practical approaches to designing and building bombs . Asked years later why Groves chose him , Oppenheimer replied that the general " had a fatal weakness for good men . " Isidor Rabi considered the appointment " a real stroke of genius on the part of General Groves , who was not generally considered to be a genius ... "
Groves made critical decisions on prioritizing the various methods of isotope separation and acquiring raw materials needed by the scientists and engineers . By the time he assumed command of the project , it was evident that the AA @-@ 3 priority rating that Marshall had obtained was insufficient . The top ratings were AA @-@ 1 through AA @-@ 4 in descending order , although there was also a special AAA rating reserved for emergencies . Ratings AA @-@ 1 and AA @-@ 2 were for essential weapons and equipment , so Colonel Lucius D. Clay , the deputy chief of staff at Services and Supply for requirements and resources , felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA @-@ 3 , although he was willing to provide an AAA rating on request for critical materials to remove bottlenecks . Groves went to Donald M. Nelson , the chairman of the War Production Board and , after threatening to take the matter to the President , obtained a AAA priority for the Manhattan project . It was agreed that the AA @-@ 3 priority would still be used where possible .
The Combined Development Trust was established by the governments of the United Kingdom , United States and Canada in June 1944 , with Groves as its chairman , to procure uranium and thorium ores on international markets . In 1944 , the trust purchased 3 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 560 @,@ 000 kg ) of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo . In order to avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. on the project , a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies . Between 1944 and the time he resigned from the Trust in 1947 , Groves deposited a total of $ 37 @.@ 5 million into the Trust 's account .
In 1943 , the Manhattan District became responsible for collecting military intelligence on Axis atomic research . Groves created Operation Alsos , special intelligence teams that would follow in the wake of the advancing armies , rounding up enemy scientists and collecting what technical information and technology they could . Alsos teams ultimately operated in Italy , France and Germany . The security system resembled that of other engineer districts . The Manhattan District organized its own counterintelligence which gradually grew in size and scope , but strict security measures failed to prevent the Soviets from conducting a successful espionage program that stole some of its most important secrets .
Groves met with the Chief of United States Army Air Forces , General Henry H. Arnold , in March 1944 to discuss the delivery of the finished bombs to their targets . Groves was hoping that the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress would be able to carry the finished bombs . The 509th Composite Group was duly activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , under the command of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets . A joint Manhattan District β USAAF targeting committee was established to determine which cities in Japan should be targets ; it recommended Kokura , Hiroshima , Niigata and Kyoto . At this point , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson intervened , announcing that he would be making the targeting decision , and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto . Groves attempted to get him to change his mind several times and Stimson refused every time . Kyoto had been the capital of Japan for centuries , and was of great cultural and religious significance . In the end , Groves asked Arnold to remove Kyoto not just from the list of nuclear targets , but from targets for conventional bombing as well . Nagasaki was substituted for Kyoto as a target .
Groves was promoted to temporary major general on 9 March 1944 . After the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became public knowledge , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal . His citation read :
Major General Leslie Richard Groves , as Commanding General , Manhattan Engineer District , Army Service Forces , from June 1942 to August 1945 coordinated , administered and controlled a project of unprecedented , world @-@ wide significance β the development of the Atomic Bomb . His was the responsibility for procuring materiel and personnel , marshalling the forces of government and industry , erecting huge plants , blending the scientific efforts of the United States and foreign countries , and maintaining completely secret the search for a key to release atomic energy . He accomplished his task with such outstanding success that in an amazingly short time the Manhattan Engineer District solved this problem of staggering complexity , defeating the Axis powers in the race to produce an instrument whose peacetime potentialities are no less marvellous than its wartime application is awesome . The achievement of General Groves is of unfathomable importance to the future of the nation and the world .
Groves had previously been nominated for the Distinguished Service Medal for his work on the Pentagon , but to avoid drawing attention to the Manhattan Project , it had not been awarded at the time . After the war , the Decorations Board decided to change it to a Legion of Merit . In recognition of his work on the project , the Belgian government made him a Commander of the Order of the Crown and the British government made him an honorary Companion of the Order of the Bath .
= = After the war = =
Responsibility for nuclear power and nuclear weapons was transferred from the Manhattan District to the United States Atomic Energy Commission on 1 January 1947 . On 29 January 1947 , Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson and Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal issued a joint directive creating the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) to control the military aspects of nuclear weapons . Groves was appointed its chief on 28 February 1947 . In April , AFSWP moved from the New War Department Building to the fifth floor of the Pentagon . Groves had already made a start on the new mission by creating Sandia Base in 1946 .
The Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower , met with Groves on 30 January 1948 to evaluate his performance . Eisenhower recounted a long list of complaints about Groves pertaining to his rudeness , arrogance , insensitivity , contempt for the rules and maneuvering for promotion out of turn . Eisenhower made it clear that Groves would never become Chief of Engineers . Groves realized that in the rapidly shrinking postwar military he would not be given any assignment approaching in importance the one he had held in the Manhattan Project , as such posts would go to combat commanders returning from overseas , and he decided to leave the Army . He was promoted to lieutenant general on 24 January 1948 , just before his retirement on 29 February 1948 in recognition of his leadership of the Manhattan Project . By special Act of Congress his date of rank was backdated to 16 July 1945 , the date of the Trinity nuclear test .
= = Later life = =
Groves went on to become a vice president at Sperry Rand , an equipment and electronics firm , and moved to Darien , Connecticut , in 1948 . He retired from Sperry Rand in 1961 . He also served as president of the West Point alumni organization , the Association of Graduates . He presented General of the Army Douglas MacArthur the Sylvanus Thayer Award in 1962 , which was the occasion of MacArthur 's famous Duty , Honor , Country speech to the United States Military Academy Corps of Cadets . In retirement , Groves wrote an account of the Manhattan Project entitled Now It Can Be Told , originally published in 1962 . In 1964 , he moved back to Washington , D.C.
Groves suffered a heart attack caused by chronic calcification of the aortic valve on 13 July 1970 . He was rushed to Walter Reed Army Medical Center , where he died that night . A funeral service was held in the chapel at Fort Myer , Virginia , after which Groves was interred in Arlington National Cemetery next to his brother Allen , who had died of pneumonia in 1916 . Groves is memorialized as the namesake of Leslie Groves Park along the Columbia River , near the Hanford Site in Richland .
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= Oregon Civic Justice Center =
The Oregon Civic Justice Center is a three @-@ story former library building on the campus of Willamette University in downtown Salem , Oregon , United States . Built in 1912 as a Carnegie library for the city of Salem , the building now houses several programs of Willamette University College of Law . Prior to the law school 's moving into the facility in 2008 , the building was used by the adjacent Young Women 's Christian Association ( YWCA ) from 1971 to 2006 .
Willamette purchased the old library in 2003 and later selected the College of Law as the program at the school to gain use of the building . The university began renovations in 2007 to restore part of the original layout and modernize the facility to accommodate the needs of modern education . After the brick @-@ faced , Beaux Arts style structure was remodeled , community oriented programs from the law school relocated to the renamed Oregon Civic Justice Center . This center houses programs such as a legal clinic and the school 's law review journal .
= = History = =
On October 12 , 1901 , the Salem Woman 's Club was organized with the wife of Oregon Governor Theodore Thurston Geer serving as president of the organization . Two years later the group started the Salem Public Library at Geer 's home , and then later located at Chemeketa and High streets in downtown Salem in the then city hall , with the library 's collection totaling 50 books at that time . The library group hired a librarian , Miss F. Phillips , for a salary of $ 20 per month to run the library . In 1907 , the group explored options to build a stand @-@ alone library building using funds provided by Andrew Carnegie , who was providing funds for building libraries around the world .
In May 1909 , the Woman β s Club purchased an option to buy the property on the southwest corner of Winter and State streets for $ 5500 , which was located across State from Willson Park ( a city park at that time ) . This group then raised the funds to purchase the land for $ 12 @,@ 000 , and Salem applied for a grant from the Carnegie foundation . The city was allotted $ 14 @,@ 000 by the foundation to build a library , but the Women β s Club which owned the existing library and land had not been involved in the process . The organization was able to get the money rescinded , and in November 1910 , worked with the city to increase their maintenance fund for the library . Carnegie then raised the grant to $ 27 @,@ 500 at the lobbying of Lulu Bush ( daughter @-@ in @-@ law to Asahel Bush ) and the Woman β s Club deeded the lot and the other library assets to the city of Salem .
On September 12 , 1912 , the new library opened on the property near Willamette University and the Oregon State Capitol , though construction on the structure was not completed , and much of the furniture had not been installed in the building . The completed structure included hardwood floors , crown molding , windows that were two @-@ stories tall , and a fireplace . The library cost $ 30 @,@ 000 to build , and within a year of operating had expanded to serve nearly 7 @,@ 700 patrons with a collection of nearly 10 @,@ 500 books . On January 4 , 1920 , a small fire damaged the furnace room and about 50 books at the library .
In 1914 , the YWCA of Salem was organized by the same Salem Women 's Club . Located in downtown on Cottage Street Northeast , the YWCA moved in 1954 to the lot adjoining the library . By the 1960s , the small library had a collection in excess of 100 @,@ 000 volumes , but needed a larger facility . A public campaign to build a new library began in 1968 , with the library to be part of a larger government center that included a city hall and fire station . In 1971 , the YWCA purchased the adjacent Carnegie library building for $ 150 @,@ 000 , and on July 6 , 1972 , the Salem Public Library vacated the Carnegie building and moved to Salem β s new Civic Center located west of the old library . Located next to the YWCA 's existing home , the old library was turned into the organization 's youth center . The building was remodeled from 1990 to 1991 .
= = = Legal center = = =
In 2003 , Willamette University purchased the old building from the YWCA . The $ 1 @.@ 35 million purchase included the main YWCA building adjacent to the former library for a total of 54 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 000 m2 ) , with the YWCA continuing their operations in the building for three years after the sale . After that group left the building in 2006 , Willamette spent $ 4 @.@ 6 million ( $ 2 million more than originally planned ) to remodel the old library building over a year 's time and convert it into the Oregon Civic Justice Center as part of the College of Law . The remodeling project began in the summer of 2007 and included removing a swimming pool structure that had been added to the south of the building , while also adding a new entrance to the former library on the same side as where the pool was located . Renovations also removed a mezzanine that the YWCA had added to the upper portion of the main floor . Other renovations included new heating , cooling , and ventilation systems , upgrades for technology , all while retaining the historical look and feel of the original 1912 building .
On September 12 , 2008 , the building was re @-@ dedicated exactly 96 years after the original dedication in a ceremony featuring sitting Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Ruth Bader Ginsburg . The ceremony was part of the College of Law 's 125th anniversary festivities and featured Oregon dignitaries such as Oregon Supreme Court Chief Justice and Willamette alum Paul De Muniz . Willamette President M. Lee Pelton , who also attended the ceremony , selected the law school as the new tenants after other departments and programs at the school submitted proposals for the use of the old library .
= = Amenities = =
The Beaux Arts style brick structure includes a portico on the State Street entrance on the north side . The façade includes an inscription , " PUBLIC LIBRARY " , in Roman type over the entryway , which is sheltered by a rigid metal awning on this north front . The roof of the square @-@ shaped structure is constructed of both metal and tile . Stone is used for architectural accents of lintels and cornices on the exterior . The building remains connected to the neighboring former offices of the YWCA , which is a Pietro Belluschi designed building also owned by Willamette University .
Inside , the main room is a conference room on the main floor that includes a large projection system that can be used for remote feeds , such as from the state capitol across the street . A painting by John Fery is displayed over the fireplace , which the fireplace was part of the original structure in the conference room . The remainder of the interior of the building has a modern look with glass @-@ enclosed offices surrounding an open common area . Artwork owned by the university 's Hallie Ford Museum of Art is displayed in this area . The main floor of the three @-@ story building is the second floor , which rests atop the look @-@ out basement . A small meeting room is located above a small portion of the main floor .
= = Programs = =
The center is utilized to connect the College of Law and Willamette as a whole to the larger Salem community . In this capacity , the center houses several law school programs with community outreach aspects . These include the Oregon Law Commission , the Center for Democracy , the Center for Religion and Law , the Center for Dispute Resolution , Willamette 's Clinical Law Program , the Center for Law and Government , and the school 's law journal , the Willamette Law Review . Each of these programs were chosen to be housed in the center due to having community outreach programs , with the goal of the center being to create a community atmosphere between students , faculty , and the community at large .
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= Oerip Soemohardjo =
Oerip Soemohardjo ( [ uΛrΙͺp sumoΛhardΚo ] ; Perfected Spelling : Urip Sumoharjo , 22 February 1893 β 17 November 1948 ) was an Indonesian general and the first chief of staff of the Indonesian National Armed Forces . He received several awards from the Indonesian government , including the title National Hero of Indonesia in 1964 .
Born in Purworejo , Dutch East Indies , Oerip exhibited leadership skills from an early age . As his parents wanted him to become a regent , after elementary school Oerip was sent to the School for Native Government Employees in Magelang . His mother died during his second year at the school , and Oerip left to undertake military training in Meester Cornelis , Batavia ( modern @-@ day Jatinegara , Jakarta ) . Upon graduating in 1914 , he became a lieutenant in the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ; during almost 25 years of service he was stationed on three different islands and promoted several times , eventually becoming the highest @-@ ranking Native officer in the country .
Oerip resigned from his position in about 1938 after a disagreement with the regent of Purworejo , where he had been stationed . He and his wife Rohmah then moved to a village near Yogyakarta , where they established a large garden and villa . After Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands in May 1940 Oerip was recalled to active duty . When the Empire of Japan occupied the Indies less than two years later , Oerip was arrested and detained in a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp for three and a half months . He spent the rest of the occupation at his villa .
On 14 October 1945 , several months after Indonesia proclaimed its independence , Oerip was declared the chief of staff and interim leader of the newly formed army . Working to build a united force from the fractured former military groups in the country , Oerip received little oversight owing to irregularities in the chain of command . On 12 November 1945 General Sudirman was selected as leader of the armed forces , while Oerip remained as chief of staff . The two oversaw almost three years of development during the Indonesian National Revolution , until Oerip resigned in early 1948 because of the political leadership 's lack of trust in the army . His health deteriorated ; he was already suffering from a weak heart , and he died of a heart attack a few months later . He was posthumously promoted to full general .
= = Early life = =
Oerip Soemohardjo was born Moehammad Sidik ( " Little Muhammad " ) in his family 's home in Sindurjan , Purworejo , Dutch East Indies ( a colony of the Netherlands ) , on 22 February 1893 . He was the first son born to Soemohardjo , a headmaster and son of a local Muslim leader , and his wife , the daughter of Raden Tumenggung Widjojokoesoemo , the regent of Trenggalek ; the family later had two more sons , Iskandar and Soekirno , as well as three daughters . The boys were raised partly by servants , and at a young age Sidik began showing leadership qualities , commanding groups of neighbourhood children in fishing and games of football . The brothers attended the school for Javanese headed by their father , and as a result received special treatment ; this led to them becoming complacent and frequently misbehaving .
In his second year of school , Sidik fell from a candlenut tree and lost consciousness . After he awoke , his mother sent a letter to Widjojokoesoemo , who decided that Sidik 's name was the cause of his misbehaviour . In reply , Widjojokoesoemo wrote that Sidik should be renamed Oerip , which means " alive " . When he recovered fully , his family decided that the newly renamed Oerip β who continued to misbehave β should study at the local Dutch School for Girls ( Europese Lagere Meisjesschool ) ; the schools for boys were full and they hoped that the girls ' school would improve Oerip 's skill in Dutch , the language of the regime , as well as his temperament . After a year in the girls ' school , in which Oerip became calmer , he was sent to a Dutch @-@ run school for boys . However , his academic results continued to be poor . Beginning in his final year of elementary school , he often visited his friend 's father , an ex @-@ soldier who had served in Aceh for twenty years , to listen to the old man 's stories , which inspired Oerip to join the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ( Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger , or KNIL ) .
After passing an exam for would @-@ be state employees and several months of preparations , Oerip moved to Magelang in 1908 to attend the School for Native Government Employees ( Opleidingsschool Voor Inlandse Ambtenaren , or OSVIA ) ; his parents intended for him to become a regent like his grandfather . The following year his brothers joined him . After his mother died in 1909 , Oerip sank into a months @-@ long bout of depression and became withdrawn .
After finishing the year at OSVIA , he decided to enrol at the military academy in Meester Cornelis , Batavia ( modern @-@ day Jatinegara , Jakarta ) . He went there directly from Magelang , and told his brothers to inform their father , who disapproved of his son 's choice . Soemohardjo initially attempted to bribe his son with 1 @,@ 000 gulden to return to OSVIA , but eventually agreed to pay for Oerip 's tuition . After his training , during which he found military life enjoyable , Oerip graduated from the academy in October 1914 and became a second lieutenant in the KNIL .
= = Royal Netherlands East Indies Army = =
After several days visiting his father in Purworejo , Oerip returned to Meester Cornelis where he took up a posting to Battalion XII . Even though he was the smallest man in the unit and the only native , he was placed in a position of leadership . A year and half later he was sent to Banjarmasin , Borneo . After a period patrolling the jungles outside Puruk Cahu and Muara Tewe , he was sent to Tanah Grogot , followed by Balikpapan . While stationed there Oerip was promoted to first lieutenant but faced discrimination as a native in the Dutch forces . In Banjarmasin he had convinced his commander to strike an ordinance forbidding non @-@ Dutch officers from joining the football team , and by 1917 Oerip had received equal legal status with Dutch officers . After Balikpapan Oerip was further sent to Samarinda , Tarakan , and ultimately Malinau .
In Malinau , Oerip patrolled the border between the Dutch East Indies and the British @-@ controlled Kingdom of Sarawak ( part of modern @-@ day Malaysia ) ; he also worked to prevent conflicts and headhunting among Dayak tribes . One day , seven years after arriving in Borneo , Oerip returned from patrol to find his home had been burned down . Upon the recommendation of a passing doctor , Oerip went back to Java , via Tarakan and Surabaya , to Cimahi , where he spent several months in recovery from fatigue .
Fully recovered , in 1923 Oerip was stationed in his hometown , Purworejo . In September 1925 Oerip was transferred to Magelang to serve in the MarΓ©chaussΓ©e te Voet ( Foot Marshalry ) , a gendarmerie . Initially known to avoid women and under pressure to marry quickly , in Magelang Oerip became involved with Rohmah Soebroto , the daughter of his former Javanese and Malay language teacher Soebroto and a distant relative of female emancipation figure Kartini . The pair were engaged on 7 May 1926 and married on 30 June of the same year . Also in Magelang , Oerip took on his father 's name , which he used as a family name for dealing with the Dutch . Afterwards he began referring to himself by the full name of Oerip Soemohardjo , although others continued to call him Oerip .
The year after his marriage , Oerip and his wife were stationed in Ambarawa , where Oerip was tasked with rebuilding a previously disbanded unit . While training local recruits in place of the Dutch commander who had yet to arrive , Oerip was promoted to captain . After the Dutch commander arrived , in July 1928 Oerip was given a year 's leave , which he used to travel throughout Europe on a sightseeing trip with his wife . Upon his return to the Indies , he was stationed at Meester Cornelis .
In Meester Cornelis , Oerip began running training exercises ; while stationed in Batavia , his father died . In 1933 , he was sent to Padang Panjang in Sumatra to deal with unrest that had already killed several Dutch officers . His time in Padang Panjang passed uneventfully , and in July 1935 he was given leave to go to Europe again . He was also promoted to major at that time , which made him the highest @-@ ranking native officer in the KNIL . The following year , upon his return to the Indies , he was stationed in Purworejo . In mid @-@ 1938 , after a disagreement with the local regent , Oerip was told to transfer to Gombong ; he refused , then left the KNIL and moved to his parents @-@ in @-@ law 's home in Yogyakarta .
= = Civilian life and Japanese occupation = =
In Yogyakarta , the unemployed Oerip took up orchid gardening . Soon after arriving , he and his wife bought a villa in Gentan , north of the city . Although the villa was small , the couple used its 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) of land to open a large flower garden , with their income subsidised by Oerip 's pension from the KNIL . At his villa , named KEM ( for Klaarheid en Moed , or " Purity and Bravery " ) , Oerip often received guests , both military and civilian , from whom he received information about current events and to whom he gave advice regarding military matters and politics . In 1940 , the pair adopted a four @-@ year @-@ old Dutch girl named Abby from an orphanage in Semarang .
Shortly thereafter , on 10 May 1940 , when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands , Oerip was recalled to active service . Three days after reporting to Colonel Pik in Magelang , he went to the KNIL headquarters in Bandung , where he was the first retired officer to report . Afterwards , he and his family β who had joined him β were transferred to Cimahi , where Oerip was tasked with establishing a new battalion depot . Several native officers were stationed in northern parts of the Indies during 1941 in preparation for an expected attack by the Empire of Japan , although Oerip stayed in Cimahi .
After the Japanese occupied the Indies in early 1942 , Oerip was held in a mixed prisoner of war camp in Cimahi . Upon his release three and a half months later , Oerip refused an offer to form a new , Japanese @-@ backed police force and returned to KEM , where he and his wife rented paddy fields to grow rice while continuing to operate their flower garden . To protect their land , they surrounded their property and home with a high bamboo fence . Although no longer active in the military , Oerip occasionally received former KNIL members , including Abdul Haris Nasution and Sunarmo , who brought news of events outside the village . The couple continued their work , harassed and surveilled by the Japanese and pro @-@ Japanese Indonesians , until the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August 1945 signified that Japan would soon withdraw . It was during this period that Oerip began having heart problems .
= = Indonesian National Revolution and death = =
After the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945 , Oerip and his family left KEM for Rohma 's parents ' home in Yogyakarta . When the People 's Safety Body ( Badan Keamanan Rakjat , or BKR ) was formed on 23 August , Oerip led a group of military commanders who petitioned for it to be set up as a national military formation ; a separate group , led by politician Oto Iskandar di Nata , wanted the BKR to fulfil the functions of a police organisation . The political leadership , consisting of President Sukarno and Vice President Mohammad Hatta , agreed to a compromise : it became a police @-@ style organisation , but most of its members had served in the military , either with the Defenders of the Homeland ( Pembela Tanah Air , or PETA ) or the HeihΕ .
On 14 October 1945 β nine days after the Indonesian National Armed Forces was formally established β Oerip was declared its Chief of Staff and interim leader , and left immediately for Jakarta . In a cabinet meeting the following day , he was ordered to build a national army , headquartered in Yogyakarta , in preparation for an expected assault by Dutch troops coming to reclaim the Indies . He departed for Yogyakarta on 16 October , and arrived the following day . He first established the headquarters in a room at Hotel Merdeka , which he used until the Sultan of Yogyakarta Hamengkubuwono IX donated land and a building for the army to use .
With the BKR scattered under independent leadership throughout the country , the newly formed People 's Security Army ( Tentara Keamaanan Rakjat or TKR , now known as the Tentara Nasional Indonesia ) drew officers mainly from the native members of the former KNIL . However , these officers were poorly received by Indonesian nationalists , who viewed them as mercenaries for having served in the Dutch forces . Meanwhile , rank and file members of the TKR were drawn from numerous groups , including former PETA , current Pemuda ( young Indonesian revolutionaries ) , and the BKR . Although Oerip set out a command structure , in reality the army 's hierarchy was provisional and depended heavily on the strength of local units .
Following a government decree on 20 October Oerip became subordinate to both the acting Minister of Defence Soeljoadikoesoemo and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces Soeprijadi . However , neither man showed up to assume his duties . Soeprijadi , a PETA soldier who had led an uprising against Japanese forces in Blitar in February 1945 , was thought dead . While Soeljohadikosomo 's position remained unfilled , the guerrilla leader Moestopo declared himself Minister of Defence . As such , Oerip had little oversight and felt pressured to quickly establish a stable command structure . On 2 November , he appointed leaders for military operations in various parts of the country : Didi Kartasasmita for western Java , Soeratman for central Java , Mohammad for eastern Java , and Soehardjo Hardjowardojo for Sumatra ; each of these sub @-@ commanders was given the rank of major general . Oerip also began appropriating weapons to different TKR commands . He took confiscated Japanese weapons from well @-@ equipped forces and distributed them as needed . However , the results were less successful than he had hoped . PETA had been organised locally during the Japanese occupation , and as such its members were unable to accept a centralised leadership .
On 12 November 1945 , at the first general meeting of army leadership , General Sudirman β the leader of the Fifth Division in Purwokerto , who had two years military experience and was 23 years younger than Oerip β was elected leader of the army following two deadlocked votes . In the third round , Oerip had 21 votes to Sudirman 's 22 . Divisional commanders from Sumatra , who had voted unanimously , swayed the vote in Sudirman 's favour ; Oerip had lost votes because some of the division leaders distrusted his history with the KNIL and the oath he had taken to the Dutch motherland upon graduation . Although Sudirman was surprised at his selection and offered to surrender the leadership position to Oerip , the meeting did not allow it ; Oerip himself was glad to no longer be in charge of the army . Sudirman kept Oerip , by then a lieutenant general , to serve as chief of staff under him . While Sudirman remained unconfirmed , Oerip remained de jure leader ; however , the Indonesian journalist Salim Said writes that Oerip 's orders were at times unintelligible owing to the leader 's poor command of Indonesian and often ignored unless approved by Sudirman .
When General Sudirman was approved on 18 December , he began working to consolidate and unite the army . Meanwhile , Oerip handled day @-@ to @-@ day organisational and technical issues . Many of the details , such as company uniforms , he left to regional commanders . However , to deal with more important issues , such as establishing a military police and preventing enemy paratroopers from landing , he passed edicts that applied nationally .
Together , Sudirman and Oerip were able to address many of the differences between former KNIL and PETA troops . The government also renamed the army twice in January 1946 , first to the People 's Security Army ( Tentara Keamanan Rakjat ) , then to the Army of the Republic of Indonesia ( Tentara Repoeblik Indonesia , or TRI ) . On 23 February 1946 , Oerip was appointed head of the 11 @-@ member Committee to Reorganise the Army ( Panitia Besar Reorganisasi Tentara ) , formed by presidential decree . After four months of discussion , on 17 May the committee gave its recommendations to Sukarno . Oerip was set to handle day @-@ to @-@ day operations of a downsized army , while the Ministry of Defence was given greater bureaucratic power . Sudirman was kept as leader of the army .
As Minister of Defence Amir Sjarifuddin began establishing pro @-@ leftist groups within the military , Oerip became distrustful of the political leadership and vehemently decried the government 's attempts to use soldiers ' political affiliations to control the military . Still , he and Sudirman continued to work to ensure that paramilitary troops ( laskar ) , which had arisen from the general populace , were included in the military . This was realised on 3 June 1947 , when the government declared the union of the laskar and TRI into a new military organisation , the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( Tentara Nasional Indonesia , or TNI ) . Meanwhile , Oerip established a military academy in Yogyakarta .
To meet the Dutch threat , Oerip intended to attack while the former colonists were still consolidating their forces , a plan that was quashed by the government 's attempts at diplomacy . He preferred guerrilla tactics to formal military conflicts , once telling a subordinate that the best attack would be one with a hundred snipers hidden behind enemy lines . Oerip was strongly against the Renville Agreement , an ultimately unsuccessful treaty that led to the withdrawal of 35 @,@ 000 troops from western Java and the formalisation of the Van Mook Line between Dutch and Indonesian forces . He saw the agreement , ratified on 17 January 1948 , as a stalling tactic , giving the Dutch the chance to strengthen their forces . Meanwhile , Amir Sjarifuddin β by then also serving as prime minister β began culling the army , predominantly keeping leftist @-@ leaning troops . Disgusted with what he perceived as the government 's lack of trust in the military , Oerip tendered his resignation , although he continued to serve as an advisor to the Minister of Defence , Vice President Hatta .
After several months of growing steadily weaker and undergoing treatment from Dr Sim Ki Ay , on the evening of 17 November 1948 Oerip collapsed and died from a heart attack in his room in Yogyakarta . After a night @-@ long viewing he was buried the next day in Semaki Heroes ' Cemetery and posthumously promoted to general . When Sudirman threatened to resign in 1949 , he blamed Oerip 's death β as well as his own tuberculosis β on the government 's inconsistency during the revolution . Oerip was survived by his wife and adopted daughter . Abby died of malaria in January 1951 , and Rohmah died on 29 October 1977 in Semarang ; she was buried in Ungaran .
= = Legacy = =
Oerip received numerous awards from the national government posthumously , including the Bintang Sakti ( 1959 ) , Bintang Mahaputera ( 1960 ) , Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna ( 1967 ) , and Bintang Kartika Eka Pakçi Utama ( 1968 ) . On 10 December 1964 he was declared a National Hero of Indonesia through Presidential Decree 314 of 1964 . Sudirman was also declared a National Hero by the same decree .
On 22 February 1964 the Indonesian military academy in Magelang dedicated a memorial to him , which described the military leader as " a son of Indonesia who valued work over words , who prioritised his Duty over his wants . " The academy 's Catholic chapel also includes a dedication to him from 1965 , prompted by a discussion between Rohmah and a missionary friend of hers . Several streets are named after Oerip , including in his hometown of Purworejo , nearby Yogyakarta , and the capital at Jakarta .
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= Hud ( 1963 film ) =
Hud is a 1963 Western film directed by Martin Ritt and starring Paul Newman , Melvyn Douglas and Patricia Neal . It was produced by Ritt and Newman 's recently founded company , Salem Productions , and was their first film for Paramount Pictures . Hud was filmed on location on the Texas Panhandle and in Claude , Texas . Its screenplay was by Irving Ravetch and Harriet Frank , Jr. and was based on Larry McMurtry 's 1961 novel , Horseman , Pass By . The film 's title character , Hud Bannon , was a minor character in the original screenplay but was reworked as the lead role . With its main character an antihero , Hud was later described as a revisionist Western .
The film centers on the ongoing conflict between principled patriarch Homer Bannon and his unscrupulous and arrogant son , Hud , during an outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease putting the family 's cattle ranch at risk . Lonnie , Homer 's grandson and Hud 's nephew , is caught in the conflict and forced to choose which character to follow .
Hud premiered at the Venice International Film Festival , and was a critical and commercial success at its general release . It was nominated for seven Academy Awards , winning three ; Patricia Neal won Best Actress , Melvyn Douglas won Best Supporting Actor and James Wong Howe the Academy Award for Best Black and White Cinematography . Howe 's use of contrast to create space and his selection of black @-@ and @-@ white was favored by critics . In later reviews , the film received additional praise .
= = Plot = =
Hud Bannon ( Paul Newman ) is ambitious and self @-@ centered , the opposite of his deeply principled rancher father Homer ( Melvyn Douglas ) . Also living on the Bannon ranch is Hud 's teenage nephew , Lonnie ( Brandon deWilde ) , who looks up to both men but is most impressed by Hud . Lonnie and Hud are attracted to the Bannons ' housekeeper , Alma ( Patricia Neal ) . Although she is attracted to Hud , Alma keeps her distance because she has been mistreated in the past by men like him .
After the sudden , inexplicable death of a cow on the ranch , Homer sends Lonnie to town to bring Hud to the ranch for his opinion . Hud is annoyed by his father 's decision to summon the state veterinarian , and suggests selling the animals to other ranchers before the news spreads ; otherwise , government agents will kill all the cattle and destroy everything they have worked for . He blames his father for not realizing that the cheap Mexican cattle were sick before he bought them . Adhering to his principles , Homer ignores Hud 's idea and waits for the veterinarian . Upon his arrival , the state veterinarian immediately issues a legally binding State Livestock Transfer Order directing the quarantine of the ranch for a possible foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease outbreak . This freezes the movement of all livestock to or from the Bannon ranch , while they await the test results . Aware of the possibility of bankruptcy to the ranch , Homer nevertheless complies .
One night , Hud takes Lonnie out and they prevail in a drunken barroom brawl . Back at the ranch he reflects on the past ( when he and Lonnie 's father did the same thing ) , revealing his feelings about his brother Norman 's death and his father 's coldness to him . When they enter the house Homer confronts Hud , accusing his son of trying to corrupt Lonnie . They argue , with Hud accusing Homer of hypocrisy and resentment of him for Norman 's death . Homer replies that his disappointment in Hud began before the accident ; Hud cares about no one but himself , and is " not fit to live with " . Hurt and angry , Hud retorts " My mama loved me , but she died " as he walks away . When Lonnie tells Homer that he was too harsh and other people act like him , Homer replies that one day he will have to decide for himself what is right and wrong .
After learning from Lonnie that Hud is trying to seize the ranch , Homer confronts Hud . Infuriated by his eroded inheritance , Hud threatens to have Homer declared legally incompetent so he can take over the ranch . Homer tells his son he will lose . He admits that he made mistakes raising Hud , and was too hard on him . When Hud accuses him of having a " shape up or ship out " policy , Homer wonders aloud how a man like Hud can be his son and storms off to his room . Hud , drunk , goes outside and tries to rape Alma before Lonnie comes to her aid .
When the herd tests positive for foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , the veterinarian orders them to be killed and buried on the ranch under state supervision to keep the disease from spreading . Hud points out that they could sell some oil leases to keep the ranch profitable , but Homer refuses as he only has pride in cattle , despite his ruinous decision to purchase the Mexican cattle .
Alma decides to leave the ranch . After Lonnie drops her off at the bus station , Hud sees her as she is waiting . He apologizes for his drunken assault but not his attraction to her , and he would remember her as " the one who got away " . Driving back to the ranch , Lonnie sees his grandfather lying on the side of the road after a fall from his horse during a survey of the ranch . Hud pulls up behind Lonnie and , despite their efforts , he dies .
Lonnie is repelled by his uncle 's treatment of Homer and Alma and leaves the ranch after his grandfather 's funeral , uncertain if he will ever return . When he tells Hud to put his half of their inheritance in the bank , his uncle replies that Lonnie now sees him as Homer did . Hud goes back into the Bannon house alone ; as he closes the door , the final fade @-@ out is the window shade 's pull @-@ ring swaying .
= = Cast = =
Paul Newman as Hud Bannon , the arrogant , self @-@ centered son of rancher Homer Bannon . To prepare for the role Newman worked for ten days on a Texas ranch , sleeping in a bunkhouse . For his Texas accent he was coached by Bob Hinkle , who coached James Dean for his role as Jett Rink in Giant .
Melvyn Douglas as Homer Bannon : Hud 's father , Lonnie 's grandfather and owner of the Bannon ranch . Although Paramount was doubtful about casting him due to his heart condition , Martin Ritt insisted that he was the right actor for the role .
Brandon De Wilde as Lonnie Bannon , Hud 's teenage nephew who idolizes him . De Wilde , a former child actor , was best known at the time for his award @-@ winning role in Shane .
Patricia Neal as Alma Brown , the Bannons ' housekeeper . Ritt decided to cast Neal ( whom he had met at the Actors Studio ) when he was impressed by her performance in The Untouchables episode , " The Maggie Storm Story " . The actress signed for $ 30 @,@ 000 ; although she had third billing and 25 minutes of screen time , the film had a major impact on her career .
Whit Bissell as Mr. Burris
Crahan Denton as Jesse
John Ashley as Hermy
Val Avery as Jose
George Petrie as Joe Scanlon
Curt Conway as Truman Peters
Sheldon Allman as Mr. Thompson
Pitt Herbert as Mr. Larker
Carl Low as Mr. Kirby
Robert Hinkle as Radio Announcer Frank
Don Kennedy as Charlie Tucker
Sharyn Hillyer as Myra
Yvette Vickers as Lily Peters
= = Production = =
After working together on other projects , director Martin Ritt and Paul Newman co @-@ founded Salem Productions and the company made a three @-@ film deal with Paramount Studios . For its first film Salem hired husband @-@ and @-@ wife scriptwriters Irving Ravetch and Harriet Frank , Jr . , who worked with Ritt and Newman on The Long , Hot Summer . Ravetch found Larry McMurtry 's novel , Horseman , Pass By , in an airport shop during a Dallas stopover and presented the project to Ritt and Newman after reading a description of Hud Bannon . The partners met Ravetch and Frank at their home , approved the project and the writers adapted the script .
Although McMurtry 's novel focuses on Lonnie Bannon , Ravetch and Frank expanded Hud 's character to the lead role . Ritt wanted Hud to be an antihero who did not regret his actions at the end of the film . He was changed from Homer 's stepson to his son , and the character of Homer 's wife was eliminated . Newman and Ritt initially named the project Wild Desire , followed by The Winners , Hud Bannon Against the World , Hud Bannon and finally Hud . Ravetch and Frank accompanied Ritt and Newman through pre @-@ production , casting and publicity design .
Ritt asked that the housekeeper character ( originally Halmea , a black woman ) be renamed Alma and played by a white actress , because he thought a relationship between Hud and a black woman would not work . According to Ravetch and Frank , " Neither American film nor American society was quite ready for that back then " . Although Halmea is raped by Hud in the novel , Ravetch and Frank added Lonnie 's intervention to " highlight " his significance and keep Hud " human " and not " totally and simplistically evil " . To accentuate the scene 's violence , Hud 's roughness was complemented by the use of shadows , while a camera was attached on Newman 's back to create a " man 's view angle " while he chased Neal . Film critic Pauline Kael described Neal 's performance as " perhaps the first female equivalent of the white @-@ negro " .
Cinematographer James Wong Howe shot Hud in black @-@ and @-@ white to " elevate its dramatic propensities " . Filmed in Panavision , Howe used high contrast with unbalanced light and dark tones . He highlighted the white ground and clear skies , making the shadows black . Dark tones were " overpowered " by light ones , creating a sense of " infinite space " . For faces and structures , Howe used light reflected from the ground . The contrast between the environment and objects silhouetted against the background provides a sense of depth . Ritt 's biographer , Carlton Jackson , wrote that in Hud " the scenery becomes a part of the thematic development itself " . According to Texas Monthly , " Howe 's austere rendition of Texas landscapes [ ... ] remains one of the film 's most distinctive pleasures " .
Hud was shot over a four @-@ week period in and around the Texas Panhandle , using the town of Claude as a setting . Location filming began on May 21 , 1962 , and was finished by the second week of June . Outdoor scenes were filmed at the Goodnight Ranch , To avoid surpassing the shooting schedule due to weather conditions , the cast had to cancel two scenes originally planned for the location that featured people from Claude and Amarillo . The rest of the scenes were shot at the Paramount sound stages in Hollywood beginning in the first week of July . The film was completed on August 1 , 1962 . The pig @-@ scramble scene , written by dialect coach Bob Hinkle , replaced a softball game in Ravetch and Frank 's script ; Hinkle played the announcer in the scene . For the filming of the cattle @-@ slaughter scene , the Humane Society was present to monitor the animals ' treatment . The herd was sprayed with a substance to make it appear ill , and bungee cords were tied to the cows ' legs . Camera angles were arranged by Ritt and Howe to avoid showing the death of the cattle . When a man was shown shooting , the camera would switch to the cattle ; the crew shook the cords , creating an effect of the herd being shot . During location shooting , Newman and De Wilde often changed hotel rooms due to female fans following them .
Elmer Bernstein used sparse arrangements for Hud 's score ; in its theme , Bernstein " insinuated " natural sounds with " poignant strings on the guitar " . Variety called the theme " vital and noteworthy " , " sombre , plaintive and foreboding " .
Hud 's budget was $ 2 @.@ 35 million , and Paramount executives were unhappy with the film . They felt it was too dark and were displeased by the black @-@ and @-@ white cinematography and Hud 's lack of remorse and unchanged behavior . Although Martin Rackin asked Ritt to change the film 's ending , he and Newman decided to keep the original . After Hud was previewed , Paramount considered dropping the project , feeling that it was not " commercial enough " , but Ritt flew to New York and convinced the executives to release the film unmodified . Advertising posters , with Newman in blue jeans in a " suggestive , full @-@ length pose " , read : " Paul Newman is " Hud " ! ... the man with the barbed @-@ wire soul " .
= = Release and reception = =
Hud was acclaimed during its premiere at the 24th Venice International Film Festival . After its general release on May 29 , 1963 the film grossed $ 10 million at the domestic box office , earning $ 5 million in theatrical rentals . It was the 19th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year . Life called Hud an " arresting β almost great β movie " , describing Paul Newman 's acting as " faultless " . An Outlook reviewer wrote that the four main cast members acted " splendidly " ; Newman " speaks at times with an unpleasant nasal twang , but is clearly suited to the part . " They described Melvyn Douglas ' performance as " impeccable " , Brandon de Wilde 's as " [ successful ] in looking earnest unsure of himself " and praised Patricia Neal 's expressiveness . Time called the performances " splendid " , and Howe 's photography " brings the Texas panhandle to dusty , sweaty life . " The New York Times , in a favorable review , said Ritt 's direction had " [ a ] powerfully realistic style " and called Ravetch and Frank 's work " [ an ] excellent screenplay . " The newspaper called Newman 's acting " tremendous " , Douglas ' " magnificent " , de Wilde 's " eloquent of clean , modern youth " and Patricia Neal 's " brilliant . " The review also praised James Wong Howe 's " excellent " camera work and Elmer Bernstein 's " poignant " score . Variety called Hud " a near miss " ; its screenplay fails to " filter its meaning and theme lucidly through its characters and story " , although it called the four leads ' performances " excellent . "
Through the character of Hud , Ritt and Newman had intended to show the corruption of modern capitalism and the pitfalls of admiring an individual blindly , without observing his character . Critics , however , did not universally echo this view . Life 's review described Hud as " likable , smart , and [ with ] the potential to measure up to his tough , honorable father " and Saturday Review called him a " charming , raffish monster " . According to Outlook , " Hud Bannon is a mean , unscrupulous man who never has even a momentary twinge of conscience or change of heart " ; in the end scene , Hud " [ p ] ulls down the shade on the world of goodness and decency " . Pauline Kael initially described the film as an " anti @-@ Western " ; she called it an " Anti @-@ american film " , which was " so astutely made and yet such a mess that it ( was ) redeemed by its fundamental dishonesty . "
Although Hud was conceived as an outwardly charming but morally repugnant character , audiences , especially young people , found him likeable , even admirable . Paul Newman said , " We thought [ the ] last thing people would do was accept Hud as a heroic character ... His amorality just went over [ the audience 's ] head ; all they saw was this western , heroic individual " . Martin Ritt later attributed audience interpretation of the character to the counterculture of the 1960s which " changed the values " of the young audiences who saw Hud as a hero .
= = = Later evaluation in film guides = = =
Leonard Maltin 's Movie Guide gave Hud four stars out of four . Maltin called the story " excellent " and its performances " impeccable " . Steven H. Scheuer 's Movies on TV also gave the film four stars out of four ; Scheuer called it " a must for movie @-@ drama fans " , and said the cast was " superb " . In Film and Video Guide Leslie Halliwell gave Hud four stars out of four , calling it " unique " . Allmovie gave Hud five stars out of five , calling the film " a warning shot for the Sixties " and saying that its " generational conflict would prove prescient " . It praised Howe 's cinematography , which gave the film " an authentic Western feel " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Hud was nominated for seven Academy Awards at the 36th Annual Academy Awards in 1963 . It won three , including Best Actress ( Neal ) , Best Supporting Actor ( Douglas ) and Best Cinematography ( Wong ) . Neal also won the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress . The film was nominated for five Golden Globe Awards , won four Laurel Awards ( Top Drama , Top Male Dramatic Performance , Top Female Dramatic Performance and Top Male Supporting Performance ) and received the Best Written American Drama Writers Guild of America Award .
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= Battle of Bautzen ( 1945 ) =
The Battle of Bautzen ( or Battle of Budziszyn , April 1945 ) was one of the last battles of the Eastern Front during World War II . It was fought on the extreme southern flank of the Spremberg @-@ Torgau Offensive , seeing days of pitched street fighting between forces of the Polish Second Army and elements of the Soviet 52nd Army and 5th Guards Army on one side and elements of German Army Group Center in the form of the remnants of the 4th Panzer and 17th armies on the other .
The battle took place during Ivan Konev 's 1st Ukrainian Front 's push toward Berlin , which was part of the larger Soviet Berlin Offensive . The battle was fought in the town of Bautzen ( Polish : Budziszyn ) and the rural areas to the northeast situated primarily along the Bautzen β Niesky line . Major combat began on 21 April 1945 and continued until 26 April although isolated engagements continued to take place until 30 April . The Polish Second Army under Karol Εwierczewski suffered heavy losses , but , with the aid of Soviet reinforcements , prevented the German forces from breaking through to their rear . According to one historian , the Battle of Bautzen was one of the Polish Army 's bloodiest battles .
After the battle both sides claimed victory and modern views as to who won the battle remain contradictory . Because the war was almost over and the battle had no strategic impact on the ongoing Battle of Berlin , German historiography has focused more on its tactical aspects . The German operation successfully recaptured Bautzen and its surroundings , which were held until the end of the war . Polish historiography during the People 's Republic of Poland portrayed the battle as difficult , but victorious . After the fall of communism , Polish historians became much more critical of Εwierczewski 's command , blaming the near destruction of the Polish force on his incompetence and desire to capture Dresden . The battle 's outcome is now generally seen in Poland as a very costly victory for the Soviets and their Polish allies .
= = Background = =
In the last months of World War II , the Polish Second Army , under General Karol Εwierczewski , took part in the Soviet drive on Berlin . Part of Marshal Ivan Konev 's 1st Ukrainian Front , the Poles operated in the centre of the front , flanked on the right by the 5th Guards Army and on the left by the 7th Mechanized Corps . Opposing these forces was the 4th Panzer Army under General Fritz @-@ Hubert GrΓ€ser , of Field Marshal Ferdinand SchΓΆrner 's Army Group Center .
On 17 April , the Polish Second Army breached German defenses on the rivers Weisser SchΓΆps and Neisse . Their pursuit of retreating German forces toward Dresden threatened to cut off additional forces in the Muskauer Forst region . On 18 and 19 April elements of the Second Army ( the 8th Infantry Division and 1st Armored Corps ) engaged the Germans in the south and pushed them back while the remaining units ( 5th , 7th , 9th and 10th infantry divisions ) drove on to Dresden , gaining bridgeheads on the River Spree north of Bautzen and destroying German forces in the Muskauer Forst . The following day Soviet units of the 7th Mechanized Corps captured parts of Bautzen and secured the line south of Niesky , taking WeiΓenberg and trapping several German formations .
Εwierczewski decided to prioritize the taking of Dresden over securing his southern flank , deviating from the plan he was given by Konev . Meanwhile , SchΓΆrner was concentrating his units ( the " GΓΆrlitz Group " ) in the GΓΆrlitz ( Zgorzelec ) and Reichenbach region , and planned to launch a counteroffensive at the southern flank of the Polish Army . His aim was to stop the 1st Front 's advance and break through to Berlin to relieve the trapped 9th Army . The Germans were pinning their hopes on the idea that the Soviets might be fended off long enough for the city to be surrendered to the Western Allies . The concentration of SchΓΆrner 's units went unnoticed by Soviet and Polish reconnaissance .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
German forces were composed of elements of the 4th Panzer Army and commanded by the headquarters for the Grossdeutschland and 57th Armored Corps . For the battle , the Germans had two armored divisions ( the 20th and Hermann GΓΆring ) , two mechanized divisions ( the Brandenburg and Hermann GΓΆring 2 ) , an infantry division ( the 17th ) as well as an infantry division battle group ( the remnants of the 545th Volksgrenadier Division ) . This force counted some 50 @,@ 000 soldiers , 300 tanks , and 600 guns . The supply train of the 10th SS Panzer Division was also present near Bautzen .
The Polish Second Army consisted of five infantry divisions : ( 5th , 7th , 8th , 9th and 10th , the 1st Armored Corps , and smaller units ) , about 84 @,@ 000 β 90 @,@ 000 men , and 500 tanks . Many of them were new recruits inexperienced in combat , incorporated from the recently retaken Polish territories . The quality of the officer corps has also been questioned . One of the major problems facing the People 's Army was lack of a qualified cadre ; a 1944 estimate showed that the army had one officer for each 1 @,@ 200 soldiers . Many of the officers in the Polish Army were Soviet officers of Polish descent .
Overall , the German units were less numerous than the Polish forces , their equipment worn and supplies inferior . Polish sources describe the Germans as more experienced , however the German sources accentuate their mixed structure of experienced soldiers and inexperienced recruits of Hitlerjugend and Volkssturm units .
= = Battle = =
= = = Drive on Dresden = = =
On 21 April , a gap had formed between the Polish infantry units ( 8th and 9th infantry divisions ) and the 1st Armored Corps pushing towards Dresden , and the Polish units which were securing the Muskauer Forst region . The 7th and 10th infantry divisions were engaged near Neisse and the 5th Infantry Division and the 16th Tank Brigade were in transit in between those two groups . The Polish units were stretched over a line of 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) . The Germans took the opportunity presented to them and pushed into this gap . The events of 21 April marked the beginning of this battle . In the west , the 20th Panzer Division commenced its drive on Bautzen , while in the east the 17th Infantry Division advanced on Niesky and WeiΓenberg , freeing a number of trapped German troops on its way . The Germans drove in between the Polish Second Army and the Soviet 52nd Army around Bautzen , some 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) north @-@ east of Dresden and 25 kilometers ( 16 mi ) west of GΓΆrlitz , sweeping the Soviet units of the 48th Rifle Corps , and driving towards Spremberg . Major General M. K. Puteiko , commander of the 52nd Army 's 254 Rifle Division of the 73rd Rifle Corps was mortally wounded around Bautzen . At first , Polish general Εwierczewski continued with his attempt to take Dresden , which contributed to the growing chaos in the Polish forces , as many communication lines were cut .
The Germans succeeded in linking up with the remnants of their forces in the Muskauer Forst , and throwing the local Polish and Soviet forces into chaos . The Polish Second Army lost cohesion and split into four groups . Several units of the Polish Second Army found themselves surrounded . In particular , the Polish 5th Infantry Division and 16th Tank Brigade were struck in the rear , suffering severe losses . The headquarters of the 5th Division , defended only by sapper and training battalions , came under attack . The command group managed to break through to the 16th Tank Brigade , but that unit itself was almost annihilated at FΓΆrstgen ( Forsiegen ) , losing over 90 percent of its personnel ; out of 1 @,@ 300 soldiers , only about 100 survived . The commanding general of the Polish 5th Infantry Division , Aleksander Waszkiewicz , was killed . In the village of Niederkaina , today a part of Bautzen , between 196 and 300 captured German members of the Volkssturm were locked in a barn which was set on fire by retreating Polish or Soviet troops .
By 23 April the German breakthrough reached the Schwarzer SchΓΆps River in the east , and Lohsa , Oppitz and Grossdubrau in the west . The main body of the German force was located in the forested region around Lohsa . The Germans continued their push toward KΓΆnigswartha and Hoyerswerda .
= = = Polish retreat = = =
Eventually , Εwierczewski halted his force 's advance on Dresden , and ordered it to pull back and secure the breach . On 22 April he ordered the 1st Armored Corps to change direction , retreat from Dresden and support the centre . The 8th Infantry Division was also recalled ; however , the 9th remained near Dresden . For a while Εwierczewski was out of communication with his superiors , including Marshal Konev . Konev also sent his chief of staff , General Ivan Yefimovich Petrov , and his chief of operations , General Vladimir Ivanovich Kostylev , to look at the situation . Petrov managed to re @-@ establish communications , and left Kostylev in charge . Εwierczewski was briefly relieved of his command for incompetence . To stabilize the situation , Konev ordered eight divisions from the Ukrainian Front to reinforce the Polish positions . Soviet 14th and Soviet 95th guards rifle divisions , as well as the Soviet 4th Guards Tank Corps , were ordered to attack toward Kamenz , KΓΆnigswartha and Sdier to stop the Germans from advancing further north . The 2nd Air Army was also assigned to this theater .
Meanwhile , the German advance to the southeast of Bautzen was successful . The Soviet 294th Rifle Division was encircled at WeiΓenberg by the Brandenburg Division . In its subsequent breakout on 24 April , large parts of the 294th Division were destroyed . At the same time at Bautzen the 20th Panzer Division was able to make contact with the trapped units in the town from the south . Bronikowski then lost no time and immediately ordered an attack into Bautzen . Coordinating with the trapped troops , he was able to break into the town . A hastily assembled Polish counterattack was not successful and most of Bautzen was then recaptured after several days of bloody house @-@ to @-@ house combat . Several remaining pockets of resistance in the town were cleared during the next days . Outside the town the German advance stalled , as their troops were running low on fuel supplies . The recapture of Bautzen was one of the last successful German tactical victories on the Eastern Front .
By 25 April , Polish units were able to stabilize a defense on the line Kamenz β Kuckau β north Bautzen β Spree β Spreewiese β Heideanger . On that day , Hitler congratulated SchΓΆrner on his " victory " . The Polish 7th and 10th infantry divisions were ordered to advance toward Sdier @-@ Heideanger . The 7th and 10th Polish infantry divisions slowly advanced , with the 10th reaching north of Spreefurt . With the Soviet units on their right flank they also secured a road to KΓΆnigswartha .
The 9th Division found itself alone at the spearhead of the abandoned Polish push towards Dresden . It received orders to retreat on 26 April . Attempting to withdraw quickly and to form back with the main forces , it was intercepted by the Germans and sustained heavy losses . The units were moving with insufficient security , on the assumption that the line of retreat was safe ; at the same time the Germans captured Polish orders with details of their planned withdrawal routes . Coordination between the units was also lacking . 26th Infantry Regiment from the 9th Division took very heavy casualties ( 75 percent ) in the " valley of death " around Panschwitz @-@ Kuckau and Crostwitz . A Polish military hospital convoy from the same division was ambushed near Horka , with most of its personnel and wounded executed ( about 300 casualties ) . There was only one survivor , chaplain Jan Rdzanek . The division commander , Colonel Aleksander Εaski , was taken captive . As a result of these losses , the 9th Division ceased to be an effective force ; the remaining personnel were merged into the Soviet 19th Guards Rifle Division .
According to some sources , 26 April marks the end of this battle , although less severe and isolated clashes in that region continued until 30 April . Other sources note that heavy fighting still took place on 27 April , and that the German advance was only completely halted by 28 April . By the end of the month , the Polish Second Army and the Soviet forces had repelled the German attack , forming a line toward Kamenz β DoberschΓΌtz β Dauban , and was preparing to launch an offensive toward Prague .
= = Aftermath = =
Both sides suffered heavy casualties . The Polish casualties were particularly severe . In a relatively short time the Polish Second Army lost more than 22 percent of its personnel and 57 percent of its tanks and armored vehicles ( about 200 total ) . Official estimates claimed about 18 @,@ 000 casualties ( including almost 5 @,@ 000 dead ) . Some other estimates give the Polish casualties as up to 25 @,@ 000 . According to Polish historian Zbigniew Wawer , this was the most bloody battle that the Polish Army had been involved in since the battle of Bzura in 1939 .
German casualties were significant , but less than the Polish and Soviet ones ; contemporary Polish sources estimated German losses at 6 @,@ 500 personnel , which is now seen as an inflated estimate . The German forces failed in their objective of breaking through the 1st Ukrainian Front and coming to the aid of Berlin . They managed , however , to inflict very serious casualties on the local Polish and Soviet units and stopped the Polish drive on Dresden ( it was still in German hands at the time of the German capitulation on May 9 ) . The successful recapture of Bautzen , WeiΓenberg and surroundings is called one of the last successful German armored counterattacks of the war . Bautzen and surroundings stayed in German hands until Germany 's capitulation . Although the battle had no strategic impact on the battle raging in Berlin , it allowed most of the participating German units as well as numerous refugees from the east to escape to the west , surrendering to the Western Allies .
= = Historiography = =
Despite the heavy Polish casualties β or according to one historian , possibly because of them β the battle has been largely neglected in Polish historiography . During the period of the People 's Republic of Poland it was portrayed merely as a difficult but victorious battle . However , since the fall of communism modern Polish historians have been much more critical of Εwierczewski 's command , blaming his drive on Dresden for the near destruction of the Polish force . Εwierczewski 's lack of competence , according to some sources , included commanding the battle while drunk . He was briefly relieved of command by Marshal Konev , but due to the backing of the Soviet high command ( most likely the NKVD ) he not only retained his position but all controversies were hushed up , and after the war was hailed as a hero . The actions of other Polish officers have also been questioned , such as the 9th Infantry Division commander 's decision to advance without sufficient reconnaissance and escort .
In modern Polish historiography the battle 's outcome is seen as a victory , if a very costly one , for the Polish and Soviet troops . As noted by historians such as Wawer and Komorowski , despite the heavy casualties , the Polish β Soviet frontline was not seriously breached , and thus the German offensive was a failure .
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= Bristol =
Bristol ( / ΛbrΙͺstΙl / ) is a city , unitary authority area and county in South West England with an estimated population of 442 @,@ 500 in 2015 . It is England 's sixth and the United Kingdom 's eighth most populous city , and the most populous city in Southern England after London . People from Bristol are known as Bristolians . The city borders the Unitary Authority areas of North Somerset and South Gloucestershire , with the historic cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south @-@ east and north @-@ east , respectively .
Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon , and around the beginning of the 11th century the settlement was known as Brycgstow ( Old English " the place at the bridge " ) . Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was in Gloucestershire until 1373 , when it became a county . From the 13th to the 18th century , Bristol was among the top three English cities after London ( with York and Norwich ) in tax receipts . Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester , Liverpool and Birmingham during the Industrial Revolution .
Bristol was a starting place for early voyages of exploration to the New World . On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot , a Venetian , became the first European since the Vikings to land on mainland North America . In 1499 William Weston , a Bristol merchant , was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America . The Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock .
Bristol 's modern economy is built on the creative media , electronics and aerospace industries , and the city @-@ centre docks have been redeveloped as centres of heritage and culture . The city has two universities , the University of the West of England and the University of Bristol and a variety of artistic and sporting organisations and venues including the Royal West of England Academy , the Arnolfini , Spike Island , Ashton Gate and the Memorial Stadium . It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road , rail , sea and air by the M5 and M4 ( which connects to the city centre by the M32 ) , Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations , and Bristol Airport . One of the UK 's most popular tourist destinations , Bristol was selected in 2009 as one of the world 's top ten cities by international travel publishers Dorling Kindersley in their Eyewitness guides for young adults . In 2014 The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live , and Bristol also won the EU 's European Green Capital Award in 2015 .
= = History = =
Archaeological finds , including flint tools believed to be between 300 @,@ 000 and 126 @,@ 000 years old made with the Levallois technique , indicate the presence of Neanderthals in the Shirehampton and St Annes areas of Bristol during the Middle Palaeolithic . Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down , on the side of the Avon Gorge , and on Kings Weston Hill near Henbury . A Roman settlement , Abona , existed at what is now Sea Mills ( connected to Bath by a Roman road ) ; another was at the present @-@ day Inns Court . Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were also scattered throughout the area .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
Brycgstow ( Old English " the place at the bridge " ) was founded by 1000 ; by about 1020 , it was a trading centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name . By 1067 Brycgstow was a well @-@ fortified burh , and that year the townsmen beat off a raiding party from Ireland led by three of Harold Godwinson 's sons . Under Norman rule , the town had one of the strongest castles in southern England . Bristol was the place of exile for Diarmait Mac Murchada , the Irish king of Leinster , after being overthrown . The Bristol merchants subsequently played a prominent role in funding Richard Strongbow de Clare and the Norman invasion of Ireland .
The port developed in the 11th century around the confluence of the Rivers Frome and Avon , adjacent to Bristol Bridge just outside the town walls . By the 12th century Bristol was an important port , handling much of England 's trade with Ireland , including slaves . The stone bridge built in 1247 was replaced by the current bridge during the 1760s . The town incorporated neighbouring suburbs and became a county in 1373 , the first town in England to be given this status . During this period , Bristol became a shipbuilding and manufacturing centre . By the 14th century Bristol , York and Norwich were England 's largest medieval towns after London . One @-@ third to one @-@ half the population died in the Black Death of 1348 β 49 , which checked population growth , and its population remained between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 for most of the 15th and 16th centuries .
= = = 15th and 16th centuries = = =
During the 15th century Bristol was the second most important port in the country , trading with Ireland , Iceland and Gascony . It was the starting point for many voyages , including Robert Sturmy 's ( 1457 β 58 ) unsuccessful attempt to break the Italian monopoly of Eastern Mediterranean trade . Bristol merchants then turned west , launching voyages of exploration in the Atlantic by 1480 in search of the phantom island of Hy @-@ Brazil . These Atlantic voyages , also aimed at China , culminated in Venetian John Cabot 's 1497 exploration of North America and subsequent expeditions to the New World , underwritten by Bristol merchants and King Henry VII until 1508 . A 1499 voyage , led by merchant William Weston of Bristol , was the first expedition commanded by an Englishman to North America .
During the 16th century , Bristol merchants concentrated on developing trade with Spain and its American colonies . This included the smuggling of prohibited goods , such as food and guns , to Iberia during the Anglo @-@ Spanish War ( 1585 β 1604 ) . Bristol 's illicit trade grew enormously after 1558 , becoming integral to its economy .
The original Diocese of Bristol was founded in 1542 , when the former Abbey of St. Augustine ( founded by Robert Fitzharding four hundred years earlier ) became Bristol Cathedral . Bristol also gained city status that year . During the English Civil War in the 1640s the city was occupied by Royalists , who built the Royal Fort House on the site of an earlier Parliamentarian stronghold .
= = = 17th and 18th centuries = = =
Growth of the city and trade came with the rise of England 's American colonies in the 17th century . Bristol 's location on the west side of Great Britain gave its ships an advantage in sailing to and from the New World , and the city 's merchants made the most of it . The 18th century saw an expansion of England 's role in the Atlantic trade in Africans taken for slavery to the Americas . Bristol and Liverpool became centres of the triangular trade . In the first side of the slavery triangle , manufactured goods were shipped to West Africa and exchanged for Africans ; the enslaved captives were transported across the Atlantic to the Americas in the Middle Passage under brutal conditions . In the third side of the triangle , plantation goods such as sugar , tobacco , rum , rice , cotton and a few slaves ( sold to the aristocracy as house servants ) returned across the Atlantic . Some household slaves were baptised in the hope this would mean their freedom in England . The Somersett Case of 1772 clarified that slavery was illegal in England . At the height of the Bristol slave trade from 1700 to 1807 , more than 2 @,@ 000 slave ships carried a conservatively estimated 500 @,@ 000 people from Africa to slavery in the Americas . The Seven Stars public house , where abolitionist Thomas Clarkson collected information on the slave trade , is still operating .
Fishermen from Bristol ( who had fished the Grand Banks of Newfoundland since the 15th century ) began settling Newfoundland permanently in larger numbers during the 17th century , establishing colonies at Bristol 's Hope and Cuper 's Cove . Because of Bristol 's nautical environment , maritime safety was an important issue in the city . During the 19th century , Samuel Plimsoll ( known as " the sailor 's friend " ) campaigned to make the seas safer ; shocked by overloaded vessels , he successfully fought for a compulsory load line on ships .
In 1739 John Wesley founded the first Methodist chapel , the New Room , in Bristol . Wesley , along with his brother Charles Wesley and George Whitefield , preached to large congregations in Bristol and the neighbouring village of Kingswood , often in the open air .
= = = 19th century = = =
The city was associated with Victorian engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel , who designed the Great Western Railway between Bristol and London Paddington , two pioneering Bristol @-@ built oceangoing steamships ( SS Great Britain and SS Great Western ) , and the Clifton Suspension Bridge . The new railway replaced the Kennet and Avon Canal , which had fully opened in 1810 as the main route for the transport of goods between Bristol and London . Competition from Liverpool ( beginning around 1760 ) , disruptions of maritime commerce due to war with France ( 1793 ) and the abolition of the slave trade ( 1807 ) contributed to Bristol 's failure to keep pace with the newer manufacturing centres of Northern England and the West Midlands . The tidal Avon Gorge , which had secured the port during the Middle Ages , had become a liability . An 1804 β 09 plan to improve the city 's port with a floating harbour designed by William Jessop was a costly error , requiring high harbour fees .
By 1867 , ships were getting larger and the meanders in the river Avon prevented boats over 300 feet ( 90 m ) from reaching the harbour , resulting in falling trade . The port facilities were migrating downstream to Avonmouth and new industrial complexes were founded there . Some of the traditional industries including copper and brass manufacture went into decline , but the import and processing of tobacco flourished with the expansion of the W.D. & H.O. Wills business .
Supported by new industry and growing commerce , Bristol 's population ( 66 @,@ 000 in 1801 ) , quintupled during the 19th century , resulting in the creation of new suburbs such as Clifton and Cotham . These provide architectural examples from the Georgian to the Regency style , with many fine terraces and villas facing the road , and at right angles to it . In the early 19th century , the romantic medieval gothic style appeared , partially as a reaction against the symmetry of Palladianism , and can be seen in buildings such as the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery , the Royal West of England Academy , and The Victoria Rooms . Riots broke out in 1793 and 1831 ; the first over the renewal of tolls on Bristol Bridge , and the second against the rejection of the second Reform Bill by the House of Lords . The Diocese of Bristol had undergone several boundary changes by 1897 when it was " reconstituted " into the configuration which has lasted into the 21st century .
= = = 20th century = = =
From a population of about 330 @,@ 000 in 1901 , Bristol grew steadily during the 20th century , peaking at 428 @,@ 089 in 1971 . Its docklands were enlarged during the early 1900s by the Royal Edward Dock . Another new dock , the Royal Portbury Dock , opened during the 1970s . As air travel grew in the first half of the century , aircraft manufacturers built factories .
Bristol was heavily damaged by Luftwaffe raids during World War II ; about 1 @,@ 300 people living or working in the city were killed and nearly 100 @,@ 000 buildings were damaged , at least 3 @,@ 000 beyond repair . The original central market area , near the bridge and castle , is now a park containing two bombed churches and fragments of the castle . A third bomb @-@ damaged church nearby , St Nicholas , has been restored and is a museum housing a 1756 William Hogarth triptych painted for the high altar of St Mary Redcliffe . The museum also has statues of King Edward I ( moved from Arno 's Court Triumphal Arch ) and King Edward III ( taken from Lawfords ' Gate in the city walls when they were demolished about 1760 ) , and 13th @-@ century statues of Robert , 1st Earl of Gloucester ( builder of Bristol Castle ) and Geoffrey de Montbray ( who built the city 's walls ) from Bristol 's Newgate .
The rebuilding of Bristol city centre was characterised by 1960s and 1970s skyscrapers , mid @-@ century modern architecture and road improvements . Beginning in the 1980s some main roads were closed , the Georgian @-@ era Queen Square and Portland Square were restored , the Broadmead shopping area regenerated , and one of the city centre 's tallest mid @-@ century towers was demolished . Bristol 's road infrastructure changed dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s with the development of the M4 and M5 motorways , which meet at the Almondsbury Interchange just north of the city and link Bristol with London ( M4 eastbound ) , Swansea ( M4 westbound across the Severn Estuary ) , Exeter ( M5 southbound ) and Birmingham ( M5 northbound ) .
The 20th century relocation of the docks to Avonmouth Docks and Royal Portbury Dock , 7 miles ( 11 km ) downstream from the city centre , has allowed the redevelopment of the old dock area ( the Floating Harbour ) . Although the docks ' existence was once in jeopardy ( since the area was seen as a derelict industrial site ) , the inaugural 1996 International Festival of the Sea held in and around the docks affirmed the area as a leisure asset of the city .
= = Government = =
Bristol City council consists of 70 councillors representing 35 wards , with two per ward serving four @-@ year terms . Councillors are elected in thirds , with elections held in three years out of every four @-@ year period . Thus , since wards do not have both councillors up for election at the same time , two @-@ thirds of the wards participate in each election . Although the council was long dominated by the Labour Party , the Liberal Democrats have grown strong in the city and ( as the largest party ) took minority control of the council after the 2005 election . In 2007 , Labour and the Conservatives united to defeat the Liberal Democrat administration ; Labour ruled the council as a minority administration , with Helen Holland as council leader .
In February 2009 , the Labour group resigned and the Liberal Democrats took office with a minority administration . In the 4 June 2009 council elections the Liberal Democrats gained four seats and , for the first time , overall control of the city council . In 2010 they increased their representation to 38 seats , giving them a majority of 6 . In 2011 they lost their majority , leading to a hung council . In the 2013 local elections , in which a third of the city 's wards were up for election , Labour gained 7 seats and the Green party doubled their seats from 2 to 4 . The Liberal Democrats lost 10 seats .
These trends were continued into the next election in May 2014 , in which Labour gained three seats to take their total to 31 , the Green Party won two more seats , the Conservative party gained one seat , and UKIP won their first @-@ ever seat on the council . The Liberal Democrats lost a further seven seats .
On 3 May 2012 , Bristol held a referendum on the question of a directly elected mayor replacing one elected by the council . There were 41 @,@ 032 votes in favour of a directly elected mayor and 35 @,@ 880 votes against , with a 24 % turnout . An election for the new post was held on 15 November 2012 , and Independent candidate George Ferguson became Mayor of Bristol .
The Lord Mayor of Bristol , not to be confused with the Mayor of Bristol , is a figurehead elected each May by the city council . Councillor Faruk Choudhury was selected by his fellow councillors for the position in 2013 . At 38 , he was the youngest person to serve as Lord Mayor of Bristol and the first Muslim elected to the office .
Bristol constituencies in the House of Commons also included parts of other local authority areas until the 2010 general election , when their boundaries were aligned with the county boundary . The city is divided into Bristol West , East , South and North West . Since the 2015 election , the city has had three Labour members of parliament ( MPs ) and one Conservative .
The city has a tradition of political activism . Edmund Burke , MP for the Bristol constituency for six years beginning in 1774 , insisted that he was a member of parliament first and a representative of his constituents ' interests second . Women 's @-@ rights advocate Emmeline Pethick @-@ Lawrence ( 1867 β 1954 ) was born in Bristol , and left @-@ wing politician Tony Benn was MP for Bristol South East in 1950 β 1960 and 1963 β 83 . In 1963 the Bristol Bus Boycott , following the Bristol Omnibus Company 's refusal to hire black drivers and conductors , drove the passage of the UK 's 1965 Race Relations Act . The 1980 St. Pauls riot protested against racism and police harassment and showed mounting dissatisfaction with the social and economic circumstances of the city 's Afro @-@ Caribbean residents . Local support of fair trade was recognised in 2005 , when Bristol became a Fairtrade zone .
Bristol is both a city and a county , since Edward III granted it a county charter in 1373 . The county was expanded in 1835 to include suburbs such as Clifton , and it was named a county borough in 1889 when that designation was introduced . On 1 April 1974 , Bristol became a local government district of the county of Avon . The city regained its independence and county status on 1 April 1996 , when Avon was abolished and Bristol became a unitary authority .
= = Geography and environment = =
= = = Boundaries = = =
Bristol 's boundaries are defined in several ways , depending on whether they are those of the city , the developed area , or Greater Bristol . The narrowest definition of the city is the city council boundary , which includes a large section of the western Severn Estuary up to ( but not including ) the islands of Steep Holm and Flat Holm .
A slightly broader definition used by the Office for National Statistics ( ONS ) includes developed areas adjoining Bristol but outside the city @-@ council boundary , such as Whitchurch village , Filton , Patchway and Bradley Stoke , but excludes undeveloped areas within that boundary . The ONS has defined a Bristol Urban Area , which includes Kingswood , Mangotsfield , Stoke Gifford , Winterbourne , Frampton Cotterell , Almondsbury and Easton in Gordano . The North Fringe of Bristol , a developed area in South Gloucestershire between the Bristol city boundary and the M4 and M5 motorways , was so named as part of a 1987 plan prepared by the Northavon District Council .
= = = Greater Bristol = = =
The term Greater Bristol , used by the Government Office of the South West ( now abolished ) , the Office for National Statistics and others , refers to the city and portions of the three neighbouring local authorities β β β Bath and North East Somerset , North Somerset and South Gloucestershire β β β an area sometimes called the " former Avon area " or the West of England Partnership ( WEP ) area . Greater Bristol does not include Bath or Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , which are included in the WEP area . The Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways ( FOSBR ) conflates the terms Greater Bristol and Suburban Bristol .
= = = Geography = = =
Bristol is part of a limestone area running from the Mendip Hills in the south to the Cotswolds in the northeast . The rivers Avon and Frome cut through the limestone to the underlying clay , creating Bristol 's characteristically hilly landscape . The Avon flows from Bath in the east , through flood plains and areas which were marshes before the city 's growth . To the west the Avon cuts through the limestone to form the Avon Gorge , aided by glacial meltwater after the last ice age .
The gorge , which helped protect Bristol Harbour , has been quarried for stone to build the city , and its surrounding land has been protected from development as The Downs and Leigh Woods . The Avon estuary and the gorge are the county boundary with North Somerset , and the river flows into the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth . Another gorge , cut by the Hazel Brook ( which flows into the River Trym ) , crosses the Blaise Castle estate in northern Bristol .
= = = Climate = = =
Located in southern England , Bristol is one of the warmest cities in the UK with a mean annual temperature of approximately 10 @.@ 5 Β° C ( 50 @.@ 9 Β° F ) . It is among the sunniest , with 1 @,@ 541 β 1 @,@ 885 hours of sunshine per year . Although the city is partially sheltered by the Mendip Hills , it is exposed to the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Channel . Annual rainfall increases from north to south , with totals north of the Avon in the 600 β 900 mm ( 24 β 35 in ) range and 900 β 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 35 β 47 in ) south of the river . Rain is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year , with autumn and winter the wetter seasons . The Atlantic Ocean influences Bristol 's weather , keeping its average temperature above freezing throughout the year , but winter frosts are frequent and snow occasionally falls from early November to late April . Summers are warm and drier , with variable sunshine , rain and clouds , and spring weather is unsettled .
The weather stations nearest Bristol for which long @-@ term climate data are available are Long Ashton ( about 5 miles ( 8 km ) south west of the city centre ) and Bristol Weather Station , in the city centre . Data collection at these locations ended in 2002 and 2001 , respectively , and Filton Airfield is currently the nearest weather station to the city . Temperatures at Long Ashton from 1959 to 2002 ranged from 33 @.@ 5 Β° C ( 92 @.@ 3 Β° F ) in July 1976 to β 14 @.@ 4 Β° C ( 6 @.@ 1 Β° F ) in January 1982 . Monthly high temperatures since 2002 at Filton exceeding those recorded at Long Ashton include 25 @.@ 7 Β° C ( 78 @.@ 3 Β° F ) in April 2003 , 34 @.@ 5 Β° C ( 94 @.@ 1 Β° F ) in July 2006 and 26 @.@ 8 Β° C ( 80 @.@ 2 Β° F ) in October 2011 . The lowest recent temperature at Filton was β 10 @.@ 1 Β° C ( 13 @.@ 8 Β° F ) in December 2010 . Although large cities in general experience an urban heat island effect , with warmer temperatures than their surrounding rural areas , this phenomenon is minimal in Bristol .
= = = Environment = = =
Bristol was ranked as Britain 's most @-@ sustainable city ( based on its environmental performance , quality of life , future @-@ proofing and approaches to climate change , recycling and biodiversity ) , topping environmental charity Forum for the Future 's 2008 Sustainable Cities Index . Local initiatives include Sustrans ( creators of the National Cycle Network , founded as Cyclebag in 1977 ) and Resourcesaver , a non @-@ profit business established in 1988 by Avon Friends of the Earth . In 2014 The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live , The city received the 2015 European Green Capital Award , becoming the first UK city to receive this award .
= = Demography = =
In 2014 , the Office for National Statistics estimated the Bristol unitary authority 's population at 442 @,@ 474 , making it the 43rd @-@ largest ceremonial county in England . The ONS , using Census 2001 data , estimated the city 's population at 441 @,@ 556 and that of the contiguous urban area at 551 @,@ 066 . In 2006 the ONS estimated Bristol 's urban @-@ area population at 587 @,@ 400 , making it England 's sixth @-@ most @-@ populous city and ninth @-@ most @-@ populous urban area . At 3 @,@ 599 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 9 @,@ 321 / sq mi ) it has the seventh @-@ highest population density of any English district .
According to the 2011 census , 84 % of the population was White ( 77 @.@ 9 % White British , 0 @.@ 9 % White Irish , 0 @.@ 1 % Gypsy or Irish Travellers and 5 @.@ 1 % Other White ) ; 3 @.@ 6 % mixed @-@ race ( 1 @.@ 7 % white @-@ and @-@ black Caribbean , 0 @.@ 4 % white @-@ and @-@ black African , 0 @.@ 8 % white and Asian and 0 @.@ 7 % other mixed ) ; 5 @.@ 5 % Asian ( 1 @.@ 5 % Indian , 1 @.@ 6 % Pakistani , 0 @.@ 5 % Bangladeshi , 0 @.@ 9 % Chinese and one percent other Asian ) ; 6 % Black ( 2 @.@ 8 % African , 1 @.@ 6 % Caribbean , 1 @.@ 6 % Other Black ) , 0 @.@ 3 % Arab and 0 @.@ 6 % with other heritage . Bristol is unusual among major British towns and cities in its larger black than Asian population . These statistics apply to the Bristol Unitary Authority area , excluding areas of the urban area ( 2006 estimated population 587 @,@ 400 ) in South Gloucestershire , Bath and North East Somerset ( BANES ) and North Somerset β such as Kingswood , Mangotsfield , Filton and Warmley .
= = Economy and industry = =
Bristol has a long history of trade , originally exporting wool cloth and importing fish , wine , grain and dairy products ; later imports were tobacco , tropical fruits and plantation goods . Major imports are motor vehicles , grain , timber , produce and petroleum products . Since the 13th century , the rivers have been modified for docks ; during the 1240s , the Frome was diverted into a deep , man @-@ made channel ( known as Saint Augustine 's Reach ) which flowed into the River Avon .
Ships occasionally departed Bristol for Iceland as early as 1420 , and speculation exists that sailors from Bristol made landfall in the Americas before Christopher Columbus or John Cabot . Beginning in the early 1480s , the Bristol Society of Merchant Venturers sponsored exploration of the North Atlantic in search of trading opportunities . In 1552 , Edward VI granted a royal charter to the Merchant Venturers to manage the port .
By 1670 the city had 6 @,@ 000 tons of shipping ( of which half was imported tobacco ) , and by the late 17th and early 18th centuries shipping played a significant role in the slave trade . During the 18th century , Bristol was Britain 's second @-@ busiest port ; business was conducted in the trading area around The Exchange in Corn Street over bronze tables known as Nails . Although the Nails are cited as originating the phrase " cash on the nail " ( immediate payment ) , the phrase was probably in use before their installation .
The city 's economy also relies on the aerospace , defence , media , information technology , financial services and tourism industries . The Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) ' s Procurement Executive , later known as the Defence Procurement Agency and Defence Equipment and Support , moved to its headquarters at Abbey Wood , Filton , in 1995 . This organisation , with a staff of 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 , procures and supports MoD equipment . One of the UK 's most popular tourist destinations , Bristol was selected in 2009 as one of the world 's top @-@ ten cities by international travel publishers Dorling Kindersley in their Eyewitness guides for young adults .
Bristol is one of the eight largest regional English cities that make up the Core Cities Group , and is ranked as a gamma world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , the fourth highest ranked English city . In 2014 Bristol 's gross domestic product was Β£ 30 @.@ 502 billion . Its per capita GDP was Β£ 46 @,@ 000 ( $ 65 @,@ 106 , β¬ 57 @,@ 794 ) , which was some 65 % above the national average , the third highest of any English city ( after London and Nottingham ) and the sixth highest of any city in the United Kingdom ( behind London , Edinburgh , Glasgow , Belfast and Nottingham ) . Bristol 's March 2007 unemployment rate was 4 @.@ 8 % , compared with four percent for South West England and the national average of 5 @.@ 5 % .
Although Bristol 's economy no longer relies upon its port , which was moved to docks at Avonmouth during the 1870s and to the Royal Portbury Dock in 1977 as ship size increased , it is the largest importer of cars to the UK . Until 1991 , the port was publicly owned ; it is leased , with Β£ 330 million invested and its annual tonnage increasing from 3 @.@ 9 million long tons ( 4 million tonnes ) to 11 @.@ 8 million ( 12 million ) . Tobacco importing and cigarette manufacturing have ceased , but the importation of wine and spirits continues .
The financial services sector employs 59 @,@ 000 in the city , and 50 micro @-@ electronics and silicon design companies employ about 5 @,@ 000 . In 1983 Hewlett @-@ Packard opened its national research laboratory in Bristol . In 2014 the city was ranked seventh in the " top 10 UK destinations " by TripAdvisor .
During the 20th century , Bristol 's manufacturing activities expanded to include aircraft production at Filton by the Bristol Aeroplane Company and aircraft @-@ engine manufacturing by Bristol Aero Engines ( later Rolls @-@ Royce ) at Patchway . Bristol Aeroplane was known for their World War I Bristol Fighter and World War II Blenheim and Beaufighter planes . During the 1950s they were a major English manufacturer of civilian aircraft , known for the Freighter , Britannia and Brabazon . The company diversified into automobile manufacturing during the 1940s , producing hand @-@ built , luxury Bristol Cars at their factory in Filton , and the Bristol Cars company was spun off in 1960 . The city also gave its name to Bristol buses , which were manufactured in the city from 1908 to 1983 : by Bristol Tramways until 1955 , and from 1955 to 1983 by Bristol Commercial Vehicles .
Filton played a key role in the Anglo @-@ French Concorde supersonic airliner project during the 1960s . The British Concorde prototype made its maiden flight from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969 , five weeks after the French test flight . In 2003 British Airways and Air France decided to discontinue Concorde flights , retiring the aircraft to locations ( primarily museums ) worldwide . On 26 November 2003 Concorde 216 made the final Concorde flight , returning to Bristol Filton Airport as the centrepiece of a proposed air museum which is planned to include the existing Bristol Aero collection ( including a Bristol Britannia ) .
The aerospace industry remains a major sector of the local economy . Major aerospace companies in Bristol include BAE Systems , a merger of Marconi Electronic Systems and BAe ( the latter a merger of BAC , Hawker Siddeley and Scottish Aviation ) . Airbus and Rolls @-@ Royce are also based at Filton , and aerospace engineering is an area of research at the University of the West of England . Another aviation company in the city is Cameron Balloons , who manufacture hot air balloons ; each August the city hosts the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta , one of Europe 's largest hot @-@ air balloon festivals .
In 2005 Bristol was named by the UK government one of England 's six science cities . A Β£ 500 million shopping centre , Cabot Circus , opened in 2008 amidst predictions by developers and politicians that the city would become one of England 's top ten retail destinations . The Bristol Temple Quarter Enterprise Zone , focused on creative , high @-@ tech and low @-@ carbon industries around Bristol Temple Meads railway station , was announced in 2011 and launched the following year . The 70 @-@ hectare ( 170 @-@ acre ) Urban Enterprise Zone has streamlined planning procedures and reduced business rates . Rates generated by the zone are channelled to five other designated enterprise areas in the region : Avonmouth , Bath , Bristol and Bath Science Park in Emersons Green , Filton , and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Bristol is the only big city whose wealth per capita is higher than that of Britain as a whole . With a highly skilled workforce drawn from its universities , Bristol claims to have the largest cluster of computer chip designers and manufacturers outside Silicon Valley . The wider region has one of the biggest aerospace hubs in the UK , centred on Airbus , Rolls @-@ Royce and GKN at Filton airfield .
= = Culture = =
= = = Arts = = =
Bristol has a thriving current and historical arts scene . Some of the modern venues and modern digital production companies have merged with legacy production companies based in old buildings around the city . In 2008 the city was a finalist for the 2008 European Capital of Culture , although the title was awarded to Liverpool .
The Bristol Old Vic , founded in 1946 as an offshoot of The Old Vic in London , occupies the 1766 Theatre Royal ( 607 seats ) on King Street ; the 150 @-@ seat New Vic ( a studio @-@ type theatre ) , and a foyer and bar in the adjacent Coopers ' Hall ( built in 1743 ) . The Theatre Royal , a grade I listed building , is the oldest continuously operating theatre in England . The Bristol Old Vic Theatre School ( which originated in King Street ) is a separate company , and the Bristol Hippodrome is a 1 @,@ 951 @-@ seat theatre for national touring productions . Other smaller theatres include the Tobacco Factory , QEH , the Redgrave Theatre at Clifton College and the Alma Tavern . Bristol 's theatre scene features several companies as well as the Old Vic , including Show of Strength , Shakespeare at the Tobacco Factory and Travelling Light . Theatre Bristol is a partnership between the city council , Arts Council England and local residents to develop the city 's theatre industry . Several organisations support Bristol theatre ; the Residence ( an artist @-@ led community ) provides office , social and rehearsal space for theatre and performance companies , and Equity has a branch in the city .
The city has many venues for live music , its largest the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Colston Hall named after Edward Colston . Others include the Bristol Academy , The Fleece , The Croft , the Exchange , Fiddlers , the Victoria Rooms , Trinity Centre , St George 's Bristol and several pubs , from the jazz @-@ oriented The Old Duke to rock at the Fleece and Firkin and indie bands at the Louisiana . In 2010 PRS for Music called Bristol the UK 's most musical city , based on the number of its members born there relative to the city 's population . Since the late 1970s Bristol has been home to bands combining punk , funk , dub and political consciousness , and trip hop and Bristol Sound artists such as Tricky , Portishead and Massive Attack ; the list of bands from Bristol is extensive . The city is a stronghold of drum and bass , with artists such as Roni Size 's Mercury Prize @-@ winning Reprazent , as DJ Krust and More Rockers . This music is part of the Bristol urban @-@ culture scene which received international media attention during the 1990s .
The Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery houses a collection encompassing natural history , archaeology , local glassware , Chinese ceramics and art . The M Shed museum opened in 2011 on the site of the former Bristol Industrial Museum . Both are operated by Bristol Museums , Galleries and Archives , which also runs three historic houses β β β the Tudor Red Lodge , the Georgian House and Blaise Castle House β β β and Bristol Record Office . The 18th- and 19th @-@ century portrait painter Thomas Lawrence , 19th @-@ century architect Francis Greenway ( designer of many of Sydney 's first buildings ) were born in the city . The graffiti artist Banksy is believed to be from Bristol , and many of his works are on display in the city .
The Watershed Media Centre and Arnolfini gallery ( both in dockside warehouses ) exhibit contemporary art , photography and cinema , and the city 's oldest gallery is at the Royal West of England Academy in Clifton . The nomadic Antlers Gallery opened in 2010 , moving into empty spaces on Park Street , on Whiteladies Road and in the Purifier House on Bristol 's Harbourside . Stop motion animation films and commercials ( produced by Aardman Animations ) are made in Bristol . Bristol is home to the regional headquarters of BBC West and the BBC Natural History Unit . Locations in and around Bristol have featured in the BBC 's natural @-@ history programmes , including Animal Magic ( filmed at Bristol Zoo ) .
Bristol is the birthplace of 18th @-@ century poets Robert Southey and Thomas Chatterton . Southey ( born on Wine Street in 1774 ) and his friend , Samuel Taylor Coleridge , married the Fricker sisters from the city . William Wordsworth spent time in Bristol , where Joseph Cottle published Lyrical Ballads in 1798 . Comedians from the city include Justin Lee Collins , Lee Evans Russell Howard and writer @-@ comedian Stephen Merchant .
= = = Architecture = = =
Bristol has 51 Grade I , 500 Grade II * and over 3 @,@ 800 Grade II listed buildings in a variety of architectural styles , from medieval to modern . During the mid @-@ 19th century Bristol Byzantine , a style unique to the city , was developed , and several examples have survived . Buildings from most architectural periods of the United Kingdom can be seen in the city . Surviving elements of the fortifications and castle date to the medieval period , and the Church of St James dates back to the 12th century .
The oldest Grade I listed buildings in Bristol are religious . St James ' Priory was founded in 1129 as a Benedictine priory by Earl Robert of Gloucester , the illegitimate son of Henry I. The second oldest is Bristol Cathedral and its associated Great Gatehouse . Founded in 1140 , the church became the seat of the bishop and cathedral of the new Diocese of Bristol in 1542 . Most of the medieval stonework , particularly the Elder Lady Chapel , is made from limestone taken from quarries around Dundry and Felton with Bath stone being used in other areas . Amongst the other churches included in the list is the 12th century St Mary Redcliffe which is the tallest building in Bristol . The church was described by Queen Elizabeth I as " the fairest , goodliest , and most famous parish church in England . "
Secular buildings include The Red Lodge , built in 1580 for John Yonge as a lodge for a larger house that once stood on the site of the present Colston Hall . It was subsequently added to in Georgian times and restored in the early 20th century . St Bartholomew 's Hospital is a 12th @-@ century town house which was incorporated into a monastery hospital founded in 1240 by Sir John la Warr , 2nd Baron De La Warr ( c . 1277 β 1347 ) , and became Bristol Grammar School from 1532 to 1767 , and then Queen Elizabeth 's Hospital 1767 β 1847 . The round piers predate the hospital , and may come from an aisled hall , the earliest remains of domestic architecture in the city , which was then adapted to form the hospital chapel . Three 17th @-@ century town houses which were attached to the hospital were incorporated into model workers ' flats in 1865 , and converted to offices in 1978 . St Nicholas 's Almshouses were built in 1652 to provide care for the poor . Several public houses were also built in this period , including the Llandoger Trow on King Street and the Hatchet Inn .
Manor houses include Goldney Hall , where the highly decorated Grotto dates from 1739 . Commercial buildings such as the Exchange and Old Post Office from the 1740s are also included in the list . Residential buildings include the Georgian Portland Square and the complex of small cottages around a green at Blaise Hamlet , which was built around 1811 for retired employees of Quaker banker and philanthropist John Scandrett Harford , who owned Blaise Castle House . The 18th @-@ century Kings Weston House , in northern Bristol , was designed by John Vanbrugh and is the only Vanbrugh building in any UK city outside London . Almshouses and pubs from the same period intermingle with modern development . Several Georgian squares were designed for the middle class as prosperity increased during the 18th century . During World War II , the city centre was heavily bombed during the Bristol Blitz . The central shopping area near Wine Street and Castle Street was particularly hard @-@ hit , and the Dutch House and St Peter 's Hospital were destroyed . Nevertheless , in 1961 John Betjeman called Bristol " the most beautiful , interesting and distinguished city in England " .
= = = Sport = = =
Bristol has teams representing all the major national sports . Bristol City and Bristol Rovers are the city 's main football clubs . Bristol Rugby ( Rugby Union ) and Gloucestershire County Cricket Club are also based in the city .
The two Football League clubs are Bristol City and Bristol Rovers β β β the former being the only club from the city to play in the precursor to the Premier League . Non @-@ league clubs include Mangotsfield United , Bristol Manor Farm and Brislington . Bristol City , formed in 1897 , were Division One runners @-@ up in 1907 and lost the FA Cup final in 1909 . In the First Division in 1976 , they then sank to the bottom professional tier before reforming after a 1982 bankruptcy . Bristol City were promoted to the second tier of English football in 2007 , losing to Hull City in the playoff for promotion to the Premier League that season .
Bristol Rovers , the oldest professional football team in the city , were formed in 1883 and promoted back into the football league in 2015 . They were third @-@ tier champions twice ( Division Three South in 1952 β 53 and Division Three in 1989 β 90 ) , Watney Cup Winners ( 1972 ) and runners @-@ up for the Johnstone 's Paint Trophy ( 2006 β 07 ) although have never played in England 's top Division . The club has planning permission for a new 21 @,@ 700 @-@ capacity all @-@ seater stadium at the University of the West of England 's Frenchay campus . Construction was due to begin in mid @-@ 2014 , but in March 2015 the sale of the Memorial Stadium site ( needed to finance the new stadium ) was in jeopardy . Bristol Academy Women 's Football Club is based at South Gloucestershire and Stroud College .
The city is also home to Bristol Rugby , formed in 1888 as Bristol Football Club by the merger of the Carlton club with rival Redland Park . Westbury Park declined the merger and folded , with many of its players joining Bristol . Bristol Rugby has often competed at the highest level of the sport since its formation in 1888 . The club played at the Memorial Ground , which it shared with Bristol Rovers from 1996 . Although Bristol Rugby owned the stadium when the football club arrived , a decline in the rugby club 's fortunes led to a transfer of ownership to Bristol Rovers . In 2014 Bristol Rugby moved to their new home , Ashton Gate Stadium ( home to Bristol Rovers ' rivals Bristol City ) , for the 2014 β 15 season . Dating from 1901 , the Bristol Combination and its 53 clubs promote rugby union in the city and help support Bristol Rugby . The most prominent of Bristol 's smaller rugby clubs include Clifton Rugby , Dings Crusaders , and Cleve . Rugby league is represented in Bristol by the Bristol Sonics .
The first @-@ class cricket club Gloucestershire County Cricket Club has its headquarters and plays the majority of its home games at the Bristol County Ground , the only major international sports venue in the south west of England . It was formed by the family of W. G. Grace . The club is arguably Bristol 's most successful , achieving a period of success between 1999 and 2006 when it won nine trophies and became the most formidable one @-@ day outfit in England , including winning a " double double " in 1999 and 2000 ( both the Benson and Hedges Cup and the C & G Trophy ) , and the Sunday League in 2000 . Gloucestershire CCC also won the Royal London One @-@ Day Cup in 2015 .
The Bristol Flyers basketball team have competed in the British Basketball League , the UK 's premier professional basketball league , since 2014 . Bristol Aztecs play in Britain 's premier American football competition , the BAFA National Leagues . In 2009 ice hockey returned to Bristol after a 17 @-@ year absence , with the Bristol Pitbulls playing at Bristol Ice Rink ; after its closure , it shared a venue with Oxford City Stars . Bristol sponsors an annual half marathon and hosted the 2001 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships . Athletic clubs in Bristol include Bristol and West AC , Bitton Road Runners and Westbury Harriers . Bristol has staged finishes and starts of the Tour of Britain cycle race and facilities in the city were used as training camps for the 2012 London Olympics . The Bristol International Balloon Fiesta , a major UK hot @-@ air ballooning event , is held each summer at Ashton Court .
= = = Media = = =
Bristol is home to the regional headquarters of BBC West and the BBC Natural History Unit based at Broadcasting House , which produces television , radio and online content with a natural history or wildlife theme . These include nature documentaries , including The Blue Planet and Planet Earth . The city has a long association with David Attenborough 's authored documentaries , including Life on Earth .
Bristol has two daily newspapers , the Western Daily Press and the Bristol Post ; a weekly free newspaper , the Bristol Observer ; and a Bristol edition of the free Metro newspaper . All are owned by the Trinity Mirror Group .
The city has several radio stations , including BBC Radio Bristol . Bristol 's television productions include Points West for BBC West , Endemol productions such as Deal or No Deal , and ITV News West Country for ITV West & Wales ( formerly HTV West ) and ITV Westcountry . The hospital drama Casualty , formerly filmed in Bristol , moved to Cardiff in 2012 . Bristol has been a location for the Channel 4 comedy @-@ drama Teachers , the BBC drama Mistresses , the E4 teen drama Skins and the BBC3 comedy @-@ drama Being Human ; the latter moved to Barry after series two .
Publishers in the city have included 18th @-@ century Bristolian Joseph Cottle , who helped introduce Romanticism by publishing the works of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge . During the 19th century , J.W. Arrowsmith published the Victorian comedies Three Men in a Boat ( by Jerome K. Jerome ) and The Diary of a Nobody by George and Weedon Grossmith . The contemporary Redcliffe Press has published over 200 books covering all aspects of the city . Bristol is home to YouTube video producers The Yogscast , with founders Simon Lane and Lewis Brindley moving their operations from Reading to Bristol in 2012 .
= = = Dialect = = =
A dialect of English , known as Bristolian , Bristolese , Brizzle or Bristle ( after the publication of Derek Robson 's " Krek Waiters peak Bristle " ) is spoken by longtime residents , who are known as Bristolians . Bristol natives have a rhotic accent , in which the post @-@ vocalic r in " car " and " card " is pronounced ( unlike in Received Pronunciation ) . The unique feature of this accent is the " Bristol ( or terminal ) l " , in which l is appended to words ending in a or o . Whether this is a broad l or a w is a subject of debate , with " area " pronounced " areal " or " areaw " . The ending of " Bristol " is another example of the Bristol l . Bristolians pronounce -a and -o at the end of a word as -aw ( cinemaw ) . To non @-@ natives , the pronunciation suggests an l after the vowel .
Until recently Bristolese was characterised by retention of the second @-@ person singular , as in the doggerel " Cassn 't see what bist looking at ? Cassn 't see as well as couldst , casst ? And if couldst , ' ouldn 't , ' ouldst ? " The West Saxon bist is used for the English " art " , and children were admonished with " Thee and thou , the Welshman 's cow " . In Bristolese , as in French and German , the second @-@ person singular was not used when speaking to a superior ( except by the egalitarian Quakers ) . The pronoun " thee " is also used in the subject position ( " What bist thee doing ? " ) , and " I " or " he " in the object position ( " Give he to I. " ) . Linguist Stanley Ellis , who found that many dialect words in the Filton area were linked to aerospace work , described Bristolese as " a cranky , crazy , crab @-@ apple tree of language and with the sharpest , juiciest flavour that I 've heard for a long time " .
= = = Religion = = =
In the 2011 United Kingdom census , 46 @.@ 8 % of Bristol 's population identified as Christian and 37 @.@ 4 % said they were not religious ; the English averages were 59 @.@ 4 % and 24 @.@ 7 % , respectively . Islam is observed by 5 @.@ 1 % of the population , Buddhism by 0 @.@ 6 % , Hinduism by 0 @.@ 6 % , Sikhism by 0 @.@ 5 % , Judaism by 0 @.@ 2 % and other religions 0 @.@ 7 % ; 8 @.@ 1 % did not identify with a religion .
Bristol has several Christian churches ; the most notable are the Anglican Bristol Cathedral and St Mary Redcliffe and the Roman Catholic Clifton Cathedral . Nonconformist chapels include Buckingham Baptist Chapel and John Wesley 's New Room in Broadmead . After St James ' Presbyterian Church was bombed on 24 November 1940 , it was never again used as a church ; although its bell tower remains , its nave was converted into offices . The city has eleven mosques , several Buddhist meditation centres , a Hindu temple , Reform and Orthodox @-@ Jewish synagogues and four Sikh temples .
= = Education , science and technology = =
Bristol has two major institutions of higher education : the University of Bristol , a " redbrick " chartered in 1909 , and its main building opened in 1925 . A polytechnic university opened in 1969 , giving the city a second institute of higher education which became the University of the West of England in 1992 . The University of Law also has a campus in the city . Bristol has two further education institutions ( City of Bristol College and South Gloucestershire and Stroud College ) and three theological colleges : Trinity College , Wesley College and Bristol Baptist College . The city has 129 infant , junior and primary schools , 17 secondary schools , and three learning centres . After a section of north London , Bristol has England 's second @-@ highest number of independent @-@ school places . Independent schools in the city include Clifton College , Clifton High School , Badminton School , Bristol Grammar School , Redland High School , Queen Elizabeth 's Hospital ( the only all @-@ boys school ) and the Red Maids ' School ( founded in 1634 by John Whitson , which claims to be England 's oldest girls ' school ) .
In 2005 Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown named Bristol one of six English " science cities " , and a Β£ 300 million science park was planned at Emersons Green . Research is conducted at the two universities , the Bristol Royal Infirmary and Southmead Hospital , and science is demonstrated at At @-@ Bristol , the Bristol Zoo , the Bristol Festival of Nature and the Create Centre .
The city has produced a number of scientists , including 19th @-@ century chemist Humphry Davy ( who worked in Hotwells ) . Physicist Paul Dirac ( from Bishopston ) received the 1933 Nobel Prize for his contributions to quantum mechanics . Cecil Frank Powell was the Melvill Wills Professor of Physics at the University of Bristol when he received the 1950 Nobel Prize for , among other discoveries , his photographic method of studying nuclear processes . Colin Pillinger was the planetary scientist behind the Beagle 2 project , and neuropsychologist Richard Gregory founded the Exploratory ( a hands @-@ on science centre which was the predecessor of At @-@ Bristol ) .
Initiatives such as the Flying Start Challenge encourage an interest in science and engineering in Bristol secondary @-@ school pupils ; links with aerospace companies impart technical information and advance student understanding of design . The Bloodhound SSC project to break the land speed record is based at the Bloodhound Technology Centre on the city 's harbourside .
= = Transport = =
Bristol has two principal railway stations . Bristol Temple Meads ( near the city centre ) has First Great Western service which includes high @-@ speed trains to London Paddington station and local , regional and CrossCountry trains . Bristol Parkway , north of the city centre , has high @-@ speed First Great Western service to Swansea , Cardiff Central and London Paddington and CrossCountry service to Birmingham and the North East . Limited service to London Waterloo via Clapham Junction from Bristol Temple Meads is operated by South West Trains , and there are scheduled coach links to most major UK cities .
The M4 motorway connects the city on an east @-@ west axis from London to West Wales , and the M5 is a north β south west axis from Birmingham to Exeter . The M49 motorway is a shortcut between the M5 in the south and the M4 Severn Crossing in the west , and the M32 is a spur from the M4 to the city centre .
The runway , terminal and other facilities at Bristol Airport ( BRS ) , Lulsgate , have been upgraded since 2001 . Public transport in the city consists primarily of a FirstGroup ( formerly the Bristol Omnibus Company ) bus network . Other providers are Abus , Wessex and Wessex Star , operated by Wessex for the two universities . Bristol 's bus service has been criticised as unreliable and expensive , and in 2005 FirstGroup was fined for delays and safety violations .
Private car use is high in the city , leading to traffic congestion costing an estimated Β£ 350 million per year . Bristol allows motorcycles to use most of the city 's bus lanes and provides secure , free parking for them . Although the city council has included a light rail system in its local transport plan since 2000 , it has not yet funded the project ; Bristol was offered European Union funding for the system , but the Department for Transport did not provide the required additional funding .
A new bus rapid transit system ( BRT ) called MetroBus , is currently under construction across Bristol , as of 2015 , to provide a faster and reliable service than buses , improve transport infrastructure and reduce congestion . The MetroBus rapid transit scheme will run on both bus lanes and segregated guided busways on three routes ; Ashton Vale to Temple Meads ( AVTM ) , North Fringe to Hengrove and South Bristol Link ( SBL ) . MetroBus services are expected to start in 2017 .
Several road @-@ construction plans , including re @-@ routing and improving the South Bristol Ring Road , are supported by the city council . Three park and ride sites serve Bristol . The city centre has water transport operated by Bristol Ferry Boats , Bristol Packet Boat Trips and Number Seven Boat Trips , providing leisure and commuter service in the harbour .
Bristol 's principal surviving suburban railway is the Severn Beach Line to Avonmouth and Severn Beach . Although Portishead Railway 's passenger service was a casualty of the Beeching cuts , freight service to the Royal Portbury Dock was restored from 2000 to 2002 with a Strategic Rail Authority rail @-@ freight grant . The MetroWest scheme , formerly known as The Greater Bristol Metro , proposes to increase the city 's rail capacity as well as the restoration of a further 3 miles ( 5 km ) of track to Portishead ( a dormitory town with one connecting road ) , despite concerns about insufficient funds to rebuild stations , is scheduled for completion by 2019 .
Bristol was designated as England 's first " cycling city " in 2008 and is home to Sustrans , the sustainable transport charity . The city has urban cycle routes and links with National Cycle Network routes to Bath , London , Gloucester , Wales and South West England . Cycling trips have increased by 21 % from 2001 to 2005 .
= = Twin cities = =
Bristol was among the first cities to adopt town twinning after World War II . Twin towns include :
Bordeaux , France ( since 1947 )
Hanover , Germany ( since 1947 ; one of the first post @-@ war twinnings of British and German cities )
Porto , Portugal ( since 1984 )
Tbilisi , Georgia ( since 1988 )
Puerto MorazΓ‘n , Nicaragua ( since 1989 )
Beira , Mozambique ( since 1990 )
Guangzhou , China ( since 2001 )
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= Mansur al @-@ Atrash =
Mansur al @-@ Atrash ( Arabic : Ω
ΩΨ΅ΩΨ± Ψ§ΩΨ£Ψ·Ψ±Ψ΄ ; 3 February 1925 β 14 November 2006 ) was a Syrian politician and journalist . Together with fellow university students , Atrash became a founding member of the Ba 'ath Party and its Syrian regional branch in 1947 . During the presidency of Adib Shishakli ( 1951 β 54 ) , he became an anti @-@ government activist and was imprisoned twice , only to be released in an unsuccessful attempt by Shishakli to gain the support of Atrash 's father , Sultan . In the year Shishakli was overthrown , Atrash was elected to parliament and turned down an offer to serve in Said al @-@ Ghazzi 's government . During the period of the United Arab Republic ( 1958 β 61 ) , Atrash became a strong supporter of Egyptian president and pan @-@ Arab leader Gamal Abdel Nasser . He opposed Syria 's secession from the UAR and turned down offers to serve in successive separatist governments in protest .
When the Ba 'ath Party gained power in the 1963 coup , Atrash became Minister of Social Affairs and in 1965 the head of the Revolutionary Command Council ( RCC ) . A second coup by left @-@ wing Ba 'athist officers resulted in a split within the party between the coup officers led by the Military Committee and the founders led by Michel Aflaq , with Atrash being an ardent supporter of the latter . He was subsequently imprisoned , but released in the aftermath of Syria 's defeat in the 1967 War with Israel . After two years of self @-@ imposed exile in Lebanon , he returned to Syria where he mostly abandoned political life . He died on 14 November 2006 and was buried near his hometown of al @-@ Qurayya .
= = Early life = =
Atrash was born 3 February 1925 in the Druze community of al @-@ Qurayya in Jabal al @-@ Druze ( Jabal al @-@ Arab ) , months before the Great Syrian Revolt , which was launched and led by his father Sultan al @-@ Atrash . At the time , the Jabal al @-@ Druze area constituted an autonomous zone ( existing between 1922 and 1936 ) within the French Mandate of Syria ( established in 1920 ) . Tensions between the Druze and the French authorities stemmed from a number of reasons , particularly what the local Druze leaders saw as French encroachment into their domestic affairs and self @-@ governance . The revolt began in the summer of 1925 and had soon spread throughout Syria , ending with the military defeat of Syrian rebels in 1927 and the self @-@ imposed exile of Sultan to Transjordan after the Mandatory authorities issued a warrant for his arrest . He returned in 1937 after being pardoned by the authorities .
It was in Transjordan , and later in Damascus and Beirut , that Mansur completed his primary and secondary education . In 1946 , Mansur went to study at the American University in Beirut ( AUB ) , and graduated in 1948 with a BA in political science . In 1951 , he attained a law degree from the Sorbonne University . He also served as a lecturer on Arabic literature in the University of Damascus .
= = Ba 'ath Party and conflict with Shishkali = =
In 1947 Atrash , an ardent socialist and Arab nationalist ' in principle and practice , " according to historian Sami Moubayed , became a founding member of the Ba 'ath Party . He joined the organization during his time at the AUB and then left with his party colleagues Salah al @-@ Din al @-@ Bitar and Michel Aflaq for further studies in Paris . He became part of its Syrian regional branch , and actively participated in party strikes , marches and parades . Atrash wrote regularly for the party newspaper al @-@ Ba 'ath . He was the only prominent Druze member in the Ba 'ath Party who hailed from a major clan , the al @-@ Atrash .
General Adib Shishakli seized power in 1951 , establishing a military @-@ backed autocracy . Atrash participated in anti @-@ Shishakli activity , including throwing explosives at Shishakli 's residence in 1952 , an action which resulted in Atrash 's arrest . In 1953 Shishakli launched a crackdown on the Druze community , claiming they were being funded by Hashemite @-@ ruled Jordan and Iraq to establish a Hashemite government in Syria . Jabal al @-@ Druze was bombarded by government forces and Atrash 's father Sultan was put under house arrest for his vocal criticism of Shishakli .
After Shishakli came into conflict with the Ba 'athists that year as a result of the former 's authoritarian manner of governance , Atrash moved to Homs , a hotbed of opposition to Shishakli 's rule , where he helped coordinate the supply of arms to insurgents in Jabal al @-@ Druze . He was arrested by the authorities for a second time in May , during the peak of the unrest . He had been released both times because of his father 's popularity at the national level ; by releasing Atrash , Shishakli attempted to gain the appeasement of Sultan . In response to Atrash 's second release from prison , Sultan said " I didn 't ask Shishakli for the freedom of my son . I asked him for the freedom of my country . "
According to Moubayed , Atrash 's anti @-@ government activities significantly contributed to Shishakli 's resignation and departure from Syria in February 1954 amid the countrywide unrest . In the first post @-@ Shishakli democratic election later that year , Atrash was elected to parliament . Atrash was offered a cabinet position in Said al @-@ Ghazzi 's September 1955 government , but he rejected the offer because of the Ba 'ath Party 's opposition to the government 's makeup .
= = UAR period and Ba 'athist Syria = =
Atrash supported formation of the United Arab Republic ( UAR ) , a union between Syria and Egypt , in 1958 . During the UAR years , Atrash became a devoted Nasserite β a supporter of President Gamal Abdel Nasser 's policies β and wrote several articles in Nasserite daily newspaper Al Jamahir ( " The People . " ) Atrash opposed the break @-@ up of the union after a secessionist coup in September 1961 , and opposed playing a political role in the anti @-@ unionist governments that succeeded the UAR ; Prime Minister Bashir al @-@ Azma ( term in 1962 ) offered him a cabinet post , but he turned down the offer , citing his ideological opposition to a secessionist government . Prime Minister Khalid al @-@ Azm ( term in 1962 β 63 ) appointed him minister of social affairs without asking him , but Atrash turned down that job as well .
His seclusion from Syrian politics ended after the Military Committee of the Ba 'ath Party took power in a coup d 'Γ©tat on 8 March 1963 . The Military Committee 's stated goal was to reestablish a pan @-@ Arab state ; a goal Atrash shared . He was appointed Minister of Labor and Social Affairs in Salah al @-@ Din al @-@ Bitar 's first government , and became a member of the Presidential Council , an organ responsible for running day @-@ to @-@ day state affairs . In February 1964 Atrash was elected to the 12 @-@ member Ba 'ath Party National Command , which was nominally the highest policy @-@ making body of the party .
Differences between Bitar and the Regional Command had developed in 1964 , with the latter viewing Bitar 's cabinet as being right @-@ leaning and soft on " reactionary " elements within Syria in the aftermath of Hama uprising in April of that year by the Muslim Brotherhood . President Amin al @-@ Hafiz had been prime minister at the time of the unrest and stepped down in response to countrywide strikes and demonstrations in protest at the severity of the uprising 's suppression . Bitar replaced Hafiz to serve a second term as prime minister in May , publicly promising to protect civil liberties . Intra @-@ party tensions culminated with the Regional Command withdrawing its confidence from Bitar 's government on 25 September , and Bitar and Atrash ( an associate of Bitar ) subsequently resigning from the Presidential Council . Their positions were filled by Salah Jadid and Yusuf Zuaiyin , respectively , and effectively brought the Presidential Council under the full control of the Military Committee and the Regional Command . Hafiz also replaced Bitar as premier in October , although Atrash remained in his ministerial post .
On 1 September 1965 Atrash was appointed Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council ( RCC ) , but acquired little de facto power because of the Military Committee 's overarching control , with Atrash later remarking " the officers let us do the talking although , as we later discovered , they had agreed beforehand ... what the decisions would be . " The RCC played the role of parliament and Atrash was its speaker . In December tensions between the National Command ( loyal to Aflaq and Bitar ) and the Regional Command ( loyal to Jadid and backed by the military ) grew worse as elements of the former attempted to align with Military Committee member Muhammad Umran in an effort to split the military 's support ( and according to Syria expert Itamar Rabinovich , the Alawite officers ' solid backing ) of Jadid . However , Atrash , along with Munif al @-@ Razzaz of Jordan and Jubran al @-@ Majdalani and Ali al @-@ Khalil of Lebanon , was a part of the group in the National Command that opposed confrontation with the Regional Command , citing the National Command 's lack of military support and political power as well as the fundamental weakness of an alliance with Umran and Amin al @-@ Hafiz . The latter two had been engaged in an antagonistic rivalry over leadership of the Military Committee .
Atrash continued to hold the office of RCC , and was reelected as speaker on 15 February 1966 , shortly before the 1966 Syrian coup d 'Γ©tat ( 21 β 23 February ) , which brought the left @-@ wing neo @-@ Ba 'athist government of Jadid to power and caused an internal party split . The Jadid government 's coming to power resulted in the self @-@ imposed exile of the leading Ba 'ath ideologue Michel Aflaq . Atrash , a partisan of Aflaq , was arrested and jailed in the Mezzeh Prison during the coup . The new defense minister and future president Hafez al @-@ Assad later paid him a visit to discuss Syria 's political situation and check on his health .
On 9 June 1967 , when the Israeli Army occupied the Golan Heights during the Six @-@ Day War , Atrash and other Aflaq loyalists were released from their detention . Atrash later remarked that " It was not agreeable to know that we owed our freedom to defeat . " In collaboration with dissenting Ba 'athist officer Salim Hatum , Atrash attempted to overthrow Jadid 's government in 1967 , but failed . Following this unsuccessful coup attempt , he moved into self @-@ imposed exile in Lebanon and lived there until the death of Abd al @-@ Karim al @-@ Jundi , the head of Syria 's secret intelligence service . He returned to Syria in 1969 and lived much of the remainder of his life in seclusion .
= = Later life and death = =
In 1978 Atrash hosted a dinner aimed at healing the rift between the ruling Ba 'ath governments of Syria and neighboring Iraq . The dinner was attended by such notables as Iraqi foreign minister Tariq Aziz and Syrian defense minister Mustafa Tlass . Between 2000 and 2006 Atrash was a member of an organization in support of the Palestinian uprising against Israel . Between 2001 and 2006 he presided over the Syrian Arab Committee , which aimed to end the sanctions against Iraq and later support it after the 2003 invasion .
In August 1956 Atrash married teacher Hind al @-@ Shuwayri , an Christian and the daughter of Yusuf al @-@ Shuwayri , Sultan 's partner in the grain trade , who was based in al @-@ Midan and owned a house in al @-@ Qurayya . Atrash had a son named Tha 'er and a daughter named Rim . Because Atrash 's wife was not from the Druze community , the marriage caused a temporary schism between Atrash and his father . Eventually the two bridged their differences . Following Sultan 's death in 1982 , Mansur gained the latter 's role as the major spokesman for the al @-@ Atrash clan .
Atrash died at 6 : 30 am on 14 November 2006 , at the age of 80 . His funeral was held in the city of al @-@ Suwayda , and according to one of his relatives , Talal al @-@ Atrash , the ceremony was attended by " hundreds of thousands " of Druze from Syria , Lebanon and Jordan as well as some " prominent Arab personalities . " Atrash was buried in the woodland area of Hushus which he owned , near his native al @-@ Qurayya .
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= Delaware Route 7 =
Delaware Route 7 ( DE 7 ) is a two- to four @-@ lane north β south highway in New Castle County , Delaware that connects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) and DE 72 near Delaware City to the Pennsylvania border near Hockessin , where the road continues into Pennsylvania as State Route 3013 ( SR 3013 ) , intersecting Pennsylvania Route 41 ( PA 41 ) at an interchange . Between Delaware City and Christiana , DE 7 runs to the west of the DE 1 freeway through suburban areas , passing through Bear . By the Christiana Mall , DE 7 joins the DE 1 freeway and comes to an interchange with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) before the DE 1 freeway ends at the DE 58 interchange . After the freeway segment , DE 7 continues north as a surface road concurrent with DE 4 through Stanton . From Stanton to the Pennsylvania border , DE 7 heads northwest through suburban areas , passing through Pike Creek .
What is now DE 7 was built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1936 , the route was designated to run along its present alignment between US 13 near Red Lion , Delaware and the Pennsylvania border . From the 1950s to the 1970s , DE 7 became a divided highway between Christiana and Milltown Road . With the construction of the DE 1 freeway in the 1990s , DE 7 was shifted to a portion of the freeway near the Christiana Mall . The route was also extended south to an intersection with US 13 and DE 72 as a result of the relocation of US 13 onto a portion of the freeway . The road also became a divided highway between Milltown Road and DE 72 in the 1990s . In 1999 , an interchange was built at DE 58 as a result of a northward extension of DE 1 along DE 7 . The interchange with I @-@ 95 was reconstructed to include flyover ramps in 2013 .
= = Route description = =
DE 7 begins at an intersection with US 13 and DE 72 in the community of Wrangle Hill to the west of Delaware City , where the road continues south as part of US 13 . From the southern terminus , the route heads north on four @-@ lane divided South Dupont Highway . The road runs through farmland and crosses Norfolk Southern 's Reybold Running Track railroad line before passing under the US 13 / DE 1 freeway . After this , DE 7 narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road called Bear @-@ Corbitt Road , with the former alignment of Dupont Highway branching off to the northeast . The route continues north through woodland and homes , reaching an intersection with DE 71 in Red Lion . The road crosses Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary railroad line and heads into Bear . Here , DE 7 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it enters commercial areas and intersects US 40 .
After this intersection , the route becomes Bear @-@ Christiana Road and passes through suburban residential development with some farm fields . Farther north , DE 7 narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road . The highway comes to an intersection with DE 273 , where it is briefly a four @-@ lane divided highway . Following this , DE 7 becomes East Main Street and narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road , heading through woods and curving to the northwest as it crosses Christina River . The route enters Christiana and passes homes , intersecting Old Baltimore Pike . At this point , DE 7 turns north onto North Old Baltimore Pike , with the name changing to Stanton @-@ Christiana Road . The route turns east onto a four @-@ lane divided highway and comes to an interchange with the DE 1 freeway southwest of the Christiana Mall , a super @-@ regional shopping mall that is the largest in Delaware .
At this point , DE 7 heads north concurrent with DE 1 on a four @-@ lane freeway . The freeway comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance that serves the Christiana Mall to the east . DE 1 / DE 7 continues to a modified cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 ( Delaware Turnpike ) . The road continues through more commercial areas and interchanges with DE 58 , at which point the freeway segment and DE 1 ends . Past DE 58 , DE 7 continues north at @-@ grade as six @-@ lane divided Stanton @-@ Christiana Road , heading to the west of the Stanton Campus of Delaware Technical Community College before intersecting DE 4 . At this point DE 4 turns north for a concurrency with DE 7 , running through wooded areas with nearby development , including the Hale @-@ Byrnes House , and passing over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line and White Clay Creek . The road heads to the east of Delaware Park Racetrack , a thoroughbred horse racetrack and casino , and curves northeast to enter Stanton . At this point the two routes continue into a commercial area and split into the one @-@ way pair of Mitch Road eastbound and Main Street westbound .
DE 7 splits from DE 4 by heading northwest on four @-@ lane divided Limestone Road . The road runs through suburban residential neighborhoods , coming to a bridge over CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line . The route continues into business areas and comes to an intersection with DE 2 . Past this intersection , DE 7 heads into residential and commercial areas and becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road . The route becomes a divided highway again as it comes to the Milltown Road intersection and enters the Pike Creek area . The road curves west before turning northwest again and running to the southwest of Goldey @-@ Beacom College , a private non @-@ profit college . DE 7 turns to the north and comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of DE 72 .
Following this , the road continues through suburban development . At the intersection with Little Baltimore Road / Brackenville Road , the route curves to the northwest and narrows to a three @-@ lane undivided road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes , heading into the Hockessin area . DE 7 becomes a two @-@ lane divided highway as it intersects Valley Road . Past this , the route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road that runs through fields and residential areas . DE 7 reaches its northern terminus at the Pennsylvania border , where Limestone Road continues north into that state as SR 3013 , heading to an interchange with PA 41 .
DE 7 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 65 @,@ 874 vehicles at the south end of the DE 4 concurrency to a low of 3 @,@ 777 vehicles at the Old Baltimore Pike intersection . The portion of DE 7 from the south end of the DE 1 concurrency to the Pennsylvania border is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What would become DE 7 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . By 1924 , the road was paved between Christiana and Stanton and was upgraded to a state highway between Capitol Trail and New Linden Hill Road . A year later , the road was upgraded to a state highway between Bear and Christiana and between Paper Mill Road and Brackenville Road , with all the sections south of Bear , between New Linden Hill Road and Paper Mill Road and Brackenville Road and the Pennsylvania border proposed as a state highway . By 1931 , these sections of state highway had been completed . DE 7 was designated to run from US 13 south of Red Lion north to the Pennsylvania border by 1936 , following its present alignment . In 1937 , the narrow swing bridge over the Christina River in Christiana was replaced with a stone bridge . A concrete tied arch bridge was built over the White Clay Creek in Stanton in 1941 . By 1959 , DE 7 was widened into a divided highway between Stanton and DE 2 . The divided highway was extended north to Milltown Road by 1966 . By 1985 , DE 273 was realigned to bypass Christiana , removing it from a portion of DE 7 through the town . Also at this time , the route was widened into a divided highway from the Christiana Mall north to Stanton . The route was shifted west to a new alignment passing over the Amtrak tracks and the White Clay Creek .
In the 1980s , a freeway relief route for DE 7 was proposed to run between US 13 in Tybouts Corner and I @-@ 95 in Christiana in order to reduce congestion along DE 7 . In 1988 , this relief route would become part of DE 1 , a freeway connecting the Wilmington area to Dover . The first section of the DE 1 freeway opened in August 1991 between US 13 in Tybouts Corner and US 40 in Bear . Three months later , the freeway opened north to DE 273 in Christiana . The section of DE 1 between DE 273 and I @-@ 95 in Christiana opened in April 1993 . As a result , DE 7 was relocated onto the DE 1 freeway for a short distance near the Christiana Mall . The DE 1 freeway was extended from US 13 in Tybouts Corner to St. Georges in December 1995 , in which it incorporated a portion of the existing US 13 near Red Lion . US 13 was moved to the new freeway between DE 72 and Tybouts Corner , and DE 7 was extended south along the former alignment of US 13 to end at US 13 and DE 72 to the west of Delaware City . The divided highway portion of DE 7 was extended north from Milltown Road to DE 72 by 1999 . DE 7 from I @-@ 95 to north of DE 58 became an extension of the DE 1 freeway in 1999 with an interchange built at DE 58 .
The Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) reconstructed the cloverleaf interchange at I @-@ 95 to include flyover ramps between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound I @-@ 95 , aiming to reduce merging and congestion at the interchange . Construction began in 2011 with work to replace the bridge over DE 1 / DE 7 leading to the Christiana Mall in order to allow room for the flyover ramps ; this bridge was completed in March 2012 . The ramp from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 / DE 7 opened on August 27 , 2013 and the ramp from northbound DE 1 / DE 7 to northbound I @-@ 95 opened on October 17 , 2013 , with a ribbon cutting ceremony attended by Governor Jack Markell and DelDOT secretary Shailen Bhatt . A project widening DE 7 to four lanes between Newtown Drive and DE 273 in Bear was completed in early 2014 .
= = Future = =
DelDOT is planning to widen DE 1 and part of this involves reconstructing its interchange with DE 273 . One version of the plan involves moving DE 7 onto DE 1 from DE 273 northward and disconnecting East Main Street from the DE 273 interchange . New ramps would connect the southbound lanes of DE 1 directly to DE 7 where East Main Street once did , and the park and ride lot north of DE 273 would be removed . Local opposition to this project is strong as the nearby Christina River frequently floods and some local residents would not be able to evacuate . Also the Christiana Fire House is located in the center of Christiana and would not be able to continue directly onto DE 7 south , thus adding about 1 mile and sending trucks onto a frequently congested DE 273 east to reach DE 7 south . This was later revised to have the ramps to and from the southbound lanes of DE 1 merge with DE 7 using a roundabout located at the present entrance to the park and ride lot . This project has been placed on hold indefinitely by DelDOT due to budget shortfalls .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Dunster Butter Cross =
The Butter Cross in Dunster within the English county of Somerset is a Grade II * listed building and ancient monument . The cross was originally erected in the late 14th or early 15th century in the main street and moved to its current site in the late 18th or early 19th century . Although the head of the cross is missing the shaft and socket stone are original . The cross is in the care of English Heritage for the state and managed by the National Trust .
= = History = =
The name Buttercross originates from their location in market places , where people from neighbouring villages would gather around the market cross to buy locally produced products . The fresh produce was laid out and displayed on the stepped bases of the cross . The market in Dunster attracted people from surrounding villages and towns as far away as Taunton and Bodmin . The Dunster Butter Cross was erected in the late 14th or early 15th century and originally stood in the High Street , possibly at the southern end of the high street , near the Yarn Market . A cross , which was later known as the high cross , was recorded in 1461 ; by 1689 it was known as the Butter Cross .
It was moved to its current location on the edge of the village by Alcombe Road , although the date when this was done is unclear . The site where the cross now stands was leveled in 1776 by workman , paid by Henry Fownes Luttrell , and it may have been on this occasion that the cross was moved . An alternative local tradition is that it was moved in 1825 , although a drawing by J. M. W. Turner made in 1811 suggests it was in its present position by then .
The cross is in the care of English Heritage for the state and managed by the National Trust .
= = Architecture = =
The cross comprises a shaft with a plinth and socket stone forming the base . The cross 's octagonal base and polygonal shaft have survived , however the head of the cross has been lost . It stands on a small area of raised ground on a plinth . The socket stone is 0 @.@ 85 metres ( 2 ft 9 in ) wide and 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 ft 8 in ) high . The surviving shaft is 1 @.@ 1 metres ( 3 ft 7 in ) high and changes from square to octagonal as it rises . There is an inscription on the northern face which says " WC , 1871 , WS " recording a restoration .
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= Japanese battleship Settsu =
Settsu ( ζζ΄₯ ) was the second and last of the Kawachi @-@ class dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the first decade of the 20th century . Following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions , Settsu was named after Settsu Province , now a part of Osaka prefecture . During World War I she bombarded German fortifications at Tsingtao during the Battle of Tsingtao in 1914 , but saw no other combat . She was placed in reserve in 1919 and was disarmed in 1922 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty .
Two years later , Settsu was converted into a target ship and she played a minor role at the beginning of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1937 . At the beginning of the Pacific War in 1941 , the ship was used in an attempt to deceive the Allies as to the locations and activities of the Japanese aircraft carriers . Settsu reverted to her normal role as a target ship for the rest of the war ; she was badly damaged when Allied aircraft carriers struck the naval base at Kure Naval District in July 1945 . The ship was refloated after the war and scrapped in 1946 β 47 .
= = Background = =
The Kawachi @-@ class was ordered on 22 June 1907 under the 1907 Warship Supplement Program after the Russo @-@ Japanese War as Japan 's first dreadnoughts , although their construction was delayed by a severe depression . Their design was based on the Aki with a uniform 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main @-@ gun armament , although cost considerations prevented all the guns from having the same barrel length .
= = Design and description = =
Unlike her sister ship , Kawachi , Settsu had a clipper bow that made her 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) longer than her sister . The ship had an overall length of 533 feet ( 162 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 84 feet 2 inches ( 25 @.@ 7 m ) , and a normal draft of 27 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . She displaced 21 @,@ 443 long tons ( 21 @,@ 787 t ) at normal load . Her crew ranged from 999 to 1100 officers and enlisted men . Settsu was fitted with a pair of license @-@ built Curtis steam turbine sets , each set driving one propeller , using steam from 16 Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were rated at a total of 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) for a design speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She carried enough coal and fuel oil to give her a range of 2 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Settsu 's main armament consisted of four 50 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure , and eight 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns mounted in four twin @-@ gun turrets , two on each side of the superstructure . Settsu 's secondary armament was ten 45 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns , mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull , and eight 40 @-@ caliber quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns . The ship was also equipped with a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 3 @-@ inch 4th Year Type guns and four others were used as saluting guns . In addition , the battleship was fitted with five submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern .
The waterline main belt of the ship had a maximum thickness of 12 inches amidships . It tapered to a thickness of 5 inches ( 127 mm ) at the ends of the ship . A 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) strake of armor protected the casemates . The barbettes for the main guns were 9 β 11 inches ( 229 β 279 mm ) thick . The armor of Settsu 's main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 11 inches . The deck armor was 1 @.@ 1 inches ( 29 mm ) thick and the conning tower was protected by 6 to 10 inches of armor .
= = Construction and career = =
Settsu was laid down at Kure Naval Arsenal on 18 January 1909 . She was launched on 30 March 1911 and completed on 1 July 1912 at a cost of Β₯ 11 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 . Captain Morihide Tanaka assumed command on 1 December and the ship was assigned to the First Squadron . She spent most of the following year training and patrolling off the coast of China . When World War I began in August 1914 , Settsu was at Kure . Together with her sister Kawachi , she bombarded German fortifications in October β November 1914 during the final stage of the Battle of Tsingtao . Settsu was assigned to the First Squadron until 1 December 1916 when she was placed in reserve for a refit at Kure . Upon its completion on 1 December 1917 , the ship was assigned to the Second Squadron until 23 July 1918 when she rejoined the First Squadron . By this time , all 12 of the 3 @-@ inch 4th Year Type guns were removed and four 3 @-@ inch 4th Year Type anti @-@ aircraft guns were added . Two of the torpedo tubes were also removed . On 28 October 1918 , Settsu was the flagship for Emperor TaishΕ for the naval review held off Yokohama as well as the review held on 9 July 1919 .
Settsu was placed in reserve on 6 November 1919 and reboilered during an overhaul that lasted from 1 April 1920 to 21 August 1921 . While transporting Empress Teimei back to Tokyo after she toured several shrines where she prayed for the health of her husband , the ship was caught in a typhoon that forced her escorting destroyer , Warabi , ashore , but did not damage the battleship . She was disarmed in Kure in 1922 under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and stricken from the navy list on 1 October 1923 . The following year , she was converted into a target ship with the removal of one boiler room and her center funnel . Her armor was reinforced to be able to absorb hits from 203 @-@ millimeter ( 8 in ) shells and 30 @-@ kilogram ( 66 lb ) practice bombs . These changes reduced her maximum speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) and her displacement to 16 @,@ 130 long tons ( 16 @,@ 390 t ) In early February 1925 , Settsu towed the incomplete hulk of the battleship Tosa , which had been used for gunnery and torpedo damage experiments , from Kure to the Bungo Channel where it was scuttled on 8 February .
Between October 1935 and 1937 , Settsu was converted to radio @-@ control which allowed her to be maneuvered by operators aboard the destroyer Yakaze . Armor on the deck , funnels , and bridge was added to strengthen her ability to survive hits . In late August 1937 , Settsu , under the command of Captain Naomasa Sakonju , transported a battalion of the Sasebo 4th Special Naval Landing Force to the Shanghai area in the early stages of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . The troops were transferred offshore to the light cruiser Natori and the Yakaze for transportation up the Yangtze River . During 1940 , the ship was modified to make it suitable to train carrier pilots , and was used extensively by bomber pilots practicing for the attack on Pearl Harbor . She participated in the fleet review by Emperor Hirohito on 11 October 1940 in Tokyo Bay .
At the beginning of the Pacific War , Settsu , under the command of Captain Chiaki Matsuda sailed from Taiwan to the vicinity of the Philippines and simulated the radio traffic of all six aircraft carriers of the 1st Air Fleet as well as the light carriers ZuihΕ and RyΕ«jΕ in an effort to deceive Allied intelligence as to the locations and activities of the Japanese carriers . For most of the rest of the war , she was stationed in the Inland Sea and used for bomb and torpedo training . In March β June 1944 , she served as a target for the 522nd and 762nd Naval Air Groups . During this time , she was fitted with a number of license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , depth charges and a hydrophone .
During the U.S. Navy carrier air attack on Kure on 24 July 1945 , Settsu was attacked by 30 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters near Etajima . She was struck by one bomb that killed two men and wounded another two ; five near misses started a serious leak in the starboard engine room . Captain Masanano Ofuji decided to run his ship aground on Etajima to prevent her from sinking . All of Settsu 's 25 mm guns were subsequently removed and the ship was used as a floating barracks . Four days later , the ship was again attacked by carrier aircraft that hit her twice more with bombs . She was abandoned the next day . Settsu was stricken from the navy list on 20 November and her hulk was raised in June 1946 and towed to Kure where scrapping was completed in August 1947 .
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= Are You Lonesome Tonight ? ( song ) =
" Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " is a song which was written by Roy Turk and Lou Handman in 1926 . It was recorded several times in 1927 β first by Charles Hart , with successful versions by Vaughn De Leath and the duet of Jerry Macy and John Ryan . In 1950 the Blue Barron Orchestra version reached the top twenty on the Billboard 's Pop Singles chart .
In April 1960 , after Elvis Presley 's two @-@ year service in the United States Army , he recorded the song at the suggestion of manager Colonel Tom Parker ; " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was Parker 's wife , Marie Mott 's , favorite song . Its release was delayed by RCA Records executives , who thought the song did not fit Presley 's new ( and publicized ) style . When " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was released in November 1960 it was an immediate success in the U.S. , topping Billboard 's Pop Singles chart and reaching number three on the R & B chart . A month after the song 's release , it topped the UK Singles Chart . Presley 's version was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1961 and upgraded to double platinum in 1992 .
" Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was later recorded by several other artists , with versions by Donny Osmond and Merle Haggard becoming top @-@ twenty hits on the pop and country charts respectively . Billboard ranked " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " number 81 on its " Hot 100 All @-@ Time Top Songs " list in 2008 .
= = Composition and early versions = =
The song was written in 1926 by vaudevillians Lou Handman and Roy Turk with three verses , followed by a spoken bridge . They based the bridge on a line in Ruggero Leoncavallo 's Pagliacci , and " You know someone said that the world 's a stage . And each must play a part " refers to " All the world 's a stage " from William Shakespeare 's As You Like It . This recitation is printed on the inside back cover of the original 1927 sheet music , and is sung on Stanley Kirbys recording in 1928 , Al Jolson 's recording in 1949 and Blue Barrron recording in 1950 ( US top 20 hit ) . Billboard reported in 1960 its discovery that it was written by songwriter and vaudeville pianist Dave Dreyer .
Several versions of " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " were recorded in 1927 . The first , by Charles Hart , was recorded on May 9 and released on Harmony Records ( 431 @-@ H ) as the B @-@ side of " Sweet Marie " . On June 13 , Vaughn De Leath recorded the song as the B @-@ side of " It 's a Million to One You 're in Love " for Edison Records ( Ed @-@ 52044 ) . De Leath had the first hit version of the song , which peaked at number four in November . On July 10 , 1927 , the Newport Society Orchestra recorded the song with Irving Kaufman the vocalist ; it was released on Harmony Records ( 511 @-@ H ) with " I 'm Walkin ' On Air " . A version by the duet of Jerry Macy and John Ryan was released on Okeh Records ( Ok @-@ 40866 ) as the B @-@ side of " Carolina Mine " . Henry Burr 's version peaked at number ten , and Little Jack Little had a hit with the song for Columbia Records . The Carter Family recorded it in 1936 , changing several elements of the original version . Although Gene Austin included the song in his shows during the 1930s , he never recorded it .
In March 1950 , the Blue Barron Orchestra released " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " with " Penny Wise and Love Foolish " on the B @-@ side , and it peaked at number nineteen on Billboard 's Top Pop Singles chart . In April Don Cornell released a version without the narrative bridge as the B @-@ side of his RCA Victor single , " Stay With the Happy People " . Billboard called it a : " dreamy waltz ... ( that ) gets effective treatment ( on the recording ) " . Based on votes sent to Billboard , the song received 78 points from disc jockeys , 78 from record dealers , 79 from jukebox operators and 78 points overall ; on the magazine 's 100 @-@ point scale , it was rated " Good " . Al Jolson recorded a version with the spoken bridge on April 28 , 1950 , in Los Angeles ; Gordon Jenkins conducted the orchestra . With " No Sad Songs For Me " on the B @-@ side , it was released by Decca Records in June . According to Billboard , although the version was " revived " by Jolson 's " schmaltz style " his recitation of the bridge was " hamboned " . Based on votes sent to the magazine , the song received 71 points from disc jockeys , 71 from record dealers and 71 from jukebox operators ; with an overall score of 71 , it was rated " Good " . In 1959 , Jaye P. Morgan released the song on MGM Records , with " Miss You " on the B @-@ side , and her version peaked at number 65 on Billboard 's Pop Singles chart .
= = Elvis Presley 's version = =
At the peak of his success in 1957 , Elvis Presley received his draft notice and was inducted into the Army on March 24 , 1958 . During the final months of his service , Presley began experimenting with new material in anticipation of his return to recording . Friend Charlie Hodge taught him to improve his breathing and expand his vocal range , and by the end of his deployment in Germany , Presley had added a full octave to his range . He returned to the United States on March 2 , 1960 , and was honorably discharged ( with the rank of sergeant ) on March 5 .
Presley 's first recording session after his return was scheduled for March 20 , and RCA 's Studio B had recently been equipped with a new three @-@ track recorder . To improve the recording of Presley 's voice , engineer Bill Porter had Telefunken U @-@ 47 microphones installed in the studio . A follow @-@ up session was scheduled for April , and the singer left for Miami to tape The Frank Sinatra Timex Show : Welcome Home Elvis .
During the selection of material for the sessions Presley 's manager , Colonel Tom Parker , suggested that he record " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " . The favorite song of Parker 's wife , Marie Mott , the manager 's suggestion was the first and only time he intervened in his singer 's choice of repertoire . Mott knew the song from Gene Austin 's act , since he was managed at the time by her husband . Presley returned to the studio with his band , consisting of Scotty Moore , drummer D. J. Fontana , pianist Floyd Cramer , guitarist Hank Garland , bassist Bobby Moore , percussionist Buddy Harman and The Jordanaires , on April 3 .
After the eight songs Parker needed for Elvis Is Back ! were recorded , Presley moved on to his manager 's request . At 4 am on April 4 the singer began recording " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " , accompanied by acoustic guitar , drums , bass and the backup group . He asked everyone else in the studio to leave the session , told Chet Atkins to turn the lights out and performed the song with the spoken bridge . After the second take Presley said to producer Steve Sholes , " Throw that tune out ; I can 't do it justice " . Sholes told engineer Bill Porter to ignore Presley 's order and asked the singer to do a new take , explaining that the Jordanaires had bumped into their microphone stand while recording in the dark . Presley performed the song once more , and that take became the master for the single .
= = = Release and reception = = =
" Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was not released for several months while RCA executives decided if the ballad reflected Presley 's new style , but they and Parker ultimately decided to release the song . It was released as a single on November 1 , 1960 , with " I Gotta Know " on the B @-@ side , and pressing was assigned to plants in New Jersey , Indianapolis and Los Angeles . Copies ( with a sleeve featuring a smiling Presley in a chartreuse shirt against a blue background ) were sent to 5 @,@ 000 disc jockeys . Orders for the single began at 900 @,@ 000 copies the first week and climbed to 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 during the second .
The song debuted on Billboard 's Top 40 at number 35 on November 14 , moved a week later to number two and topped the chart by November 28 ( replacing Maurice Williams and the Zodiacs ' " Stay " ) . Presley 's 15th chart @-@ topping single , it held the top position until January 9 , 1961 . " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " peaked at number three on the R & B chart , remaining on it for ten weeks . The song topped the Cash Box singles chart and reached number 45 on the Cash Box country singles chart . A month after its UK release it topped the UK Singles Chart . Three months after its release , the single had sales of two million copies worldwide ; that year , the Recording Industry Association of America certified it gold .
A November 7 , 1960 Billboard review called Presley 's rendition a " warm and touching performance " . In a later review , AllMusic praised Presley 's vocal range , calling " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " a " tender ... sugary ballad ... full of soul and intense and intimate power " defining " one of Presley 's darkest moments " .
= = = Legacy = = =
The success of " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " made the song one of Presley 's live staples . He performed it live for the first time on March 25 , 1961 , at a Bloch Arena benefit in Honolulu for the USS Arizona Memorial , Presley 's one of four live performances between his return from the Army and his shift in career focus to acting .
Returning to music in 1968 , Presley included the song on his playlist for the NBC special Elvis and performed it live the following year during his first Las Vegas engagement . A version of the song , recorded on August 26 and documenting Presley altering the words of the narration and laughing through the rest of the bridge , was released in 1980 as part of the Elvis Aaron Presley box set . In 1982 , " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was a radio hit in the United Kingdom and reached number 25 on the British Singles Chart . Presley included the song in his 1972 documentary , Elvis on Tour , and the 1977 CBS special Elvis in Concert .
On March 27 , 1992 , the RIAA certified " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " double platinum . In 2008 ( the 50th anniversary of Billboard 's Hot 100 ) , the song was number 81 on the magazine 's " Hot 100 All @-@ Time Top Songs " list .
= = Later versions = =
Frank Sinatra recorded " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " without the spoken bridge for his 1962 album , All Alone , and the Lettermen included the song on their 1964 album She Cried . Pat Boone recorded a version ( also without the spoken bridge ) in 1966 for his album , Memories . Doris Day recorded the song on June 6 , 1967 , for The Love Album .
Italian singer , Bobby Solo , recorded it both in English and Italian in the 1960s . " Ti senti sola stasera ? " can be viewed on YouTube.com.
Donny Osmond 's 1973 version is a B @-@ side to When I Fall in Love. and Merle Haggard 's cover on his 1977 album My Farewell to Elvis peaked at number 12 on Billboard 's Top Country Singles . A 1983 version by John Schneider peaked at number 53 on the Country Singles chart . In 1989 Sam Kinison performed a version of the song on The Tonight Show , substituting a bitter rant for the Shakespeare @-@ inspired bridge . Bryan Ferry 's version of " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was part of the soundtrack for 1992 's Honeymoon in Vegas .
= = Chart performance = =
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= Tropical Storm Laura ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Laura was a large but short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that developed over the north @-@ central Atlantic Ocean in late September during the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season . The 12th named storm of the season , Laura formed out of a large extratropical area of low pressure located about 1015 miles ( 1635 km ) west of the Azores on September 29 . Laura slowly developed tropical characteristics throughout the day as it moved over warmer waters . On the afternoon of September 30 , Laura had acquired enough tropical characteristics to be designated a Tropical Storm . Shortly after being declared tropical , Laura began to undergo an extratropical transition , which did not fully take place until the morning of October 1 . Laura degenerated into a post @-@ tropical cyclone later that morning , and the final advisory by the National Hurricane Center was issued . The remnants of Laura contributed to heavy rainfall and power outages in the British Isles , the Netherlands , and Norway on October 5 to 8 .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 26 , an extratropical area of low pressure developed along a quasi @-@ stationary frontal system a few hundred miles west of the Azores . The low intensified into the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 12 : 00 UTC on September 27 . Over the following days , the low began to lose its frontal features and began to transition into a subtropical cyclone as it traveled in a general westward direction . By September 29 , the low had developed sufficient convection and was declared Subtropical Storm Laura . Upon being upgraded , cold cloud tops began to wrap around the center of Laura and consolidate near the center of circulation . The convection organized around the center quickly and a satellite pass over the storm revealed that it could be intensifying . A later satellite pass disregarded the possibility of intensification as the intensity was confirmed to be at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The overall structure of Laura remained subtropical but there were indications that it was acquiring tropical characteristics .
During the afternoon , satellites revealed that Laura had developed a deep warm core , a characteristic of a tropical cyclone , but the wind field remained subtropical in nature . By the nighttime hours , the radius of the strongest winds contracted to 80 mi ( 130 km ) , much smaller than what is typical of a subtropical cyclone . However , Laura was still under the influence of an upper @-@ level low and cloud tops remained shallow . However , the cloud tops became colder overnight and Laura was on the verge of becoming a tropical cyclone by the morning of September 30 , but strong interaction with the upper @-@ level low meant it was still subtropical . Despite moving over colder waters , a water vapor satellite image determined that Laura had separated itself from the upper @-@ level low , signifying it had developed into a tropical cyclone . Laura was re @-@ classified as a tropical storm at a relatively high latitude , 40 @.@ 6 Β° N. Not long after being declared tropical , early signs of an extratropical transition appeared . Cold air began to enter the storm on the west side and forecast models showed Laura becoming extratropical the next morning and non @-@ tropical later the next day .
Overnight , convection associated with Laura began to diminish and lose tropical characteristics , but still retained its status . Early on October 1 , the extratropical transition was fully apparent . Laura remained tropical but the cloud pattern was becoming frontal and there was little convection around the center of the system . With minimal shower and thunderstorm activity remaining around the center of Laura , the storm degenerated into a remnant @-@ low pressure area on October 1 while still producing tropical storm @-@ force winds . The next day , the remnant system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and began to re @-@ intensify as it rapidly tracked towards the north . Early on October 3 , the system slowed down as it turned towards the east and strengthened into a hurricane @-@ force cyclone with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . After accelerating towards the east , another large extratropical cyclone absorbed the remnants of Laura while located several hundred miles west of the British Isles on October 4 .
= = Impact = =
As a tropical cyclone , Laura never approached land , and no damages or fatalities occurred . Since the storm remained over open waters for most of its life , several ships and oil platforms recorded tropical storm @-@ force winds . The highest recorded winds were at an oil platform with the call sign VEP717 at 03 : 00 UTC on October 1 . Winds were recorded up to 47 knots ( 54 mph ; 87 km / h ) . Despite the lack of impact , the storm 's remnants were caught in an upper @-@ level jet stream , and steered towards Europe . There , they contributed to heavy rainfall across portions of Britain on October 5 , causing localized accumulation of flood waters . As a result , Glebe Road near Windermere , England was closed in both directions , and along the A65 road between Old Hutton and Kirkby Lonsdale , previously saturated soil , combined with overwhelmed storm drains resulted in localized flooding . Traffic on the M6 Motorway was slowed due to poor driving conditions . One person had to be rescued from her car after driving into a flooded street . The UK Environment Agency issued 76 flood watches and 21 severe flood warnings as a result of the rainfall .
On October 8 , the remnants of Laura reached the Netherlands . At the time , its rain bands began interacting with a cold front associated with a well @-@ developed low west of Norway , dropping up to 113 mm ( 4 @.@ 4 in ) of precipitation in the northwestern Netherlands . Consequently , streets and homes in the village of Hippolytushoef were reportedly inundated . The large amounts of precipitation broke the daily and monthly rainfall records for October , which were previously set in 2006 . Gradually passing through Norway , the remnants of the storm caused significant damage to electric utilities . As a result , more than 10 @,@ 000 people lost power in southern parts of the country .
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= European Coal and Steel Community =
The European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) was an international organisation serving to unify certain Continental European countries after World War II . It was formally established in 1951 by the Treaty of Paris , which was signed by Belgium , France , West Germany , Italy , the Netherlands and Luxembourg . The ECSC was the first international organisation to be based on the principles of supranationalism , and would ultimately lead the way to the founding of the European Union .
The ECSC was first proposed by French foreign minister Robert Schuman on 9 May 1950 as a way to prevent further war between France and Germany . He declared his aim was to " make war not only unthinkable but materially impossible " which was to be achieved by regional integration , of which the ECSC was the first step . The Treaty would create a common market for coal and steel among its member states which served to neutralise competition between European nations over natural resources , particularly in the Ruhr .
The ECSC was run by four institutions : a High Authority composed of independent appointees , a Common Assembly composed of national parliamentarians , a Special Council composed of nation ministers , and a Court of Justice . These would ultimately form the blueprint for today 's European Commission , European Parliament , the Council of the European Union and the European Court of Justice .
The ECSC was joined by two other similar communities in 1957 , the European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community , with whom it shared its membership and some institutions . In 1967 all its institutions were merged with that of the European Economic Community , but it retained its own independent legal personality . In 2002 the Treaty of Paris expired and all the ECSC activities and resources were absorbed by the European Community .
= = History = =
As Prime Minister and Foreign Minister , Schuman was instrumental in turning French policy away from the Gaullist policy of permanent occupation or control of parts of German territory such as the Ruhr or the Saar . Despite stiff ultra @-@ nationalist , Gaullist and communist opposition , the French Assembly voted a number of resolutions in favour of his new policy of integrating Germany into a community . The International Authority for the Ruhr changed in consequence . Schuman 's guiding principles were moral , based on the equality of states ( international democracy ) , not the power politics of domination .
= = = Schuman declaration = = =
The Schuman Declaration of 9 May 1950 ( later known as Europe Day ) occurred after two Cabinet meetings , when the proposal became French government policy . France was thus the first government to agree to surrender sovereignty in a supranational Community . That decision was based on a text , written and edited by Schuman 's friend and colleague , the Foreign Ministry lawyer , Paul Reuter with the assistance of Jean Monnet and Schuman 's Directeur de Cabinet , Bernard Clappier . It laid out a plan for a European Community to pool the coal and steel of its members in a common market .
Schuman proposed that " Franco @-@ German production of coal and steel as a whole be placed under a common High Authority , within the framework of an organisation open to the participation of the other countries of Europe . " Such an act was intended to help economic growth and cement peace between France and Germany , who were historic enemies . Coal and steel were vital resources needed for a country to wage war , so pooling those resources between two such enemies was seen as more than symbolic . Schuman saw the decision of the French government on his proposal as the first example of a democratic and supranational Community , a new development in world history . The plan was also seen by some , like Monnet , who crossed out Reuter 's mention of ' supranational ' in the draft and inserted ' federation ' , as a first step to a " European federation " .
The Schuman Declaration that created the ECSC had several distinct aims :
It would mark the birth of a united Europe .
It would make war between member states impossible .
It would encourage world peace .
It would transform Europe in a ' step by step ' process ( building through sectoral supranational communities ) leading to the unification of Europe democratically , unifying two political blocks separated by the Iron Curtain .
It would create the world 's first supranational institution .
It would create the world 's first international anti @-@ cartel agency .
It would create a common market across the Community .
It would , starting with the coal and steel sector , revitalise the whole European economy by similar community processes .
It would improve the world economy and the developing countries , such as those in Africa .
Firstly , it was intended to prevent further war between France and Germany and other states by tackling the root cause of war . The ECSC was primarily conceived with France and Germany in mind : " The coming together of the nations of Europe requires the elimination of the age @-@ old opposition of France and Germany . Any action taken must in the first place concern these two countries . " The coal and steel industries being essential for the production of munitions , Schuman believed that by uniting these two industries across France and Germany under an innovative supranational system that also included a European anti @-@ cartel agency , he could " make war not only unthinkable but materially impossible . " Schuman had another aim : " With increased resources Europe will be able to pursue the achievement of one of its essential tasks , namely , the development of the African continent . " Industrial cartels tended to impose " restrictive practices " on national markets , whereas the ECSC would ensure the increased production necessary for their ambitions in Africa .
= = = Political pressures = = =
In West Germany , Schuman kept the closest contacts with the new generation of democratic politicians . Karl Arnold , the Minister President of North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , the province that included the coal and steel producing Ruhr , was initially spokesman for German foreign affairs . He gave a number of speeches and broadcasts on a supranational coal and steel community at the same time as Robert Schuman began to propose this Community in 1948 and 1949 . The Social Democratic Party of Germany ( German : Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands , SPD ) , in spite of support from unions and other socialists in Europe , decided it would oppose the Schuman plan . Kurt Schumacher 's personal distrust of France , capitalism , and Konrad Adenauer aside , he claimed that a focus on integrating with a " Little Europe of the Six " would override the SPD 's prime objective of German reunification and thus empower ultra @-@ nationalist and Communist movements in democratic countries . He also thought the ECSC would end any hopes of nationalising the steel industry and lock in a Europe of " cartels , clerics and conservatives . " Younger members of the party like Carlo Schmid , were , however , in favor of the Community and pointed to the long socialist support for the supranational idea .
In France , Schuman had gained strong political and intellectual support from all sections of the nation and many non @-@ communist parties . Notable amongst these were ministerial colleague Andre Philip , president of the Foreign Relations Committee Edouard Bonnefous , and former prime minister , Paul Reynaud . Projects for a coal and steel authority and other supranational communities were formulated in specialist subcommittees of the Council of Europe in the period before it became French government policy . Charles de Gaulle , who was then out of power , had been an early supporter of " linkages " between economies , on French terms , and had spoken in 1945 of a " European confederation " that would exploit the resources of the Ruhr . However , he opposed the ECSC as a faux ( false ) pooling ( " le pool , ce faux semblant " ) because he considered it an unsatisfactory " piecemeal approach " to European unity and because he considered the French government " too weak " to dominate the ECSC as he thought proper . De Gaulle also felt that the ECSC had insufficient supranational authority because the Assembly was not ratified by a European referendum and he did not accept Raymond Aron 's contention that the ECSC was intended as a movement away from United States domination . Consequently , de Gaulle and his followers in the RPF voted against ratification in the lower house of the French Parliament .
Despite these attacks and those from the extreme left , the ECSC found substantial public support , and so it was established . It gained strong majority votes in all eleven chambers of the parliaments of the Six , as well as approval among associations and European public opinion . In 1950 , many had thought another war was inevitable . The steel and coal interests , however , were quite vocal in their opposition . The Council of Europe , created by a proposal of Schuman 's first government in May 1948 , helped articulate European public opinion and gave the Community idea positive support .
= = = Treaties = = =
The 100 @-@ article Treaty of Paris , which established the ECSC , was signed on 18 April 1951 by " the inner six " : France , West Germany , Italy , Belgium , the Netherlands and Luxembourg ( Benelux ) . The ECSC was the first international organisation to be based on supranational principles and was , through the establishment of a common market for coal and steel , intended to expand the economies , increase employment , and raise the standard of living within the Community . The market was also intended to progressively rationalise the distribution of high level production whilst ensuring stability and employment . The common market for coal was opened on 10 February 1953 , and for steel on 1 May 1953 . Upon taking effect , the ECSC gradually replaced the International Authority for the Ruhr .
On 11 August 1952 , the United States was the first non @-@ ECSC member to recognise the Community and stated it would now deal with the ECSC on coal and steel matters , establishing its delegation in Brussels . Monnet responded by choosing Washington , D. C. as the site of the ECSC 's first external presence . The headline of the delegation 's first bulletin read " Towards a Federal Government of Europe " .
Six years after the Treaty of Paris , the Treaties of Rome were signed by the six ECSC members , creating the European Economic Community ( EEC ) and the European Atomic Energy Community ( EAEC or ' Euratom ' ) . These Communities were based , with some adjustments , on the ECSC . The Treaties of Rome were to be in force indefinitely , unlike the Treaty of Paris , which was to expire after fifty years . These two new Communities worked on the creation of a customs union and nuclear power community respectively . The Rome treaties were hurried through just before de Gaulle was given emergency powers and proclaimed the Fifth Republic . Despite his efforts to ' chloroform ' the Communities , their fields rapidly expanded and the EEC became the most important tool for political unification , overshadowing the ECSC .
= = = Merger and expiration = = =
Despite being separate legal entities , the ECSC , EEC and Euratom initially shared the Common Assembly and the European Court of Justice , although the Councils and the High Authority / Commissions remained separate . To avoid duplication , the Merger Treaty merged these separate bodies of the ECSC and Euratom with the EEC . The EEC later became one of the three pillars of the present day European Union .
The Treaty of Paris was frequently amended as the EC and EU evolved and expanded . With the treaty due to expire in 2002 , debate began at the beginning of the 1990s on what to do with it . It was eventually decided that it should be left to expire . The areas covered by the ECSC 's treaty were transferred to the Treaty of Rome and the financial loose ends and the ECSC research fund were dealt with via a protocol of the Treaty of Nice . The treaty finally expired on 23 July 2002 . That day , the ECSC flag was lowered for the final time outside the European Commission in Brussels and replaced with the EU flag .
= = = Timeline of treaties = = =
= = Institutions = =
The institutions of the ECSC were the High Authority , the Common Assembly , the Special Council of Ministers and the Court of Justice . A Consultative Committee was established alongside the High Authority , as a fifth institution representing civil society . This was the first international representation of consumers in history . These institutions were merged in 1967 with those of the European Community , which then governed the ECSC , except for the Committee , which continued to be independent until the expiration of the Treaty of Paris in 2002 .
The Treaty stated that the location of the institutions would be decided by common accord of the members , yet the issue was hotly contested . As a temporary compromise , the institutions were provisionally located in the City of Luxembourg , despite the Assembly being based in Strasbourg .
= = = High Authority = = =
The High Authority ( the predecessor to the European Commission ) was a nine @-@ member executive body which governed the Community . The Authority consisted of nine members in office for a term of six years . Eight of these members were appointed by the governments of the six signatories . These eight members then themselves appointed a ninth person to be President of the High Authority .
Despite being appointed by agreement of national governments acting together , the members were to pledge not to represent their national interest , but rather took an oath to defend the general interests of the Community as a whole . Their independence was aided by members being barred from having any occupation outside the Authority or having any business interests ( paid or unpaid ) during their tenure and for three years after they left office . To further ensure impartiality , one third of the membership was to be renewed every two years ( article 10 ) .
The Authority 's principal innovation was its supranational character . It had a broad area of competence to ensure the objectives of the treaty were met and that the common market functioned smoothly . The High Authority could issue three types of legal instruments : Decisions , which were entirely binding laws ; Recommendations , which had binding aims but the methods were left to member states ; and Opinions , which had no legal force .
Up to the merger in 1967 , the authority had five Presidents followed by an interim President serving for the final days .
= = = Other institutions = = =
The Common Assembly ( which later became the European Parliament ) was composed of 78 representatives and exercised supervisory powers over the executive High Authority . The Common Assembly representatives were to be national MPs delegated each year by their Parliaments to the Assembly or directly elected ' by universal suffrage ' ( article 21 ) , though in practice it was the former , as there was no requirement for elections until the Treaties of Rome and no actual election until 1979 , as Rome required agreement in the Council on the electoral system first . However , to emphasise that the chamber was not a traditional international organisation composed of representatives of national governments , the Treaty of Paris used the term " representatives of the peoples " . The Assembly was not originally specified in the Schuman Plan because it was hoped the Community would use the institutions ( Assembly , Court ) of the Council of Europe . When this became impossible because of British objections , separate institutions had to be created . The Assembly was intended as a democratic counter @-@ weight and check to the High Authority , to advise but also to have power to sack the Authority for incompetence , injustice , corruption or fraud . The first President ( akin to a Speaker ) was Paul @-@ Henri Spaak .
The Special Council of Ministers ( equivalent to the current Council of the European Union ) was composed of representatives of national governments . The Presidency was held by each state for a period of three months , rotating between them in alphabetical order . One of its key aspects was the harmonisation of the work of the High Authority and that of national governments , which were still responsible for the state 's general economic policies . The Council was also required to issue opinions on certain areas of work of the High Authority . Issues relating only to coal and steel were in the exclusive domain of the High Authority , and in these areas the Council ( unlike the modern Council ) could only act as a scrutiny on the Authority . However , areas outside coal and steel required the consent of the Council .
The Court of Justice was to ensure the observation of ECSC law along with the interpretation and application of the Treaty . The Court was composed of seven judges , appointed by common accord of the national governments for six years . There were no requirements that the judges had to be of a certain nationality , simply that they be qualified and that their independence be beyond doubt . The Court was assisted by two Advocates General .
The Consultative Committee ( similar to the Economic and Social Committee ) had between 30 and 50 members equally divided between producers , workers , consumers and dealers in the coal and steel sector . Again , there was no national quotas , and the treaty requires representatives of European associations to organise their own democratic procedures . They were to establish rules to make their membership fully ' representative ' for democratic organised civil society . Members were appointed for two years and were not bound by any mandate or instruction of the organisations which appointed them . The Committee had a plenary assembly , bureau and president . Again , the required democratic procedures were not introduced and nomination of these members remained in the hands of national ministers . The High Authority was obliged to consult the Committee in certain cases where it was appropriate and to keep it informed . The Consultative Committee remained separate ( despite the merger of the other institutions ) until 2002 , when the Treaty expired and its duties were taken over by the Economic and Social Committee ( ESC ) . Despite its independence , the Committee did cooperate with the ESC when they were consulted on the same issue .
= = Achievements and failures = =
Its mission ( article 2 ) was general : to ' contribute to the expansion of the economy , the development of employment and the improvement of the standard of living ' of its citizens . The Community had little effect on coal and steel production , which was influenced more by global trends . Trade between members did increase ( tenfold for steel ) which saved members ' money by not having to import resources from the United States . The High Authority also issued 280 modernization loans to the industry which helped the industry to improve output and reduce costs . Costs were further reduced by the abolition of tariffs at borders .
Among the ECSC 's greatest achievements are those on welfare issues . Some mines , for example were clearly unsustainable without government subsidies . Some miners had extremely poor housing . Over 15 years it financed 112 @,@ 500 flats for workers , paying US $ 1 @,@ 770 per flat , enabling workers to buy a home they could not have otherwise afforded . The ECSC also paid half the occupational redeployment costs of those workers who have lost their jobs as coal and steel facilities began to close down . Combined with regional redevelopment aid the ECSC spent $ 150 million creating 100 @,@ 000 jobs , a third of which were for unemployed coal and steel workers . The welfare guarantees invented by the ECSC were extended to workers outside the coal and steel sector by some of its members .
Far more important than creating Europe 's first social and regional policy , it is argued that the ECSC introduced European peace . It involved the continent 's first European tax . This was a flat tax , a levy on production with a maximum rate of one percent . Given that the European Community countries are now experiencing the longest period of peace in more than seventy years , this has been described as the cheapest tax for peace in history . Another world war , or ' world suicide ' as Schuman called this threat in 1949 , was avoided . In October 1953 Schuman said that the possibility of another European war had been eliminated . Reasoning had to prevail among member states .
However the ECSC failed to achieve several fundamental aims of the Treaty of Paris . It was hoped the ECSC would prevent a resurgence of large coal and steel groups such as the Konzerne , which helped Adolf Hitler rise to power . In the Cold War trade @-@ offs , the cartels and major companies re @-@ emerged , leading to apparent price fixing ( another element that was meant to be tackled ) . With a democratic supervisory system the worst aspects of past abuse were avoided with the anti @-@ cartel powers of the Authority , the first international anti @-@ cartel agency in the world . Efficient firms were allowed to expand into a European market without undue domination . Oil , gas , electricity became natural competitors to coal and also broke cartel powers . Furthermore , with the move to oil , the Community failed to define a proper energy policy . The Euratom treaty was largely stifled by de Gaulle and the European governments refused the suggestion of an Energy Community involving electricity and other vectors that was suggested at Messina in 1955 . In a time of high inflation and monetary instability ECSC also fell short of ensuring an upward equalisation of pay of workers within the market . These failures could be put down to overambition in a short period of time , or that the goals were merely political posturing to be ignored . It has been argued that the greatest achievements of the European Coal and Steel Community lie in its revolutionary democratic concepts of a supranational Community .
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= Old Dan Tucker =
" Old Dan Tucker " , also known as " Ole Dan Tucker " , " Dan Tucker " , and other variants , is a popular American song . Its origins remain obscure ; the tune may have come from oral tradition , and the words may have been written by songwriter and performer Dan Emmett . The blackface troupe the Virginia Minstrels popularized " Old Dan Tucker " in 1843 , and it quickly became a minstrel hit , behind only " Miss Lucy Long " and " Mary Blane " in popularity during the antebellum period . " Old Dan Tucker " entered the folk vernacular around the same time . Today it is a bluegrass and country music standard . It is no . 390 in the Roud Folk Song Index .
The first sheet music edition of " Old Dan Tucker " , published in 1843 , is a song of boasts and nonsense in the vein of previous minstrel hits such as " Jump Jim Crow " and " Gumbo Chaff " . In exaggerated Black Vernacular English , the lyrics tell of Dan Tucker 's exploits in a strange town , where he fights , gets drunk , overeats , and breaks other social taboos . Minstrel troupes freely added and removed verses , and folk singers have since added hundreds more . Parodies and political versions are also known .
The song falls into the idiom of previous minstrel music , relying on rhythm and text declamation as its primary motivation . Its melody is simple and the harmony little developed . Nevertheless , contemporary critics found the song more pleasant than previous minstrel fare . Musicologist Dale Cockrell argues that the song represents a transition between early minstrel music and the more European @-@ style songs of minstrelsy 's later years .
= = Lyrics = =
" Old Dan Tucker " as originally published exemplifies the masculine boasting songs that predominated in early minstrelsy . Modern analysts emphasize the song 's rawness , racism , and disdain for social taboos . In ersatz Black Vernacular English , the song uses short , active words such as runnin and cryin , to portray Dan Tucker as a rough @-@ and @-@ ready black man in the mold of Jim Crow , Gumbo Chaff , and ultimately the tall tale frontiersman :
I come to town de udder night ,
I hear de noise an saw de fight ,
De watchman was a runnin roun ,
Cryin Old Dan Tucker 's come to town .
Gran ' Chorus .
So get out de way ! Get out de way !
Get out de way ! Old Dan Tucker .
You 're too late to come to supper .
Tucker is an animalistic character , driven by sex , violence , and strong drink . He is ugly , unrefined , and unintelligent , even infantilized . As a stranger in town , his devil @-@ may @-@ care actions show his problems with or ambivalence to adapting to local mores . More broadly , Tucker 's disdain for social norms allows the song to send up respectable middle class American society , as evidenced by the final verse :
Tucker was a hardened sinner ,
He nebber said his grace at dinner ;
De ole sow squeel , de pigs did squall
He ' hole hog wid de tail and all .
Other verses are simply nonsense that do not go along with the main narrative . Their lines seem to serve no other purpose than to make a rhyme or extend the patter scheme . The third verse is one example :
Here 's my razor in good order
Magnum bonum β jis hab bought ' er ;
Sheep shell oats , Tucker shell de corn ,
I 'll shabe you soon as de water get warm .
Dan Tucker is both the teller and subject of the story . Verses 1 , 3 , and 5 of the 1843 edition are in the first person , whereas verses 2 , 4 , and 7 are in the third . This reflects the song 's intended performance by an entire minstrel troupe . The lead minstrel played Tucker and began the song , but backup singers took over at times to allow Tucker to act out the scenario , dance , and do another comedy bit . There was probably an element of competition to the various dance and music solos . The third @-@ person verses also allowed for commentary to suggest to the audience how they were to judge the character and his antics .
Individual companies probably selectively performed verses from the song or added new ones . For example , the Virginia Serenaders added verses about the Irish , Dutch , and French . At least four versions of the song were published with different lyrics during the 19th century . A parody called " Clar de Track " appears in some playbills and songsters .
= = = Folk versions = = =
" Old Dan Tucker " entered American folklore soon after it was written . Its simple and malleable nature means that singers may begin or end it at any point or invent new verses on the spot . In fact , hundreds of folk verses have been recorded . This is a common folk variant :
Old Daniel Tucker wuz a mighty man ,
He washed his face in a fryin ' pan ;
Combed his head wid a wagon wheel
And he died wid de toofache in his heel .
A common chorus variant goes :
So , git outa de way for old Dan Tucker ,
He 's come too late to git his supper .
Supper 's over and breakfast cookin ' ,
Old Dan Tucker standin ' lookin ' .
For decades " Old Dan Tucker " was used as part of a dancing game . The players formed a ring , and one man moved to the center . He selected women to swing around according to the lyrics :
Here 's old Dan , he comes to town ;
He swings the ladies round and round .
He swings one east , he swings one west ,
He swings with the one he loves the best .
The third woman chosen then became his new partner , and her old partner now took the role of " Old Dan " .
These folk versions can be quite ribald . This one , recalled by a man from his boyhood in Benton County , Arkansas , in the 1910s , is one example :
Old Dan Tucker was a fine old soul ,
Buckskin belly and a rubber ass @-@ hole ,
Swallowed a barrel of cider down
And then he shit all over town .
Another version , sung by Charles Edward Carpenter β a Lawrenceburg , Tennessee business man and World War II Veteran ( born in Crewstown , TN ) β to his children and grandchildren in Middle Tennessee during the mid- to late 1900s speaks of Old Dan Tucker 's love of a hard drink . The last line appears to have been sung in the first person ( " Oh my goodness , what 'll I do ? ) :
Old Dan Tucker , he got drunk ,
He fell in the far ( fire ) and kicked up a chunk ,
A red hot coal fell down his shoe ,
Oh my goodness , what 'll I do ?
Go on home , ole Dan Tucker ,
You 're too late to get your supper .
" Old Dan Tucker " entered the folklore of slaves as well . This version from Orange County , North Carolina , was recorded in the 1850s :
Marster and Missus look ' might fine β
Gwine to take a journey , gwine whar dey gwine ,
Crab grass a @-@ dyin ' , red sun in de west ,
Saturday 's comin ' , nigger gwine to rest .
= = = Political versions = = =
The original " Old Dan Tucker " and most folk variants are not political in nature . However , as early as 1844 , the Hutchinson Family Singers were performing " Get off the Track ! " to its tune , billed as " A song for emancipation " One verse and the chorus say :
Ho ! the car Emancipation
Rides majestic thro ' our nation ,
Bearing on its train the story ;
Liberty ! a nation 's glory .
Get out the way ! Every station !
Freedom 's car , Emancipation !
That same year , supporters of Henry Clay at a Whig rally sang a version that makes references to Clay ( " Ole Kentucky " ) , Martin Van Buren , and James Buchanan :
The people 's fav 'rite , Henry Clay , is now the ' fashion ' of the day ;
And let the track be dry or mucky , we 'll stake our pile on Ole Kentucky .
Get out of the way , he 's swift and lucky ; clear the track for Ole Kentucky !
In 1856 , supporters of John C. FrΓ©mont 's run for the Republican Party nomination adopted the tune as his campaign song with the changed refrain " Get out the way , old Buchanan " . William Jennings Bryan 's campaign song for the 1900 Democratic National Convention in Kansas City , Missouri , changed the lyrics to say :
Voters , come and hear my ditty ,
What was done at Kansas City :
David Hill , the New York lion ,
Nominated Billy Bryan .
Get out of the way , you Grand Old Party ,
You 're so old , you 're getting warty .
A version popular during the American Civil War adds references to Abraham Lincoln :
Old Abe is coming down to fight ,
And put the Democrats to flight ;
He 's coming with the wedge and maul
And he will split ' em one and all .
Get out the way , you little giant
You can 't come in , you 're too short and pliant .
= = Structure = =
" Old Dan Tucker " is a breakdown , a dance song wherein the rhythmic accent falls on the second and fourth beats rather than on the third . The song is largely Anglo @-@ American in nature , although it has black influences . Its repetitive melodic idiom matches that of earlier minstrel standards , such as " Jump Jim Crow " , " Coal Black Rose " , and " Old Zip Coon " .
The song consists of 28 bars . It begins with a boisterous eight @-@ bar introduction . Four bars follow to frame the coda . The remainder consists of sixteen bars with lyrics , half devoted to verse , and half to refrain . Each phrase gives way directly to the next with no rests between sections .
Rhythm is perhaps the most important component of " Old Dan Tucker " . It begins with a cadenced introduction and little melody . Even when the tune begins in earnest , it is flat and non @-@ harmonized and does little more than provide a beat on which words are uttered . The refrain is syncopated in a way that had only previously been used in the minstrel song " Old Zip Coon " . The intense rhythm on the line " Get out the way ! " generates a forward momentum and is answered by instruments in one example of the song 's black @-@ influenced call and response .
" Old Dan Tucker " was , of course , intended for stage performance . The verses are not only to be played but also acted out and danced to . Minstrels could begin leaping about at the introduction and coda , beginning the full music at the vocal section . Performers probably included instrumental versions of the chorus while they played , a rare practice in early minstrelsy .
Musicologist Dale Cockrell argues that " Old Dan Tucker " in fact represents a bridge between the percussive blackface songs of the 1830s and the more refined compositions of songwriters such as Stephen Foster . Cockrell says that , unlike previous minstrel songs , " Old Dan Tucker " is meant for more than just dancing ; its tune is developed enough to stand on its own . Contemporary critics certainly noticed the difference . Y. S. Nathanson called it " the best of what I have denominated the ancient negro ballads . The melody is far superior to anything that had preceded it . " Nathanson compared the song to works by Gaetano Donizetti and Daniel Auber .
= = Composition = =
The origin of the music of " Old Dan Tucker " has always been obscure , and no sheet music edition from 1843 , its year of its first publication , names a composer . The first performance of the tune ( but not lyrics ) may have happened as early as 1841 . The music may in fact be from the oral tradition or may have been a product of collaboration .
Nevertheless , " Old Dan Tucker " has been credited to at least three different songwriters : Dan Emmett , J. R. Jenkins , and Henry Russell . In his old age , Emmett related the traditional story to his biographer , H. Ogden Wintermute : " I composed Old Dan Tucker in 1830 or 1831 , when I was fifteen or sixteen years old . " The biography claims that Emmett first played the song in public at a performance by a group of traveling entertainers . They lacked a fiddle player , and the local innkeeper suggested young Emmett to fill in . Emmett played " Old Dan Tucker " to the troupe manager 's liking , and he debuted on the Mount Vernon , Ohio , village green in blackface to perform the song on the Fourth of July . Wintermute claims that the name Dan Tucker is a combination of Emmett 's own name and that of his dog . However , there is no evidence for any of this . Instead , Emmett may merely have written the words . Even these seem to partially derive from an earlier minstrel song called " Walk Along John " or " Oh , Come Along John " , first published in various songsters in the early 1840s . Some verses have clear echoes in versions of " Old Dan Tucker " :
Johnny law on de rail road track ,
He tied de engine on his back ;
He pair 's his corn wid a rail road wheel ,
It gib ' em de tooth ache in de heel .
The Charles Keith company published " Old Dan Tucker " in Boston , Massachusetts , in 1843 . The sheet music credits words to Dan Emmett but says that the song is from " Old Dan Emmit 's Original Banjo Melodies " . The lack of attribution of the melody may be another sign that Emmett did not write it .
= = = Possible slave origin = = =
A story dating to at least 1965 claims that " Old Dan Tucker " was written by slaves about a man named Daniel Tucker who lived in Elbert County , Georgia . Tucker was a farmer , ferryman , and minister who appears in records from the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The story , as related by Mrs. Guy Rucker , the great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of one of Tucker 's neighbors , claims that Tucker became quite well liked by the slaves in his area through his ministry to them .
According to this interpretation , the lyrics address Tucker directly . The chorus , " You 're too late to get your supper " is a kindhearted taunt to a man who often arrived after dark , forcing his hosts to scrape up a meal for him . The song 's occasional lewdness is explained by the natural impromptu nature of its supposed origin .
" Old Dan Tucker " does show evidence of black influence . For example , bizarre imagery in folk versions of the song ( e.g. , " toothache in his heel " ) may be a sign of legitimate black input ( or of someone poking fun of slaves who had an incomplete knowledge of English ) . " Old Dan Tucker " most closely resembles African music in its call @-@ and @-@ response refrain .
Daniel Tucker was buried in Elbert County in 1818 . The Elbert County Chamber of Commerce today promotes his grave as a tourist attraction due to his possible connection with the character from the song .
= = Popularity = =
In December 1842 and January 1843 , Dan Emmett portrayed the character Old Dan Tucker in solo and duo performances ; the playbills do not indicate whether he included the song in his act . The Virginia Minstrels probably made " Old Dan Tucker " a regular part of their show beginning with their first performance at the Bowery Amphitheatre on February 6 , 1843 . Their minstrel show also included a comic scene loosely based on the song , " Dan Tucker on Horseback " , about a black riding master . The piece starred Richard Pelham in the title role and Frank Brower as a black clown . " Old Dan Tucker " did not appear on a Virginia Minstrels playbill until a March 7 and 8 performance at Boston 's Masonic Temple . There , the playbill described it as " OLD DAN TUCKER , a Virginian Refrain , in which is described the ups and downs of Negro life . " As early as February 15 , Emmett billed himself as " Old Dan Emmett " .
By the end of March , " Old Dan Tucker " was a hit , and it quickly became the Virginia Minstrels ' most popular song . Robert Winans found the song on 49 % of the minstrel playbills he surveyed from the 1843 β 1847 period ( behind only " Miss Lucy Long " ) , and research by musicologist William J. Mahar suggests that it was behind only " Mary Blane " and " Lucy Long " in its frequency of publication in antebellum songsters . The next year , Dan Tucker returned in the popular " Ole Bull and Old Dan Tucker " , which pits him against Ole Bull in a contest of skill . Sequels such as " De New Ole Dan Tucker " and " Old Dan Tucker 's Wedding " followed . Other companies adopted Tucker for comedy sketches , such as burlesques of La sonnambula by Buckley 's Serenaders in 1850 and Sanford 's Opera Troupe in 1853 .
The song became so identified with Emmett and the Virginia Minstrels that it became part of their foundation myth . Billy Whitlock and George B. Wooldridge both claimed that the troupe members played " Old Dan Tucker " in their first impromptu performance together :
. . . as if by accident , each one picked up his tools and joined in a chorus of " Old Dan Tucker , " while Emmett was playing and singing . It went well , and they repeated it without saying a word . Each did his best , and such a rattling of the principal and original instruments in a minstrel band was never heard before .
Emmett repeated this story in the May 19 , 1877 , New York Clipper , although other details changed . The press began to refer to Emmett as " Ole Dan Tucker " , and Emmett eventually adopted the nickname . The Virginia Minstrels sometimes went by " Ole Dan Tucker and Co . " They were called " Old Dan Tucker & Co . , " either by themselves or by the press , as early as February 16 , 1843 .
The song 's disdain for the customs of the upper classes hit a chord with working class audiences . On January 28 , 1843 , The New York Sporting Whip reported that the song had been adopted by a Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , street gang called the Hallow Guards . As their leader , Stovepipe Bill , led them against a military raid , he sang the verses followed by the gang singing the chorus . Two years later , The Knickerbocker remarked , " At this present moment , a certain ubiquitous person seems to be in the way of the whole people of these United States simultaneously . " Nathanson claimed that " Old Dan Tucker " had " been sung , perhaps , oftener than any melody ever written . "
In 1871 , 28 years after its first published edition , Board and Trade listed editions of " Old Dan Tucker " in print from seven different publishers . The song had by default fallen into the public domain . In later decades , " Old Dan Tucker " became a standard of bluegrass and country music , with recordings by such artists as Fiddlin ' John Carson , Uncle Dave Macon , Pete Seeger , and Gid Tanner and his Skillet Lickers . It is referred to in John Steinbeck 's novel The Grapes of Wrath . More recently , rock musician Bruce Springsteen made a recording . Children 's music collections frequently feature the song and it has been covered by children 's group The Wiggles with Australian country performer Troy Cassar @-@ Daley . In Joel Chandler Harris ' Uncle Remus , it appears in the context of powerless Crawfish trying to be heard in an assembly of animals , and Harris writes , " but dey might ez well er sung Ole Dan Tucker ter a harrycane . " In the 1935 novel Little House on the Prairie by Laura Ingalls Wilder , the character Mr. Edwards sings the song as his trademark ; accordingly , the Little House on the Prairie television series from the 1970s and 1980s uses the song as a leitmotif for the character .
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= Dinosaur =
Dinosaurs are a diverse group of animals of the clade Dinosauria that first appeared during the Triassic period . Although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research , the current scientific consensus places their origin between 231 and 243 million years ago . They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic β Jurassic extinction event 201 million years ago . Their dominance continued through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods and ended when the Cretaceous @-@ Paleogene extinction event led to the extinction of most dinosaur groups 66 million years ago .
Until the late 20th century , all groups of dinosaurs were believed to be extinct ; however , the fossil record indicates that birds are the modern descendants of feathered dinosaurs , having evolved from theropod ancestors during the Jurassic Period , and are now termed " avian dinosaurs " . As such , birds were the only dinosaur lineage to survive the mass extinction event . Throughout the remainder of this article , the term " dinosaur " is sometimes used generically to refer to both the avian and non @-@ avian dinosaurs combined , while at other times it is used to refer to the non @-@ avian dinosaurs specifically , and the avian dinosaurs are sometimes simply referred to as " birds " . This article deals primarily with non @-@ avian dinosaurs .
Dinosaurs are a varied group of animals from taxonomic , morphological and ecological standpoints . Birds , at over 10000 living species , are the most diverse group of vertebrates besides perciform fish . Using fossil evidence , paleontologists have identified over 500 distinct genera and more than 1000 different species of non @-@ avian dinosaurs .
Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species and fossil remains . Some are herbivorous , others carnivorous . While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal , many extinct groups included quadrupedal species , and some were able to shift between these stances . Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups , and some extinct groups developed skeletal modifications such as bony armor and spines . Evidence suggests that egg laying and nest building are additional traits shared by all dinosaurs .
While the modern @-@ day surviving lineage of dinosaurs ( birds ) are generally small due to the constraints of flight , many prehistoric dinosaurs were large @-@ bodied β the largest sauropod dinosaurs are estimated to have reached lengths of 39 @.@ 7 meters ( 130 feet ) and heights of 18 meters ( 59 feet ) and were the largest land animals of all time . Still , the idea that non @-@ avian dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is a misconception based in part on preservation bias , as large , sturdy bones are more likely to last until they are fossilized . Many dinosaurs were quite small : Xixianykus , for example , was only about 50 cm ( 20 in ) long .
Although the word dinosaur literally means " terrible lizard " , the name is something of an etymological misnomer ; even though dinosaurs are reptiles , they are not lizards , nor are they descended from them . Instead , dinosaurs , like many extinct forms of reptile sub @-@ groups , did not exhibit characteristics which were traditionally regarded as reptilian , such as a sprawling limb posture or ectothermy ( colloquially referred to as " cold @-@ bloodedness " ) . Additionally , many other prehistoric animals , including mosasaurs , ichthyosaurs , pterosaurs , plesiosaurs , and Dimetrodon , while often popularly conceived of as dinosaurs , are not taxonomically classified as dinosaurs .
Through the first half of the 20th century , before birds were recognized to be dinosaurs , most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish and cold @-@ blooded . Most research conducted since the 1970s , however , has indicated that all dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction .
Since the first dinosaur fossils were recognized in the early 19th century , mounted fossil dinosaur skeletons have been major attractions at museums around the world , and dinosaurs have become an enduring part of world culture . The large sizes of some dinosaur groups , as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature , have ensured dinosaurs ' regular appearance in best @-@ selling books and films , such as Jurassic Park . Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science , and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media .
= = Etymology = =
The taxon Dinosauria was formally named in 1842 by paleontologist Sir Richard Owen , who used it to refer to the " distinct tribe or sub @-@ order of Saurian Reptiles " that were then being recognized in England and around the world . The term is derived from the Greek words δΡινΟΟ ( deinos , meaning " terrible " , " potent " , or " fearfully great " ) and ΟΞ±αΏ¦ΟΞΏΟ ( sauros , meaning " lizard " or " reptile " ) . Though the taxonomic name has often been interpreted as a reference to dinosaurs ' teeth , claws , and other fearsome characteristics , Owen intended it merely to evoke their size and majesty .
= = Definition = =
Under phylogenetic nomenclature , dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of Triceratops , Neornithes [ modern birds ] , their most recent common ancestor ( MRCA ) , and all descendants . It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined with respect to the MRCA of Megalosaurus and Iguanodon , because these were two of the three genera cited by Richard Owen when he recognized the Dinosauria . Both definitions result in the same set of animals being defined as dinosaurs : " Dinosauria = Ornithischia + Saurischia " , encompassing theropods ( mostly bipedal carnivores and birds ) , ankylosaurians ( armored herbivorous quadrupeds ) , stegosaurians ( plated herbivorous quadrupeds ) , ceratopsians ( herbivorous quadrupeds with horns and frills ) , ornithopods ( bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores including " duck @-@ bills " ) , and sauropodomorphs ( mostly large herbivorous quadrupeds with long necks and tails ) .
Birds are now recognized as being the sole surviving lineage of theropod dinosaurs . In traditional taxonomy , birds were considered a separate class that had evolved from dinosaurs , a distinct superorder . However , a majority of contemporary paleontologists concerned with dinosaurs reject the traditional style of classification in favor of phylogenetic taxonomy ; this approach requires that , for a group to be natural , all descendants of members of the group must be included in the group as well . Birds are thus considered to be dinosaurs and dinosaurs are , therefore , not extinct . Birds are classified as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora , which are coelurosaurs , which are theropods , which are saurischians , which are dinosaurs .
= = = General description = = =
Using one of the above definitions , dinosaurs can be generally described as archosaurs with hind limbs held erect beneath the body . Many prehistoric animal groups are popularly conceived of as dinosaurs , such as ichthyosaurs , mosasaurs , plesiosaurs , pterosaurs , and pelycosaurs ( especially Dimetrodon ) , but are not classified scientifically as dinosaurs , and none had the erect hind limb posture characteristic of true dinosaurs . Dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates of the Mesozoic , especially the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods . Other groups of animals were restricted in size and niches ; mammals , for example , rarely exceeded the size of a cat , and were generally rodent @-@ sized carnivores of small prey .
Dinosaurs have always been an extremely varied group of animals ; according to a 2006 study , over 500 non @-@ avian dinosaur genera have been identified with certainty so far , and the total number of genera preserved in the fossil record has been estimated at around 1850 , nearly 75 % of which remain to be discovered . An earlier study predicted that about 3400 dinosaur genera existed , including many that would not have been preserved in the fossil record . By September 17 , 2008 , 1047 different species of dinosaurs had been named . Some are herbivorous , others carnivorous , including seed @-@ eaters , fish @-@ eaters , insectivores , and omnivores . While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal ( as are all modern birds ) , some prehistoric species were quadrupeds , and others , such as Ammosaurus and Iguanodon , could walk just as easily on two or four legs . Cranial modifications like horns and crests are common dinosaurian traits , and some extinct species had bony armor . Although known for large size , many Mesozoic dinosaurs were human @-@ sized or smaller , and modern birds are generally small in size . Dinosaurs today inhabit every continent , and fossils show that they had achieved global distribution by at least the early Jurassic period . Modern birds inhabit most available habitats , from terrestrial to marine , and there is evidence that some non @-@ avian dinosaurs ( such as Microraptor ) could fly or at least glide , and others , such as spinosaurids , had semi @-@ aquatic habits .
= = = Distinguishing anatomical features = = =
While recent discoveries have made it more difficult to present a universally agreed @-@ upon list of dinosaurs ' distinguishing features , nearly all dinosaurs discovered so far share certain modifications to the ancestral archosaurian skeleton , or are clear descendants of older dinosaurs showing these modifications . Although some later groups of dinosaurs featured further modified versions of these traits , they are considered typical for Dinosauria ; the earliest dinosaurs had them and passed them on to their descendants . Such modifications , originating in the last common ancestor of a certain taxonomic group , are called the synapomorphies of such a group .
A detailed assessment of archosaur interrelations by Sterling Nesbitt confirmed or found the following twelve unambiguous synapomorphies , some previously known :
in the skull , a supratemporal fossa ( excavation ) is present in front of the supratemporal fenestra , the main opening in the rear skull roof
epipophyses , obliquely backward pointing processes on the rear top corners , present in the anterior ( front ) neck vertebrae behind the atlas and axis , the first two neck vertebrae
apex of deltopectoral crest ( a projection on which the deltopectoral muscles attach ) located at or more than 30 % down the length of the humerus ( upper arm bone )
radius , a lower arm bone , shorter than 80 % of humerus length
fourth trochanter ( projection where the caudofemoralis muscle attaches on the inner rear shaft ) on the femur ( thighbone ) is a sharp flange
fourth trochanter asymmetrical , with distal , lower , margin forming a steeper angle to the shaft
on the astragalus and calcaneum , upper ankle bones , the proximal articular facet , the top connecting surface , for the fibula occupies less than 30 % of the transverse width of the element
exoccipitals ( bones at the back of the skull ) do not meet along the midline on the floor of the endocranial cavity , the inner space of the braincase
in the pelvis , the proximal articular surfaces of the ischium with the ilium and the pubis are separated by a large concave surface ( on the upper side of the ischium a part of the open hip joint is located between the contacts with the pubic bone and the ilium )
cnemial crest on the tibia ( protruding part of the top surface of the shinbone ) arcs anterolaterally ( curves to the front and the outer side )
distinct proximodistally oriented ( vertical ) ridge present on the posterior face of the distal end of the tibia ( the rear surface of the lower end of the shinbone )
concave articular surface for the fibula of the calcaneum ( the top surface of the calcaneum , where it touches the fibula , has a hollow profile )
Nesbitt found a number of further potential synapomorphies , and discounted a number of synapomorphies previously suggested . Some of these are also present in silesaurids , which Nesbitt recovered as a sister group to Dinosauria , including a large anterior trochanter , metatarsals II and IV of subequal length , reduced contact between ischium and pubis , the presence of a cnemial crest on the tibia and of an ascending process on the astragalus , and many others .
A variety of other skeletal features are shared by dinosaurs . However , because they are either common to other groups of archosaurs or were not present in all early dinosaurs , these features are not considered to be synapomorphies . For example , as diapsids , dinosaurs ancestrally had two pairs of temporal fenestrae ( openings in the skull behind the eyes ) , and as members of the diapsid group Archosauria , had additional openings in the snout and lower jaw . Additionally , several characteristics once thought to be synapomorphies are now known to have appeared before dinosaurs , or were absent in the earliest dinosaurs and independently evolved by different dinosaur groups . These include an elongated scapula , or shoulder blade ; a sacrum composed of three or more fused vertebrae ( three are found in some other archosaurs , but only two are found in Herrerasaurus ) ; and a perforate acetabulum , or hip socket , with a hole at the center of its inside surface ( closed in Saturnalia , for example ) . Another difficulty of determining distinctly dinosaurian features is that early dinosaurs and other archosaurs from the late Triassic are often poorly known and were similar in many ways ; these animals have sometimes been misidentified in the literature .
Dinosaurs stand with their hind limbs erect in a manner similar to most modern mammals , but distinct from most other reptiles , whose limbs sprawl out to either side . This posture is due to the development of a laterally facing recess in the pelvis ( usually an open socket ) and a corresponding inwardly facing distinct head on the femur . Their erect posture enabled early dinosaurs to breathe easily while moving , which likely permitted stamina and activity levels that surpassed those of " sprawling " reptiles . Erect limbs probably also helped support the evolution of large size by reducing bending stresses on limbs . Some non @-@ dinosaurian archosaurs , including rauisuchians , also had erect limbs but achieved this by a " pillar erect " configuration of the hip joint , where instead of having a projection from the femur insert on a socket on the hip , the upper pelvic bone was rotated to form an overhanging shelf .
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Origins and early evolution = = =
Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors during the middle to late Triassic period , roughly 20 million years after the Permian β Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 95 % of all life on Earth . Radiometric dating of the rock formation that contained fossils from the early dinosaur genus Eoraptor at 231 @.@ 4 million years old establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time . Paleontologists think that Eoraptor resembles the common ancestor of all dinosaurs ; if this is true , its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small , bipedal predators . The discovery of primitive , dinosaur @-@ like ornithodirans such as Marasuchus and Lagerpeton in Argentinian Middle Triassic strata supports this view ; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small , bipedal predators . Dinosaurs may have appeared as early as 243 million years ago , as evidenced by remains of the genus Nyasasaurus from that period , though known fossils of these animals are too fragmentary to tell if they are dinosaurs or very close dinosaurian relatives .
When dinosaurs appeared , they were not the dominant terrestrial animals . The terrestrial habitats were occupied by various types of archosauromorphs and therapsids , like cynodonts and rhynchosaurs . Their main competitors were the pseudosuchia , such as aetosaurs , ornithosuchids and rauisuchians , which were more successful than the dinosaurs . Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic , in one of two events . First , at about 215 million years ago , a variety of basal archosauromorphs , including the protorosaurs , became extinct . This was followed by the Triassic β Jurassic extinction event ( about 200 million years ago ) , that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs , like aetosaurs , ornithosuchids , phytosaurs , and rauisuchians . Rhynchosaurs and dicynodonts survived ( at least in some areas ) at least as late as early @-@ mid Norian and early Rhaetian , respectively , and the exact date of their extinction is uncertain . These losses left behind a land fauna of crocodylomorphs , dinosaurs , mammals , pterosaurians , and turtles . The first few lines of early dinosaurs diversified through the Carnian and Norian stages of the Triassic , possibly by occupying the niches of the groups that became extinct .
= = = Evolution and paleobiogeography = = =
Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic follows changes in vegetation and the location of continents . In the late Triassic and early Jurassic , the continents were connected as the single landmass Pangaea , and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of coelophysoid carnivores and early sauropodomorph herbivores . Gymnosperm plants ( particularly conifers ) , a potential food source , radiated in the late Triassic . Early sauropodomorphs did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth , and so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract . The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the middle and late Jurassic , where most localities had predators consisting of ceratosaurians , spinosauroids , and carnosaurians , and herbivores consisting of stegosaurian ornithischians and large sauropods . Examples of this include the Morrison Formation of North America and Tendaguru Beds of Tanzania . Dinosaurs in China show some differences , with specialized sinraptorid theropods and unusual , long @-@ necked sauropods like Mamenchisaurus . Ankylosaurians and ornithopods were also becoming more common , but prosauropods had become extinct . Conifers and pteridophytes were the most common plants . Sauropods , like the earlier prosauropods , were not oral processors , but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth , including potential cheek @-@ like organs to keep food in the mouth , and jaw motions to grind food . Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds , descended from maniraptoran coelurosaurians .
By the early Cretaceous and the ongoing breakup of Pangaea , dinosaurs were becoming strongly differentiated by landmass . The earliest part of this time saw the spread of ankylosaurians , iguanodontians , and brachiosaurids through Europe , North America , and northern Africa . These were later supplemented or replaced in Africa by large spinosaurid and carcharodontosaurid theropods , and rebbachisaurid and titanosaurian sauropods , also found in South America . In Asia , maniraptoran coelurosaurians like dromaeosaurids , troodontids , and oviraptorosaurians became the common theropods , and ankylosaurids and early ceratopsians like Psittacosaurus became important herbivores . Meanwhile , Australia was home to a fauna of basal ankylosaurians , hypsilophodonts , and iguanodontians . The stegosaurians appear to have gone extinct at some point in the late early Cretaceous or early late Cretaceous . A major change in the early Cretaceous , which would be amplified in the late Cretaceous , was the evolution of flowering plants . At the same time , several groups of dinosaurian herbivores evolved more sophisticated ways to orally process food . Ceratopsians developed a method of slicing with teeth stacked on each other in batteries , and iguanodontians refined a method of grinding with tooth batteries , taken to its extreme in hadrosaurids . Some sauropods also evolved tooth batteries , best exemplified by the rebbachisaurid Nigersaurus .
There were three general dinosaur faunas in the late Cretaceous . In the northern continents of North America and Asia , the major theropods were tyrannosaurids and various types of smaller maniraptoran theropods , with a predominantly ornithischian herbivore assemblage of hadrosaurids , ceratopsians , ankylosaurids , and pachycephalosaurians . In the southern continents that had made up the now @-@ splitting Gondwana , abelisaurids were the common theropods , and titanosaurian sauropods the common herbivores . Finally , in Europe , dromaeosaurids , rhabdodontid iguanodontians , nodosaurid ankylosaurians , and titanosaurian sauropods were prevalent . Flowering plants were greatly radiating , with the first grasses appearing by the end of the Cretaceous . Grinding hadrosaurids and shearing ceratopsians became extremely diverse across North America and Asia . Theropods were also radiating as herbivores or omnivores , with therizinosaurians and ornithomimosaurians becoming common .
The Cretaceous β Paleogene extinction event , which occurred approximately 66 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period , caused the extinction of all dinosaur groups except for the neornithine birds . Some other diapsid groups , such as crocodilians , sebecosuchians , turtles , lizards , snakes , sphenodontians , and choristoderans , also survived the event .
The surviving lineages of neornithine birds , including the ancestors of modern ratites , ducks and chickens , and a variety of waterbirds , diversified rapidly at the beginning of the Paleogene period , entering ecological niches left vacant by the extinction of Mesozoic dinosaur groups such as the arboreal enantiornithines , aquatic hesperornithines , and even the larger terrestrial theropods ( in the form of Gastornis , eogruiids , bathornithids , ratites , geranoidids , mihirungs , and " terror birds " ) . It is often cited that mammals out @-@ competed the neornithines for dominance of most terrestrial niches but many of these groups co @-@ existed with rich mammalian faunas for most of the Cenozoic . Terror birds and bathornithids occupied carnivorous guilds alongside predatory mammals , and ratites are still being fairly successful as mid @-@ sized herbivores ; eogruiids similarly lasted from the Eocene to Pliocene , only becoming extinct very recently after over 20 million years of co @-@ existence with many mammal groups .
= = Classification = =
Dinosaurs are archosaurs , like modern crocodilians . Within the archosaur group , dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait . Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body , whereas the legs of lizards and crocodilians sprawl out to either side .
Collectively , dinosaurs as a clade are divided into two primary branches , Saurischia and Ornithischia . Saurischia includes those taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with birds than with Ornithischia , while Ornithischia includes all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Triceratops than with Saurischia . Anatomically , these two groups can be distinguished most noticeably by their pelvic structure . Early saurischians β " lizard @-@ hipped " , from the Greek sauros ( ΟΞ±αΏ¦ΟΞΏΟ ) meaning " lizard " and ischion ( αΌ°ΟΟΞ―ΞΏΞ½ ) meaning " hip joint " β retained the hip structure of their ancestors , with a pubis bone directed cranially , or forward . This basic form was modified by rotating the pubis backward to varying degrees in several groups ( Herrerasaurus , therizinosauroids , dromaeosaurids , and birds ) . Saurischia includes the theropods ( exclusively bipedal and with a wide variety of diets ) and sauropodomorphs ( long @-@ necked herbivores which include advanced , quadrupedal groups ) .
By contrast , ornithischians β " bird @-@ hipped " , from the Greek ornitheios ( α½ΟΞ½Ξ―ΞΈΞ΅ΞΉΞΏΟ ) meaning " of a bird " and ischion ( αΌ°ΟΟΞ―ΞΏΞ½ ) meaning " hip joint " β had a pelvis that superficially resembled a bird 's pelvis : the pubis bone was oriented caudally ( rear @-@ pointing ) . Unlike birds , the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward @-@ pointing process . Ornithischia includes a variety of species which were primarily herbivores . ( NB : the terms " lizard hip " and " bird hip " are misnomers β birds evolved from dinosaurs with " lizard hips " . )
= = = Taxonomy = = =
The following is a simplified classification of dinosaur groups based on their evolutionary relationships , and organized based on the list of Mesozoic dinosaur species provided by Holtz ( 2007 ) . A more detailed version can be found at Dinosaur classification . The dagger ( β ) is used to signify groups with no living members .
Dinosauria
Saurischia ( " lizard @-@ hipped " ; includes Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha )
Theropoda ( all bipedal ; most were carnivorous )
β Herrerasauria ( early bipedal carnivores )
β Coelophysoidea ( small , early theropods ; includes Coelophysis and close relatives )
β Dilophosauridae ( early crested and carnivorous theropods )
β Ceratosauria ( generally elaborately horned , the dominant southern carnivores of the Cretaceous )
Tetanurae ( " stiff tails " ; includes most theropods )
β Megalosauroidea ( early group of large carnivores including the semi @-@ aquatic spinosaurids )
β Carnosauria ( Allosaurus and close relatives , like Carcharodontosaurus )
Coelurosauria ( feathered theropods , with a range of body sizes and niches )
β Compsognathidae ( common early coelurosaurs with reduced forelimbs )
β Tyrannosauridae ( Tyrannosaurus and close relatives ; had reduced forelimbs )
β Ornithomimosauria ( " ostrich @-@ mimics " ; mostly toothless ; carnivores to possible herbivores )
β Alvarezsauroidea ( small insectivores with reduced forelimbs each bearing one enlarged claw )
Maniraptora ( " hand snatchers " ; had long , slender arms and fingers )
β Therizinosauria ( bipedal herbivores with large hand claws and small heads )
β Oviraptorosauria ( mostly toothless ; their diet and lifestyle are uncertain )
β Archaeopterygidae ( small , winged theropods or primitive birds )
β Deinonychosauria ( small- to medium @-@ sized ; bird @-@ like , with a distinctive toe claw )
Avialae ( modern birds and extinct relatives )
β Scansoriopterygidae ( small primitive avialans with long third fingers )
β Omnivoropterygidae ( large , early short @-@ tailed avialans )
β Confuciusornithidae ( small toothless avialans )
β Enantiornithes ( primitive tree @-@ dwelling , flying avialans )
Euornithes ( advanced flying birds )
β Yanornithiformes ( toothed Cretaceous Chinese birds )
β Hesperornithes ( specialized aquatic diving birds )
Aves ( modern , beaked birds and their extinct relatives )
β Sauropodomorpha ( herbivores with small heads , long necks , long tails )
β Guaibasauridae ( small , primitive , omnivorous sauropodomorphs )
β Plateosauridae ( primitive , strictly bipedal " prosauropods " )
β Riojasauridae ( small , primitive sauropodomorphs )
β Massospondylidae ( small , primitive sauropodomorphs )
β Sauropoda ( very large and heavy , usually over 15 m ( 49 ft ) long ; quadrupedal )
β Vulcanodontidae ( primitive sauropods with pillar @-@ like limbs )
β Eusauropoda ( " true sauropods " )
β Cetiosauridae ( " whale reptiles " )
β Turiasauria ( European group of Jurassic and Cretaceous sauropods )
β Neosauropoda ( " new sauropods " )
β Diplodocoidea ( skulls and tails elongated ; teeth typically narrow and pencil @-@ like )
β Macronaria ( boxy skulls ; spoon- or pencil @-@ shaped teeth )
β Brachiosauridae ( long @-@ necked , long @-@ armed macronarians )
β Titanosauria ( diverse ; stocky , with wide hips ; most common in the late Cretaceous of southern continents )
β Ornithischia ( " bird @-@ hipped " ; diverse bipedal and quadrupedal herbivores )
β Heterodontosauridae ( small basal ornithopod herbivores / omnivores with prominent canine @-@ like teeth )
β Thyreophora ( armored dinosaurs ; mostly quadrupeds )
β Ankylosauria ( scutes as primary armor ; some had club @-@ like tails )
β Stegosauria ( spikes and plates as primary armor )
β Neornithischia ( " new ornithischians " )
β Ornithopoda ( various sizes ; bipeds and quadrupeds ; evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and numerous teeth )
β Marginocephalia ( characterized by a cranial growth )
β Pachycephalosauria ( bipeds with domed or knobby growth on skulls )
β Ceratopsia ( quadrupeds with frills ; many also had horns )
= = Biology = =
Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non @-@ fossil records , including fossilized bones , feces , trackways , gastroliths , feathers , impressions of skin , internal organs and soft tissues . Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs , including physics ( especially biomechanics ) , chemistry , biology , and the earth sciences ( of which paleontology is a sub @-@ discipline ) . Two topics of particular interest and study have been dinosaur size and behavior .
= = = Size = = =
Current evidence suggests that dinosaur average size varied through the Triassic , early Jurassic , late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods . Predatory theropod dinosaurs , which occupied most terrestrial carnivore niches during the Mesozoic , most often fall into the 100 to 1000 kg ( 220 to 2200 lb ) category when sorted by estimated weight into categories based on order of magnitude , whereas recent predatory carnivoran mammals peak in the 10 to 100 kg ( 22 to 220 lb ) category . The mode of Mesozoic dinosaur body masses is between one and ten metric tonnes . This contrasts sharply with the size of Cenozoic mammals , estimated by the National Museum of Natural History as about 2 to 5 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 to 11 @.@ 0 lb ) .
The sauropods were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs . For much of the dinosaur era , the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat , and the largest were an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth . Giant prehistoric mammals such as Paraceratherium ( the largest land mammal ever ) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods , and only modern whales approach or surpass them in size . There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods , including protection from predation , reduction of energy use , and longevity , but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary . Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals , because food spends more time in their digestive systems . This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals . Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry , and the ability to eat large quantities of low @-@ nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments .
= = = = Largest and smallest = = = =
Scientists will probably never be certain of the largest and smallest dinosaurs to have ever existed . This is because only a tiny percentage of animals ever fossilize , and most of these remain buried in the earth . Few of the specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons , and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare . Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar , better @-@ known species is an inexact art , and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is , at best , a process of educated guesswork .
The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from good skeletons is Giraffatitan brancai ( previously classified as a species of Brachiosaurus ) . Its remains were discovered in Tanzania between 1907 and 1912 . Bones from several similar @-@ sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the Museum fΓΌr Naturkunde Berlin ; this mount is 12 meters ( 39 ft ) tall and 21 @.@ 8 β 22 @.@ 5 meters ( 72 β 74 ft ) long , and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between 30000 and 60000 kilograms ( 70000 and 130000 lb ) . The longest complete dinosaur is the 27 meters ( 89 feet ) long Diplodocus , which was discovered in Wyoming in the United States and displayed in Pittsburgh 's Carnegie Natural History Museum in 1907 .
There were larger dinosaurs , but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils . Most of the largest herbivorous specimens on record were all discovered in the 1970s or later , and include the massive Argentinosaurus , which may have weighed 80000 to 100000 kilograms ( 90 to 110 short tons ) ; some of the longest were the 33 @.@ 5 meters ( 110 ft ) long Diplodocus hallorum ( formerly Seismosaurus ) and the 33 β 34 meters ( 108 β 112 ft ) long Supersaurus ; and the tallest , the 18 meters ( 59 ft ) tall Sauroposeidon , which could have reached a sixth @-@ floor window . The heaviest and longest dinosaur may have been Amphicoelias fragillimus , known only from a now lost partial vertebral neural arch described in 1878 . Extrapolating from the illustration of this bone , the animal may have been 58 meters ( 190 ft ) long and weighed 122400 kg ( 270000 lb ) . However , as no further evidence of sauropods of this size has been found , and the discoverer , Edward Cope , had made typographic errors before , it is likely to have been an extreme overestimation . The largest known carnivorous dinosaur was Spinosaurus , reaching a length of 12 @.@ 6 to 18 meters ( 41 to 59 ft ) , and weighing 7 β 20 @.@ 9 tonnes ( 7 @.@ 7 β 23 short tons ) . Other large carnivorous theropods included Giganotosaurus , Carcharodontosaurus and Tyrannosaurus . Therizinosaurus and Deinocheirus were among the tallest of the theropods .
The smallest dinosaur known is the bee hummingbird , with a length of only 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and mass of around 1 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 063 oz ) . The smallest known non @-@ avialan dinosaurs were about the size of pigeons and were those theropods most closely related to birds . For example , Anchiornis huxleyi is currently the smallest non @-@ avialan dinosaur described from an adult specimen , with an estimated weight of 110 grams and a total skeletal length of 34 cm ( 1 @.@ 12 ft ) . The smallest herbivorous non @-@ avialan dinosaurs included Microceratus and Wannanosaurus , at about 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) long each .
= = = Behavior = = =
Many modern birds are highly social , often found living in flocks . There is general agreement that some behaviors that are common in birds , as well as in crocodiles ( birds ' closest living relatives ) , were also common among extinct dinosaur groups . Interpretations of behavior in fossil species are generally based on the pose of skeletons and their habitat , computer simulations of their biomechanics , and comparisons with modern animals in similar ecological niches .
The first potential evidence for herding or flocking as a widespread behavior common to many dinosaur groups in addition to birds was the 1878 discovery of 31 Iguanodon bernissartensis , ornithischians that were then thought to have perished together in Bernissart , Belgium , after they fell into a deep , flooded sinkhole and drowned . Other mass @-@ death sites have been discovered subsequently . Those , along with multiple trackways , suggest that gregarious behavior was common in many early dinosaur species . Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that duck @-@ bills ( hadrosaurids ) may have moved in great herds , like the American bison or the African springbok . Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species , at least in Oxfordshire , England , although there is no evidence for specific herd structures . Congregating into herds may have evolved for defense , for migratory purposes , or to provide protection for young . There is evidence that many types of slow @-@ growing dinosaurs , including various theropods , sauropods , ankylosaurians , ornithopods , and ceratopsians , formed aggregations of immature individuals . One example is a site in Inner Mongolia that has yielded the remains of over 20 Sinornithomimus , from one to seven years old . This assemblage is interpreted as a social group that was trapped in mud . The interpretation of dinosaurs as gregarious has also extended to depicting carnivorous theropods as pack hunters working together to bring down large prey . However , this lifestyle is uncommon among modern birds , crocodiles , and other reptiles , and the taphonomic evidence suggesting mammal @-@ like pack hunting in such theropods as Deinonychus and Allosaurus can also be interpreted as the results of fatal disputes between feeding animals , as is seen in many modern diapsid predators .
The crests and frills of some dinosaurs , like the marginocephalians , theropods and lambeosaurines , may have been too fragile to be used for active defense , and so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays , though little is known about dinosaur mating and territorialism . Head wounds from bites suggest that theropods , at least , engaged in active aggressive confrontations .
From a behavioral standpoint , one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the Gobi Desert in 1971 . It included a Velociraptor attacking a Protoceratops , providing evidence that dinosaurs did indeed attack each other . Additional evidence for attacking live prey is the partially healed tail of an Edmontosaurus , a hadrosaurid dinosaur ; the tail is damaged in such a way that shows the animal was bitten by a tyrannosaur but survived . Cannibalism amongst some species of dinosaurs was confirmed by tooth marks found in Madagascar in 2003 , involving the theropod Majungasaurus .
Comparisons between the scleral rings of dinosaurs and modern birds and reptiles have been used to infer daily activity patterns of dinosaurs . Although it has been suggested that most dinosaurs were active during the day , these comparisons have shown that small predatory dinosaurs such as dromaeosaurids , Juravenator , and Megapnosaurus were likely nocturnal . Large and medium @-@ sized herbivorous and omnivorous dinosaurs such as ceratopsians , sauropodomorphs , hadrosaurids , ornithomimosaurs may have been cathemeral , active during short intervals throughout the day , although the small ornithischian Agilisaurus was inferred to be diurnal .
Based on current fossil evidence from dinosaurs such as Oryctodromeus , some ornithischian species seem to have led a partially fossorial ( burrowing ) lifestyle . Many modern birds are arboreal ( tree climbing ) , and this was also true of many Mesozoic birds , especially the enantiornithines . While some early bird @-@ like species may have already been arboreal as well ( including dromaeosaurids such as Microraptor ) most non @-@ avialan dinosaurs seem to have relied on land @-@ based locomotion . A good understanding of how dinosaurs moved on the ground is key to models of dinosaur behavior ; the science of biomechanics , pioneered by Robert McNeill Alexander , has provided significant insight in this area . For example , studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs ' skeletal structure have investigated how fast dinosaurs could run , whether diplodocids could create sonic booms via whip @-@ like tail snapping , and whether sauropods could float .
= = = Communication = = =
Modern birds are known to communicate using visual and auditory signals , and the wide diversity of visual display structures among fossil dinosaur groups suggests that visual communication has always been important in dinosaur biology . However , the evolution of dinosaur vocalization is less certain . In 2008 , paleontologist Phil Senter examined the evidence for vocalization in Mesozoic animal life , including dinosaurs . Senter found that , contrary to popular depictions of roaring dinosaurs in motion pictures , it is likely that most Mesozoic dinosaurs were not capable of creating any vocalizations ( though the hollow crests of the lambeosaurines could have functioned as resonance chambers used for a wide range of vocalizations ) . To draw this conclusion , Senter studied the distribution of vocal organs in modern reptiles and birds . He found that vocal cords in the larynx probably evolved multiple times among reptiles , including crocodilians , which are able to produce guttural roars . Birds , on the other hand , lack a larynx . Instead , bird calls are produced by the syrinx , a vocal organ found only in birds , and which is not related to the larynx , meaning it evolved independently from the vocal organs in reptiles . The syrinx depends on the air sac system in birds to function ; specifically , it requires the presence of a clavicular air sac near the wishbone or collar bone . This air sac leaves distinctive marks or opening on the bones , including a distinct opening in the upper arm bone ( humerus ) . While extensive air sac systems are a unique characteristic of saurischian dinosaurs , the clavicular air sac necessary to vocalize does not appear in the fossil record until the enantiornithines ( one exception , Aerosteon , probably evolved its clavicular air sac independently of birds for reasons other than vocalization ) .
The most primitive dinosaurs with evidence of a vocalizing syrinx are the enantironithine birds . Any bird @-@ line archosaurs more primitive than this probably did not make vocal calls . Rather , several lines of evidence suggest that early dinosaurs used primarily visual communication , in the form of distinctive @-@ looking ( and possibly brightly colored ) horns , frills , crests , sails and feathers . This is similar to some modern reptile groups such as lizards , in which many forms are largely silent ( though like dinosaurs they possess well @-@ developed senses of hearing ) but use complex coloration and display behaviors to communicate .
In addition , other , non @-@ vocal , methods of producing sound for communication include hissing , jaw grinding or clapping , use of environment ( such as splashing ) , and wing beating ( possible in winged maniraptoran dinosaurs ) .
= = = Reproductive biology = = =
All dinosaurs lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate . Eggs are usually laid in a nest . Most species create somewhat elaborate nests , which can be cups , domes , plates , beds scrapes , mounds , or burrows . Some species of modern bird have no nests ; the cliff @-@ nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock , and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet . Primitive birds and many non @-@ avialan dinosaurs often lay eggs in communal nests , with males primarily incubating the eggs . While modern birds have only one functional oviduct and lay one egg at a time , more primitive birds and dinosaurs had two oviducts , like crocodiles . Some non @-@ avialan dinosaurs , such as Troodon , exhibited iterative laying , where the adult might lay a pair of eggs every one or two days , and then ensured simultaneous hatching by delaying brooding until all eggs were laid .
When laying eggs , females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the marrow of their limbs . This medullary bone , which is rich in calcium , is used to make eggshells . A discovery of features in a Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and , for the first time , allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen . Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur Allosaurus and the ornithopod Tenontosaurus . Because the line of dinosaurs that includes Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus diverged from the line that led to Tenontosaurus very early in the evolution of dinosaurs , this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs .
Another widespread trait among modern birds is parental care for young after hatching . Jack Horner 's 1978 discovery of a Maiasaura ( " good mother lizard " ) nesting ground in Montana demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among ornithopods , suggesting this behavior might also have been common to all dinosaurs . There is evidence that other non @-@ theropod dinosaurs , like Patagonian titanosaurian sauropods , also nested in large groups . A specimen of the Mongolian oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae was discovered in a chicken @-@ like brooding position in 1993 , which may indicate that they had begun using an insulating layer of feathers to keep the eggs warm . Parental care being a trait common to all dinosaurs is supported by other finds . For example , a dinosaur embryo ( pertaining to the prosauropod Massospondylus ) was found without teeth , indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaurs . Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among ornithopods from the Isle of Skye in northwestern Scotland . Nests and eggs have been found for most major groups of dinosaurs , and it appears likely that all dinosaurs cared for their young to some extent either before or shortly after hatching .
= = = Physiology = = =
Because both modern crocodilians and birds have four @-@ chambered hearts ( albeit modified in crocodilians ) , it is likely that this is a trait shared by all archosaurs , including all dinosaurs . While all modern birds have high metabolisms and are " warm blooded " ( endothermic ) , a vigorous debate has been ongoing since the 1960s regarding how far back in the dinosaur lineage this trait extends . Scientists disagree as to whether non @-@ avian dinosaurs were endothermic , ectothermic , or some combination of both .
After non @-@ avian dinosaurs were discovered , paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic . This supposed " cold @-@ bloodedness " was used to imply that the ancient dinosaurs were relatively slow , sluggish organisms , even though many modern reptiles are fast and light @-@ footed despite relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature . The idea of dinosaurs as ectothermic and sluggish remained a prevalent view until Robert T. " Bob " Bakker , an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy , published an influential paper on the topic in 1968 .
Modern evidence indicates that even non @-@ avian dinosaurs and birds thrived in cooler temperate climates , and that at least some early species must have regulated their body temperature by internal biological means ( aided by the animals ' bulk in large species and feathers or other body coverings in smaller species ) . Evidence of endothermy in Mesozoic dinosaurs includes the discovery of polar dinosaurs in Australia and Antarctica as well as analysis of blood @-@ vessel structures within fossil bones that are typical of endotherms . Scientific debate continues regarding the specific ways in which dinosaur temperature regulation evolved .
In saurischian dinosaurs , higher metabolisms were supported by the evolution of the avian respiratory system , characterized by an extensive system of air sacs that extended the lungs and invaded many of the bones in the skeleton , making them hollow . Early avian @-@ style respiratory systems with air sacs may have been capable of sustaining higher activity levels than mammals of similar size and build could sustain . In addition to providing a very efficient supply of oxygen , the rapid airflow would have been an effective cooling mechanism , which is essential for animals that are active but too large to get rid of all the excess heat through their skin .
Like other reptiles , dinosaurs are primarily uricotelic , that is , their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine . In most living species , uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste . However , at least some modern birds ( such as hummingbirds ) can be facultatively ammonotelic , excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia . They also excrete creatine , rather than creatinine like mammals . This material , as well as the output of the intestines , emerges from the cloaca . In addition , many species regurgitate pellets , and fossil pellets that may have come from dinosaurs are known from as long ago as the Cretaceous period .
= = = Number of Species = = =
As of March 2016 the estimated number of dinosaur species that existed in the Mesozoic era is 1 @,@ 543 β 2 @,@ 468 species .
= = Origin of birds = =
The possibility that dinosaurs were the ancestors of birds was first suggested in 1868 by Thomas Henry Huxley . After the work of Gerhard Heilmann in the early 20th century , the theory of birds as dinosaur descendants was abandoned in favor of the idea of their being descendants of generalized thecodonts , with the key piece of evidence being the supposed lack of clavicles in dinosaurs . However , as later discoveries showed , clavicles ( or a single fused wishbone , which derived from separate clavicles ) were not actually absent ; they had been found as early as 1924 in Oviraptor , but misidentified as an interclavicle . In the 1970s , John Ostrom revived the dinosaur β bird theory , which gained momentum in the coming decades with the advent of cladistic analysis , and a great increase in the discovery of small theropods and early birds . Of particular note have been the fossils of the Yixian Formation , where a variety of theropods and early birds have been found , often with feathers of some type . Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with theropod dinosaurs , which are now generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives . They are most closely allied with maniraptoran coelurosaurs . A minority of scientists , most notably Alan Feduccia and Larry Martin , have proposed other evolutionary paths , including revised versions of Heilmann 's basal archosaur proposal , or that maniraptoran theropods are the ancestors of birds but themselves are not dinosaurs , only convergent with dinosaurs .
= = = Feathers = = =
Feathers are one of the most recognizable characteristics of modern birds , and a trait that was shared by all other dinosaur groups . Based on the current distribution of fossil evidence , it appears that feathers were an ancestral dinosaurian trait , though one that may have been selectively lost in some species . Direct fossil evidence of feathers or feather @-@ like structures has been discovered in a diverse array of species in many non @-@ avian dinosaur groups , both among saurischians and ornithischians . Simple , branched , feather @-@ like structures are known from heterodontosaurids , primitive neornithischians and theropods , and primitive ceratopsians . Evidence for true , vaned feathers similar to the flight feathers of modern birds has been found only in the theropod subgroup Maniraptora , which includes oviraptorosaurs , troodontids , dromaeosaurids , and birds . Feather @-@ like structures known as pycnofibres have also been found in pterosaurs , suggesting the possibility that feather @-@ like filaments may have been common in the bird lineage and evolved before the appearance of dinosaurs themselves . Research into the genetics of American alligators has also revealed that crocodylian scutes do possess feather @-@ keratins during embryonic development , but these keratins are not expressed by the animals before hatching .
Archaeopteryx was the first fossil found that revealed a potential connection between dinosaurs and birds . It is considered a transitional fossil , in that it displays features of both groups . Brought to light just two years after Darwin 's seminal The Origin of Species , its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of evolutionary biology and creationism . This early bird is so dinosaur @-@ like that , without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock , at least one specimen was mistaken for Compsognathus . Since the 1990s , a number of additional feathered dinosaurs have been found , providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds . Most of these specimens were unearthed in the lagerstΓ€tte of the Yixian Formation , Liaoning , northeastern China , which was part of an island continent during the Cretaceous . Though feathers have been found in only a few locations , it is possible that non @-@ avian dinosaurs elsewhere in the world were also feathered . The lack of widespread fossil evidence for feathered non @-@ avian dinosaurs may be because delicate features like skin and feathers are not often preserved by fossilization and thus are absent from the fossil record .
The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy ; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham @-@ Soliar , who have proposed that some purported feather @-@ like fossils are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs ' skin , and that maniraptoran dinosaurs with vaned feathers were not actually dinosaurs , but convergent with dinosaurs . However , their views have for the most part not been accepted by other researchers , to the point that the scientific nature of Feduccia 's proposals has been questioned .
= = = Skeleton = = =
Because feathers are often associated with birds , feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the missing link between birds and dinosaurs . However , the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent another important line of evidence for paleontologists . Areas of the skeleton with important similarities include the neck , pubis , wrist ( semi @-@ lunate carpal ) , arm and pectoral girdle , furcula ( wishbone ) , and breast bone . Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons through cladistic analysis strengthens the case for the link .
= = = Soft anatomy = = =
Large meat @-@ eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds , according to a 2005 investigation led by Patrick M. O 'Connor . The lungs of theropod dinosaurs ( carnivores that walked on two legs and had bird @-@ like feet ) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their skeletons , as is the case in birds . " What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds " , O 'Connor said . In 2008 , scientists described Aerosteon riocoloradensis , the skeleton of which supplies the strongest evidence to date of a dinosaur with a bird @-@ like breathing system . CT @-@ scanning of Aerosteon 's fossil bones revealed evidence for the existence of air sacs within the animal 's body cavity .
= = = Behavioral evidence = = =
Fossils of the troodonts Mei and Sinornithoides demonstrate that some dinosaurs slept with their heads tucked under their arms . This behavior , which may have helped to keep the head warm , is also characteristic of modern birds . Several deinonychosaur and oviraptorosaur specimens have also been found preserved on top of their nests , likely brooding in a bird @-@ like manner . The ratio between egg volume and body mass of adults among these dinosaurs suggest that the eggs were primarily brooded by the male , and that the young were highly precocial , similar to many modern ground @-@ dwelling birds .
Some dinosaurs are known to have used gizzard stones like modern birds . These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibers once they enter the stomach . When found in association with fossils , gizzard stones are called gastroliths .
= = Extinction of major groups = =
The discovery that birds are a type of dinosaur showed that dinosaurs in general are not , in fact , extinct as is commonly stated . However , all non @-@ avian dinosaurs as well as many groups of birds did suddenly become extinct approximately 66 million years ago . It has been suggested that because small mammals , squamata and birds occupied the ecological niches suited for small body size , non @-@ avian dinosaurs never evolved a diverse fauna of small @-@ bodied species , which led to their downfall when large @-@ bodied terrestrial tetrapods were hit by the mass extinction event . Many other groups of animals also became extinct at this time , including ammonites ( nautilus @-@ like mollusks ) , mosasaurs , plesiosaurs , pterosaurs , and many groups of mammals . Significantly , the insects suffered no discernible population loss , which left them available as food for other survivors . This mass extinction is known as the Cretaceous β Paleogene extinction event . The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s ; at present , several related theories are supported by paleontologists . Though the consensus is that an impact event was the primary cause of dinosaur extinction , some scientists cite other possible causes , or support the idea that a confluence of several factors was responsible for the sudden disappearance of dinosaurs from the fossil record .
At the peak of the Mesozoic , there were no polar ice caps , and sea levels are estimated to have been from 100 to 250 meters ( 330 to 820 ft ) higher than they are today . The planet 's temperature was also much more uniform , with only 25 Β° C ( 45 Β° F ) separating average polar temperatures from those at the equator . On average , atmospheric temperatures were also much higher ; the poles , for example , were 50 Β° C ( 90 Β° F ) warmer than today .
The atmosphere 's composition during the Mesozoic is a matter for debate . While some academics argue that oxygen levels were much higher than today , others argue that biological adaptations seen in birds and dinosaurs indicate that respiratory systems evolved beyond what would be necessary if oxygen levels were high . By the late Cretaceous , the environment was changing dramatically . Volcanic activity was decreasing , which led to a cooling trend as levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide dropped . Oxygen levels in the atmosphere also started to fluctuate and would ultimately fall considerably . Some scientists hypothesize that climate change , combined with lower oxygen levels , might have led directly to the demise of many species .
= = = Impact event = = =
The asteroid collision theory , which was brought to wide attention in 1980 by Walter Alvarez and colleagues , links the extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period to a bolide impact approximately 66 million years ago . Alvarez et al. proposed that a sudden increase in iridium levels , recorded around the world in the period 's rock stratum , was direct evidence of the impact . The bulk of the evidence now suggests that a bolide 5 to 15 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 3 miles ) wide hit in the vicinity of the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula ( in southeastern Mexico ) , creating the approximately 180 km ( 110 mi ) Chicxulub Crater and triggering the mass extinction . Scientists are not certain whether dinosaurs were thriving or declining before the impact event . Some scientists propose that the meteorite caused a long and unnatural drop in Earth 's atmospheric temperature , while others claim that it would have instead created an unusual heat wave . The consensus among scientists who support this theory is that the impact caused extinctions both directly ( by heat from the meteorite impact ) and also indirectly ( via a worldwide cooling brought about when matter ejected from the impact crater reflected thermal radiation from the sun ) . Although the speed of extinction cannot be deduced from the fossil record alone , various models suggest that the extinction was extremely rapid , being down to hours rather than years .
= = = Deccan Traps = = =
Before 2000 , arguments that the Deccan Traps flood basalts caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual , as the flood basalt events were thought to have started around 68 million years ago and lasted for over 2 million years . However , there is evidence that two thirds of the Deccan Traps were created in only 1 million years about 66 million years ago , and so these eruptions would have caused a fairly rapid extinction , possibly over a period of thousands of years , but still longer than would be expected from a single impact event .
The Deccan Traps could have caused extinction through several mechanisms , including the release into the air of dust and sulfuric aerosols , which might have blocked sunlight and thereby reduced photosynthesis in plants . In addition , Deccan Trap volcanism might have resulted in carbon dioxide emissions , which would have increased the greenhouse effect when the dust and aerosols cleared from the atmosphere . Before the mass extinction of the dinosaurs , the release of volcanic gases during the formation of the Deccan Traps " contributed to an apparently massive global warming . Some data point to an average rise in temperature of 8 Β° C ( 14 Β° F ) in the last half million years before the impact [ at Chicxulub ] . "
In the years when the Deccan Traps theory was linked to a slower extinction , Luis Alvarez ( who died in 1988 ) replied that paleontologists were being misled by sparse data . While his assertion was not initially well @-@ received , later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim . Eventually , most paleontologists began to accept the idea that the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were largely or at least partly due to a massive Earth impact . However , even Walter Alvarez has acknowledged that there were other major changes on Earth even before the impact , such as a drop in sea level and massive volcanic eruptions that produced the Indian Deccan Traps , and these may have contributed to the extinctions .
= = = Possible Paleocene survivors = = =
Non @-@ avian dinosaur remains are occasionally found above the Cretaceous β Paleogene boundary . In 2001 , paleontologists Zielinski and Budahn reported the discovery of a single hadrosaur leg @-@ bone fossil in the San Juan Basin , New Mexico , and described it as evidence of Paleocene dinosaurs . The formation in which the bone was discovered has been dated to the early Paleocene epoch , approximately 64 @.@ 5 million years ago . If the bone was not re @-@ deposited into that stratum by weathering action , it would provide evidence that some dinosaur populations may have survived at least a half million years into the Cenozoic Era . Other evidence includes the finding of dinosaur remains in the Hell Creek Formation up to 1 @.@ 3 m ( 51 in ) above the Cretaceous β Paleogene boundary , representing 40000 years of elapsed time . Similar reports have come from other parts of the world , including China . Many scientists , however , dismissed the supposed Paleocene dinosaurs as re @-@ worked , that is , washed out of their original locations and then re @-@ buried in much later sediments . Direct dating of the bones themselves has supported the later date , with U β Pb dating methods resulting in a precise age of 64 @.@ 8 Β± 0 @.@ 9 million years ago . If correct , the presence of a handful of dinosaurs in the early Paleocene would not change the underlying facts of the extinction .
= = History of study = =
Dinosaur fossils have been known for millennia , although their true nature was not recognized . The Chinese , whose modern word for dinosaur is kΗnglΓ³ng ( ζιΎ , or " terrible dragon " ) , considered them to be dragon bones and documented them as such . For example , Hua Yang Guo Zhi , a book written by Chang Qu during the Western Jin Dynasty ( 265 β 316 ) , reported the discovery of dragon bones at Wucheng in Sichuan Province . Villagers in central China have long unearthed fossilized " dragon bones " for use in traditional medicines , a practice that continues today . In Europe , dinosaur fossils were generally believed to be the remains of giants and other biblical creatures .
Scholarly descriptions of what would now be recognized as dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th century in England . Part of a bone , now known to have been the femur of a Megalosaurus , was recovered from a limestone quarry at Cornwell near Chipping Norton , Oxfordshire , in 1676 . The fragment was sent to Robert Plot , Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oxford and first curator of the Ashmolean Museum , who published a description in his Natural History of Oxfordshire in 1677 . He correctly identified the bone as the lower extremity of the femur of a large animal , and recognized that it was too large to belong to any known species . He therefore concluded it to be the thigh bone of a giant human similar to those mentioned in the Bible . In 1699 , Edward Lhuyd , a friend of Sir Isaac Newton , was responsible for the first published scientific treatment of what would now be recognized as a dinosaur when he described and named a sauropod tooth , " Rutellum implicatum " , that had been found in Caswell , near Witney , Oxfordshire .
Between 1815 and 1824 , the Rev William Buckland , a professor of geology at Oxford , collected more fossilized bones of Megalosaurus and became the first person to describe a dinosaur in a scientific journal . The second dinosaur genus to be identified , Iguanodon , was discovered in 1822 by Mary Ann Mantell β the wife of English geologist Gideon Mantell . Gideon Mantell recognized similarities between his fossils and the bones of modern iguanas . He published his findings in 1825 .
The study of these " great fossil lizards " soon became of great interest to European and American scientists , and in 1842 the English paleontologist Richard Owen coined the term " dinosaur " . He recognized that the remains that had been found so far , Iguanodon , Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus , shared a number of distinctive features , and so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group . With the backing of Prince Albert , the husband of Queen Victoria , Owen established the Natural History Museum , London , to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits .
In 1858 , William Parker Foulke discovered the first known American dinosaur , in marl pits in the small town of Haddonfield , New Jersey . ( Although fossils had been found before , their nature had not been correctly discerned . ) The creature was named Hadrosaurus foulkii . It was an extremely important find : Hadrosaurus was one of the first nearly complete dinosaur skeletons found ( the first was in 1834 , in Maidstone , England ) , and it was clearly a bipedal creature . This was a revolutionary discovery as , until that point , most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet , like other lizards . Foulke 's discoveries sparked a wave of dinosaur mania in the United States .
Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh , both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the Bone Wars . The feud probably originated when Marsh publicly pointed out that Cope 's reconstruction of an Elasmosaurus skeleton was flawed : Cope had inadvertently placed the plesiosaur 's head at what should have been the animal 's tail end . The fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years , ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt . Marsh ' won ' the contest primarily because he was better funded through a relationship with the US Geological Survey . Unfortunately , many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair 's rough methods : for example , their diggers often used dynamite to unearth bones ( a method modern paleontologists would find appalling ) . Despite their unrefined methods , the contributions of Cope and Marsh to paleontology were vast : Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56 , a total of 142 new species . Cope 's collection is now at the American Museum of Natural History in New York , while Marsh 's is on display at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University .
After 1897 , the search for dinosaur fossils extended to every continent , including Antarctica . The first Antarctic dinosaur to be discovered , the ankylosaurid Antarctopelta oliveroi , was found on James Ross Island in 1986 , although it was 1994 before an Antarctic species , the theropod Cryolophosaurus ellioti , was formally named and described in a scientific journal .
Current dinosaur " hot spots " include southern South America ( especially Argentina ) and China . China in particular has produced many exceptional feathered dinosaur specimens due to the unique geology of its dinosaur beds , as well as an ancient arid climate particularly conducive to fossilization .
= = = " Dinosaur renaissance " = = =
The field of dinosaur research has enjoyed a surge in activity that began in the 1970s and is ongoing . This was triggered , in part , by John Ostrom 's discovery of Deinonychus , an active predator that may have been warm @-@ blooded , in marked contrast to the then @-@ prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and cold @-@ blooded . Vertebrate paleontology has become a global science . Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexploited regions , including India , South America , Madagascar , Antarctica , and most significantly China ( the amazingly well @-@ preserved feathered dinosaurs in China have further consolidated the link between dinosaurs and their living descendants , modern birds ) . The widespread application of cladistics , which rigorously analyzes the relationships between biological organisms , has also proved tremendously useful in classifying dinosaurs . Cladistic analysis , among other modern techniques , helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary fossil record .
= = = Soft tissue and DNA = = =
One of the best examples of soft @-@ tissue impressions in a fossil dinosaur was discovered in Pietraroia , Italy . The discovery was reported in 1998 , and described the specimen of a small , very young coelurosaur , Scipionyx samniticus . The fossil includes portions of the intestines , colon , liver , muscles , and windpipe of this immature dinosaur .
In the March 2005 issue of Science , the paleontologist Mary Higby Schweitzer and her team announced the discovery of flexible material resembling actual soft tissue inside a 68 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Tyrannosaurus rex leg bone from the Hell Creek Formation in Montana . After recovery , the tissue was rehydrated by the science team . When the fossilized bone was treated over several weeks to remove mineral content from the fossilized bone @-@ marrow cavity ( a process called demineralization ) , Schweitzer found evidence of intact structures such as blood vessels , bone matrix , and connective tissue ( bone fibers ) . Scrutiny under the microscope further revealed that the putative dinosaur soft tissue had retained fine structures ( microstructures ) even at the cellular level . The exact nature and composition of this material , and the implications of Schweitzer 's discovery , are not yet clear .
In 2009 , a team including Schweitzer announced that , using even more careful methodology , they had duplicated their results by finding similar soft tissue in a duck @-@ billed dinosaur , Brachylophosaurus canadensis , found in the Judith River Formation of Montana . This included even more detailed tissue , down to preserved bone cells that seem even to have visible remnants of nuclei and what seem to be red blood cells . Among other materials found in the bone was collagen , as in the Tyrannosaurus bone . The type of collagen an animal has in its bones varies according to its DNA and , in both cases , this collagen was of the same type found in modern chickens and ostriches .
The extraction of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils has been reported on two separate occasions ; upon further inspection and peer review , however , neither of these reports could be confirmed . However , a functional peptide involved in the vision of a theoretical dinosaur has been inferred using analytical phylogenetic reconstruction methods on gene sequences of related modern species such as reptiles and birds . In addition , several proteins , including hemoglobin , have putatively been detected in dinosaur fossils .
In 2015 , researchers reported finding structures similar to blood cells and collagen fibers , preserved in the bone fossils of six Cretaceous dinosaur specimens , which are approximately 75 million years old .
= = Cultural depictions = =
By human standards , dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size . As such , they have captured the popular imagination and become an enduring part of human culture . Entry of the word " dinosaur " into the common vernacular reflects the animals ' cultural importance : in English , " dinosaur " is commonly used to describe anything that is impractically large , obsolete , or bound for extinction .
Public enthusiasm for dinosaurs first developed in Victorian England , where in 1854 , three decades after the first scientific descriptions of dinosaur remains , a menagerie of lifelike dinosaur sculptures were unveiled in London 's Crystal Palace Park . The Crystal Palace dinosaurs proved so popular that a strong market in smaller replicas soon developed . In subsequent decades , dinosaur exhibits opened at parks and museums around the world , ensuring that successive generations would be introduced to the animals in an immersive and exciting way . Dinosaurs ' enduring popularity , in its turn , has resulted in significant public funding for dinosaur science , and has frequently spurred new discoveries . In the United States , for example , the competition between museums for public attention led directly to the Bone Wars of the 1880s and 1890s , during which a pair of feuding paleontologists made enormous scientific contributions .
The popular preoccupation with dinosaurs has ensured their appearance in literature , film , and other media . Beginning in 1852 with a passing mention in Charles Dickens ' Bleak House , dinosaurs have been featured in large numbers of fictional works . Jules Verne 's 1864 novel Journey to the Center of the Earth , Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's 1912 book The Lost World , the iconic 1933 film King Kong , the 1954 Godzilla and its many sequels , the best @-@ selling 1990 novel Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton and its 1993 film adaptation are just a few notable examples of dinosaur appearances in fiction . Authors of general @-@ interest non @-@ fiction works about dinosaurs , including some prominent paleontologists , have often sought to use the animals as a way to educate readers about science in general . Dinosaurs are ubiquitous in advertising ; numerous companies have referenced dinosaurs in printed or televised advertisements , either in order to sell their own products or in order to characterize their rivals as slow @-@ moving , dim @-@ witted , or obsolete .
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= The Political Cesspool =
The Political Cesspool is a weekly far @-@ right talk radio show founded by Tennessean political activist James Edwards and syndicated by the organizations Liberty News Radio Network and Accent Radio Network in the United States . First broadcast in October 2004 twice a week from radio station WMQM , per Edwards it has been simulcast on Stormfront Radio , a service of the white nationalist Stormfront website and as of 2011 is broadcast on Saturday nights on WLRM , a Christian radio station in Millington , Tennessee . Its sponsors include the white separatist Council of Conservative Citizens and the Institute for Historical Review , a Holocaust denial group .
According to its statement of principles , the show stands for the " Dispossessed Majority " and represents " a philosophy that is pro @-@ White . " It has attracted criticism β including from The Nation , The New Republic , the Stephen Roth Institute , the Southern Poverty Law Center ( SPLC ) , and the Anti @-@ Defamation League β for its promotion of anti @-@ semitic , white nationalist and white supremacist views . According to the SPLC , the show has featured a " Who 's Who of the radical right " , including members of the Ku Klux Klan ; they say Edwards has probably done more than anyone in America to promote neo @-@ Nazis , Holocaust deniers and other extremists .
The show features Edwards and his co @-@ hosts Keith Alexander , Bill Rolen , Winston Smith , and Eddie Miller , as well as producer Art Frith . Former staffers include Geoff Melton , Jess Bonds and co @-@ founder Austin Farley . Its guests have included author Jerome Corsi , Minuteman Project leader Jim Gilchrist , former Constitution Party presidential candidate Michael Peroutka , actor Sonny Landham , British National Party leader Nick Griffin , Vermont secessionist Thomas Naylor , and paleoconservative activist Pat Buchanan . It is carried by at least three licensed terrestrial radio stations in the United States and on network feeds on the Galaxy 19 communications satellite .
= = Background = =
= = = James Edwards = = =
Edwards is a far @-@ right political activist from Memphis , Tennessee , described by the Southern Poverty Law Center as a rising star of the modern white @-@ nationalist movement . They write that he is articulate , charming , and at ease in front of the public , as well as in television and radio studios . He attended Briarcrest Christian School , a private school in Memphis , and in ninth grade transferred into a Christian @-@ nationalist homeschooling program , a decision that he said led him into political activism . In 2000 he volunteered for Pat Buchanan 's presidential campaign , and in 2002 ran unsuccessfully for the Tennessee House of Representatives . It was during this campaign that he met fellow activist Austin Farley , who was on the ballot against him . In October of that year , he and Farley established The Political Cesspool .
In 2007 , Edwards was part of a panel that appeared on CNN 's Paula Zahn Now , along with Roland S. Martin and Jesse Lee Peterson . The purpose was to discuss racial segregation in American cities . He told Zahn that white children should seek out those who share " the same values and traditions and heroes , " and that " forced integration " was a " march toward totalitarianism . " He said : " Crime and violence follow African @-@ Americans wherever they go , and if you think that is racist , then spend some time on the mean streets of south Memphis . " Martin described his remarks as unfit for national television . Edwards made a second appearance on Paula Zahn Now in 2009 , during which he said : " Whites are in for the fight of their lives . America is becoming balkanized . We are being robbed of having a future in the very nation our ancestors carved from the wilderness . "
In 2010 , he became involved with a new party , the American Third Position Party , which advocates white nationalism and a form of economic nationalism known as the Third Position . Also in 2010 he self @-@ published a book , Racism , Schmacism : How Liberals use the " R " Word to Push the Obama Agenda , distributed by CreateSpace , a self @-@ publishing printer .
= = = Staff and show history = = =
Other staff at The Political Cesspool include Bill Rolen , Eddie " The Bombardier " Miller , Keith Alexander , and Winston Smith . According to the show 's website , most of the staff claim descent from Confederate soldiers . The show was initially broadcast on AM 1600 WMQM , a Memphis @-@ based radio station , on Tuesdays and Thursdays . Edwards and Farley invited friends Bill Rolen , a board member of the Council of Conservative Citizens , and Jess Bonds as guest hosts , as well as radio technician Art Frith . Frith had previously worked for a number of other radio stations including American Forces Radio and Television Service ( AFRTS ) ( in Keflavik , Iceland ; Anchorage , Alaska ; and Nea Makri , Greece ) , KFQD ( in Anchorage ) , and WBCK ( in Battle Creek , Michigan ) .
In 2005 the group moved to WMQM 's Millington @-@ based sister station , AM 1380 WLRM , and switched to a nightly schedule , Monday through Friday . Farley left the program in November of that year . Two years later , Geoff Melton , a former co @-@ host , joined to help set up the show 's website and the show entered syndication with Dixie Broadcasting Radio Network . The program went on hiatus on February 15 , 2008 , because staff members said they needed a break , but returned to the airwaves in June 2008 on WLRM on Saturday nights . One year later , it switched from Republic Broadcasting Network to Liberty News Radio Network . As of August 2009 , Bonds and Melton are no longer affiliated with the program . Frith now lives in Nashville , Michigan , but remains a part of the show 's staff . Since WLRM is not audited by Arbitron , the show 's ratings are unknown . The show is listener @-@ supported and , according to Edwards , receives more donations from Florida than from any other state .
= = Statement of principles = =
The Political Cesspool describes its philosophy as " pro @-@ White " and " against political centralization " . Its statement of principles , with material borrowed from the Council of Conservative Citizens , reads :
The Political Cesspool Radio Program stands for The Dispossessed Majority . We represent a philosophy that is pro @-@ White and are against political centralization . You can trust The Political Cesspool to give you the " other side of the news " β to report on events which are vital to your welfare but which would otherwise be hushed up or distorted by the controlled press .
We make no attempt to give you " both sides . " We 'll leave the establishment side to your daily newspaper , television and other radio shows . We will bring to you some of the most renowned thinkers , writers , pundits , activists , entertainers and elected officials each broadcast as our guests . Furthermore , we pledge that The Political Cesspool will correct any meaningful error or fact . Make up your own mind who is being honest with you : the establishment media or The Political Cesspool Radio Program .
The United States government should be independent of any international organization of governments and American law should not be imposed by organizations such as the United Nations .
America would not be as prosperous , ruggedly individualistic , and a land of opportunity if the founding stock were not Europeans .
Since family is the foundation of any strong society , we are against feminism , abortion , and primitivism .
Private property rights are inviolable . They come from our God @-@ given right to life .
We wish to revive the White birthrate above replacement level fertility and beyond to grow the percentage of Whites in the world relative to other races .
Issues such as education , environmental law , and police should be decentralized down to the lowest level to insure natural rights and efficiency .
Secession is a right of all people and individuals . It was successful in 1776 and this show honors those who tried to make it successful in 1865 .
We are cultural conservatives because we have certain morals to which we adhere . We are against homosexuality , vulgarity , loveless sex , and masochism .
We wish for American government to stop interfering politically , militarily , and socially outside of the borders of the United States of America . We want non @-@ interventionism .
= = Guests = =
The Political Cesspool has over the years featured many guest appearances , including political activists , Holocaust deniers , economists , and musicians . Former Tennessee gubernatorial candidate Carl " Twofeathers " Whitaker , who claims partial Native @-@ American ancestry and is known for his strong support of the Minuteman movement , has appeared on the show , as has conservative Native @-@ American activist David Yeagley . Filmmakers Merlin Miller ( A Place to Grow , Jericho ) , who is the 2012 presidential nominee of the American Third Position Party , and Craig Bodeker ( A Conversation about Race ) have featured .
Author Jerome Corsi was interviewed in July 2008 . During the discussion he spoke about his financial newsletter , and promoted his book The Obama Nation , which includes several statements that have been widely described as racist ; for example , he opined that US President Barack Obama identifies more with his " African blood " than his American roots and that the President " rejects everyone white , including his mother and his grandparents " . Corsi scheduled another promotional appearance on The Political Cesspool , but one month later he canceled this appearance , citing " travel plans that changed " . Edwards said that he believed the incident " just goes to show what incredible pressure everyone in public life is under to never have anything to do with anyone who speaks up for the interests of white people . " Fellow authors John Derbyshire and Steve Sailer have also been guests . In July 2011 , WorldNetDaily columnist Ilana Mercer appeared on the show .
Constitution Party nominee Michael Peroutka used his appearance in 2004 to promote his presidential campaign . Party member Michael Goza described the show as " Christian / Constitutionalist " , and " a great blessing to our cause " . Thomas Naylor , of the Vermont secessionist organization Second Vermont Republic , appeared on the show to celebrate Confederate History Month in April 2007 , while American Third Position Party Chairman Bill Johnson appeared to promote his party .
On May 8 , 2006 , Minuteman Project leader Jim Gilchrist spoke on the program . Co @-@ host Bill Rolen agreed with Gilchrist 's view that illegal immigrants ' intentions are to " just squat here and plunder whatever social benefits our programs provide them " . However , Rolen disagreed with Gilchrist 's claim that illegal immigration was " the 21st century slave trade " . Gilchrist 's colleague in the Minuteman movement , Chris Simcox , has also been a guest of the show .
Paul Babeu , the sheriff of Pinal County , Arizona , appeared on The Political Cesspool on July 10 , 2010 to discuss illegal immigration ; during the interview , he referred to James Edwards as a " great American " . Less than two weeks later , Babeu 's spokesman issued an apology , saying that he had not researched the show thoroughly enough before scheduling the interview and that Babeu has a policy of not conducting interviews with hate groups . Babeu himself said that he was " hoodwinked " into appearing on the show and that he rejects " any hate or bigotry " . Prior to the interview , cohost Eddie Miller said that " Of all the people we β ve interviewed on this radio show , I would say the only people that came close to getting me this excited was Dr. David Duke . " Following Babeu 's spokesman 's apology , Edwards alleged that Babeu was aware of the show 's true ideology prior to appearing on the show , saying : " For Sheriff Babeu to change his mind and now regret coming on our show , for whatever reason , is his right . For him to act as though he had no idea of our ideology is a lie . " As a result of the controversy surrounding Babeu 's appearance on the show , Arizona U.S. Senate candidate J. D. Hayworth asked his primary opponent , John McCain , to drop several campaign ads featuring McCain and Babeu . In 2011 , another sheriff , Dennis Spruell of Montezuma County , Colorado , also apologized after appearing on the show without knowing its actual agenda .
Paleoconservative activist and former presidential candidate Pat Buchanan has appeared twice as of 2011 . In a June 2008 interview initiated and arranged by his publicist , he promoted his book Churchill , Hitler and the Unnecessary War . During the broadcast , Buchanan defended Charles Lindbergh against charges of antisemitism , stating that his reputation " has been blackened because of a single speech he gave and a couple of paragraphs in it where he said that ... the Jewish community is beating the drums for war but frankly , no one has said what he said was palpably untrue . " At the end of the interview , James Edwards said , " Mr. Buchanan , thank you so much for coming back on our program , for fighting for our people . " Previously , in September 2006 , Buchanan had made an appearance to promote his book State of Emergency ; during this interview , he said that " we are being invaded by people of different cultures " and argued that Americans " cannot survive a bifurcated culture or a heavily Hispanicized culture , tilted towards Mexico ... I think that 's the beginning of the end of the United States . "
Self @-@ proclaimed " racial realist " Jared Taylor , whom James Edwards considers to be a close friend , has appeared on at least ten occasions . In an article he wrote for VDARE , Taylor described the program as " racially oriented " . Although describing itself as " America First " , the show has also hosted foreign guests , including Croatian white nationalist Tomislav SuniΔ , Australian white nationalist Drew Fraser , Russian Austrian School economist Yuri Maltsev , British lawyer Adrian Davies , Canadian white supremacist Paul Fromm , Canadian conservative blogger Kathy Shaidle , and British National Party ( BNP ) leaders Simon Darby and Nick Griffin ; Griffin appeared as a guest before and after his election to the European Parliament . During his post @-@ election appearance , Griffin attributed the BNP 's electoral successes to a fear of " creeping process of Islamification " .
Actor Mel Gibson 's father , Hutton Gibson , has also appeared on the show . During his appearance , he referred to Pope Benedict XVI as a " homosexual " and claimed that " half the people in the Vatican are queer . "
= = Controversy and criticism = =
The show has frequently been criticised by anti @-@ racist groups and individuals ( such as the Southern Poverty Law Center ( SPLC ) , Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) , Stephen Roth Institute , and journalist Max Blumenthal ) over its stated ideology . The Political Cesspool was added to the Southern Poverty Law Center 's hate group watch list in 2006 . James Edwards was " ecstatic " , saying " I don 't think you 've arrived in the conservative movement until you 've made it to the Southern Poverty Law Center 's Hate Watch " . Edwards describes the SPLC as a group composed of " communists and civil rights hustlers " . The SPLC 's Hatewatch has referred to The Political Cesspool as " an overtly racist , anti @-@ Semitic radio show hosted by [ a ] self @-@ avowed white nationalist " and as " the nexus of hate in America " . The Anti @-@ Defamation League has also criticized the show ; Edwards has attacked the ADL as " America 's most powerful hate group " and has claimed that its definition of a " neo @-@ Nazi [ is ] any white person who disagrees with a Jew " .
Author John Avlon , a former speechwriter for Rudy Giuliani , has described The Political Cesspool as " avowedly white supremacist " . Investigative journalist Max Blumenthal , who reported on an attempt by one of the show 's staff to advertise at a rally for Republican vice @-@ presidential candidate Sarah Palin , described The Political Cesspool as having a " racist ideology " , and highlighted anti @-@ Semitic , racist , and homophobic comments that Edwards had made on his blog . The Stephen Roth Institute has also commented on the show , noting that " [ James ] Edwards openly espoused many of his guests ' views and during speeches to extremist audiences , including members of the white supremacist Council of Conservative Citizens and the racist League of the South , he gained the support of a wide array of extremists . " In an article about antisemitism in Belgium , the Institute commented on the show 's interview with Filip Dewinter , a member of the Belgian Parliament and a leader of the extremist Vlaams Belang movement .
Newsweek used one of Winston Smith 's statements to argue that the rise in popularity of white nationalism and supremacy is due to the combination of the late @-@ 2000s recession and the election of a black president . Many such groups have been attempting to gain new recruits and increase their political influence by rebranding themselves as defenders of " white heritage " while de @-@ emphasizing their dislike of minorities and Jews . Smith states , " [ t ] he emphasis is different now . We don 't talk as much about what blacks have done to us ; we 're more focused on ourselves and our own culture . "
= = = City Park demonstration = = =
In 2005 , the staff of The Political Cesspool organized a rally at the Tennessee area known as Confederate Park , which , along with two other Confederacy @-@ themed parks in downtown Memphis , has been the subject of a longtime controversy for honoring Confederate soldiers and ideals . The park had been criticized earlier by a black Shelby County official , which attracted the notice of New York @-@ based activist Al Sharpton , who was invited by the Reverend LaSimba Gray to hold a demonstration in Memphis . Sharpton planned a march called the Rally for Dignity from downtown Memphis to another park honoring Confederate Lieutenant General Nathan Bedford Forrest who was involved early in the organization of the Ku Klux Klan . Sharpton canceled the march after Edwards and The Political Cesspool staff obtained a permit to demonstrate in Confederate Park , located along Sharpton 's planned march route .
Sharpton settled for a protest at Forrest Park . At the demonstration , he argued that " We need to show the rest of the world that the day for honoring people like this is over " , and said in an interview that his objections were not related to race but to Forrest 's Civil War @-@ era ( 1861 β 1865 ) actions against the United States . Estimates of attendance at the rallies vary ; according to the Southern Poverty Law Center , James Edwards attracted about 200 white counter @-@ demonstrators to the Confederate Park vigil , while Sharpton 's protest at Forrest Park attracted a few dozen black demonstrators , whom Edwards referred to as " rabble " . The Memphis Flyer estimated that Sharpton attracted about 250 supporters . In the aftermath of the city park controversy , show affiliates Edwards , Farley , Bonds , and Rolen received the " Dixie Defender Award " from the Sons of Confederate Veterans .
Later that year , Memphis city councilman E. C. Jones awarded Edwards and Farley with a certificate " in appreciation of outstanding contributions to the community " . Edwards and Farley also received an honorary city council membership from Jones , who had previously appeared on The Political Cesspool . According to The Commercial Appeal , Jones had not listened to the show before the incident , and was unaware of its ideology . After a reporter informed him of the program 's agenda , Jones initially refused to apologize . However , after another reporter confronted him with more details about the show 's ideology , he changed his view , saying that he probably would not appear again . Carol Chumney , another member of the Memphis City Council , was also invited to appear on The Political Cesspool , but ultimately declined the invitation after listening to an episode of the show ; Chumney said , " what I heard was about advocating for prostitution ... So I told them I had other commitments . "
= = = Le Journal du Dimanche interview = = =
In an interview with the French newspaper Le Journal du Dimanche , cohost Eddie " Bombardier " Miller described the United Nations as " Satan on Earth " .
= = = Donald Trump Jr. interview = = =
In 2016 , Edwards co @-@ hosted a Super Tuesday broadcast that interviewed Donald Trump Jr . , the son of Republican party presidential candidate Donald Trump . Edwards praised the elder Trump and encouraged his supporters to vote for him .
= = Radio stations that air the show = =
As of 2011 , The Political Cesspool airs on WLRM in Memphis , Tennessee , KHQN in Spanish Fork , Utah ; and the Florida @-@ based Accent Radio Network . The Accent Radio Network and KHQN air a shortened two @-@ hour version of the show , in contrast to the three @-@ hour Liberty News Radio Network ( WLRM ) version .
ARN and Liberty News Radio Network broadcasts their feeds on separate channels on the Galaxy 19 communications satellite .
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= Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings =
Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings ( γγ‘γ€γγ«γγ‘γ³γΏγΈγΌXII γ¬γ΄γ‘γγ³γ γ» γ¦γ€γ³γ° , Fainaru FantajΔ« Revananto Uingu ) is a real @-@ time tactical role @-@ playing game developed by Think & Feel and published by Square Enix for the Nintendo DS . It is a sequel to the 2006 PlayStation 2 role @-@ playing game Final Fantasy XII .
One year after the events of Final Fantasy XII , the protagonist Vaan is now a sky pirate possessing his own airship . He is joined in a new quest by his friend and navigator Penelo , other returning characters from the original title , along with new characters such as Llyud , a member of the Aegyl race who have wings protruding from their backs . Their treasure @-@ hunting adventures take them to the purvama ( floating continent ) of LemurΓ©s and the ground below , where the story begins .
Revenant Wings is the first title announced in the Ivalice Alliance series of video games . The North American release of the game was rebalanced to be more difficult than the Japanese version , and was released on November 20 , 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
After completing a prologue sequence , the player starts the game with an airship , named after their clan ( with a default name of Galbana , or Beiluge ( γγ€γ«γΌγΈγ₯ ) in the Japanese version ) . The airship is used as a base where the player can check on their current mission and view other tasks , customize equipment in the synthesis shop , or travel between the four islands of LemurΓ©s . The airship 's interior can also be customized by the player .
= = = Battle system = = =
Revenant Wings is a real @-@ time strategy game , but with elements reminiscent of the turn @-@ based Final Fantasy Tactics and Tactics Advance . It can be played entirely with the Nintendo DS stylus . Battles are initiated when the player begins a mission or chooses to fight a melee battle in a particular area . The characters attack automatically once the enemy is within range . The player is given the option to give commands to the characters by tapping on them with the stylus . Possible commands include changing the character 's target , setting their gambit , or using various abilities .
Each character is distinguished according to three types : melee , ranged and flying . Melee characters attack at a close range , and ranged from afar , while flying are able to travel unbound to terrain . The types oppose each other in the manner where melee wins over ranged , ranged wins over flying and flying wins over melee .
= = = Summoning = = =
Summoning magic returns from Final Fantasy XII in Revenant Wings and has a larger role ; director Motomu Toriyama stated that Revenant Wings has more summons , or Espers , than any previous Final Fantasy game . Summon abilities are learned via the new Ring of Pacts system , which is used to allow the summoning of Espers . Each slot in the Ring of Pacts is placed with an Auracite to create a pact with the Esper . The number of summons available to the player is fifty @-@ one , and they are classified in different categories , with each character able to summon a large number depending on the party 's combined capacity .
Summoning Espers to aid in battle is accomplished by using a Summon Gate located in the play field area . The ability to summon the different creatures depend on the Affinity of the player characters . Additionally , two Espers per character are automatically summoned at the beginning of each battle where Espers are allowed . Espers can be linked to battle groups using a system reminiscent of the earlier Square game Bahamut Lagoon . Summons are ranked from 1 to 3 , with Rank 1 and 2 able to manifest in large numbers , as opposed to Rank 3 which summons only one entity . Before the battle begins , players can select up to five Espers to possibly summon through Esper Gates in the upcoming battle ( Esper Troupes ) ; one Rank 3 Esper , two Rank 2 Espers , and two Rank 1 Espers . Summons are also differentiated by varying elements , which are fire , water , earth , and lightning . Recovery and non @-@ elemental are two other types .
= = = Synthesizing = = =
An element of alchemy and synthesizing is used in the game , where the player obtains recipes and materials necessary for the synthesis process . Only leader characters can obtain the materials , of which can be synthesized into weapons and armor and the stats of being dependent on the materials ' grade .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
A few locations in the Ivalice of Final Fantasy XII and Final Fantasy Tactics Advance return in Revenant Wings , along with a new setting : LemurΓ©s , described in the official website as a legendary purvama ( floating continent ) raised into the skies by the god Feolthanos long before the events of the game . Because of the effect of Cloudstones or " Auraliths " , magical stones used to erect barriers , this purvama is shielded from the rest of the world . In time , the " Legend of the Floating Land " became an ambition for sky pirates who seek the island and what riches are on it . The ruins of LemurΓ©s are where the Aegyl reside ; the Aegyl are a human @-@ like race with wings sprouting from their backs and a life @-@ span of forty years . Due to being shielded within LemurΓ©s , the Aegyl have no knowledge of the outside world but what they learn from intruding sky pirates .
The magicite in LemurΓ©s are known as Auracite . Fragments of Auralith , Auracites are used in the Ring of Pacts to summon beasts known as the Yarhi , referred by others of Ivalice as Espers . However , extended use of Auracite can purge the user of his or her anima , which becomes a new Yarhi and continues the cycle until the user becomes a soulless shell .
= = = Characters = = =
Revenant Wings added four additional main playable characters to the six in Final Fantasy XII : Kytes and Filo , two orphans from Rabanastre ; Llyud , a resident of Lemures ; and Ba 'Gamnan , a sinister bounty hunter who has a grudge against Vaan and company for having involved themselves in his affairs during the first game . Kytes and Filo appeared as a NPCs in XII , while Ba 'Gamnan had been a recurring antagonist . All three characters gain larger roles in this game .
Summon designs have also been changed . The lizard design of Salamander , for example , was changed to be boar @-@ like to ensure the designs would come out well and distinguishable within the DS ' graphical capabilities . Each summon has three Ranks , and the designs of each Rank are so that there are relations between one Rank and another .
= = = Story = = =
Revenant Wings begins a year after the events of Final Fantasy XII , with Vaan flying his own airship with Penelo after Balthier and Fran " stole " the Strahl . The foursome is revisited in Bervenia and decide to accompany each other inside to obtain the Cache of Glabados .
While obtaining a treasure , two strange crystals , the building begins to collapse on itself . In the ensuing chaos , Vaan loses his airship and are forced to flee the site on Balthier 's airship . Balthier soon drops Vaan and Penelo back in Rabanastre where they , along with Kytes and Filo , witness a strange object flying overhead : a derelict airship . After sneaking aboard the airship and defeating the Bangaa headhunter Ba 'Gamnan , Vaan and company christen the airship whatever the player decides ( default Galbana ) and find themselves on the purvama LemurΓ©s by accident . While looking around the unknown ruins , they meet Llyud of the Aegyl race and learn his people are locked in battle with sky pirates who are raiding the island for treasure . LemurΓ©s is said to possess summoning crystals called Auracite . Deciding to aid the Aegyl in defending LemurΓ©s , Vaan 's group learns the pirates were recruited by the mysterious Judge of Wings , who seeks out the three Auraliths , grand masses of Auracite that protect LemurΓ©s from the outside world .
When the group confronts the Judge of Wings at the site of the first auralith , the Judge of Wings destroys the auralith , leading Vaan and his friends to have visions of Balthier confronting the Judge of Wings and losing , after which they hear sky pirates are gathering at the Skysea , and they go there to find Rikken , a friend of Vaan 's . He says he may know something about the Judge of Wings , but to get answers , Vaan must compete in Rikken 's tournament .
After saving Rikken , it is revealed Rikken knows nothing about the Judge , but Tomaj discovers there is an auracite shrine beneath the Skysea . When venturing there , the group encounters Ba 'Gamnan who kidnaps Filo , taking her deeper within the shrine . When the group catches up with him , Rikken agrees to help rescue Filo , and once she is rescued , the party moves on to confront the esper Belias , the Gigas , that was summoned by the Judge of Wings . Once defeated , the Judge summons the massive esper Bahamut , who destroys the Skysea , and the party becomes island @-@ trapped .
While stranded , the group meets Velis , a man who was at Nalbina and got lost while searching for his lover , Mydia . After a lot of character development , it is discovered Velis is , in fact , dead , and actually an esper who you later must battle when the Judge of Wings comes and controls him . After Velis is defeated ( as the esper Odin ) , it is discovered the Judge of Wings is Mydia , but she then flees the island . Tomaj runs to the group , tells them the airship is fixed , and that he has spotted the Strahl , Balthier 's ship .
When the group finds the ship , they find Fran , who says Balthier is within a mountain on the island they are now on . Once inside , the group discovers an auralith , and the group plus Fran must defeat Mydia and the esper Mateus while protecting Balthier . Once defeated , Mydia flees without destroying the auralith , but Balthier then turns on the group and destroys the auralith , which sends the party into an illusion .
While within the illusion , the team discovers the Aegyl are so emotionless because they are deprieved of anima , which is harvested by their god , Feolthanos , and stored in the auraliths . It is discovered this illusion is the world of the espers , and they find Velis , who makes everything clear : Mydia is a body , stripped of its anima , controlled by Feolthanos to reap anima for him , and if the auraliths are destroyed , the Aegyl 's anima will return and as such , they must destroy the auraliths .
Once awoken from the illusion , Vaan confronts Balthier , who already knew these newly discovered facts , and Balthier and Fran join the team . The group then finds the Leviathan , the ship of Queen Ashe and Judge Magister Basch , who join the team as they venture through Ivalice , Emperor Larsa also joining . Mydia , as it turns out , is a Feol Viera , more commonly known as an Exiled , of which have white skin and shorter ears and hair as compared to the normal Viera who are darker @-@ skinned and longer @-@ haired . While in Roda Volcano , the team battles Mydia and the esper Chaos , and , as Mydia takes her dying breath , requests the team go to Feolthanos ' palace above LemurΓ©s and kill him . Her anima guides them up as they prepare to open the final chapter of their story .
Above LemurΓ©s , the team battles reincarnations of dead Aegyl , and then battle the reincarnated form of Mydia 's anima , while discovering Feolthanos , the god , is , himself , the last auralith . When the team ventures all the way to the seat of Feolthanos ' power , they battle him and the anima @-@ stripped Aegyl he commands . When he is almost defeated , he summons Bahamut to do battle with the team . After his giant shrine is destroyed , there is a one @-@ on @-@ one battle between Vaan and Feolthanos in which Feolthanos is apparently stronger , but as Vaan begins to lose , his friends come to back him up : first Ashe and Basch , Balthier and Fran , then Filo and Kytes , Llyud , and finally Penelo---the only battle in the game where every group leader is involved . In the end , Llyud deals the final blow to Feolthanos , releasing all the remaining stored anima .
After the end of the battle with Feolthanos , the game ends , and the characters going their separate ways as the credits roll is shown . If 100 % game completion is reached then you are treated to an extended ending which shows Vaan and Penelo leaving together as a couple on a new adventure only to be interrupted by Filo , Kytes and Tomaj with some Yarhi and Cuit Sith in toe .
= = Development = =
The game was directed and its story written by Motomu Toriyama , who also directed Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 and Final Fantasy XIII . According to Toriyama , the game is aimed at Nintendo DS owners who are not experienced with Final Fantasy games , and will remove " overly complicated elements from the battle system ... that will allow [ the player ] to defeat the enemies with minimal controls . "
The game features a sprite @-@ based graphics engine with 3D backgrounds and character designs by Ryoma ItΕ ( Final Fantasy Tactics Advance ) . Producer Eisuke Yokoyama cited Warcraft and Age of Empires as sources of inspiration and expressed a desire to " extract the pure ' fun ' of those games " and bring it to Final Fantasy . ItΕ based some of his designs on those of Final Fantasy XII character designer Akihiko Yoshida . ItΕ " traded secrets " with him , with the confidence he gained from Final Fantasy XII creator Yasumi Matsuno 's praise on his tampering with Final Fantasy Tactics Advance 's Moogle designs .
For the North American localization , Revenant Wings was rebalanced to make it more difficult because the North American market is judged as " more familiar " with the real @-@ time strategy genre .
= = Audio = =
Revenant Wings was scored by Final Fantasy XII composer Hitoshi Sakimoto , joined by Kenichiro Fukui , who had arranged the English version of " Kiss Me Good @-@ Bye " . Most of the music for the game is arrangements from the previous title . While the Nintendo DS has more technical limitations than the PlayStation 2 , Sakimoto considers it not particularly noticeable in practice .
Unlike in Final Fantasy XII , the music is entirely dynamic and context @-@ dependent . Each track possesses different parts , ranging from musical themes of peaceful moments to frantic battle cries , which are activated when the actions of the players require it and are looped until the context is changed again .
= = Reception = =
As of August 8 , 2008 , Revenant Wings has sold 1 @.@ 04 million units worldwide , with 540 @,@ 000 units sold in Japan , 220 @,@ 000 units in North America , and 280 @,@ 000 in Europe . It was the best @-@ selling Japanese console game in the week of its release , then the second best @-@ selling in the following week .
The Japanese version of the game scored 32 / 40 in the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu . The game also received praise from reviewers of Dengeki DS & Wii Style . Praise was given to the mission @-@ based storyline and battles for being " simple and more involved " . The large number of characters who can enter the fray at one given time gives a sense of involvement for the player as if they were " close to the action " , and the game 's difficulty may appeal even to those who " do not normally play role @-@ playing games " . The only criticism found was with the usage of the stylus , as its usage in selecting areas on the battlefield can be difficult .
The North American version of the game scored mainly positive reviews . Nintendo Power gave it a 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , IGN gave it an 8 @.@ 3 / 10 , 1up gave it a B + , GameSpot and GameZone both gave it an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 , and X @-@ Play gave it a 4 / 5 .
Electronic Gaming Monthly also gave it generally favorable reviews , with staff giving it scores of 8 , 7 @.@ 5 , and 6 ( all out of 10 ) . The reviewers praised the game 's combination of role @-@ playing and strategy , but criticized the screen size relative to the amount of action . IGN named it Nintendo DS Game of the Month for November 2007 .
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= Amon of Judah =
Amon of Judah ( Hebrew : ΧΦΈΧΧΦΉΧ β ΔmΕn ; Greek : ΞΞΌΟΞ½ ; Latin : Amon ) was a 7th @-@ century BC King of Judah who , according to the biblical account , succeeded his father Manasseh of Judah . Amon is most remembered for his idolatrous practices while king , which led to a revolt against him and eventually his assassination in c . 641 BC .
= = Life = =
Amon was the son of King Manasseh of Judah and Meshullemeth , a daughter of Haruz of Jotbah . Although the date is unknown , the Hebrew Bible records that he married Jedidah , the daughter of Adaiah of Bozkath . Amon began his reign of Judah at the age of 22 , and reigned for two years . Biblical scholar and archeologist William F. Albright has dated his reign to 642 β 640 , while professor E. R. Thiele offers the dates 643 / 642 β 641 / 640 . Thiele 's dates are tied to the reign of Amon 's son Josiah , whose death at the hands of Pharaoh Necho II occurred in the summer of 609 . Josiah 's death , which is independently confirmed in Egyptian history , places the end of Amon 's reign , 31 years earlier , in 641 or 640 and the beginning of his rule in 643 or 642 .
The Hebrew Bible records that Amon continued his father Manasseh 's practice of idolatry and set up pagan images as his father had done . II Kings states that Amon " did that which was evil in the sight of YAWEH , as did Manasseh his father . And he walked in all the way that his father walked in , and served the idols that his father served , and worshipped them . " Similarly , II Chronicles records that " β¦ he did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord , as did Manasseh his father ; and Amon sacrificed unto all the graven images which Manasseh his father had made , and served them . " The Talmudic tradition recounts that " Amon burnt the Torah , and allowed spider webs to cover the altar [ through complete disuse ] ... Amon sinned very much . " Like other textual sources , Flavius Josephus too criticizes the reign of Amon , describing his reign similarly to the Bible .
After reigning two years , Amon was assassinated by his servants , who conspired against him , and was succeeded by his son Josiah , who at the time was eight years old . After Amon 's assassination his murderers became unpopular with the people , and were ultimately killed . Some scholars , such as Abraham Malamat , assert that Amon was assassinated because people disliked the heavy influence that Assyria , an age @-@ old enemy of Judah responsible for the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel , had upon him .
= = Era = =
Amon 's reign was in the midst of a transitional time for the Levant and the entire Mesopotamian region . To the east of Judah , the Assyrian Empire was beginning to disintegrate while the Babylonian Empire had not yet risen to replace it . To the west , Egypt was still recovering under Psamtik I from its Assyrian occupation , transforming from a vassal state to an autonomous ally . In this power vacuum , many smaller states such as Judah were able to govern themselves without foreign intervention from larger empires .
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= Implacable @-@ class aircraft carrier =
The Implacable @-@ class aircraft carrier was a class of two aircraft carriers built for the Royal Navy during World War II . Derived from the design of the Illustrious class , they were faster and carried more aircraft than the older ships . They were initially assigned to the Home Fleet when completed in 1944 and attacked targets in Norway as well as the German battleship Tirpitz . Subsequently they were assigned to the British Pacific Fleet ( BPF ) .
Indefatigable was the first ship to go to the Pacific and attacked Japanese @-@ controlled oil refineries in Sumatra en route . She participated in Operation Iceberg , the invasion of Okinawa in March β April 1945 . Implacable 's arrival in the Pacific was delayed by a refit and she did not begin operations against the Japanese until June . The sister ships participated in the attacks on the Japanese Home Islands in July and August . Indefatigable was the only carrier chosen to continue operations after most of the BPF withdrew to prepare for further operations in early August . After the Japanese formal surrender in September , Implacable ferried Allied troops and prisoners of war back to Australia and Canada for the rest of the year .
The sisters returned home in 1946 ; Indefatigable was used for the rest of the year to transport troops before being placed in reserve in 1947 and Implacable became the training carrier for Home Fleet . Indefatigable was converted into a training ship and reactivated in 1950 for service with the Home Fleet . Implacable was relegated to the reserve that same year and modified into a training ship in 1952 . The sisters were scheduled for modernisation during the mid @-@ 1950s , but it was cancelled as the modernisation of the carrier in the queue ahead of them proved to be too expensive and lengthy . The sisters were decommissioned in 1954 and sold for scrap in 1955 β 56 .
= = Background and description = =
The Implacable class had its origin as an improved version of the Illustrious @-@ class aircraft carriers for the 1938 Naval Programme while still remaining within the 23 @,@ 000 long tons ( 23 @,@ 000 t ) available from the tonnage allowed by the Second London Naval Treaty . The initial change was to increase the carriers ' speed to no less than 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) which required the addition of a fourth steam turbine and associated propeller shaft . Offsetting the additional weight of the machinery meant reductions in armour thicknesses in the hangar deck and the bulkheads at the ends of the hangar . At the same time the Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) was developing a different modified Illustrious design ( Design D ) to carry an additional dozen aircraft ( a total of 48 ) in a lower hangar that also incorporated the additional machinery of the initial design with the sacrifice of even more armour . Hangar height was initially planned as 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) in the upper hangar to accommodate the new Fairey Albacore torpedo bomber and 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) in the lower hangar to accommodate taller amphibious aircraft , but a later change in policy raised the upper hangar height to 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . Design D was submitted to the Board of Admiralty on 2 August 1938 and approved on 17 November . In April 1939 the lower hangar 's height was reduced to 14 feet to compensate for the thickening of the hangar side armour to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) and the idea of carrying amphibians in the hangar was abandoned .
The Implacable @-@ class ships were 766 feet 6 inches ( 233 @.@ 6 m ) long overall and 730 feet ( 222 @.@ 5 m ) at the waterline . Their beam was 95 feet 9 inches ( 29 @.@ 2 m ) at the waterline and they had a draught of 29 feet ( 8 @.@ 8392 m ) at deep load . The ships were significantly overweight and displaced 32 @,@ 110 long tons ( 32 @,@ 630 t ) at deep load . Their complement was approximately 2 @,@ 300 officers and enlisted men in 1945 . They had metacentric heights of 4 @.@ 06 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) at light load and 6 @.@ 91 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load as completed .
The ships had four Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one shaft , using steam supplied by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 148 @,@ 000 shp ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) , enough to give them a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 5 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 km / h ; 37 @.@ 4 mph ) . On sea trials , the ships reached speeds of 31 @.@ 89 β 32 @.@ 06 knots ( 59 @.@ 06 β 59 @.@ 38 km / h ; 36 @.@ 70 β 36 @.@ 89 mph ) with 150 @,@ 935 β 151 @,@ 200 shp ( 112 @,@ 552 β 112 @,@ 750 kW ) . The Implacable class carried a maximum of 4 @,@ 690 β 4 @,@ 810 long tons ( 4 @,@ 770 β 4 @,@ 890 t ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 6 @,@ 720 β 6 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 450 β 12 @,@ 780 km ; 7 @,@ 730 β 7 @,@ 940 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
The 760 @-@ foot ( 231 @.@ 6 m ) armoured flight deck had a maximum width of 102 feet ( 31 @.@ 1 m ) . The arrestor cables , crash barricades , aircraft catapult and lifts were designed to handle aircraft up to 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) in weight . The carriers were fitted with nine arrestor cables aft that were designed to stop landing , at speeds of up to 60 knots ( 110 km / h ; 69 mph ) . They were backed up by three crash barricades to prevent landing aircraft from crashing into aircraft parked on the ship 's bow . In case of damage to the rear flight deck , the Implacable @-@ class ships also mounted three additional forward arrestor cables to permit aircraft to land over the bow . A single BH3 hydraulic catapult was fitted on the forward part of the flight deck to launch 20 @,@ 000 @-@ pound aircraft at 56 knots ( 104 km / h ; 64 mph ) ; lighter aircraft could be launched at a maximum speed of 66 knots ( 122 km / h ; 76 mph ) . The ships were equipped with two lifts on the centreline , the forward of which measured 45 by 33 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 10 @.@ 1 m ) and served only the upper hangar , and the aft lift ( 45 by 22 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) ) which served both hangars . The upper hangar was 458 feet ( 139 @.@ 6 m ) long and the lower hangar was 208 feet ( 63 @.@ 4 m ) long ; both had a uniform width of 62 feet ( 18 @.@ 9 m ) . Both hangars had a height of only 14 feet which precluded storage of Lend @-@ Lease Vought F4U Corsair fighters as well as many post @-@ war aircraft and helicopters . In case of fire the upper hangar could be divided by two fire curtains and the lower hangar had one fire curtain . Designed to stow 48 aircraft in their hangars , the use of a permanent deck park allowed the Implacable class to accommodate up to 81 aircraft . The crewmen , maintenance personnel and facilities needed to support these additional aircraft were housed in the lower hangar . The ships were provided with 94 @,@ 650 imperial gallons ( 430 @,@ 300 l ; 113 @,@ 670 US gal ) of aviation gasoline , only enough for approximately five sorties per aircraft .
= = = Armament , electronics , and armour = = =
The ships ' main armament consisted of sixteen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) dual @-@ purpose guns in eight powered RP 10 Mk II * * twin @-@ gun turrets , four in sponsons on each side of the hull . Unlike the Illustrious @-@ class ships , the roofs of the gun turrets were flat and flush with the flight deck . The gun had a maximum range of 20 @,@ 760 yards ( 18 @,@ 980 m ) at an elevation of + 45 Β° and a ceiling of 41 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Their light anti @-@ aircraft defences included five octuple mounts for QF 2 @-@ pounder ( " pom @-@ pom " ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , two on the flight deck forward of the island , one on the aft part of the island and two in sponsons on the port side of the hull . A single quadruple 2 @-@ pounder mount was also fitted on the port side of the hull . The 2 @-@ pounder gun had a maximum range of 6 @,@ 800 yards ( 6 @,@ 200 m ) . The two ships were also fitted with approximately sixty Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon in varying numbers of single and twin @-@ gun mounts . These guns had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) , but many were replaced by 40 mm Bofors AA guns when the ships were transferred to the Pacific Theater as the 20 mm shell was unlikely to destroy a kamikaze before it hit the ship . The Bofors gun had a maximum range of 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) . Two additional quadruple " pom @-@ pom " mounts were added to Implacable before she joined the British Pacific Fleet in 1945 . After the war , more Oerlikons were exchanged for Bofors guns . By April 1946 , the sisters had 11 β 12 Bofors guns and 19 β 30 Oerlikons each .
The 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns were controlled by four Mk V * ( M ) fire @-@ control directors , each mounting a Type 285 gunnery radar . Two of the directors were positioned on the flight deck , one each fore and aft of the island , a third was on the island , aft of the funnel , and the fourth director was on the port side of the hull , below the flight deck . Each director sent its data to a Fuze Keeping Clock AA fire @-@ control system for gunnery calculations . Each " pom @-@ pom " was provided with its own Mk IV director that carried a range @-@ only Type 282 gunnery radar .
The specifics of the Implacable @-@ class ships ' radar suite is not readily available . They were fitted with the Type 277 surface @-@ search / height @-@ finding radar on top of the bridge and a Type 293 target indicator radar on the foremast . The ships probably carried Type 279 and Type 281B early @-@ warning radars , based on the radars fitted aboard the Illustrious @-@ class carrier Victorious late in the war .
The Implacable @-@ class ships had a flight deck protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour . The sides of the hangars were designed to be 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick to protect the hangar from low @-@ level attacks with 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) semi @-@ armour @-@ piercing bombs , but were supposedly thickened to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) late in the design process at the cost of reducing the height of the lower hangar . Naval historian Norman Friedman wrote : " Ironically , it appears that the ships were actually built with 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ... armour . " The ends of the hangars were protected by 2 @-@ inch bulkheads and the armour of the hangar deck ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 to 64 mm ) in thickness .
The waterline armour belt was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , but only covered the central portion of the ship to form the armoured citadel . The belt was closed by 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft . The underwater defence system was a layered system of liquid- and air @-@ filled compartments as used in the Illustrious class and was estimated to be able to resist a 750 @-@ pound ( 340 kg ) explosive charge . The magazines for the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns lay outside the armoured citadel and were protected by 2 to 3 @-@ inch roofs , 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch sides and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @-@ inch ends .
= = = Planned modernisation = = =
The two Implacables were tentatively scheduled to be modernised in 1953 β 55 with Implacable following Victorious . The draft Staff Requirements were drawn up in July 1951 . This included combining the two hangars into a single 17 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 33 m ) hangar , strengthening the flight deck and aircraft handling equipment to deal with 30 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 14 @,@ 000 kg ) aircraft , enlarging the lifts to 55 by 32 feet ( 16 @.@ 8 by 9 @.@ 8 m ) , adding a gallery deck between the hangar and the flight deck to accommodate the additional personnel required , the addition of steam catapults , and the increase of her aviation fuel stowage to 240 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 l ; 290 @,@ 000 US gal ) . Other desired improvements were new boilers to increase her endurance , more space for the latest radars , and the replacement of her anti @-@ aircraft armament with the British version of the 3 " / 70 Mark 26 gun and sextuple mounts for the Bofors guns .
By October 1951 , the estimated completion date for Victorious 's modernisation was already a year past the initial estimate of April 1954 . Implacable was scheduled to begin her modernisation in April 1953 for completion in 1956 , but the Director of Dockyards pointed out that existing schedules prevented her from beginning any earlier than April 1955 unless the modernisations of two cruisers and the guided missile test ship RFA Girdle Ness were delayed . The Controller of the Navy asked if the time and cost of the reconstruction could be reduced , but the minimum modifications were the most expensive as they involved structural alterations . The Controller ordered the Director of Dockyards to plan for rebuilding Implacable between June 1953 and December 1956 even after the latter protested that even a limited modernisation would require about three @-@ quarters of the structural work of the original plan and that the shortage of skilled workers ( already insufficient for Victorious by herself ) would delay work on both ships . In order to reduce the amount of structural work , the requirement to replace the boilers was cancelled and the ship would receive existing radars instead of systems then still under development . In January 1952 , the ship 's new armament was finalized at six twin @-@ gun 3 " / 70 mounts and three sextuple Bofors mounts . Five months later the Admiralty decided that Victorious would be the last fleet carrier modernised as experience showed that the process would take longer and cost more than was practicable .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and service = =
Two ships were originally planned , but only one carrier was included in the 1938 Naval Programme as the other was delayed a year by the government . While under construction , the ships had their forward lift enlarged to take non @-@ folding aircraft like the Hawker Sea Hurricane and the early models of the Supermarine Seafire , the flight deck was widened abreast the forward lift , splinter protection was added as were seven diesel generators , each in their own watertight compartment . All these changes increased the ships ' displacement by 540 long tons ( 550 t ) at deep load .
Implacable 's construction was suspended in 1940 in favour of escorts needed in the Battle of the Atlantic so that the two carriers were launched within days of each other . She embarked portions of her air wing for training in late August and was assigned to the Home Fleet on 7 October at Scapa Flow after working up . She joined ships searching for Tirpitz a week later and some of her Fairey Fireflies spotted the battleship off HΓ₯kΓΈya Island near TromsΓΈ . Subsequently her Fireflies successfully attacked targets in Norway . In late October , the carrier 's Seafires arrived and she participated in Operation Athletic off the Norwegian coast , sinking four warships and two merchant ships and damaging a German submarine . In November and December , Implacable provided air cover for minelaying operations and attacked German shipping off the Norwegian coast . On 15 December she began a refit at Rosyth preparatory to her transfer to the BPF , which included augmenting her light AA armament .
When the refit was completed on 10 March 1945 , the ship embarked an enlarged air wing with 81 aircraft ( 48 Seafires , 12 Fireflies , and 21 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers ) , the largest number of aircraft aboard a British carrier up to that time . Implacable arrived at Sydney , Australia in May and joined the other carriers of the 1st Aircraft Carrier Squadron ( 1st ACS ) at Manus Island after their return from the invasion of Okinawa in June . On 14 β 15 June , the carrier attacked the Japanese naval base at Truk . After working up with the other carriers , the ship sailed with the 1st ACS on 6 July to rendezvous with the American carriers of Task Force 38 off the Japanese home island of Honshu ten days later . The British carriers began flying sorties against Japanese targets on Honshu on 17 July and Implacable 's aircraft , before departing the area on 11 August to replenish , flew over 1 @,@ 000 sorties . She arrived at Sydney on 24 August and spent most of the rest of the year ferrying Allied prisoners of war and soldiers back to Australia and Canada . In January 1946 , together with her sister Indefatigable and several other ships , she made a number of port visits in Australia and New Zealand . The ship was refitted in Sydney in preparation for her return home on 3 June where she became the deck @-@ landing training carrier for the Home Fleet .
Implacable temporarily became a trials carrier in October 1947 as her own air group was not yet ready and she was refitted from October to December 1948 in preparation of service as the Home Fleet flagship . She embarked a squadron each of de Havilland Sea Hornets and Blackburn Firebrands in April 1949 and became the flagship of Admiral Sir Philip Vian on 29 April . A squadron of de Havilland Sea Vampires flew from her deck later that year and her air group was augmented by a squadron of Fairey Barracudas in 1950 . Implacable was placed in reserve in September 1950 and slowly converted into a training ship by the addition of extra accommodation and classrooms , including the addition of a deckhouse on her flight deck . She was recommissioned on January 1952 as the flagship of the Home Fleet Training Squadron . Together with Indefatigable , she was present during the Coronation Fleet Review of Queen Elizabeth II on 15 June 1953 . Four months later , Implacable ferried a battalion of troops from Plymouth to Trinidad in response to a crisis in British Guiana . She was decommissioned on 1 September 1954 and sold for breaking up on 27 October 1955 .
While Indefatigable was still conducting builder 's trials , a de Havilland Mosquito landed aboard on 25 March 1944 , piloted by Lieutenant Eric Brown . This was the first landing by a twin @-@ engined aeroplane on a carrier . After working up the ship was assigned to the Home Fleet in early July 1944 with an air group of Seafires , Fireflies and Barracudas . On 17 July , she participated in Operation Mascot , an attack on Tirpitz that was foiled by German smoke screens . The following month , Indefatigable 's aircraft provided air cover to minelaying operations and attacked targets in Norway . She was also assigned to a series of attacks on Tirpitz , Operation Goodwood , in late August which failed to significantly damage the battleship .
Indefatigable was assigned to the BPF in November and she arrived in Colombo , Ceylon on 10 December where she joined the 1st ACS . Together with the other carriers of the BPF , she attacked oil refineries in Sumatra in January 1945 ( Operation Lentil and Operation Meridian ) before sailing to Sydney to prepare for operations in the Pacific . The BPF joined the American Fifth Fleet at Ulithi on 20 March and attacked airfields on the Sakishima Islands , south of Okinawa , beginning on 26 March , as part of the preparations for Operation Iceberg . During these operations , Indefatigable became the first British carrier to be hit by a kamikaze when one penetrated the combat air patrol ( CAP ) and struck the base of her island on 1 April . The bomb carried by the kamikaze did not detonate and this limited casualties to 21 men killed and 27 wounded . Damage to the ship was minimal and the flight deck was back in operation thirty minutes later . After Okinawa had been secured , the BPF arrived back at Sydney on 7 June and Indefatigable was delayed rejoining operations as she required repairs to her machinery . She departed Manus on 12 July and reached the coast of Japan eight days later . Her aircraft began attacking targets in the Inland Sea on 24 July . Most of the BPF withdrew as planned on 10 August to prepare for Operation Olympic , the invasion of Kyushu scheduled for November , but Indefatigable and several other ships remained to represent Britain at the end of operations . The ship 's aircraft flew missions on 13 and 15 August ; during the last of these missions , her Seafires shot down eight of twelve Mitsubishi A6M Zeros while losing one of their own and an Avenger gunner shot down another Japanese aircraft . After the ceasefire , her aircraft continued to fly CAP and flew reconnaissance missions looking for Allied prisoners of war .
Indefatigable arrived at Sydney on 18 September and began a leisurely refit that lasted until 15 November . After touring Australia and New Zealand , she arrived at Spithead on 15 March 1946 where she was modified to accommodate over 1 @,@ 900 passengers . She ferried troops to and from Australia , Ceylon , Singapore and America for the rest of the year before being placed in reserve at the beginning of 1947 . The ship was modified for use as a training ship and recommissioned in 1950 for service with the Home Fleet Training Squadron . She was decommissioned at Rosyth in October 1954 and towed to Gareloch in June 1955 where she was listed for disposal . Indefatigable was sold for scrap in September 1956 and subsequently broken up .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
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= The Two Roses =
The Two Roses is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on the young Tony Prolo who goes to deliver lunch to his father of the same name . After arriving and giving him his lunch , the young Tony is hit by a passing vehicle and the father rushes his son home . Mr. Sears , whose car hit the child , receives a demand for $ 10 @,@ 000 by the " Black Hand " . The Sears go to the police and set a trap for the Black Hand , but end up wrongly arresting the child 's father . Tony convinces the police to investigate further and the confusion is cleared up when the real culprit is caught . Mr. Sears compensates the family by purchasing them a house in the countryside . The film features Marie Eline , cast in the role of an Italian boy , along with the leading players Frank H. Crane and Anna Rosemond as the parents . The film was released on June 7 , 1910 . The film survives with new inter @-@ titles that were created to replace the lost materials .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with a young Italian boy , Tony Prolo , who is preparing to deliver his father 's lunch to him . The boy sets off to the railroad construction area , passing the dangerous terrain without incident . The father , Tony Prolo ( Senior ) , greets his young son and happily takes his lunch . His young son begins tossing rocks across the street and runs out into the road and is knocked down by a passing vehicle . Tony rushes to his son 's aid and the rich man , Mr. Sears gets out the car and attempts to comfort the father . The father rejects him and rushes home , carrying his son in his arms . At home , Tony Prolo and his wife attend to their son and pray for his health .
At his residence , Mr. Sears receives a letter by the " Black Hand " demanding $ 10 @,@ 000 for ruining a person 's life . The letter tells him to give the money to a man at a specific street corner who will be carrying a white rose . Sears heads to the police and the detective lays a tray for the Black Hand man . At the same time , Tony Prolo has gone to see the doctor and stops by the florist to get a white rose for his flower @-@ loving son . After he purchases the rose , his path crosses with Mr. Sears and the detective at the street corner , and he is arrested because he is carrying a white rose . The real Black Hand man is hiding behind a door and witnesses the arrest of Tony Prolo , but is discovered by the constable and he is arrested after he was discovered carrying a white rose .
Tony Prolo convinces the Sears to have the police investigate his story , and they all are brought to Tony Prolo 's home . The Sears family sees his suffering son and the confusion over the Black Hand is resolved when the constable brings the real suspect into the room . Tony Prolo is released and Mr. Sears compensates the family by purchasing a cottage in the country that is surrounding by white roses .
= = Cast = =
Marie Eline as Tony , an Italian boy
Frank H. Crane as Tony Prolo
Anna Rosemond as Tony Prolo 's wife
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it may have been Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman still employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . The film director is unknown , but two Thanhouser directors are possible . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions .
The role of the Italian father Tony was played by Frank H. Crane . Crane was involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser . In the role of Tony 's wife was Anna Rosemond , who was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company . Marie Eline , played the role of Tony 's son , was concealed in masculine make up and black hair for the role of the Italian boy . The Moving Picture World said , " [ m ] aybe you 'd never recognize her if we did not tip you off . Don 't pass the tip to others in your place , but see if their little favorite doesn 't fool them completely in her masculine makeup . " Other members of the cast have not been identified .
= = Release and reception = =
The single @-@ reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on June 7 , 1910 . This production was the first Tuesday release in the Thanhouser " two a week " releases . The production was advertised as a " A powerful , pathetic , pretty story of life in Little Italy . " The Moving Picture World contained a brief article that used the term " The Thanhouser Kid " to describe Marie Eline ; it was the origin of the nickname for Eline . The film had a wide national release : it was advertised by theaters in Kansas , Indiana , Texas , and Pennsylvania .
In 1987 , the film was erroneously claimed to be an adaptation of Charles Dickens serial novel Little Dorrit by H. Philip Bolton in Novels on Stage - Dickens dramatized . Bolton writes , " [ t ] he first film in some sense from the novel - albeit indirectly - would appear to have been a " Two Roses " movie produced in 1910 by Thanhouser . "
A mostly complete print of the film survives and has been preserved in its 35 mm state by the Deutsche Kinemathek - Museum fΓΌr Film und Fernsehen in Berlin . The surviving print had only a French language title card " Les Deux Roses " and was devoid of intertitles . New German intertitles were added by Urte Alfs and Anke Mebold of the Deutsches Filminstitut based on the published synopsis from The Moving Picture World . The restored work uses an original music composition composed and performed by GΓΌnter A. Buchwald . Ned Thanhouser made available an English language translation of the new German intertitles . The film is also released as part of a two @-@ disc DVD set , Screening the Poor , published in the Edition Filmmuseum Series .
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= Operation Southeast Croatia =
Operation Southeast Croatia ( German : Unternehmen SΓΌdost Kroatien ) was a large @-@ scale German @-@ led counter @-@ insurgency operation conducted in the southeastern parts of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna DrΕΎava Hrvatska , NDH ) , ( modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina ) during World War II . It was the first of two German @-@ led operations targeting mainly Yugoslav Partisans in eastern Bosnia between 15 January and 4 February 1942 . Several days after the conclusion of Operation Southeast Croatia , a follow @-@ up operation known as Operation Ozren was carried out between the Bosna and SpreΔa rivers . Both operations also involved Croatian Home Guard and Italian troops and are associated with what is known as the Second Enemy Offensive ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Druga neprijateljska ofenziva ) in Yugoslav historiography .
The insurgents in the area of operations included some groups led by communist Partisans and some led by Serb β chauvinist Chetniks . Although the Partisans and Chetniks had already irrevocably split in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia following Operation Uzice , this had not yet happened in eastern Bosnia and in some areas they were still cooperating . As a result , differentiating between the rank and file of the two groups was difficult , as even the communist @-@ led insurgent groups consisted mainly of Serb peasants who had little understanding of the political aims of their leaders . While there were 20 @,@ 000 Chetnik @-@ led insurgents located within the area of operations , they offered no resistance to the German β NDH forces and many withdrew east across the Drina river to avoid being engaged . This contributed to the complete unravelling of Chetnik β Partisan cooperation in eastern Bosnia . The Partisan main force was able to evade the Germans , infiltrate through the Italian cordon to the south and establish itself around FoΔa .
The failure of the Axis forces to decisively engage the Partisans during these operations necessitated a further major offensive , Operation Trio , in the area immediately south of where Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren had taken place .
= = Background = =
On 6 April 1941 the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia from multiple directions , rapidly overwhelming the under @-@ prepared Royal Yugoslav Army which capitulated 11 days later . In the aftermath of the invasion Yugoslavia was partitioned between the Axis powers through a combination of annexations and occupation zones . Outside of these areas , an Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) was established on the territory of modern @-@ day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina . The NDH was divided by a German β Italian demarcation line , known as the " Vienna Line " , with the Germans occupying the north and northeastern parts of the NDH , and the Italians the south and southwestern sections . The NDH immediately implemented genocidal policies against the Serb , Jewish and Romani population . Armed resistance to the occupation and the NDH initially formed into two loosely cooperating factions , the Partisans who were led by communists , and the Chetniks who were mostly led by Serb β chauvinist officers of the defeated Yugoslav Army . In November and December 1941 , almost all Partisan forces from the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia had been forced to withdraw into eastern Bosnia where they combined with local Partisan forces . Most of the Chetnik forces in eastern Bosnia were local Serb peasants . The insurgency in eastern Bosnia meant that NDH authorities were unable to retain control of the region .
At the end of 1941 , there were six Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia , with about 7 @,@ 300 fighters operating in the Majevica , Ozren , BiraΔ , Romanija , Zvijezda and Kalinovik areas . According to Enver RedΕΎiΔ , in early January 1942 , the Chetniks controlled a large portion of eastern Bosnia , including the towns of Zvornik , ViΕ‘egrad , Vlasenica , Srebrenica , DrinjaΔa , Bratunac , FoΔa , Ustikolina , GoraΕΎde and ΔajniΔe . Due to continuing cooperation between the two groups , the Chetniks also shared control of the towns of Rogatica , Olovo and Han Pijesak with the Partisans .
= = Planning = =
The orders from General der Artillerie ( Lieutenant General ) Paul Bader , the German Military Commander in Serbia , directed that Operation Southeast Croatia was to be an encirclement operation . All persons encountered within the area of operations were to be treated as the enemy . The population within the area to be targeted by the operation were almost all either Orthodox Serbs or Bosnian Muslims , although there was a small Catholic Croat minority . Bader believed that the Partisans and Chetniks were using the area as winter quarters , and that their presence there was a threat to major transport routes through eastern Bosnia .
The operation itself was led by the German 342nd Infantry Division , which had been relieved of its occupation duties in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia by Bulgarian troops . The commander of the 342nd Infantry Division , Generalmajor ( Brigadier ) Paul Hoffman , also had the 718th Infantry Division of Generalmajor Johann Fortner under his command for the duration of the operation . The German force was assisted by Croatian Home Guard units including seven infantry battalions and nine artillery batteries . The Axis and allied NDH forces available for the operation were 30 @,@ 000 β 35 @,@ 000 troops in total . Luftwaffe support included reconnaissance aircraft and a combat squadron . The offensive targeted areas held by the Romanija , Zvijezda , BiraΔ , and Ozren Partisan detachments , between Sarajevo , Tuzla , Zvornik and ViΕ‘egrad . To the south , along the " Vienna Line " separating the German @-@ occupied zone of the NDH from the Italian @-@ occupied zone , the Italians placed a cordon . In total , the area targeted by the operation was estimated by the Germans to contain around 8 @,@ 000 Partisans and 20 @,@ 000 Bosnian Chetniks .
On 9 January 1942 , the 718th Infantry Division issued orders to both its regiments that defined the following groups as hostile : all non @-@ residents and residents that had been absent from their localities until recently ; all identifiable Chetniks or communists with or without weapons or ammunition ; and anyone concealing , supplying or providing information to those groups . Any captured Partisans were to be briefly interrogated and summarily shot , as were any other insurgents that had attacked the Germans , been caught carrying ammunition or messages , or who resisted or fled . Also , any houses from which shots were fired at German troops were to be burned .
= = = 15 β 18 January = = =
Operation Southeast Croatia commenced on 15 January 1942 . The 342nd Infantry Division approached the area of operations from the Drina valley to the east , with the 718th Infantry Division striking east from assembly areas in Sarajevo and Tuzla .
In the first days of the operation , the 697th Regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division , supported by NDH units , thrust out of their bridgehead over the Drina at Zvornik and cleared the high ground southwest and south of that town , and south along the Drina valley road , hindered by roadblocks and destroyed bridges . It then followed up the retreating insurgents , mopping up the DrinjaΔa valley , before pushing southwest through the mountains and reaching Vlasenica on 18 January . Parts of the 698th Regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division fought southwest from ViΕ‘egrad along the upper Drina valley to MeΔeΔa , while other elements pushed west towards Rogatica , followed by an Italian Alpini battalion . The 699th Regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division advanced along the Drina valley past the confluence with the DrinjaΔa to the area west of Ljubovija , clearing roadblocks as they went . In the area of MiliΔi , they captured about 400 insurgents , mostly Chetniks loyal to Jezdimir DangiΔ , along with a tank , two machine guns , about 160 rifles and a large amount of ammunition . The regiment then mopped up the area west to Vlasenica and one battalion cleared the route to Srebrenica .
The 738th Regiment of the 718th Infantry Division was reinforced by pioneers , four NDH battalions , four NDH artillery batteries and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half German mountain gun batteries . It pushed east from Sarajevo along the PraΔa valley then through the Romanija mountains towards Rogatica . Fighting in very difficult terrain , it captured 240 insurgents and significant amounts of weapons and ammunition . It also freed 10 Italian and 57 NDH soldiers . The other regiment of the 718th Infantry Division , the 750th Regiment , was reinforced by a German artillery battery , an NDH infantry battalion and an NDH mountain battery . It moved south from an assembly area southwest of Tuzla towards Olovo . It reached Kladanj on 16 January , and spent the following days clearing both sides of the road west towards Vlasenica . It had been planned that the Italian 3rd Mountain Infantry Division Ravenna would provide a cordon to the south , blocking any southerly withdrawal by the insurgents . This did not occur , as the Italians claimed the railroad near Mostar had been damaged , resulting in several weeks delay .
When the Chetnik leaders appointed by DraΕΎa MihailoviΔ , Majors BoΕ‘ko TodoroviΔ and DangiΔ , became aware of the commencement of Operation Southeast Croatia , they advised other Chetnik commanders that the operation was targeted at the Partisans , and there was no need for the Chetniks to get involved . Following this , their units withdrew from their positions on the front line , let the Germans pass through their areas , or went home . Many withdrew across the Drina into the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia to avoid being engaged , which severely weakened the Partisan defences with the result that they suffered significant casualties and lost a great deal of territory . These actions severed any remaining cooperative links that remained between the Chetniks and Partisans in eastern Bosnia .
The insurgents in the area of operations destroyed villages to deny supplies and shelter to the Germans who were operating in mountainous terrain with snow up to one metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) deep and facing extreme temperatures approaching β 30 Β° C ( β 22 Β° F ) . The Partisans proved very difficult to pin down , aided by excellent communication and supported by the local populace . During the operation , the decisive engagements with the Partisans were mainly in the Romanija region . The Romanija Detachment made up forty percent of all Partisans in eastern Bosnia and bore the brunt of most of the fighting during the operation .
= = = 19 β 23 January = = =
After their initial advances , the 342nd Infantry Division spent the next few days mopping up the areas they had entered . The 697th Regiment advanced south from Vlasenica through the Javor Mountains , meeting little resistance and capturing Han Pijesak on 22 January . Elements of the 697th Regiment pushed west towards Olovo the same day . The 698th Regiment cleared the area around Rogatica , killing 50 and capturing 200 insurgents , and liberating 63 captured Croatian Home Guard soldiers . The 699th Regiment patrolled the area as far as Vlasenica and Srebrenica . These mopping up operations achieved little , as most of the insurgents had escaped the encirclement before it was completed .
The 718th Infantry Division was assisted in their subsequent operations by air support from the ZNDH , which bombed Sokolac on 20 January . On 21 January , the 738th Regiment captured the village of Podromanija south of Sokolac , and on the following day elements of the regiment drove through Sokolac and closed on Han Pijesak . On the same day , the 750th Regiment reached Olovo , but the insurgents had withdrawn from the area .
On 21 January , Bader dramatically altered his previous orders regarding the treatment of those encountered in the area of operations , directing that those who did not resist and surrendered or merely had weapons in their houses , were to be treated as prisoners of war . It is likely that this change was intended to assist Chetniks in the area of operations to avoid destruction . By the end of January , Bader 's chief of staff was attempting to negotiate a cooperation agreement with DangiΔ , and in turn DangiΔ ordered the 4 @,@ 500 β 10 @,@ 000 Chetniks under his command to avoid the Germans or surrender their weapons immediately if they were unable to do so .
After temporarily improving the Partisan defences against the German and NDH forces , the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and the 1st Proletarian Brigade were unable to salvage the situation and retreated south towards FoΔa . The 1st Proletarian Brigade , less two battalions that were accompanying the Supreme Headquarters , crossed the Igman mountain plateau near Sarajevo with temperatures reaching β 32 Β° C ( β 26 Β° F ) . According to the commander of the 1st Proletarian Brigade , KoΔa PopoviΔ , 172 Partisans suffered severe hypothermic injury and six died . When they approached the German @-@ Italian demarcation line south of Sarajevo , the Partisans were able to infiltrate through the weak Italian cordon . Montenegrin Partisans crossed into the NDH to attack the Chetniks , capturing FoΔa on 20 January and GoraΕΎde on 22 January . The German and NDH forces were successful in recapturing Sokolac , Rogatica , Bratunac , Srebrenica , Vlasenica , Han Pijesak , Olovo , Bosansko Petrovo Selo , and some smaller settlements , and inflicted significant losses on the Partisans .
Because the Chetniks failed to assist the Partisans in the battle , the Yugoslav Central Committee ceased all further attempts to cooperate with them and issued a declaration on 22 January to " Bosnians ! Serbs , Muslims , Croats ! " that Chetnik leaders BoΕ‘ko TodoroviΔ , AΔim BabiΔ , and others were traitors . It further proclaimed that the Partisans fought alone " all across Bosnia and Herzegovina " and ended with " long live the united people 's liberation struggle of all the peoples of Bosnia ! " . The Romanija Detachment 's commander , SlaviΕ‘a Vajner @-@ ΔiΔa , was killed in combat against the Germans . A member of the Supreme Headquarters of the Partisans , Svetozar VukmanoviΔ @-@ Tempo , reported that detachment had completely collapsed .
However , faced with overly ambitious objectives and atrocious weather , the combined operation failed to destroy the Partisan forces and was called off on 23 January 1942 , with the Germans having suffered casualties of 25 dead , 131 wounded , and one missing , as well as around 300 cases of frostbite . The NDH forces lost 50 soldiers killed or seriously wounded . The Germans captured 855 rifles , 22 machine guns and four artillery pieces , along with livestock and draft animals . The Partisans had lost 531 killed and between 1 @,@ 331 and 1 @,@ 400 captured , in addition to the frostbite casualties suffered by the 1st Proletarian Brigade while crossing Mt . Igman . A total of 168 NDH and 104 Italian troops that had been captured by the Partisans were freed during the operation . The Supreme Headquarters entered FoΔa on 25 January and stayed there for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months .
= = Operation Ozren = =
Operation Ozren ( German : Unternehmen Ozren ) was aimed at clearing an estimated 2 @,@ 000 Partisans from the area between the Bosna and SpreΔa rivers , and was effectively an extension of Operation Southeast Croatia employing elements of the force used in that operation . The main force used was Fortner 's 718th Infantry Division reinforced by a regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division , supported by a number of NDH units ( including a battalion of the UstaΕ‘e Black Legion ) . The force was also supported by five tank platoons and an armoured train . Around 20 @,@ 000 Axis troops were committed to the operation . It commenced several days after Operation Southeast Croatia ended on 23 January 1942 .
The Germans advanced north and west from Kladanj towards a cordon established by ten Croatian Home Guard battalions supported by their own artillery . The Germans believed they had thoroughly sealed off the area , and checked the Croatian cordon every night , but the majority of Partisans were able to evade the cordon and escape by breaking up into small groups and infiltrating through the cordon through seemingly impassable terrain . The Germans also believed that some Partisans merely withdrew into the mountains , concealing their numbers by walking in each other 's snowprints , in order to return to the valleys when the Axis forces left . The operation concluded on 4 February 1942 .
= = Aftermath = =
Both operations were hampered by the German need to rely on their Croatian allies as well as the fact that both forces were ill @-@ equipped for operations in mountainous terrain during extreme winter conditions . The Croatian units had proven not to be a useful addition to the operation , as they possessed little in the way of fighting power , had little unit cohesion and suffered from serious supply problems .
Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren were early opportunities for the Germans to learn lessons about the challenges their poorly equipped and often substandard occupation troops faced fighting in the difficult terrain and weather conditions of Bosnia . However , these lessons were to be repeated many more times in the following years as German commanders persisted with their encirclement tactics and unreasonable expectations of what could be achieved in a given time and space .
Following the conclusion of Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren , German and NDH forces conducted Operation Prijedor in northwest Bosnia . The Germans inflicted considerable losses on the Partisans and captured extensive territory and population centres from them ; however , they failed to eliminate them as a military factor and shortly afterwards had to undertake Operation Trio in the region immediately south of the area of operations for Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren .
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= William the Conqueror =
William I ( Old Norman : Williame I ; Old English : Willelm I ; c . 1028 β 9 September 1087 ) , usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard , was the first Norman King of England , reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087 . The descendant of Viking raiders , he had been Duke of Normandy since 1035 . After a long struggle to establish his power , by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure , and he launched the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands and by difficulties with his eldest son .
William was the son of the unmarried Robert I , Duke of Normandy , by Robert 's mistress Herleva . His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father , as did the anarchy that plagued the first years of his rule . During his childhood and adolescence , members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other , both for control of the child duke and for their own ends . In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy , a process that was not complete until about 1060 . His marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders . By the time of his marriage , William was able to arrange the appointments of his supporters as bishops and abbots in the Norman church . His consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons , and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine .
In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England , then held by the childless Edward the Confessor , his first cousin once removed . There were other potential claimants , including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson , who was named the next king by Edward on the latter 's deathbed in January 1066 . William argued that Edward had previously promised the throne to him , and that Harold had sworn to support William 's claim . William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066 , decisively defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 . After further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 , in London . He made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy . Several unsuccessful rebellions followed , but by 1075 William 's hold on England was mostly secure , allowing him to spend the majority of the rest of his reign on the continent .
William 's final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains , troubles with his eldest son , and threatened invasions of England by the Danes . In 1086 William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book , a survey listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings . William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France , and was buried in Caen . His reign in England was marked by the construction of castles , the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land , and change in the composition of the English clergy . He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire , but instead continued to administer each part separately . William 's lands were divided after his death : Normandy went to his eldest son , Robert , and his second surviving son , William , received England .
= = Background = =
Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century . Permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911 , when Rollo , one of the Viking leaders , and King Charles the Simple of France reached an agreement surrendering the county of Rouen to Rollo . The lands around Rouen became the core of the later duchy of Normandy . Normandy may have been used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century , which would have worsened relations between England and Normandy . In an effort to improve matters , King Γthelred the Unready took Emma of Normandy , sister of Duke Richard II , as his second wife in 1002 .
Danish raids on England continued , and Γthelred sought help from Richard , taking refuge in Normandy in 1013 when King Swein I of Denmark drove Γthelred and his family from England . Swein 's death in 1014 allowed Γthelred to return home , but Swein 's son Cnut contested Γthelred 's return . Γthelred died unexpectedly in 1016 , and Cnut became king of England . Γthelred and Emma 's two sons , Edward and Alfred , went into exile in Normandy while their mother , Emma , became Cnut 's second wife .
After Cnut 's death in 1035 the English throne fell to Harold Harefoot , his son by his first wife , while Harthacnut , his son by Emma , became king in Denmark . England remained unstable . Alfred returned to England in 1036 to visit his mother and perhaps to challenge Harold as king . One story implicates Earl Godwin of Wessex in Alfred 's subsequent death , but others blame Harold . Emma went into exile in Flanders until Harthacnut became king following Harold 's death in 1040 , and his half @-@ brother Edward followed Harthacnut to England ; Edward was proclaimed king after Harthacnut 's death in June 1042 .
= = Early life = =
William was born in 1027 or 1028 at Falaise , Normandy , most likely towards the end of 1028 . He was the only son of Robert I , Duke of Normandy , son of Richard II , Duke of Normandy . His mother , Herleva , was the daughter of Fulbert of Falaise ; Fulbert may have been a tanner or embalmer . She was possibly a member of the ducal household , but did not marry Robert . Instead , she later married Herluin de Conteville , with whom she had two sons β Odo of Bayeux and Robert , Count of Mortain β and a daughter whose name is unknown . One of Herleva 's brothers , Walter , became a supporter and protector of William during his minority . Robert also had a daughter , Adelaide of Normandy , by another mistress .
Robert became Duke of Normandy on 6 August 1027 , succeeding his elder brother Richard III , who had only succeeded to the title the previous year . Robert and his brother had been at odds over the succession , and Richard 's death was sudden . Robert was accused by some writers of killing his brother , a plausible but now unprovable charge . Conditions in Normandy were unsettled , as noble families despoiled the Church and Alan III of Brittany waged war against the duchy , possibly in an attempt to take control . By 1031 Robert had gathered considerable support from noblemen , many of whom would become prominent during William 's life . They included Robert 's uncle , Robert the archbishop of Rouen , who had originally opposed the duke , Osbern , a nephew of Gunnor the wife of Duke Richard I , and Count Gilbert of Brionne , a grandson of Richard I. After his accession , Robert continued Norman support for the English princes Edward and Alfred , who were still in exile in northern France .
There are indications that Robert may have been briefly betrothed to a daughter of King Cnut , but no marriage took place . It is unclear if William would have been supplanted in the ducal succession if Robert had had a legitimate son . Earlier dukes had been illegitimate , and William 's association with his father on ducal charters appears to indicate that William was considered Robert 's most likely heir . In 1034 Duke Robert decided to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem . Although some of his supporters tried to dissuade him from undertaking the journey , Robert convened a council in January 1035 and had the assembled Norman magnates swear fealty to William as his heir before leaving for Jerusalem . He died in early July at Nicea , on his way back to Normandy .
= = Duke of Normandy = =
= = = Challenges = = =
William faced several challenges on becoming duke , including his illegitimate birth and his youth : the evidence indicates that he was either seven or eight years old at the time . He enjoyed the support of his great @-@ uncle , Archbishop Robert , as well as the king of France , Henry I , enabling him to succeed to his father 's duchy . The support given to the exiled English princes in their attempt to return to England in 1036 shows that the new duke 's guardians were attempting to continue his father 's policies , but Archbishop Robert 's death in March 1037 removed one of William 's main supporters , and conditions in Normandy quickly descended into chaos .
The anarchy in the duchy lasted until 1047 , and control of the young duke was one of the priorities of those contending for power . At first , Alan of Brittany had custody of the duke , but when Alan died in either late 1039 or October 1040 , Gilbert of Brionne took charge of William . Gilbert was killed within months , and another guardian , Turchetil , was also killed around the time of Gilbert 's death . Yet another guardian , Osbern , was slain in the early 1040s in William 's chamber while the duke slept . It was said that Walter , William 's maternal uncle , was occasionally forced to hide the young duke in the houses of peasants , although this story may be an embellishment by Orderic Vitalis . The historian Eleanor Searle speculates that William was raised with the three cousins who later became important in his career β William fitzOsbern , Roger de Beaumont , and Roger of Montgomery . Although many of the Norman nobles engaged in their own private wars and feuds during William 's minority , the viscounts still acknowledged the ducal government , and the ecclesiastical hierarchy was supportive of William .
King Henry continued to support the young duke , but in late 1046 opponents of William came together in a rebellion centred in lower Normandy , led by Guy of Burgundy with support from Nigel , Viscount of the Cotentin , and Ranulf , Viscount of the Bessin . According to stories that may have legendary elements , an attempt was made to seize William at Valognes , but he escaped under cover of darkness , seeking refuge with King Henry . In early 1047 Henry and William returned to Normandy and were victorious at the Battle of Val @-@ Γ¨s @-@ Dunes near Caen , although few details of the actual fighting are recorded . William of Poitiers claimed that the battle was won mainly through William 's efforts , but earlier accounts claim that King Henry 's men and leadership also played an important part . William assumed power in Normandy , and shortly after the battle promulgated the Truce of God throughout his duchy , in an effort to limit warfare and violence by restricting the days of the year on which fighting was permitted . Although the Battle of Val @-@ Γ¨s @-@ Dunes marked a turning point in William 's control of the duchy , it was not the end of his struggle to gain the upper hand over the nobility . The period from 1047 to 1054 saw almost continuous warfare , with lesser crises continuing until 1060 .
= = = Consolidation of power = = =
William 's next efforts were against Guy of Burgundy , who retreated to his castle at Brionne , which William besieged . After a long effort , the duke succeeded in exiling Guy in 1050 . To address the growing power of the Count of Anjou , Geoffrey Martel , William joined with King Henry in a campaign against him , the last known cooperation between the two . They succeeded in capturing an Angevin fortress , but accomplished little else . Geoffrey attempted to expand his authority into the county of Maine , especially after the death of Hugh IV of Maine in 1051 . Central to the control of Maine were the holdings of the family of BellΓͺme , who held BellΓͺme on the border of Maine and Normandy , as well as the fortresses at AlenΓ§on and Domfort . BellΓͺme 's overlord was the king of France , but Domfort was under the overlordship of Geoffrey Martel and Duke William was AlenΓ§on 's overlord . The BellΓͺme family , whose lands were quite strategically placed between their three different overlords , were able to play each of them against the other and secure virtual independence for themselves .
On the death of Hugh of Maine , Geoffrey Martel occupied Maine in a move contested by William and King Henry ; eventually they succeeded in driving Geoffrey from the county , and in the process , William was able to secure the BellΓͺme family strongholds at AlenΓ§on and Domfort for himself . He was thus able to assert his overlordship over the BellΓͺme family and compel them to act consistently in Norman interests . But in 1052 the king and Geoffrey Martel made common cause against William at the same time as some Norman nobles began to contest William 's increasing power . Henry 's volte @-@ face was probably motivated by a desire to retain dominance over Normandy , which was now threatened by William 's growing mastery of his duchy . William was engaged in military actions against his own nobles throughout 1053 , as well as with the new Archbishop of Rouen , Mauger . In February 1054 the king and the Norman rebels launched a double invasion of the duchy . Henry led the main thrust through the county of Γvreux , while the other wing , under the French king 's brother Odo , invaded eastern Normandy .
William met the invasion by dividing his forces into two groups . The first , which he led , faced Henry . The second , which included some who became William 's firm supporters , such as Robert , Count of Eu , Walter Giffard , Roger of Mortemer , and William de Warenne , faced the other invading force . This second force defeated the invaders at the Battle of Mortemer . In addition to ending both invasions , the battle allowed the duke 's ecclesiastical supporters to depose Mauger from the archbishopric of Rouen . Mortemer thus marked another turning point in William 's growing control of the duchy , although his conflict with the French king and the Count of Anjou continued until 1060 . Henry and Geoffrey led another invasion of Normandy in 1057 but were defeated by William at the Battle of Varaville . This was the last invasion of Normandy during William 's lifetime , and the deaths of the count and the king in 1060 cemented the shift in the balance of power towards William .
One factor in William 's favour was his marriage to Matilda of Flanders , the daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders . The union was arranged in 1049 , but Pope Leo IX forbade the marriage at the Council of Rheims in October 1049 . The marriage nevertheless went ahead some time in the early 1050s , possibly unsanctioned by the pope . According to a late source not generally considered to be reliable , papal sanction was not secured until 1059 , but as papal @-@ Norman relations in the 1050s were generally good , and Norman clergy were able to visit Rome in 1050 without incident , it was probably secured earlier . Papal sanction of the marriage appears to have required the founding of two monasteries in Caen β one by William and one by Matilda . The marriage was important in bolstering William 's status , as Flanders was one of the more powerful French territories , with ties to the French royal house and to the German emperors . Contemporary writers considered the marriage , which produced four sons and five or six daughters , to be a success .
= = = Appearance and character = = =
No authentic portrait of William has been found ; the contemporary depictions of him on the Bayeux Tapestry and on his seals and coins are conventional representations designed to assert his authority . There are some written descriptions of a burly and robust appearance , with a guttural voice . He enjoyed excellent health until old age , although he became quite fat in later life . He was strong enough to draw bows that others were unable to pull and had great stamina . Geoffrey Martel described him as without equal as a fighter and as a horseman . Examination of William 's femur , the only bone to survive when the rest of his remains were destroyed , showed he was approximately 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) in height , quite tall for the time .
There are records of two tutors for the young duke during the late 1030s and early 1040s , but the extent of William 's literary education is unclear . He was not known as a patron of authors , and there is little evidence that he sponsored scholarship or other intellectual activities . Orderic Vitalis records that William tried to learn to read Old English late in life , but he was unable to devote sufficient time to the effort and quickly gave up . William 's main hobby appears to have been hunting . His marriage to Matilda appears to have been quite affectionate , and there are no signs that he was unfaithful to her β unusual in a medieval monarch . Medieval writers criticised William for his greed and cruelty , but his personal piety was universally praised by contemporaries .
= = = Norman administration = = =
Norman government under William was similar to the government that had existed under earlier dukes . It was a fairly simple administrative system , built around the ducal household , which consisted of a group of officers including stewards , butlers , and marshalls . The duke travelled constantly around the duchy , confirming charters and collecting revenues . Most of the income came from the ducal lands , as well as from tolls and a few taxes . This income was collected by the chamber , one of the household departments .
William cultivated close relations with the church in his duchy . He took part in church councils and made several appointments to the Norman episcopate , including the appointment of Maurilius as Archbishop of Rouen . Another important appointment was that of William 's half @-@ brother Odo as Bishop of Bayeux in either 1049 or 1050 . He also relied on the clergy for advice , including Lanfranc , a non @-@ Norman who rose to become one of William 's prominent ecclesiastical advisors in the late 1040s and remained so throughout the 1050s and 1060s . William gave generously to the church ; from 1035 to 1066 , the Norman aristocracy founded at least 20 new monastic houses , including William 's two monasteries in Caen , a remarkable expansion of religious life in the duchy .
= = English and continental concerns = =
In 1051 the childless King Edward of England appears to have chosen William as his successor to the English throne . William was the grandson of Edward 's maternal uncle , Richard II , Duke of Normandy . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , in the " D " version , states that William visited England in the later part of 1051 , perhaps to secure confirmation of the succession , or perhaps William was attempting to secure aid for his troubles in Normandy . The trip is unlikely given William 's absorption in warfare with Anjou at the time . Whatever Edward 's wishes , it was likely that any claim by William would be opposed by Godwin , the Earl of Wessex , a member of the most powerful family in England . Edward had married Edith , Godwin 's daughter , in 1043 , and Godwin appears to have been one of the main supporters of Edward 's claim to the throne . By 1050 , however , relations between the king and the earl had soured , culminating in a crisis in 1051 that led to the exile of Godwin and his family from England . It was during this exile that Edward offered the throne to William . Godwin returned from exile in 1052 with armed forces , and a settlement was reached between the king and the earl , restoring the earl and his family to their lands and replacing Robert of Jumièges , a Norman whom Edward had named Archbishop of Canterbury , with Stigand , the Bishop of Winchester . No English source mentions a supposed embassy by Archbishop Robert to William conveying the promise of the succession , and the two Norman sources that mention it , William of Jumièges and William of Poitiers , are not precise in their chronology of when this visit took place .
Count Herbert II of Maine died in 1062 , and William , who had betrothed his eldest son Robert to Herbert 's sister Margaret , claimed the county through his son . Local nobles resisted the claim , but William invaded and by 1064 had secured control of the area . William appointed a Norman to the bishopric of Le Mans in 1065 . He also allowed his son Robert Curthose to do homage to the new Count of Anjou , Geoffrey the Bearded . William 's western border was thus secured , but his border with Brittany remained insecure . In 1064 William invaded Brittany in a campaign that remains obscure in its details . Its effect , though , was to destabilise Brittany , forcing the duke , Conan II , to focus on internal problems rather than on expansion . Conan 's death in 1066 further secured William 's borders in Normandy . William also benefited from his campaign in Brittany by securing the support of some Breton nobles who went on to support the invasion of England in 1066 .
In England , Earl Godwin died in 1053 and his sons were increasing in power : Harold succeeded to his father 's earldom , and another son , Tostig , became Earl of Northumbria . Other sons were granted earldoms later : Gyrth as Earl of East Anglia in 1057 and Leofwine as Earl of Kent some time between 1055 and 1057 . Some sources claim that Harold took part in William 's Breton campaign of 1064 and that Harold swore to uphold William 's claim to the English throne at the end of the campaign , but no English source reports this trip , and it is unclear if it actually occurred . It may have been Norman propaganda designed to discredit Harold , who had emerged as the main contender to succeed King Edward . Meanwhile , another contender for the throne had emerged β Edward the Exile , son of Edmund Ironside and a grandson of Γthelred II , returned to England in 1057 , and although he died shortly after his return , he brought with him his family , which included two daughters , Margaret and Christina , and a son , Edgar the Γtheling .
In 1065 Northumbria revolted against Tostig , and the rebels chose Morcar , the younger brother of Edwin , Earl of Mercia , as earl in place of Tostig . Harold , perhaps to secure the support of Edwin and Morcar in his bid for the throne , supported the rebels and persuaded King Edward to replace Tostig with Morcar . Tostig went into exile in Flanders , along with his wife Judith , who was the daughter of Count Baldwin IV of Flanders . Edward was ailing , and he died on 5 January 1066 . It is unclear what exactly happened at Edward 's deathbed . One story , deriving from the Vita Edwardi , a biography of Edward , claims that Edward was attended by his wife Edith , Harold , Archbishop Stigand , and Robert FitzWimarc , and that the king named Harold as his successor . The Norman sources do not dispute the fact that Harold was named as the next king , but they declare that Harold 's oath and Edward 's earlier promise of the throne could not be changed on Edward 's deathbed . Later English sources stated that Harold had been elected as king by the clergy and magnates of England .
= = Invasion of England = =
= = = Harold 's preparations = = =
Harold was crowned on 6 January 1066 in Edward 's new Norman @-@ style Westminster Abbey , although some controversy surrounds who performed the ceremony . English sources claim that Ealdred , the Archbishop of York , performed the ceremony , while Norman sources state that the coronation was performed by Stigand , who was considered a non @-@ canonical archbishop by the papacy . Harold 's claim to the throne was not entirely secure , however , as there were other claimants , perhaps including his exiled brother Tostig . King Harald Hardrada of Norway also had a claim to the throne as the uncle and heir of King Magnus I , who had made a pact with Harthacnut in about 1040 that if either Magnus or Harthacnut died without heirs , the other would succeed . The last claimant was William of Normandy , against whose anticipated invasion King Harold Godwinson made most of his preparations .
Harold 's brother Tostig made probing attacks along the southern coast of England in May 1066 , landing at the Isle of Wight using a fleet supplied by Baldwin of Flanders . Tostig appears to have received little local support , and further raids into Lincolnshire and near the River Humber met with no more success , so he retreated to Scotland , where he remained for a time . According to the Norman writer William of Jumièges , William had meanwhile sent an embassy to King Harold Godwinson to remind Harold of his oath to support William 's claim , although whether this embassy actually occurred is unclear . Harold assembled an army and a fleet to repel William 's anticipated invasion force , deploying troops and ships along the English Channel for most of the summer .
= = = William 's preparations = = =
William of Poitiers describes a council called by Duke William , in which the writer gives an account of a great debate that took place between William 's nobles and supporters over whether to risk an invasion of England . Although some sort of formal assembly probably was held , it is unlikely that any debate took place , as the duke had by then established control over his nobles , and most of those assembled would have been anxious to secure their share of the rewards from the conquest of England . William of Poitiers also relates that the duke obtained the consent of Pope Alexander II for the invasion , along with a papal banner . The chronicler also claimed that the duke secured the support of Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and King Sweyn II of Denmark . Henry was still a minor , however , and Sweyn was more likely to support Harold , who could then help Sweyn against the Norwegian king , so these claims should be treated with caution . Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded , no other source claims papal support prior to the invasion . Events after the invasion , which included the penance William performed and statements by later popes , do lend circumstantial support to the claim of papal approval . To deal with Norman affairs , William put the government of Normandy into the hands of his wife for the duration of the invasion .
Throughout the summer , William assembled an army and an invasion fleet in Normandy . Although William of JumiΓ¨ges 's claim that the ducal fleet numbered 3 @,@ 000 ships is clearly an exaggeration , it was probably large and mostly built from scratch . Although William of Poitiers and William of JumiΓ¨ges disagree about where the fleet was built β Poitiers states it was constructed at the mouth of the River Dives , while JumiΓ¨ges states it was built at Saint @-@ Valery @-@ sur @-@ Somme β both agree that it eventually sailed from Valery @-@ sur @-@ Somme . The fleet carried an invasion force that included , in addition to troops from William 's own territories of Normandy and Maine , large numbers of mercenaries , allies , and volunteers from Brittany , northeastern France , and Flanders , together with smaller numbers from other parts of Europe . Although the army and fleet were ready by early August , adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September . There were probably other reasons for William 's delay , including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold 's forces were deployed along the coast . William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing . Harold kept his forces on alert throughout the summer , but with the arrival of the harvest season he disbanded his army on 8 September .
= = = Tostig and Hardrada 's invasion = = =
Harold 's brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada invaded Northumbria in September 1066 and defeated the local forces under Morcar and Edwin at the Battle of Fulford near York . King Harold received word of their invasion and marched north , defeating the invaders and killing Tostig and Hardrada on 25 September at the Battle of Stamford Bridge . The Norman fleet finally set sail two days later , landing in England at Pevensey Bay on 28 September . William then moved to Hastings , a few miles to the east , where he built a castle as a base of operations . From there , he ravaged the interior and waited for Harold 's return from the north , refusing to venture far from the sea , his line of communication with Normandy .
= = = Battle of Hastings = = =
After defeating Harald Hardrada and Tostig , Harold left much of his army in the north , including Morcar and Edwin , and marched the rest south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion . He probably learned of William 's landing while he was travelling south . Harold stopped in London , and was there for about a week before marching to Hastings , so it is likely that he spent about a week on his march south , averaging about 27 miles ( 43 kilometres ) per day , for the distance of approximately 200 miles ( 320 kilometres ) . Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans , William 's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke . The exact events preceding the battle are obscure , with contradictory accounts in the sources , but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy . Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill ( present @-@ day Battle , East Sussex ) , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ) from William 's castle at Hastings .
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October and lasted all day , but while a broad outline is known , the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources . Although the numbers on each side were about equal , William had both cavalry and infantry , including many archers , while Harold had only foot soldiers and few , if any , archers . The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge and were at first so effective that William 's army was thrown back with heavy casualties . Some of William 's Breton troops panicked and fled , and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons until they themselves were attacked and destroyed by Norman cavalry . During the Bretons ' flight rumours swept through the Norman forces that the duke had been killed , but William succeeded in rallying his troops . Two further Norman retreats were feigned , to once again draw the English into pursuit and expose them to repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry . The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon , but it appears that the decisive event was Harold 's death , about which differing stories are told . William of Jumièges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke . The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold 's death by an arrow to the eye , but that may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th @-@ century stories in which Harold was slain by an arrow wound to the head .
Harold 's body was identified the day after the battle , either through his armour or marks on his body . The English dead , who included some of Harold 's brothers and his housecarls , were left on the battlefield . Gytha , Harold 's mother , offered the victorious duke the weight of her son 's body in gold for its custody , but her offer was refused . William ordered that Harold 's body was to be thrown into the sea , but whether that took place is unclear . Waltham Abbey , which had been founded by Harold , later claimed that his body had been secretly buried there .
= = = March on London = = =
William may have hoped the English would surrender following his victory , but they did not . Instead , some of the English clergy and magnates nominated Edgar the Γtheling as king , though their support for Edgar was only lukewarm . After waiting a short while , William secured Dover , parts of Kent , and Canterbury , while also sending a force to capture Winchester , where the royal treasury was . These captures secured William 's rear areas and also his line of retreat to Normandy , if that was needed . William then marched to Southwark , across the Thames from London , which he reached in late November . Next he led his forces around the south and west of London , burning along the way . He finally crossed the Thames at Wallingford in early December . Archbishop Stigand submitted to William there , and when the duke moved on to Berkhamsted soon afterwards , Edgar the Γtheling , Morcar , Edwin , and Archbishop Ealdred also submitted . William then sent forces into London to construct a castle ; he was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066 .
= = Consolidation = =
= = = First actions = = =
William remained in England after his coronation and tried to reconcile the native magnates . The remaining earls β Edwin ( of Mercia ) , Morcar ( of Northumbria ) , and Waltheof ( of Northampton ) β were confirmed in their lands and titles . Waltheof was married to William 's niece Judith , daughter of Adelaide , and a marriage between Edwin and one of William 's daughters was proposed . Edgar the Γtheling also appears to have been given lands . Ecclesiastical offices continued to be held by the same bishops as before the invasion , including the uncanonical Stigand . But the families of Harold and his brothers did lose their lands , as did some others who had fought against William at Hastings . By March , William was secure enough to return to Normandy , but he took with him Stigand , Morcar , Edwin , Edgar , and Waltheof . He left his half @-@ brother Odo , the Bishop of Bayeux , in charge of England along with another influential supporter , William fitzOsbern , the son of his former guardian . Both men were also named to earldoms β fitzOsbern to Hereford ( or Wessex ) and Odo to Kent . Although he put two Normans in overall charge , he retained many of the native English sheriffs . Once in Normandy the new English king went to Rouen and the Abbey of Fecamp , and then attended the consecration of new churches at two Norman monasteries .
While William was in Normandy , a former ally , Eustace , the Count of Boulogne , invaded at Dover but was repulsed . English resistance had also begun , with Eadric the Wild attacking Hereford and revolts at Exeter , where Harold 's mother Gytha was a focus of resistance . FitzOsbern and Odo found it difficult to control the native population and undertook a programme of castle building to maintain their hold on the kingdom . William returned to England in December 1067 and marched on Exeter , which he besieged . The town held out for 18 days , and after it fell to William he built a castle to secure his control . Harold 's sons were meanwhile raiding the southwest of England from a base in Ireland . Their forces landed near Bristol but were defeated by Eadnoth . By Easter , William was at Winchester , where he was soon joined by his wife Matilda , who was crowned in May 1068 .
= = = English resistance = = =
In 1068 Edwin and Morcar revolted , supported by Gospatric . The chronicler Orderic Vitalis states that Edwin 's reason for revolting was that the proposed marriage between himself and one of William 's daughters had not taken place , but other reasons probably included the increasing power of William fitzOsbern in Herefordshire , which affected Edwin 's power within his own earldom . The king marched through Edwin 's lands and built a castle at Warwick . Edwin and Morcar submitted , but William continued on to York , building castles at York and Nottingham before returning south . On his southbound journey , the king began constructing castles at Lincoln , Huntingdon , and Cambridge . William placed supporters in charge of these new fortifications β among them William Peverel at Nottingham and Henry de Beaumont at Warwick . Then the king returned to Normandy late in 1068 .
Early in 1069 , Edgar the Γtheling rose in revolt and attacked York . Although William returned to York and built another castle , Edgar remained free , and in the autumn he joined up with King Sweyn of Denmark . The Danish king had brought a large fleet to England and attacked not only York , but Exeter and Shrewsbury . York was captured by the combined forces of Edgar and Sweyn . Edgar was proclaimed king by his supporters , but William responded swiftly , ignoring a continental revolt in Maine . William symbolically wore his crown in the ruins of York on Christmas Day 1069 , and then proceeded to buy off the Danes . He marched to the River Tees , ravaging the countryside as he went . Edgar , having lost much of his support , fled to Scotland , where King Malcolm III was married to Edgar 's sister Margaret . Waltheof , who had joined the revolt , submitted , along with Gospatric , and both were allowed to retain their lands . But William was not finished ; he marched over the Pennines during the winter and defeated the remaining rebels at Shrewsbury before building castles at Chester and Stafford . This campaign , which included the burning and destruction of part of the countryside that the royal forces marched through , is usually known as the " Harrying of the North " ; it was over by April 1070 , when William wore his crown ceremonially for Easter at Winchester .
= = = Church affairs = = =
While at Winchester in 1070 , William met with three papal legates β John Minutus , Peter , and Ermenfrid of Sion β who had been sent by Pope Alexander . The legates ceremonially crowned William during the Easter court . The historian David Bates sees this coronation as the ceremonial papal " seal of approval " for William 's conquest . The legates and the king then proceeded to hold a series of ecclesiastical councils dedicated to reforming and reorganising the English church . Stigand and his brother , ΓthelmΓ¦r , the Bishop of Elmham , were deposed from their bishoprics . Some of the native abbots were also deposed , both at the council held near Easter and at a further one near Whitsun . The Whitsun council saw the appointment of Lanfranc as the new Archbishop of Canterbury , and Thomas of Bayeux as the new Archbishop of York , to replace Ealdred , who had died in September 1069 . William 's half @-@ brother Odo perhaps expected to be appointed to Canterbury , but William probably did not wish to give that much power to a family member . Another reason for the appointment may have been pressure from the papacy to appoint Lanfranc . Norman clergy were appointed to replace the deposed bishops and abbots , and at the end of the process , only two native English bishops remained in office , along with several continental prelates appointed by Edward the Confessor . In 1070 William also founded Battle Abbey , a new monastery at the site of the Battle of Hastings , partly as a penance for the deaths in the battle and partly as a memorial to those dead .
= = Troubles in England and the continent = =
= = = Danish raids and rebellion in the north = = =
Although Sweyn had promised to leave England , he returned in spring 1070 , raiding along the Humber and East Anglia toward the Isle of Ely , where he joined up with Hereward the Wake , a local thegn . Hereward 's forces attacked Peterborough Abbey , which they captured and looted . William was able to secure the departure of Sweyn and his fleet in 1070 , allowing him to return to the continent to deal with troubles in Maine , where the town of Le Mans had revolted in 1069 . Another concern was the death of Count Baldwin VI of Flanders in July 1070 , which led to a succession crisis as his widow , Richilde , was ruling for their two young sons , Arnulf and Baldwin . Her rule , however , was contested by Robert , Baldwin 's brother . Richilde proposed marriage to William fitzOsbern , who was in Normandy , and fitzOsbern accepted . But after he was killed in February 1071 at the Battle of Cassel , Robert became count . He was opposed to King William 's power on the continent , thus the Battle of Cassel not only lost the king an important supporter , but also upset the balance of power in northern France .
In 1071 William defeated the last rebellion of the north . Earl Edwin was betrayed by his own men and killed , while William built a causeway to subdue the Isle of Ely , where Hereward the Wake and Morcar were hiding . Hereward escaped , but Morcar was captured , deprived of his earldom , and imprisoned . In 1072 William invaded Scotland , defeating Malcolm , who had recently invaded the north of England . William and Malcolm agreed to peace by signing the Treaty of Abernethy , and Malcolm probably gave up his son Duncan as a hostage for the peace . Perhaps another stipulation of the treaty was the expulsion of Edgar the Γtheling from Malcolm 's court . William then turned his attention to the continent , returning to Normandy in early 1073 to deal with the invasion of Maine by Fulk le Rechin , the Count of Anjou . With a swift campaign , William seized Le Mans from Fulk 's forces , completing the campaign by 30 March 1073 . This made William 's power more secure in northern France , but the new count of Flanders accepted Edgar the Γtheling into his court . Robert also married his half @-@ sister Bertha to the king of France , Philip I , who was opposed to Norman power .
William returned to England to release his army from service in 1073 but quickly returned to Normandy , where he spent all of 1074 . He left England in the hands of his supporters , including Richard fitzGilbert and William de Warenne , as well as Lanfranc . William 's ability to leave England for an entire year was a sign that he felt that his control of the kingdom was secure . While William was in Normandy , Edgar the Γtheling returned to Scotland from Flanders . The French king , seeking a focus for those opposed to William 's power , then proposed that Edgar be given the castle of Montreuil @-@ sur @-@ Mer on the Channel , which would have given Edgar a strategic advantage against William . Edgar was forced to submit to William shortly thereafter , however , and he returned to William 's court . Philip , although thwarted in this attempt , turned his attentions to Brittany , leading to a revolt in 1075 .
= = = Revolt of the Earls = = =
In 1075 , during William 's absence , Ralph de Gael , the Earl of Norfolk , and Roger de Breteuil , the Earl of Hereford , conspired to overthrow William in the " Revolt of the Earls " . Ralph was at least part Breton and had spent most of his life prior to 1066 in Brittany , where he still had lands . Roger was a Norman , son of William fitzOsbern , but had inherited less authority than his father held . Ralph 's authority seems also to have been less than his predecessors in the earldom , and this was likely the cause of the revolt .
The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear , but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger , held at Exning in Suffolk . Another earl , Waltheof , although one of William 's favourites , was also involved , and there were some Breton lords who were ready to rebel in support of Ralph and Roger . Ralph also requested Danish aid . William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt . Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan , the Bishop of Worcester , and Γthelwig , the Abbot of Evesham . Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux , Geoffrey de Montbray , Richard fitzGilbert , and William de Warenne . Ralph eventually left Norwich in the control of his wife and left England , finally ending up in Brittany . Norwich was besieged and surrendered , with the garrison allowed to go to Brittany . Meanwhile , the Danish king 's brother , Cnut , had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships , but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered . The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home . William returned to England later in 1075 to deal with the Danish threat , leaving his wife Matilda in charge of Normandy . He celebrated Christmas at Winchester and dealt with the aftermath of the rebellion . Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison , where Waltheof was executed in May 1076 . Before this , William had returned to the continent , where Ralph had continued the rebellion from Brittany .
= = = Troubles at home and abroad = = =
Earl Ralph had secured control of the castle at Dol , and in September 1076 William advanced into Brittany and laid siege to the castle . King Philip of France later relieved the siege and defeated William at Dol , forcing him to retreat back to Normandy . Although this was William 's first defeat in battle , it did little to change things . An Angevin attack on Maine was defeated in late 1076 or 1077 , with Count Fulk le Rechin wounded in the unsuccessful attack . More serious was the retirement of Simon de CrΓ©py , the Count of Amiens , to a monastery . Before he became a monk , Simon handed his county of the Vexin over to King Philip . The Vexin was a buffer state between Normandy and the lands of the French king , and Simon had been a supporter of William . William was able to make peace with Philip in 1077 and secured a truce with Count Fulk in late 1077 or early 1078 .
In late 1077 or early 1078 trouble began between William and his eldest son , Robert . Although Orderic Vitalis describes it as starting with a quarrel between Robert and his two younger brothers , William and Henry , including a story that the quarrel was started when William and Henry threw water at Robert , it is much more likely that Robert was feeling powerless . Orderic relates that he had previously demanded control of Maine and Normandy and had been rebuffed . The trouble in 1077 or 1078 resulted in Robert leaving Normandy accompanied by a band of young men , many of them the sons of William 's supporters . Included among them was Robert of Belleme , William de Breteuil , and Roger , the son of Richard fitzGilbert . This band of young men went to the castle at Remalard , where they proceeded to raid into Normandy . The raiders were supported by many of William 's continental enemies . William immediately attacked the rebels and drove them from Remalard , but King Philip gave them the castle at Gerberoi , where they were joined by new supporters . William then laid siege to Gerberoi in January 1079 . After three weeks , the besieged forces sallied from the castle and managed to take the besiegers by surprise . William was unhorsed by Robert and was only saved from death by an Englishman . William 's forces were forced to lift the siege , and the king returned to Rouen . By 12 April 1080 , William and Robert had reached an accommodation , with William once more affirming that Robert would receive Normandy when he died .
Word of William 's defeat at Gerberoi stirred up difficulties in northern England . In August and September 1079 King Malcolm of Scots raided south of the River Tweed , devastating the land between the River Tees and the Tweed in a raid that lasted almost a month . The lack of Norman response appears to have caused the Northumbrians to grow restive , and in the spring of 1080 they rebelled against the rule of Walcher , the Bishop of Durham and Earl of Northumbria . The bishop was killed on 14 May 1080 , and William dispatched his half @-@ brother Odo to deal with the rebellion . William departed Normandy in July 1080 , and in the autumn William 's son Robert was sent on a campaign against the Scots . Robert raided into Lothian and forced Malcolm to agree to terms , building a fortification at Newcastle @-@ on @-@ Tyne while returning to England . The king was at Gloucester for Christmas 1080 and at Winchester for Whitsun in 1081 , ceremonially wearing his crown on both occasions . A papal embassy arrived in England during this period , asking that William do fealty for England to the papacy , a request that William rejected . William also visited Wales during 1081 , although the English and the Welsh sources differ on the exact purpose of the visit . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle states that it was a military campaign , but Welsh sources record it as a pilgrimage to St Davids in honour of Saint David . William 's biographer David Bates argues that the former explanation is more likely , explaining that the balance of power had recently shifted in Wales and that William would have wished to take advantage of the changed circumstances to extend Norman power . By the end of 1081 , William was back on the continent , dealing with disturbances in Maine . Although he led an expedition into Maine , the result was instead a negotiated settlement arranged by a papal legate .
= = = Last years = = =
Sources for William 's actions between 1082 and 1084 are meagre . According to the historian David Bates , this probably means that little happened of note , and that because William was on the continent , there was nothing for the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle to record . In 1082 William ordered the arrest of his half @-@ brother Odo . The exact reasons are unclear , as no contemporary author recorded what caused the quarrel between the half @-@ brothers . Orderic Vitalis later recorded that Odo had aspirations to become pope . Orderic also related that Odo had attempted to persuade some of William 's vassals to join Odo on an invasion of southern Italy . This would have been considered tampering with the king 's authority over his vassals , which William would not have tolerated . Although Odo remained in confinement for the rest of William 's reign , his lands were not confiscated . More difficulties struck in 1083 , when William 's eldest son Robert rebelled once more with support from the French king . A further blow was the death of Matilda , William 's wife , on 2 November 1083 . William was always described as close to his wife , and her death would have added to his problems .
Maine continued to be difficult , with a rebellion by Hubert de Beaumont @-@ au @-@ Maine , probably in 1084 . Hubert was besieged in his castle at Sainte @-@ Suzanne by William 's forces for at least two years , but he eventually made his peace with the king and was restored to favour . William 's movements during 1084 and 1085 are unclear β he was in Normandy at Easter 1084 but may have been in England before then to collect the danegeld assessed that year for the defence of England against an invasion by King Cnut IV of Denmark . Although English and Norman forces remained on alert throughout 1085 and into 1086 , the invasion threat was ended by Cnut 's death in July 1086 .
= = William as king = =
= = = Changes in England β castles , forests , and nobles = = =
As part of his efforts to secure England , William ordered many castles , keeps , and mottes built β among them the central keep of the Tower of London , the White Tower . These fortifications allowed Normans to retreat into safety when threatened with rebellion and allowed garrisons to be protected while they occupied the countryside . The early castles were simple earth and timber constructions , later replaced with stone structures .
At first , most of the newly settled Normans kept household knights and did not settle their retainers with fiefs of their own , but gradually these household knights came to be granted lands of their own , a process known as subinfeudation . William also required his newly created magnates to contribute fixed quotas of knights towards not only military campaigns but also castle garrisons . This method of organising the military forces was a departure from the pre @-@ Conquest English practice of basing military service on territorial units such as the hide .
By William 's death , after weathering a series of rebellions , most of the native Anglo @-@ Saxon aristocracy had been replaced by Norman and other continental magnates . Not all of the Normans who accompanied William in the initial conquest acquired large amounts of land in England . Some appear to have been reluctant to take up lands in a kingdom that did not always appear pacified . Although some of the newly rich Normans in England came from William 's close family or from the upper Norman nobility , others were from relatively humble backgrounds . William granted some lands to his continental followers from the holdings of one or more specific Englishmen ; at other times , he granted a compact grouping of lands previously held by many different Englishmen to one Norman follower , often to allow for the consolidation of lands around a strategically placed castle .
The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury says that the king also seized and depopulated many miles of land ( 36 parishes ) , turning it into the royal New Forest region to support his enthusiastic enjoyment of hunting . Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the New Forest depopulation was greatly exaggerated . Most of the lands of the New Forest are poor agricultural lands , and archaeological and geographic studies have shown that the New Forest was likely sparsely settled when it was turned into a royal forest . William was known for his love of hunting , and he introduced the forest law into areas of the country , regulating who could hunt and what could be hunted .
= = = Administration = = =
After 1066 , William did not attempt to integrate his separate domains into one unified realm with one set of laws . His seal from after 1066 , of which six impressions still survive , was made for him after he conquered England and stressed his role as king , while separately mentioning his role as Duke . When in Normandy , William acknowledged that he owed fealty to the French king , but in England no such acknowledgement was made β further evidence that the various parts of William 's lands were considered separate . The administrative machinery of Normandy , England , and Maine continued to exist separate from the other lands , with each one retaining its own forms . For example , England continued the use of writs , which were not known on the continent . Also , the charters and documents produced for the government in Normandy differed in formulas from those produced in England .
William took over an English government that was more complex than the Norman system . England was divided into shires or counties , which were further divided into either hundreds or wapentakes . Each shire was administered by a royal official called a sheriff , who roughly had the same status as a Norman viscount . A sheriff was responsible for royal justice and collecting royal revenue . To oversee his expanded domain , William was forced to travel even more than he had as duke . He crossed back and forth between the continent and England at least 19 times between 1067 and his death . William spent most of his time in England between the Battle of Hastings and 1072 , and after that he spent the majority of his time in Normandy . Government was still centred on William 's household ; when he was in one part of his realms , decisions would be made for other parts of his domains and transmitted through a communication system that made use of letters and other documents . William also appointed deputies who could make decisions while he was absent , especially if the absence was expected to be lengthy . Usually this was a member of William 's close family β frequently his half @-@ brother Odo or his wife Matilda . Sometimes deputies were appointed to deal with specific issues .
William continued the collection of danegeld , a land tax . This was an advantage for William , as it was the only universal tax collected by western European rulers during this period . It was an annual tax based on the value of landholdings , and it could be collected at differing rates . Most years saw the rate of two shillings per hide , but in crises , it could be increased to as much as six shillings per hide . Coinage between the various parts of his domains continued to be minted in different cycles and styles . English coins were generally of high silver content , with high artistic standards , and were required to be re @-@ minted every three years . Norman coins had a much lower silver content , were often of poor artistic quality , and were rarely re @-@ minted . Also , in England no other coinage was allowed , while on the continent other coinage was considered legal tender . Nor is there evidence that many English pennies were circulating in Normandy , which shows little attempt to integrate the monetary systems of England and Normandy .
Besides taxation , William 's large landholdings throughout England strengthened his rule . As King Edward 's heir , he controlled all of the former royal lands . He also retained control of much of the lands of Harold and his family , which made the king the largest secular landowner in England by a wide margin .
= = = Domesday Book = = =
At Christmas 1085 , William ordered the compilation of a survey of the landholdings held by himself and by his vassals throughout the kingdom , organised by counties . It resulted in a work now known as the Domesday Book . The listing for each county gives the holdings of each landholder , grouped by owners . The listings describe the holding , who owned the land before the Conquest , its value , what the tax assessment was , and usually the number of peasants , ploughs , and any other resources the holding had . Towns were listed separately . All the English counties south of the River Tees and River Ribble are included , and the whole work seems to have been mostly completed by 1 August 1086 , when the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that William received the results and that all the chief magnates swore the Salisbury Oath , a renewal of their oaths of allegiance . William 's exact motivation in ordering the survey is unclear , but it probably had several purposes , such as making a record of feudal obligations and justifying increased taxation .
= = Death and aftermath = =
William left England towards the end of 1086 . Following his arrival back on the continent he married his daughter Constance to Alan Fergant , the Duke of Brittany , in furtherance of his policy of seeking allies against the French kings . William 's son Robert , still allied with the French king Philip I , appears to have been active in stirring up trouble , enough so that William led an expedition against the French Vexin in July 1087 . While seizing Mantes , William either fell ill or was injured by the pommel of his saddle . He was taken to the priory of Saint Gervase at Rouen , where he died on 9 September 1087 . Knowledge of the events preceding his death is confused because there are two different accounts . Orderic Vitalis preserves a lengthy account , complete with speeches made by many of the principals , but this is likely more of an account of how a king should die than of what actually happened . The other , the De Obitu Willelmi , or On the Death of William , has been shown to be a copy of two 9th @-@ century accounts with names changed .
William left Normandy to Robert , and the custody of England was given to William 's second surviving son , also called William , on the assumption that he would become king . The youngest son , Henry , received money . After entrusting England to his second son , the elder William sent the younger William back to England on 7 or 8 September , bearing a letter to Lanfranc ordering the archbishop to aid the new king . Other bequests included gifts to the Church and money to be distributed to the poor . William also ordered that all of his prisoners be released , including his half @-@ brother Odo .
Disorder followed William 's death ; everyone who had been at his deathbed left the body at Rouen and hurried off to attend to their own affairs . Eventually , the clergy of Rouen arranged to have the body sent to Caen , where William had desired to be buried in his foundation of the Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Hommes . The funeral , attended by the bishops and abbots of Normandy as well as his son Henry , was disturbed by the assertion of a citizen of Caen who alleged that his family had been illegally despoiled of the land on which the church was built . After hurried consultations the allegation was shown to be true , and the man was compensated . A further indignity occurred when the corpse was lowered into the tomb . The corpse was too large for the space , and when attendants forced the body into the tomb it burst , spreading a disgusting odour throughout the church .
William 's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription dating from the early 19th century . The tomb has been disturbed several times since 1087 , the first time in 1522 when the grave was opened on orders from the papacy . The intact body was restored to the tomb at that time , but in 1562 , during the French Wars of Religion , the grave was reopened and the bones scattered and lost , with the exception of one thigh bone . This lone relic was reburied in 1642 with a new marker , which was replaced 100 years later with a more elaborate monument . This tomb was again destroyed during the French Revolution , but was eventually replaced with the current marker .
= = Legacy = =
The immediate consequence of William 's death was a war between his sons Robert and William over control of England and Normandy . Even after the younger William 's death in 1100 and the succession of his youngest brother Henry as king , Normandy and England remained contested between the brothers until Robert 's capture by Henry at the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106 . The difficulties over the succession led to a loss of authority in Normandy , with the aristocracy regaining much of the power they had lost to the elder William . His sons also lost much of their control over Maine , which revolted in 1089 and managed to remain mostly free of Norman influence thereafter .
The impact on England of William 's conquest was profound ; changes in the Church , aristocracy , culture , and language of the country have persisted into modern times . The Conquest brought the kingdom into closer contact with France and forged ties between France and England that lasted throughout the Middle Ages . Another consequence of William 's invasion was the sundering of the formerly close ties between England and Scandinavia . William 's government blended elements of the English and Norman systems into a new one that laid the foundations of the later medieval English kingdom . How abrupt and far @-@ reaching were the changes is still a matter of debate among historians , with some such as Richard Southern claiming that the Conquest was the single most radical change in European history between the Fall of Rome and the 20th century . Others , such as H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles , see the changes brought about by the Conquest as much less radical than Southern suggests . The historian Eleanor Searle describes William 's invasion as " a plan that no ruler but a Scandinavian would have considered " .
William 's reign has caused historical controversy since before his death . William of Poitiers wrote glowingly of William 's reign and its benefits , but the obituary notice for William in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle condemns William in harsh terms . In the years since the Conquest , politicians and other leaders have used William and the events of his reign to illustrate political events throughout English history . During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England , Archbishop Matthew Parker saw the Conquest as having corrupted a purer English Church , which Parker attempted to restore . During the 17th and 18th centuries some historians and lawyers saw William 's reign as imposing a " Norman yoke " on the native Anglo @-@ Saxons , an argument that continued during the 19th century with further elaborations along nationalistic lines . These various controversies have led to William being seen by some historians either as one of the creators of England 's greatness or as inflicting one of the greatest defeats in English history . Others have viewed William as an enemy of the English constitution , or alternatively as its creator .
= = Family and children = =
William and his wife Matilda of Flanders had at least nine children . The birth order of the boys is clear , but no source gives the relative order of birth of the daughters .
Robert was born between 1051 and 1054 , died 10 February 1134 . Duke of Normandy , married Sybil of Conversano , daughter of Geoffrey of Conversano .
Richard was born before 1056 , died around 1075 .
William was born between 1056 and 1060 , died 2 August 1100 . King of England , killed in the New Forest .
Henry was born in late 1068 , died 1 December 1135 . King of England , married Edith of Scotland , daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland . His second wife was Adeliza of Louvain .
Adeliza ( or Adelida , Adelaide ) died before 1113 , reportedly betrothed to Harold II of England , probably a nun of Saint LΓ©ger at PrΓ©aux .
Cecilia ( or Cecily ) was born before 1066 , died 1127 , Abbess of Holy Trinity , Caen .
Matilda was born around 1061 , died perhaps about 1086 . Mentioned in Domesday Book as a daughter of William .
Constance died 1090 , married Alan IV Fergent , Duke of Brittany .
Adela died 1137 , married Stephen , Count of Blois .
( Possibly ) Agatha , the betrothed of Alfonso VI of LeΓ³n and Castile .
There is no evidence of any illegitimate children born to William .
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= Banksia spinulosa =
The hairpin banksia ( Banksia spinulosa ) is a species of woody shrub , of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family , native to eastern Australia . Widely distributed , it is found as an understorey plant in open dry forest or heathland from Victoria to northern Queensland , generally on sandstone though sometimes also clay soils . It generally grows as a small shrub to 2 metres ( 7 ft ) in height , though can be a straggly tree to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . It has long narrow leaves with inflorescences which can vary considerably in coloration ; while the spikes are gold or less commonly yellowish , the emergent styles may be a wide range of colours β from black , purple , red , orange or yellow .
Banksia spinulosa was named by James Edward Smith in England in 1793 , after being collected by John White , most likely in 1792 . He gave it the common name prickly @-@ leaved banksia , though this has fallen out of use . With four currently recognised varieties , the species has had a complicated taxonomic history , with two varieties initially described as separate species in the early 19th century . A fourth , from the New England region , has only recently been described . However , there has been disagreement whether one , var. cunninghamii , is distinct enough to once again have specific status . The pre @-@ eminent authority on Banksia , Alex George , concedes there is still more work to be done on the Banksia spinulosa complex .
The hairpin banksia is pollinated by and provides food for a wide array of vertebrate and invertebrate animals in the autumn and winter months . Its floral display and fine foliage have made it a popular garden plant with many horticultural selections available . With the recent trend towards smaller gardens , compact dwarf forms of Banksia spinulosa have become popular ; the first available , Banksia ' Birthday Candles ' , has achieved a great deal of commercial success and wide recognition , and has been followed by several others .
= = Description = =
The hairpin banksia usually occurs as a multi @-@ stemmed lignotuberous shrub 1 β 3 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 β 9 @.@ 8 ft ) tall and 1 β 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 β 6 @.@ 6 ft ) across . Alternatively , it may be single @-@ stemmed and lacking a lignotuber , in which case it is often taller , up to 5 metres ( 16 feet ) high . It has grey or grey @-@ brown smooth bark with lenticels . The long , narrow leaves are 3 β 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 β 3 @.@ 9 in ) in length , 1 β 8 mm wide and more or less linear in shape . Leaf edges are either serrate for the entire leaf length ( collina ) or toward the apex only ( spinulosa ) , though the margins may be recurved and hence serrations not evident as in those from the Carnarvon Gorge . Immature leaves , which may also be seen after bushfire , are broader and serrated . Leaf undersides have fine white hairs in the case of the varieties spinulosa and collina and pale brown in cunninghamii and neoanglica .
The distinctive inflorescences or flower spikes occur over a short period through autumn and early winter . A spike may contain hundreds or thousands of individual flowers , each of which consists of a tubular perianth made up of four united tepals , and one long wiry style . Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed , the styles are hooked rather than straight . The style ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis . In Banksia spinulosa the spikes are cylindrical , about 6 β 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 β 2 @.@ 8 inches ) wide and 6 β 15 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 β 5 @.@ 9 inches ) tall , yellow to golden orange in colour , with styles varying from yellow to pink , maroon , or black . Styles of various colours may be found within metres of each other in some areas such as in the Georges River National Park , and Catherine Hill Bay , while other populations may have uniformly black , red or gold styles . Though not terminal , the flower spikes are fairly prominently displayed . Partly emerging from the foliage , they arise from two- to three @-@ year @-@ old stem nodes .
The hairpin banksia 's infructescence is a typical Banksia cone @-@ like structure , with up to 100 crowded embedded follicles which are 1 β 2 @.@ 4 centimetres ( β
β 1 in ) in diameter ; these generally remain closed until burnt by bushfire . The nonlignotuberous subspecies cunninghamii is killed by fire and regenerates from seed , while the others regenerate from buds around the base of the lignotuber . Old flower spikes fade to brown , then grey with age . Old flower parts usually persist for a long time , giving the infructescence a hairy appearance . In Central and North Queensland , old cones of both var. spinulosa and var. collina are generally bare .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first known specimens of B. spinulosa were collected near Sydney by John White , Surgeon General to the British colony of New South Wales , sometime between 1788 and 1793 . He called it " prickly @-@ leaved banksia " , though this name has fallen out of use . It is uncertain exactly when he first collected the species ; it may have been before 1790 , as there is speculation that a sketch in his 1790 Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales is of a B. spinulosa infructescence . Text accompanying the figure states
" [ W ] e cannot with certainty determine the species . The capsules are smooth , at least when ripe , and a little shining . We think this is neither the B. serrata , integrifolia , nor dentata of Linnaeus , nor probably his ericifolia ; so that it seems to be a species hitherto undescribed . The leaves and flowers we have not seen . "
English botanist James Edward Smith later tentatively attributed this figure to B. spinulosa :
" We suspect the fruit figured in Mr. White 's Voyage , page 225 , fig . I , may belong to this species , but we have no positive authority to assert it . "
More recently , however , Alf Salkin has argued that
" the cone illustrated by White is probably not as suggested from the B. spinulosa described by Smith but , may be from another member of the complex or from one of the forms of B. ericifolia . "
White probably collected the type material of B. spinulosa in 1792 . The following year , the species was formally described by Smith in his A Specimen of the Botany of New Holland . It was thus the seventh Banksia species collected , and the fifth described . Smith gave it the specific epithet spinulosa , a Latin term meaning having minute spines , probably in reference to the leaf tips . Thus the species ' full name is Banksia spinulosa Sm .
= = = Placement within Banksia = = =
In the first infrageneric arrangement of Banksia , that of Brown in 1830 , B. spinulosa was placed in subgenus Banksia verae , the " true banksias " , because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike . It was placed next to B. cunninghamii and B. collina , both now considered varieties of B. spinulosa ; these three were placed between B. ericifolia ( heath @-@ leaved banksia ) and B. occidentalis ( red swamp banksia ) . Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847 . Carl Meissner demoted Eubanksia to sectional rank in his 1856 classification , and divided it into four series , with B. spinulosa placed in series Abietinae , while B. cunninghamii and B. collina were placed alongside each other in series Salicinae . When George Bentham published his 1870 arrangement in Flora Australiensis , he discarded Meissner 's series , placing all the species with hooked styles together in a section that he named Oncostylis . B. cunninghamii was reduced to synonymy with B. collina , as was the western species B. littoralis ( western swamp banksia ) . This arrangement would stand for over a century .
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his landmark 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Endlicher 's Eubanksia became B. subg . Banksia , and was divided into three sections , one of which was Oncostylis . Oncostylis was further divided into four series , with B. spinulosa placed in series Spicigerae because its inflorescences are cylindrical .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus , after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George 's arrangement . Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement retained B. spinulosa in series Spicigerae , placing it alone in B. subser . Spinulosae . This arrangement stood until 1999 , when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series .
Under George 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , B. spinulosa 's taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Section Coccinea
Section Oncostylis
Series Spicigerae
B. spinulosa
B. spinulosa var. spinulosa
B. spinulosa var. collina
B. spinulosa var. neoanglica
B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii
B. ericifolia
B. verticillata
B. seminuda
B. littoralis
B. occidentalis
B. brownii
Series Tricuspidae
Series Dryandroidae
Series Abietinae
Subgenus Isostylis
More recent molecular research suggests that B. spinulosa and B. ericifolia may be more closely related to series Salicinae , with Banksia integrifolia and its relatives .
In 2005 , Austin Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia . They inferred a phylogeny very greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement , including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra . A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. spinulosa is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .
= = = Varieties = = =
Four varieties are currently recognised :
B. spinulosa var. spinulosa
The nominate race is an autonym , a name that was automatically created for the original material of the species as the other subspecies were described . The original hairpin banksia , this plant is coastal in Queensland , seen in such places as Walshs Pyramid ( near Cairns ) , Byfield National Park and the Blackdown Tableland , then again in New South Wales south of the Hawkesbury River , just north of Sydney , down the New South Wales South Coast and into Victoria . Northwards of the Hawkesbury River on Sydney 's northern outskirts there is a gradation between this and B. spinulosa var. collina . It commonly has black , maroon or claret styles on gold spikes but all @-@ gold inflorescences are seen , and leaves are generally narrower than other varieties at 1 β 2 mm in width and have several serrations toward the apex only .
B. spinulosa var. collina
Known as the hill banksia , it was first published as Banksia collina by Robert Brown in 1810 , and retained species rank until 1981 , when George demoted it to a variety of B. spinulosa . It differs from B. spinulosa var. spinulosa in having broader leaves 3 β 8 mm in width that have serrate margins . The leaf undersides have more prominent venation . Its flower spikes are usually gold , or sometimes gold with red styles , especially in New South Wales . It is found in inland gorges and tablelands such as Carnarvon Gorge , Expedition National Park , Isla Gorge and Dicks Tableland in a remote part of Eungella National Park , in Central Queensland but coastal on the New South Wales Central- and north coast .
B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii
This variety was published as B. cunninghamii in 1827 in honour of the botanist Allan Cunningham , and demoted to a variety of B. spinulosa in 1981 . The demotion has not been universally accepted however : in New South Wales it is still given species rank , and B. spinulosa var. neoanglica is considered a subspecies of it . George notes that at locations where both var. spinulosa and var. cunninghamii coexist , such as Fitzroy Falls in Lawson , no intermediate forms occur . This plant is a fast @-@ growing nonlignotuberous shrub or small tree to 6 metres ( 20 feet ) in height , occurring in the Great Dividing Range from southeast Queensland to southern New South Wales and also in Victoria . The juvenile leaves are highly serrated , new branchlets are hairy and leaf undersides are pale brown rather than white as in the two previous varieties . Inflorescences are gold with black styles , though an all @-@ yellow form from Victoria is known . The linear to oblanceolate adult leaves are 2 β 10 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 β 3 @.@ 94 in ) long by 2 β 7 mm wide ; those from Victoria having markedly longer juvenile leaves , and larger cotyledons .
B. spinulosa var. neoanglica
Known as the New England banksia , it was published by Alex George in 1988 , based on a specimen collected by him in 1986 . In New South Wales it is considered an unnamed subspecies of Banksia cunninghamii . This plant is found in the New England Region of far northern New South Wales and Southeastern Queensland . It is a short lignotuberous shrub to 1 metre ( 3 ft ) in height . Inflorescences are gold with black styles . It has hairy new branchlets and pale brown leaf undersides .
Some doubt exists as to whether the current classification accurately represents relationships within the Banksia spinulosa complex . B. spinulosa var. collina is a form of inland gorges and tablelands in central Queensland , but is a coastal plant on the New South Wales central and north coast . B. spinulosa var. spinulosa , on the other hand , is coastal in central Queensland and in New South Wales south of Sydney . Similarly , B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii is widely separated between New South Wales and Victorian forms ( where the longer leaved form was originally called B. prionophylla by Meissner ) . Notably both B. spinulosa var. spinulosa and B. spinulosa var. collina in northern Queensland have old spikes bare as opposed to them having persistent old flower parts in New South Wales and Victoria . Mast listed B. spinulosa var. collina and B. spinulosa var. neoanglica as sister clades in 1998 , with B. spinulosa var. spinulosa and B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii flanking these . Alex George also reports that the taxon should be reviewed . A molecular study with specimens of each subspecies from the three mainland eastern states they occur would shed light on this matter .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Natural hybrids between B. s. var. spinulosa and B. ericifolia subsp. ericifolia have been recorded at Pigeon House Mountain in Morton National Park . Banksia " Giant Candles " was a chance garden hybrid between B. ericifolia and B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The hairpin banksia occurs along the east coast of Australia from the Dandenong Ranges east of Melbourne , Victoria , north through New South Wales and into Queensland . It is common north to Maryborough , with disjunct populations occurring as far north as the Atherton Tableland near Cairns . It occurs in a variety of habitats , from coastal heath ( spinulosa and collina ) and elevated rocky slopes ( neoanglica and spinulosa ) to inland dry sclerophyll forest dominated by eucalypts , where they form part of the understorey . Plants in exposed areas are generally considerably shorter than those in sheltered areas . It usually occurs on sand , but can be found in rocky clays or loams .
Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii is found in 3 disjunct regions ; the Dandenong Ranges east of Melbourne , East Gippsland between Lakes Entrance and Eden , and in the Great Dividing Range in a band from Jervis Bay to Glen Davis in Central New South Wales , while there have been collections northwards in the Dividing Range up into southeast Queensland . It can be an understorey plant under dense as well as open forest cover .
= = Ecology = =
Like other banksias , Banksia spinulosa plays host to a wide variety of pollinators and is a vital source of nectar in autumn , when other flowers are scarce . Banksias have been the subject of many studies about their pollination ; B. spinulosa is no exception . A 1998 study in Bungawalbin National Park in Northern New South Wales found that B. spinulosa var. collina inflorescences are foraged by a variety of small mammals , including marsupials such as Antechinus flavipes ( yellow @-@ footed antechinus ) , which carry pollen loads comparable to those of nectar @-@ eating birds , making them effective pollinators . The same study noted that , unlike other banksias studied , B. spinulosa var. collina was visited predominantly by native bees rather than the introduced Apis mellifera ( European honeybee ) .
A great many bird species have been observed visiting this species . A 1982 study in the New England National Park in North @-@ eastern New South Wales found that a large influx of Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ( eastern spinebill ) coincided with the start of local B. spinulosa 's flowering . In the Blackdown Tableland , Lichenostomus leucotis ( white @-@ eared honeyeater ) and Lichenostomus melanops ( yellow @-@ tufted honeyeater ) as well as pygmy possums visit B. spinulosa . Brown antechinus , sugar glider , and bush rat are also known to visit flowers . Additional species seen in The Banksia Atlas survey include Phylidonyris nigra ( white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ) , Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera ( crescent honeyeater ) , Meliphaga lewinii ( Lewin 's honeyeater ) , Lichmera indistincta ( brown honeyeater ) , Manorina melanocephala ( noisy miner ) , Philemon corniculatus ( noisy friarbird ) , Anthochaera carunculata ( red wattlebird ) and Eopsaltria australis ( eastern yellow robin ) .
Like most other Proteaceae , B. spinulosa has proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , allowing nutrient uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia .
B. spinulosa does not appear to be under threat . It is resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , which poses a major threat to many other Banksia species ; and its wide distribution protects against the threat of habitat loss due to land clearing . As a result , it does not appear on the list of threatened Australian plants under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 .
Banksia spinulosa is listed in Part 1 Group 1 of Schedule 13 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 ; this means that as a common and secure species it is exempted from any licensing or tagging requirements under the 2002 β 2005 management plan to minimise and regulate the use of protected and threatened plants in the cut @-@ flower industry in New South Wales .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia spinulosa var. spinulosa was introduced into cultivation in the United Kingdom in 1788 by Joseph Banks who supplied seed to Kew , Cambridge Botanic Gardens and Woburn Abbey among others ; var. collina followed in 1800 and var. cunninghamii in 1822 . It has proven a highly ornamental and bird @-@ attracting plant in cultivation . Southern and montane provenance forms are frost hardy . In general , all forms prefer sandy , well @-@ drained soils with sunny aspect , though some local forms hailing from Wianamatta shales may tolerate heavier soils . It is resistant to dieback , like most eastern banksias . As it grows naturally on acid soils , Banksia spinulosa is particularly sensitive to iron deficiency . Known as chlorosis , it manifests as yellowing of new leaves with preservation of green veins , and occurs when the plant is grown in soils of higher pH . This can also happen where soil contains quantities of cement , either as landfill or building foundations , and can be treated with iron chelate or sulfate .
Regular pruning is important to give the plant an attractive habit and prevent it from becoming leggy . As most cultivated forms of this species have a lignotuber , dormant buds exist below the bark that respond to pruning or fire , and hard @-@ pruning is possible almost to ground level as a plant can readily sprout from old wood . This is not the case for var. cunninghamii which should not be pruned below foliage . Flowering may take up to eight years from germination ; buying an advanced plant may hasten this process , as will getting a cutting @-@ grown plant . Banksia spinulosa can be propagated easily by seed , and is one of the ( relatively ) easier banksias to propagate by cutting . Named cultivars are by necessity propagated by cuttings as this ensures that the plant produced bears the same attributes as the original plant .
Both B. s. var. collina and var. spinulosa are commonly seen in nurseries ; given that the varieties can hybridise , attempting to find a local provenance form from a local community nursery , Bushcare or Australian Plants Society group is preferable environmentally if they are intended for planting in gardens near bushland where native populations occur . There are some dwarf forms available for the city gardener β ' Stumpy Gold ' is a form of variety collina originally from the Central Coast , while ' Birthday Candles ' , ' Coastal Cushion ' and ' Golden Cascade ' are forms of variety spinulosa from the South Coast of New South Wales .
= = = Cultivars = = =
There are a number of commercial varieties available from Australian retail nurseries , four have been registered under plant breeders ' rights legislation , and another with the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority . The lack of official names has led to some varieties bearing several different names .
B. s. var. collina ' Carnarvon Gold ' is an all @-@ gold flowered form from Carnarvon Gorge in central Queensland with long leaves and revolute margins which grows to around 2 β 5 m ( 6 @.@ 6 β 16 @.@ 4 ft ) in height and 2 β 4 m ( 6 @.@ 6 β 13 @.@ 1 ft ) across . The old flowers fall from the spikes .
B. s. var. collina ' Stumpy Gold ' is a spreading form ( 40 centimetres or 16 inches high by up to 1 @.@ 2 metres or 3 @.@ 9 feet across ) with light gold flowers 15 centimetres ( 6 in ) high by 6 centimetres ( 2 in ) across from the vicinity of Catherine Hill Bay on the New South Wales Central Coast , propagated by Richard Anderson of Merricks Nursery . It arises from a silty loam so theoretically should tolerate a heavier soil than ' Coastal Cushion ' . Leaves are a more subdued green with greyish tinge than the south coast NSW spinulosa cultivars .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Birthday Candles ' , the original trailblazer , is a compact plant growing to 45 centimetres ( 18 in ) tall and up to 1 metre ( 3 ft ) across with red @-@ styled gold flowers 15 cm high by 6 cm across . The leaves are narrow with attractive lime green new growth . Stems and branches naturally crooked . It was granted PBR status in 1989 , after an application by Bill Molyneux of Austraflora Pty Ltd . The provenance of the original material was an exposed headland hear Ulladulla on the New South Wales South Coast . It appears to fare better in Mediterranean climates with reports of patchy performance in Sydney ( though better in pots ) and unreliability in Brisbane . There are reports of it flowering in alternate years only . It is reported to be an unreliable survivor , although this may be due to it being popular among novices .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Cherry Candles ' , bred by Bill Molyneux from the ' Birthday Candles ' cultivar , is a compact plant growing to 45 cm tall and up to 100 cm across with cherry red @-@ styled gold flowers , darker than its parent , 15 cm high by 6 cm across . It was released commercially in spring 2004 , and granted PBR status in February 2005 , after an application by Molyneux .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Coastal Cushion ' ( = ' Schnapper Point ' ) was originally collected by Neil Marriott and called ' Schnapper Point ' from the same locality as ' Birthday Candles ' . This is a more spreading plant to 50 cm tall and up to 1 @.@ 5 β 2 m across with dark red @-@ styled gold flowers ( a couple of shades darker than ' Birthday Candles ' ) 15 cm high by 6 cm across . It is propagated by Richard Anderson of Merricks Nursery . It appears to be more adaptable to points north than other dwarf forms β growing reliably in southeastern Queensland . This form can be very floriferous , with some plants sporting more than 40 inflorescences at any one time .
B. s . ' Coastal Candles ' , propagated by Merv Hodge , came from Philip Vaughan 's ' Schnapper Point ' plant . Some plants are behaving differently , so it may be that not all material is exactly the same clone .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Golden Cascade ' is yet another plant from the same locality as ' Birthday Candles ' ; this is more spreading again , to perhaps 30 cm tall and up to 1 @.@ 5 β 2 m across with red @-@ styled gold flowers 15 cm high by 6 cm across . It is also seen as B. spinulosa ' prostrate ' . Propagated by Gondwana Nursery , this is a relatively new release .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Honey Pots ' is a form with all gold flowers to 20 cm high ( taller than forms listed above ) , however it is a little larger with reports of it growing to 1 m high , with odd reports of it getting taller than this , by 1 @.@ 2 m across . It comes from south coast in Victoria , propagated by Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery in Victoria .
B. s. var. spinulosa ( dwarf forms ) β Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery in Victoria has two red @-@ styled fairly compact dwarf forms , one ( all serrated β slow @-@ growing , possibly collina ) growing to 1 m , the ( leaf ends serrated only , faster @-@ growing ) other 1 @.@ 5 m β and there are others reported but not named .
B. s. var. cunninghamii ' Lemon Glow ' was registered with ACRA in 1982 by Alf Salkin and hails from French Island in Victoria , growing 2 β 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 β 9 @.@ 8 ft ) with all lemon yellow flowers . Currently propagated by Phillip Vaughan and Kuranga Nursery , both in Melbourne . It is reported to be frost hardy and moderately resistant to drought .
There is a form sold as a Banksia ( spinulosa ) cunninghamii variant , propagated by Bournda Plants of Tura Beach on the NSW south coast . The plants reach 70 cm after four years and have black @-@ styled gold inflorescences . The form came from David Shiels of Wakiti Nursery in Victoria , who got it from Alf Salkin . It has a white underside ( not brownish ) and has a couple of serrations close to the tip of the leaf , typical of B. s. var. spinulosa .
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= Hurricane Humberto ( 1995 ) =
Hurricane Humberto was the eighth named storm and fourth hurricane of the busy 1995 Atlantic hurricane season . This was the first time that the name " Humberto " was used as it replaced Hugo ( it was retired in 1989 ) . It was a Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that never approached land as it tracked across the central Atlantic Ocean .
The storm developed west of the Cape Verde islands on August 21 and was upgraded to a tropical storm on August 22 and a hurricane on August 23 . For the first several days , it followed the wave that became Iris until a Fujiwhara interaction took place about midway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles on August 25 . Humberto peaked as a strong Category 2 hurricane and remained a hurricane until just before being absorbed by an extratropical cyclone on September 1 .
= = Meteorological history = =
The system originated out of one of several powerful tropical waves that moved off the west coast of Africa in the second half of August . When the wave came off the African coast , it already had a cyclonic rotation , although it was fairly disorganized . As the wave moved westward into open waters , it developed rapidly . Late on August 21 , it had developed a low @-@ level circulation and was declared Tropical Depression Nine . The system quickly organized itself and was quickly upgraded to Tropical Storm Humberto early on August 22 . Beginning on a west @-@ northwest track , it was clear from the outset that Humberto would not affect land , due to a weakness in the subtropical ridge to the north which would eventually turn the storm northward . An impressive outflow pattern and solid banding quickly formed in a very favorable environment with warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear . Humberto quickly developed and intensified into a high @-@ end tropical storm on the afternoon and evening of August 22 . Early on August 23 , the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Humberto .
Humberto continued to intensify on the morning of the 23rd as the central dense overcast became well defined , despite the lack of a well @-@ defined eye feature . However , the intensification was slowed somewhat by the presence of Iris to the west , whose outflow intercepted with Humberto 's outflow somewhat . Early on August 24 , Humberto strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane , finally forming a well @-@ defined eye , as it slowed down as it entered a Fujiwhara interaction with Iris . That afternoon , while still moving west @-@ northwest , Humberto reached its peak intensity of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , just under Category 3 intensity .
The Fujiwhara interaction had a profound impact on the track of Humberto , which made a quick turn to the northwest , and then to the north @-@ northwest , early on August 25 . The interaction came to an end that afternoon as Humberto completed the northerly turn , while remaining a Category 2 hurricane in the tropical waters of the central Atlantic . It began to gradually weaken on August 26 due to an increase in southwesterly shear from a nearby upper @-@ level low as it maintained a north @-@ northwest track . The slow weakening trend continued into August 27 as the eye became intermittent in the moderate @-@ shear environment , which was once again impacted by the outflow of Iris to the southwest . That evening , it dropped to a minimal hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds , which was later confirmed to have been the low point . Operationally , Humberto was downgraded to a tropical storm for a while on August 28 , which was later confirmed to have been underestimated . As it tracked away from Iris and into a more open environment , it turned more to the north @-@ northeast and slowly re @-@ intensified again on August 29 . Its movement was now affected by an incoming mid @-@ latitude trough that turned Humberto northeast early on August 30 . Humberto reached its second intensity peak of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) at that time .
However , cooler waters eventually caught up to Humberto and it began to weaken once again early on August 31 as it tracked into the north Atlantic . That afternoon , Humberto weakened to a tropical storm as its circulation became embedded into a circulation of a nearby extratropical low in a high @-@ shear environment . It continued to weaken that evening , and early on September 1 , the tropical storm was absorbed by the larger system .
= = Impact , naming , and records = =
Humberto remained in the open Atlantic , and no damage or fatalities were reported . Several ships came in contact with Humberto while it roamed the open waters . The strongest winds came from call sign DVRUK4 , which reported peak winds of 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) in the central Atlantic on August 30 . Three other ships reported tropical storm @-@ force winds .
Humberto was the second of four tropical waves in quick succession in the tropical Atlantic that all eventually became tropical storms or hurricanes ; it was preceded by the wave that became Iris , and followed by the waves that became Karen and Luis . It was also the first of three tropical cyclones to form within a 24 @-@ hour period on August 21 and 22 ; Iris formed 12 hours later and Jerry formed 18 hours later . It was also the first of five named storms to form within a seven @-@ day period ; Karen formed on August 26 and Luis on August 27 .
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= Live Forever as You Are Now with Alan Resnick =
Live Forever as You Are Now with Alan Resnick is a television special written , created and directed by Alan Resnick and Ben O 'Brien for Adult Swim . The special is presented as a parody of self @-@ help infomercials , advertising a four @-@ step program for creating a digital avatar that acts a backup of its host . The special is hosted by Alan Resnick as himself , and is presented by Dan Deacon . Both , along with O 'Brien , are members of the Baltimore @-@ based art collective Wham City , who co @-@ produced the episode under their video production division , AB Video Solutions .
The special aired on December 24 , 2013 at 4 a.m. on Cartoon Network 's late @-@ night programming block , Adult Swim . The special was viewed by 926 @,@ 000 viewers and received a Nielsen household rating of 0 @.@ 7 . Critical reception was positive , with both the humor and the performances receiving praise .
= = Summary = =
Alan Resnick ( portrayed by himself ) , an emerging young tech expert and innovator , is introduced to the viewer . He tells the audience of his four @-@ step program to create a digital avatar that acts as a backup of its host , granting " the secret to eternal life " . He tells the audience of his past : two years ago , Resnick was banished to his couch after getting into a lovers ' spat with his wife , Janet . He dreamt of himself in a foggy meadow with an attractive , nude young woman ( portrayed by " MKNZ " ) who calls for him to engage in sex . He initially refuses , but then changes his mind , but before they are able to do so , he is shot with a gun by a nameless man ( Ben O 'Brien ) , which totally destroys his face . This gave him the idea to come up with a way to digitally back himself up . Two months pass , and he is able to create a " exact digital copy " of himself who calls himself " Teddy " ( for unknown reasons ) . " Teddy " , a floating avatar head , acts as the co @-@ host for the remainder of the program , often interrupting Resnick 's speech to talk about his " wife " .
Resnick goes on to explain the four steps behind his process :
Subjects are instructed to look in a mirror every night for five hours and observe their facial features , sketching what they recall while in the dark ; subjects are then instructed to hang up said drawings around their house .
The subject comes over to Resnick 's house , where blindingly bright patterns are projected into their eyes and face while they spin around . These patterns will be " queered " by their head form , generating three @-@ point axes , which are then " booleaned " to generate a three @-@ dimensional mesh of their head . Resnick then goes on to explain the " uncanny valley " , which leads him into his third step :
The avatars are put through a series of intensive " skin stress tests " , including " ball tests " , " wiggle tests " and " durability and tear testing " .
Resnick comes into his subjects ' house for two months to analyze their interests and personality types ; he will ask " hundreds of personal questions " involving friends , furniture , romance , animals , food , events and touch . All the information will be scanned into the USB flash drive of the subject 's computer , which makes the " brain " of their avatar .
Various testimonials are then given ; a widower and " textbook salesman " Ryan Syrell ( Steve Izant ) tells of the reconstruction of his wife Morgan and the creation of his own avatar . Jordan Card , an elderly woman , shows off her digital avatar , who insists that their room " is too cold . " Chester Gwazda ( Caynen Couture ) , a young bedridden boy , says that it was his mother 's ( Michelle Word ) idea , and that he would rather play football than go boogie boarding with his avatar . Concluding his seminar , Resnick thanks his audience and " Teddy " , who speaks again of the love for his wife , shown to be a pink morphing sphere . A frustrated Resnick scolds his creation and informs the audience that his avatar is autonomous , and that he is being manipulative and disappointing . He reminds the viewer to purchase his program through the following informational screen .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The series was originally developed as a comedy sketch by Alan Resnick , as part of his comedy tours with the Baltimore @-@ based art collective Wham City , best known for their work with Dan Deacon . The skit , first conceived in 2009 and roughly modeled after TED Talks , features Resnick telling the audience how to create a complete digital backup of himself . Long @-@ time associate Ben O 'Brien co @-@ produced , directed and edited the special along with Resnick . In addition , both co @-@ produced the episode under their video production division , AB Video Solutions . Resnick , along with set decorator Emma Alamo , transformed Resnick 's house into the set of the special .
The collective had pitched a Wham City television sitcom to Adult Swim before , but according to Resnick , the network insisted that " no one would ever watch more than one episode . " Resnick named Mr. Show with Bob and David , The Kids in the Hall and the Upright Citizens Brigade as influences on the special . Dave Hughes , creator of the series Off the Air , who had discussed with the group about developing a series , took note of Resnick 's sketch and helped the collective develop it into an informercial . After airing the special , Wham City featured the skit for their comedy tour of New York City . Resnick informed Network Awesome that they will probably not produce any more fake infomercials , and that O 'Brien is working with the network to create something that viewers will " stumble on unintentionally . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Live Forever as You Are Now with Alan Resnick aired on December 24 , 2013 at 4 a.m. on Adult Swim . It was the third in a series of infomercial parodies broadcast by the network , succeeding Broomshakalaka and For @-@ Profit Online University . The early @-@ morning timeslot was chosen since infomercials usually air during such hours . The special was published onto Adult Swim 's YouTube channel the same day . The special was viewed by 926 @,@ 000 viewers and received a Nielsen household rating of 0 @.@ 7 , meaning that approximately 0 @.@ 7 percent of households with a television watched it . A web chat allowing users to converse with " Teddy " was created for the network 's website .
The special has received positive critical reception . In talking about Resnick with regards to the special , Baltimore City Paper 's Baynard Woods wrote that it " combines the traditional kind @-@ of @-@ creepy positivity of the infomercial host with the creepy techno @-@ utopian positivity of a TED Talk 's technologist . " He ultimately opined that the humor derived from " the disconnect between what Resnick claims β that his avatar is a complete backup of himself β and the reality that it is not at all like him and is , in fact , extremely limited . " Ezra Lefko of What Weekly , another Baltimore @-@ based publication , praised the special . In particular , he expressed his approval of seeing " success and national exposure for these talented artists . " Lea McLellan of Mountain Xpress called it " hilarious " and " a good representation of their bizarre comedic stylings . "
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Amiral Charner @-@ class cruiser =
The Amiral Charner class was a group of four armoured cruisers built for the French Navy during the 1890s . They were designed to be smaller and cheaper than the preceding design while also serving as commerce raiders in times of war . Three of the ships were assigned to the International Squadron off the island of Crete during the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1897 to protect French interests and citizens . With several exceptions the sister ships spent most of the first decade of the 20th century serving as training ships or in reserve . Bruix aided survivors of the devastating eruption of Mount PelΓ©e on the island of Martinique in 1902 . Chanzy was transferred to French Indochina in 1906 and ran aground off the Chinese coast in mid @-@ 1907 . She proved impossible to refloat and was destroyed in place .
The three survivors escorted troop convoys from French North Africa to France for several months after the beginning of World War I in August 1914 . Unlike her sisters , Bruix was transferred to the Atlantic to support Allied operations against the German colony of Kamerun in September 1914 while Amiral Charner and Latouche @-@ TrΓ©ville were assigned to the Eastern Mediterranean. where they blockaded the Ottoman @-@ controlled coast , and supported Allied operations . Amiral Charner was sunk in early 1916 by a German submarine . Latouche @-@ TrΓ©ville became a training ship in late 1917 and was decommissioned in 1919 . Bruix was decommissioned in Greece at the beginning of 1918 and recommissioned after the end of the war in November for service in the Black Sea against the Bolsheviks . She returned home in 1919 and was sold for scrap in 1921 . Latouche @-@ TrΓ©ville followed her to the breakers five years later .
= = Design and description = =
The Amiral Charner @-@ class ships were designed to be smaller and cheaper than the preceding armored cruiser design , the Dupuy de LΓ΄me . Like the older ship , they were intended to fill the commerce @-@ raiding strategy of the Jeune Γcole .
The ships measured 106 @.@ 12 metres ( 348 ft 2 in ) between perpendiculars and had a beam of 14 @.@ 04 metres ( 46 ft 1 in ) . They had a forward draught of 5 @.@ 55 metres ( 18 ft 3 in ) and drew 6 @.@ 06 metres ( 19 ft 11 in ) aft . The Amiral Charner class displaced 4 @,@ 748 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 673 long tons ) at normal load and 4 @,@ 990 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 910 long tons ) at deep load . They were fitted with a prominent plough @-@ shaped ram at the bow . This made the ships very wet forward , although they were generally felt to be reasonably good sea boats and handled well by their captains . Their metacentric height was deemed to be inadequate and all of the surviving ships had their military masts replaced by lighter pole masts between 1910 and 1914 .
The Amiral Charner @-@ class ships had two horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by 16 Belleville boilers at a working pressure of 17 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 667 kPa ; 242 psi ) and the engines were rated at a total of 8 @,@ 300 metric horsepower ( 6 @,@ 100 kW ) using forced draught . The engines in Bruix were more powerful than those of her sister ships and were rated at 9 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 6 @,@ 600 kW ) . The ships had a designed speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but during sea trials they failed to meet their specified speed , only reaching maximum speeds of 18 @.@ 16 to 18 @.@ 4 knots ( 33 @.@ 63 to 34 @.@ 08 km / h ; 20 @.@ 90 to 21 @.@ 17 mph ) from 8 @,@ 276 to 9 @,@ 107 metric horsepower ( 6 @,@ 087 to 6 @,@ 698 kW ) . They carried up to 535 tonnes ( 527 long tons ) of coal and could steam for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships of the Amiral Charner class had a main armament that consisted of two 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 194 mm ModΓ¨le 1887 guns that were mounted in single gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . The turrets were hydraulically operated in all ships except on Latouche @-@ TrΓ©ville , whose turrets were electrically powered . The guns fired 75 β 90 @.@ 3 @-@ kilogram ( 165 β 199 lb ) shells at muzzle velocities ranging from 770 to 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) .
Their secondary armament comprised six 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 138 @.@ 6 mm ModΓ¨le 1887 guns , each in single gun turrets on each broadside . Their 30 β 35 @-@ kilogram ( 66 β 77 lb ) shells were fired at muzzle velocities of 730 to 770 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 400 to 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ) . For close @-@ range anti @-@ torpedo boat defense , they carried four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 65 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) guns , four QF 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) and eight QF 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) five @-@ barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns . They were also armed with four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) pivoting torpedo tubes ; two mounted on each broadside above water .
= = = Protection = = =
The side of the Amiral Charner class was generally protected by 92 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) of steel armor , from 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 ft 3 in ) below the waterline to 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) above it . The bottom 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) tapered in thickness and the armor at the ends of the ships thinned to 60 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . The curved protective deck of mild steel had a thickness of 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) along its centerline that increased to 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) at its outer edges . Protecting the boiler rooms , engine rooms , and magazines below it was a thin splinter deck . A watertight internal cofferdam , filled with cellulose , ran the length of the ship from the protective deck to a height of 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 4 ft ) above the waterline . Below the protective deck the ship was divided by 13 watertight transverse bulkheads with five more above it . The ship 's conning tower and turrets were protected by 92 millimeters of armor .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Amiral Charner spent most of her career in the Mediterranean , although she was sent to China during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 β 01 . Together with her sisters , Chanzy and Latouche @-@ TrΓ©ville , the ship was assigned to the International Squadron off the island of Crete during the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1897 to protect French interests and citizens . With the exception of Bruix , the sisters spent most of the first decade of the 20th century as training ships or in reserve . Bruix served in the Atlantic Ocean , the Mediterranean , and in the Far East before World War I. In 1902 she aided survivors of the devastating eruption of Mount PelΓ©e on the island of Martinique and spent several years as guardship at Crete , protecting French interests in the region in the early 1910s . Chanzy was transferred to French Indochina in 1906 . She ran aground off the Chinese coast in mid @-@ 1907 , where she proved impossible to refloat and was destroyed in place after her crew was rescued without loss .
The surviving ships escorted troop convoys from French North Africa to France for several months after the beginning of World War I in August 1914 . Amiral Charner and Latouche @-@ TrΓ©ville were then assigned to the Eastern Mediterranean where they blockaded the Ottoman @-@ controlled coast and supported Allied operations . During this time , Amiral Charner helped to rescue several thousand Armenians from Syria during the Armenian Genocide of 1915 . She was sunk in early 1916 by a German submarine , with only a single survivor rescued . Latouche @-@ TrΓ©ville was lightly damaged in 1915 by an Ottoman shell while providing naval gunfire support during the Gallipoli Campaign . Unlike her sisters , Bruix was transferred to the Atlantic to support Allied operations against the German colony of Kamerun in September 1914 . She was briefly assigned to support Allied operations in the Dardanelles in early 1915 before she began patrolling the Aegean Sea and Greek territorial waters .
Latouche @-@ TrΓ©ville became a training ship in late 1917 and was decommissioned in 1919 . Bruix was decommissioned in Greece at the beginning of 1918 and recommissioned after the end of the war in November for service in the Black Sea against the Bolsheviks . She returned home later in 1919 and was reduced to reserve before she was sold for scrap in 1921 . Latouche @-@ TrΓ©ville was stricken from the navy list in 1920 and was sold for scrap in 1926 .
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= Ruffed lemur =
The ruffed lemurs of the genus Varecia are strepsirrhine primates and the largest extant lemurs within the family Lemuridae . Like all living lemurs , they are found only on the island of Madagascar . Formerly considered to be a monotypic genus , two species are now recognized : the black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , with its three subspecies , and the red ruffed lemur .
Ruffed lemurs are diurnal and arboreal quadrupeds , often observed leaping through the upper canopy of the seasonal tropical rainforests in eastern Madagascar . They are also the most frugivorous of the Malagasy lemurs , and they are very sensitive to habitat disturbance . Ruffed lemurs live in multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female groups and have a complex and flexible social structure , described as fission @-@ fusion . They are highly vocal , and have loud , raucous calls .
Ruffed lemurs are seasonal breeders and highly unusual in their reproductive strategy . They are considered an " evolutionary enigma " in that they are the largest of the extant species in Lemuridae , yet exhibit reproductive traits more common in small , nocturnal lemurs , such as short gestation periods ( ~ 102 days ) and relatively large average litter sizes ( ~ 2 β 3 ) . Ruffed lemurs also build nests for their newborns ( the only primates that do so ) , carry them by mouth , and exhibit an absentee parental system by stashing them while they forage . Infants are altricial , although they develop relatively quickly , traveling independently in the wild after 70 days and attaining full adult size by six months .
Threatened by habitat loss and hunting , ruffed lemurs are facing extinction in the wild . However , they reproduce readily in captivity , and have been gradually re @-@ introduced into the wild since 1997 . Organizations that are involved in ruffed lemur conservation include the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust , the Lemur Conservation Foundation ( LCF ) , the Madagascar Fauna Group ( MFG ) , Monkeyland Primate Sanctuary in South Africa , Wildlife Trust , and the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) .
= = Evolutionary history = =
Lemurs are not known in the fossil record on Madagascar until the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs . Consequently , little is known about the evolution of ruffed lemurs , let alone the entire lemur clade , which comprises the endemic primate population of the island .
Although there is still much debate about the origins of lemurs on Madagascar , it is generally accepted that a single rafting event , similar to the one that brought New World monkeys to South America , occurred around 50 β 80 million years ago and allowed ancestral lemurs to cross the Mozambique Channel and colonize the island , which had already split from Africa ( while it was joined to the Indian subcontinent ) , approximately 160 million years ago . The resulting founder effect and either non @-@ existent or inferior competition resulted in speciation as the lemur ancestors radiated out to fill open or insufficiently guarded niches . Today , the endemic primate fauna of Madagascar contains over three @-@ quarters of the extant species of the suborder Strepsirrhini , which had been abundant throughout Laurasia and Africa during the Paleocene and Eocene epochs .
= = = Taxonomic classification = = =
The ruffed lemur genus , Varecia , is a member of the family Lemuridae . The extinct genus , Pachylemur most closely resembled the ruffed lemurs but died out after the arrival of humans . The genus Varecia contains two species , red ruffed lemurs and black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs , the latter having three subspecies .
Family Lemuridae
Genus Eulemur : true lemurs
Genus Hapalemur : lesser bamboo lemurs
Genus Lemur : the ring @-@ tailed lemur
Genus β Pachylemur
Genus Prolemur : the greater bamboo lemur
Genus Varecia : ruffed lemurs
Black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , Varecia variegata
Variegated black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , Varecia variegata variegata
Southern black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , Varecia variegata editorum
Northern black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , Varecia variegata subcincta
Red ruffed lemur , Varecia rubra
= = = Changes in taxonomy = = =
Ruffed lemurs , along with several species of brown lemur were once included in the genus Lemur . In 1962 , the ruffed lemurs were reassigned to the genus Varecia .
The red ruffed lemur and the black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur were formerly recognized as subspecies , Varecia variegata rubra and Varecia variegata variegata respectively . In 2001 both were elevated to species status , a decision that was later supported by genetic research . Three subspecies of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , which had been published decades earlier , were also recognized as variegata , editorum , and subcincta , although studies have not been entirely conclusive .
Subfossil remains of two extinct lemur species were previously classified under the genus Varecia . Found at sites in central and southwestern Madagascar , Varecia insignis and V. jullyi were very similar to modern ruffed lemurs , but more robust and assumed to be more terrestrial , and thus more prone to predation by early human settlers . More recent studies have shown that these extinct species had a diet similar to that of modern ruffed lemurs , and that they were also arboreal in nature . Enough differences were demonstrated to merit a separate genus , Pachylemur . These close relatives of ruffed lemurs are now named Pachylemur insignis and P. jullyi .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Ruffed lemurs are the largest extant members of the family Lemuridae , with an average head @-@ body length between 43 to 57 cm ( 17 to 22 in ) and a total length from 100 to 120 cm ( 39 to 47 in ) , while ranging in weight from 3 @.@ 1 to 4 @.@ 1 kg ( 6 @.@ 8 to 9 @.@ 0 lb ) . The thick , furry tail is longer than the body , averaging 60 and 65 cm ( 24 and 26 in ) in length and is used primarily for balance while moving through the trees . Ruffed lemurs exhibit neither sexual dimorphism nor sexual dichromatism , and females have three pairs of mammary glands .
Ruffed lemurs are characterized by their long , canine @-@ like muzzle , which includes a significant overbite . The face is mostly black , with furry " ruffs " running from the ears to the neck . Depending on the species , these ruffs are either white ( V. variegata ) or deep reddish ( V. rubra ) . Likewise , the coloration of the fluffy fur also varies by species , while the coloration pattern varies by subspecies in the black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur . There are also intermediates in color variation between the two species .
As with all lemurs , the ruffed lemur has special adaptations for grooming , including a toilet @-@ claw on its second toe , and a toothcomb .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Ruffed lemurs are considered arboreal quadrupeds , with the most common type of movement being above @-@ branch quadrupedalism . While in the canopy leaping , vertical clinging , and suspensory behavior , are also common , while bridging , bimanual movement , and bipedalism are infrequently seen . When moving from tree to tree , ruffed lemurs will look over the shoulder while clinging , launch themselves into the air , and twist mid @-@ air so that their ventral surface lands on the new tree or limb . Suspensory behavior is more common in ruffed lemurs than in other lemur species . When ruffed lemurs come down to the ground , they continue to move quadrupedally , running with bounding hops and the tail held high .
= = Ecology = =
Being highly arboreal and the most frugivorous of the lemurs , they thrive only in primary forest with large fruiting trees , where they spend most of their time in the upper canopy . By spending the majority of their time in the crown of tall forest trees , they are relatively safe from predators such as the fossa .
Ruffed lemurs are active primarily during the day ( diurnal ) , during which time they feed primarily on fruits and nectar , often adopting suspensory postures while feeding . The seeds of the fruit they eat pass through their digestive tract and are propagated throughout the rainforests in their feces , helping to ensure new plant growth and a healthy forest ecosystem . These lemurs are also significant pollinators of the traveller 's tree ( Ravenala madagascariensis ) . Without destroying the inflorescence , they lick the nectar from deep inside the flower using their long muzzles and tongues , collecting and transferring pollen on their snouts and fur from plant to plant . This relationship is thought to be a result of co @-@ evolution .
= = = Geographic range and habitat = = =
Like all lemurs , this genus is found only on the island of Madagascar off the southeastern coast of Africa . Confined to the island 's seasonal eastern tropical rainforests , it is uncommon to rare throughout its range , which historically ran from the Masoala Peninsula in the northeast to the Mananara River in the south . Today , the black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur has a much larger range than the red ruffed lemur , although it is very patchy , extending from slightly northwest of Maroantsetra , on Antongil Bay , in the north down the coast to the Mananara River near Vangaindrano in the south . Additionally , a concentrated population of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs , of the subspecies Varecia variegata subcincta , can also be found on the island reserve of Nosy Mangabe in Antongil Bay . It is suspected that this population was introduced to the island in the 1930s . The red ruffed lemur , on the other hand , has a very restricted range on the Masoala Peninsula .
Historically , the confluence of the Vohimara and Antainambalana Rivers may have been a zone of hybridization between these two species , although no conclusive results have indicated current interbreeding . In general , the Antainambalana River appears to isolate the red ruffed lemurs from the neighboring subspecies of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , V. v. subcincta . The subspecies V. v. variegata can be found further south , and V. v. editorum is the southernmost subspecies . The ranges of these two southern subspecies overlap and intermediate forms are reported to exist , although this has not been confirmed .
The rainforests in which these animals live are seasonal , with two primary seasons : the hot , wet season ( November through April ) , and the cool , dry season ( May through October ) . The primary habitat for both species , at any season , is in the crowns of trees , where they spend the majority of their time 15 and 25 m ( 49 and 82 ft ) above ground . With the seasonal availability of resources being similar regardless of location , there is little to no difference in tree usage between species . From September through April , more fruit is available , so females prefer the lianas in the crowns of trees . Both sexes prefer the lower , major branches during the hot , rainy season . The tree crowns are predominantly used from May through August , when young leaves and flowers are in abundance .
= = = Sympatric relations = = =
The following lemur species can be found within the same geographic range as ruffed lemurs :
Greater dwarf lemur ( Cheirogaleus major )
Eastern lesser bamboo lemur ( Hapalemur griseus griseus )
Weasel sportive lemur ( Lepilemur mustelinus )
Diademed sifaka ( Propithecus diadema )
Common brown lemur ( Eulemur fulvus )
Red @-@ bellied lemur ( Eulemur rubriventer )
Eastern woolly lemur ( Avahi laniger )
Indri ( Indri indri )
Brown mouse lemur ( Microcebus rufus )
Aye @-@ aye ( Daubentonia madagascariensis )
White @-@ headed lemur ( Eulemur albifrons )
Ruffed lemurs either demonstrate feeding dominance or divide resources by using different forest strata . They are dominant over red @-@ bellied lemurs , while eastern lesser bamboo lemurs avoid encountering them altogether . White @-@ headed lemurs , on the other hand , prefer the understory and lower canopy , below 15 m ( 49 ft ) , while the ruffed lemurs mainly keep to the upper canopy , above 15 m ( 49 ft ) . Play has even been observed between infant ruffed lemurs and white @-@ headed lemurs .
= = Behavior = =
Ruffed lemurs , on average , spend 28 % of the day feeding , 53 % resting , and 19 % traveling , although differences in resting and feeding durations have been observed between males and females , with females resting less and feeding more . They are diurnal ; although peak activity occurs during the early morning and late afternoon or evening , resting usually occurs around midday . When resting , ruffed lemurs often sit hunched or upright . They are also frequently seen lying prone over a branch or sunbathing in a supine position with the limbs outstretched . When feeding , they will often hang upside @-@ down by their hind feet , a type of suspensory behavior , which allows them to reach fruits and flowers .
Being highly arboreal , they spend the majority of their time in the high canopy throughout the day . Ruffed lemurs spend the majority of their time between 15 to 20 m ( 49 to 66 ft ) above the forest floor , followed by 20 to 25 metres ( 66 to 82 ft ) up , and are least frequently seen at 10 to 15 metres ( 33 to 49 ft ) . During the hot season , they will relocate to the lower canopy to help regulate their body temperature . In the cold season , ruffed lemurs are least active and may dedicate 2 % of their resting time to sunbathing in order to warm up .
Long @-@ term field research has shown that range size , group size , social systems , and territorial behavior vary widely , and may be greatly affected by food distribution and quality . It is generally agreed that the ruffed lemur social system is multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female with a fission @-@ fusion society , although some populations of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur have been reported as monogamous . This social flexibility is suspected to improve survivability despite an inflexible feeding ecology .
= = = Diet = = =
Being the most frugivorous members of the family Lemuridae , consuming an average of 74 β 90 % fruit , ruffed lemurs also consume nectar ( 4 β 21 % ) , and supplement the rest of their diet with young leaves ( 3 β 6 % ) , mature leaves ( 1 % ) , flowers ( 3 β 6 % ) , and some seeds . Ruffed lemurs have also been reported to come to the ground to eat fungi and exhibit geophagy .
The majority of their diet is made up of relatively few common plant species , with a few species providing more than 50 % of the diet . Fig species of the genus Ficus , for example , account for 78 % of the fruit consumed by red ruffed lemurs on the Masoala Peninsula . Although plant species and diets vary by location , the most common food plants reported from the field include the following :
Canarium
Cryptocarya
Ocotea
Ravensara ( family Lauraceae )
Ficus
Eugenia / Syzygium
Grewia
Fruit trees do not appear to be selected by species , but by availability and accessibility of edible fruit . And despite predominance of a few plant species in the ruffed lemur diet , the remainder of their diet consists of between 80 and 132 other species from 36 plant families .
The availability of food reflects the seasonal nature of the forests in which they live . During the hot season , fruit , flowers , and young leaves are more abundant , whereas the cold , wet season offers more young leaves and flowers . Despite this , the diet changes little between seasons , except that females will consume more high @-@ protein , low @-@ fiber items , such as young leaves and flowers , during pregnancy and lactation in order to offset the energy costs of reproduction . Nectar is only available sporadically , yet constitutes a major food source when the flowers bloom . The nectar of the traveller 's palm ( Ravenala madagascariensis ) is a favorite among ruffed lemurs .
= = = Social systems = = =
The social organization of ruffed lemurs is widely variable in both group organization and group composition , although no notable difference can be seen between the two species . Ruffed lemurs are typically described as multi @-@ male groups with a fission @-@ fusion social structure , although this can vary by season and locality .
In a study done at Masoala Peninsula on red ruffed lemurs three levels of organization were identified and defined : communities , core groups , and subgroups . Communities are individuals that affiliated regularly with each other , but rarely with conspecifics outside of the community . Although the entire multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female community lives within a discrete home range , all individuals are never seen in the same location at the same time . Instead , individuals form dispersed social networks , known as core groups , within the community . Core groups are individuals that shared the same core area within a community territory throughout the year . Core groups typically consist of two reproductive females , as well as reproductive males and subadults , ranging in size from two individuals to nine . Females within the groups are cooperative , but male encounters are often agonistic . Subgroups , on the other hand , vary daily in size , composition , and duration , and consist of associated individuals from either the same core group or different core groups , depending on the season . It is from the consistent , daily changes in these subgroups that occur throughout the year , as well as the seasonal formations of core groups in core areas , that demonstrate the fission @-@ fusion nature of ruffed lemur social structure .
In another study done at Nosy Mangabe on black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs a fourth level or organization was defined : affiliates . Affiliates were individuals with more persistent social bonds and more frequent interactions , usually within a core group , but sometimes also between core groups within a subgroup . Adult females typically had many affiliates , whereas adult males rarely interacted with conspecifics , living a more solitary existence .
Past studies have reported other social organizations in ruffed lemurs including monogamous pair bonding . This may have been due to the use of short @-@ term , seasonal field studies instead of yearlong studies that take into consideration the effects that changing seasons have on ruffed lemur communities . For instance , during the cold , rainy season , which corresponds with the breeding season , interactions between core groups within a community are significantly reduced . During this time small subgroups form consisting of a mature female , a mature male , and sometimes offspring . This can be misinterpreted as monogamous pair bonding .
Ranging behavior can also exhibit seasonal variability . During the hot , wet season , females range widely , either alone or in groups of up to six individuals . In the cool , dry season , smaller core groups stabilize in order to occupy concentrated areas . Therefore , during seasons when fruit is abundant , subgroups are larger while scarcity is met with more solitary behavior . This suggests that although their feeding ecology is inflexible , being tied to widely distributed , patchy , and sometimes scarce fruit , ruffed lemurs instead adapt the social system in order to survive .
In terms of dominance , the ruffed lemur 's social structure is not as clear @-@ cut as other lemur societies where female dominance is the norm . Although it is historically reported that " males were subordinate to females , " especially with captive and free @-@ ranging ruffed lemur populations demonstrating this , wild populations cannot be definitively labeled as matriarchal due to inter @-@ group variation .
There are also social differences between males and females . Females typically have many affiliates and bond strongly with other females both within and outside their core areas , but do not affiliate with individuals outside the community range , except during mating season . Males , on the other hand , are more solitary , interact with only a couple of conspecifics , have weak social bonds with other males , and rarely associate with others outside their core group . Furthermore , field studies suggest that only females play a role in communal home range defense . Males may scent @-@ mark and remain relatively silent , but otherwise show little involvement during disputes .
Community range or territory size can vary widely , from 16 to 197 ha ( 0 @.@ 16 to 2 @.@ 0 km2 ; 0 @.@ 062 to 0 @.@ 76 sq mi ) while group size can range from a single pair to 31 individuals . Population density is also noticeably variable . These wide ranges can be attributed to differing levels of protection and degree of environmental degradation , with better protection and a less degraded environment resulting in higher population density and more moderately sized community ranges . ( The duration and seasonality of the studies involved may also have contributed to low group size estimates and community ranges . A study at the Betampona Reserve , for instance , observed monogamous pairs with two to five infants maintaining ranges of 16 to 43 ha ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 43 km2 ; 0 @.@ 062 to 0 @.@ 17 sq mi ) . ) Core areas at Ambatonikonilahy constituted approximately 10 % of the overall community range and showed a close relationship with the location of the largest fruiting trees .
The average daily traveling distance for ruffed lemurs varies between 436 to 2 @,@ 250 metres ( 1 @,@ 430 to 7 @,@ 382 ft ) , averaging 1 @,@ 129 metres ( 3 @,@ 704 ft ) per day . Activity patterns within the community range vary by gender and season . Males generally stay within a core area all year , whereas females only confine themselves to a core area during the cold wet season , then expand their range throughout the community range during the hot , rainy season . Females expand their traveling range slightly after giving birth , still staying within the core area , but gradually range further in December when they begin stashing their infants with other community members while they look for food . Females range the furthest later during the hot , rainy season . Both activity level and reproductive activity can be summarized in the following table .
Although males demonstrate little involvement in territorial disputes between neighboring communities , and ruffed lemur communities lack cohesiveness , females communally defend the community range against females of other communities . These disputes occur mostly during the hot , rainy season , when resources are more abundant and occur near the boundaries of community ranges . Spacing is maintained by scent marking and vocal communication . Ruffed lemurs are known for their loud , raucous calls that are answered by neighboring communities and subgroups within the same community .
During agonistic encounters between communities , chasing , scent @-@ marking , calling , and occasional physical contact can be seen . Other social behaviors appear to vary between wild and captive ruffed lemurs , as illustrated by the following table .
Some affiliative behaviors are seasonal or gender @-@ specific , such as the male squeal approach and anogenital inspections performed during the mating season . Another example is the female greeting behavior , where two females will use their anogenital scent glands to mark each other 's backs , jump over one another , writhe together , and emit squealing vocalizations . This behavior is not seen during the end of the cool , dry season or around gestation . The frequency of other affiliative behaviors can be affected by age . All ruffed lemurs over five months of age allogroom , and , in captivity , subadults participate in play more frequently than adults .
= = = Cognitive abilities = = =
Historically , relatively few studies of learning and cognition have been performed on strepsirrhine primates , including ruffed lemurs . However , a study at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve demonstrated that ruffed lemurs , along with several other members of the family Lemuridae , could understand the outcome of simple arithmetic operations .
= = = Communication = = =
= = = = Olfactory communication = = = =
As with all strepsirrhine primates , olfactory communication is used extensively by ruffed lemurs β scent marking in territorial defense and disputes , as well as female greeting displays . The scents communicate the sex , location , and identity of their owner .
Females predominantly scent mark with their anogenital scent glands , by squatting to rub their anogenital region along horizontal surfaces , such as tree limbs . Males , on the other hand , favor using the glands on their neck , muzzle , and chest , by embracing horizontal and vertical surfaces and rubbing themselves over them . Both sexes will occasionally scent mark in ways characteristic of the opposite sex .
In greeting displays , female ruffed lemurs will leap over one another , scent marking the other individual 's back in the process .
= = = = Auditory communication = = = =
Ruffed lemurs are highly vocal , with an extensive vocal repertoire with calls being used in multiple contexts . Calls can also vary seasonally . During the hot , rainy season , the loud , raucous calls that are a hallmark of ruffed lemurs allow groups to remain in contact and maintain spacing . These loud calls can be heard up to 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) away .
Ruffed lemurs use alarm calls that differentiate between ground and aerial predators . For instance an abrupt roar or huff alerts the group to an avian predator , and a pulsed squawk or growl @-@ snort communicates the existence of a mammalian ground predator . When sounding these calls , such as the pulsed squawk , adults direct them at the predator after moving to a safe position . Once the alarm call is sounded by one individual , the resulting chorus can even reach the furthest ranging community members .
In captivity , ruffed lemur vocalizations have been studied and divided into three general groups : high- , medium- , and low @-@ amplitude calls .
The well @-@ known roar / shriek chorus is spontaneous , occurring most often during period of high activity , as well as being contagious , involving communal participation including infants three to four months old . Abrupt roars are also more common during high activity and aside from alerting group members to the presence of an avian predator , they probably also help maintain contact with individuals outside of visual range or indicate an aggressive / defensive response to a disturbance . In the wild , both of these calls are emitted more during the hot , rainy season due to heighten activity . All high @-@ amplitude calls are delivered with from a " taut " body posture .
Medium @-@ amplitude calls operate over a shorter range or often involve moderately arousing situations , such as frustration or submission . Low @-@ amplitude calls also generally operate over a short range , yet also cover a wider range of aggravation levels .
Whines are highly variable between individual ruffed lemurs . Cough , grumble , squeak , and squeal have only been observed and researched in the wild .
The calls of ruffed lemurs vary only slightly between the two species . In fact , in captivity , it has been documented that red ruffed lemurs understand and even join in the alarm calls of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs . One minor difference between the vocal repertoires of these two species is in the pulse rate and frequency of the pulsed squawk , which is much faster and higher in red ruffed lemurs than in black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs . The difference in this vocalization is only interspecific , showing no signs of significant sexual dimorphism within each species .
In black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs , pulsed squawks sometimes slow down as the group calms down , and integrate with the wail , creating pulsed squawk @-@ wail intermediates listen .
= = = Breeding and reproduction = = =
Contrary to initial reports of monogamy , ruffed lemurs in the wild exhibit seasonal polygamous breeding behavior , with both males and females mating with more than one partner within a single season . Mating is not restricted to just community members , but also involves members of neighboring communities . Females mate primarily with males with whom they had affiliative relations prior to mating season , although some matings occurred with roaming males from other communities .
Shortly before mating season begins , females exhibit swelling of the sex skin , which reaches its peak around the middle of their 14 @.@ 8 day estrous cycle . Male sexual physiology also undergoes its own change , with testicular volume increasing during mating season , peaking around the time of breeding . Aggression also increases during the mating season , both between members of the same sex and by females towards the male attempting to mate with her . Females have been observed grappling , cuffing , and biting the male during copulation . Either sex may approach the other when the female is in estrus . Initially they may roar @-@ shriek with each other . When a male approaches a female he often lowers his head and squeals , inspecting the female 's genitalia by licking or sniffing , scent @-@ marking , and offering a submissive chattering vocalization . When a female approaches a male , she may posture herself for mounting . Mating pairs often copulate many times during the course of a mating bout .
The mating season lasts from May through July , during the cold , rainy season , resulting in birth and peak lactation coinciding with the time that fruit is the most plentiful . The gestation period of ruffed lemurs is the shortest of the family Lemuridae , averaging 102 days ( with a range of 90 to 106 days ) . Gestation in the wild last slightly longer than in captivity , averaging 106 days . Just like the mating season , parturition is also seasonal , synchronized to the end of the cold , dry season and the start of the productive hot , rainy season .
In addition to an abnormally short gestation period , ruffed lemurs share another feature with small , nocturnal lemurs by producing the largest litters of the family Lemuridae . Litters typically include two or three infants , although up to five have been reported . Birth weights in captivity average between 83 to 101 @.@ 7 g ( 2 @.@ 93 to 3 @.@ 59 oz ) and range from 70 to 140 grams ( 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 9 oz ) . Ruffed lemur infants are altricial , and are born with their eyes open and a full coat of fur .
Ruffed lemurs are the only known primates to build arboreal nests , used exclusively for birth and for the first week or two of life . Starting three weeks prior to birth , females begin constructing the nest from twigs , branches , leaves , and vines , locating it within her core area and 10 to 25 metres ( 33 to 82 ft ) above ground . The nests have only one apparent entry point , and are shallow and dish @-@ shaped . During the first couple of weeks , the mother is mostly solitary and does not travel far from the nest , spending as much as 70 β 90 % of her time with the newborns ( in captivity ) . In order to find food , she will leave the infants alone in the nest or , after the first couple of weeks , will carry them in her mouth and stash them in concealed locations in the canopy while she forages . Since this early developmental period corresponds with the end of the cold , dry season , which offers the least amount of fruit , energy is conserved for lactation while travel is limited . As the hot , rainy season begins , fruit availability rises , lactation demands rise as well , and females increase their travel distance in search of food .
Unlike other diurnal primates , which usually carry their infants with them , ruffed lemur mothers will stash their young by concealing them in the canopy foliage , leaving them to rest and sit quietly for several hours while she forages and performs other activities . Mothers continue to transport their offspring by mouth , moving them one at a time by grasping the infant 's belly crosswise . This form of transport usually stops around 2 @.@ 5 months of age when the infants become too heavy to carry .
Ruffed lemurs are cooperative breeders , with parental care being shared by all community members . For example , mothers will stash their offspring with other mothers or leave them to be guarded by other community members , including non @-@ breeding individuals of both genders . While the mother is away , community members will not only care for and guard them , but also sound alarm calls if danger is detected or if leaving the infant alone . They will also respond to alarm calls by others . These coordinated vigilance displays further involve communal transmission of the alarm call , with nearby community members repeating the alarm call , potentially summoning the mother back to her offspring . Infant transport by other members of the community has also been recorded . Females have been observed nursing infants of their close relatives , while close kin have adopted rejected infants , acting as foster parents .
Male care for infants has been documented in ruffed lemur societies . During early development , adult males may guard the nests of multiple core group females , as well as help care for the infants that were likely fathered by other males . During the season when females practice infant stashing , males effectively lighten the reproductive burden of up to several mothers by guarding , huddling , grooming , travelling , playing with and feeding the young .
Female ruffed lemurs produce relatively rich milk compared to other lemurs , and consequently , their young develop faster than those of other lemurs . Infants develop rapidly , attaining approximately 70 β 75 % adult weight by the age of four months . They begin climbing and clinging at one month of age , advancing to the point of independently following their mother and group members through the canopy at heights of 50 to 100 metres ( 160 to 330 ft ) by two to three months . Full adult mobility is attained at three to four months of age . Socially , they begin exchanging contact calls with their mother at three weeks , and select their mother as their play partner 75 β 80 % of the time during the first three months . Participation in greeting displays and more extensive vocalizations commences around four months , while scent marking does not start until six months of age . Infants begin testing solid food starting around 40 days to two months with weaning occurring between four and six months in the wild , although some individuals have continued to nurse until seven to eight months .
Infant mortality is often high among ruffed lemurs , but can also be highly variable . In some seasons , as many as 65 % are unable to reach three months of age , possibly due to falls and related injuries , although in some seasons infant mortality is as low as 0 % . For those that do survive to adulthood , sexual maturity is attained at 18 to 20 months in females and 32 to 48 months in males . Sexual maturity may take longer to reach in the wild compared to captivity . For females , the inter @-@ birth interval , or time between successive offspring , is typically one year , and in captivity , females can remain reproductively active until the age of 23 . The life expectancy for both species of ruffed lemur is estimated at 36 years in captivity .
= = Conservation status = =
In a land where approximately 90 % of the original island forest has been destroyed , ruffed lemurs cling to only a small fraction of their original range . Completely dependent upon large fruiting trees , neither species appears to be flexible with its habitat choice , with selective logging resulting in significantly lower population densities . Although they can survive in very disturbed habitats with lower population densities , they are still especially vulnerable to habitat disturbance . Decreased genetic diversity , in tandem with hunting , natural disasters , predation , and disease , can easily wipe out small populations .
The black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur was elevated by the IUCN to critically endangered ( A2cd ) status from endangered status in 2008 . They cite that " the species is believed to have undergone a decline of 80 % over a period of 27 years , due primarily to a decline in area and quality of habitat within the known range of the species and due to levels of exploitation . " The total area of all known localities in which black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs exist is estimated at less than 8 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 100 sq mi ) , while the total wild population is estimated between 1 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 .
The red ruffed lemur was downgraded to endangered status from critically endangered status by the IUCN in 2008 . The justification given includes its limited range , its restriction to only the Masoala Peninsula , and its risk from ongoing habitat loss and hunting . This species occupies a range of no more than 4 @,@ 000 km2 ( 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ) , while the total wild population is estimated between 29 @,@ 000 and 52 @,@ 000 individuals . Red ruffed lemurs are only protected within the boundaries of the Masoala National Park . Historically , this species has been considered more threatened due to its highly restricted range , compared to the widely distributed black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur . However , its protection within the island 's largest national park has slightly improved its chances at survival . Despite this , an assessment done in 2012 and published in 2014 reinstated the critically endangered status for the red ruffed lemur , largely due to the surge in illegal logging in Masoala National Park following the 2009 Malagasy political crisis .
There are several organizations involved in ruffed lemur conservation , including the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust , the Lemur Conservation Foundation ( LCF ) , the Madagascar Fauna Group ( MFG ) , Monkeyland Primate Sanctuary in South Africa , Wildlife Trust , and the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) . To conservation organizations , the ruffed lemurs are considered indicator , umbrella , and flagship species .
= = = Threats in the wild = = =
As with other primates , one of the principal threats to both ruffed lemur species is habitat loss due to slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , logging , and mining . Both species appear to be very sensitive to logging , and are thought to be the most vulnerable of rainforest lemurs . The hardwoods that are favored for construction materials and selectively logged are also preferred by ruffed lemurs for their fruits and potentially affect their travel routes through the canopy . Deforestation , on the other hand , is a result of the need to provide firewood and to support subsistence agriculture and cash crops . For red ruffed lemurs , Slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , known locally as tavy , is practiced seasonally on the Masoala peninsula between October and December , and its practice is expanding . Additionally , cattle are sometimes allowed to free @-@ range over these former agricultural clearings , preventing forest re @-@ growth .
Another principal threat to the survival of ruffed lemurs is hunting . Local human populations still hunt and trap ruffed lemurs with traditional weapons , using them as a source of subsistence . Studies from villages in the Makira Forest have revealed that ruffed lemur meat is not only a desired food , but is being hunted unsustainably . On the Masoala peninsula , the calls of red ruffed lemurs help hunters locate them . On this peninsula , firearms are used in addition to traditional traps , known as laly , which involve a 5 metres ( 16 ft ) strip of cleared forest with snares set on the few remaining branches that allow the lemurs to cross . Although hunting is illegal , the laws are generally not enforced and the local inhabitants show little concern about their hunting practices , which occur mostly from May to September . Hunting is the biggest concern in the Masoala peninsula because it is likely to continue , whereas logging and slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture could be curtailed . In other regions , hunters can scare away ruffed lemurs from their favorite food sources , even if they are hunting other prey . Lastly , these animals are taken from their natural habitats to display for tourists or are sold as exotic pets .
Frequent cyclones also pose a threat , particularly to concentrated or small populations . In late January 1997 , Cyclone Gretelle destroyed 80 % of the Manombo forest canopy . With their habitat , including most of their food resources , effectively destroyed , the ruffed lemurs of the forest broadened their diet , remaining surprisingly frugivorous . Their body weights dropped and no births were reported for four years , but they managed to stave off starvation . This event demonstrated not only their flexibility in the face of natural disasters , which may highlight the evolutionary reasons behind their reproductive capacity and litter size , but also the threat faced by already stressed populations .
Predation in the wild appears to be very rare for ruffed lemurs , probably because living in the high canopy makes them challenging to catch . Evidence of predation by raptors , such as the Henst 's goshawk ( Accipiter henstii ) suggests it occurs at a low rate . The fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) could present a potential risk if it found an individual lower in the forest canopy , but no confirmation has been presented to indicate that they prey upon ruffed lemurs . Instead , only re @-@ introduced , captive @-@ bred ruffed lemurs have been killed by fossa , likely due to their inexperience with predators . Nesting behavior poses the biggest risk of predation , making them susceptible to carnivorous mammals , such as the ring @-@ tailed mongoose ( Galidia elegans ) and brown @-@ tailed mongoose ( Salanoia concolor ) .
= = = Captive breeding and reintroductions = = =
Captive populations of both ruffed lemur species exist in American and European zoos , representing a safeguard against extinction . In the United States , captive breeding is managed by the Species Survival Plan ( SSP ) , a program developed by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums ( AZA ) . Although the populations are very limited in their genetic diversity , these species thrive in captivity , making them an ideal candidate for reintroduction into protected habitat , if it is available . Although reintroduction is seen as a last resort among conservationists , a combination of in situ conservation efforts , such as legal protection , public education , the spread of sustainable livelihoods , and reforestation offer hope for ruffed lemurs . In the meantime , reintroductions offer conservation research opportunities and allow the limited genetic diversity maintained by the SSP to improve the genetic diversity of dwindling Malagasy ruffed lemur populations .
A captive release first occurred in November 1997 , when five black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs ( Varecia variegata variegata ) born in the United States were returned to Madagascar for release in the Betampona Strict Nature Reserve in eastern Madagascar . Popularly known as the Carolina Five , these individuals had lived their entire lives in the Natural Habitat Enclosures at the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) . Since then , two more groups totaling 13 captive @-@ born ruffed lemurs have been reintroduced into the same reserve , once in November 1998 and again in January 2001 . These latter two groups also received " boot camp training " in the DLC forested free @-@ range enclosures prior to release . So far , the results have shown some success , with 10 surviving longer than one year , 3 individuals integrating into wild groups , and 4 offspring have been born to or sired by released lemurs , all of which were parent @-@ raised . Saraph , a male released with the first group , was reported to be doing well seven years post @-@ release , living in a social group with a wild female and their offspring . Research has been ongoing since the initial release , as illustrated in the 1998 BBC documentary In the Wild : Operation Lemur with John Cleese . The research has provided useful information about their adaptation to life in the wild .
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= Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Georgia =
The effects of Hurricane Dennis in Georgia included two deaths and $ 24 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage . On June 29 , 2005 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa . Gradually , the system organized on July 2 and formed a broad low pressure area . The system continued to organize , and it became a tropical depression on July 4 . Tracking westward , it became a tropical storm on July 5 and a hurricane on July 7 . Dennis rapidly intensified to attain Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale before making landfall on Cuba . The storm weakened to Category 1 status before re @-@ emerging in the Gulf of Mexico and intensifying . Dennis made landfall on the Florida Panhandle on July 10 , then tracked over southeast Alabama .
Dennis had moderate effects in the state , primarily from flooding . One rainband in particular stalled in southwest portions of the state and produced 4 β 8 inches ( 100 β 200 mm ) of rain , with isolated reports of up to 12 inches ( 300 mm ) . Flash flooding occurred in several areas , damaging hundreds of homes and businesses . Light to moderate wind gusts of 42 miles per hour ( 68 km / h ) combined with saturated ground downed several trees , one of which fell into a house , killing a man near Atlanta . A man also died while working with utility crews to restore power . One tornado was reported , downing 200 trees .
= = Preparations = =
In anticipation of the storm , the National Weather Service placed much of central , north and western Georgia under a flood watch . A wind advisory was also in effect for Clayton , Cobb , DeKalb and Fulton Counties . As the hurricane 's outer rainbands approached the state , a tornado watch was put into effect for central portions of the state . The Red Cross provided 80 shelters in the state , in addition to hundreds of volunteers . Due to large evacuations in the state , construction projects on Interstates 75 , 85 , and 185 , were postponed .
= = Flooding = =
Damage from Hurricane Dennis in Georgia was mostly minor to moderate . Moderate to heavy rainfall began on July 10 and persisted into the morning hours of July 11 . One rainband in particular stalled in southwest portions of the state and produced 4 β 8 inches ( 100 β 200 mm ) of rain , with isolated reports of up to 12 inches ( 300 mm ) . Flash flooding occurred in Colquitt County , flooding the Okapilco Creek which damaged numerous homes , washed out several roads , and forced people from more than 100 homes to evacuate . Minor flooding occurred along the Flint and Withlacoochee River basins with a few homes affected by high water . In Worth County , a total of 300 homes were evacuated due to rising flood water , with 80 homes being flooded . In Dougherty County , dozens of homes and businesses in lost electric power . Additionally , flooding was confined to both sides of State Highway 82 near the Worth County border . Fishpond Drain in Seminole County flooded with several homes surrounded by rising water . A dam burst caused a torrent of water to overwash a road in Tift County , Georgia . Several rescues were required , particularly in Douglas and Cobb counties .
In Baldwin County , torrential rainfall and flooding led to the collapse of a fitness center ; two employees were injured . In Carroll County , more than 20 roads were either washed out or damaged by raging flood waters . A man in Upson County sustained injuries when he drove onto a washed @-@ out road . His vehicle was subsequently swept down the creek .
Georgia State Route 279 was also flooded over with more than one foot ( 300 mm ) of water . The Lamar County Emergency Management Director reported that several dirt roads in the county were flooded and some were washed out . De Kalb County had many of its streams and creeks surpass flood stage , causing minor damage to businesses and homes . Spalding County also reported 15 roads with extensive flooding damage . Fourteen mobile homes in Clayton County were damaged beyond repair by the flooding ; 52 residents were evacuated . In Riverdale , several homes were flooded , although damage was generally limited to the basements of the homes . In Fayette County , the historic Starrs Mill was inundated , and water rose to the bridge level on McDonough Road . There was also a dam breach on Lake Fowler , causing $ 300 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) in damage .
One of the worst @-@ hit areas was Douglas County , where rainfall reached 10 in ( 250 mm ) . Ten roads in the county required major repair and seven others were flooded and closed for some period of time . 42 trailer homes were either submerged or heavily damaged by flood waters , and six homes sustained minor damage from flood waters . A car dealership was also flooded , damaging about 100 used cars and 20 β 30 new cars . Damage across the county was placed as $ 6 million ( 2005 USD ) . There were unofficial reports that Kings Highway between Interstate 20 southwest of Douglasville and Fouts Mill was flooded . Minor structural damage occurred as up to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of rain fell in the county .
An apartment building in Cherokee County received extensive damage from flooding , forcing the evacuation of its residents by boat . Water was up to the first floor level of many of the apartments of the complex . Also , businesses and hotels were flooded along Interstate 575 near Georgia State Route 92 . About 15 homes suffered severe damage in the area . The Noonday Creek reached a record stage of 16 @.@ 3 ft ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) feet at 1200 UTC , exceeding the previous record stage of 13 @.@ 8 ft ( 4 @.@ 2 m ) feet on September 17 , 2004 during Hurricane Ivan . At least one road in the county was closed due to high waters . Damage in Cherokee County was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( 2005 USD ) , primarily from damage to the apartment building .
In Worth County , 78 people were displaced by the flooding . A total of 300 homes were evacuated and 80 damaged by the flood waters , causing $ 1 @.@ 8 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage . $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage was also reported in Colquitt County due to the flooding of several homes and businesses . In total , over 100 buildings had to be evacuated .
= = Wind damage = =
The highest winds associated with the storm occurred at Albany , and were clocked at 42 miles per hour ( 68 km / h ) . The lowest barometric pressure also occurred at Albany , dropping to 1007 @.@ 5 mb . A large number counties in western parts of the state reported downed trees and powerlines , with widespread power outages across the region . In Decatur , a man was killed when a large tree fell onto his bedroom . Near the city of Atlanta , there were closures on two major interstate highways due to high water ; at least one bridge was closed south of the city . Also , a tractor trailer overturned on a two @-@ lane road , sending the driver to the hospital and closing the road for several hours . In total , about 55 @,@ 000 customers lost electricity , with 38 @,@ 000 of them being from the Atlanta area . A man also died while working with utility crews to restore power . Also , a large tree fell on a woman 's house , trapping her . Emergency crews managed to safely remove her , although damage to her home was extensive .
A large structure in Bartow County was significantly damaged by wind gusts , causing almost $ 10 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) in damage . In Douglas County , a tree fell on a car on Interstate 20 causing damage to the vehicle , although no injuries were reported . In another incident , a tree was blown onto a home on Campbellton Street , causing damage to the structure . Several trees and power lines down in Fulton County , with the worst damage in the southwest portions of the county . Several of trees were also down in the Roswell area . The Roswell Cat Clinic was forced to close when a large tree damaged the facility . Also , a home in North Atlanta was damaged when a large oak tree fell on its deck . U.S. Route 100 had to be closed for a brief period because of downed trees in Hall County . In all , wind damage totaled up to $ 246 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) .
= = Tornadoes = =
The White County Emergency Management Director reported that an F0 tornado touched down in the southwest corner of White County near the Hall County line at the Wauka Valley Farms area , which formed on the tail end of a feeder band associated with the remnants of Hurricane Dennis . The tornado path width was estimated to be approximately 1 / 8 to 1 / 4 mile wide . Significant damage was reported at the Wauka Valley Farms facility . Hundreds of trees were uprooted , and two barns were completely destroyed . One structure sustained room damage and a number of trees and power lines were also down along Town Creek road . Overall , in excess of 200 trees were down in the southwest part of the county .
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= Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) =
" Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " is a song by the rock band U2 and the tenth track from their 1991 album Achtung Baby . Ostensibly about love and dependency , the song also lends itself to religious interpretations , with listeners finding allusions to the Book of Job and writers finding spiritual meaning in its invocation of the light spectrum .
The song 's composition and recording incorporate both serious and throwaway elements , in keeping with the rest of Achtung Baby . While not released as a single , the song has appeared in two films and a U2 business venture was named after it . " Ultraviolet " played a featured role during the encores of the group 's 1992 β 1993 Zoo TV and 2009 β 2011 U2 360 Β° Tours .
= = Recording = =
" Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " began as two different demos , one variously called " Ultraviolet " and " 69 " ( which eventually evolved into the B @-@ side " Lady with the Spinning Head " ) and an alternately arranged demo called " Light My Way " . Over the course of the recording sessions , U2 added various overdubs to the song , but producer Brian Eno believed these additions negatively impacted the track . Eno aided the group in editing down the song , and he explained his assistance as such : " I 'd go in and say , ' The song has gone , whatever it is you liked about this song is not there anymore . Sometimes , for example , the song would have disappeared under layers of overdubs . "
= = Composition and interpretation = =
" Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " is written in a 4 / 4 time signature . The lyrics of " Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " are addressed to a lover , and imply that their relationship is threatened by some sort of personal or spiritual crisis , coupled with a sense of unease over obligations . Indeed , lead vocalist Bono has called the song " a little disturbed " .
The song opens with 45 seconds of soft synthesizers and ethereal vocals , somewhat akin in atmospherics to the group 's early 1980s songs " Tomorrow " and " Drowning Man " ; during this , Bono laments that " sometimes I feel like checking out . " This is followed by the entrance of drums and guitar in a familiar U2 rhythm , as Bono describes the burdens of love and how he is " in the black ; can 't see or be seen . " Each verse culminates with the refrain " Baby , baby , baby , light my way . " Flood , who engineered and mixed the recording , noted that there was considerable laughter and debate during the sessions about whether Bono could get away with singing the repeated " baby " s , one of the most heavily @-@ used clichΓ©s in pop songs and one that he had avoided up to that point in his songwriting ; Flood later commented that " he got away with it alright . "
Although the song is ostensibly about love and dependency , like many U2 songs , it also lends itself to religious interpretations . Listeners have heard an allusion to the Book of Job 29 : 2 β 3 and its tale of God serving as a lamp upon Job 's head walking through the darkness . Robyn Brothers suggests that ultraviolet light is " a metaphor for a divine force both unseen to the naked eye and ultimately unknowable to the human intellect . " Conversely , Steve Stockman , author of Walk On : The Spiritual Journey Of U2 , sees " Ultraviolet " as being about Bono 's wife Ali Hewson , and " how when he feels like trash , she makes him clean , " but says there is good reason to interpret the song as being just as much about God . The song 's title supports this view : indigo and violet rarely appear in song lyrics as frequently as other colours , while ultraviolet represents an unseen wavelength beyond the visible spectrum .
As such , the title evokes the image of black light or an invisible force permeating the darkness , whose connotations are spiritual and personal , as well as technological , reflecting themes of modern alienation explored elsewhere on Achtung Baby and its follow @-@ up album , Zooropa . Dianne Ebertt Beeaff , author of A Grand Madness : Ten Years on the Road with U2 , sees the song 's narrator as longing for assistance from any source , religious or secular : " This is a real plea , a bleary worn @-@ down drained wish to disappear . A drowning man desperate to hold hands in the darkness , to have someone else point the way , to be safe and obscure . " Atara Stein sees " Ultraviolet " as one of several selections on the album in which the protagonist in crisis has elevated his lover into an object of worship , desperate for her to " return to her initial role as his guide and salvation . "
" Ultraviolet " is also one of several songs Bono has written on the theme of woman as spirit , and it echoes the band 's 1980 song " Shadows and Tall Trees " by juxtaposing love with the image of ceilings . A line in Raymond Carver 's late 1980s poem " Suspenders " , about the quiet that comes into a house where no one can sleep , was subconsciously recycled by Bono into the lyric . In Achtung Baby 's running order , " Ultraviolet " serves , with the other two songs at the album 's end , " Acrobat " and " Love Is Blindness " , to explore how couples face the task of reconciling the suffering they have imposed on each other .
The song features a Motown sound @-@ style " telegraph key " rhythm , which gave it the feeling of a pop song . This and the " baby , baby " refrain gave the song a throwaway quality that fit in with Achtung Baby 's mission of deconstructing U2 's image . Paradoxically , the arrangement also featured U2 's 1980s " repeato @-@ riff " guitar style and the rest of the lyric was a serious love song that dealt with themes of anxiety and despair . Bono has described " Ultraviolet " as " an epic U2 song [ but ] the key of it left my voice in a conversational place and allowed a different kind of lyric writing . " Producer Eno wrote that a combination of opposites within each song was a signature characteristic of Achtung Baby and that as part of that , " Ultraviolet " had a " helicopterish melancholy " . In Achtung Baby 's album package , " Ultraviolet " is presented next to a photograph of a crumbling Berlin building that has a Trabant parked in front of it .
= = Reception = =
Rolling Stone noted that " Ultraviolet " was one of the album 's songs that hearkened more to the group 's past than their new sound , saying that Edge 's " soaring peals on [ it ] are instantly recognizable " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that compared to much of the album 's grim depictions of personal relations , " Ultraviolet " depicts love as a haven . In contrast , U2 write John Jobling sees " Ultraviolet " as continuing the album 's theme of " two people tearing each other apart " , despite its " spectral pop " arrangement .
The Boston Globe heard echoes of The Rolling Stones ' 1966 song " Out of Time " in the chorus of " Ultraviolet " . Entertainment Weekly called it the album 's highlight , " where Bono 's soaring voice and the Edge 's pointillistic guitar meld to create one of those uplifting moments we listen to U2 for " . Cedarville University literature professor Scott Calhoun says of one lyrical portion of " Ultraviolet " , " That 's so evocative and works as beautiful writing away from the music . It can stand on its own on the page and , of course , it 's even more effective when accompanied by the music . "
Other writers were less enthusiastic . Q magazine felt that the song was weak and that " Bono falls back on his old habit of trying to be ' inspirational ' by banging up the heat from simmer to meltdown between the verse and chorus . " U2 chroniclers Bill Graham and Caroline van Oosten de Boer also see the song as a throwback to the group 's earlier sound , but say that " the band doesn 't sufficiently develop the initial idea to warrant the five minutes of ' Ultra Violet ' " .
While " Ultraviolet " was not released as a single , it was used in a scene in the 2006 Adam Sandler film Click , and was featured in the 2007 film The Diving Bell and the Butterfly .
The name Ultra Violet was also given to one of U2 's improvised mid @-@ 1990s business initiatives , a joint merchandising venture with MCA Inc . ' s Winterland division ; the partnership soon dissolved , but not before producing several hundred thousand pairs of Bono " Fly " glasses .
= = Live performances = =
" Ultraviolet " is unusual in that the band has only ever played it in concert as part of an encore , usually preceding " With or Without You " . It was first performed at Lakeland Arena in Lakeland , Florida on 29 February 1992 at the start of the Zoo TV Tour , and it remained a staple of the band 's set lists for the first four legs of the tour , often preceded by a prank call by Bono as his alter @-@ egos Mirror Ball Man or Mr. MacPhisto . The Edge played the song on his Gibson Explorer . It was staged with silver @-@ and @-@ mauve lights thrown against two glitter balls , causing light fragments to swirl around the audience , and with lasers flashing in quick rhythms . Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone characterised its essence as " desperately searching " and said that it helped transition the Zoo TV show towards an ambiguous , introspective conclusion . It became writer Beeaff 's favourite live song on the tour , with Bono 's intense , unrestrained singing producing a strong communal energy ; she singled out the March 1992 Hampton Coliseum show as one in which Bono 's fervent performance approached the point of emotional breakdown and generated " a transcendent and draining experience for everyone . " Although acknowledging the song is an " epic ... with some gorgeous aspects " , Edge has said the song is unwieldy to play live . During Zoo TV , almost all of the numbers from Achtung Baby ( and the rest of the set list ) were augmented by sequencers to fill out the sound ; on " Ultraviolet " , under @-@ the @-@ stage keyboard tech Des Broadberry playing a sampled guitar figure in the background during Edge 's solo parts . Its last performance as part of the tour was on 28 August 1993 in Dublin , after which the song was retired and did not appear on any of U2 's next three subsequent tours ( PopMart , Elevation , and Vertigo ) .
The song was revived a decade and a half later with the launch of the U2 360 Β° Tour on 30 June 2009 in Barcelona , where it was once again performed as part of the encore . It was introduced by a robotic voice reading excerpts from the poem " Funeral Blues " by W. H. Auden , followed by Bono 's appearance wearing a laser @-@ studded jacket on a darkened stage illuminated only by a glowing steering wheel @-@ shaped microphone that hangs from above . During the performance , Bono would alternatively embrace or hang from the microphone , or twirl around it , or swing it overhead to emphasize the lyrics . The New York Times said its use as " a love song that can double as devotional " helped keep the show 's music and messages in balance , while the Chicago Tribune said that Bono sang the song with fervor as part of an encore during which " the show 's outsized ambitions produced a neon @-@ lighted moment that nearly justified the costly enterprise . " Rolling Stone called the song 's performance " one of the show 's highpoints . " " Ultraviolet " continued to be performed during the encore throughout the first two legs of the tour , with minor changes such as the use of a different introduction .
The band also played the song during its television appearance on Saturday Night Live on 26 September 2009 . In an appearance that avoided both their recent singles and best @-@ known hits , " Ultraviolet " was played as the group 's third number , in full 360 Β° Tour staging style as the show 's end credits ran by .
= = Covers = =
The Killers reworked the song for the 2011 tribute album AHK @-@ toong BAY @-@ bi Covered . " Achtung Baby was U2 's ' Holy shit ! ' moment , " remarked drummer Ronnie Vannucci , Jr . " I was in high school when it came out and we 'd drive around in my friend 's mom 's car and rock that shit all the time . When we were asked to record a cover , ' Ultraviolet ' was a unanimous choice . It 's reassuring to know that we 're still on the same page after all these years . We brought it back to its bare bones , dumbed it down a little , took it back to the rock song underneath . "
The beginning of the song was also sampled by Enigma in their 1994 song " The Eyes of Truth " .
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= December 1992 nor 'easter =
The December 1992 nor 'easter produced record high tides and snowfall across the northeastern United States . It developed as a low pressure area on December 10 over Virginia , and for two days it remained over the Mid @-@ Atlantic states before moving offshore . In Maryland , the snowfall unofficially reached 48 in ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) ; if verified , the total would have been the highest in the state 's history . About 120 @,@ 000 people were left without power in the state due to high winds . Along the Maryland coast , the storm was less severe than the Perfect Storm in the previous year , although the strongest portion of the storm remained over New Jersey for several days . In the state , winds reached 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Cape May , and tides peaked at 10 @.@ 4 ft ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) in Perth Amboy . The combination of high tides and 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) waves caused the most significant flooding in the state since the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962 . Several highways and portions of the New York City Subway and Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson systems were closed due to the storm . Throughout New Jersey , the nor 'easter damaged about 3 @,@ 200 homes and caused an estimated $ 750 million in damage ( 1992 USD ) .
The nor 'easter increased tides across the northeastern United States for several days due to its slow movement . In New York City , tides reached 8 @.@ 04 ft ( 2 @.@ 45 m ) at Battery Park , which flooded Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive . Along Long Island , the nor 'easter destroyed over 130 homes and left 454 @,@ 000 people without power . In New England , 230 @,@ 684 people lost power during the storm . Five houses were destroyed in Massachusetts , and flooding reached 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep in Boston . Further inland , the storm produced significant snowfall , estimated at around 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in The Berkshires . The high snow totals closed schools for a week in western Massachusetts . Overall , the storm caused between $ 1 β 2 billion in damage ( 1992 USD ) and 19 deaths , of which four were directly related to the storm . In March of the following year , the Storm of the Century caused worse damage across a larger region of the eastern United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
A storm complex moved eastward from the Texas coast into Georgia on December 9 . On December 9 , the National Weather Service ( NWS ) issued a coastal flood watch in anticipation of the developing storm . On December 10 , an upper @-@ level trough was located along the East Coast of the United States . At around 1200 UTC that day , cyclogenesis β the development of an low pressure area β occurred over southeastern Virginia . The cyclone moved quickly northward through the Chesapeake Bay until reaching a position just west of Chestertown , Maryland on December 11 . By that time , the system had intensified to a pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) , while the parent trough extended from Maryland through the New York metropolitan area to around Cape Cod . On December 11 , the NWS issued gale warnings and advised for boats to avoid the ocean . The storm turned to the southeast and briefly stalled near Georgetown , Delaware . This was due to a high pressure area north of Maine halting its motion . The interaction between the two systems produced strong easterly winds from Virginia to New England . The nor 'easter finally moved offshore on December 12 , and later that day passed to the southeast of Long Island .
= = Impact = =
The storm affected a large region of the northeastern United States from West Virginia to Massachusetts with heavy snowfall , sleet , rain , and high winds . The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention attributed four deaths to the nor 'easter , but only included those directly related ; the agency did not include storm @-@ induced traffic accidents or heart attacks . The National Climatic Data Center reported 19 deaths related to the nor 'easter , although news reports shortly after the storm reported 20 deaths . Overall damage was estimated between $ 1 β 2 billion ( 1992 USD ) , mostly in New England .
The storm 's widespread snowfall ranked it as the equivalence of a Category 2 , or " significant " , on the Regional Snowfall Index scale .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
In the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia , the nor 'easter dropped over 30 in ( 760 mm ) of snow . Officials restricted travel on roads to emergency vehicles only in the state 's two easternmost counties . In the state , the storm left 15 @,@ 000 people without power . In northern Virginia , 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of snow stranded 2 @,@ 500 people in Winchester . In western Maryland , snowfall totals unofficially reached 42 in ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) in Garrett County . If verified , the total would have been the highest snowfall amount in the state 's history . High winds produced up to 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) snow drifts , which stranded trucks on Interstate 68 . High winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving 120 @,@ 000 people across the state without power , including some without any heat . At least 10 people required rescue from their homes . In the Washington Metropolitan Area , the mixture of rain and snow caused hundreds of traffic accidents .
The nor 'easter struck about 14 months after the 1991 Perfect Storm produced similarly high tides across the region , and only 11 months after another nor 'easter in January 1992 . In Wilmington , North Carolina , the storm dropped 1 @.@ 79 in ( 45 mm ) of rainfall , which broke the daily rainfall record set in 1888 . High tides damaged much of the dune system along the Assateague Island National Seashore and about a third of the newly installed dunes in Ocean City , Maryland . Along the Maryland coast , the storm dropped heavy rainfall , with a total of 2 @.@ 90 in ( 74 mm ) in Salisbury ; the high rains flooded local streams . At Assateague National Seashore , wind gusts peaked at 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) . The storm struck shortly after a full moon , and the combination of high tides and waves breached dunes in some locations . Despite its longevity , the nor 'easter was less severe than its predecessors along the Delaware Bay , mostly because the stronger northeast quadrant was over the coastline for one tidal cycle , and the predominant southeast winds were blocked by Cape Henlopen . However , there were still high tides and flooding along the Delaware Bay . In Lewes , the nor 'easter produced a high tide of 6 @.@ 33 ft ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) , which at the time was the seventh highest on record . High tides continued in Delaware until December 15 . Several days of high tides caused minor beach erosion and damaged dune systems . In Dewey Beach , there was property damage from coastal flooding . The storm produced significantly more rainfall than the storm in January 1992 , including a total of 3 @.@ 12 in ( 79 mm ) in Wilmington , Delaware . A station in New Castle County reported a record 24 β hour rainfall total of 3 @.@ 25 in ( 83 mm ) . The rains caused flooding and the third highest discharge on record at Duck Creek in Smyrna . Wind in Delaware peaked at 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) at a station along the Indian River . Further north along the Delaware River , a high tide of 7 @.@ 69 ft ( 2 @.@ 34 m ) was reported in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . High winds in the city broke the steeple of a church , and the resulting debris briefly closed the Ben Franklin Bridge . Hurricane @-@ force wind gusts left about 160 @,@ 000 residents without power . Heavy snowfall spread across the state , reaching 37 in ( 940 mm ) . State College reported a total of 18 @.@ 1 in ( 460 mm ) , which contributed to its snowiest December on record .
In contrast to Delaware and Maryland , the strong northeast portion of the nor 'easter affected New Jersey for several days , producing strong winds and record high tides . Wind gusts reached 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Cape May , which were the strongest winds in association with the storm . Sustained winds were around 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) in the region . High winds in Atlantic City destroyed the windows of storefronts . Along the Jersey coast , the nor 'easter produced waves of up to 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in height . About 25 mi ( 40 km ) offshore Long Branch , waves reached heights of 44 ft ( 13 m ) . In South Jersey , the storm surge struck the coast near low tide , which restricted flooding . The highest tide in South Jersey was 7 @.@ 89 ft ( 2 @.@ 40 m ) in Ocean City , which broke the previous record of 7 @.@ 53 ft ( 2 @.@ 30 m ) set in 1984 . Further north , the surge coincided with several days of high tides and a lunar tide , causing significant flooding and beach erosion . The highest tide was 10 @.@ 4 ft ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) in Perth Amboy along the Raritan River , which broke the record set in 1960 . In many locations , the storm produced the highest tides since the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962 . The storm also dropped rainfall across the state , peaking at 3 @.@ 80 in ( 97 mm ) in Morristown , along with gusts peaking at 58 mph ( 93 kph ) at Morristown Municipal Airport . The rainfall caused higher discharge rates along rivers . The storm also produced high snowfall totals , including 14 in ( 360 mm ) in Sussex County . Throughout the coastline , the cost to replace the lost beach from erosion was estimated at $ 300 million ( 1992 USD ) .
Most of the impact in New Jersey was from the high tides , which caused the worst flooding in 30 years in some locations . In Hoboken , high tides flooded portions of the New York City Subway and Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson systems , leaving them closed for a few days . High tides destroyed portions of the boardwalks in Bradley Beach and Belmar , and also destroyed a century @-@ old fishing pier in Ocean Grove . Flooding closed portions of roads across North Jersey , including the Garden State Parkway near Cheesequake State Park and six state highways . At Newark International Airport , dozens of flights were canceled . The storm left 102 @,@ 000 customers of Jersey Central Power & Light without power . Damage to short circuits caused house fires in Monmouth County . Damage was heaviest near Raritan , Newark , and Sandy Hook along Raritan Bay . High winds in Jersey City destroyed the roof of an apartment ; the debris struck and killed a woman walking along a nearby sidewalk . Throughout the state , the nor 'easter damaged about 3 @,@ 200 homes , primarily in Monmouth and Ocean counties , and caused an estimated $ 750 million in damage ( 1992 USD ) . Then @-@ governor Jim Florio declared a state of emergency and activated the New Jersey National Guard . About 19 @,@ 000 people were evacuated in six towns in Monmouth County . Statewide , about 2 @,@ 000 people in 20 towns had to be evacuated by helicopter or National Guard truck . The American Red Cross opened at least 30 shelters across the state , housing over 5 @,@ 000 people affected by floods or lack of heat . Damage in the state was less than the nor 'easter of 1962 due to 30 years of disaster mitigation , including beach replenishment , dune construction , and improved building codes .
= = = New York and New England = = =
Before the storm 's circulation passed the New York area , its associated trough produced sustained easterly winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) along Long Island . Wind gusts reached 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) at LaGuardia Airport . The strong easterly winds produced high tides in the region that increased gradually after three consecutive tidal cycles ; this was due to the nor 'easter 's slow movement . There was a storm surge of about 3 ft ( 1 m ) at Battery Park at the southern end of Manhattan . The same station reported a high tide of 8 @.@ 04 ft ( 2 @.@ 45 m ) above sea level , which was high enough to surpass the sea walls for a few hours . The ensuing flooding submerged portions of Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive to about 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep . At least 50 cars were stuck , and some drivers required rescue . Low @-@ lying neighborhoods of New York City were also flooded . High waves canceled ferry service to Staten Island . A power outage closed the New York City subway system for about five hours . The highest tide in Long Island was 11 @.@ 27 ft ( 3 @.@ 44 m ) at Willets Point , Queens . The tides and flooding decreased after the winds shifted to the north , ending on December 14 . High tides canceled ferry service to Fire Island , and the only bridge onto the island was closed to all but emergency personnel and homeowners . High waves washed away dunes and severely eroded beaches along the island , destroying over 100 summer homes . On nearby Westhampton Beach , 30 homes were destroyed , and about 100 houses were isolated due to two new inlets created during the storm . Flooding closed all three bridges connecting Long Beach Island to the mainland . Flooding up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) forced about 3 @,@ 000 people to evacuate from one village on northern Long Island . About 700 homes were damaged in Bayville along the north coast . High winds downed trees and power lines , leaving more than 454 @,@ 000 Long Island Lighting Company customers without power . In Mamaroneck to the northeast of New York City , a man drowned after being swept away by floodwaters . In the Albany area , where the storm was known as the Downslope Nor 'easter , there was little snow accumulation during the storm 's closest approach due to above freezing temperatures . After the storm moved by the region and the winds shifted to the north , about 6 in ( 150 mm ) fell in the city . To the west of Albany in the Helderberg Escarpment and the Catskill Mountains , snowfall totals reached 39 in ( 990 mm ) . Heavy snowfall spread across the state , including a total of 14 in ( 360 mm ) in Niagara Falls .
In New England , local TV stations named the storm Beth . Across the region , the Northeast Utilities power company reported that 230 @,@ 684 customers lost electricity during the storm , although all outages were restored within three days . In Connecticut , the nor 'easter produced a storm surge of about 3 ft ( 1 m ) , and a high tide of 7 @.@ 2 ft ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) was reported in Bridgeport . This was the highest tide since Hurricane Carol in 1954 . The rising tides killed one man in the state , and there was also one fatality in neighboring Rhode Island . Along Cape Cod , 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) waves eroded beaches , and evacuations were recommended in two cities . The storm destroyed four houses on Nantucket and one in Plymouth . During the storm , more than 20 pilot whales were beached along the cape , of which seven died . Boston reported a peak tide of 9 @.@ 35 ft ( 2 @.@ 85 m ) , which was 1 @.@ 05 ft ( 0 @.@ 32 m ) less than the record set in 1978 . The high tides caused up to 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of flooding . The nor 'easter produced 27 in ( 690 mm ) of snowfall in a 24 period to the west of the city . Further west , snowfall totals reached around 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in The Berkshires , which created 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) snow drifts . The high accumulations closed schools for a week in the Berkshires , and the cities required National Guard assistance to remove the snow . To the west of the Berkshires , strong east winds prevented significant snow accumulation in valleys . High tides extended as far north as Portland , Maine , which reported a peak of 7 @.@ 71 ft ( 2 @.@ 35 m ) .
= = Aftermath = =
On December 17 , President George H. W. Bush declared three Connecticut counties as disaster areas . The next day , the president declared 12 New Jersey counties as disaster areas , including all of the counties along the Atlantic coast . The declaration allowed for $ 46 million in relief for public damages and $ 265 million for insured damage in the state . On December 21 , the president declared 9 Massachusetts counties and 5 New York counties as disaster areas . On January 15 , 1993 , Sussex County , Delaware was also declared a disaster area . Across the nor 'easter 's path , 25 @,@ 142 people received assistance from Federal Emergency Management Agency , equating to $ 346 @,@ 150 @,@ 356 in federal aid . Only three months after the nor 'easter struck , another nor 'easter caused more severe damage across a larger region of the eastern United States . The March nor 'easter , known as the Storm of the Century , killed 310 people and left over $ 1 @.@ 5 billion in damage ( 1993 USD ) .
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= Madonna in the Church =
Madonna in the Church ( or The Virgin in the Church ) is a small oil panel by the early Netherlandish painter Jan van Eyck . Probably executed between c . 1438 β 40 , it depicts the Virgin Mary holding the Child Jesus in a Gothic cathedral . Mary is presented as Queen of Heaven wearing a jewel @-@ studded crown , cradling a playful child Christ who gazes at her and grips the hem of her red dress in a manner that recalls the 13th @-@ century Byzantine tradition of the Eleusa icon ( Virgin of Tenderness ) . Tracery in the arch at the rear of the nave contains wooden carvings depicting episodes from Mary 's life , while a faux bois sculpture in a niche shows her holding the child in a similar pose . Erwin Panofsky sees the painting composed as if the main figures in the panel are intended to be the sculptures come to life . In a doorway to the right , two angels sing psalms from a hymn book . Like other Byzantine depictions of the Madonna , van Eyck depicts a monumental Mary , unrealistically large compared to her surroundings . The panel contains closely observed beams of light flooding through the cathedral 's windows . It illuminates the interior before culminating in two pools on the floor . The light has symbolic significance , alluding simultaneously to Mary 's virginal purity and God 's ethereal presence .
Most art historians see the panel as the left wing of a dismantled diptych ; presumably its opposite wing was a votive portrait . Near @-@ contemporary copies by the Master of 1499 and Jan Gossaert pair it with two very different right @-@ hand images : one is of a donor kneeling in an interior setting ; the other is set outdoors , with the donor being presented by St Anthony . Both painters made significant alterations to van Eyck 's composition , which may have brought the image more up to date with contemporary styles , but the copies have been described as " spiritually if not aesthetically disastrous to the original concept " .
Madonna in the Church was first documented in 1851 . Since then its dating and attribution have been widely debated amongst scholars . At first thought an early work by Jan van Eyck , and for a period attributed to his brother Hubert van Eyck , it is now definitively attributed to Jan and believed to be a later work , demonstrating techniques present in work from the mid @-@ 1430s and later . The panel was acquired for the Berlin GemΓ€ldegalerie in 1874 . It was stolen in 1877 and soon returned , but without its original inscribed frame , which was never recovered . Today Madonna in the Church is widely considered one of van Eyck 's finest ; Millard Meiss wrote that its " splendor and subtlety of [ its depiction ] of light is unsurpassed in Western art . "
= = Attribution and dating = =
The attribution of the panel reflects the progression and trends of 19th and 20th @-@ century scholarship on Early Netherlandish art . It is now thought to have been completed c . 1438 β 40 , but there are still arguments for dates as early as 1424 β 29 . As with the pages ascribed to Hand G in the Turin @-@ Milan Hours manuscript , the panel was attributed to Jan 's brother Hubert van Eyck in the 1875 GemΓ€ldegalerie catalogue , and by a 1911 claim by art historian Georges Hulin de Loo . This is no longer considered credible and Hubert , today , is credited with very few works . By 1912 the painting had been definitively attributed to Jan in the museum catalogue .
Attempts to date it have undergone similar shifts of opinion . In the 19th century the panel was believed to be an early work by Jan completed as early as c . 1410 , although this view changed as scholarship progressed . In the early 20th century , Ludwig von Baldass placed it around 1424 β 29 , then for a long period it was seen as originating from the early 1430s . Erwin Panofsky provided the first detailed treatise on the work and placed it around 1432 β 34 . However , following research from Meyer Schapiro , he revised his opinion to the late 1430s in the 1953 edition of his Early Netherlandish Painting . A 1970s comparative study of van Eyck 's 1437 Saint Barbara concluded that Madonna in the Church was completed after c . 1437 . In the 1990s , Otto PΓ€cht judged the work as probably a late van Eyck , given the similar treatment of an interior in the 1434 Arnolfini Portrait . In the early 21st century , Jeffrey Chipps Smith and John Oliver Hand placed it between 1426 and 1428 , claiming it as perhaps the earliest extant signed work confirmed as by Jan.
= = The panel = =
= = = Description = = =
At 31 cm Γ 14 cm , the painting 's dimensions are small enough to be almost considered miniature , consistent with most 15th @-@ century devotional diptychs . A reduced size increased portability and affordability , and encouraged the viewer to approach the piece to more closely see its intricate details . The work shows Mary wearing a dark blue robe β the colour traditionally used to emphasise her humanity β over a red dress of different textured fabrics . Her hem is embroidered in gold with gilded lettering that reads " SOL " and " LU " , or perhaps SIOR SOLE HEC ES , in all probability , fragments of the Latin words for " sun " ( sole ) and " light " ( lux ) . On her head is an elaborately tiered and jeweled crown and in her arms she carries the infant Jesus , his feet resting on her left hand . Swaddled in a white cloth from hips trailing down beyond his feet , his hand rests on her neckline clutching the jeweled hem of his mother 's dress .
Further depictions of Mary are found in the church background . They include a statue of the Virgin and Child positioned between two lit candles in the choir screen behind the main figures , and to the right two angels stand in the choir singing her praises ( perhaps singing the hymn inscribed on the frame ) . Above her is an annunciation relief , and in the recessed bay a relief depicting her coronation ; the crucifixion is shown on the rood . Thus , the stages of Mary 's life as mother of Jesus are depicted in the painting . A two @-@ column prayer tablet β similar to the one depicted in Rogier van der Weyden 's large Seven Sacraments Altarpiece ( 1445 β 50 ) β hangs on a pier to the left . It contains words alluding to and echoing the lines on the original frame . The windows of the clerestory overlook flying buttresses , and cobwebs are visible between the arches of the vault . Several different building phases can be seen in the arched gallery , while the choral balcony and transept are depicted in a more contemporary style than the nave .
Closely detailed beams of light spill through the high windows and illuminate the interior , filling the portal and flowing across the tiled floors before it hits the clerestory windows . The brilliance of the daylight is juxtaposed with the gentle glow of the candles in the choir screen altar , while the lower portion of the pictorial space is relatively poorly lit . Shadows cast by the cathedral can be seen across the choir steps and near aisle . Their angle is rendered in an unusually realistic manner for early 15th century , and the detail is such that their description is likely based on observation of the actual behaviour of light , a further innovation in 15th @-@ century art . Yet while the light is portrayed as it might appear in nature , its source is not . Panofsky notes that the sunlight enters from the north windows , but contemporary churches normally had east @-@ facing choirs , so the light should enter from the south . He suggests the light is not intended to be natural , but rather to represent the divine , and hence subject to " the laws of symbolism and not those of nature . "
= = = Frame and inscriptions = = =
According to Elisabeth Dhanens , the shape and rounded top of the original frame is reminiscent of those found on the top register of panels of the Ghent altarpiece , which are accepted as designed by Jan 's brother Hubert . She believes the current frame is too narrow and small , and contains " clumsy marbling " . From a detailed 1851 inventory , we know the text of the hymn inscribed on original frame . The text is written in a poetic form and begun on the lower border and then extended upwards on the vertical borders , ending on the top border . The lower border of the frame read FLOS FLORIOLORUM APPELLARIS ; the sides and top MATER HEC EST FILIA PATER EST NATUS QUIS AUDIVIT TALIA DEUS HOMO NATUS ETCET ( " The mother is the daughter . This father is born . Who has heard of such a thing ? God born a man " ) . The fifth stanza of the hymn ( not included in van Eyck 's transcription ) reads , " As the sunbeam through the glass . Passeth but not staineth . Thus , the Virgin , as she was . Virgin still remaineth . " The lettering on the hem of her robe echoes the inscription on the frame , words similar to those found on Mary 's dress in van Eyck 's 1436 Virgin and Child with Canon van der Paele , a passage from the Book of Wisdom ( 7 : 29 ) reading EST ENIM HAEC SPECIOSIOR SOLE ET SUPER OMNEM STELLARUM DISPOSITIONEM . LUCI CONPARATA INVENITUR PRIOR ( " For she is more beautiful than the sun , and excels every constellation of the stars . Compared with the light she is found to be superior " ) .
Some historians have suggested that the inscriptions were intended to breathe life into the other statues and depictions of Mary . Others , including Craig Harbison , believe they were purely functional ; given that contemporary diptychs were commissioned for private devotion and reflection , the inscriptions were meant to be read as an incantation or were personalised indulgence prayers . Harbison notes that van Eyck 's privately commissioned works are unusually heavily inscribed with prayer , and that the words may have served a similar function to prayer tablets , or more exactly " Prayer Wings " , of the type seen in the reconstructed London Virgin and Child triptych .
= = = Architecture = = =
Van Eyck 's earlier work often shows churches and cathedrals in older Romanesque style , sometimes to represent the Temple in Jerusalem as an appropriate historical setting , with decoration drawn exclusively from the Old Testament . That is clearly not the case here β the Christ Child occupies the same space as a large rood cross depicting him being crucified . The church in this panel is contemporary Gothic β a choice perhaps intended to associate Mary with the Ecclesia Triumphans β while her pose and oversized scale are indebted to the forms and conventions of Byzantine art and the International Gothic . Van Eyck details the architecture with a precision not seen before in northern European painting .
The different elements of the cathedral are so specifically detailed and the elements of Gothic and contemporary architecture so well delineated , that art and architecture historians have concluded that van Eyck must have had enough architectural knowledge to make nuanced distinctions . More so , given the finesse of the descriptions , many scholars have tried to link the painting with a particular building . Yet , and as with all buildings in van Eyck 's work , the structure is imagined and probably an idealised formation of what he viewed as a perfect architectural space . This is evident from a number of features that would be unlikely in a contemporary church , such as the placing of a round arched triforium above a pointed colonnade .
Several art historians have reasoned why van Eyck did not model the interior on any actual building . Most agree that he sought to create an ideal and perfect space for Mary 's apparition , and aimed for visual impact rather than physical possibility . Buildings suggested as possible ( at least partial ) sources include Saint Nicholas ' Church , Ghent , the Basilica of St Denis , Dijon Cathedral , Liège Cathedral and Cologne Cathedral , as well as the basilica of Our Lady in Tongeren , which contains a very similar triforium gallery and clerestory . Tongeren is one of a minority of churches in the region aligned on a north @-@ east to south @-@ west axis , so that the lighting conditions in the painting can be seen on summer mornings . In addition , the church contains a standing statue of the Virgin and Child ( the Virgin with a tall crown ) , once credited with miraculous powers , though the current statue post @-@ dates van Eyck .
PΓ€cht described the work in terms of an " interior illusion " , noting the manner in which the viewer 's eye falls across the nave , the crossing , but " only then , [ is he ] looking through and over the rood screen , the choir . " From this PΓ€cht views the perspective as deliberately lacking cohesion , as " the relationship between the parts of the building is not shown in full ... The transition from foreground to background is ingeniously masked by the figure of the Madonna herself , who obscures the crossing pier ; the middle ground is practically eliminated and our eye crosses over it without our becoming aware of it . " The illusion is enhanced by the use of colour to suggest light : the interior is dim and in shadow while the unseen exterior seems bathed in bright light .
= = = Windows and stained glass = = =
Unusual for a 13th @-@ century Gothic cathedral , most of the windows are of clear glass . Looking at the windows running along the nave , John L. Ward observed that the window directly above the suspended crucifix is the only one whose uppermost portion is visible . That window directly faces the viewer , revealing intricately designed stained glass panels that show intertwined red and blue flowers . Because the window is so far back in the pictorial space , where perspective is becoming faint , the proximity of the flowers to the crucifix lends them the appearance of coming " forward in space , as if [ they ] had suddenly grown from the top of the crucifix in front of it . "
Ward does not believe this a trick of the eye resulting from loss of perspective towards the high reaches of the panel . Instead he sees it as a subtle reference to the iconography and mythology of the Book of Genesis ' Tree of life , which he describes here as " reborn in Christ 's death " . He does acknowledge the subtlety of the illusion , and the fact that neither of the two well known near copies include the motif . The idea of flowers shown as if sprouting from the top of the cross may have been borrowed from Masaccio 's c . 1426 Crucifixion , where flowers are placed on the upper portion of the vertical beam of the cross . Ward concludes than van Eyck took the idea even further by showing the flowers emanating from another source , and sought to depict the actual moment where the tree of life is reborn and " the cross comes to life and sprouts flowers as one watches " .
= = Interpretation and iconography = =
= = = Light = = =
In the early 15th century , Mary held a central position in Christian iconography and was often portrayed as the one in whom the " Word was made flesh " , a direct result of the work of the divine light . During the medieval period , light acted as a visual symbol for both the immaculate conception and Christ 's birth ; it was believed that he was made manifest by God 's light passing through Mary 's body , just as light shines through a window pane .
The divine represented by light is a motif in keeping with the sentiment of both the Latin text on the hem of Mary 's dress ( which compares her beauty and radiance to that of divine light ) and on the frame . A separate source of light , which also behaves as if from a divine rather than natural source , illuminates her face . The two pools of light behind her have been described as lending the painting a mystical atmosphere , indicating the presence of God . In the niche behind her , the statues are lit by two candles - symbols of the incarnation , whereas she is bathed in natural light . The artificial light adds to the overall illusion of the interior of the church , which PΓ€cht views as achieved mainly through colour .
Light became a popular means for 15th @-@ century Northern painters to represent the mystery of the Incarnation , utilising the idea of light passing through glass without shattering it to convey the paradox of conception and " virgo intacta " . This is reflected in a passage attributed to Bernard of Clairvaux from his " Sermones de Diversis " ; " Just as the brilliance of the sun fills and penetrates a glass window without damaging it , and pierces its solid form with imperceptible subtlety , neither hurting it when entering nor destroying it when emerging : thus the word of God , the splendor of the Father , entered the virgin chamber and then came forth from the closed womb . "
Before the early Netherlandish period , divine light was not well described : if a painter wanted to depict heavenly radiance , he typically painted an object in reflective gold . There was a focus on describing the object itself rather than the effect of the light as it fell across it . Van Eyck was one of the first to portray light 's saturation , illuminating effects and gradations as it poured across the pictorial space . He detailed how an object 's colour could vary depending on the amount and type of light illuminating it . This play of light is evident across the panel , and especially seen on Mary 's gilded dress and jewelled crown , across her hair and on her mantle .
= = = Eleusa icon = = =
The panel is , with the Antwerp Madonna at the Fountain , broadly accepted as one of van Eyck 's two late " Madonna and Child " paintings before his death in about 1441 . Both show a standing Virgin dressed in blue . In both works , Mary 's positioning and colourisation contrasts with his earlier surviving treatments of the subject , in which she was typically seated and dressed in red . Models for standing Virgins existed in the icons of Byzantine art , and both paintings also represent modified versions of the eleusa type , sometimes called the Virgin of Tenderness in English , where the Virgin and Child touch cheeks , and the child caresses Mary 's face .
During the 14th and 15th centuries , a large number of these works were imported into northern Europe , and were widely copied by the first generation of Netherlandish artists , among others . The iconography of both the late Byzantine β typified by the unknown artist responsible for the Cambrai Madonna β and 14th @-@ century successors such as Giotto favoured presenting the Madonna on a monumental scale . Undoubtedly van Eyck absorbed these influences , though when and through which works is disputed . It is believed that he had first @-@ hand exposure to them during his visit to Italy , which occurred either in 1426 or 1428 , before the Cambrai icon was brought to the North . Van Eyck 's two Madonna panels carried forward the habit of reproduction and were themselves frequently copied by commercial workshops throughout the 15th century .
It is possible that the Byzantine flavour to these images was also connected with contemporary attempts through diplomacy to achieve reconciliation with the Greek Orthodox Church , in which van Eyck 's patron Philip the Good took a keen interest . Van Eyck 's Portrait of Cardinal NiccolΓ² Albergati ( c . 1431 ) depicts one of the papal diplomats most involved with these efforts .
= = = Mary as the Church = = =
Van Eyck gives Mary three roles : Mother of Christ , the personification of the " Ecclesia Triumphans " and Queen of Heaven , the latter apparent from her jewel @-@ studded crown . The painting 's near miniature size contrasts with Mary 's unrealistically large stature compared with her setting . She physically dominates the cathedral ; her head is almost level with the approximately sixty feet high gallery . This distortion of scale is found in a number of other van Eyck 's Madonna paintings , where the arches of the mostly gothic interior do not allow headroom for the virgin . PΓ€cht describes the interior as a " throne room " , which envelopes her as if a " carrying case " . Her monumental stature reflects a tradition reaching back to an Italo @-@ Byzantine type β perhaps best known through Giotto 's Ognissanti Madonna ( c . 1310 ) β and emphasises her identification with the cathedral itself . Till @-@ Holger Borchert says that van Eyck did not paint her as " the Madonna in a church " , but instead as metaphor , presenting Mary " as the Church " . This idea that her size represents her embodiment as the church was first suggested by Erwin Panofsky in 1941 . Art historians in the 19th century , who thought the work was executed early in van Eyck 's career , attributed her scale as the mistake of a relatively immature painter .
The composition is today seen as deliberate , and opposite to both his Madonna of Chancellor Rolin and Arnolfini Portrait . These works show interiors seemingly too small to contain the figures , a device van Eyck used to create and emphasise an intimate space shared by donor and saint . The Virgin 's height recalls his Annunciation of 1434 β 36 , although in that composition there are no architectural fittings to give a clear scale to the building . Perhaps reflecting the view of a " relatively immature painter " , a copy of the Annunciation by Joos van Cleve shows Mary at a more realistic proportion scale to her surroundings .
Mary is presented as a Marian apparition ; in this case she probably appears before a donor , who would have been kneeling in prayer in the now lost opposite panel . The idea of a saint appearing before laity was common in Northern art of the period , and is also represented in van Eyck 's Virgin and Child with Canon van der Paele ( 1434 β 36 ) . There , the Canon is portrayed as if having just momentarily paused to reflect on a passage from his hand @-@ held bible as the Virgin and Child with two saints appear before him , as if embodiments of his prayer .
= = = Pilgrimage = = =
As a prayer tablet placed on a pier was a distinctive trait of pilgrimage churches , Harbison sees the panel as partly concerned with the phenomenon of pilgrimage . This type of tablet contained specific prayers whose recitation in front of a particular image or in the church was believed to attract an indulgence , or remission of time in Purgatory . The statue of the Virgin and Child in the niche behind Mary 's left shoulder might represent such an image , whereas the inscription of a Nativity hymn around the lost frame , ending in ETCET , i.e. " etcetera " , would have told the viewer to recite the whole hymn , perhaps for an indulgence . The purpose of the picture , therefore , may have been to represent and bring the act of pilgrimage to a domestic setting . This would have been attractive to Philip the Good who , though he made many pilgrimages in person , is recorded as paying van Eyck to perform one on his behalf in 1426 , apparently an acceptable practice in Late Medieval celestial accounting .
The Virgin and Child at the forefront might represent the background statues coming to life ; at the time such an apparition was considered the highest form of pilgrimage experience . Their poses are similar and her tall crown is typical of those seen on statues rather than either royalty or painted figures of the Virgin . Harbison further suggests that the two pools of light on the floor echo the two candles on either side of one of the statues , and notes that the copies described below retain the prayer tablet , one bringing it nearer to the foreground .
= = Lost diptych and copies = =
Most art historians believe that there are a number of indicators that the panel was the left @-@ hand wing of a dismantled diptych . The frame contains clasps , implying it was once hinged to a second panel . The work seems composed to be symmetrically balanced towards an accompanying right @-@ hand wing : Mary is positioned slightly to the right of centre , while her downward , almost coy glance is directed at a space beyond the edge of the panel , suggesting that she is looking at , or in the direction of , a kneeling donor in a right @-@ hand wing . The visible architectural features β with the exception of the niches , the crucifixion and the windows directly behind it , which are at a right angle to the nave and centre front , facing the viewer β are at the left of the panel , facing right .
Harbison believes the panel is " almost certainly only the left @-@ hand half of a devotional diptych " . Dhanens observes how Mary 's eyeline extends beyond the horizon of her panel , a common feature of Netherlandish diptychs and triptychs , where the saint 's gaze is directed towards an accompanying image of a donor . Other indicators include the unusually oblique architectural aspect of the church , which suggests that its depiction was intended to extend across to a sister wing β in a manner similar to the Master of Flemalle 's Annunciation , and especially in van der Weyden 's c . 1452 Braque Triptych , where continuity between the panels is especially emphasised .
Two near @-@ contemporary copies , usually attributed to the Ghent Master of 1499 and Jan Gossaert , were completed while the original was in the collection of Margaret of Austria , great @-@ granddaughter of Philip the Good . Both present variants of the Madonna panel as the left wing of a devotional diptych , with a donor portrait as the right wing . However , the two donor panels have very different settings . The 1499 version shows the Cistercian abbot Christiaan de Hondt praying in his luxurious quarters , while Gossaert presents the donor Antonio Siciliano , accompanied by Saint Anthony , in a panoramic landscape setting . It is not known if either work is based on an original left @-@ hand panel painted by van Eyck .
The 1499 Madonna panel is a free adaption , in that the artist has changed and repositioned a number of elements . However , art historians usually agree that they are to the detriment of the balance and impact of the composition . The panel attributed to Gossaert shows even more significant , though perhaps more successful , alterations , including shifting the centre of balance by adding a section to the right @-@ hand side , dressing the Virgin entirely in dark blue and changing her facial features . Both copies omit the two pools of bright light on the floor across from her , thus removing the mystical element of van Eyck 's original , perhaps because its significance was not grasped by the later artists . That Gossaert followed other aspects of the original so closely , however , is evidence of the high regard he held for van Eyck 's technical and aesthetic ability , and his version has been seen by some as a homage . The Master of 1499 's admiration for van Eyck can be seen in his left @-@ hand panel , which contains many features reminiscent of van Eyck 's Arnolfini Portrait , including the rendering of the ceiling beams and the colour and texture of the red fabrics .
Around 1520 β 30 , the Ghent illuminator and miniaturist Simon Bening produced a half @-@ length Virgin and Child that closely resembles van Eyck 's panel , to the extent that it can be considered a loose copy . However , it can be more closely related to the original Cambrai Madonna especially in its retention of the halo , which was considered old fashioned by the 15th century . Bening 's Madonna is distinct to the two earlier copies of van Eyck ; it was intended as a stand @-@ alone panel , not part of a diptych , and though compositionally similar , radically departs from the original , especially in its colourisation . It is thought that Bening 's work was informed by Gossaert 's panel rather than directly by van Eyck 's .
= = Provenance = =
The provenance of the work contains many gaps , and even the better @-@ documented periods are often complicated or " murky " , according to Dhanens . There is almost no record from the early 16th century through 1851 , and the theft in 1877 leaves doubt for some as to what exactly was returned . Historian LΓ©on de Laborde documented an altarpiece in a village near Nantes in 1851 β a Madonna in a church nave holding the Christ Child in her right arm β which he described as " painted on wood , very well preserved , still in its original frame " . The description contains a detailing of the frame 's inscription . A document from 1855 records a Virgin in the Church thought to be by Hubert and Jan van Eyck , which may be the same painting . It belonged to a Monsieur Nau , who had bought it for 50 francs from the housekeeper of Francois Cacault , a French diplomat who had acquired a number of paintings from Italy .
A panel very similar in description was purchased by the Aachen art collector Barthold Suermondt sometime during the 1860s and catalogued in 1869 with a detailing of the frame 's inscription . This work was thought to have come from Nantes , suggesting it was the same as the panel mentioned in 1851 . The Suermondt collection was acquired by the Berlin museum in May 1874 , as part of an acquisition of 219 paintings . The painting was stolen in March 1877 , generating worldwide news coverage ; it was recovered ten days later , but without the original frame . The 1875 Berlin museum catalogue attributes a van Eyck imitator ; the 1883 catalogue describes the original as lost and the Berlin painting a copy . Soon after , however , its authenticity was verified , and the 1904 Berlin catalogue attributed Jan.
Philip the Good may have been the original patron , given that a painting matching its description was recorded in a 1567 inventory of his great @-@ granddaughter Margaret of Austria , who inherited the majority of Philip 's collection . The description in her record reads , " Un autre tableau de Nostre @-@ Dame , du duc Philippe , qui est venu de Maillardet , couvert de satin brouchΓ© gris , et ayant fermaulx d 'argent dorΓ© et bordΓ© de velours vert . Fait de la main Johannes . " From the naming conventions known from the collection 's inventory , " Johannes " probably refers to van Eyck , " duc Philippe " to Philip .
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= Ape Escape ( video game ) =
Ape Escape is a platform video game , developed by SCE Japan Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . It was released for the PlayStation in May 1999 in North America , and June 1999 in Japan . The first in the Ape Escape series , the game tells the story of an ape named Specter who gains enhanced intelligence and a malevolent streak through the use of an experimental helmet . Specter produces an army of apes , which he sends through time in an attempt to rewrite history . Spike , the player character , sets out to capture the apes with the aid of special gadgets .
Ape Escape is played from a third @-@ person perspective . Players use a variety of gadgets to pursue and capture the apes , traversing across several environments . The game 's controls are heavily centred around the analog sticks , being the first game to require the use of the PlayStation 's DualShock . Development of Ape Escape lasted over two years , and was generally focused on adapting to the use of the controller , which was a significant challenge for the development team .
Ape Escape was met with critical acclaim from professional critics , with praise particularly directed at the innovative use of the dual analog controls , as well as the graphics and music ; the voice acting received minor criticism . The game is widely considered to be one of the greatest on the PlayStation console , and received several re @-@ releases . The game also spawned numerous sequels and spin @-@ offs , beginning with Ape Escape 2 in 2001 . A remake , Ape Escape : On the Loose , was released for the PlayStation Portable in 2005 to mixed reviews .
= = Gameplay = =
Ape Escape is a platform game that is viewed from a third @-@ person perspective . Players traverse several different environments to advance through the game . For most of the game , players control Spike β a boy tasked with pursuing and capturing the apes across time , preventing them from rewriting history . Players use various gadgets to pursue and capture the apes , such as the Stun Club , used as an offensive measure against enemies , and the Time Net , used to capture apes and transport them to present day . More gadgets become available as players progress through the game . Players also control vehicles throughout the game , including a rubber raft , which allows travel over water , and the water net , which assists in traversing underwater . The game 's controls are heavily centered around the analog sticks : the left stick is used to move players , while the right stick manipulates the various gadgets .
The apes are equipped with helmets , which feature a siren representing their alarm level : blue means relaxed , and unaware of the player characters ' presence ; yellow is alert ; and red indicates fully alarmed , resulting in attempting to escape or becoming hostile . An ape 's personality can also be determined by the colour of shorts : yellow is standard , light blue means timid , and red represents aggressive . Some apes are equipped with weaponry , allowing them to attack players , or binoculars that allow them to identify players from long distances . Players are required to capture a specific amount of apes to clear a level ; remaining apes can be captured upon revisiting the level .
Should players take damage , they lose a life . Players can recharge their health by collecting cookies . Throughout the game , players can gather Specter Coins , which can be found in hidden locations in each stage . Collecting enough Specter Coins unlocks three bonus mini @-@ games : Ski Kidz Racing , a skiing game in which players race against opponents ; Galaxy Monkey , a shoot ' em up where players fight against aliens ; and Specter Boxing , a boxing game where players dodge and punch using the analog sticks .
= = Plot = =
The story begins when Specter , a white @-@ haired monkey at a monkey park , puts on an experimental Pipo Helmet created by a Professor , which increases his intelligence beyond that of a regular monkey , but also twists his mind , turning him evil . Imbued with this new power , Specter gives Pipo Helmets to all the monkeys in the park and sets them loose , having them take over the local laboratory where the Professor and his assistant Katie ( Natalie / Natsumi ) are currently building a time machine . As Spike ( Kakeru ) and his best friend Buzz ( Jake / Hiroki ) arrive at the laboratory , they find themselves transported by Specter , along with all the other monkeys , to the various reaches of time . Realising that leaving the monkeys to their own devices could rewrite history in disastrous ways , the Professor tasks Spike with finding all of the monkeys scattered across time and sending them back to the present .
Spike must also face off against Specter , who has not only built himself an advanced Peak Point Helmet further increasing his own intelligence , but has also brainwashed Buzz to his side . After a lengthy series of captures and battles in segments of history ranging from the roam of the dinosaurs , medieval times and present day , Spike is eventually able to capture all of the apes . Spike chases Specter to his deranged theme park , where he is holding a recently captured Professor , Katie , and his friend Buzz . Spike frees Buzz of his and releases both the professor and Katie , and goes on to find Specter in an alternative universe he calls the " Peak Point Matrix " . Spike defeats Specter after a final battle , and he is captured and sent back to the zoo .
= = Development = =
The development of Ape Escape lasted approximately two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years . Shortly after the development team began conceiving the design and concept for Ape Escape , they attended a meeting regarding the development of the DualShock . Intrigued by the potential of the controller , the team implemented its use in Ape Escape , making it the first video game to require the use of the DualShock for gameplay . Conceptualizing the controls for the controller 's analog sticks was the greatest challenge for the team , and the controls underwent great testing prior to finalization .
The game 's music was composed by Soichi Terada . After a game director listened to Terada 's track " Sumo Jungle " , he was given the opportunity to compose the music for Ape Escape . The music changes in @-@ game depending on the situation and level ; for example , should players act stealthily , the music alters slightly to give a mellow atmosphere . Music from the game was included in Ape Escape Originape Soundtracks , published on November 18 , 2011 by Terada 's label Far East Recording . The gameplay sound effects were designed by Masaaki Kaneko , while the sound effects in the cutscenes were provided by Masatoshi Mizumachi . The English voice acting was recorded at Dubey Tunes Studios in San Francisco , California , with Sara Holihan and Hunter A. Pipes III serving as voice @-@ over director and producer , respectively .
Ape Escape was officially announced in the April 1999 issue of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine . Promotions for the game were held on Cartoon Network during Sony 's winter holiday marketing campaign of 1999 . A remake of the game , titled Ape Escape : On the Loose , was announced on May 11 , 2004 , during Sony 's press conference at the Electronic Entertainment Expo . It was released as a launch title for the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) on March 24 , 2005 . The remake features altered controls , due to the lack of a right analog stick on the PSP , as well as some slightly different graphics and mini @-@ games .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Ape Escape received critical acclaim . Metacritic calculated an average score of 90 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 19 reviews . Japanese publication Famitsu awarded the game 32 out of 40 , based on four reviews . Reviewers praised the game 's use of analog controls , as well as its graphics and music , with minor criticism directed towards the voice acting .
Reviewers praised the gameplay , and the game 's use of analog controls . Johnny Liu of Game Revolution wrote that the innovative controls were one of the game 's standout features . GameSpot 's Peter Bartholow declared the controls " beautifully executed " , praising the ease of use . Doug Perry of IGN felt that , while the controls are initially difficult , using the analog sticks became " new and refreshing " . Scott Alan Marriott of AllGame similarly noted the initial difficulty of the controls , but found it easier upon continued play , particularly praising the raft controls .
The graphics were met with generally positive comments . GameSpot 's Bartholow praised the visuals , naming the game " a sight to behold " and commending the use of colour and detail . IGN 's Perry wrote that the textures " aren 't terribly stunning " , and found the character design " rather fundamental " , but felt that the game 's lighting and camera blended to create " a fantastic and gratifying effect " . Game Revolution 's Liu named the graphics " good , but not the best " , noting frame rate slowdown . Marriott of AllGame similarly mentioned pop @-@ up issues and other glitches , but ultimately commended the graphics , noting the " distinct Japanese style " .
The game 's audio was commended by many reviews . AllGame 's Marriott praised the appropriateness of the music to the game 's setting . GameSpot 's Bartholow echoed similar remarks , applauding the interactivity of the soundtrack . Liu of Game Revolution felt that the music improves as the game progresses , similarly commending its use with gameplay . IGN 's Perry described the soundtrack as " a weird concoction of J @-@ pop and techno @-@ synth " , and noted that the " poppy tunes " were catchier than the " techno tunes " . Conversely , particular criticism was directed at the voice acting in the game ; GameSpot 's Bartholow described it as " uniformly atrocious " , while IGN 's Perry referred to Spike 's voice as " nothing special " . The game 's other sound effects , such as the ape noises , were met with positive reactions .
= = = PlayStation Portable version = = =
Ape Escape : On the Loose , the game 's remake for PlayStation Portable , was met with mixed reviews . Metacritic calculated a score of 66 out of 100 , indicating " mixed or average reviews " , based on 35 critics . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot lamented the loss of the " finely tuned control " of the original , but felt that the game " still has considerable charm " . GameSpy 's David Chapman felt that , despite the noticeable flaws of the game , particularly the controls , it still remains " a lot of fun to play " . Juan Castro of IGN praised the game 's use of colour , noting its enhancement on the PlayStation Portable screen . Castro also warned that " fans of the series will probably miss the second analog stick " , but felt that the gadgets mapped to the PSP 's face buttons would suffice . 1UP 's Jeremy Parish criticised the porting of the game for being outdated , declaring it " a game that was better in another time , on another system , ported simply for cynical convenience " . Parish felt that On the Loose served " to blemish the PSP 's reputation ... as a dumping ground for warmed over 32 @-@ bit offerings far beyond their sell @-@ by date " .
= = Legacy = =
Ape Escape is considered one of the most significant titles on the PlayStation console . Doug Perry of IGN declared it " the best 3D platform game on the PlayStation " , and GameSpot 's Peter Bartholow named it " one of the best 3D platformers to date " . Scott Alan Marriott of AllGame described the game as " one of the most enjoyable 3D platform games " on the PlayStation . IGN included Ape Escape in an article documenting the greatest PlayStation 3D platform games , and later named it the eighth greatest game on the console . In March 2004 , Official UK PlayStation Magazine named it the ninth greatest game of all time . Game Informer ranked it 100 on its list of best games in 2001 , praising its gameplay and innovation .
Ape Escape spawned a series of games , including sequels and spin @-@ offs . A direct sequel , Ape Escape 2 , was released for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) in July 2001 , followed by Ape Escape 3 for PS2 in July 2005 . Several spin @-@ off titles were released exclusively in Japan : Pipo Saru 2001 in July 2001 and Saru ! Get You ! Million Monkeys in July 2006 for the PS2 , followed by Saru Get You : Pip Saru Racer in December 2006 and Saru ! Get You ! SaruSaru Big Mission in July 2007 for the PSP . Another spin @-@ off , Ape Quest , was also released worldwide for PSP in January 2008 . A series of party games has also been released : Ape Escape : Pumped & Primed in July 2004 and EyeToy : Monkey Mania in August 2004 for PS2 , as well as Ape Academy 2 for PSP in December 2005 , and PlayStation Move Ape Escape for the PlayStation 3 in December 2010 . The character of Spike is available as a playable character in PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale ( 2012 ) , and an ape costume is available as a downloadable outfit in some of the LittleBigPlanet games ( 2008 β 12 ) . A mini @-@ game featuring an ape from Ape Escape is included in Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater ( 2004 ) .
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= Tropical Storm Debbie ( 1965 ) =
Tropical Storm Debbie of the 1965 Atlantic hurricane season broke the daily rainfall record in Mobile , Alabama , despite dissipating offshore . It developed on September 24 in the western Caribbean Sea , and moved northwestward for several days without intensifying . On September 27 , Debbie turned toward the northeast in the Gulf of Mexico , and the next day briefly attained tropical storm status . However , the intrusion of cooler air imparted weakening , and the storm dissipated on September 30 just off the east coast of Louisiana . It initially threatened areas of Louisiana that sustained significant damage from Hurricane Betsy in early September , although Debbie only caused light rainfall and some flooding in the state . In southern Alabama , the storm dropped 17 @.@ 2 in ( 440 mm ) of rainfall , which resulted in significant flooding of roads and cars . Damage totaled $ 25 million in the Mobile , Alabama area , although there was little damage elsewhere .
= = Meteorological history = =
A low @-@ pressure area developed into a weak tropical depression on September 24 off the north coast of Honduras in the western Caribbean Sea . It was initially disorganized , without a well @-@ developed circulation . On September 25 , while still a tropical depression , the system was named Debbie . Without intensifying further , the depression crossed the northeastern YucatΓ‘n Peninsula on September 26 . The next day , the depression turned toward the north in the central Gulf of Mexico before beginning a northeast motion . On September 28 , Debbie intensified into a tropical storm , attaining peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . This occurred after the storm developed two distinct spiral rainbands .
As Debbie approached the northern Gulf Coast , it failed to intensify , despite warm sea surface temperatures , abundant moisture , and an anticyclone aloft . In addition , the storm never developed good outflow , partially due to stable air related to Tropical Storm Hazel in the eastern Pacific Ocean . After maintaining peak winds for about 12 hours , Debbie weakened due to cooler , drier air , deteriorating to a tropical depression on September 29 . That day , it turned to the northwest , passing just east of the Mississippi Delta . On September 30 , the circulation of Debbie dissipated just offshore Mississippi . Its remnants made landfall , accelerated northeastward , and were eventually absorbed by an extratropical cyclone .
= = Impact = =
The precursor to Debbie produced heavy rainfall across the western Caribbean Sea . Swan Island off the north coast of Honduras reported 5 @.@ 43 in ( 138 mm ) in a 24 @-@ hour period . In Belize City , Belize , the storm produced high tides and 1 @.@ 04 in ( 26 mm ) of rainfall . Grand Cayman reported light rains for two days . The government of Cuba advised residents to restrict boating activities around the country . Similarly , the Weather Bureau issued a small craft warning for the Dry Tortugas and for the Florida Keys through Key Largo .
Before Debbie dissipated , local Weather Bureau offices issued a gale warning and a hurricane watch from the mouth of the Mississippi River to Cedar Key , Florida . Small boat owners throughout the region were advised to remain at port . The threat of the storm prompted the evacuation of oil platforms , as well as thousands of residents in low @-@ lying areas of St. Bernard Parish , Louisiana . Along the northern Gulf Coast , no gale force winds were reported inland , although oil rigs and ships off the southeast Louisiana coast reported such winds . Debbie produced above @-@ normal tides that generally ranged upwards to 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal ; however , New Orleans reported a storm tide of 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . The tides resulted in flooding along highways in southeastern Louisiana , closing several roads . The storm affected areas that were severely damaged by Hurricane Betsy earlier in September .
Despite being a weak storm , Debbie dropped heavy rainfall along the coast , peaking at 17 @.@ 2 in ( 440 mm ) in Mobile , Alabama . Of the total , 15 in ( 380 mm ) fell in 15 hours , which broke the daily rainfall record in the city . The rains resulted in 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of flooding that closed several businesses and roads , causing the worst traffic jam on record in the city . Hundreds of cars were flooded , and more than 200 people had to leave their inundated homes . Damage in the city was estimated at $ 25 million , which was the only significant damage from the storm . Rainfall extended from Louisiana to the east coast of Florida , and as far north as North Carolina . In eastern Georgia near Brunswick , the storm dropped more than 9 in ( 230 mm ) of precipitation , causing flooding in airfields and along canals .
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= Jon Corzine =
Jon Stevens Corzine ( born January 1 , 1947 ) is an American financial executive and former politician . A Democrat , he was a United States Senator from New Jersey from 2001 to 2006 and was the 54th Governor of New Jersey from 2006 to 2010 . He also worked as CEO of Goldman Sachs during the 1990s and was CEO of MF Global from 2010 to 2011 . He was charged by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission ( CFTC ) in connection with MF 's bankruptcy in 2011 .
Corzine began his career in banking and finance . In the early and mid @-@ 1970s , he worked for Midwestern banks ( Continental @-@ Illinois National Bank in Chicago , Illinois and BancOhio National Bank in Columbus , Ohio ) during and after his Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) studies at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business . In 1975 he moved to New Jersey to work for Goldman Sachs . He became Chairman and CEO of Goldman Sachs and the leading advocate in the firm 's decision to go public . In 1999 , having lost a power struggle with Henry M. Paulson , Corzine left the firm . After his departure from Goldman Sachs , he earned what has been estimated to be $ 400 million during the 1999 initial public offering of the company .
Corzine served five years of a six @-@ year U.S. Senate term representing New Jersey before being elected governor in 2005 . He was defeated for re @-@ election in 2009 by Republican Chris Christie . In March 2010 , Corzine was named chairman and CEO of MF Global Inc . , a financial services firm specializing in futures brokerage . The company filed for bankruptcy protection in October 2011 after losing $ 1 @.@ 6 billion of customer money and Corzine resigned on November 4 , 2011 .
= = Early years , education , and early business career = =
Corzine was born in central Illinois , the son of Nancy June ( nΓ©e Hedrick ) and Roy Allen Corzine . He grew up on a small family farm in Willey Station , Illinois , and near Taylorville . After completing high school at Taylorville High School , where he had been the football quarterback and basketball captain , he attended the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , where he was a member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity , and graduated in 1969 , earning Phi Beta Kappa honors . While in college , he enlisted in the United States Marine Corps Reserve and served from 1969 until 1975 , attaining the rank of sergeant . In 1970 he enrolled in the University of Chicago Booth School of Business , from which he received a Master of Business Administration degree in 1973 .
His first business experience was in the bond department of Continental Illinois National Bank , where he worked days while attending the Booth School of Business MBA program at night . He then moved to BancOhio National Bank , a regional bank in Columbus , Ohio , that was acquired in 1984 by National City Bank . Corzine worked at BancOhio until 1975 when he moved his family to New Jersey and was hired as a bond trader for Goldman Sachs .
= = Goldman Sachs = =
Over the years , he worked his way up to Chairman and CEO of the company in 1994 and successfully converted the investment firm from a private partnership to a publicly traded corporation . Corzine also chaired a presidential commission for Bill Clinton and served on the U.S. Treasury Department 's borrowing committee . As a Goldman Sachs senior partner , he was summoned to help develop a rescue package for the hedge fund Long Term Capital Management when the leveraged fund 's collapse in the fall of 1998 threatened contagion across the U.S. financial system . According to U.S. News & World Report , Corzine did not get along with co @-@ CEO Henry Paulson , who came from the other major area of the bank , investment banking . When Corzine decided to help the bailout , Paulson seized control of the firm . As co @-@ chairman of the firm , he oversaw its expansion into Asia . When Goldman Sachs went public after Corzine 's departure , Corzine made $ 400 million .
Corzine has participated in meetings of the Bilderberg Group , a network of leaders in the fields of politics , business , and banking , from 1995 β 1997 , 1999 , 2003 and 2004 . He is a former member of the group 's Steering Committee .
Corzine is a member of Kappa Beta Phi .
= = U.S. Senate = =
= = = 2000 election = = =
After being forced from Goldman Sachs in January 1999 , Corzine campaigned for a New Jersey Senate seat after Frank Lautenberg announced his retirement . Despite initially trailing behind his opponent in the Democratic primary by 30 percentage points , Corzine won the nomination and was subsequently elected to the Senate by a four @-@ percent margin over his Republican opponent , four @-@ term United States Congressman Bob Franks , in the November 2000 election and was sworn into the Senate in January 2001 .
He spent more than $ 62 million of his own money on his campaign , the most expensive Senate campaign in U.S. history β over $ 33 million of this was spent on the primary election alone , where he defeated former Governor James Florio 58 β 42 % . Franks had been a last @-@ minute choice because New Jersey Governor Christine Todd Whitman had been expected to run for the Senate . The record $ 62 million amount surpassed Michael Huffington , who spent nearly $ 28 million in an unsuccessful 1994 Senate race .
During the campaign , Corzine refused to release his income tax return records . He claimed an interest in doing so , but he cited a confidentiality agreement with Goldman Sachs . Skeptics argued that Corzine should have followed the example of his predecessor Robert Rubin , who converted his equity stake into debt upon leaving Goldman .
Corzine campaigned for state government programs including universal health care , universal gun registration , mandatory public preschool , and more taxpayer funding for college education . He pushed affirmative action and same @-@ sex marriage . David Brooks opined that Corzine was so liberal that his election , although the fact that his predecessor was also a Democrat , helped push the Senate to the left .
During Corzine 's campaign for the United States Senate , he made some controversial off @-@ color statements . When introduced to a man with an Italian name who said he was in the construction business , Corzine quipped : β Oh , you make cement shoes ! " according to Emanuel Alfano , chairman of the Italian @-@ American One Voice Committee . Alfano reported that when introduced to a lawyer named David Stein , Corzine said : " He 's not Italian , is he ? Oh , I guess he 's your Jewish lawyer who is here to get the rest of you out of jail . " Corzine denied mentioning religion , but did not deny the quip about Italians , stating that some of his own ancestors were probably Italian , or maybe French .
Also in 2000 , Corzine denied having made payments to African @-@ American ministers , although the foundation controlled by Jon and Joanne Corzine had paid one influential black church $ 25 @,@ 000 . Rev. Reginald T. Jackson , director of the Black Ministers Council , had campaigned against a form of racial profiling whereby police officers stop minority drivers and had gotten New Jersey state police superintendent , Carl A. Williams , fired . Corzine had donated to Jackson prior to getting what appears to be a reciprocal endorsement .
= = = Tenure = = =
Corzine entered Congress in a class of ten new senators , eight of whom were Democrats . According to U.S. News & World Report , Corzine , Hillary Clinton and Jean Carnahan were the more notable new Senators in 2000 . During his five @-@ year senatorial career , he was present at 1503 of 1673 votes , co @-@ sponsored 1014 bills , sponsored 145 bills ( only 11 of which made it out of committee ) , and had one sponsored bill enacted .
He co @-@ authored the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act . In the aftermath of Enron , he co @-@ sponsored ( with Barbara Boxer ) legislation , which was later propounded by Ted Kennedy , that reforms the 401 ( k ) plan to minimize the risk of investment portfolios . The plan was opposed by President George W. Bush and faced strong opposition in Congress . Restrictions on retirement account allocations were in direct opposition to the contemporaneous movement towards self @-@ directed individual retirement accounts for Social Security .
Corzine was a sponsor of the Start Healthy , Stay Healthy Act . He supported providing a two @-@ year tax break to victims of the September 11 , 2001 attacks and help grant citizenship to victims who were legal resident aliens . He supported gun control laws , outlawing racial profiling , and subsidies for Amtrak . He was the chief sponsor , along with U.S. Senator Sam Brownback , of the Darfur Accountability Act . He voted against the Iraq War Resolution . Corzine was the prime sponsor , along with fellow New Jersey U.S. Senator Frank Lautenberg , of a federal version of John 's Law , in memory of Navy Ensign John R. Elliott ( a native of New Jersey ) , a U.S. Naval Academy graduate who was killed by a drunk driver . The legislation provides federal highway safety grant incentives to encourage states to impound the cars of DUI suspects . He was an early contributing blogger at The Huffington Post .
In the aftermath of the September 11 , 2001 , attacks , Corzine and Peter Fitzgerald attempted to mold a more disciplined bailout of the airline industry , but even the redesigned plan was not entirely satisfactory to Corzine . Corzine opposed the reduction in low @-@ income student eligibility for Pell Grant funding caused by changes in the " expected family contribution " .
Corzine tried and failed to introduce legislation for chemical plant regulation six weeks after the September 11 , 2001 attacks . Subsequent efforts by then @-@ Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency and former New Jersey Governor Christine Todd Whitman in 2002 were also squelched . Along with Hillary Clinton , he was one of the few senators who attempted to pressure the Bush administration to clamp down on regulation of the chemical and nuclear @-@ power industries . His efforts helped make New Jersey one of the stricter states in the nation in terms of chemical plant regulation .
In 2001 , Corzine coauthored ( with Bob Graham ) a tax @-@ cut proposal aimed at lowering the marginal tax bracket from 15 % to 10 % on the first $ 19 @,@ 000 of taxable income . In 2002 , he proposed a tax cut that exempted the first $ 10 @,@ 000 of income from the $ 765 of Social Security taxes for both employers and employees . Corzine also proposed making dividend payments tax deductible to companies as a form of economic stimulus .
While in the Senate , he chaired the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee from 2003 β 2005 . In this role he was influential in convincing certain potential candidates to not run in order to avoid costly primaries in three key states during the 2004 United States Senate elections . He also played a role in the selection of Senator John Edwards as a running mate for Senator John Kerry . In 2002 , Corzine called for the resignation of United States Securities and Exchange Commission Chairman Harvey Pitt .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
In the Senate , Corzine was a member of the Committees on Banking , Intelligence , the Budget , and Energy and Natural Resources .
= = Campaigns for governor = =
= = = 2005 = = =
Corzine and his opponent , Republican Doug Forrester , spent $ 73 million on their gubernatorial campaigns by the week before Election day . This included $ 38 million by Corzine and $ 19 million by Forrester for the general election . The primaries accounted for the difference . Since Corzine had spent over $ 62 million on his 2000 United States Senate elections , the combined expenditures for Corzine 's run for the Senate and governorship exceeded $ 100 million . The main campaign issues were property taxes and the Bush administration . New Jersey had averaged $ 5 @,@ 500 in 2004 property taxes , and Corzine tried to link his opponent to Bush .
The campaign for the post of Governor of New Jersey was successful with 54 % of the vote . Forrester , a businessman and a former Mayor of West Windsor Township , in Mercer County , won 43 % . Corzine received 1 @,@ 224 @,@ 493 votes to Forrester 's 985 @,@ 235 . A total of 80 @,@ 277 votes , or 3 % , were scattered among other candidates . Corzine won 13 of New Jersey 's 21 counties : Atlantic , Bergen , Burlington , Camden , Cumberland , Essex , Gloucester , Hudson , Mercer , Middlesex , Passaic , Salem , and Union . Corzine won the three most populous counties ( Bergen , Essex , and Middlesex ) , five of the top six , and seven of the top nine .
= = = 2009 = = =
Corzine ran for re @-@ election in the 2009 New Jersey gubernatorial election . Early on , Rasmussen Reports indicated that Republican challenger Chris Christie led Corzine 47 % to 38 % . Later polls showed Corzine closing the gap , and in some cases , ahead . In the end , Corzine lost the race to Christie by a margin of 48 @.@ 5 % to 44 @.@ 9 % , with 5 @.@ 8 % of the vote going to independent candidate Chris Daggett .
= = Governor of New Jersey = =
Corzine officially declined his $ 175 @,@ 000 salary in 2006 .
After taking office in January 2006 , Corzine 's approval numbers were very low . Many polls seemed to indicate that much of this negative polling was a result of the 2006 New Jersey State Government shutdown . An April 26 , 2006 , polls from Quinnipiac University Polling Institute showed Corzine at a 15 % approval with a 72 % disapproval . A February 28 , 2007 , poll from Quinnipiac University showed Corzine at 50 % approval with 34 % disapproval . When Corzine released a controversial plan to monetize the New Jersey Turnpike and the Garden State Parkway , his approval rating fell to 30 % in January 2008 .
In conjunction with this fall in approval rating , an initiative to recall the Governor was started for the first and only time ever in New Jersey history . The recall effort failed after gathering less than the required 1 @.@ 2 million signatures .
Corzine had long insisted that state employees must bear part of the cost of their health benefits after retirement . As of July 1 , 2007 , in agreements with the Communications Workers of America , the American Federation of State , County , and Municipal Employees , and the International Federation of Professional and Technical Engineers , active State employees in those unions ( as well as certain other non @-@ union employees ) are now required to contribute 1 @.@ 5 % of their salary to offset health care costs . State and local employees β contributions to the two largest pension systems increased by 10 % , from 5 % to 5 @.@ 5 % of their annual salaries and increased the retirement benefit age for new public employees , from 55 to 60 years . In 2008 , Corzine approved a law that increased the retirement age from 60 to 62 , required that government workers and teachers earn $ 7 @,@ 500 per year to qualify for a pension , eliminated Lincoln 's Birthday as a state worker holiday , allowed the state to offer incentives not to take health insurance and required municipal employees work 20 hours per week to get health benefits .
As part of his attempt to balance the budget , Corzine decreased funding to most programs and localities including state universities and colleges . The first of these decreases came with the 2007 budget . Rutgers University and other New Jersey state universities have raised tuition , cut hundreds of sections of classes , and several sports teams . With the latest decrease in funding for 2009 , most state institutions have less funding than they had a decade ago . Despite the $ 15 million in cuts , Rutgers went ahead with previous agreed upon raises of $ 15 million to their executive faculty . This resulted in Rutgers making $ 30 million in cuts .
Corzine has been the only New Jersey governor in recent memory to make any headway in addressing the crisis of municipal funding . While not directly touching the third rail of New Jersey governance β property taxes β Corzine 's reform of the school funding formula ( passed and signed in January 2008 ) resulted in significant relief to many New Jersey towns with outsize school costs but limited tax base . The plan survived a legal challenge and was declared constitutional by the New Jersey Supreme Court on May 28 , 2009 .
Corzine championed expanding government health and education programs . He planned to require every resident to enroll in a health plan and have taxpayers help pick up the tab for all the welfare low- and middle @-@ income residents . In June 2008 , state legislators voted for the first phase of that program mandating health care coverage and Corzine signed it into law in July .
Corzine spent some $ 200 @,@ 000 of public funds on advertisements to promote a referendum on the 2007 New Jersey ballot to borrow $ 450 million to fund stem cell research . The referendum faced strong opposition and was rejected despite the fact that $ 270 million had previously been approved to build stem cell research centers .
Corzine , a death penalty opponent , as governor supported and presided over abolition of capital punishment in New Jersey and replacing it with life imprisonment . After the legislature passed and he signed it into law , New Jersey became the first state to legislatively eliminate capital punishment since 1965 . Although the bill was not passed until late in 2007 , New Jersey had not executed any criminals since 1963 . Because the penalty was never used and often reversed upon appeal , it was viewed as a form of extended suffering for victims ' families by some supporters of its abolition . Before the enactment of the new law , he commuted the death sentences of all death row inmates to life in prison . Corzine also has supported early New Jersey efforts at gun control .
Corzine was one of several United States Governors β including Martin O 'Malley of Maryland , Mike Beebe of Arkansas , and Eliot Spitzer of New York β who were early supporters of Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign . He raised $ 1 million for her campaign . He , Bill Clinton , Eliot Spitzer , Chuck Schumer , and Charlie Rangel co @-@ hosted Clinton 's October 25 , 2007 60th @-@ birthday party . He remained a committed Clinton superdelegate late into the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primary season . In the event the Democratic National Committee would have decided to recontest the Michigan and Florida primaries , Corzine and Ed Rendell were prepared to spearhead Clinton 's fundraising in for those races . Towards the end of the primary season in April 2008 , Corzine made it clear that although he was a Clinton supporter , his superdelegate vote would be determined by the popular vote . After her win in the April 22 , 2008 Pennsylvania Democratic primary and a calculation of popular votes that excluded caucuses and included the controversial Michigan and Florida Democratic primaries , Corzine reaffirmed his support for her . Once Barack Obama became the presumptive nominee , Corzine became a prominent spokesperson for Obama 's agenda .
Corzine was among a group of big ( in terms of population ) state governors , such as Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger , who moved his state Republican and Democratic primaries to February 5 , 2008 , the date of Super Tuesday , 2008 . He was also among a group of prominent Democratic politicians ( that included Ted Kennedy and Barack Obama ) who received political contributions from Norman Hsu that he ended up donating to charity .
In November 2008 , in response to the ongoing economic downturn , Corzine proposed an economic recovery package consisting of additional massive spending , accelerated capital improvement spending and reforms and cuts to the corporate income tax . As of December 2008 many elements of the plan had been approved by the Democrats in the NJ Legislature . On January 2 , 2009 , Corzine joined the governors of four other states in urging the federal government to provide $ 1 trillion in aid to the country 's 50 state governments to help pay for education , welfare and infrastructure as states struggle with steep budget deficits amid a deepening recession .
= = = Government shutdown = = =
Corzine , in attempting to pass the 2007 fiscal year budget , clashed with a few fellow state Democrats in the New Jersey General Assembly , particularly over the proposed increase of the state 's sales tax from 6 % to 7 % . Corzine said that he would not accept a budget that did not include the sales tax increase . After the legislature failed to pass Corzine 's budget by the midnight deadline of July 1 , 2006 , he signed an executive order that immediately closed down all non @-@ essential state government services , such as road construction projects . Legislators failed to resolve the situation by July 4 and casinos , among other governmentally @-@ regulated industries , closed their doors at 8 : 00 am on July 5 . Corzine called the shutdown " deplorable , " though he refused to negotiate with legislators and accept alternate plans that did not increase the sales tax . It is estimated that the state lost several hundred millions of dollars of revenue every day the casinos remained closed , because of the budget impasse .
After six days of state government shutdown , Corzine and Assembly Democrats agreed to raise the state sales tax to 7 % with half of the 1 % increase going to the state budget and the other half going to property tax relief . On July 8 , 2006 , the $ 30 billion state budget , with the sales tax agreement , passed both houses and Governor Corzine signed the budget into law ending the budget impasse .
= = = Toll hike plan = = =
Initially , Corzine opposed privatization of the New Jersey Turnpike . On January 8 , 2008 , to address ongoing structural budget issues , Governor Corzine proposed a four @-@ part proposal including an overall reduction in spending , a constitutional amendment to require more voter approval for state borrowing , an executive order prohibiting the use of one @-@ time revenues to balance the budget and a controversial plan to raise some $ 38 billion by leasing the Garden State Parkway , the New Jersey Turnpike , and other toll roads for at least 75 years to a new public benefit corporation that could sell bonds secured by future tolls , which it would be allowed to raise by 50 % plus inflation every four years beginning in 2010 . Corzine vowed to get that plan through the state legislature by March , but held off for nearly a month before releasing the details . Upon learning how the plan would work , New Jersey native residents railed against it , comparing it to using one credit card to pay off another , pointing out that it would create hardship for commuters and noting that it would actually increase the state 's $ 32 billion debt .
= = = Carla Katz = = =
Corzine , who was running for the United State Senate in the spring of 1999 , met Carla Katz , the then married president of Local 1034 of the Communications Workers of America ( CWA ) , in the same apartment building where he resided in Hoboken ; the CWA represents the largest number of state workers in New Jersey . As Katz later recalled , Corzine offered her a job on his Senate campaign , but she declined the offer . Corzine and the still married Katz were soon dating , and they began appearing in public as a couple in early 2002 , shortly after Corzine 's unofficial separation from his wife , Joanne . ( The Corzines divorced the following year . ) For more than two years Corzine was romantically involved and living with Katz . She lived with him at his apartment building in Hoboken from April 2002 until August 2004 .
After Corzine 's breakup with Katz , their lawyers negotiated a financial payout in November 2004 . According to press accounts , the settlement for Katz exceeded $ 6 million , including cash ( in part used to buy her $ 1 @.@ 1 million condominium in Hoboken ) , a college trust fund to educate her children , a 2005 Volvo sport utility vehicle , and Corzine forgave a $ 470 @,@ 000 loan he had made to Katz in 2002 to buy out her ex @-@ husband 's share of their home in Alexandria Township . Katz enrolled in Seton Hall University School of Law on a full scholarship in 2004 . Corzine later acknowledged he had given $ 15 @,@ 000 to Katz 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Rocco Riccio , a former state employee who was forced to resign after being accused of examining income tax returns for political purposes . At the time , Katz was president of the CWA Local 1034 , which bargains on behalf of many state employees .
In the summer of 2005 , when Corzine was running in the New Jersey gubernatorial election , news first emerged of his relationship with Katz and the money she had received . Corzine was elected governor despite the scandal . In the fall of 2006 , during an impasse in contract negotiations between the Corzine administration and the state 's seven major state employee unions ( including the CWA ) , Katz contacted the governor by phone and e @-@ mail to lobby for a renewal of the negotiations . Their relationship and the financial settlement Katz received after their breakup led to allegations of many potential conflicts of interest in labor negotiations while Corzine was governor . A state ethics panel , acting on a complaint from Bogota mayor Steve Lonegan , ruled in May 2007 that Katz 's contact with Corzine during negotiations did not violate the governor 's code of conduct .
Separately , New Jersey Republican State Committee Chairman Tom Wilson filed a lawsuit to release all e @-@ mail correspondence between Corzine and Katz during the contract negotiations . On May 30 , 2008 , New Jersey Superior Court Judge Paul Innes ruled that at least 745 pages of e @-@ mail records should be made public , but Corzine 's lawyers immediately appealed the decision to the New Jersey Supreme Court .
Corzine won his case on appeal . On March 18 , 2009 , the New Jersey Supreme Court ruled it would not hear arguments in the case , effectively ending the legal battle to make his e @-@ mails with Katz public . Corzine spent approximately $ 127 @,@ 000 of taxpayer funds to keep the e @-@ mails secret . Nonetheless , on August 1 , 2010 , The Star @-@ Ledger published 123 of the Corzine @-@ Katz e @-@ mails , revealing the extent of their personal contact during negotiations over a new state government workers contract in early 2007 .
= = = Appointments = = =
Corzine continued to serve in the U.S. Senate while running for governor , which ensured that he could resign from the Senate and appoint a Democrat as his successor if he won and allowed him to retain his Senate seat if he lost . Speculation was that he would appoint a Democrat from one of the congressional districts in New Jersey , perhaps Congressmen Rob Andrews , Rush Holt , or Frank Pallone . He appointed Governor Richard Codey although on November 23 , 2005 , he announced that he was not interested in pursuing the seat . On December 9 , 2005 , Corzine named his friend , who lived and lives in the same apartment building , U.S. Rep. Robert Menendez , a Democrat , to succeed him .
One of Corzine 's first nominations was that of Zulima Farber as New Jersey Attorney General . She served for approximately seven months until an ethics investigation concluded that she had acted improperly by going to the location where local police in Fairview , New Jersey had stopped her boyfriend , Hamlet Gore , for driving with a suspended license and an expired vehicle registration . Corzine said he did not ask for Farber 's resignation .
On February 9 , 2006 , after many scandals regarding financial mishandling at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey , Corzine nominated Robert Del Tufo , the former Attorney General of New Jersey and U.S. Attorney , as chairman of the board of trustees . Corzine also nominated Oliver Quinn , Prudential Financial 's vice president and chief ethics officer , as vice chairman of the board .
Corzine 's commissioner of the Department of Environmental Protection and Chief of Staff , Lisa P. Jackson was nominated as the administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency . She was confirmed by the Senate on January 22 , 2009 .
= = = Motorcade accident = = =
On April 12 , 2007 , Corzine and 25 @-@ year @-@ old aide Samantha Gordon were injured in an automobile accident on the Garden State Parkway near Galloway Township while traveling from the New Jersey Conference of Mayors in Atlantic City to Drumthwacket , his residence in Princeton , to meet with radio personality Don Imus and the Rutgers University women 's basketball team .
The New Jersey State Police determined that Corzine 's SUV , driven by a state trooper , was traveling in excess of 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) with its emergency lights flashing when the collision occurred . A pickup truck drifted onto the shoulder and swerved back onto the lane , and another pickup truck swerved to avoid the truck and hit the Governor 's SUV , causing the SUV to hit the guardrail . The State Police reviewed roadside camera recordings and E @-@ ZPass records to track down the driver of the truck ; he was not charged with any violation .
Corzine and the trooper were flown by helicopter to Cooper University Hospital in Camden , a Level I trauma center . The aide was taken by ambulance to Atlantic City Medical Center . Neither the NJ State Trooper nor the aide was seriously injured , but Corzine suffered broken bones , including an open fracture of the left femur , 11 broken ribs , a broken sternum , a broken collarbone , a fractured lower vertebra , and a facial cut that required plastic surgery . The Governor was not wearing a seat belt . Friends had long said that they had rarely seen him wear one . When asked why the state trooper who was driving would not have asked Corzine to put on his seat belt , a staffer said the governor was " not always amenable to suggestion " . The Superintendent of State Police has also noted that the trooper could be charged if the crash was preventable .
By April 23 , 2007 , Corzine 's doctors had upgraded him from critical to stable condition . He was sedated and unable to speak because of a breathing tube in his throat , and as such , was unable to perform his duties as governor . In accordance with the New Jersey State Constitution , New Jersey Senate President Richard Codey assumed the position of acting governor for the short period from April 12 until May 7 , 2007 . In 2005 , voters had approved an amendment to the state constitution to provide for a lieutenant governor who would succeed the governor in the event of a vacancy or assume gubernatorial duties in the event of incapacitation , but that position would not be filled until 2010 .
Corzine left the hospital on April 30 , 2007 . , sped to Drumthwacket , where he recuperated and which had been outfitted with a videoconferencing center ( at his expense ) so he could communicate with legislators . He issued an apology , paid a $ 46 ticket for not wearing a seat belt , and he appeared in a public service announcement advocating seat belts which opened with the words " I 'm New Jersey Governor Jon Corzine , and I should be dead . "
It was reported that Corzine would pay his own medical bills rather than bill taxpayers .
= = = Public opinion = = =
During the first months of his administration , Corzine experienced favorable approval ratings . According to a March 2006 Fairleigh Dickinson PublicMind Poll , 47 % of New Jersey voters approved of the job Corzine was doing , while 16 % disapproved . Peter Woolley , director of the PublicMind , noted , " the numbers are pretty good for a New Jersey governor heading full tilt into an unprecedented budget crisis " . Much of the good will that was indicated by the March poll was quickly diminished , and in April 2006 , a PublicMind poll showed that Corzine 's approval rating had eroded to 39 % while his disapproval rating increased to 36 % . By July 2006 , the Governor 's ratings recovered to some extent from the April decline and in September of the same year it was clear that Corzine 's approvals had not suffered from the summer conflict over the budget and the sales tax hike ; 51 % of New Jersey voters approved of the governor 's handling of his job while 31 % disapproved . His PublicMind poll ratings remained relatively stable and healthy through the rest of 2006 and 2007 with his average approvals at 54 % and his average disapprovals at 29 % .
In January 2008 , prior to the State of the State address Corzine was at 48 % approving 32 % disapproving , according to the PublicMind poll . But another FDU PublicMind poll taken in late January , after the State of the State address , showed that governor 's ratings were slipping ; 41 % of voters approved of the job Corzine was doing while 39 % reported that they disapproved . The decline was largely in response to the governor β s plan to raise tolls on the New Jersey Turnpike and the Garden State Parkway . February 2008 was not any kinder , as a PublicMind poll indicated that his numbers continued to slip with disapprovals catching up to approvals with 42 % of voters approving and 43 % of voters disapproving . Woolley remarked on the decline saying , " Considering the beating he has taken on his toll plan , it 's remarkable that his numbers are not a good deal worse . " The governor 's approval ratings showed no recovery through September 2008 with his approvals and disapprovals averaging 42 % and 43 % respectively . Coincident with the presidential campaign , Corzine 's approval ratings saw some improvement .
In January 2009 he stood at 46 % approving and 40 % disapproving . Woolley asserted that the governor was faring relatively well in public opinion considering " the enormous and growing pressure on the state budget and on the governor to protect various constituencies " . Come March 2009 , the PublicMind Poll found that , " Gov. Jon Corzine 's standing with the New Jersey public is suffering along with the economy , " and as a result his approvals began to slip with 40 % of voters approving and 43 % disapproving . His approvals continued to decline in April as he contended with the budget and the financial crisis with 40 % approving and 49 % disapproving . At the end of his term , in January 2010 , Corzine β s approvals landed at their lowest point during the administration with 33 % approving and 58 % disapproving .
= = Post @-@ gubernatorial career = =
= = = MF Global = = =
Corzine was appointed CEO and Chairman of MF Global , a multinational futures broker and bond dealer , in March 2010 .
MF Global 's stock price declined two @-@ thirds in the final week of October 2011 and its credit rating was reduced making its debt high @-@ yield debt following huge quarterly losses . On October 31 , 2011 , trading was halted on shares of MF Global prior to the market opening , and soon thereafter MF Global announced that it had declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy . Shortly afterwards , federal regulators began an investigation into hundreds of millions of dollars in missing customer funds . Corzine resigned as CEO on November 4 , 2011 , after having retained the services of defense attorney Andrew J. Levander . It was reported that Corzine declined a severance package worth $ 12 @.@ 1 million . MF Global 's collapse was one of the ten biggest bankruptcies in U.S. history .
Corzine was subpoenaed to appear before a House committee on December 8 , 2011 , to answer questions regarding 1 @.@ 2 billion dollars of missing money from MF Global client accounts . He testified before the committee , " I simply do not know where the money is , or why the accounts have not been reconciled to date " , and that given the number of money transfers in the final days of trading at MF Global , he didn 't know specifics of the movement of the funds . He also denied authorizing any misuse of customer funds . On January 30 , 2012 , it was reported that officials investigating the case believed most of the money is unrecoverable . In March 2012 , Bloomberg reported that a memo produced by congressional investigators quotes an internal company e @-@ mail as saying Corzine gave " direct instructions " to use customer money to cover the company 's own shortfalls prior to bankruptcy . A Corzine spokesperson responded that Corzine " never gave any instruction to misuse customer funds and never intended anyone at MF Global to misuse customer funds " .
In February 2013 , a court approved a settlement deal among commodities firm MF Global 's bankruptcy trustees that will reimburse its customers for 93 percent of the value of their accounts , from which about $ 1 @.@ 6 billion had disappeared during the firm 's bankruptcy .
In June 2013 , the Commodity Futures Trading Commission filed civil charges against Corzine for using funds from MF 's customer accounts for corporate purposes . " Corzine is charged with one count of failure to segregate and misuse of customer funds and one count of failure to supervise diligently " , a news report said . The commission drew on extensive taped Corzine phone conversations in filing the complaint . Corzine 's attorney Levander issued a statement contesting the charges when they were filed .
Corzine , and managers including Bradley Abelow and Henri Steenkamp , are appealing a court ruling calling for 100 percent repayment to customers of the bankrupt brokerage . The ruling was made on November 5 , 2013 , by U.S. Bankruptcy Judge Martin Glenn and would allow all missing customer funds to be returned by the end of the year .
= = = J.C. Flowers = = =
As of 2010 Corzine served as a partner at J.C. Flowers & Co . , the private equity firm founded by a personal friend , J. Christopher Flowers . Flowers owned a 10 percent stake in MF Global and is also a former Goldman Sachs partner .
= = Electoral history = =
= = Personal life = =
Corzine married his high school sweetheart , Joanne Dougherty , in 1969 at the age of 22 , and their 33 @-@ year marriage produced three children β Jennifer , Josh , and Jeffrey . The couple separated in 2002 and were divorced in November 2003 . Jeffrey Corzine , Jon 's younger son committed suicide on March 13 , 2014 in Mexico , age 31 .
Corzine had lived with his wife in Summit , New Jersey . After their separation , Corzine moved to a condominium apartment in Hoboken .
In April 2010 , The Huffington Post announced the engagement of Corzine and psychotherapist Sharon Elghanayan ( nΓ©e Levine ) , whom he had been dating since 2004 . On November 23 , 2010 , Corzine married Elghanayan in a ceremony presided over by Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court Stuart Rabner , according to an announcement in The New York Times .
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= Postal codes in Canada =
A Canadian postal code is a six @-@ character string that forms part of a postal address in Canada . Like British and Dutch postcodes , Canada 's postal codes are alphanumeric . They are in the format A1A 1A1 , where A is a letter and 1 is a digit , with a space separating the third and fourth characters . As of September 2014 , there were 855 @,@ 815 postal codes using Forward Sortation Areas from A0A in Newfoundland to Y1A in the Yukon .
Canada Post provides a free postal code look @-@ up tool on its website , via its mobile application , and sells hard @-@ copy directories and CD @-@ ROMs . Many vendors also sell validation tools , which allow customers to properly match addresses and postal codes . Hard @-@ copy directories can also be consulted in all post offices , and some libraries .
When writing out the postal address for a location within Canada , the postal code follows the abbreviation for the province or territory .
= = History = =
= = = City postal zones = = =
Numbered postal zones were first used in Toronto in 1925 . Mail to a Toronto address in zone 5 would be addressed in this format :
37 Bloor Street West
Toronto 5 , Ontario
As of 1943 , Toronto was divided into 14 zones , numbered from 1 to 15 , except that 7 and 11 were unused , and there was a 2B zone .
By the early 1960s , other cities in Canada had been divided into postal zones , including Quebec , Montreal , Ottawa , Winnipeg and Vancouver as well as Toronto . For example , an address in Vancouver would be addressed as :
804 Robson Street ,
Vancouver 1 , B. C
In the late 1960s , however , the Post Office began implementing a three @-@ digit zone number scheme in major cities to replace existing one and two @-@ digit zone numbers , starting in Montreal , Toronto and Vancouver . For example , an address in Metropolitan Toronto would be addressed as :
1253 Bay Street
Toronto 185 , Ontario
Toronto 's renumbering took effect 1 May 1969 , accompanied by an advertising campaign under the slogan " Your number is up " . However , with impending plans for a national postal code system , Postmaster General Eric Kierans announced that the Post Office would begin cancelling the new three @-@ digit city zone system . Companies changed their mail addressing at their own expense , only to find the new zoning would prove to be short @-@ lived .
= = = Planning = = =
As the largest Canadian cities were growing in the 1950s and 1960s , the volumes of mail passing through the country 's postal system also grew , reaching billions by the 1950s , and tens of billions by the mid @-@ 1960s . Consequently , it was becoming progressively more difficult for employees who handsorted mail to memorize and keep track of all the individual letter @-@ carrier routes within each city .
New technology that allowed mail to be delivered faster also contributed to the pressure for these employees to properly sort the mail . Canada was one of the last Western countries to get a nationwide postal code system .
A report tabled in the House of Commons in 1969 dealt with the expected impact of " environmental change " on the Post Office operations over the following 25 years . A key recommendation was the " establishment of a task force to determine the nature of the automation and mechanization the Post Office should adopt , which might include design of a postal code " .
= = = Implementation = = =
In December 1969 , Communications Minister Eric Kierans announced that a six @-@ character postal code would be introduced , superseding the three @-@ digit zone system . He later tabled a report in February 1970 , entitled " A Canadian Public Address Postal Coding System " , submitted by the firm of Samson , Belair , Simpson , Riddell Inc .
The introduction of the postal code with a test in Ottawa on 1 April 1971 . Coding of Ottawa was followed by a provincial @-@ level rollout of the system in Manitoba , and the system was gradually implemented in the rest of the country from 1972 to 1974 , although the nationwide use of the code by the end of 1974 was only 38 @.@ 2 per cent .
The introduction of such a code system allowed Canada Post to speed up easily , as well as simplify , the flow of mail in the country , with sorting machines being able to handle 26 640 objects an hour . However , when the automated sorting system was initially conceived , the Canadian Union of Postal Workers and other relevant unions objected to it , mainly because the wages of those who ran the new automated machines were much lower than those who had hand @-@ sorted mail .
The unions ended up staging job action and public information campaigns , with the message that they did not want people and business to use postal codes on their mail . The union declared 20 March 1975 National " Boycott the Postal Code " Day , also demanding a reduction in the work week from 40 to 30 hours . The boycott was called off in February 1976 .
One 1975 advertisement in the Toronto magazine Byliner generated controversy by showing a man writing a postal code on the bottom of a thonged woman with the following ditty :
" We 're not ' stringing ' you along ,
Use postal codes β you 'll ' thing our ' thong ' ,
Don 't be cheeky β you 've all got ' em
Please include them on the bottom . "
The advertisement was denounced as " sexist garbage " in the House of Commons by NDP MP John Rodriguez , prompting an apology from Postmaster General Bryce Mackasey .
= = Components of a postal code = =
= = = Forward sortation areas = = =
A forward sortation area ( FSA ) is a geographical region in which all postal codes start with the same three characters . The first letter of an FSA code denotes a particular " postal district " , which , outside of Quebec and Ontario , corresponds to an entire province or territory .
Owing to Quebec 's and Ontario 's large populations , those two provinces are sub @-@ divided into three and five postal districts respectively , and each has at least one urban area so populous that it has a dedicated postal district ( " H " for the MontrΓ©al region , and " M " for Toronto ) . On the other hand , the low populations in Nunavut and the Northwest Territories ( NWT ) mean that even after Nunavut separated from the Northwest Territories and became its own territory in 1999 , they continue to share a postal district .
The digit specifies if the FSA is urban or rural . A zero indicates a wide @-@ area rural region , while all other digits indicate urban areas . The second letter represents a specific rural region , an entire medium @-@ sized city , or a section of a major metropolitan area .
A directory of FSAs is provided , divided into separate articles by postal district . Individual FSA lists are in a tabular format , with the numbers ( known as zones ) going across the table and the second letter going down the table .
The FSA lists specify all communities covered by each rural FSA . Medium @-@ sized cities may have one dedicated FSA , while larger cities have more than one FSA within their limits .
For FSAs spanning more than one city , the city which is allocated the most codes in each such FSA is listed . For cities with a small number of FSAs ( but more than one ) , the lists specify the relative location of each FSA in those cities . For cities with a large number of FSAs , applicable neighbourhoods and boroughs are specified .
= = = Local delivery units = = =
The last three characters denote a local delivery unit ( LDU ) . An LDU denotes a specific single address or range of addresses , which can correspond to an entire small town , a significant part of a medium @-@ sized town , a single side of a city block in larger cities , a single large building or a portion of a very large one , a single ( large ) institution such as a university or a hospital , or a business that receives large volumes of mail on a regular basis .
LDUs ending in zero correspond to postal facilities , from post offices and small franchised retail postal outlets all the way up to sortation plants . In urban areas , LDUs may be specific postal carriers ' routes . In rural areas where direct door @-@ to @-@ door delivery is not available , an LDU can describe a set of post office boxes or a rural route . LDU 9Z9 is used exclusively for Business Reply Mail . In rural FSAs , the first two characters are usually assigned in alphanumerical order by the name of each community .
LDU 9Z0 refers to large regional distribution centre facilities , and is also used as a placeholder , appearing in some regional postmarks such as the " K0H 9Z0 " which formerly appeared on purely local mail within the Kingston , Ontario area .
= = Number of possible postal codes = =
Postal codes do not include the letters D , F , I , O , Q or U , and the first position also does not make use of the letters W or Z. This means the maximum number of FSAs available is 3 @,@ 600 . With 2 @,@ 000 possible LDUs in each FSA , there is a theoretical limit of 7 @.@ 2 million postal codes . The practical limit is a bit lower , as Canada Post reserves some FSAs for special functions , such as for test or promotional purposes , ( e.g. the H0H 0H0 for Santa Claus , see below ) as well as for sorting mail bound for destinations outside Canada . The current Statistics Canada estimate of over 830 @,@ 000 active postal codes represents about 12 % of the entire postal code " space " , leaving more than ample room for expansion .
= = Urbanization = =
" Urbanization " is the name Canada Post uses to refer to the process where it replaces a rural postal code ( a code with a zero as its second character ) with urban postal codes . The vacated rural postal code can then be assigned to another community or retired . Canada Post decides when to urbanize a certain community when its population reaches a certain level , though different factors may also be involved .
For example , in early 2008 , the postal code G0N 3M0 ( covering Sainte @-@ Catherine @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Jacques @-@ Cartier , Fossambault @-@ sur @-@ le @-@ Lac and Lac @-@ Saint @-@ Joseph , Quebec ) was urbanized to postal codes beginning with G3N to remove ambiguities and confusions caused by similar street names . Unique among province @-@ wide districts , New Brunswick ( postal district E ) is completely urbanized , its rural codes having been phased out .
= = Santa Claus = =
In 1974 , staff at Canada Post 's Montreal office were noticing a considerable number of letters addressed to Santa Claus entering the postal system , and those letters were being treated as undeliverable . Since employees handling those letters did not want the writers , mostly young children , to be disappointed at the lack of response , they started answering the letters themselves .
The amount of mail sent to Santa Claus increased every Christmas , up to the point that Canada Post established an official Santa Claus letter @-@ response program in 1983 . By 2011 , Santa 's mail was being handled with the assistance of eleven thousand volunteers , mostly current or former postal workers , at multiple locations across Canada devoting an average twenty @-@ one hours to this seasonal task .
Approximately one million letters are addressed to Santa Claus each Christmas , including some originating outside of Canada , and all of them are answered in the same language in which they are written . Canada Post introduced a special address for mail to Santa Claus , complete with its own postal code :
SANTA CLAUS
NORTH POLE H0H 0H0
CANADA
In French , Santa 's name Père Noël translates as " Father Christmas " , addressed as :
PΓRE NOΓL
PΓLE NORD H0H 0H0
CANADA
The postal code H0H 0H0 was chosen for this special seasonal use as it reads as " Ho ho ho " .
The H0- prefix is an anomaly : the 0 indicates a very small , rural village , but H is used to designate Montreal , the second @-@ largest city in Canada . As such , the H0- prefix is almost completely empty . H0M , assigned to the international Akwesasne tribal reserve on the Canada @-@ US border , is the only other H0- postal code in active use .
In 2013 , Santa Claus was dragged into the ongoing Arctic sovereignty debate to support Canadian territorial claims extending to the North Pole . In response to attacks from Conservative MP Paul Calandra , parliamentary secretary to then @-@ Prime Minister Stephen Harper , Justin Trudeau , at the time leader of the third party Liberals , stated " Everyone knows that Santa Claus is Canadian . His postal code is H0H 0H0 . "
= = Transition points to the Canadian Forces Postal Service = =
For transition of mail from the civilian to the Canadian Forces Postal Service , the postal codes of the three corresponding military post offices on Canadian soil are used . These being , depending upon the final destination .
the Fleet Mail Offices ( FMO ) in Victoria , BC : V9A 7N2
FMO in Halifax , NS : B3K 5X5
the Canadian Forces Post Office ( CFPO ) in Belleville , ON : K8N 5W6
These postal codes each represent a number of military post offices abroad , which are specified not by postal code but by CFPO or FMO number . The LDUs in this case corresponding not so much to a physical as to a virtual delivery unit since mail is not delivered locally but is forwarded to the actual delivery units at Canadian military bases and ships abroad .
Name
Slot #
PO Box 5053 Stn Forces
Belleville ON K8N 5W6
CANADA
In this example , Canada Post will deliver to the CFPO at Belleville and the Canadian Forces Postal System will continue transport to the addressee at CFPO 5053 ( in Geilenkirchen , Germany ) by whatever means and timing the military will deem appropriate .
= = Alternate uses = =
Postal codes can be correlated with databased information from censuses or health registries to create a geographic profile of an area 's population . For instance , postal codes have been used to compare children 's risk of developing cancer and to describe a neighbourhood 's entrenched poverty ( " Vancouver 's Downtown Eastside is Canada 's poorest postal code " ) .
As Canadian electoral districts frequently follow postal code areas , citizens can identify their local elected representative using their postal code . Provincial and federal government websites offer an online " look @-@ up " feature based on postal codes . Although A1A 1A1 is sometimes displayed as a generic code for this purpose , it is actually a genuine postal code in use in the Lower Battery , St. John 's Harbour , Newfoundland . Another common " example " code in Canada Post materials , K1A 0B1 , is the valid code for the Canada Post office building in Ottawa .
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= Green Lantern Coaster =
Green Lantern Coaster is a steel roller coaster at Warner Bros. Movie World on the Gold Coast , Queensland , Australia . The ride is themed after DC Comics ' Green Lantern and is located within the park 's DC Comics superhero hub . The ride is an El Loco roller coaster manufactured by S & S Worldwide , characterised by a tight circuit featuring a beyond @-@ vertical drop and an outward banked turn . It holds the record for the steepest drop of any roller coaster in the Southern Hemisphere , and the second steepest in the world . Green Lantern Coaster officially opened on 23 December 2011 .
= = History = =
In May 2011 , preliminary groundwork began on a plot of land in front of Warner Bros. Movie World . On 31 July 2011 , the firm announced a multimillion @-@ dollar attraction coming before Christmas 2011 . In early September , pieces of S & S Worldwide roller coaster track began appearing in the car park . On 13 September 2011 , Warner Bros. Movie World began releasing cropped images of the ride 's concept art . On 17 September 2011 , the final clues were released before the official announcement that evening . It was announced that the Green Lantern Coaster would feature the steepest drop in the Southern Hemisphere . Also on 17 September 2011 , the DC Super Heroes Store opened adjacent to Batman Adventure : The Ride 2 , Batwing Spaceshot and Green Lantern Coaster . By early October , most of the support structure and the lift hill were complete . By the end of October , the ride 's construction was complete and work had begun on the entrance pathway . In early November , six trains arrived on site . Another was showcased by S & S Worldwide at the 2011 IAAPA Attractions Expo . Kevin Rohwer , an S & S Worldwide spokesman , stated that the ride would be ready on 15 December 2011 . On 28 November 2011 , testing began . The ride entered a soft opening phase on 16 December 2011 , before its official opening on 23 December 2011 .
= = = Drop angle = = =
When the Green Lantern Coaster was announced , few details were released about the ride 's drop angle other than it would be the Southern Hemisphere 's steepest . On 2 November , Warner Bros. Movie World announced via Facebook that the ride would have a drop angle of 120 Β° . On 27 November , Warner Bros. Movie World released the television commercial , which promoted that the ride would have the steepest drop in the world . Later that day they confirmed the drop would be 122 @.@ 4 Β° instead of the originally announced 120 Β° . Following the soft opening television commercials began advertising the ride . On 20 December , Warner Bros. Movie World revised the angle yet again to 120 @.@ 5 Β° ; this was the final measurement given . Only Takabisha exceeded it with a drop of 121 Β° .
= = Characteristics = =
Green Lantern Coaster is an El Loco roller coaster manufactured by S & S Worldwide . Warner Bros. Movie World collaborated with S & S Worldwide to develop an coaster that was unlike the previous models ( Mumbo Jumbo , Steel Hawg and Timber Drop ) .
= = = Trains = = =
The coaster 's seven trains double the capacity of the traditional El Loco ride from 4 seats per train to 8 seats per train . The trains are articulated in such a way that the first row of four riders moves independently from the second row . Each seat features a pair of stereo speakers in the head rest . These speakers are capable of playing multiple tracks for up to 9 minutes on a single charge . Riders are harnessed to the ride through the use of lap bars . The front of each car features a pulsing LED Green Lantern logo while the back of each car features the Green Lantern oath . All of these operational and thematic characteristics are new for this type of ride and were developed specifically for this coaster .
= = = Statistics = = =
Green Lantern Coaster features 488 metres ( 1 @,@ 601 ft ) of track on which riders reach speeds of up to 66 kilometres per hour ( 41 mph ) and experience 3 @.@ 5 Gs . The 33 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 108 ft ) ride features a first drop with an angle of 120 @.@ 5 Β° ranking it the steepest drop in the Southern Hemisphere and the second steepest in the world . The track and structure , which weigh approximately 300 tonnes ( 330 tons ) , were shipped to Australia from Italy and China , respectively , in twenty @-@ five 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) shipping containers .
= = = Theme = = =
The Green Lantern Coaster is themed around the Green Lantern series of comic books that originated in 1940 . This theme is showcased throughout the ride 's queue and the station . The ride 's theming was developed by Sculpt Studios .
= = Experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
The queue begins adjacent to the DC Super Heroes Store , opposite Batwing Spaceshot . The queue weaves its way alongside the park 's original boundary wall . Along this route several billboards inform guests of the story behind the Green Lantern . Riders turn left and enter a courtyard featuring 2D cutouts of villains as well as a 3D model of the Green Lantern . The queue turns left again and follows an upwards path to the station .
= = = Ride = = =
Green Lantern Coaster begins with a u @-@ turn out of the station . It ascends a chain lift hill before going down a small dip and into an s @-@ bend followed by a u @-@ turn . After a slight ascent , the car enters a 120 @.@ 5 Β° drop β the steepest in the southern hemisphere . The track then returns to approximately two thirds of its original height before entering the first set of block brakes . These brakes lead into a left turn with reverse or outward banking . It then drops under the block brakes and into the first inversion β a Dive Loop . The inversion begins with half of an inline twist which transitions into half of a vertical loop . Upon exiting the inversion the track inclines into a second set of block brakes . The train then goes around a right u @-@ turn and into the second inversion β a downwards inline twist . This leads into a cutback @-@ style turnaround before entering the final brake run and returning to the station .
= = = Exit = = =
Upon the completion of the ride , guests exit via a path that runs under the lift hill and alongside the park 's boundary before returning to the DC Super Heroes Store . Inside guests can purchase a variety of merchandise related to Green Lantern , Batman and Superman .
= = Reception = =
Village Roadshow Theme Parks , the owners of Warner Bros. Movie World attributed a rise in attendance to the opening of the Green Lantern Coaster . The company labelled the launch of the ride as a success . The attraction 's downtime has been reported several times by local media , however , this behaviour is not unusual for amusement rides . Green Lantern Coaster , along with other El Loco roller coasters , ranked 182 out of the 365 steel roller coasters in the worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll for 2012 .
= = Incidents = =
On 15 March 2015 , one car of a train became detached from rails when a wheel mechanism broke . A Queensland Fire Service Inspector described it as " a fairly catastrophic failure of the carriage " that was the " first time we 'd ever seen the actual failure of the machinery " . An investigation revealed that there was a design flaw in the wheel assembly dealing with a bolted joint , and that there was " really nothing that Movie World could have done to prevent it . S & S Worldwide redesigned the flawed components , and tested the ride , before it reopened to the public on 16 December 2015 .
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= A Christmas Carol ( Doctor Who ) =
" A Christmas Carol " is an episode of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who . It is the sixth Doctor Who Christmas special since the programme 's revival in 2005 , and was broadcast on 25 December 2010 on both BBC One and BBC America , making it the first episode to premiere on the same day in both the United Kingdom and United States . It was written by Steven Moffat and directed by Toby Haynes .
In the episode , newly wedded companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) are trapped on a crashing space liner which has been caught in a strange cloud belt . They call the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) , who lands on the planet below and meets the miserly Kazran Sardick ( Michael Gambon ) , a man who can control the cloud layer but refuses to help . Inspired by Charles Dickens 's A Christmas Carol , the episode has the Doctor attempting to use time travel to alter Kazran 's past and make him kinder so he will save the spaceship .
Moffat enjoyed writing the episode and was a fan of Dickens ' story himself . The story features flying sharks and fish , which were things Moffat was afraid of as a child . The episode features the acting debut of Welsh singer Katherine Jenkins , who also sang in the episode with a song written specifically for her . " A Christmas Carol " was filmed through July and August 2010 mainly on sets designed by the show 's new set designer Michael Pickwood . The special was seen by 12 @.@ 11 million viewers in the UK and received generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
A space liner carrying 4003 passengers , including Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) on their honeymoon , loses control when passing through strange electrified clouds over a human @-@ inhabited planet . The Doctor ( Matt Smith ) , summoned by Amy , is unable to use the TARDIS to save the ship , and instead lands on the planet and discovers that a spire in the centre of a large city is influencing the atmosphere . Its owner , the bitter and peevish old Kazran Sardick ( Michael Gambon ) , refuses to operate the " isomorphic " controls to deactivate the spire and allow the ship to land safely . The Doctor observes Kazran 's fear of his father who had built the spire , and creates a scheme inspired by Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol to make Kazran kinder .
He ventures to Kazran 's past and meets him as a kind @-@ hearted young boy , interested in the unique properties of the planet 's atmosphere that allow fish to swim in it . The Doctor experiments with Kazran , leading to a shark entering the room and swallowing the Doctor 's sonic screwdriver . Though the Doctor is able to recover part of the screwdriver , the shark is wounded in the effort , unable to swim back into the atmosphere . Kazran offers a solution by taking him to a cryogenic storeroom where his father has kept people in storage as " security " for loans , including Abigail ( Katherine Jenkins ) , a young woman with whom Kazran has been enamored . Abigail , once released , sings to soothe the shark while the Doctor uses Abigail 's cryo @-@ unit to transport the shark back to the atmosphere . As the Doctor and Kazran return Abigail to storage , Kazran promises her they will see her every Christmas Eve . The Doctor keeps this promise , using the TARDIS to jump forward each year , helping to reunite Kazran and Abigail and watching their relationship blossom with the two falling in love and eventually kissing . However , after one such visit , Abigail tells the now young adult Kazran a secret , and Kazran requests the Doctor end the practice , keeping Abigail in storage indefinitely . Though old Kazran in the present becomes pleased with his new memories , he remains bitter at Abigail 's fate and refuses to help save the ship . As a result of the Doctor 's actions , instead of being cruel and heartless , Kazran is bitter and heartbroken .
Old Kazran is soon visited by holographic images of the ship 's crew in the present . After observing the effects of Abigail 's singing , the crew is singing Christmas carols , the sound frequencies of which are helping to stabilise the ship but cannot prevent it from crashing . Amy appears to Kazran and implores his help , but he waves away the holograms . The Doctor appears , and Kazran surmises that he is there to show Kazran his future , but he could not care less if he dies old and alone ; he reveals that Abigail had an incurable disease on entering cryostorage and will only have one more day to live . As he cannot decide which day that should be , Kazran chastises the Doctor for believing he could change his mind . Unbeknownst to Kazran , the Doctor has brought young Kazran with him ; the realisation of how much his bitter future self now resembles his feared father causes a change of heart in Kazran ( making his own memory of his future self the show 's version of the ghost of Christmas yet to come ) , and he quickly agrees to release the controls to save the ship .
The Doctor finds his changes to Kazran 's past have locked him out from the spire 's controls , but the Doctor devises a solution : by having Abigail sing through one half of the broken sonic screwdriver , the other half , still in the shark , will resonate in the atmosphere and disrupt the storm to allow the ship to land safely . Kazran releases Abigail knowing this will be the last time , but Abigail understands and believes it is time for them to share a Christmas Day . The plan works successfully , and the resulting cloud break @-@ out creates snowfall that falls around the city . As the Doctor rejoins Amy and Rory and prepares to take young Kazran back to the past , old Kazran and Abigail enjoy one last shark @-@ led carriage @-@ ride together .
= = = Continuity = = =
Several nods to earlier outfits in the series appear in " A Christmas Carol " . Amy Pond wears her kissogram policewoman 's outfit from " The Eleventh Hour " , while Rory wears a Roman centurion 's outfit as seen in " The Pandorica Opens " . In one of the many Christmas Eves the Doctor and Kazran spend with Abigail , they present themselves to her in long , stripy scarves , the Fourth Doctor 's trademark accessory . The two also appear in fezzes , an item of clothing the Doctor became fond of in " The Big Bang " . Kazran 's controls are " isomorphic " , which means that only he can use them . In Pyramids of Mars ( 1975 ) , the TARDIS 's controls are said to be isomorphic , though in subsequent adventures this feature was retained or ignored as the plot demands .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Writer Steven Moffat , who is also head writer and executive producer of the series , wanted to make the special " really Christmassy " because the previous Christmas special , The End of Time , had been darker than usual as it led to the Tenth Doctor 's ( David Tennant ) regeneration . He stated that he had " never been so excited about writing anything . I was laughing madly as I typed along to Christmas songs in April " . Moffat stated that A Christmas Carol was " probably [ his ] favourite Christmas story " and that it lent itself to Doctor Who , as there was an aspect similar to time travel in the story . He also pointed out that the Doctor intentionally based his reform of Kazran on Dickens ' story ; Dickens exists as a character in the Doctor Who universe , having appeared in the 2005 episode " The Unquiet Dead " . The concept of the sky shark was based on Moffat 's childhood fear of sharks which had evolved to swim outside the water .
Moffat noted that Kazran was unlike other villains found in Doctor Who , as he was not completely " wicked " . Instead he was more of a " damaged " character ; the Doctor recognises this when Kazran demonstrates his inability to hit a little boy , due to it reminding him of when his father beat him . This allowed the Doctor to want to change his past and " defrost " his soul . The phrase " halfway out of the dark " is used in the episode , a reference to the fact that the hard winter is almost over as well as a metaphor for Kazran .
= = = Casting = = =
Starting with this episode , Arthur Darvill achieved regular status . British actor Michael Gambon was cast in the role of Kazran . Andy Pryor , the casting director , did not believe Gambon would be available , and was surprised when Gambon accepted the role . Smith , Gillan , and Darvill were very honoured to work with him . Moffat stated , " Michael Gambon is as distinguished an actor as I can imagine and the fact that he was Dumbledore means that he is already known to millions of children " . Kazran was played as a boy by Laurence Belcher and as a young adult by Danny Horn . Director Toby Haynes said that acting came naturally to Belcher and he " captured the story " and drew the audience in .
The episode also features the acting debut of Welsh singer Katherine Jenkins . Shortly before her 30th birthday in June 2010 , Jenkins was asked about the part , and she accepted . Moffat was unaware that Jenkins had no former acting experience . Jenkins originally was not interested in acting , but thought that she would " like to try " Doctor Who , as it was " such an iconic show " . Producer Sanne Wohlenberg believed that Jenkins was " a perfect fit " for the role . Though she was nervous , Jenkins found the Doctor Who team " encouraging and supportive " and believed she would act again " if the right thing came along " .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
A read @-@ through took place in Cardiff on Thursday , 8 July and production started on 12 July 2010 and lasted into August 2010 . The episode marked the debut of Michael Pickwood as the new set designer . Pickwood and Haynes worked together to create the town , incorporating elements that would be needed in a society that shared its daily life with fish . Nearly all windows in the town are round , reminiscent of submarines . The structures were made out of metal , filmed at a local steel works . Kazran 's study was designed to be very large , as Kazran spent several scenes in there alone and would feel " dwarfed " by it . The walls were intended to look like copper that had turned green , which when combined with the red drapes created the Christmas colours of red and green . The painting of Kazran 's father was created by taking a picture of Gambon , lightly printing it on a canvas , and painting in the details . Kazran 's controls were inspired by a church organ .
The Doctor 's first scene in the episode is falling down the chimney and presenting himself to Kazran . Smith was pleased with the entrance of his character , noting similarities between the Doctor and Santa Claus . However , a stuntman performed the scene . For the scene in which a sky fish nibbles on the sonic screwdriver , the screwdriver was dangled in front of a greenscreen and tapped with a pen to create the effect of the fish nudging it . To maintain secrecy of the episode 's plot , the model shark was given the codename " Clive " . The scenes in which the characters ride through the air in a sleigh pulled by one of the flying sharks was filmed in front of a greenscreen . The sleigh was in fact a rickshaw which crew members rocked back and forth as a wind machine created the effect of flying through the air . As it was impossible to film underneath the rickshaw , a miniature model of the sleigh was used for the shots underneath the sleigh rather than computer @-@ generated effects .
= = = Music = = =
The episode features a song specifically written for Jenkins , titled " Abigail 's Song " . In the script it was written that the song was unique and specific to Doctor Who , and composer Murray Gold was contacted to write the song . Jenkins did a demo and then sang the song while filming the actual scene , as she thought it would look more natural . Afterwards she sang the final version and new , lighter arrangement was composed by the National Orchestra of Wales . Selected pieces of music from this special , as composed by Gold , were released on a soundtrack 21 March 2011 by Silva Screen Records .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" A Christmas Carol " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on Christmas Day 2010 . According to overnight figures , " A Christmas Carol " was tied with Come Fly with Me as the second most @-@ watched programme on Christmas Day in the United Kingdom , behind EastEnders , and with an average viewership of 10 @.@ 3 million peaking at 10 @.@ 7 million . The final rating for BBC One was 12 @.@ 11 , making the episode the fourth highest rated of the entire canon since the series was revived in 2005 , behind previous specials " Voyage of the Damned " ( 13 @.@ 31 million , 2007 ) , " The Next Doctor " ( 13 @.@ 10 million , 2008 ) , and Part Two of The End of Time ( 12 @.@ 27 million , 2010 ) . " A Christmas Carol " was the third highest rated show on all UK TV for the week ending 26 December 2010 . In addition , 716 @,@ 000 watched the show on the BBC 's iPlayer , making it the eighth most downloaded show for December 2010 . This special had an Appreciation Index of 83 .
" A Christmas Carol " is the first episode of Doctor Who that was broadcast the same day in the United Kingdom and in the United States on BBC America . In the United States , 727 @,@ 000 viewers watched " A Christmas Carol " , an 8 % increase on the previous holiday special , part one of The End of Time . The special was broadcast in Canada on Space on 26 December and in Australia on ABC1 on the same day , where it had overnight ratings of 880 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received generally positive reviews . Dan Martin of The Guardian described the episode as a " sumptuous triumph " . Website Den of Geek 's Simon Brew applauded Moffat for " not taking the easy way out " with the adaptation , saying it was " really quite mad , undoubtedly festive , and it treats the Dickens source material with respect " . However , he also wondered if young children " would have enjoyed ' A Christmas Carol ' quite as much " as adults " . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the special an A- , naming it the " best Doctor Who Christmas special " he had seen . He praised Gambon , Smith , both actors playing the younger Kazran and thought Gillan and Darvill " [ made ] the most of what they 're given " , though he commented that " Katherine Jenkins is more an ethereal presence with a lovely voice ... than an actress " .
Dave Golder of SFX gave the episode four and a half out of five stars , explaining that , although there were " creaky " moments , it was " the most adult Christmas special we 've yet been given , with some complex story @-@ telling techniques , a plot driven by the characters and some quite mind @-@ bending concepts " . He praised Jenkins ' debut and Smith , whom he described as " a force of nature unleashed on screen " . IGN 's Cindy White rated the episode 8 out of 10 , describing it as a " clever remix " of A Christmas Carol and praising Smith , Gambon , and Jenkins . Brad Trechak , writing for TV Squad , praised Moffat 's " expertly woven story " . MTV 's Rick Marshall called it " easily one of the best episodes of the series ' modern era ... populated with just the right amount of humor , drama , scares , and sentimental reverence for the classic story that inspired its narrative " .
Sam McPherson of Zap2it said that he " enjoyed ' A Christmas Carol ' more than I have almost any other special that has aired since the series restarted in 2005 " , but thought that " some parts were absolutely silly , and others were absolutely incoherent " due to the frantic pace . While he considered Amy and Rory " criminally underused " , they were responsible for " heavy laughs " and left the Doctor to be the " delight of the episode " . The Daily Telegraph 's Chris Harvey was less enthusiastic about the episode , saying that it " started nicely " , but that " by the time she was singing to the shark , I 'd had enough , " while thinking that , " It 's not really for old curmudgeons like me , who got more of a kick out of Michael Gambon 's miserly Kazran Sardick when he was sneering and snarling at the beginning of the episode than when he had been thoroughly heartwarmed by the end . "
" A Christmas Carol " was nominated for the 2011 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) , but lost to the preceding series finale " The Pandorica Opens " / " The Big Bang " .
= = DVD and Blu @-@ ray release = =
" A Christmas Carol " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray as a standalone in Region 2 on 24 January 2011 , followed by Region 1 release in the two formats on 15 February 2011 . It contained the associated Doctor Who Confidential for the episode , as well as a cut @-@ down version of the Doctor Who Prom . The special was also included in the Complete Sixth Series box set released on 21 November 2011 ( Region 2 ) and 22 November ( Region 1 ) .
The ten Christmas specials between " The Christmas Invasion " and " Last Christmas " inclusive were released in a boxset titled Doctor Who β The 10 Christmas Specials on 19 October 2015 .
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= LIM @-@ 49 Nike Zeus =
Nike Zeus was an anti @-@ ballistic missile ( ABM ) system developed by the US Army during the late 1950s and early 1960s , designed to destroy Soviet intercontinental ballistic missile warheads before they could hit targets in the United States . It was designed by Bell 's Nike team , and was initially based on the earlier Nike Hercules anti @-@ aircraft missile . The original Zeus A , given the tri @-@ service identifier XLIM @-@ 49 , was designed to intercept warheads in the upper atmosphere , mounting a 25 kiloton W31 nuclear warhead to guarantee a kill . During development it was greatly enlarged and extended into a totally new design , Zeus B , intended to intercept warheads over a much larger area , and mounting a 400 kiloton W50 warhead . In several successful tests , the B model proved itself able to intercept warheads , and even satellites .
The nature of the strategic threat changed dramatically during the period that Zeus was being developed . Originally expected to face only a few dozen ICBMs , a nationwide defense was feasible , although expensive . In 1957 , growing fears of a Soviet sneak attack led it to be repositioned as a way to protect Strategic Air Command 's bomber bases , ensuring a retaliatory strike force would survive . But when the Soviets claimed to be building hundreds of missiles , the US faced the problem of building enough Zeus missiles to match them . The Air Force suggested they close this missile gap by building more ICBMs of their own instead . Adding to the debate , a number of technical problems emerged that suggested Zeus would have little capability against any sort of sophisticated attack .
The system was the topic of intense inter @-@ service rivalry throughout its lifetime . When the ABM role was given to the Army in 1958 , the United States Air Force began a long series of critiques on Zeus , both within defense circles and in the press . The Army returned these attacks in kind , taking out full page advertisements in popular mass market news magazines to promote Zeus , as well as spreading development contracts across many states in order to garner the maximum political support . As deployment neared in the early 1960s , the debate became a major political issue . The question ultimately became whether or not a system with limited effectiveness would be better than nothing at all .
The decision whether to proceed with Zeus eventually fell to President John F. Kennedy , who became fascinated by the indecision surrounding the ABM system . In 1963 , the United States Secretary of Defense , Robert McNamara , convinced Kennedy to cancel Zeus . McNamara directed its funding towards studies of new ABM concepts being considered by ARPA , selecting the Nike @-@ X concept which addressed Zeus ' various problems by using an extremely high @-@ speed missile , Sprint , along with greatly improved radars and computer systems . The Zeus test site built at Kwajalein was briefly used as an anti @-@ satellite weapon .
= = History = =
= = = Early ABM studies = = =
The first known serious study on attacking ballistic missiles with interceptor missiles was carried out by the Army Air Force in 1946 , when two contracts were sent out as Project Wizard and Project Thumper to consider the problem of shooting down missiles of the V @-@ 2 type . These projects identified the main problem being one of detection ; the target could approach from anywhere within of hundreds of miles , and reached their targets in only five minutes . Existing radar systems would have difficulty seeing the missile launch at those ranges , and even assuming one had detected the missile , existing command and control arrangements would have serious problems forwarding that information to the battery in time for them to attack . The task appeared impossible at that time .
However , these results also noted that the system might be able to work against longer @-@ ranged missiles . Although these traveled at very high speeds , their higher altitude trajectories made detection simpler , and the longer flight times provided more time to prepare . Both projects were allowed to continue as research efforts , and were transferred to the US Air Force when that force separated from the Army in 1947 . The Air Force faced significant budget constraints and cancelled Thumper in 1949 in order to use its funds to continue their GAPA surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) . The next year they merged the Wizard and GAPA projects to develop a new long @-@ range SAM design , which would emerge a decade later as the CIM @-@ 10 Bomarc . ABM research at the Air Force practically , although not officially , ended .
= = = Nike II = = =
By the early 1950s the Army was firmly established in the surface @-@ to @-@ air missile field with their Nike and Nike B missile projects . These projects had been led by Bell Labs , working with Douglas .
The Army contacted the Johns Hopkins University Operations Research Office ( ORO ) to consider the task of shooting down ballistic missiles using a Nike @-@ like system . The ORO report took three years to complete , and the resulting The Defense of the United States Against Aircraft and Missiles was comprehensive . While this study was still progressing , in February 1955 the Army began initial talks with Bell , and in March they contracted Bell 's Nike team to begin a detailed 18 @-@ month study of the problem under the name Nike II .
The first section of the Bell study was returned to the Army Ordnance department at the Redstone Arsenal on 2 December 1955 . It considered the full range of threats including existing jet aircraft , future ramjet powered aircraft flying at up to 3 @,@ 000 knots ( 5 @,@ 600 km / h ) , short @-@ range ballistic missiles of the V @-@ 2 type flying at about the same speed , and an ICBM reentry vehicle ( RV ) traveling at 14 @,@ 000 knots ( 26 @,@ 000 km / h ) . They suggested that a missile with a common rocket booster could serve all of these roles by changing between two upper stages ; one with fins for use in the atmosphere against aircraft , and another with vestigial fins and thrust vectoring for use above the atmosphere against missiles .
Considering the ICBM problem , the study went on to suggest that the system would have to be effective between 95 and 100 % of the time in order to be worthwhile . They considered attacks against the RV while the missile was in the midcourse , just as it reached the highest point in its trajectory and was traveling at its slowest speed . Practical limitations eliminated this possibility , as it required the ABM to be launched at about the same time as the ICBM in order to meet in the middle , and they could not imagine a way to arrange this . Working at much shorter ranges , during the terminal phase , seemed the only possible solution .
Bell returned a further study , delivered on 4 January 1956 , that demonstrated the need to intercept the incoming warheads at 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) altitude , and suggested that this was within the abilities of an upgraded version of the Nike B missile . Given a terminal speed up to 5 miles per second ( 18 @,@ 000 miles per hour ( 29 @,@ 000 km / h ) ) , combined with the time it would take an interceptor missile to climb to the RV 's altitude , the system required that the RV be initially detected at about 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) range . Due to the RV 's relatively small size and limited radar signature , this would demand extremely powerful radars .
To ensure the destruction of the RV , or at least render the warhead within it unusable , the W31 would have to be fired when it was within a few hundred feet of the RV . Given the angular resolution of existing radars , this limited range significantly . Bell considered an active radar seeker , which improved in accuracy as it flew toward the RV , but these proved too large to be practical . A command guidance system like the early Nikes seemed to be the only solution .
The interceptor would lose maneuverability as it climbed out of the atmosphere and its aerodynamic surfaces became less effective , so it would have to be directed onto the target as rapidly as possible , leaving only minor fine tuning later in the engagement . This required that accurate tracks be developed for both the warhead and outgoing missile very quickly in comparison to a system like Nike B where the guidance could be updated throughout the engagement . This demanded new computers and tracking radars with much higher processing rates than the systems used on earlier Nikes . Bell suggested that their transistor offered the solution to the data processing problem .
After running 50 @,@ 000 simulated intercepts on analog computers , Bell returned a final report on the concept in October 1956 , indicating that the system was within the state of the art . A 13 November 1956 memo gave new names to the entire Nike series ; the original Nike became Nike Ajax , Nike B became Nike Hercules , and Nike II became Nike Zeus .
= = = Army vs. Air Force = = =
The Army and Air Force had been involved in interservice fighting over missile systems since they split in 1947 . The Army considered surface @-@ to @-@ surface missiles ( SSM ) an extension of conventional artillery , and surface @-@ to @-@ air designs as the modern replacement for their anti @-@ aircraft artillery . The Air Force considered the nuclear SSM to be an extension of their strategic bombing role , and any sort of long @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft system to be their domain as it would integrate with their fighter fleet . Both forces were developing missiles for both roles , leading to considerable duplication of effort which was widely seen as wasteful .
By the mid @-@ 1950s some of these projects were simply tit @-@ for @-@ tat efforts . When the Army 's Hercules began deployment , the Air Force complained that it was inferior to their Bomarc and that the Army was " unfit to guard the nation " . When the Army started its Jupiter missile efforts , the Air Force responded by starting its own IRBM , Thor . So when the Army announced Nike II , the Air Force reactivated Wizard , this time as a long @-@ range anti @-@ ICBM system of much greater performance than Zeus .
In a 26 November 1956 memorandum , US Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson attempted to end the fighting and prevent duplication . His solution was to limit the Army to weapons with 200 @-@ mile ( 320 km ) range , and those involved in surface @-@ to @-@ air defense to only 100 miles ( 160 km ) . The memo also placed limits on Army air operations , severely limiting the weight of the aircraft it was allowed to operate . To some degree this simply formalized what had largely already been the case in practice , but Jupiter fell outside the range limits and the Army was forced to hand them to the Air Force .
The result was another round of fighting between the two forces . Jupiter had been designed to be a highly accurate weapon able to attack Soviet military bases in Europe , as compared to Thor , which was intended to attack Soviet cities and had accuracy on the order of several miles . Losing Jupiter , the Army was eliminated from any offensive strategic role . In return , the Air Force complained that Zeus was too long @-@ ranged and the ABM effort should center on Wizard . But the Jupiter handover meant that Zeus was now the only strategic program being carried out by the Army , and its cancellation would mean " virtually the surrender of the defense of America to the U.S.A.F at some future date . "
= = = Gaither Report , missile gap = = =
In May 1957 , Eisenhower tasked the President 's Science Advisory Committee ( PSAC ) to provide a report on the potential effectiveness of fallout shelters and other means of protecting the US population in the event of a nuclear war . Chaired by Horace Rowan Gaither , the PSAC team completed their study in September , publishing it officially on 7 November as Deterrence & Survival in the Nuclear Age , but today known as the Gaither Report . After ascribing an expansionist policy to the USSR , along with suggestions that they were more heavily developing their military than the US , the Report suggested that there would be a significant gap in capability in the late 1950s due to spending levels .
While the report was being prepared , in August 1957 the Soviets launched their R @-@ 7 Semyorka ( SS @-@ 6 ) ICBM , and followed this up with the successful launch of Sputnik 1 in October . Over the next few months , a series of intelligence reviews resulted in ever increasing estimates of the Soviet missile force . National Intelligence Estimate ( NIE ) 11 @-@ 10 @-@ 57 , issued in December 1957 , stated that the Soviets would have perhaps 10 prototype missiles in service by mid @-@ 1958 . But after Nikita Khrushchev claimed to be producing them " like sausages " , the numbers began to rapidly inflate . NIE 11 @-@ 5 @-@ 58 , released in August 1958 , suggested there would be 100 ICBMs in service by 1960 , and 500 by 1961 or 1962 at the latest .
With the NIE reports suggesting the existence of the gap Gaither predicted , near panic broke out in military circles . In response , the US began to rush its own ICBM efforts , centered on the SM @-@ 65 Atlas . These missiles would be less susceptible to attack by ICBM than bombers , especially in future versions which would be launched from underground silos . But even as Atlas was rushed , it appeared there would be a missile gap ; NIE estimates made during the late 1950s suggested the Soviets would have significantly more ICBMs than the US between 1959 and 1963 , at which point US production would finally catch up .
With even a few hundred missies , the Soviets could afford to target every US bomber base . With no warning system in place , a sneak attack could destroy a significant amount of the US bomber fleet on the ground . The US would still have the airborne alert force and its own small ICBM fleet , but the USSR would have its entire bomber fleet and any missiles they did not launch , leaving them with a massive strategic advantage . To ensure this could not happen , the Report called for the installation of active defenses at SAC bases , Hercules in the short term and an ABM for the 1959 period , along with new early warning radars for ballistic missiles to allow alert aircraft to get away before the missiles hit . Even Zeus would come too late to cover this period , and some consideration was given to an adapted Hercules or a land based version of the Navy 's RIM @-@ 8 Talos as an interim ABM .
= = = Zeus B = = =
Douglas Aircraft had been selected to build the missiles for Zeus , known under the company designation DM @-@ 15 . This was essentially a scaled @-@ up Hercules with an improved , more powerful single piece booster replacing Hercules ' cluster of four smaller boosters . Intercepts could take place at the limits of the Wilson requirements , at ranges and altitudes of about 100 miles ( 160 km ) . Prototype launches were planned for 1959 . For more rapid service entry there had been some consideration given to an interim system based on the original Hercules missile , but these efforts were dropped . Likewise , early requirements for a secondary anti @-@ aircraft role were also eventually dropped .
Wilson signaled his intention to retire in early 1957 , and Eisenhower began looking for a replacement . During his exit interview , only four days after Sputnik , Wilson told Eisenhower that " trouble is rising between the Army and the Air Force over the ' anti @-@ missile @-@ missile ' . " The new Secretary of Defense , Neil McElroy , took office on 9 October 1957 . McElroy was previously president of Procter & Gamble and was best known for the invention of the concept of brand management and product differentiation . He had little federal experience , and the launch of Sputnik left him little time to ease into the position .
Shortly after taking office , McElroy formed a panel to investigate ABM issues . The panel examined the Army and Air Force projects , and found the Zeus program considerably more advanced than Wizard . McElroy told the Air Force to stop work on ABM missiles and use Wizard funding for the development of long @-@ range radars for early warning and raid identification . These were already under development as the BMEWS network . The Army was handed the job of actually shooting down the warheads , and McElroy gave them free hand to develop an ABM system as they saw fit , free of any range limitations .
The team designed a much larger missile with a greatly enlarged upper fuselage and three stages , more than doubling the launch weight . This version extended range , with interceptions taking place as far as 200 miles ( 320 km ) downrange and over 100 miles ( 160 km ) in altitude . An even larger booster took the missile to hypersonic speeds while still in the lower atmosphere , so the missile fuselage had to be covered over completely with a phenolic ablative heat shield to protect the airframe from melting . Another change was to combine the aerodynamic controls used for control in the lower atmosphere with the thrust vectoring engines , using a single set of movable jet vanes for both roles .
The new DM @-@ 15B Nike Zeus B ( the earlier model retroactively becoming the A ) received a go ahead for development on 16 January 1958 , the same date the Air Force was officially told to stop all work on a Wizard missile . On 22 January 1958 , the National Security Council gave Zeus S @-@ Priority , the highest national priority . Additional funds were requested to the Zeus program to ensure an initial service date in the fourth quarter of 1962 , but these were denied , delaying service entry until some time in 1963 .
= = = Exchange ratio and other problems = = =
With their change of fortunes after McElroy 's 1958 decision , Army General James M. Gavin publicly stated that Zeus would soon replace strategic bombers as the nation 's main deterrent . In response to this turn of events , the Air Force stepped up their policy by press release efforts against the Army , as well as agitating behind the scenes within the Defense Department .
As part of their Wizard research , the Air Force had developed a formula that compared the cost of an ICBM to the ABM needed to shoot it down . The formula , later known as the cost @-@ exchange ratio , could be expressed as a dollar figure ; if the cost of the ICBM was less than that figure , the economic advantage was in favor of the offense - they could build more ICBMs for less money than the ABMs needed to shoot them down . A variety of scenarios demonstrated that it was almost always the case that the offense had the advantage . The Air Force ignored this inconvenient problem while they were still working on Wizard , but as soon as the Army was handed sole control of the ABM efforts , they immediately submitted it to McElroy . McElroy identified this as an example of interservice fighting , but was concerned that the formula might be correct .
For an answer , McElroy turned to the Re @-@ entry Body Identification Group ( RBIG ) , a sub @-@ group of the Gaither Committee led by William E. Bradley , Jr. that had been studying the issue of penetrating a Soviet ABM system . The RBIG had delivered an extensive report on the topic on 2 April 1958 which suggested that defeating a Soviet ABM system would not be difficult . Their primary suggestion was to arm US missiles with more than one warhead , a concept known as Multiple Re @-@ entry Vehicles ( MRV ) . Each warhead would also be modified with radiation hardening , ensuring only a near miss could damage it . This would mean that the Soviets would have to launch at least one interceptor for each US warhead , while the US could launch multiple warheads without building a single new missile . If the Soviets added more interceptors to counter the increased number of US warheads , the US could counter this with a smaller number of new missiles of their own . The cost balance was always in favor of the offense . This basic concept would remain the primary argument against ABMs for the next two decades .
Turning this argument about , the RBIG delivered a report to McElroy that agreed with the Air Force 's original claims on the ineffectiveness of ABMs based on cost . But then they went on to consider the Zeus system itself , and noted that its use of mechanically steered radars , with one radar per missile , meant that Zeus could only launch a small number of missiles at once . If the Soviets also deployed MRV , even a single ICBM would cause several warheads to arrive at the same time , and Zeus would simply not have time to shoot at them all . They calculated that only four warheads arriving within one minute would result in one of them hitting the Zeus base 90 % of the time . Thus one or two Soviet missiles would destroy 100 Zeus 's . The RBIG noted that an ABM system " demands such a high rate of fire from an active defense system , in order to intercept the numerous reentry bodies which arrive nearly simultaneously , that the expense of the required equipment may be prohibitive " . They went on to question the " ultimate impossibility " of an ABM system .
= = = Project Defender = = =
McElroy responded to the RBIG report in two ways . First , he turned to the newly created ARPA group to examine the RBIG report . APRA , directed by Chief Scientist Herbert York , returned another report broadly agreeing with everything they said . Considering both the need to penetrate a Soviet ABM and a potential US ABM system , York noted that :
When this report was received , McElroy then charged ARPA to begin studying long term solutions to the ICBM defense , looking for systems that would avoid the apparently insurmountable problem presented by the exchange ratio .
ARPA responded by forming Project Defender , initially considering a wide variety of far out concepts like particle beam weapons , lasers and huge fleets of space @-@ borne interceptor missiles , the latter known as Project BAMBI . In May 1958 , York also began working with Lincoln Labs , MIT 's radar research lab , to begin researching ways to distinguish warheads from decoys by radar or other means . This project emerged as the Pacific Range Electromagnetic Signature Studies , or Project PRESS .
= = = More problems = = =
In the midst of the growing debate over Zeus ' abilities , the US conducted its first high yield , high altitude tests β Hardtack Teak on 1 August 1958 , and Hardtack Orange on 12 August . These demonstrated a number of previously unknown or underestimated effects , notably that nuclear fireballs grew to very large size and caused all of the air in or immediately below the fireball to become opaque to radar signals , an effect that became known as nuclear blackout . This was extremely worrying for any system like Zeus , which would not be able to track warheads in or behind such a fireball , including those of the Zeus ' own warheads .
If this were not enough , there was a growing awareness that simple radar reflectors could be launched along with the warhead that would be indistinguishable to Zeus ' radars . This problem was first alluded to in 1958 in public talks that mentioned Zeus ' inability to discriminate targets . If the decoys spread apart further than the lethal radius of the Zeus ' warhead , several interceptors will be required to guarantee that the warhead hiding among the decoys will be destroyed . Decoys are lightweight , and would slow down when they began to reenter the upper atmosphere , allowing them to be picked out , or decluttered . But by that time it would be so close to the Zeus base that there might not be time for the Zeus to climb to altitude .
In 1959 the Defense Department ordered one more study on the basic Zeus system , this time by the PSAC . They put together a heavyweight group with some of the most famous and influential scientists forming its core , including Hans Bethe who had worked on the Manhattan Project and later on the hydrogen bomb , Wolfgang Panofsky , the director of the High @-@ Energy Physics Lab at Stanford University , and Harold Brown , director of the Lawrence Livermore weapons lab , among similar luminaries . The PSAC report was almost a repeat of the RBIG . They recommended that Zeus should not be built , at least without significant changes to allow it to better deal with the emerging problems .
Throughout , Zeus was the focus of fierce controversy in both the press and military circles . Even as testing started , it was unclear if development would continue . President Eisenhower 's defense secretaries , McElroy ( 1957 β 59 ) and Thomas S. Gates , Jr . ( 1959 β 61 ) , were unconvinced that the system was worth the cost . Eisenhower was highly skeptical , questioning whether an effective ABM system could be developed in the 1960s . Another harsh critic on cost grounds was Edward Teller , who simply stated that the exchange ratio meant the solution was to build more ICBMs .
= = = Kennedy and Zeus = = =
John F. Kennedy campaigned on the platform that Eisenhower was weak on defense and that he was not doing enough to solve the looming missile gap . After his win in the 1960 elections he was flooded with calls and letters urging that Zeus be continued . This was a concentrated effort on the part of the Army , who fought back against similar Air Force tactics . They also deliberately spread the Zeus contracts over 37 states in order to gain as much political and industrial support as possible , while taking out advertisements in major mass @-@ market magazines like Life and The Saturday Evening Post promoting the system .
Kennedy appointed Army General Maxwell D. Taylor as his Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Taylor , like most Army brass , was a major supporter of the Zeus program . Kennedy and Taylor initially agreed to build a huge Zeus deployment with seventy batteries and 7 @,@ 000 missiles . McNamara was also initially in favor of the system , but suggested a much smaller deployment of twelve batteries with 1 @,@ 200 missiles . A contrary note was put forth by Jerome Wiesner , recently appointed as Kennedy 's scientific advisor , and chair of the 1959 PSAC report . He began to educate Kennedy on the technical problems inherent to the system . He also had lengthy discussions with David Bell , the budget director , who came to realize the enormous cost of any sort of reasonable Zeus system .
Kennedy was fascinated by the Zeus debate , especially the way that scientists were lined up on diametrically opposed positions for or against the system . He commented to Wiesner , " I don β t understand . Scientists are supposed to be rational people . How can there be such differences on a technical issue ? " His fascination grew and he eventually compiled a mass of material on Zeus which took up one corner of a room where he spent hundreds of hours becoming an expert on the topic . In one meeting with Edward Teller , Kennedy demonstrated that he knew more about the Zeus and ABMs than Teller . Teller then expended considerable effort to bring himself up to the same level of knowledge . Wiesner would later note that the pressure to make a decision built up until " Kennedy came to feel that the only thing anybody in the country was concerned about was Nike @-@ Zeus . "
To add to the debate , it was becoming clear that the missile gap was fictional . The first Corona spy satellite mission in August 1960 put limits on their program that appeared to be well below the lower bound of any of the estimates , and a follow @-@ up mission in late 1961 clearly demonstrated the US had a massive strategic lead . A new intelligence report published in 1961 reported that the Soviets had no more than 25 ICBMs and would not be able to add more for some time .
Nevertheless , Zeus continued slowly moving towards deployment . On 22 September 1961 , McNamara approved funding for continued development , and approved initial deployment of a Zeus system protecting twelve selected metropolitan areas . These included Washington / Baltimore , New York , Los Angeles , Chicago , Philadelphia , Detroit , Ottawa / Montreal , Boston , San Francisco , Pittsburgh , St. Louis , and Toronto / Buffalo . However , the deployment was later overturned , and in January 1962 only the development funds were released .
= = = Nike @-@ X = = =
In 1961 , McNamara agreed to continue development funding through FY62 , but declined to provide funds for production . He summed up both the positives and the concerns this way :
Looking for a near term solution , McNamara once again turned to ARPA , asking it to consider the Zeus system in depth . The agency returned a new report in April 1962 that contained four basic concepts . First was the Zeus system in its current form , outlining what sort of role it might play in various war fighting scenarios . Zeus could , for instance , be used to protect SAC bases , thereby requiring the Soviets to expend more of their ICBMs to attack the base . This would presumably mean less damage to other targets . Another considered the addition of new passive electronically scanned array radars and computers to the Zeus , which would allow it to attack dozens of targets at once over a wider area . Finally , in its last concept , ARPA replaced Zeus with a new very high speed , short range missile designed to intercept the warhead at altitudes as low as 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) , by which time any decoys or fireballs would be long gone . This last concept became Nike @-@ X , an ad hoc name suggested by Jack Ruina while describing the ARPA report to the President 's Science Advisory Committee ( PSAC ) .
= = = Perfect or nothing = = =
As work on Nike @-@ X began , high @-@ ranking military and civilian officials began to press for Zeus deployment as an interim system in spite of the known problems . They argued the system could be upgraded in @-@ place as the new technologies became available . McNamara was opposed to early deployment , while Congressman Daniel J. Flood would be a prime force for immediate deployment .
McNamara 's argument against deployment rested on two primary issues . One was the apparent ineffectiveness of the system , and especially its benefit @-@ cost ratio compared to other options . For instance , fallout shelters would save more Americans for far less money , and in an excellent demonstration of his approach to almost any defense issue , he noted :
The second issue , ironically , came about due to concerns about a Soviet ABM system . The US 's existing SM @-@ 65 Atlas and SM @-@ 68 Titan both used re @-@ entry vehicles with blunt noses that greatly slowed the warheads as they entered the lower atmosphere and made them relatively easy to attack . The solution was the LGM @-@ 30 Minuteman missile , which used new sharp nosed reentry shapes that traveled at much higher terminal speeds , and included a number of decoy systems that were expected to make interception very difficult for the Soviet ABMs . If there was a budget choice to be made , McNamara supported Minuteman , although he tried not to say this .
In one particularly telling exchange between McNamara and Flood , McNamara initially refuses to choose one option over the other :
Flood : Which comes first , the chicken or the egg ? Which comes first , Minuteman because he may develop a good Zeus , or our own Zeus ?
McNamara : I would say neither comes first . I would carry on each simultaneously with the maximum rate of activity that each could benefit from .
But later , Flood managed to get a more accurate statement out of him :
Flood : I thought we had broken through this problem in this country , of wanting things to be perfect before we send them to the troops . I have an enemy who can kill me and I cannot defend myself against him , and I say I should hazard all risks within the rule of reason , to advance this by 2 or 3 years .
McNamara : We are spending hundreds of millions of dollars , not to stop things but to accelerate the development of an anti @-@ ICBM system ... I do not believe it would be wise for us to recommend the procurement of a system which might not be an effective anti @-@ ICBM device . That is exactly the state in which we believe the Zeus rests today.Flood : ... You may not be aware of it , but you have just about destroyed the Nike @-@ Zeus . That last paragraph did that .
= = = Cancellation and the ABM gap = = =
By 1963 McNamara had convinced Kennedy that the Zeus was simply not worth deploying . The earlier concerns about cost and effectiveness , as well as new difficulties in terms of attack size and decoy problems , led McNamara to cancel the Zeus project on 5 January 1963 . In its place they decided to continue work on Nike @-@ X. Nike @-@ X development was based in the existing Nike Zeus Project Office until their name was changed to Nike @-@ X on 1 February 1964 .
While reporting to the Senate Armed Services Committee in February , McNamara noted that they expected the Soviets to have an initial ABM system deployed in 1966 , and then later stated that the Nike @-@ X would not be ready for use until 1970 . Noting a " defensive gap " , Strom Thurmond began an effort to deploy the existing Zeus as an interim system . Once again the matter spilled over into the press .
On 11 April 1963 , Thurmond led Congress in an effort to fund deployment of Zeus . In the first closed session of the Senate in twenty years , Zeus was debated and the decision was made to continue with the planned development of Nike @-@ X with no Zeus deployment . The Army continued the testing program until December 1964 at White Sands Missile Range , and May 1966 at Kwajalein Missile Range .
= = Testing = =
As the debate over Zeus raged , the Nike team was making rapid progress developing the actual system . Test firings of the original A models of the missile began in 1959 at White Sands Missile Range . The first attempt on 26 August 1959 was of a live booster stage and dummy sustainer , but the booster broke up shortly before booster / sustainer separation . A similar test on 14 October was a success , followed by the first two @-@ stage attempt on 16 December . The first complete test of both stages with active guidance and thrust vectoring was successfully carried out on 3 February 1960 . Data collected from these tests led to changes to the design to improve speed during the ascent . The first test of the Zeus B took place in May 1961 . A number of Zeus missiles broke up during early test flights due to excessive heating of the control surfaces , and numerous changes were worked into the system to address this .
Additional tracking tests were carried out by Target Tracking Radars ( TTRs ) at Bell 's Whippany , NJ labs and an installation on Ascension Island . The latter was first used in an attempt to track a SM @-@ 68 Titan on 29 March 1961 , but the data download from Cape Canaveral simulating Zeus Acquisition Radar ( ZAR ) information failed . A second test on 28 May was successful . Later in the year the Ascension site tracked a series of four test launches , two Atlas , two Titan , generating tracking information for as long as 100 seconds . A ZAR at White Sands reached initial operation in June 1961 , and was tested against balloons , aircraft , parachutes deployed from sounding rockets and Hercules missiles . A TTR was completed at White Sands in November , and testing with the complete system of ZAR , TTR and MTR ( " all @-@ up " tests ) began that month . On 14 December a Zeus passed within 100 feet ( 30 m ) of a Nike Hercules being used as a test target , a success that was repeated in March 1962 . On 5 June 1963 , President Kennedy and Vice President Lyndon Johnson visited White Sands to view missile launches , including a Zeus launch .
The need to test Zeus against targets flying realistic ICBM profiles presented a problem . While White Sands was fine for testing the basic missile and guidance systems , it was too small to test Zeus at its maximum range . Such testing began at Point Mugu in California. where the Zeus missiles could fly out over the Pacific . Consideration was given to using Point Mugu to launch against ICBMs flying from Cape Canaveral , but range safety requirements placed limits on the potential tests . The Atlantic Test Range , to the northeast of Canaveral , had a high population density and little land available for building accurate downrange tracking stations , Ascension being the only suitable location .
Eventually Kwajalein Island was selected , as it was 4 @,@ 800 miles from California , perfect for ICBMs , and already had a US Navy base with considerable housing stocks and an airstrip . The Zeus site , known as the Kwajalein Test Site , was officially established on 1 October 1960 . As it grew in size , it eventually led to the entire island complex being handed over to the Army from the Navy on 1 July 1964 . The site took up a considerable amount of the empty land to the north side of the airfield . The launchers were located on the far southwestern corner of the island , with the Target Tracking Radars , Missile Tracking Radars ( MTRs ) and various control sites and generators running along the northern side of the airfield . The ZAR transmitter and receiver were some distance away , off the northeastern edge of the airfield .
A minor Army @-@ Air Force fight then broke out about what targets would be used for the Kwajalein tests . The Army favored using its Jupiter design , fired from Johnston Atoll in the Pacific , while the Air Force recommended using Atlas fired from Vandenberg AFB in California . The Army had already begun converting the former Thor launchers to Jupiter when an Ad Hoc Panel formed by the Department of Defense considered the issue . On 26 May 1960 they decided in favor of Atlas , and this was made official on 29 June when the Secretary of Defense ended pad conversion and additional Jupiter production earmarked for Zeus testing .
A key development of the testing program was a miss @-@ distance indicator system , which independently measured the distance between the Zeus and the target at the instant the computers initiated the detonation of the warhead . There were concerns that if the Zeus ' own radars were used for this ranging measure , any systematic error in ranging would also be present in the test data , and thus would be hidden . The solution was the use of a separate UHF @-@ frequency transmitter in the warhead reentry vehicle , and a receiver in the Zeus . The received signal was retransmitted to the ground , where its Doppler shift was examined to extract the range information . These instruments eventually demonstrated that the Zeus ' own tracking information was accurate . For visual tracking , a small conventional warhead was used , which provided a flash that could be seen on long exposure photographs of the interceptions .
On 24 January 1962 , the Zeus Acquisition Radar at Kwajalein achieved its first returns from an ICBM target , and on 18 April was used to track Kosmos 2 . On the 19 January it reacquired Kosmos 2 and successfully transferred the track to one of the TTRs . On 26 June the first all @-@ up test against an Atlas target was attempted . The ZAR began successfully tracking the target at 446 nautical miles ( 826 km ) and properly handed off to a TTR . The TTR switched tracks from the missile fuselage to the warhead at 131 nautical miles ( 243 km ) . When the fuselage began to break up , the computer switched to clutter mode , which watched the TTR data for any derivation from the originally calculated trajectory , which would indicate that it had begun tracking debris . It also continued to predict the location of the warhead , and if the system decided it was tracking debris , it would wait for the debris and warhead to separate enough to begin tracking them again . However , the system failed to properly record when the warhead was lost , and tracking was never regained .
A second test on 19 July was a partial success , with the Zeus passing within 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of the target . The control system ran out of hydraulic fluid during the last 10 seconds of the approach , causing the large miss distance , but the test was otherwise successful . The guidance program was updated to stop the rapid control cycling that led to the fluid running out . A third attempt on 12 December successfully brought the missile to very close distances , but the second missile of the planned two missile salvo failed to launch due to an instrument problem . A similar test on 22 December also suffered a failure in the second missile , but the first passed only 200 metres ( 660 ft ) from its target .
Of the tests carried out over the two year test cycle , ten of them were successful in bringing the Zeus within its lethal range .
= = Anti @-@ satellite use = =
In April 1962 , McNamara asked the Nike team to consider using the Zeus site on Kwajalein as an operational anti @-@ satellite base after the main Zeus testing had completed . The Nike team responded that a system could be readied for testing by May 1963 . The concept was given the name Project Mudflap .
Development was a straightforward conversion of the DM @-@ 15B into the DM @-@ 15S . The changes were mainly concerned with providing more upper stage maneuverability through the use of a new two @-@ stage hydraulic pump , batteries providing 5 minutes of power instead of 2 , and an improved fuel in the booster to provide higher peak altitudes . A test of the new booster with a DM @-@ 15B upper was carried out at White Sands on 17 December 1962 , reaching an altitude of 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) , the highest of any launch from White Sands to that point . A second test with a complete DM @-@ 15S on 15 February 1963 reached 151 nautical miles ( 280 km ) .
Testing then moved to Kwajalein . The first test on 21 March 1963 failed when the MTR failed to lock onto the missile . A second on 19 April also failed when the missile 's tracking beacon failed 30 seconds before intercept . The third test , this time using an actual target consisting of an Agena @-@ D upper stage equipped with a Zeus miss @-@ distance transmitter , was carried out on 24 May 1963 , and was a complete success . From that point until 1964 , one DM @-@ 15S was kept in a state of instant readiness and teams continually trained on the missile .
After 1964 the Kwajalein site was no longer required to be on alert , and returned primarily to Zeus testing . The system was kept active in a non @-@ alert role between 1964 and 1967 , known as Program 505 . In 1967 it was replaced by a Thor based system , Program 437 . A total of 12 launches , including those at White Sands , were carried out as part of the 505 program between 1962 and 1966 .
= = Description = =
Nike Zeus was originally intended to be a straightforward development of the earlier Hercules system giving it the ability to hit ICBM warheads at about the same range and altitude as the maximum performance of the Hercules . In theory , hitting a warhead is no more difficult than an aircraft ; the interceptor does not have to travel any further or faster , the computers that guide it simply have to select an intercept point farther in front of the target to compensate for the target 's much higher speed . In practice , the difficulty is detecting the target early enough that the intercept point is still within range of the missile . This demands much larger and more powerful radar systems , and faster computers .
= = = Early detection = = =
When Zeus was still in the early stages of design , Bell Labs suggested using two similar radars to provide extended range tracking and improve reaction times . Located at the Zeus bases would be the Local Acquisition Radar ( LAR ) , a UHF monopulse radar able to track between 50 and 100 targets . The Forward Acquisition Radar ( FAR ) would be positioned 300 to 700 miles ( 480 β 1 @,@ 130 km ) ahead of the Zeus bases to provide early warning of up to 200 to 300 seconds of tracking data on up to 200 targets . The FAR would broadcast 10 MW pulses at UHF between 405 β 495 MHz , allowing it to detect a 1 square metre radar reflection at 1 @,@ 020 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 890 km ) or a more typical 0 @.@ 1 m2 target at 600 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) . Each track would be stored as a 200 bit file including location , velocity , time of measure and a measure of the quality of the data . Clouds of objects would be tracked as a single object with additional data indicating the width and length of the cloud . Tracks could be updated every five seconds while the target was in view , but the antenna rotated at a relatively slow 4 RPM so targets moved significantly between rotations . Each FAR could feed data to up to three Zeus sites .
By the time the Zeus plans were being finalized in 1957 , plans for FAR were deemphasized , and LAR had been upgraded to become the Zeus Acquisition Radar ( ZAR ) which provided wide area early warning and initial tracking information . This enormously powerful radar was driven by multiple 1 @.@ 8 MW klystrons and broadcast through three 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) wide antennas arranged as the outside edges of a rotating equilateral triangle . The ZAR spun at 10 RPM , but with three antennas it simulated a single antenna rotating three times as fast . Each target was scanned every two seconds , providing much more data than the earlier FAR / LAR concept .
The signal was received on a separate set of three antennas , situated at the centre of an 80 foot ( 24 m ) diameter Luneburg lens , which rotated synchronously with the broadcaster under a 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) diameter dome . Multiple feed horns were used in the receiver to allow reception from many vertical angles at once . Around the receiver dome was a large field of wire mesh , forming a flat ground plane reflector . The ZAR operated in the UHF on various frequencies between 495 β 605 MHz , giving it frequency agility . ZAR had detection range on the order of 460 nautical miles ( 850 km ) on a 0 @.@ 1 m2 target .
The entire transmitter was surrounded by a 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) high clutter fence located 350 feet ( 110 m ) away from the antenna , which reflected the signal away from local objects on the ground that would otherwise create false returns . The ZDR was so powerful that the microwave energy at close range was far beyond the mandated safety limits and potentially lethal within 100 yards ( 91 m ) . In order to allow for maintenance while the radar was operating , the equipment areas were shielded in a partial Faraday cage of metal foil , and a metal tunnel was run from the outside of the clutter fence , which blocked the signal outside the fence line . The other radars completing the system featured similar protection .
= = = Battery layout = = =
Data from the ZARs were passed to the appropriate Zeus Firing Battery to attack , with each ZAR being able to send its data to up to ten batteries . Each battery was self @-@ contained after handoff , including all of the radars , computers and missiles needed to perform an intercept . In a typical deployment , a single Zeus Defense Center would be connected to three to six batteries , spread out by as much as 100 miles ( 160 km ) .
Targets picked out by the ZAR were then illuminated by the Zeus Discrimination Radar ( ZDR , also known as Decoy Discrimination Radar , DDR or DR ) . ZDR imaged the entire cloud using a chirped signal that allowed the receiver to accurately determine range within the cloud by passing each frequency in the chirp to a separate range gate . The range resolution was 0 @.@ 25 microseconds , about 75 metres ( 246 ft ) . As the signal was spread out over the entire cloud , it had to be very powerful ; the ZDR produced 40 MW 2 Β΅s pulses in the L @-@ band between 1270 β 1400 MHz . To ensure no signal was lost by scanning areas that were empty , the ZDR used a Cassegrain reflector that could be moved to focus the beam as the cloud approached to keep the area under observation constant .
Data from the ZDR was passed to the All @-@ Target Processor ( ATP ) , which ran initial processing on as many as 625 objects in a cloud . As many as 50 of these could be picked out for further processing in the Discrimination and Control Computer ( DCC ) , which ran more tests on those tracks and assigned each one a probability of being the warhead or decoy . The DCC was able to run 100 different tests . For exoatmospheric signals the tests included measure of radar return pulse @-@ to @-@ pulse to look for tumbling objects , as well as variations in signals strength due to changes in frequency . Within the atmosphere , the primary method was examining the velocities of the objects to determine their mass .
Any target with a high probability was then passed to the Battery Control Data Processor ( BCDP ) , which selected missiles and radars for an attack . This started with the assignment of a Target Tracking Radar ( TTR ) to a target passed to it from the DCC . TTRs operated in the C @-@ band from 5250 β 5750 MHz at 10 MW , allowing tracking of a 0 @.@ 1 m2 target at 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ) , a range they expected to be able to double with a new maser @-@ based receiver design . Once targets were being successfully tracked and a firing order was received , the BCDP selected available Zeus missiles for launch and assigned a Missile Tracking Radar ( MTR ) to follow them . These were much smaller radars operating in the X @-@ band between 8500 β 9600 MHz and assisted by a transponder on the missile , using only 300 kW to provide missile tracking to 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) . The wide variety of available frequencies allowed up to 450 MTRs to be operating in a single Defense Center . Information from the ZDR , TTR and MRTs was all fed to the Target Intercept Computer ( TIC ) which handled the interceptions . This used twistor memory for ROM and core memory for RAM . Guidance commands were sent to the missiles in @-@ flight via modulation of the MTR signal .
The nominal battery consisted of a single DR , three TTRs , two TICs driving six MRTs , and 24 missiles . This basic battery layout could attack three warheads at once , normally using two missiles per salvo in case one failed in flight . More typically , two targets would be attacked while the third system stood by as a hot backup that could take over in @-@ flight . A maximally expanded battery included three DRs , ten TTRs , six TICs driving eighteen MTRs and 72 missiles . Sites requiring higher traffic handling would not build larger systems , but instead deploy additional batteries fed from the same ZAR and Defense Center .
It was expected that the ZAR would take 20 seconds to develop a track and hand off a target to one of the TTRs , and 25 seconds for the missile to reach the target . With these sorts of salvo rates , a fully expanded Zeus installation was expected to be able to successfully attack 14 " bare " warheads per minute . Its salvo rate against warheads with decoys is not recorded , but would depend on the ZDR 's processing rate more than any physical limit . The actual engagement would normally take place at about 75 nautical miles ( 139 km ) due to accuracy limitations , beyond that missiles could not be guided accurately enough to bring them within their lethal 800 foot ( 240 m ) range against a shielded warhead .
= = = Zeus missiles = = =
The original Zeus A was similar to the original Hercules , but featured a revised control layout and gas puffers for maneuvering at high altitudes where the atmosphere was too thin for the aerodynamic surfaces to be effective . The Zeus B interceptor was longer at 14 @.@ 7 metres ( 48 ft ) , 2 @.@ 44 metres ( 8 ft 0 in ) wide , and 0 @.@ 91 metres ( 3 ft 0 in ) in diameter . This was so much larger than the earlier Hercules that no attempt was made to have them fit into the existing Hercules / Ajax launchers . Instead , the B models were launched from silos , thus the change of numbering from MIM ( mobile surface launched ) to LIM ( silo launched ) . Since the missile was designed to intercept its targets in space , it did not need the large maneuvering fins of the A model . Rather , it featured a third rocket stage with small control jets to allow it to maneuver in space . Zeus B had a maximum range of 250 miles ( 400 km ) and altitude of 200 miles ( 320 km ) .
Zeus A was designed to attack warheads through shock effects , like the Hercules , and was to be armed with a relatively small nuclear warhead . As the range and altitude requirements grew , along with a better understanding of weapons effects at high altitude , the Zeus B was intended to attack its targets through the action of neutron heating . This relied on the interceptor 's warhead releasing a huge number of high energy neutrons ( similar to the neutron bomb ) , some of which would hit the enemy warhead . These would cause fission to occur in some of the warhead 's own nuclear fuel , rapidly heating the " primary " , hopefully enough to cause it to melt . For this to work , the Zeus mounted the W50 , a 400 kt enhanced radiation warhead , and had to maneuver within 1 km of the target warhead . Against shielded targets , the warhead would be effective to as little as 800 feet ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) .
= = Specifications = =
There are at least five Zeus models mentioned in various sources , A , B , C , S and X2 , the last of which became Spartan . None of the sources explicitly list the differences of all of these in a single table . Different sources appear to confuse measures between the Zeus A , B and Spartan . The A and Spartan figures are taken from US Strategic and Defensive Missile Systems 1950 β 2004 , B from the Bell Labs history .
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= English cricket team in Bangladesh in 2009 β 10 =
The England cricket team toured Bangladesh at the end of the 2009 β 10 cricket season , playing three One Day Internationals ( ODI ) and two Test matches . Regular England captain Andrew Strauss controversially missed the tour to rest for the 2010 β 11 Ashes series , so the team was led by Alastair Cook . Bangladesh were captained by all @-@ rounder Shakib Al Hasan .
England whitewashed Bangladesh in both the Test and ODI series , maintaining their record as the only Test @-@ playing nation not to have been beaten by the Bangladeshis . England gave debuts to five players during the series , including South African @-@ born Craig Kieswetter , which drew criticism over the number of foreign @-@ born players in the England team , particularly from former England captain Michael Vaughan .
= = Background = =
In the 12 previous matches between the two sides β four Test matches and eight ODIs β England had a 100 % winning record against Bangladesh , the only international team able to boast such a record . The previous year , Bangladesh had claimed their first Test series victory against a senior Test nation , though it came against a West Indies side that was heavily weakened because of an industrial dispute . England came into the tour on the back of a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ month series against South Africa in which they had tied the Test and Twenty20 International series , and secured a 2 β 1 ODI series win .
= = Squads = =
The England and Wales Cricket Board ( ECB ) announced in September 2009 that it " [ had ] to prioritise " and would most likely be sending a weakened squad to tour Bangladesh . The press theorised that possible candidates to be rested included captain Andrew Strauss , Paul Collingwood , Stuart Broad and James Anderson . When the squad was officially announced in January 2010 , only Strauss and Anderson were omitted from the touring squad . The reason given for Anderson 's break was to give him opportunity to undergo a specialist review and rehabilitation for a chronic injury to his right knee , to enable him to return to full fitness for the 2010 ICC World Twenty20 . The decision to rest Strauss was rationalised by national selector Geoff Miller as " the selectors feel it is important that he takes a break ahead of an extremely busy programme of international cricket " . This decision was not universally accepted , with former England captains Ian Botham and Michael Atherton among those who spoke out against the move ; Botham claimed : " As captain you need to be there with your team ... I think it β s a major mistake . "
England called up three uncapped players , naming bowlers Ajmal Shahzad and James Tredwell in both squads , and opening batsman Michael Carberry in the Test squad . Following a string of impressive performances for the England Lions , South African @-@ born wicket @-@ keeper batsman Craig Kieswetter was added to the ODI squad . Kieswetter had only completed his qualification period for England on the day before his first Lions match , and had previously represented South Africa Under @-@ 19s . Former England captain Michael Vaughan was unhappy with the inclusion of Kieswetter in the squad , and said that in an ideal world he would like to see " 11 complete Englishmen in the team , " and complained that he had " a problem , that we have almost got a ' ship @-@ in ' system of looking at talent " . Injuries to Ryan Sidebottom , Graham Onions and Broad prompted England to call up Steven Finn as cover for the Test series , and Tim Bresnan remained with the squad after originally only being part of the ODI squad .
In contrast to the selection issues and injury problems surrounding England , Bangladesh came into the tour with a relatively stable squad . Uncapped players Nasir Hossain and Suhrawadi Shuvo were both named in the ODI squad , and Mashrafe Mortaza was fit to play after making it through the warm @-@ up game against England for the BCB XI , having not played since July 2009 due to a knee injury . After playing in the first ODI , Mortaza withdrew from the squad for the remaining ODIs and Test matches , citing a disagreement over his fitness . The Bangladesh chairman of selectors , Rafiqul Alam , announced that Mortaza had withdrawn himself " to be by the side of his ailing mother " . Mohammad Ashraful , Bangladesh 's most @-@ capped player , was omitted from the Test squad as he had failed to convince the selectors that he was in the right frame of mind for international cricket . The day after the squad had been announced , Bangladesh 's preparations for the opening Test match were " thrown into disarray " when Raqibul Hasan announced his retirement from international cricket at the age of 22 . It was reported that the retirement was due to Raqibul 's displeasure at being omitted from the provisional squad for the 2010 ICC World Twenty20 . Uncapped Jahurul Islam was called into the squad to replace him .
= = ODI series = =
= = = 1st ODI = = =
After winning the toss , England opted to put Bangladesh into bat , but their new @-@ ball bowlers failed to maintain a good line and length , providing opener Tamim Iqbal with plenty of bad deliveries to put away for boundaries . Their breakthrough came in the 10th over , when Bresnan bowled a slower ball to Imrul Kayes who found a leading edge and was caught by Luke Wright at mid @-@ on . Two more wickets followed closely as Junaid Siddique hit a half @-@ volley softly to the fielder at square leg in the next over , and then Aftab Ahmed was run out in the 13th over , leaving Bangladesh with 82 runs for the loss of three wickets ( 82 / 3 ) . Captain Shakib Al Hasan and vice @-@ captain Mushfiqur Rahim both provided Tamim with some support , but both were undone by their own rashness ; Shakib advanced down the wicket to Graeme Swann and provided an edge for Matt Prior to catch behind the stumps , while Mushfiqur attempted a run which was never available and presented Kevin Pietersen with his second run out of the match . Tamim alone provided resistance , showing " imperious strokeplay all around the ground " and a measure of maturity in his innings . His 125 came off 120 balls , including 13 fours and 3 sixes , eventually being dismissed in the 43rd over , bowled by Broad , with Bangladesh on 214 / 9 . The final two batsmen lasted three overs , adding 14 to score , leaving England requiring 229 to win .
In England 's reply , captain Alastair Cook played in a fashion reminiscent of the man he had replaced for the tour , Strauss , as he played an accumulatory innings to score 64 . Kieswetter , who had been brought into the team to provide firepower at the start of the innings was outscored by Cook 4 to 1 , and was nearly dismissed twice in his first over , offering an edge to wicket @-@ keeper Mushfiqur Rahim , and two balls later he was caught in front , but umpire Rod Tucker ruled that he was not out . Kieswetter was dismissed in the 13th over for 19 , completely missing a drive ; presenting Mushfiqur with an easy stumping . An over later , Kevin Pietersen fell for just one run , leaving England on 74 / 2 . Cook and new man Collingwood put on 22 runs before the opener was adjudged leg before wicket ( LBW ) though replays indicated that the ball was missing the stumps on the leg side . Collingwood then anchored the chase with Eoin Morgan , the pair adding 88 runs to the score . After the dismissal of Morgan on 33 , it was left to Prior to join Collingwood to add the required runs , and England won with four overs to spare .
= = = 2nd ODI = = =
Both sides made changes going into the second ODI ; for England , Sidebottom made way as England opted to hand a debut to Tredwell in order to play two spinners , while Bangladesh called on Shuvo and Rubel Hossain , dropping Siddique and Mortaza . For the second consecutive match , England won the toss and chose to field . The match began in similar fashion to the first ODI , with two quick wickets in the 10th and 11th overs taking Bangladesh from 46 / 0 to 56 / 2 . However , a third @-@ wicket partnership of 90 between Kayes and Rahim steadied the innings and helped Bangladesh to gain confidence . After Imrul Kayes ' dismissal , Rahim increased his scoring @-@ rate with a series of boundaries to take the score past 200 , and was dismissed by a slower ball from Bresnan with the score at 211 / 5 . Some late swinging from the tail saw Bangladesh finish on 260 / 6 , their highest total in ODIs against England .
England lost opener Kieswetter in the first over ; caught at first slip off the third ball of the innings , having been dropped by the keeper the ball before . Pietersen and Collingwood were both trapped LBW by Abdur Razzak without passing 20 , and Morgan joined Cook in the middle with the score at 68 / 3 . Initially , Morgan supported his captain by rotating the strike , but when Cook was dismissed for a 61 @-@ ball 60 , he played with more freedom . A partnership of 90 with wicket @-@ keeper Prior brought England close to 200 , but Wright , Bresnan and Swann all fell cheaply , leaving England requiring 31 runs off 26 balls with only two wickets remaining . With England " seemingly in disarray " , Morgan took control of the match , and completed the run @-@ chase with three boundaries in five balls . Morgan finished the game with 110 not out , his first century for England .
= = = 3rd ODI = = =
The third ODI saw a change of venue ; the teams moving from Dhaka to the coastal town of Chittagong . England again made two bowling changes , seamers Shahzad and Liam Plunkett coming into the team with the injured Broad and spinner Tredwell making way . Bangladesh remained unchanged from the second ODI . The hosts won their first toss of the series , and put England into bat . Kieswetter bucked his natural game and played cautiously : when partner Cook was dismissed for 32 in the 13th over , he had scored 20 off 33 balls . The opener continued to accumulate runs carefully until he reached his half @-@ century in the 33rd over . After passing the milestone , he began to score quicker , cutting and driving as he shared a 74 @-@ run partnership with Collingwood . He reached his century with a scampered run off Rubel Hossain , his first in international cricket , in his third ODI appearance . At 22 years and 97 days old , he became the second youngest England batsman to score an ODI century after David Gower . In contrast to the " all @-@ action " style that had been expected from him , Kieswetter accrued his century with resolve , saying after the match that : " In the first two games I wasn 't quite aware tactically of how I was going to pace my innings , [ in terms of ] helping the team win the game . Today I tried to pace myself a bit more , and try to get myself in more before playing big shots . " His dismissal soon after his century brought Wright to the crease with the freedom to make an aggressive cameo , notching 32 runs off just 13 balls to help England towards a total of 284 .
In response , Bangladesh lost Tamim Iqbal for a duck in the first over , giving debutant Ajmal Shahzad his first ODI wicket from his third ball of the match . Bresnan removed the other Bangladeshi opener in the 10th over , the first of his four wickets in the match . This wicket brought together Mushfiqur Rahim and Aftab Ahmed , who both played aggressively , putting on 56 together in the next ten overs , but when Aftab Ahmed was run out looking for a non @-@ existent run , Bangladesh started to struggle . Rahim and Shakib Al Hasan both fell after making good starts and the required run rate started to rise , making a Bangladeshi victory look improbable . Slow scoring between Naeem Islam and Mahmudullah took victory further away , and Bangladesh eventually finished 45 runs short of their target , granting England a series whitewash .
= = Test series = =
= = = 1st Test = = =
The teams remained in Chittagong for the first Test , in which England gave Test debuts to Finn and Carberry . Bangladesh 's preparations for the match were disrupted when middle @-@ order batsman Hasan announced his retirement from international cricket two days earlier , and although Jahurul Islam was called into the squad to replace him , it was Aftab Ahmed who took his place in the team for the Test . Bangladesh won the toss , and made " among the most unfathomable calls " , putting England into bat on a surface that looked certain to deteriorate . Cook capitalised on the decision , being " barely troubled " as he remained 158 not out at the close of the first day , having faced 244 balls . Debutant Carberry out @-@ scored Cook early on , but fell on 30 going for an ambitious sweep against Mahmudullah . His wicket brought in Jonathan Trott who scored slowly but confidently until he was wrongly dismissed on 39 . A bouncing ball hit his helmet and was caught by wicket @-@ keeper Rahim , prompting the umpire to give him out caught . Pietersen , who had been struggling against left @-@ arm spin bowling , adjusted his style of play during his innings , staying more leg @-@ side of the ball . He scored 99 runs , falling just short of a century when he was bowled by left @-@ arm spinner Razzak . Collingwood , who scored 145 runs , and Ian Bell , who added 84 runs , increased the run rate during the second day to propel England to 599 for 6 , at which point they declared , half an hour before the tea interval .
England took advantage of bowling at their hosts before tea , with Broad dismissing Kayes and Siddique with bouncers . Shortly after the break , Swann claimed the wicket of Aftab Ahmed in his first over ; caught at short leg . Bangladesh had lost three wickets with only 51 runs scored , but a partnership of 94 by Iqbal and Mahmudullah brought their side back into the match . Mahmudullah was caught in the slips just after reaching his half @-@ century , and his captain Shakib Al Hasan followed before the end of the day . Iqbal was dismissed in the third over of the following day , and nine overs later Shahadat Hossain was also dismissed , leaving Bangladesh 416 runs behind with only three wickets remaining . Thoughts of a quick victory were quashed by a Bangladesh record partnership for the eighth @-@ wicket by Rahim and Naeem Islam , who added 113 runs together . Rahim played defiantly , batting for 152 balls to reach score his 79 runs , and was described by ESPNcricinfo 's Andrew McGlashan as a " lesson to the more impetuous of his team @-@ mates " . The partnership was eventually broken by a run out by Carberry , and Bangladesh added no more runs for the final two wickets to finish on 296 : over 300 runs behind .
As they were playing a four @-@ man bowling attack , and had spent longer in the field than they had wanted , England opted not to enforce the follow @-@ on . Batting again , England pressed to score quickly , but were pegged back by regular dismissals : no batsman scored more than 40 runs , and the run rate was much the same as their first innings . Shakib Al Hasan claimed four wickets , and England batting 50 minutes into the fourth morning before declaring on 209 for 7 , leaving Bangladesh requiring 513 runs in their second innings to win .
Bangladesh lost wickets at regular intervals at the start of their innings ; by the end of the 38th over , they had lost five wickets . Rahim joined Siddique after the fifth wicket fell , and the pair batted patiently together to see their side through to force the match into its final day . The partnership continued to battle during the fifth morning of the match , and Siddique reached his first Test century , coming from 262 deliveries . Shortly after , Prior failed to take a difficult catch , but Siddique did not capitalise on the mistake , adding no more runs before he was caught in the slips shortly after lunch . The bowler , Swann , swore at Siddique as he walked off the pitch , something he later apologised for , saying that it was " a testament to him that he did get everyone frustrated . " Rahim was bowled by Swann four overs later , and despite a late assault by Naeem Islam , who scored three fours and three sixes before being becoming Swann 's 10th victim of the match , England won by 181 runs . Swann , who took five wickets in each innings , was the first English off spinner since Jim Laker in 1956 to take 10 wickets in a match . His performance in the match led to him rising to second place in the ICC Test bowling rankings .
= = = 2nd Test = = =
The teams returned to Dhaka for the second Test , and made three changes ; Bangladesh selected Shafiul Islam and Jahurul Islam to replace Aftab Ahmed and Shahadat Hossain , while England added a second spinner , with Carberry making way for Tredwell . The toss was once again won by Bangladesh , who opted to bat first . Tamim Iqbal , on his 21st birthday , scored runs with freedom on the first morning , reaching a half @-@ century from 34 balls . He was dropped twice before that , by Collingwood and Cook , but his innings was described by David Hopps in Wisden Cricketers ' Alamanack as " taking something normally sedate and slightly forbidding , and making it wild and intoxicating . " Tamim 's batting drew interest that he could become the fifth player in Test history to score a century on the first morning , but he was dismissed by Tredwell for 85 , attempting a sweep . Swann , who had been particularly expensive against Tamim , took wickets either side of lunch to leave Bangladesh on 167 for 4 . Shakib and Mahmudullah steadied the innings , scoring 59 runs together , before both were dismissed in close succession . Another patient partnership between Mushfiqur Rahim and Naeem Islam took Bangladesh past 300 runs . On the second morning , Bangladesh pressed aggressively , particularly through Shafiul Islam , who scored a half @-@ century at just quicker than a run @-@ a @-@ ball . Cook 's captaincy was criticised in Wisden where Hopps claimed that Cook 's fields " defied logic " , while ESPNcricinfo 's Sahil Dutta described his captaincy as " more robotic than insightful " . Naeem Islam remained 59 not out as Bangladesh were bowled out for 419 .
In England 's response , Shakib opted to use his spinners to minimise scoring opportunities , a tactic which led to Cook 's dismissal for 21 . His fellow opener , Trott , scored his first run from his 33rd delivery , and continued to bat circumspectly throughout the second day . Pietersen attempted to score more quickly , though it took a bad over from Razzak to allow him to do so . A misjudged shot after leaving his crease resulted in him being caught , and Collingwood followed soon after , leg before wicket from his third delivery . Bell joined Trott in the middle , and the pair added 67 runs together before Trott was dismissed for 64 . Prior capitalised on more bad bowling from Razzak to reach his half @-@ century , but fell shortly after , giving Bangladesh hope of a first @-@ innings lead . Bell and Bresnan took England to the brink of a lead , adding 143 runs together , including a century for Bell . It was the first occasion on which Bell had scored a century in Test cricket without a team @-@ mate having already done so in the innings , a statistic that had been used to suggest he could not score run in tough conditions . Speaking about his century , Bell alluded to that statistic , stating that he had " put a few things to bed . " After his dismissal , Bresnan batted with the tail , taking his score to 91 , and England 's to 496 , a lead of 77 runs . After the third day , Bangladesh 's captain , Shakib , criticised the Bangladesh Cricket Board for not paying for the use of the Umpire Decision Review System . He believed that a number of the umpiring decisions had gone against his side , and the technology could have given his side a better chance of their first Test win over England .
Bangladesh 's second innings started in similar fashion to their first ; they lost the early wicket of Imrul Kayes , and Tamim scored a quick half @-@ century . The latter was dropped three times before being caught by Broad for 52 runs . Junaid and Jahurul both made good starts for Bangladesh , but were out for 34 and 43 respectively , which along with low scores for Mahmudullah and Mushfiqur left Bangladesh on 172 for six at the end of the fourth day . On the final morning , Shakib batted resiliently with the lower @-@ order batsmen and narrowly missed out on a century ; he was the last man out , stumped attempting to score a boundary to reach the landmark . His batting had helped establish a 208 run lead for Bangladesh , which resulted in England requiring just under four runs per over to reach the total .
In England 's chase , Trott was the only batsman dismissed , run out for 19 , although replays suggested that it was possibly the wrong decision . Cook scored his second century of the series , and Pietersen finished on 74 , scored at just under a run @-@ a @-@ ball . Bangladesh 's bowling attack was tired , and rarely threatened England ; Pietersen even opted to switch hit some deliveries . In Wisden , Hopps , who had described the second morning as being possibly " England 's lowest point of a long winter " , contrastingly said of the final day ; " England 's supremacy had rarely looked so marked . " Despite England 's victory , which maintained their one hundred percent winning record against Bangladesh , Shakib was named as man of the match .
= = Tour matches = =
= = = 50 @-@ over tour matches : Bangladesh Cricket Board XI v England XI = = =
England won both of their one @-@ day warm @-@ up matches against the Bangladesh Cricket Board XI comfortably . In the first match , England batted first and scored 370 runs , during which Kieswetter and Collingwood both posted centuries while scoring quicker than a @-@ run @-@ a @-@ ball . ESPNcricinfo described Kieswetter 's century as ensuring " he will be making his England debut in the first ODI " . In the next match , which was shortened to 37 overs per side , England bowled first and restricted their hosts to 151 runs . Tredwell bowled particularly economically , allowing just 17 runs from his seven overs . In their response , England reached the winning total with 70 balls to spare . Cook and Prior both scored half @-@ centuries .
= = = 3 @-@ day tour match : Bangladesh A v England XI = = =
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= Jimmy Greaves =
James Peter " Jimmy " Greaves ( born 20 February 1940 ) is a former England international footballer . He is England 's fourth highest international goalscorer ( 44 goals ) , Tottenham Hotspur 's highest ever goalscorer ( 266 goals ) , the highest goalscorer in the history of English top @-@ flight football ( 357 goals ) , and has also scored more hat @-@ tricks ( six ) for England than anyone else . He finished as the First Division 's top scorer in six seasons . He is a member of the English Football Hall of Fame .
Greaves began his professional career at Chelsea in 1957 , and played in the following year 's FA Youth Cup final . He scored 124 First Division goals in just four seasons before being sold on to Italian club A.C. Milan for Β£ 80 @,@ 000 in April 1961 . His stay in Italy was not a happy one and he returned to England with Tottenham Hotspur for a fee of Β£ 99 @,@ 999 in December 1961 . Whilst with Spurs he won the FA Cup in 1961 β 62 and 1966 β 67 , the Charity Shield in 1962 and 1967 , and the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1962 β 63 ; he never won a league title but did help Spurs to a second @-@ place finish in 1962 β 63 . He moved to West Ham United in a player @-@ exchange in March 1970 and retired the following year . After a four @-@ year absence he returned to football at the non @-@ league level , despite suffering from alcoholism . In a five @-@ year spell he played for Brentwood , Chelmsford City , Barnet , and Woodford Town .
Greaves scored 13 goals in 12 England under @-@ 23 internationals and scored 44 goals in 57 full England internationals between 1959 and 1967 . He played in the 1962 and 1966 FIFA World Cup , but was injured in the group stage of the 1966 World Cup and lost his first team place to Geoff Hurst , who kept Greaves out of the first team in the final . England won the World Cup , but Greaves was not given his medal until a change of FIFA rules in 2009 .
After retiring as a player Greaves went on to enjoy a career in broadcasting , most notably working alongside Ian St. John on Saint and Greavsie from 1985 to 1992 . During this period , he also made regular appearances on TV @-@ am . He worked on a number of other sport shows on ITV during this period , including Sporting Triangles .
= = Club career = =
= = = Chelsea = = =
Greaves was born in Manor Park and raised in Hainault . He was scouted playing football while a schoolboy by Chelsea 's Jimmy Thompson , and in 1955 was signed on as an apprentice to become one of " Drake 's Ducklings " ( Drake 's Ducklings were named after manager Ted Drake in response to Manchester United 's " Busby Babes " ) . He soon made an impression at youth level , scoring 51 goals in the 1955 β 56 season and 122 goals in the 1956 β 57 season under the tutelage of youth team coach Dickie Foss . Greaves scored in the 1958 FA Youth Cup final , but Chelsea lost the two @-@ legged tie 7 β 6 on aggregate after Wolverhampton Wanderers turned round a four @-@ goal deficit with a 6 β 1 win in the second leg . He turned professional in the summer of 1957 , though spent eight weeks working at a steel company to supplement his income during the summer break .
Aged 17 , Greaves scored on his First Division debut on 24 August 1957 against Tottenham Hotspur in a 1 β 1 draw at White Hart Lane . He was an instant success , as the News Chronicle reported that he " showed the ball control , confidence and positional strength of a seasoned campaigner " and compared his debut to the instant impact the young Duncan Edwards had as a teenager . The " Blues " played attacking football during the 1957 β 58 campaign , resulting in high @-@ scoring matches , and Greaves ended the season as the club 's top scorer with 22 goals in 37 appearances . Drake rested him for six weeks from mid @-@ November as he did not wish the praise Greaves was receiving to go to his head ; Greaves marked his return to the first team at Stamford Bridge with four goals in a 7 β 4 victory over Portsmouth on Christmas Day .
Greaves scored five goals in a 6 β 2 win against league champions Wolverhampton Wanderers in the third match of the 1958 β 59 season . Chelsea remained inconsistent , though despite his team finishing in 14th place Greaves managed to finish as the division 's top scorer with 32 goals in 44 league games . Greaves scored 29 goals in 40 league matches in the 1959 β 60 campaign , five of which came in a 5 β 4 victory over Preston North End . Despite his goalscoring exploits , the club could manage only an 18th @-@ place finish , three places and three points above the relegation zone .
In the 1960 β 61 season , Greaves scored hat @-@ tricks against Wolves , Blackburn Rovers and Manchester City ; he scored four goals against Newcastle United and Nottingham Forest ; and hit five goals in a 7 β 1 win over West Bromwich Albion . His hat @-@ trick against Manchester City on 19 November included his 100th league goal , making him the youngest player to pass the 100 @-@ goal mark , at the age of 20 years and 290 days . However , he became increasingly disillusioned at Chelsea as , despite his goals , the team also conceded goals with regularity , and were never consistent enough to mount a title challenge . They also exited the FA Cup by losing 2 β 1 at home to Fourth Division side Crewe Alexandra . Club chairman Joe Mears agreed to sell Greaves as Chelsea were in need of extra cash . His last game was the final game of the 1960 β 61 season on 29 April ; he was made captain for the day and scored all four goals in a 4 β 3 win against Nottingham Forest . This took his tally for the season to a club record 41 goals in 40 league games , making him the division 's top scorer .
= = = A.C. Milan = = =
Greaves was signed by Italian Serie A club A.C. Milan in June 1961 for an Β£ 80 @,@ 000 fee , and was given a three @-@ year contract on Β£ 140 a week with a Β£ 15 @,@ 000 signing bonus . He became unhappy at the thought of leaving London and tried to cancel the move before it was fully confirmed , but " Rossoneri " manager Giuseppe Viani refused to annul the deal . Greaves scored on his debut in a 2 β 2 draw with Botafogo at the San Siro . However , he did not get on well with new head coach Nereo Rocco , who insisted on keeping the players in a strict training regime with little personal freedom . Greaves scored nine goals in 14 appearances , including one against Inter Milan in the Milan derby . During a match against Sampdoria , Greaves kicked a player who had spat in his face . Sampdoria equalised from the resulting free kick , for which Rocco blamed Greaves , despite him having scored Milan 's opener and set up the second . Due to his low morale , Greaves was transfer @-@ listed and Brazilian attacker Dino Sani was signed as his replacement . Both Tottenham Hotspur and Chelsea made Β£ 96 @,@ 500 bids , which were both accepted . After he left , the club went on to win the league title in 1961 β 62 .
= = = Tottenham Hotspur = = =
After protracted negotiations , Bill Nicholson signed Greaves for Tottenham Hotspur in December 1961 for Β£ 99 @,@ 999 β the unusual fee was intended to relieve Greaves of the pressure of being the first Β£ 100 @,@ 000 player in British football . He joined Spurs just after they became the first club in England to complete the First Division and FA Cup double during the 20th century . He played his first game in a Spurs shirt for the reserve team on 9 December 1961 , and scored twice in a 4 β 1 win over Plymouth Argyle Reserves at Home Park . He scored a hat @-@ trick on his first team debut , including a flying scissor kick , in a 5 β 2 win over Blackpool at White Hart Lane . He went on to feature against Benfica in the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup ; in the first leg at the EstΓ‘dio da Luz he had a goal disallowed for offside , and in the return fixture he had another goal another disallowed for offside . He played in all seven games of the club 's FA Cup run , scoring nine goals in the competition as they beat Birmingham City ( after a replay ) , Plymouth Argyle , West Bromwich Albion , Aston Villa and Manchester United to reach the 1962 FA Cup Final against Burnley at Wembley . Greaves opened the scoring against Burnley on 3 minutes when he hit a low shot past goalkeeper Adam Blacklaw from a tight angle , and Spurs went on to win the game 3 β 1 . They finished the league in third place in 1961 β 62 , four points behind champions Ipswich Town .
Greaves scored twice in the 1962 FA Charity Shield , as Spurs secured the trophy with a 5 β 1 win over Ipswich at Portman Road . In the 1962 β 63 season Greaves scored hat @-@ tricks in victories over Manchester United , Ipswich Town and Liverpool , as well as four goals in a 9 β 2 win over Nottingham Forest . Spurs finished the league campaign in second place , six points behind champions Everton . Greaves scored 37 goals in 41 league games , finishing as the division 's top scorer . In the European Cup Winners ' Cup , Tottenham beat Rangers ( Scotland ) , Ε K Slovan Bratislava ( Czechoslovakia ) and OFK Beograd ( Yugoslavia ) to reach the final , where they met Spanish club AtlΓ©tico Madrid at De Kuip . In the first leg of the semi @-@ final against Beograd in Belgrade , Greaves was sent off for violent conduct ( his first and only red card ) after attempting to punch centre @-@ back Blagomir KrivokuΔa . Greaves served a one match ban and was able to play in the final , where he opened the scoring after an assist from Cliff Jones and later added a fourth in a 5 β 1 victory ( John White and Terry Dyson getting the other goals ) . In winning the competition , Tottenham Hotspur became the first British team to win a European trophy .
Manager Bill Nicholson and his assistant Eddie Baily then began a period of transition at White Hart Lane β key players such as Danny Blanchflower , John White and Dave Mackay would all leave the club within the space of a few years and had to be replaced . Greaves remained a consistent goalscorer though , and in the 1963 β 64 season he scored hat @-@ tricks in victories over Nottingham Forest , Blackpool , Birmingham City and Blackburn Rovers . Spurs finished in fourth place , six points behind champions Liverpool , and exited the FA Cup and Cup Winners ' Cup at the opening stages . Greaves scored 35 goals in 41 league games to again finish as the division 's top scorer . Strike partner Bobby Smith left the club in the summer , though Greaves felt the partnership he went on to form with new signing Alan Gilzean was even more effective .
Spurs finished sixth in 1964 β 65 , though Greaves scored 29 goals in 41 league games to finish as the division 's joint top scorer ( with Andy McEvoy ) . He also scored two hat @-@ tricks in the FA Cup β against Torquay United and Ipswich Town β to take his total tally to 35 goals in 45 appearances . He missed three months at the start of the 1965 β 66 season after being diagnosed with hepatitis , but recovered to end the campaign with 16 goals in 31 matches , remaining the club 's top scorer as they finished the league campaign in eighth place whilst failing to make it past the Fifth Round of the FA Cup .
Greaves scored 31 goals in 47 appearances in the 1966 β 67 campaign , helping Spurs to launch a title challenge that ended with a third @-@ place finish , four points behind Manchester United . They also won the FA Cup after knocking out Millwall , Portsmouth , Bristol City , Birmingham City and Nottingham Forest to reach the 1967 FA Cup Final with Chelsea . Though he did not score in the final itself , a 2 β 1 victory , with six goals in eight games Greaves was the competition 's leading scorer . The 1967 β 68 season was a disappointing one for Spurs following their 3 β 3 draw with Manchester United at Old Trafford in the 1967 FA Charity Shield . They finished seventh in the league , exited the FA Cup in the Fifth Round and were knocked out of the Cup Winners ' Cup in the Second Round . Greaves had a poor season by his own standards , though with 29 goals in 48 appearances he was still the club 's top scorer . Nicholson bought Greaves a new strike partner in Martin Chivers from Southampton for a club record Β£ 125 @,@ 000 fee , with Gilzean dropping further back into midfield to accommodate , but Greaves and Chivers were not as effective together as Nicholson had hoped .
In 1968 β 69 , Greaves scored 27 goals in 42 league games to finish as the First Division 's leading scorer for the sixth and final time . He scored four of his goals in one match against Sunderland , and also scored hat @-@ tricks against Burnley and Leicester City . His nine goals in cup competitions , including a hat @-@ trick against Exeter City , left him with an overall goal tally of 36 in 52 games . Spurs performed inconsistently in the 1969 β 70 season , and Greaves was dropped from the first team after playing in an FA Cup defeat to Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park on 28 January 1970 . He was never recalled to the starting line @-@ up , but still ended the season as the club 's joint top scorer ( with Martin Chivers ) , having scored 11 goals in 33 matches .
Greaves was given a testimonial match by Spurs on 17 October 1972 in a 2 β 1 win over Feyenoord at White Hart Lane ; he made Β£ 22 @,@ 000 from the occasion . He was inducted into the Tottenham Hotspur Hall of Fame in 2015 .
= = = West Ham United = = =
In March 1970 , Greaves joined West Ham United as part @-@ exchange in Martin Peters ' transfer to White Hart Lane . Brian Clough 's Derby County had also been interested in Greaves , but he did not want to move away from London . In hindsight Greaves felt that Clough may have helped him revive his career , as he had done for Greaves ' former Tottenham team mate Dave Mackay . Greaves later admitted his regret in making the move to Upton Park . He scored two goals on his " Hammers " debut on 21 March , in a 5 β 1 win against Manchester City at Maine Road .
In January 1971 , with Bobby Moore , Brian Dear and Clyde Best , Greaves was involved in late @-@ night drinking , against the wishes of manager Ron Greenwood , prior to an FA Cup tie away to Blackpool . On arriving in Blackpool , Greaves and his team @-@ mates had been informed by members of the press that the game , the following day , was unlikely to go ahead due to a frozen pitch and the likelihood of frost that night . Believing that there would be no game the following day , Greaves drank 12 lagers in a club owned by Brian London and did not return to the team hotel until 1.45am. In fact , the match went ahead and West Ham lost 4 β 0 . Greaves claimed the defeat was not a result of the late night , the drinking or the frozen pitch , but because the West Ham team in which he was playing was not good enough . As a result , the players were fined and dropped by the club .
Greaves was struggling with his fitness and his motivation . He felt he had become a journeyman footballer and lost motivation as he believed that apart from Moore , Geoff Hurst , Billy Bonds and Pop Robson , few of his team @-@ mates could play good football . Towards the end of his career with West Ham Greaves began to drink more and more alcohol , often going straight from training in Chadwell Heath to a pub in Romford , where he would remain until closing time . He later admitted that he was in the early stages of alcoholism . His final game came on 1 May 1971 in a 1 β 0 home defeat to Huddersfield Town . Greaves scored 13 goals in 40 games in all competitions for West Ham .
= = = Later career and alcoholism = = =
After leaving West Ham , Greaves put on weight and did not attend a match as either a player or a spectator for two years . Drinking formed a large part of his life and he became an alcoholic ; at times he was drinking 20 pints of lager during the day and consuming a bottle of vodka in the evening . He later admitted that he was also regularly driving whilst drunk during this period . Seeking an answer to his alcoholism , Greaves decided to return to football at a lower level where he would not be required to be as fit as he had been whilst playing in the Football League . He started playing for his local side , Brentwood , and made his debut on 27 December 1975 in a 2 β 0 defeat to Witham Town .
His return to football was successful enough that he signed for Chelmsford City in the Southern League for the 1976 β 77 season . He played for only a few months with Chelmsford . He was still struggling with alcoholism and delirium tremens and sought out help from Alcoholics Anonymous . He was also hospitalised in the alcoholics ' ward of Warley Psychiatric Hospital .
In August 1977 and still coping with alcoholism , Greaves made his debut for Barnet in a 3 β 2 win against Atherstone Town . Playing from midfield in 1977 β 78 , Greaves netted 25 goals ( 13 in the Southern League ) and was their player of the season . He chose to leave the " Bees " early in the 1978 β 79 season to focus on his business interests and beating his alcoholism , despite manager Barry Fry 's attempts to get him to stay at Underhill . Greaves went on to make several appearances for semi @-@ professional side Woodford Town before retiring .
= = International career = =
Greaves made his debut for the England under @-@ 23 team in a 6 β 2 win over Bulgaria at Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1957 ; he scored two goals , and missed out on a hat @-@ trick after failing to convert a penalty .
Greaves won his first England cap on 17 May 1959 against Peru at the Estadio Nacional , scoring England 's only goal in a 4 β 1 defeat . The tour of the American continents was not considered a success by the British media , as England also lost to Brazil and Mexico , but Greaves mostly escaped criticism in the press as he was still a teenager and showed promise with his performances . He scored consecutive hat @-@ tricks on 8 October 1960 and 19 October , in victories at Northern Ireland and Luxembourg . On 15 April 1961 , Greaves scored another hat @-@ trick in a 9 β 3 victory over Scotland at Wembley , and also had a fourth goal disallowed for offside .
He played in all four of England 's games at the 1962 FIFA World Cup in Chile , scoring one goal in the 3 β 1 victory over Argentina before playing in the quarter @-@ final defeat to Brazil . During the defeat to Brazil a stray dog ran onto the pitch and evaded all of the players ' efforts to catch it until Greaves got down on all fours to beckon the animal . The Brazilian player Garrincha thought the incident was so amusing that he took the dog home as a pet .
On 20 November 1963 , he scored four goals in an 8 β 3 win over Northern Ireland . The following year , on 3 October , he scored another hat @-@ trick against the same team . He scored four goals again on 29 June 1966 , in a 6 β 1 friendly win over Norway , and in doing so ensured himself a starting place in the 1966 FIFA World Cup .
At the World Cup he played all three group games against Uruguay , Mexico and France , however in the win against France midfielder Joseph Bonnel racked his studs down Greaves ' shin , causing a wound that required 14 stitches and left a permanent scar . His replacement , Geoff Hurst , scored the winner in the quarter @-@ final against Argentina and kept his place all the way to the final , where Hurst scored a hat @-@ trick as England won the tournament . Greaves was fit to play in the final , but manager Alf Ramsey opted against changing a winning team . Only the 11 players on the pitch at the end of the 4 β 2 win over West Germany received medals . Following a Football Association @-@ led campaign to persuade FIFA to award medals to all the winners ' squad members , Greaves was presented with his medal by Gordon Brown at a ceremony at 10 Downing Street on 10 June 2009 . In November 2014 , Greaves ' medal was sold at auction for Β£ 44 @,@ 000 .
Greaves played only three more times for England after the 1966 World Cup , scoring a single goal . His final cap came in a 1 β 0 win over Austria on 27 May 1967 . He retired from international football early the following year after telling Ramsey that he had no intention of becoming a bit @-@ part player in the England squad . In total he scored 44 goals in 57 appearances for England . He is in fourth place on the all @-@ time list of England goalscorers , behind Bobby Charlton , Gary Lineker and Wayne Rooney . Greaves holds the record for most hat @-@ tricks for England β six in all .
= = Style of play = =
Greaves was a prolific goalscorer , and cited his relaxed attitude as the reason for his assured composure and confidence . He also had great acceleration and pace , as well as great positional skills .
= = Broadcasting career = =
Greaves became a columnist at The Sun newspaper in the early 1980s . He continued to write his column for 30 years until it was cancelled , at which point he began working as a columnist for The Sunday People . He worked as a pundit on Star Soccer from 1980 , and later worked on The Saturday Show before he was selected as a pundit for ITV 's coverage of the 1982 FIFA World Cup . From there he worked on World of Sport and On the Ball , where he struck up a partnership with Ian St. John . Greg Dyke also hired Greaves to work as a television reviewer and presenter on TV @-@ am in what Dyke admitted was a way of " dumbing down " the programme to attract more viewers . From October 1985 to April 1992 he and St. John presented a popular Saturday lunchtime football show called Saint and Greavsie . He went on to work as a team captain on Sporting Triangles , opposite Andy Gray and Emlyn Hughes . His career in television came to an end as the Premier League was starting up , and he believed that his light @-@ hearted approach to football was not considered serious enough for television bosses at the time .
Greaves went into semi @-@ retirement after Saint and Greavsie was cancelled , making only occasional television appearances and after @-@ dinner speeches . He released his autobiography , Greavsie , in 2003 . Greaves has also written numerous books in partnership with his lifelong friend , the journalist and author Norman Giller .
= = Personal life = =
Greaves married Irene Barden at Romford register office on 26 March 1958 , and though the pair went through a divorce process during the height of his alcoholism , it was never finalised and they reunited after three months apart . They had four children , Lynn , Mitzi , Danny ( who was a professional footballer with Southend United ) , and Andrew . They also had another son , Jimmy Greaves Jr , who died before his first birthday .
Whilst playing for Tottenham Hotspur Greaves took out a Β£ 1 @,@ 000 bank loan to start a packing business with his brother @-@ in @-@ law . By the end of his playing career this company had an annual turnover of over Β£ 1 million . He had a number of different business interests , including a travel agency . Greaves entered the 1970 London to Mexico World Cup Rally . In his first ever rally , alongside co @-@ driver , Tony Fall , Greaves drove a Ford Escort to a sixth @-@ place finish out of the 96 entrants .
Greaves underwent surgery on an artery in his neck after suffering a mild stroke in February 2012 . After a full recovery , he experienced a severe stroke in May 2015 which left him unable to speak . He was placed in intensive care and , according to doctors , was expected to undergo a slow recovery . He left hospital after a month , his health having " improved considerably " according to Greaves ' friend and agent Terry Baker . In February 2016 , although slowly recovering from the stroke , Greaves was in a wheelchair and had been told that he would never walk again .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club statistics = = =
= = = International caps and goals = = =
England 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Chelsea
FA Youth Cup runner @-@ up : 1958
AC Milan
Serie A winner : 1961 β 62
Tottenham Hotspur
FA Cup winner : 1961 β 62 & 1966 β 67
Football League First Division runner @-@ up : 1962 β 63
FA Charity Shield winner : 1962 & 1967 ( shared )
European Cup Winners Cup winner : 1962 β 63
= = = International = = =
England
British Home Championship winner : 1959 β 60 ( shared ) , 1960 β 61 , 1963 β 64 ( shared ) , 1964 β 65 & 1965 β 66
British Home Championship runner @-@ up : 1961 β 62 , 1962 β 63 & 1966 β 67
FIFA World Cup winner : 1966 ( medal awarded retrospectively in 2009 )
|
= Annie Hall =
Annie Hall is a 1977 American romantic comedy film directed by Woody Allen from a screenplay he co @-@ wrote with Marshall Brickman . Produced by Allen 's manager , Charles H. Joffe , the film stars the director as Alvy " Max " Singer , who tries to figure out the reasons for the failure of his relationship with the film 's eponymous female lead , played by Diane Keaton in a role written specifically for her .
Principal photography for the film began on May 19 , 1976 on the South Fork of Long Island , and filming continued periodically for the next ten months . Allen has described the result , which marked his first collaboration with cinematographer Gordon Willis , as " a major turning point " , in that unlike the farces and comedies that were his work to that point , it introduced a new level of seriousness . Academics have noted the contrast in the settings of New York City and Los Angeles , the stereotype of gender differences in sexuality , the presentation of Jewish identity , and the elements of psychoanalysis and modernism .
Annie Hall was screened at the Los Angeles Film Festival in March 1977 , before its official release on April 20 , 1977 . The film received widespread critical acclaim , and along with winning the Academy Award for Best Picture , it received Oscars in three other categories : two for Allen ( Best Director and , with Brickman , Best Original Screenplay ) , and Keaton for Best Actress . The film additionally won four BAFTA awards and a Golden Globe , the latter being awarded to Keaton . Its North American box office receipts of $ 38 @,@ 251 @,@ 425 are fourth @-@ best in the director 's oeuvre when not adjusted for inflation . Often listed among the greatest film comedies , it ranks 31st on AFI 's list of the top feature films in American cinema , fourth on their list of top comedy films and number 28 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies . " Film critic Roger Ebert called it " just about everyone 's favorite Woody Allen movie " . The film has been named the funniest screenplay by the Writers Guild of America in its list of the " 101 Funniest Screenplays . "
= = Plot = =
The comedian Alvy Singer ( Woody Allen ) is trying to understand why his relationship with Annie Hall ( Diane Keaton ) ended a year ago . Growing up in New York , he vexed his mother with impossible questions about the emptiness of existence , but he was precocious about his innocent sexual curiosity .
Annie and Alvy , in a line for The Sorrow and the Pity , overhear another man deriding the work of Federico Fellini and Marshall McLuhan ; McLuhan himself steps in at Alvy 's invitation to criticize the man 's comprehension . That night , Annie shows no interest in sex with Alvy . Instead , they discuss his first wife ( Carol Kane ) , whose ardor gave him no pleasure . His second marriage was to a New York writer who didn 't like sports and was unable to reach orgasm .
With Annie , it is different . The two of them have fun making a meal of boiled lobster together . He teases her about the unusual men in her past . He met her playing tennis doubles with friends . Following the game , awkward small talk led her to offer him first a ride up town and then a glass of wine on her balcony . There , what seemed a mild exchange of trivial personal data is revealed in " mental subtitles " as an escalating flirtation . Their first date follows Annie 's singing audition for a night club ( " It Had to be You " ) . He suggests they kiss first , to get it out of the way . After their lovemaking that night , Alvy is " a wreck " , while she relaxes with a joint .
Soon Annie admits she loves him , while he buys her books on death and says that his feelings for her are more than just love . When she moves in with him , things become very tense . Eventually , he finds her arm in arm with one of her college professors and the two begin to argue whether this is the " flexibility " they had discussed . They eventually break up , and he searches for the truth of relationships , asking strangers on the street about the nature of love , questioning his formative years , until he casts himself in Snow White opposite Annie 's Evil Queen .
Alvy returns to dating , but the effort is marred by neurosis , bad sex , and finally an interruption from Annie , who insists he come over immediately . It turns out she needs him to kill a spider . A reconciliation follows , coupled with a vow to stay together come what may . However , their separate discussions with their therapists make it evident there is an unspoken divide . When Alvy accepts an offer to present an award on television , they fly out to Los Angeles , with Alvy 's friend , Rob ( Tony Roberts ) . However , on the return trip , they agree that their relationship is not working . After losing her to her record producer , Tony Lacey ( Paul Simon ) , he unsuccessfully tries rekindling the flame with a marriage proposal . Back in New York , he stages a play of their relationship but changes the ending : now she accepts .
The last meeting for them is a wistful coda on New York 's Upper West Side , when they have both moved on to someone new . Alvy 's voice returns with a summation : love is essential , especially if it is neurotic . Annie sings " Seems Like Old Times " and the credits roll .
= = Cast = =
Truman Capote has a cameo as the Winner of the Truman Capote look @-@ alike contest .
Several actors who went on to more fame had small parts in the movie : John Glover as Annie 's actor boyfriend , Jerry ; Jeff Goldblum as a man who " forgot [ his ] mantra " at Tony Lacey 's Christmas party ; and Sigourney Weaver in the closing sequence as Alvy 's date at the movie theater .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The idea for what would become Annie Hall was developed as Allen walked around New York City with co @-@ writer Marshall Brickman . The pair discussed the project on alternate days , sometimes becoming frustrated and rejecting the idea . Allen wrote a first draft of a screenplay within a four @-@ day period , sending it to Brickman to make alterations . According to Brickman , this draft centered on a man in his forties , someone whose life consisted " of several strands . One was a relationship with a young woman , another was a concern about the banality of life we all live , and a third an obsession with proving himself and testing himself to find out what kind of character he had . " Allen himself turned forty in 1975 , and Brickman suggests that " advancing age " and " worries about his death " had influenced Allen 's philosophical , personal approach to complement his " commercial side " . Allen made the conscious decision to " sacrifice some of the laughs for a story about human beings " . He recognized that for the first time he had the courage to abandon the safety of complete broad comedy and had the will to produce a film of deeper meaning which would be a nourishing experience for the audience . He was also influenced by Federico Fellini 's 1963 comedy @-@ drama 8 Β½ , created at a similar personal turning point , and similarly colored by each director 's psychoanalysis .
Brickman and Allen sent the screenplay back and forth until they were ready to ask United Artists for $ 4 million . Many elements from the early drafts did not survive . It was originally a drama centered on a murder mystery with a comic and romantic subplot . According to Allen , the murder occurred after a scene that remains in the film , the sequence in which Annie and Alvy miss the Ingmar Bergman film Face to Face . Although they decided to drop the murder plot , Allen and Brickman made a murder mystery many years later : 1993 's Manhattan Murder Mystery , also starring Diane Keaton . The draft that Allen presented to the film 's editor , Ralph Rosenblum , concluded with the words , " ending to be shot . " It was " like a first draft of a novel ... from which two or three films could possibly be assembled , " Rosenblum says . Allen suggested Anhedonia , a term for the inability to experience pleasure , as a working title , but United Artists considered this and Brickman 's suggested alternatives : It Had to Be Jew , Rollercoaster Named Desire and Me and My Goy unmarketable . An advertising agency , hired by UA , embraced Allen 's choice of an obscure word by suggesting advertising in tabloid newspapers using vague slogans such as " Anhedonia Strikes Cleveland " . However , Allen experimented with several titles over five test screenings , including Anxiety and Alvy and Me , before settling on Annie Hall .
= = = Casting = = =
Several references in the film to Allen 's own life have invited speculation that it is autobiographical . Both Alvy and Allen were comedians . His birthday appears on the blackboard in a school scene ; certain features of his childhood are found in Alvy Singer 's ; Allen went to New York University and so did Alvy . Diane Keaton 's real surname is " Hall " and " Annie " was her nickname , and she and Allen were once romantically involved . However , Allen is quick to dispel these suggestions . " The stuff that people insist is autobiographical is almost invariably not , " Allen said . " It 's so exaggerated that it 's virtually meaningless to the people upon whom these little nuances are based . People got it into their heads that Annie Hall was autobiographical , and I couldn 't convince them it wasn 't " . Contrary to various interviewers and commentators , he says , Alvy is not the character that is closest to himself ; he identified more with the mother ( Eve , played by Geraldine Page ) in his next film , Interiors . Despite this , Keaton has stated that the relationship between Alvy and Annie was partly based on her relationship with the director .
The role of Annie Hall was written specifically for Keaton , who had worked with Allen on Play It Again , Sam ( 1972 ) , Sleeper ( 1973 ) and Love and Death ( 1975 ) . She considered the character an " affable version " of herself β both were " semi @-@ articulate , dreamed of being a singer and suffered from insecurity " β and was surprised to win an Oscar for her performance . The film also marks the second film collaboration between Allen and Tony Roberts , their previous project being Play It Again , Sam .
Federico Fellini was Allen 's first choice to appear in the cinema lobby scene because his films were under discussion , but Allen chose cultural academic Marshall McLuhan after both Fellini and Luis BuΓ±uel declined the cameo . Some cast members , Baxter claims , were aggrieved at Allen 's treatment of them . The director " acted coldly " towards McLuhan , who had to return from Canada for reshooting , and Mordecai Lawner , who played Alvy 's father , claimed that Allen never spoke to him . However , during the production , Allen began a two @-@ year relationship with Stacey Nelkin , who appears in a single scene .
= = = Filming , editing and music = = =
Principal photography began on May 19 , 1976 on the South Fork of Long Island with the scene in which Alvy and Annie boil live lobsters ; filming continued periodically for the next ten months , and deviated frequently from the screenplay . There was nothing written about Alvy 's childhood home lying under a roller coaster , but when Allen was scouting locations in Brooklyn with Willis and art director Mel Bourne , he " saw this roller @-@ coaster , and ... saw the house under it . And I thought , we have to use this . " Similarly , there is the incident where Alvy scatters a trove of cocaine with an accidental sneeze : although not in the script , the joke emerged from a rehearsal happenstance and stayed in the movie . In audience testing , this laugh was so big that a re @-@ edit had to add a hold so that the following dialogue was not lost .
Rosenblum 's first assembly of the film in 1976 left Brickman disappointed . At two hours and twenty minutes , it dwelt " on issues just touched in passing in the version we know " , featuring the " surrealistic and abstract adventures of a neurotic Jewish comedian who was reliving his highly flawed life and in the process satirizing much of our culture , ... a visual monologue , a more sophisticated and visual version of Take the Money and Run " . Annie Hall herself didn 't stand out , and Brickman found it " nondramatic and ultimately uninteresting , a kind of cerebral exercise . " He suggested a more linear narrative . Fortunately , the shooting schedule was budgeted for two weeks of post @-@ production photography , so even though the first cut had " some of the free @-@ est , funniest and most sophisticated material that Woody had ever created , and it hurt him to lose it " , late 1976 saw three separate shoots for the final segment , two of which appear in some form . One featured Annie Hall taking her new boyfriend to The Sorrow and the Pity , which she had reluctantly seen with Alvy ; the other , Alvy 's monologue featuring the joke about ' we all need the eggs ' , was conceived during a cab journey to an early preview .
The credits call the film " A Jack Rollins and Charles H. Joffe Production " ; the two men were Allen 's managers and received this same credit on his films from 1969 to 1993 . However , for this film Joffe took producer credit and therefore received the Academy Award for Best Picture . The title sequence features a black background with white text in the Windsor Light Condensed typeface , a design that Allen would use on his subsequent films . Stig BjΓΆrkman sees some similarity to Ingmar Bergman 's simple and consistent title design , although Allen says that his own choice is a cost @-@ saving device .
Very little background music is heard in the film , a departure for Allen influenced by Ingmar Bergman . Diane Keaton performs twice in the jazz club : " It Had to be You " and " Seems Like Old Times " ( the latter reprises in voiceover on the closing scene ) . The other exceptions include a boy 's choir " Christmas Medley " played while the characters drive through Los Angeles , the Molto allegro from Mozart 's Jupiter Symphony ( heard as Annie and Alvy drive through the countryside ) , Tommy Dorsey 's performance of " Sleepy Lagoon " , and the anodyne cover of the Savoy Brown song " A Hard Way to Go " playing at a party in the mansion of Paul Simon 's character .
= = Style and technique = =
Technically , the film marked an advance for the director . He selected Gordon Willis as his cinematographer β for Allen " a very important teacher " and a " technical wizard , " saying , " I really count Annie Hall as the first step toward maturity in some way in making films . " At the time , it was considered an " odd pairing " by many , Keaton among them . The director was known for his comedies and farces , while Willis was known as " the prince of darkness " for work on dramatic films like The Godfather . Despite this , the two became friends during filming and continued the collaboration on several later films , including Zelig , which earned Willis his first Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography .
Willis described the production for the film as " relatively easy . " He shot in varying styles ; " hot golden light for California , grey overcast for Manhattan and a forties Hollywood glossy for ... dream sequences , " most of which were cut . It was his suggestion which led Allen to film the dual therapy scenes in one set divided by a wall instead of the usual split screen method . He tried long takes , with some shots , unabridged , lasting an entire scene , which , for Ebert , add to the dramatic power of the film : " Few viewers probably notice how much of Annie Hall consists of people talking , simply talking . They walk and talk , sit and talk , go to shrinks , go to lunch , make love and talk , talk to the camera , or launch into inspired monologues like Annie 's free @-@ association as she describes her family to Alvy . This speech by Diane Keaton is as close to perfect as such a speech can likely be ... all done in one take of brilliant brinksmanship . " He cites a study that calculated the average shot length of Annie Hall to be 14 @.@ 5 seconds , while other films made in 1977 had an average shot length of 4 β 7 seconds . Peter Cowie suggests that " Allen breaks up his extended shots with more orthodox cutting back and forth in conversation pieces , so that the forward momentum of the film is sustained . " Bernd Herzogenrath notes the innovation in the use of the split screen during the dinner scene to powerfully exaggerate the contrast between the Jew and the gentile family .
Although the film is not essentially experimental , at several points it undermines the narrative reality . James Bernardoni notes Allen 's way of opening the film by facing the camera , which immediately intrudes upon audience involvement in the film . In one famous scene , Allen 's character , in line to see a movie with Annie , listens to a man behind him deliver misinformed pontifications on the significance of Fellini 's and Marshall McLuhan 's work . Allen pulls McLuhan himself from just off camera to personally correct the man 's errors . Later in the film , when we see Annie and Alvy in their first extended talk , " mental subtitles " convey to the audience the characters ' nervous inner doubts . An animated scene β with artwork based on the comic strip Inside Woody Allen β depicts Alvy and Annie in the guise of the Wicked Queen from Snow White . Although Allen uses each of these techniques only once , the " fourth wall " is broken several other times when characters address the camera directly . In one , Alvy stops several passers @-@ by to ask questions about love , and in another he shrugs off writing a happy ending to his relationship with Annie in his autobiographical first play as forgivable " wish @-@ fulfillment . " Allen chose to have Alvy break the fourth wall , he explained , " because I felt many of the people in the audience had the same feelings and the same problems . I wanted to talk to them directly and confront them . "
= = Critical analysis = =
= = = Love , sexuality , and Jewish identity = = =
Sociologists Virginia Rutter and Pepper Schwartz consider Alvy and Annie 's relationship to be a stereotype of gender differences in sexuality . The nature of love is a repeating subject for Allen and co @-@ star Tony Roberts described this film as " the story of everybody who falls in love , and then falls out of love and goes on . " Alvy searches for love 's purpose through his effort to get over his depression about the demise of his relationship with Annie . Sometimes he sifts through his memories of the relationship , at another point he stops people on the sidewalk , with one woman saying that " It 's never something you do . That 's how people are . Love fades , " a suggestion that it was no one 's fault , they just grew apart and the end was inevitable . By the end of the film , Alvy accepts this and decides that love is ultimately " irrational and crazy and absurd " , but a necessity of life . Christopher Knight points out that Annie Hall is framed through Alvy 's experiences . " Generally , what we know about Annie and about the relationship comes filtered through Alvy , an intrusive narrator capable of halting the narrative and stepping out from it in order to entreat the audience 's interpretative favor . " He suggests that because Allen 's films blur the protagonist with " past and future protagonists as well as with the director himself " , it " makes a difference as to whether we are most responsive to the director 's or the character 's framing of events " . Knight believes Alvy 's quest upon meeting Annie is carnal , whereas hers is on an emotional note . Despite the narrative 's framing , " the joke is on Alvy . "
Richard Brody of The New Yorker notes the film 's " Eurocentric art @-@ house self @-@ awareness " and Alvy Singer 's " psychoanalytic obsession in baring his sexual desires and frustrations , romantic disasters , and neurotic inhibitions " . Annie Hall is viewed as the definitive Woody Allen film in displaying neurotic humor . Singer is identified with the stereotypical neurotic Jewish male , and the differences between Alvy and Annie are often related to the perceptions and realities of Jewish identity . Vincent Brook notes that " Alvy dines with the WASP @-@ y Hall family and imagines that they must see him as a Hasidic Jew , complete with payess ( ear locks ) and a large black hat . " Robert M. Seltzer and Norman J. Cohen highlight the scene in which Annie remarks that Annie 's grandmother " hates Jews . She thinks they just make money , but she β s the one . Is she ever , I β m telling you . " , revealing the hypocrisy in her grandmother 's stereotypical American view of Jews by arguing that " no stigma attaches to the love of money in America " . Bernd Herzogenrath also considers Allen 's joke , " I would like to but we need the eggs " , to the doctor at the end when he suggests putting him in a mental institution , to be a paradox of not only the persona of the urban neurotic Jew but also of the film itself .
Emanuel Levy believes that Alvy Singer became synonymous with the public perception of Woody Allen in the United States .
= = = Location = = =
Annie Hall " is as much a love song to New York City as it is to the character , " reflecting Allen 's adoration of the island of Manhattan . It was a relationship he explored repeatedly , particularly in films like Manhattan ( 1979 ) and Hannah and Her Sisters ( 1986 ) . Annie Hall 's apartment , which still exists on East 70th Street between Lexington Avenue and Park Avenue is by Allen 's own confession his favorite block in the city . Peter Cowie argues that the film shows " a romanticized view " of the borough , with the camera " linger [ ing ] on the Upper East Side [ ... and where ] the fear of crime does not trouble its characters . " By contrast , California is presented less positively , and David Halle notes the obvious " invidious intellectual comparison " between New York City and Los Angeles . While Manhattan 's movie theaters show classic and foreign films , Los Angeles theaters run less @-@ prestigious fare such as House of Exorcism and Messiah of Evil . Rob 's demonstration of adding canned laughter to television demonstrates the " cynical artifice of the medium " . New York serves as a symbol of Alvy 's personality ( " gloomy , claustrophobic , and socially cold , but also an intellectual haven full of nervous energy " ) while Los Angeles is a symbol of freedom for Annie .
= = = Psychoanalysis and modernism = = =
Annie Hall has been cited as a film which uses both therapy and analysis for comic effect . Sam B. Girgus considers Annie Hall to be a story about memory and retrospection , which " dramatizes a return via narrative desire to the repressed and the unconscious in a manner similar to psychoanalysis " . He argues that the film constitutes a self @-@ conscious assertion of how narrative desire and humor interact in the film to reform ideas and perceptions and that Allen 's deployment of Freudian concepts and humor forms a " pattern of skepticism toward surface meaning that compels further interpretation " . Girgus believes that proof of the pervasiveness of Sigmund Freud in the film is demonstrated at the beginning through a reference to a joke in Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious , and makes another joke about a psychiatrist and patient , which Girgus argues is also symbolic of the dynamic between humor and the unconscious in the film . Further Freudian concepts are later addressed in the film with Annie 's recall of a dream to her psychoanalyst in which Frank Sinatra is smothering her with a pillow , which alludes to Freud 's belief in dreams as " visual representations of words or ideas " .
Peter Bailey in his book The Reluctant Film Art of Woody Allen , argues that Alvy displays a " genial denigration of art " which contains a " significant equivocation " , in that in his self @-@ deprecation he invites the audience to believe that he is leveling with them . Bailey argues that Allen 's devices in the film , including the subtitles which reveal Annie 's and Alvy 's thoughts " extend and reinforce Annie Hall ' s winsome ethos of plain @-@ dealing and ingenuousness " . He muses that the film is full of antimimetic emblems such as Mcluhan 's magical appearance which provide quirky humor , and that the " disparity between mental projections of reality and actuality " drives the film . He considers self @-@ reflective cinematic devices to intelligently dramatize the difference between surface and substance , with visual emblems " incessantly distilling the distinction between the world mentally constructed and reality " .
In his discussion of the film 's relation to modernism , Thomas Schatz finds the film an unresolved " examination of the process of human interaction and interpersonal communication " and " immediately establishes [ a ] self @-@ referential stance " that invites the spectator " to read the narrative as something other than a sequential development toward some transcendent truth " . For him , Alvy " is the victim of a tendency toward overdetermination of meaning -- or in modernist terms ' the tyranny of the signified ' -- and his involvement with Annie can be viewed as an attempt to establish a spontaneous , intellectually unencumbered relationship , an attempt which is doomed to failure . " Marcus Geduld cites the flashback to Alvy as a child ( in a therapist 's office with his mother ) as an example of basic problems ( poverty , discordant parents ) being masked by a supposed existential crisis .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Annie Hall was shown at the Los Angeles Film Festival in March 1977 , before its official release on April 20 , 1977 . The film ultimately earned $ 38 @,@ 251 @,@ 425 ( $ 143 @,@ 228 @,@ 400 in 2013 dollars ) in the United States against a $ 4 @-@ million budget , making it the 11th highest @-@ grossing picture of 1977 . On raw figures , it currently ranks as Allen 's fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film , after Manhattan , Hannah and Her Sisters and Midnight in Paris ; when adjusted for inflation , the gross figure makes it Allen 's biggest box office hit . It was first released on Blu @-@ ray on January 24 , 2012 alongside Allen 's 1979 film Manhattan . Both releases include the films ' original theatrical trailers .
= = = Critical response = = =
Annie Hall was met with widespread critical acclaim upon its release . Tim Radford of The Guardian called the film " Allen 's most closely focused and daring film to date " . The New York Times ' Vincent Canby preferred Annie Hall to Allen 's second directorial effort , Take the Money and Run , since the former is more " humane " while the latter is more a " cartoon " . Several critics have compared the film favorably to Bergman 's Scenes from a Marriage ( 1973 ) , including Joseph McBride in Variety , who found it Allen 's " most three @-@ dimensional film to date " with an ambition equal to Bergman 's best even as the co @-@ stars become the " contemporary equivalent of ... Tracy @-@ Hepburn . "
More critically , Peter Cowie commented that the film " suffers from its profusion of cultural references and asides " . Writing for New York Magazine , the hard @-@ to @-@ please critic John Simon called the film " unfunny comedy , poor moviemaking , and embarrassing self @-@ revelation , " and wrote that Keaton 's performance was " in bad taste to watch and indecency to display , " saying the part should have been played by Robin Mary Paris , the actress who appears briefly in the scene where Alvy Singer has written a two @-@ character play nakedly based on himself and Annie Hall . Simon 's review of Annie Hall made a general assessment that didn 't pan out : " It is a film so shapeless , sprawling , repetitious , and aimless as to seem to beg for oblivion . "
After more than a quarter century , the film has continued to receive positive reviews . In his 2002 lookback , Roger Ebert noted with surprise that the film had " an instant familiarity " despite its age , and Slant writer Jaime N. Christley found the one @-@ liners " still gut @-@ busting after 35 years " . A later Guardian critic , Peter Bradshaw , named it the best comedy film of all time , commenting that " this wonderfully funny , unbearably sad film is a miracle of comic writing and inspired film @-@ making " . John Marriott of the Radio Times believed that Annie Hall was the film where Allen " found his own singular voice , a voice that echoes across events with a mixture of exuberance and introspection " , referring to the " comic delight " derived from the " spirited playing of Diane Keaton as the kooky innocent from the Midwest , and Woody himself as the fumbling New York neurotic " . Empire magazine rated the movie five out of five stars , calling it a " classic " . At Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 98 % based on 65 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 . The site 's consensus reads " Filled with poignant performances and devastating humor , Annie Hall represents a quantum leap for Woody Allen and remains an American classic " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Annie Hall won four Oscars at the 50th Academy Awards on April 3 , 1978 , and was nominated for five in total . Producer Charles H. Joffe received the statue for Best Picture , Allen for Best Director and , with Brickman , for Best Original Screenplay , and Keaton for Best Actress . Allen was also nominated for Best Actor . Many had expected Star Wars to win the major awards , including Brickman and Executive Producer Robert Greenhut .
The film was also honored four times at the BAFTA awards . Along with the top award for Best Film , Keaton won for Best Actress , Allen won for Best Direction and Best Original Screenplay alongside Brickman . The film received only one Golden Globe Award , for Best Film Actress in a Musical or Comedy ( Diane Keaton ) , despite nominations for three other awards : Best Motion Picture ( Musical or Comedy ) , Best Director , and Best Film Actor in a Musical or Comedy ( Woody Allen ) .
In 1992 , the United States ' Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in its National Film Registry that includes " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " films . The film is often mentioned among the greatest comedies of all time . The American Film Institute lists it 31st in American cinema history . In 2000 , they named it second greatest romantic comedy in American cinema . Keaton 's performance of " Seems Like Old Times " was ranked 90th on their list of greatest songs included in a film , and her line " La @-@ dee @-@ da , la @-@ dee @-@ da . " was named the 55th greatest movie quote . The screenplay was named the sixth greatest screenplay by the Writers Guild of America , West while IGN named it the seventh greatest comedy film of all time . In 2000 , readers of Total Film magazine voted it the forty @-@ second greatest comedy film of all time , and the seventh greatest romantic comedy film of all time . Several lists ranking Allen 's best films have put Annie Hall among his greatest work .
In June 2008 , AFI revealed its 10 Top 10 β the best ten films in ten classic American film genres β after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community and Annie Hall was placed second in the romantic comedy genre . AFI also ranked Annie Hall on multiple other lists . In November 2008 , Annie Hall was voted in at No. 68 on Empire magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . It is also ranked # 2 on Rotten Tomatoes ' 25 Best Romantic Comedies , second only to The Philadelphia Story . In 2012 , the film was listed as the 127th best film of all time by the Sight & Sound critics ' poll . The film was also named the 132nd best film by the Sight & Sound directors ' poll . In October 2013 , the film was voted by the Guardian readers as the second best film directed by Woody Allen . In November 2015 , the film was named the funniest screenplay by the Writers Guild of America in its list of 101 Funniest Screenplays .
= = = = American Film Institute recognition = = = =
1998 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies β # 31
2000 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs β # 4
2002 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions β # 11
2004 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" Seems Like Old Times " β # 90
2005 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
Annie Hall : " La @-@ dee @-@ da , la @-@ dee @-@ da . " β # 55
Alvy Singer : " I don 't want to move to a city where the only cultural advantage is being able to make a right turn on a red light . " β Nominated
Alvy Singer : " Don 't knock masturbation . It 's sex with someone I love . " β Nominated
2007 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) β # 35
2008 : AFI 's 10 Top 10 :
# 2 Romantic Comedy Film
= = = Legacy and influence = = =
Although the film received critical acclaim and several awards , Allen himself was disappointed with it , and said in an interview , " When Annie Hall started out , that film was not supposed to be what I wound up with . The film was supposed to be what happens in a guy 's mind ... Nobody understood anything that went on . The relationship between myself and Diane Keaton was all anyone cared about . That was not what I cared about ... In the end , I had to reduce the film to just me and Diane Keaton , and that relationship , so I was quite disappointed in that movie " . Allen has repeatedly declined to make a sequel , and in a 1992 interview stated that " Sequelism has become an annoying thing . I don 't think Francis Coppola should have done Godfather III because Godfather II was quite great . When they make a sequel , it 's just a thirst for more money , so I don 't like that idea so much " .
Diane Keaton has stated that Annie Hall was her favorite role and that the film meant everything to her . When asked if being most associated with the role concerned her as an actress , she replied , " I 'm not haunted by Annie Hall . I 'm happy to be Annie Hall . If somebody wants to see me that way , it 's fine by me " . Costume designer Ruth Morley , working with Keaton , created a look which had an influence on the fashion world during the late @-@ 70s , with women adopting the style : layering oversized , mannish blazers over vests , billowy trousers or long skirts , a man 's tie , and boots . The look was often referred to as the " Annie Hall look " . Some sources suggest that Keaton herself was mainly responsible for the look , and Ralph Lauren has often claimed credit , but only one jacket and one tie were purchased from Ralph Lauren for use in the film . Allen recalled that Lauren and Keaton 's dress style almost did not end up in the film . " She came in , " he recalled in 1992 , " and the costume lady on Annie Hall said , ' Tell her not to wear that . She can 't wear that . It 's so crazy . ' And I said , ' Leave her . She 's a genius . Let 's just leave her alone , let her wear what she wants . ' "
James Bernardoni states that the film is " one of the very few romantic comedy @-@ dramas of the New Hollywood era and one that has rightly taken its place among the classics of that reverted genre " , likening the seriocomic meditation on the couple relationship to George Cukor 's Adam 's Rib ( 1949 ) , starring Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy . Since its release , other romantic comedies have inspired comparison . When Harry Met Sally ... ( 1989 ) , Chasing Amy ( 1997 ) , 500 Days of Summer ( 2009 ) and Allen 's 2003 film , Anything Else , are among them , while film director Rian Johnson said in an interview for the book , The Film That Changed My Life , that Annie Hall inspired him to become a film director . Karen Gillan stated that she watched Annie Hall as part of her research for her lead role in Not Another Happy Ending .
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= William Burnet ( colonial administrator ) =
William Burnet ( March 1687 / 8 β 7 September 1729 ) was a British civil servant and colonial administrator who served as governor of New York and New Jersey ( 1720 β 1728 ) and Massachusetts and New Hampshire ( 1728 β 1729 ) . Born into a position of privilege ( his godfather became William III of England not long after his birth , and his father Gilbert Burnet was later Bishop of Salisbury ) , Burnet was well educated , tutored among others by Isaac Newton .
Active for most of his life in intellectual pursuits ( he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1705 / 6 ) , he occupied no posts of importance until financial considerations and political connections brought him the governorships of New York and New Jersey . His tenure in New Jersey was without major controversies , although he set a precedent there for accepting what were effectively bribes in exchange for his assent to legislation . In New York he sought unsuccessfully to end the fur trade between Albany and Montreal in order to implement a colonial policy preferring direct trade with the Native Americans in central North America . His New York rule was marked by an increase in political divisions between land owners ( with whom Burnet sided ) and merchants . After the death of King George I , King George II appointed Burnet governor of New Hampshire and Massachusetts .
Although his New Hampshire tenure was inconsequential , he engaged in a nasty dispute with the Massachusetts assembly over the issue of his salary , holding the legislative body in session for six months and relocating it away from Boston . The dispute held up other colonial business , and was ongoing in September 1729 when Burnet died ; his death was apparently caused by illness contracted after his carriage overturned and dumped him in water .
= = Early life = =
William Burnet was born in The Hague , a leading city of the Dutch Republic , in March 1687 / 8 . He was the first child of Mary ( Scott ) Burnet and Gilbert Burnet , the leading theologian in the Dutch court of William , Prince of Orange ( who was Burnet 's godfather ) and his wife Mary . Mary Scott Burnet was the heiress of a Scottish family which had settled in the Netherlands and acquired great wealth : her marriage to Gilbert however was generally agreed not to be for money , but a genuine love match on both sides . There were six younger children , of whom four survived infancy .
Later in 1688 William led an army across the English Channel in the Glorious Revolution , and William and Mary ascended to the English throne as corulers . Burnet 's father gave the coronation sermon , was later elevated to Bishop of Salisbury , and was an ongoing influence in the English court during King William 's reign . He fell out of favour when Queen Anne took the throne in 1702 .
Burnet 's mother died of smallpox in 1698 ; in accordance with her dying request his father two years later remarried her close friend Elizabeth Blake , who proved a kindly stepmother to William and his siblings . All of them were devoted to Gilbert , " the best of fathers " . On Gilbert 's death in 1715 William inherited one third of the estate , which given his mother 's wealth , must have been considerable .
Burnet was an excellent but undisciplined scholar . He entered Oxford at the age of 13 , but was dismissed for disciplinary reasons . His later education came from private tutoring ( including Isaac Newton as a tutor ) , and he was ultimately admitted to the bar . In 1712 he married Mary , the daughter of George Stanhope , the Dean of Canterbury . They had one child , a boy , before she died in 1717 .
= = Intellectual pursuits = =
Burnet 's rarefied education brought him a lifelong interest in scientific and mathematical pursuits . He was proposed for membership in the Royal Society by Isaac Newton in 1705 , and was enrolled as a fellow in February 1705 / 6 . He was acquainted with the mathematician Gottfried Leibniz , and was a regular correspondent on a wide array of scientific subjects with Philadelphia merchant and politician James Logan . He reported to the Royal Society observations of the Grindelwald Glacier in Switzerland , and on an unusual instance of Hungarian conjoined twins he saw while resident in The Hague in 1708 . Observations he made of eclipses of the moons of Jupiter while he was governor of New York were used to more precisely determine New York City 's longitude . During his tenure in New York he was relatively starved for intellectual discourse ; he briefly met a young Benjamin Franklin and encouraged him in his intellectual pursuits .
Like his teacher Isaac Newton , Burnet also wrote on religious subjects . In 1724 he anonymously published An Essay on Scripture Prophecy , Wherein it is Endeavoured to Explain the three periods Contain 'd in the Xii Chapter of the Prophet Daniel With some Arguments to make it Probable that the FIRST of the PERIODS did Expire in the Year 1715 . In this work he put forward a Millennialist argument that Jesus Christ would return to Earth in 1790 , based on his numerological interpretation of the Book of Daniel .
= = Governor of New York and New Jersey = =
Burnet 's connections to the court procured for him an appointment as the Comptroller of Customs in Great Britain . He also invested heavily in the South Sea Company , whose collapse in 1720 led him to consider more lucrative positions in the North American colonies . Correspondence with a longtime friend , Robert Hunter , who returned to England in 1719 provided an opportunity : Hunter was then the governor of New York and New Jersey , and he had returned to England for a variety of personal reasons , intending to divest himself of those posts . Hunter and Burnet were both well @-@ connected to the Whig government then in power , so an exchange of their offices was readily approved .
= = = New Jersey = = =
Burnet 's tenure as New Jersey governor was marked by disputes over the issuance of bills of credit and the granting of a permanent salary . Bills of credit , in addition to providing funding for the province 's expenses , also circulated as local currency . Issuance of large quantities of such bills had an inflationary tendency to devalue them relative to the pound sterling . Burnet was under instructions to disallow their issuance except under certain conditions . When the provincial assembly in 1721 approved a bill that called for the issuance of Β£ 40 @,@ 000 in bills secured by property mortgages Burnet dissolved the assembly . However , he approved similar legislation in 1723 in exchange for the legislature 's approval of a five @-@ year salary plan . When the assembly began appropriating funds from the bills in unapproved ways a few years later , Burnet was again convinced to sign in exchange for a grant of Β£ 500 for " incidental expenses " . This method by which the assembly essentially bribed the governor for his agreement in violation of instructions became somewhat normal practice in New Jersey with later governors .
= = = New York = = =
In New York Burnet sided with the large landowners of the province ; based on their advice he refused to call elections for the provincial assembly , keeping an assembly dominated by " court party " members for five years . His relationship with the New York assembly only deteriorated after several special elections resulted in the addition of enough " country party " members to elect a hostile speaker . Although he sought to broaden the province 's tax base to include larger real estate holdings , the powerful property owners who dominated the assembly and the court party were successful in deflecting these efforts into taxes on merchant interests . One tax , levied on the tonnage of ships docking in New York , led to a rise in smuggling between New Jersey and New York .
Eight months after his arrival in New York , in May 1721 , Burnet married again . His bride was Anna Maria Van Horne , the daughter of Abraham and Mary Van Horne and a relative by marriage of Robert Livingston , a powerful New York landowner and one of Burnet 's chief advisors . They had four children ; she and the last child died not long after its birth in 1727 .
= = = Indian trading policy = = =
One of the more important aspects of Burnet 's tenure in New York was his attempts to strengthen the colony 's position on the frontier , and its relations with the Iroquois who then controlled most of what is now upstate New York . Since the Iroquois had achieved peace with New France in 1701 , a vibrant trade had begun between New York merchants in Albany and French merchants in Montreal . English goods were sold to French traders , who bartered those goods for furs with Native American tribes in central North America . British colonial administrators sought to alter this method of trade , instructing Burnet to direct the trade through the Iroquois lands instead of through Montreal , bringing an end to the Albany @-@ Montreal trade .
Not long after his arrival in New York , Burnet had the assembly pass a law banning the Albany @-@ Montreal trade . This action earned him opposition from merchant interests that traded directly with New France , including the Huguenot Stephen DeLancey and other Albany merchants . Two vocal merchants , Adolph Philipse and Pieter Schuyler , sat on the governor 's council , and were removed by Burnet in 1721 . The law was fairly easily circumvented : the merchants routed the trade goods through nearby Mohawks who then carried goods to and from Montreal . A law stiffening enforcement of the trade ban was passed in 1722 . These policies caused protest not only in New York , but also in London , where British merchants argued that they were having a negative impact on trade volume to Europe .
In 1723 Burnet was informed that the French had begun construction of Fort Niagara at the western end of Lake Ontario ; this action presented a clear threat to British attempts to more directly access and control the fur trade . He consequently ordered the construction of Fort Oswego at the mouth of the Oswego River . This decision not only upset Albany traders , who would lose their monopoly on the fur trade , but also upset the French ( because it gave the British direct access to Lake Ontario ) and the Iroquois , who had wanted a fort sited at Lake Oneida instead . Burnet tried to placate the Iroquois by stationing militia forces in the Oneida area , but they also resented this intrusion .
Burnet 's attempts to implement the trade policy were ultimately unsuccessful . In 1725 the merchant interests , Stephen DeLancey among them , succeeded in gaining seats in the assembly through special elections , and Burnet 's decision to question the citizenship of the Huguenot DeLancey ( and thus his right to a seat in the assembly ) angered many moderates in that body . In the following years the assembly was noticeably more hostile to his rule . The trade ban was repealed in 1726 and replaced by a system of taxation designed to prefer western trade over the Albany @-@ Montreal trade . By the time of his departure in 1727 it was clear that this policy was also not working , and in some cases was having negative effects . All laws respecting Indian trade that passed during his administration were repealed in 1729 ; the only long @-@ term effects were the establishment of the British military presence at Oswego , and the breaking of Albany 's monopoly on trade . Burnet also left New York more factionally divided between merchants and landowners than when he arrived .
= = = Replacement = = =
In 1727 King George I died , an event that required the renewal of royal commissions . George II decided to give the New York and New Jersey governorships to Colonel John Montgomerie , who had served him as a Groom of the Bedchamber . Burnet was instead given appointment as governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire .
After it became known in New York that Burnet would be replaced , the assembly , at the instigation of Stephen DeLancey , as a parting shot formally protested Burnet 's actions as a chancery court judge , declaring that his judgments would be null and void . Montgomerie arrived in New York on 15 April 1728 , carrying Burnet 's commissions ; Burnet left New York in July for Boston .
= = Governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire = =
Burnet was only briefly in New Hampshire during his short tenure , where unlike Massachusetts he was readily granted a salary for three years or the duration of his administration . At the time of his appointment to the Massachusetts seat , the province had been governed for a number of years by Lieutenant Governor William Dummer , acting for Governor Samuel Shute . Burnet made a hardnosed attempt to force the Massachusetts assembly to grant him a permanent salary . Since the institution of the royal charter in 1692 , the assembly had steadfastly resisted this , choosing instead to make periodic grants to the governor . Local politicians found this an effective mechanism for influencing the governor to approve their policies , since the governor would never know when the next grant would be made , or how large it would be . The salary matter was one of many that had vexed Governor Shute during his time in the province . Dummer , a wealthy Massachusetts native , had been more conciliatory , only insisting that control of the provincial militia remain in his hands .
Burnet chose to take an extremely hard line on the subject of the salary : he refused to conduct any other business , or to dissolve the legislature , until the salary was decided . The legislature in turn refused to enact a salary bill , although it offered generous one @-@ time grants that Burnet refused on principle . He further raised tensions by implicitly suggesting that the assembly 's failure to act on the salary might jeopardize the colonial charter . In order to make life as difficult as possible for the legislators , Burnet relocated the assembly from Boston first to Salem and then Cambridge , increasing the costs of the legislators and forcing many of them from the comforts of their Boston @-@ area properties . In November 1728 the assembly voted to send agents to London to argue their side of the issue with the Board of Trade . Its attempts to appropriate funds for the agents were denied by the governor 's council , and the agents ended up being paid from funds raised by subscription .
In May 1729 the Board of Trade ruled , siding with Governor Burnet , but the assembly still refused to yield . Attempts to conduct business on other matters invariably became caught up in the salary dispute , and thus stalled . The dispute was still ongoing when Burnet , en route from Cambridge to Boston on 31 August , was thrown into water when his carriage accidentally overturned . He fell ill , and died on 7 September 1729 . He was interred in the King 's Chapel Burying Ground in Boston .
Lieutenant Governor Dummer again acted as governor until Burnet 's replacement ( Jonathan Belcher , one of the agents who had been sent to London ) was selected and returned to the province . He took a similar position as Burnet , refusing annual grants until he was replaced as lieutenant ( and acting ) governor by William Tailer , who acquiesced to annual grants . Jonathan Belcher , who became governor later in 1730 , was at first instructed as Burnet was on the matter of the salary , but during his tenure the Boards of Trade finally abandoned the instruction , and allowed him to receive annual grants .
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= The Pioneer Mother Memorial =
The Pioneer Mother Memorial , also known as Pioneer Mother and Pioneer Mothers , is a 1928 bronze sculpture by American artist Avard Fairbanks , installed at Esther Short Park in Vancouver , Washington , in the United States . The memorial depicts a mother and three children , and commemorates pioneer mothers who settled in the Pacific Northwest . The main female figure may depict Esther Short , one of the first U.S. citizens to arrive in Fort Vancouver . Commissioned by Vancouver banker Edward Crawford and his wife Ida for $ 10 @,@ 000 , it is one of the city 's oldest works of public art , acquired in 1928 and unveiled in 1929 . The sculpture was renovated around the start of the 21st century and is maintained by the City of Vancouver 's Parks & Recreation department .
= = Description = =
The Pioneer Mother Memorial is installed at Esther Short Park 's north entrance , at the intersection of West 8th and Daniel Street ( between Columbia and Esther Streets ) in Vancouver , Washington . The park commemorates the pioneer woman and her husband Amos , who were among the first U.S. citizens to arrive in Fort Vancouver . Some sources say the memorial sculpture commemorates Esther Short specifically , while also " [ typifying ] all the brave mothers of the frontier " who settled in the Pacific Northwest . Some sources say the sculpture 's main female figure is Short herself , per the dedication ceremony 's program . The sculpture was cast in Florence , Italy , where Fairbanks was working on his Guggenheim Fellowship .
The memorial features a full @-@ length bronze figure depicting a mother and three children . The woman wears traditional pioneer clothing , including a long dress , shawl , and shoes . She stands , facing forward , and holds a flintlock rifle in her proper right hand . The woman 's opposite hand rests on the head of the taller of two girls at her proper left side . The taller girl holds the shorter one with her proper left hand , while the shorter girl faces the taller one and rests against the mother 's proper left knee . A young boy clings to the mother 's dress and leans against her rifle . The sculpture measures approximately 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) Γ 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) Γ 21 inches ( 53 cm ) and rests on a concrete and granite base that measures approximately 102 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) Γ 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) Γ 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) .
Behind the figure group is a concrete backdrop . Its reverse side includes a bronze medallion with a bas @-@ relief depicting a team of oxen pulling a covered wagon . The animals are led by a man , and an " anxious " woman and baby are in the wagon . A large barrel is attached to the wagon . The bottom of the medallion includes a relief of a cattle skull . The medallion has a diameter of approximately 36 inches ( 91 cm ) .
The memorial includes several inscriptions . One by the woman 's foot reads , Avard Fairbanks / 1928 . The medallion has two inscriptions : one below the wagon displays a copyright symbol and reads , 1928 Avard Fairbanks , while another says , THE / PIONEER / MOTHERS . On the concrete backdrop below the medallion is the signed inscription : ERECTED IN MEMORY OF / THE PIONEER MOTHERS / THROUGH THE GIFT OF / MR. & MRS. E. G. CRAWFORD / 1928 .
= = History = =
The Pioneer Mother Memorial is one of Vancouver 's oldest works of public art ( the oldest , according to the Clark County Historical Museum ) , acquired in 1928 and unveiled on July 21 , 1929 ( or September 7 , according to some sources ) . Fairbanks attended the ceremony . The artist was commissioned to create the memorial by Vancouver banker Edward Crawford and his wife Ida , who donated $ 10 @,@ 000 to its creation .
The work was classified as needing treatment by the Smithsonian Institution 's " Save Outdoor Sculpture ! " program in May 1995 . It was renovated as part of park improvement efforts around the start of the 21st century . The memorial is maintained by the City of Vancouver 's Parks & Recreation department .
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= Al @-@ Jarrah ibn Abdallah =
Abu ΚΏUqba al @-@ Jarrah ibn ΚΏAbdallah al @-@ Hakami ( Arabic : Ψ£Ψ¨Ω ΨΉΩΨ¨Ψ© Ψ§ΩΨ¬Ψ±Ψ§Ψ Ψ¨Ω ΨΉΨ¨Ψ― Ψ§ΩΩΩ Ψ§ΩΨΩΩ
Ω ) was an Arab nobleman and general of the Hakami tribe . During the course of the early 8th century , he was at various times governor of Basra , Sistan and Khurasan , Armenia and Azerbaijan . A legendary warrior already during his lifetime , he is best known for his campaigns against the Khazars on the Caucasus front , culminating in his death in the Battle of Marj Ardabil in 730 .
= = Early career = =
According to Baladhuri , al @-@ Jarrah was born in Jordan , and probably followed Sufyan ibn al @-@ Abrad al @-@ Kalbi and Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Habib al @-@ Hakami to Iraq in 696 . In 701 , he fought against the rebellion of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath .
In 706 or a few years later he was appointed as governor of Basra under the governor of Iraq , al @-@ Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , and remained in the post until al @-@ Hajjaj 's replacement by Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab in 715 . Yazid in turn named al @-@ Jarrah as his deputy for Iraq , before he himself left for Khurasan , and in 717 , Caliph Umar II ( r . 717 β 720 ) appointed al @-@ Jarraj as Yazid 's successor in the governorship of Khurasan and Sistan . Al @-@ Jarrah remained in Khurasan until March / April 719 , when he was dismissed after 17 months in office due to complaints of his mistreatment of the native converts to Islam ( mawali ) , who , despite their conversion , were still obliged to pay the poll @-@ tax ( jizya ) . He was replaced by his deputy , Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Nu 'aym al @-@ Ghamidi . The most notable event of his tenure was the beginning of the covert missionary activity ( da 'wah ) by the agents of the Abbasids in Khurasan . After his return to Iraq , in 720 , he seems to have fought alongside Maslamah ibn Abd al @-@ Malik in the suppression of the rebellion of Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab .
= = In the Caucasus = =
In 721 / 2 , the main phase of the Second Arab β Khazar War began on the Caucasus front . In the winter of this year , 30 @,@ 000 Khazars launched an invasion of Armenia and inflicted a crushing defeat on the army of the local governor Mi 'laq ibn Saffar al @-@ Bahrani at Marj al @-@ Hijara in February / March 722 . In response , Caliph Yazid II ( r . 720 β 724 ) sent al @-@ Jarrah with 25 @,@ 000 Syrian troops to Armenia , placing him in command of the Umayyad offensive against the Khazars . Al @-@ Jarrah was swiftly successful in driving the Khazars back across the Caucasus , and fought his way north along the western coast of the Caspian Sea , recovering Derbent and advancing onto the Khazar capital of Balanjar . The Khazars tried to defend the city by ringing the citadel with a laager of wagons , but the Arabs broke it apart and stormed the city on 21 August 722 ( or 723 ) . Most of Balanjar 's inhabitants were killed or enslaved , but a few managed to flee north . The Arabs also took the town of Wabandar , and even approached Samandar ( near modern Kizlyar ) .
Despite these successes , the Arabs could not achieve a decisive result . The main Khazar army remained intact and a constant threat , since like all nomad forces it was not dependent on cities for supplies . Coupled with the fact that his rear was still insecure , al @-@ Jarrah was forced to abandon any attempt at capturing Samandar as well , and to retreat to Warthan south of the Caucasus . From there he asked for reinforcements from Yazid , but although the Caliph promised to send more troops , he failed to do so . The sources are obscure on al @-@ Jarrah 's activity in 723 , but he seems to have led another campaign north ( which may indeed be the true date of the Balanjar campaign ) . In response , the Khazars raided south of the Caucasus , but in February 724 , al @-@ Jarrah inflicted a crushing defeat on them in a battle between the rivers Cyrus and Araxes that lasted for several days . Al @-@ Jarrah followed up his success by capturing Tiflis , whose inhabitants were obliged to pay the kharaj but received a charter of rights in return . This campaign brought Caucasian Iberia and the lands of the Alans under Muslim suzerainty , and al @-@ Jarrah became the first Muslim commander to march through the Darial Pass in the process . This expedition secured the Muslims ' own flank against a possible Khazar attack through the Darial , while conversely it gave the Muslim army a second invasion route into Khazar territory .
In 725 , however , the new Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 724 β 743 ) replaced al @-@ Jarrah with his own brother Maslamah ibn Abd al @-@ Malik .
= = Recall to the Caucasus and death = =
In 729 , after a mixed performance against the Khazars , Maslamah was replaced yet again as governor of Armenia and Adharbayjan by al @-@ Jarrah . For all his energy , Maslamah 's campaigning failed to produce the desired results : by the time of his dismissal , the Arabs had lost control of northeastern Transcaucasia and been thrust once more into the defensive , with al @-@ Jarrah again having to defend Adharbayjan against a Khazar invasion .
In 730 , al @-@ Jarrah returned to the offensive through Tiflis and the Darial Pass . Arab sources report that he reached as far as the Khazar capital , al @-@ Bayda , on the Volga , but modern historians such as Khalid Yahya Blankinship consider this improbable . Soon after , he was forced back to Bardha 'a to defend Arran from invasion by the Khazar general Tharmach . It is unclear whether the Khazars moved through the Darial Pass or the Caspian Gates , but they succeeded in outmanoeuvring al @-@ Jarrah , bypassing the Arab forces and laying siege to Ardabil , the capital of Adharbayjan , where 30 @,@ 000 Muslim troops and their families were gathered . News of this development forced al @-@ Jarrah to hastily withdraw from Bardha 'a and march south in a rapid march to Ardabil 's rescue . Outside the city walls , after a three @-@ day battle on 7 β 9 December 730 , al @-@ Jarrah 's army of 25 @,@ 000 was all but annihilated by the Khazars under Barjik , with al @-@ Jarrah himself falling in the field . Command passed to al @-@ Jarrah 's brother al @-@ Hajjaj , who was unable to prevent the sacking of Ardabil , or to check Khazar raids that reached as far as south as Mosul . The experienced general Sa 'id ibn Amr al @-@ Harashi was put in command and soon succeeded in driving back the invasion , while under the leadership of Marwan ibn Muhammad ( the future Marwan II ) the war was concluded in a nominal Arab victory in 737 .
Al @-@ Jarrah 's death caused widespread lamentation in the Muslim world , particularly among the soldiers , as he had achieved a legendary status already during his lifetime : the " paradigmatic general " ( Patricia Crone ) , he had an impressive physical presence β according to tradition , he was so tall that when he entered the Great Mosque of Damascus , his head seemed to be suspended from the lamps β and his military prowess was celebrated with the sobriquets " hero of Islam " ( BaαΉal al @-@ IslΔm ) and " Cavalier of the Syrians " ( FΔris Ahl al @-@ ShΔm ) .
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= It 's On Bitch =
" It 's On Bitch " is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of The Hills . It originally aired on September 29 , 2009 , on MTV . In the episode , Kristin Cavallari and Audrina Patridge begin a feud involving the latter 's ex @-@ boyfriend Justin Brescia , while newlyweds Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt disagree about having children . It is the first episode in which Cavallari appears as the series ' lead , and also marks the first episode in which her predecessor Lauren Conrad does not appear .
" It 's On Bitch " was produced by Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Kristofer Lindquist , Sara Mast , and Sean Travis . After the season was retroactively divided into Part I and Part II , respectively separating installments featuring Conrad and Cavallari , the episode became the premiere of Part II .
" It 's On Bitch " was met with generally mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards the decision to replace Conrad with Cavallari . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 2 @.@ 1 million viewers . The episode was released on DVD on April 27 , 2010 , packaged with the remainder of Part II of the fifth season .
= = Plot = =
Newlyweds Heidi and Spencer plan a " welcome back party " upon returning from their honeymoon . Audrina , Lo , and Stephanie become concerned after learning that Kristin was invited , recalling earlier confrontations between her and Lauren . Brody 's girlfriend Jayde Nicole is concerned that he still has residual feelings for Kristin , though he dismisses their relationship as being too young and maintains that they are still friendly .
Audrina is dismayed to see that Justin is flirting with Kristin during the party , and Stephanie tells Justin to be respectful of Audrina . Kristin learns of the conflict , and begins yelling at Audrina and Stephanie . As the developing fight almost becomes physical , Kristin yells " if it 's going to be like this it 's on , bitch ! " as the others walk away .
The following day , Audrina rejects an invitation to Frankie 's birthday party when she realizes that Kristin will be in attendance . Lo and Stephanie are shocked that Justin tells Kristin that he and Audrina were not officially a couple , but decide against confronting Kristin . Audrina is saddened after hearing of Justin 's comments , and is worried that he and Kristin are seeing each other . During a later date with Justin , Kristin confesses that she thought he still has feelings for Audrina , and understands that Audrina looks at her as a threat .
Meanwhile , while looking for houses with Heidi , Spencer is alarmed that she wants have children . Heidi is excited to decorate a nursery in a suburban neighborhood , but is upset that Spencer secured another , more modern rental property without her prior knowledge . She tells him that they should have selected a home together , though Spencer refuses to take her concerns seriously .
= = Production = =
" It 's On Bitch " was produced by Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Kristofer Lindquist , Sara Mast , and Sean Travis . The episode was filmed throughout May and June 2009 .
The series ' original lead Lauren Conrad first indicated that she wished to leave The Hills upon the conclusion of its fourth season in December 2008 , looking to pursue other career opportunities . She commented that " five years on TV is a really , really long time " , adding that she was " ready to walk away " . However , per the producers ' requests , Conrad filmed ten episodes for the fifth season , in which she closed her storylines . She added that the season was potentially its last , stating that series personnel felt her presence would " give the show some sort of closure " .
The tenth episode of the season , " Something Old , Something New " , aired on May 31 , 2009 , and was initially billed as the fifth season finale . However , in April 2009 , MTV announced an extension of the season , and confirmed Cavallari as Conrad 's replacement the following month . Consequentially , the first ten episodes of the season were retroactively labeled Part I , while Cavallari 's forthcoming episodes were titled Part II . In January 2014 , Patridge revealed that the conflict between her and Cavallari had been fabricated at the producers ' request , elaborating that " [ she ] had to leave early for another event , [ they ] were there for about three hours and [ the producers ] were like , ' You can 't leave until you and Kristin get into a fight . ' ... It was about Justin and [ they ] did it and [ they ] got to leave . "
= = Reception and release = =
" It 's On Bitch " was met with generally mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards the decision to replace Conrad with Cavallari . A writer from PopSugar criticized Cavallari 's " sassy , bad @-@ girl attitude " for lacking originality and preferred Conrad for " [ keeping ] it real " . Rachel Krasnow from the Weekend Watchers was disappointed in the " overdone " and " ridiculous " scenes involving Cavallari and Brescia , and suggested that they had been staged by producers . Brian Moylan from Jezebel felt that Conrad 's departure " doomed the show " and added that he " just [ doesn 't ] get The Hills " despite " [ watching ] a lot of really trashy television " .
In contrast , Amy Kaufman from Los Angeles Times opined that Cavallari was more intriguing than Conrad , whose storylines she felt had been overshadowed as the series progressed . Tracie Egan Morrissey of Jezebel commented that she " kind of [ loves ] Kristin " , and was glad to see her replacing Conrad . Julie Miller from Movieline was critical of the episode 's " staged showdowns " , but nonetheless noted that the series " continues to compel " like professional wrestling and enjoyed a scene in which Jenner became irritated with Nicole , labeling it the sole genuine reaction of the episode . Writing for Homorazzi , Patrick " loved this episode " , and expressed an interest in the love triangle that seemingly develops between Cavallari , Jenner , and Nicole . Furthermore , a writer from The Hollywood Gossip opined that The Hills " can annoy the crap out of you sometimes " but " still entertains " despite appearing to be heavily scripted .
In its original broadcast in the United States on September 29 , 2009 , " It 's On Bitch " was watched by 2 @.@ 1 million viewers . In doing so , it suffered a 30 @-@ percent ratings drop from the season premiere " Don 't Cry on Your Birthday " , which garnered three million viewers on April 6 , 2009 . In the country , Season 5 , Part II was released as a two @-@ disc DVD set on April 27 , 2010 .
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= Great Britain at the 2010 Winter Paralympics =
Great Britain competed at the 2010 Winter Paralympics held in Vancouver , Canada . The team was made up of athletes from the whole United Kingdom ; athletes from Northern Ireland , who may elect to hold Irish citizenship under the pre @-@ 1999 article 2 of the Irish constitution , are able to be selected to represent either Great Britain or Ireland at the Paralympics . Kelly Gallagher became the first Northern Irish athlete to compete in the Winter Paralympics by taking part in the alpine skiing discipline . Additionally some British overseas territories compete separately from Britain in Paralympic competition . In order to be eligible to take part in the Games athletes had to have a disability that fell into one of the five Paralympics disability categories .
Great Britain fielded twelve athletes in total ; a team of five in wheelchair curling , and seven athletes in alpine skiing . The team failed to win a medal for the first time since the 2002 Games , when just two British athletes competed , and although several of the squad finished with top ten results , the overall outcome was described as disappointing . Kelly Gallagher came closest to a medal , finishing fourth in the giant slalom for visually impaired athletes . Britain will be hosting the next Games when London hosts the 2012 Summer Paralympics .
= = Disability classification = =
Every participant at the Paralympics has their disability grouped into one of five disability categories ; amputation , the condition may be congenital or sustained through injury or illness ; cerebral palsy ; wheelchair athletes , there is often overlap between this and other categories ; visual impairment , including blindness ; Les autres , any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories , for example dwarfism or multiple sclerosis . Each Paralympic sport then has its own classifications , dependent upon the specific physical demands of competition . Events are given a code , made of numbers and letters , describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing . Events with " B " in the code are for athletes with visual impairment , codes LW1 to LW9 are for athletes who stand to compete and LW10 to LW12 are for athletes who compete sitting down . For the 2010 Paralympics alpine skiing events grouped athletes in to sitting , standing and visually impaired . In biathlon events , which contain a target shooting component , blind and visually impaired athletes are able to compete through the use of acoustic signals , whose signal intensity varies dependent upon whether or not the athlete is on target . Wheelchair curling , first added to the Games in 2006 in Turin , is open to athletes with a physical disability in the lower part of the body that requires the everyday use of a wheelchair . Stones may be played by hand while leaning over the side of the wheelchair , or pushed by a delivery stick .
= = Alpine skiing = =
Britain β s alpine skiing team consisted of four men , Russell Docker , Timothy Farr , Sean Rose and Talan Skeels @-@ Piggins , and three women Jane Sowerby , Anna Turney and Kelly Gallagher , as well as Gallagher β s guide , Claire Robb . Docker was competing in his third Winter Paralympics , having previously taken part in Salt Lake City and Turin . The only other British skier with previous Games experience was Rose who had also raced in Turin .
Kelly Gallagher , who became the first Northern Irish athlete to compete in the Winter Paralympics , also achieved the team 's highest finish , missing out on a medal by a single place and 3 @.@ 36 seconds in the women 's visually impaired giant slalom . Sean Rose and Anna Turney also achieved top ten finishes . Jane Sowerby 's preparations were disrupted by a broken collarbone suffered in November 2009 . She failed to finish in the slalom and was disqualified from the giant slalom due to a rolling start .
Men
Women
= = Wheelchair curling = =
Britain β s wheelchair curling team consisted of Michael McCreadie , Angela Malone , Tom Killin , Aileen Neilson and James Sellar . These five athletes , representing Scotland , had finished fifth at the 2009 World Championships . Three of the team , McCreadie , Malone and Killin , were also in the GB team which won the silver medal in the event at the 2006 Turin Games . McCreadie , who was competing in his seventh Paralympics , won two bronze medals for Lawn Bowls in the 1976 Summer Paralympics and Killin was a previous silver medalist in wheelchair fencing at the 1980 Summer Games .
Paralympic wheelchair curling is played according to the rules of the World Curling Federation , the only modification is that there is no sweeping . The sport was open to both male and female athletes who competed in mixed teams , with a requirement that each team had at least one member of each sex . The format was a round @-@ robin tournament ; each nation played all others in a group stage with the top four qualifying for medal playoffs . Great Britain won three of their nine group games , beating teams from Switzerland , Germany , and Japan . They finished in sixth position , which meant that they did not advance to the medal matches .
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= Peter the Patrician =
Peter the Patrician ( Latin : Petrus Patricius , Greek : Ξ ΞΟΟΞΏΟ α½ Ξ Ξ±ΟΟΞ―ΞΊΞΉΞΏΟ , Petros ho Patrikios ; c . 500 β 565 ) was a senior East Roman or Byzantine official , diplomat , and historian . A well @-@ educated and successful lawyer , he was repeatedly sent as envoy to Ostrogothic Italy in the prelude to the Gothic War of 535 β 554 . Despite his diplomatic skill , he was not able to avert war , and was imprisoned by the Goths in Ravenna for a few years . Upon his release , he was appointed to the post of magister officiorum , head of the imperial secretariat , which he held for an unparalleled 26 years . In this capacity , he was one of the leading ministers of Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 β 565 ) , playing an important role in the Byzantine emperor 's religious policies and the relations with Sassanid Persia ; most notably he led the negotiations for the peace agreement of 562 that ended the 20 @-@ year @-@ long Lazic War . His historical writings survive only in fragments , but provide unique source material on early Byzantine ceremonies and diplomatic issues between Byzantium and the Sassanids .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early career : envoy to Italy = = =
Peter was born in Thessalonica about the year 500 , and was of Illyrian origin according to Procopius ; according to Theophylact Simocatta , however , his origin was from Solachon , near Dara in Mesopotamia . After studying law , he embarked on a successful career as a lawyer in Constantinople , which brought him to the attention of Empress Theodora . In 534 , on account of his rhetorical skills , he was employed as an imperial envoy to the Ostrogothic court at Ravenna . At the time , a power struggle was developing there between Queen Amalasuntha , regent to the young king Athalaric , and her cousin Theodahad . Following the death of Athalaric , Theodahad usurped the throne , imprisoned Amalasuntha , and sent messages to Emperor Justinian hoping for recognition . Peter met the envoys at Aulon , on his way to Italy , and notified Constantinople , seeking new instructions . Emperor Justinian ordered him to convey the message to Theodahad that Amalasuntha was under the Emperor 's protection and not to be harmed . Nevertheless , at the time Peter arrived in Italy , Amalasuntha had been killed ; Procopius 's narrative in the Gothic War is ambiguous here , but in his Secret History , he explicitly claims that Peter arranged the murder of Amalasuntha on instructions from Theodora , who feared her as a potential rival for Justinian 's attentions . Whatever assurances might have been privately given by Theodora to Theodahad , in public , Peter strongly condemned the act , and declared that there would be " war without truce between the emperor and themselves " as a result .
Peter then returned to Constantinople with letters from Theodahad and the Roman Senate to the imperial couple , bearing pleas for a peaceful solution , but by the time he reached the imperial capital , Emperor Justinian had resolved on war and was preparing his forces . Consequently , Peter returned to Italy in the summer of 535 conveying an ultimatum : only if Theodahad abdicated and returned Italy to imperial rule , could war be averted . A two @-@ pronged Byzantine offensive followed soon thereafter , attacking the outlying possessions of the Ostrogothic kingdom : Belisarius took Sicily , while Mundus invaded Dalmatia . Upon hearing these news , Theodahad despaired , and Peter was able to secure wide @-@ ranging concessions from him : Sicily was to be ceded to the Byzantine Empire ; the Gothic king 's authority within Italy was severely restricted ; a gold crown was to be sent as an annual tribute and up to 3 @,@ 000 men were to be provided for the imperial army , underlining Theodahad 's subject status . Theodahad , however , fearing that his first offer would be rejected , then instructed Peter , under oath , to offer the cession of all Italy , but only if the original concessions were rejected by Justinian . In the event , Justinian rejected the first proposal , and was delighted to learn of the second one . Peter was sent back to Italy with Athanasius , bearing letters to Theodahad and the Gothic nobles , and for a time it seemed as if the cradle of the Roman Empire would return peacefully to the fold . It was not to be : upon their arrival in Ravenna , the Byzantine envoys found Theodahad in a changed disposition . Supported by the Gothic nobility and buoyed up by a success against Mundus in Dalmatia , he resolved to resist , and imprisoned the ambassadors .
= = = Magister officiorum = = =
Peter remained imprisoned in Ravenna for three years , until released in June / July 539 by the new Gothic king , Witigis , in exchange for Gothic envoys sent to Persia who had been captured by the Byzantines . As a reward for his services , Emperor Justinian then appointed Peter to the post of magister officiorum ( " Master of the Offices " ) , one of the highest positions in the state , heading the palace secretariat , the imperial guards ( the Scholae Palatinae ) , and the Public Post with the dreaded agentes in rebus . He would hold this post for 26 consecutive years , longer by a wide margin than any other before or after . At about the same time or shortly thereafter , he was raised to the supreme title of patrician and the supreme senatorial rank of gloriosissimus ( " most glorious one " ) . He was also awarded an honorary consulship . As magister , he took part in the discussions with Western bishops in 548 on the Three @-@ Chapter Controversy , and was repeatedly sent as an envoy in 551 β 553 to Pope Vigilius , who opposed the emperor on the issue . Peter is also recorded as attending the Second Council of Constantinople in May 553 .
In 550 , he was sent as envoy by Justinian to negotiate a peace treaty with Persia , a role he reprised in 561 , when he met the Persian envoy Izedh Gushnap at Dara , to end the Lazic War . Reaching an agreement over the Persian evacuation of Lazica and the delineation of the border in Armenia , the two envoys concluded a fifty @-@ year peace between the two empires and their respective allies . The annual Roman subsidies to Persia would resume , but the amount was lowered from 500 to 420 pounds of gold . Further clauses regulated cross @-@ border trade , which was to be limited to the two cities of Dara and Nisibis , the return of fugitives , and the protection of the respective religious minorities ( Christians in the Persian Empire and Zoroastrians in Byzantium ) . In exchange for Persian recognition for the existence of Dara , whose construction had originally sparked a brief war , the Byzantines agreed to limit their troops there and remove the seat of the magister militum per Orientem from the city . As disagreements remained on two border areas , Suania and Ambros , in spring 562 , Peter travelled to Persia to negotiate directly with the Persian Shah , Chosroes I , without however achieving a result . He then returned to Constantinople , where he died sometime after March 565 .
His son Theodore , nicknamed Kontocheres or Zetonoumios , would succeed him as magister officiorum in 566 , after a brief interval where the post was held by the quaestor sacri palatii ( " Quaestor of the Sacred Palace " ) Anastasius . He held the post until some time before 576 , being appointed as comes sacrarum largitionum ( " Count of the Sacred Largess " ) thereafter ; in the same year , he also led an unsuccessful embassy to Persia to end the ongoing war over the Caucasus .
= = Assessment = =
As one of the leading officials of the age , Peter was a controversial figure , receiving greatly differing assessments from his contemporaries . To John Lydus , a mid @-@ level bureaucrat of the praetorian prefecture of the East , Peter was a paragon of every virtue , an intelligent , firm but fair administrator and a kind man . Procopius also attests to his mild manners and desire to avoid giving insult , however at the same time he accuses him of " robbing the scholares " ( the members of the Scholae ) and being " the biggest thief in the world and absolutely filled with shameful avarice " , as well as being responsible for the murder of Amalasuntha .
From quite early in his career , Peter was renowned for his learning , his passion for reading , and his discussions with scholars . As a speaker , he was eloquent and persuasive ; Procopius calls him " fitted by nature to persuade men " , while Cassiodorus , who witnessed his embassies to the Ostrogoth court , also praises him as vir eloquentissimus and disertissimus ( " most eloquent man " ) , and as sapientissimus ( " most wise " ) . On the other hand , the late 6th @-@ century historian Menander Protector , who relied on Peter 's work for his own history , accuses him of boastfulness and of rewriting the records to enhance his own role and performance in the negotiations with the Persians .
= = Writings = =
Peter wrote three books , all of which survive only in fragments : a history of the first four centuries of the Roman Empire , from the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC to the death of Emperor Constantius II ( r . 337 β 361 ) in 361 AD , of which about twenty fragments are extant ; a history of the office of magister officiorum from its institution under Emperor Constantine the Great ( r . 306 β 337 ) to the time of Emperor Justinian , containing a list of its holders and descriptions of various imperial ceremonies , several of which are reproduced in chapters 84 β 95 of the first volume of the 10th @-@ century De Ceremoniis of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos ( r . 913 β 959 ) ; and an account of his diplomatic mission to the Persian Empire in 561 β 562 , which has been used as a source by Menander Protector . Until recently , Peter was also ascribed the authorship of the 6th @-@ century Peri Politikes Epistemes ( " On Political Science " ) , a six @-@ volume book discussing political theory , drawing extensively from Classical texts such as Plato 's The Republic and Cicero 's De re publica . It too survives only in fragments .
Peter was the first late Roman / Byzantine author to write on imperial ceremonies , beginning a tradition that lasted unto the 14th century . His histories are also an important historical source ; for instance , his work alone preserves the negotiations and provisions of the Roman β Persian treaty of 298 between Galerius and Narseh .
The Lost History of Peter the Patrician , published by Routledge in 2015 , is an annotated translation from the Greek by Thomas M. Banchich of the fragments of Peter β s History , including additional fragments which used to be considered the work of the Roman historian Cassius Dio 's so @-@ called Anonymous Continuer .
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= Trondheim Central Station =
Trondheim Central Station ( Norwegian : Trondheim sentralstasjon ) or Trondheim S is the main railway station serving the city of Trondheim , Norway . Located at BrattΓΈra in the north part of the city centre , it is the terminus of the Dovre Line , running southwards , and the Nordland Line , which runs north . The railway is electrified south of the station but not north of it , so through trains must change locomotives at the station .
The Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) serves the station with express trains to Oslo and BodΓΈ , regional trains to RΓΈros and Γstersund in Sweden , and the TrΓΈndelag Commuter Rail . The Trondheim Bus Station located at the station serves all long @-@ distance buses , and some city buses . From 1913 to 1968 the station was also the terminus for two lines of the Trondheim Tramway .
Trondheim 's first station , dating from 1864 , was located at Kalvskinnet . In 1877 the current station was built to serve the MerΓ₯ker Line line to Sweden β since integrated into the Nordland Line . At the same time a connection was built between the two stations , and the central station took over as the main station serving Trondheim . In 1910 construction of a new station for the Dovre Line was started , finishing in 1921 . The main station building consists of an older section in historicism brick , while the annex is in postmodernistic concrete and glass .
= = Services = =
Train services are provided by the Norwegian State Railways both north- and southbound . Four services a day and one night train operate to Oslo Central Station , while there is one day and one night train to BodΓΈ , with an additional afternoon departure to Mo i Rana . Two daily departures serve Sweden and Γstersund as part of the MittnabotΓ₯get service that connects Trondheim in Norway to Sundsvall in Sweden , in addition there are three services to RΓΈros , with connections onwards to Γsterdalen . The most frequent service is the hourly TrΓΈndelag Commuter Rail from Steinkjer via Trondheim Airport , VΓ¦rnes and Trondheim S to Lerkendal , with some extending to Oppdal .
The station is manned , but also equipped with ticket machines . There are several kiosks and cafΓ©s , as well as a car park , taxicabs , bicycle stands and baggage lockers . The station and platforms are wheelchair accessible , and a pre @-@ booked escort service is available . Trafikanten Midt @-@ Norge , which sells bus tickets and provides information on public transport routes in TrΓΈndelag , can be found in the new section . The station is closed at night .
The commuter trains serve other railway stations in neighborhoods in Trondheim ; Heimdal , Selsbakk , Marienborg , Skansen to the south , and Lademoen / Nedre Elvehavn , Lilleby , Leangen and Rotvoll to the east .
= = = Connections to other modes of transport = = =
= = = = Buses = = = =
In 1995 , the city bus station was moved from LΓΌthenhaven close to the city 's main square to the central station , with the opening of a new section to the station . The original building has been preserved by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage as a cultural heritage .
Some city buses operated by Team Trafikk stop at the station ; routes 2 , 11 , 19 , 46 , 47 , 52 , 54 , 55 , 63 , 71 , 73 , 75 , 76 , 94 . Munkegata Terminal remains the most important , with all buses stopping there . NOR @-@ WAY Bussekspress operates coaches to Oslo via RΓΈros , Namsos and Bergen via FΓΈrde. while Lavprisekspressen operates day and night expresses to Oslo . Gauldal Billag operates coaches to StΓΈren , Oppdal and RΓΈros , while TrΓΈnderBilene operates to Fosen , Orkanger , Agdenes and Snillfjord . Nettbuss operates coaches to Malvik , StjΓΈrdal , MerΓ₯ker , Selbu , Tydal , Skaun , Melhus , Orkdal and Meldal , while KlΓ¦buruten operates buses to KlΓ¦bu and to the airport .
= = = = Ferries = = = =
Trondheim S is located about ten minutes walk , or a two @-@ minute bus ride , from Pirterminalen where Fosen Trafikklag operates passenger ferries across the fjord to Vanvikan , and out of the fjord to Brekstad , Sistranda and Kristiansund .
= = = = Trams = = = =
Between 1913 and 1968 the station was the terminus for the Trondheim Tramway on the Elgeseter Line ( no . 2 ) and Singsaker Line ( no . 3 ) . In 2005 plans to extend the only current line , the GrΓ₯kallen Line , from the St. Olavs gate via Trondheim S to Pirterminalen were launched .
= = History = =
= = = Two stations = = =
The first railway station to be built in Trondheim was located at Kalvskinnet , to serve the narrow gauge Trondhjem β StΓΈren Line railway that was completed in 1864 . The station was designed by Georg Andreas Bull , and still exists as a synagogue . In 1877 the state and city made an agreement to build a new station at BrattΓΈra to serve the new MerΓ₯ker Line that was being built to Sweden . BrattΓΈra was chosen because it was located directly beside the port , and would allow direct transshipment from ships to the railway of both goods and passengers . The station would become the main station for both railways ; this caused a major protest among the local population , who felt it was necessary to have two terminal stations , one for each line , and the city brought the matter before the courts β the case was settled in 1895 in favor of one station . The lack of planning and coordination between the two lines made the new station a large budget cost for the MerΓ₯ker Line ; and described as one of few exceptions to the small @-@ and @-@ cheap policy dominating the state railways i Norway at the time .
Two lots were sold to the state railways from the city , allowing the building of two station buildings , the eastern cargo building for the MerΓ₯ker Line and the western for RΓΈros Line . The main station in the east served all passenger trains , and was designed by the architect Balthazar Lange . A new route for RΓΈros Line was built from Sluppen to Skansen , along the west side of Nidelva , and the old station taken into disuse after the RΓΈros Line reached the central station on 24 June 1884 . To solve the challenge of the break @-@ of @-@ gauge , the entire station area had dual gauge with both 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 β 2 in ) and 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) .
The station at BrattΓΈra has had four names , following the name changes of the city . It was opened as Throndhjem , changed in 1894 to Trondhjem , on 1 January 1930 to Nidaros and to Trondheim on 6 March 1931 . The station at BrattΓΈra is physically divided in two parts by the bridge over Ravnkloa . From 1884 , the western part was officially called Throndhjem V and the eastern part Throndhjem Γ . The freight station for the RΓΈros Line was located at Throndhjem V , while the passenger station for both lines was located at Throndhjem Γ , just like today . While there were two stations in 1882 β 84 , they were ' probably ' referred to as BrattΓΈra and Kalvskinnet .
On 23 April 1888 a landslide hit the station , with 180 metres ( 590 ft ) of track β three wide and including the main RΓΈrosbanen line β was washed into the sea . The slide was caused by the seabed sinking about seven meters , and it was followed by several smaller slides .
= = = The Dovre Line arrives = = =
In 1910 , the Parliament of Norway announced a competition for the redesign of the station since it had been decided that the Dovre Line would be built to Trondheim , including the line from StΓΈren to Trondheim being converted to standard gauge . On 18 August 1913 construction of a new station and port was started . Traffic had increased to the limits of capacity ; there were too few tracks and too small cargo buildings . By 1912 some freight cars were stopping at Hommelvik and Storlien ; a counting showed 900 cars at the station . The construction removed a gap filled by the canal between the two stations β filling up the canal in the process . Instead the 92 metres ( 302 ft ) Skansen Bridge was built on the west side of the station , along with a double track to Marienborg where the new depot would be located . The main station building designed by Lange remained the passenger and administration building , with the conversion of the smaller , western one into cargo facilities .
The amount of trackage for cargo was increased , with a wide section of land mass being filled into the sea to create a larger rail and port facility at BrattΓΈra , though the filling of a large part of the seabed to create artificial land . The railways allowed the transshipment of cargo from ships from Northern Norway to rail , as well as from rail from Central Sweden to ships to the British Isles . The port was supplemented by a new line to Ilsvika would allow the loading of ore there . The suggestion to build double track to Leangen was dropped .
While the original plans for the Dovre Line involved completion in 1916 , it was not until 1921 the first train could travel from Oslo to Trondheim via Dovre , mostly due to the First World War . The new depot opened in 1916 , and in 1917 the double track and dual gauge to Marienborg as well as the new freight terminal was finished . Instead of using one track for each direction on the double track , the Dovre Line would use the one line while the other would be used for transport from the station to the depot . Skansen Bridge opened on 22 March 1918 . In 1922 , Norsk Spisevognselskap established a kiosk , and on 1 October 1925 , they took over the station restaurant .
The main building designed by Lange is in historicism and was originally built in two stories in brick . A third was added in the 1950s , some with some of the original feel being lost in the addition , since it was not stylistically true . In 1965 two annexes were built , one on each side and in two stories . The western was used for offices and the other as part of the waiting area β these were both in line with the historicist style . They replaced a cargo expedition and a restaurant building , respectively . In 1995 the bus station was moved from the city center at LeΓΌthenhaven to the central station , and the eastern annex was razed in favor of a postmodernistic glass and concrete building . In addition to the bus station it features and extension of the waiting area , offices , a restaurant and a parking lot .
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= County Road 595 ( Marquette County , Michigan ) =
County Road 595 ( CR 595 , Co . Rd . 595 ) is a proposed primary county road in Marquette County in the US state of Michigan . The road would provide access from the northern part of the county , near the Eagle Mine in Michigamme Township , to US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) and M @-@ 28 in Humboldt Township . The approximately 21 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 34 @.@ 6 km ) road would be used primarily for commercial truck traffic hauling rock from the Eagle Mine to a processing facility south of US 41 / M @-@ 28 in Humboldt Township . At present , such traffic has to use existing county roads which involves passing through the cities of Marquette , Negaunee , and Ishpeming . The northern end would be northeast of the mine in Champion Township at an intersection with the Triple A Road ( Co . Rd . AAA ) .
In 2003 , a flood along the Dead River destroyed or forced the closure of several bridges over the river , isolating the northern half of the county . In 2007 , Kennecott Minerals received permission to operate the Eagle Mine in the northern part of Marquette County . The company , in a consortium with other local businesses , proposed the construction of a new road to connect their mine with their mill at the former Humboldt Mine . This project , called Woodland Road , was to be built by these private interests . After encountering permitting issues , the private companies involved canceled the project .
The Marquette County Road Commission ( MCRC ) applied for permits from the state and federal governments in 2010 , reviving the road as CR 595 . Kennecott pledged to finance construction , but removed its support in early 2011 over uncertainty in the permit timetable . After protests from the City of Marquette and local residents , Kennecott restored its commitments to the project . The MCRC moved forward through the permitting process in 2012 . The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) filed two formal objections to the road . In response , the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) , the state @-@ level agency handling the permit application , opened a public comment period and held a public hearing on the matter . Several groups spoke in support and opposition , various local , state and federal officials expressed support for the project , and the EPA maintained its objections . After several deadline extensions , the agency lifted one objection and reiterated a second , setting a 30 @-@ day timetable in December 2012 for a final decision . The DEQ was forced to deny the permit on January 3 , 2013 , based on the EPA position on CR 595 . With that action , Kennecott Minerals diverted its financial support from the project to upgrade existing roads instead . In late December 2014 , state legislators announced interest in suing the EPA in an effort to force federal permits to be issued to build the roadway ; the MCRC announced their intent to sue the EPA in January 2015 , and the suit was filed on July 8 , 2015 .
= = Route description = =
The county road would start at its southern end at an intersection with US 41 / M @-@ 28 in Humboldt Township . This intersection will be east of the intersection known as Koski Corners , where US 41 / M @-@ 28 intersects M @-@ 95 . From its terminus , CR 595 would run north and pass into Champion Township near a crossing of a line of the Canadian National Railway before turning eastward . The road would cross the Middle Branch of the Escanaba River and continued northeasterly into the adjacent Ely Township . Planning maps from late 2011 show CR 595 following what is now Wolf Lake Road in the area but bypassing some curves to follow a straighter route . South of Brocky Lake , the new county road would have crossed the Second River and turned northwesterly parallel to Dishno Road back into Champion Township . This proposed route would have turned back northward near Wolf Lake , crossed Voelkers Creek and passed to the west of Silver Lake through hilly terrain . Immediately west of Silver Lake , CR 595 would have crossed the Dead River and Wildcat Canyon Creek . Through this area , the road was to pass through land owned by one of a few timber companies and other developers . To the north , there would have been a crossing of Mulligan Creek in Michigamme Township south of the mine property . North of the mine , CR 595 was to turn northeasterly through the Yellow Dog Plains and cross the Yellow Dog River before re @-@ entering Champion Township . Immediately after crossing that political boundary , CR 595 would have terminated at the intersection with the Triple A Road ( Co . Rd . AAA ) near the Salmon Trout River . Along the proposed route , the terrain is heavily forested and hilly , except in the vicinity of the lakes , rivers and streams where there are wetlands .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
On May 14 , 2003 , a section of the Silver Lake Dam failed in northwestern Marquette County . The area received 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of rain , and an earthen dike breached . The failure sent 9 billion US gallons ( 34 Gl ) of water rushing down the Dead River . The flood waters forced the closure of the Steel Bridge carrying CR 510 over the river . As the waters approached the city of Marquette , the old CR 550 bridge was submerged , and the newer parallel structure that carries CR 550 was closed to traffic as well . The effect of these road closures isolated Big Bay from the rest of the county . The flooding damaged or destroyed the bridges carrying county roads AAO and AAT over the river , as well as the Lakeshore Boulevard and old CR 550 bridges . Several other bridges on tributaries of the Dead River were impacted by flooding . The MCRC and City of Marquette estimated that the road @-@ related damages were in the neighborhood of $ 650 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 915 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) .
Since the flood a new , roughly 100 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 30 m ) bridge has been constructed on CR 510 , ensuring that any future flooding on the Dead River would not necessitate closure of the modern bridge . This structure was built at that height in order to benefit commercial interests in the area , as well as to provide the area with reliable public and emergency access .
Rio Tinto Group , the British @-@ based parent company of Kennecott Minerals received permission in 2007 to operate a nickel mine on the Yellow Dog Plains in Marquette County . The mine , dubbed Project Eagle or the Eagle Mine by the company , has been controversial with area residents . Some residents have praised the project as good for the economy , while others including area Indian tribes , have opposed the development citing environmental concerns . Lawsuits have delayed construction and operation of the mine , in addition to economic concerns . Kennecott started construction on the mine in 2011 , and they expect to begin mineral extraction in 2013 . Opposition to the mine and its operation has also extended to plans to construct a new road to carry the ore from the mine to a mill for processing .
= = = Woodland Road = = =
Kennecott Minerals , in a consortium with other businesses , originally proposed a privately built road in the area called Woodland Road . The group included the Michigan Forest Products Council , a local construction company , and local landowners . Kennecott wanted the road to shorten the truck route from the Eagle Mine to its processing mill in Humboldt Township from 60 to 22 miles ( 97 to 35 km ) over the previously approved route along the Triple A Road ( Co . Rd . AAA ) , CR 510 , CR 550 and US 41 / M @-@ 28 . According to the permit application , the road was also to improve access to the forest lands in the area used by timber companies for logging , and it was to provide enhanced recreational access to remote areas of Marquette County . The private interests involved planned to build and maintain Woodland Road to state and county road standards at no cost to the county road commission .
By March 2010 the project had encountered permit issues . The US Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) had asked the Michigan Department of Natural Resources and Environment ( DNRE ) to deny the necessary wetlands mitigations permits and to reconsider " alternative transportation routes that utilize existing main roads " . The US Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and the US Army Corps of Engineers ( CoE ) were also critical of the project . Based on the actions by the EPA , if the DNRE did not deny the permits , and EPA objections were not resolved , the project would require clearance through the CoE under the Clean Water Act . Local citizens ' groups joined the federal agencies in criticizing the road .
In the face of the federal agency opposition , the consortium withdrew their permit applications in May 2010 . The businesses involved indicated at the time that they would revise their proposals and reapply . Local government leaders supported the road as a means to support economic activity and reduce truck traffic through populated areas in the county .
= = = County involvement = = =
The MCRC became involved with the roadway , which they gave the CR 595 designation , in October 2010 . The commission approved a resolution to authorize planning of an all @-@ weather , 22 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 35 km ) road . Members of the public present for the meeting expressed opposition to the project that would have been funded by Kennecott Minerals . The company provided assurances to the county that they would pay the $ 50- to 80 @-@ million cost to plan and construct CR 595 . The director of the DNRE said that the department was weighing the options between environmental impacts of the road and impacts of mine truck traffic using the previously approved route through Marquette , Negaunee and Ishpeming .
Kennecott removed its support for the project during January 2011 . In a statement , the company said that the timeline for the permit process was uncertain , and they considered their currently permitted route to the best option . This move angered city officials in Marquette because it meant a return to trucking ore through the city along CR 550 , Sugarloaf Avenue and Wright Street . MCRC officials had stated that " we 're going to push it as hard and as fast as we can " , according to the board chairman . After the company backed away , local officials protested Kennecott 's return to its previously approved trucking route between the mine and the mill .
Within a month however , the company reinstated support for the project after the MCRC asked Kennecott to reconsider . The company held a series of public forums starting in April 2011 about their operations , including transportation plans , and the road commission did the same that August .
= = = Moving forward with the permit process = = =
In September 2011 , the MCRC voted to move forward with a modified routing to CR 595 ; the new route was to pass to the west of Brocky Lake instead of the east to address concerns from the public . The new route decreased the length by 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) while adding another creek crossing . The EPA and local environmental groups opposed the road , while Humboldt Township officials supported it .
As part of the permitting process the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) held public hearings in 2012 about the CR 595 project . In drafting its application , the MCRC said that the purpose of the project is :
To construct a primary county north β south road that
connects and improves emergency , commercial , industrial and recreational access to a somewhat isolated but key industrial and recreational area in northwest Marquette County to US 41 ; and
reduces truck travel from this area through Marquette County population centers .
Hearings were held by the DEQ on February 15 , 2012 , and a decision at the state level was due by June 15 , 2012 . The EPA was to make its decision on the federal level based on input from the USFWS , the DEQ and the CoE ; the CoE , USFWS and EPA all submitted comments that were extremely critical of the CR 595 proposal . EPA had recommended that the road commission re @-@ examine two alternative routings ; one would add a crossing of the Yellow Dog River immediately downstream of Pinnacle Falls , which the MCRC said would entail high construction costs . The second alignment would increase the length of the road by 19 @.@ 9 miles ( 32 @.@ 0 km ) . In May 2012 the EPA filed a formal objection to the project which gave the MCRC until July 22 to address its concerns . Until the objection could be cleared , the DEQ could only issue a state @-@ level permit for the project which would then require federal approval from the CoE , similar to the situation encountered by the Woodland Road proposal in 2010 . The DNR expressed concerns over the potential for vehicle β wildlife accidents but also that these concerns could be minimized . The department expressed a willingness to work with the MCRC to address these concerns through consultations over several recommendations .
In related news , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) announced a Transportation Economic Development Fund grant that would pay to reconstruct CR 601 , which connects M @-@ 95 with the Humboldt Mill , and Co . Rd . AAA . The grant money was being provided to the MCRC , with local matching funds provided by Kennecott , to upgrade the two roads to " all @-@ weather " status . Additional improvements were to include a left @-@ turn lane for southbound traffic turning onto CR 601 from M @-@ 95 and the flattening of a small hill on CR 601 . By the end of May 2012 , the DEQ had lodged an objection to the CR 595 permit application ; however , the MCRC was working to address it to receive the permits by the following July .
The county expected a permit decision the week of June 23 , 2012 . One of the opponents of both the mine and the road , the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community , drew criticism of their stance during a meeting of the Marquette County Commission on June 26 , 2012 , that was discussing the tribe 's plans to move its casino from Chocolay Township to the site of the former Marquette County Airport in Negaunee Township . On July 12 , it was announced that the deadline for a permit decision by the DEQ has been extended until October 1 , 2012 , with the permission of the MCRC ; state law allows a permit applicant to approve or request such extensions . The MCRC has stated that any funding for the project by Kennecott Minerals may be impacted if the permit process runs longer than the new time frame . While there was no formal contract , the company has said it would provide funding if permits are granted and work on the road is started before May 2013 . The EPA scheduled a public hearing on August 28 , 2012 , as part of a public comment period that ran through September 4 . The DEQ had asked the EPA to render a decision on its objections by October 1 .
= = = Political support and bureaucratic opposition = = =
According to Jim Iwanicki , the engineer @-@ manager of the MCRC , and Gerald Corkin , a member of the County Commission , US Senator Carl Levin were willing to help local officials obtain the necessary EPA clearances . In addition , 28 of Michigan β s 38 state senators signed a letter to the EPA in support of the roadway . The MCRC staged an event on August 27 , 2012 , where several logging and aggregate trucks drove through the city of Marquette along the route currently used to connect between CR 550 and US 41 / M @-@ 28 . Bill Hennigan , one of the drivers from a local timber company , said , " we want people to understand there 's a lot of truck traffic through Marquette now coming from the northern part of the county going to various points , and once the mine starts , there 's going to be even more truck traffic going through Marquette . " Hennigan and Iwanicki both commented in the press to the fact that the current routes from the northern end of the county south to US 41 / M @-@ 28 involve passing through populated areas in Ishpeming , Negaunee or Marquette , and that the new road would provide a north β south corridor that was west of the Dead River . Officials were pushing the roadway as a multi @-@ purpose facility , aimed to benefit other businesses like logging , tourism , recreation as well as the mine .
At the EPA hearing on August 28 , 2012 , statements of support were read on behalf of US Senator Debbie Stabenow , US Representative Dan Benishek , Governor Rick Snyder , State Senator Tom Casperson , and State Rep. Matt Huuki . The Michigan departments of Agriculture and Rural Development , Natural Resources , and Transportation also sent letters of support for the road project , which is also supported by the Lake Superior Community Partnership ( LSCP ) , and the Central Upper Peninsula Planning & Development Regional Commission . The township supervisors for Michigamme and Powell townships expressed desire for minor routing changes . Michigamme Township wanted the southern terminus shifted away from Wolf Lake Road ( Co . Rd . FY ) and Powell Township wanted the roadway extended into Big Bay . Supporters speaking at the meeting cited the benefits to public safety , job creation , less pollution , and moving truck traffic out of populated areas . Opponents cited concerns over the ability of the MCRC to maintain the road based on its budgets , destruction of wetlands , and concerns related to Rio Tinto . An official with the National Wildlife Federation questioned why a road was needed instead of a rail line to haul materials in and out of the area . The EPA objection was primarily based on inadequate consideration of alternative routes and unacceptable impacts to aquatic resources ; they asked for more information on two alternatives . The Mulligan Plains East route that would run for 25 @.@ 9 miles ( 41 @.@ 7 km ) at a project cost of $ 126 million and the Red Road / Sleepy Hollow route that was 39 @.@ 9 miles ( 64 @.@ 2 km ) and $ 107 million . Both alternatives involved less wetland area ( 15 @.@ 7 or 18 @.@ 3 acres respectively vs. 24 @.@ 3 , that is , 6 @.@ 4 or 7 @.@ 4 hectares respectively vs. 9 @.@ 8 ) and fewer stream crossings , but each runs east of Silver Lake and crosses the Dead River .
At the time of the meeting , MCRC announced a plan to preserve additional wetlands as part of the McCormick Wilderness to expand its wetlands mitigation plan for the CR 595 project . The land measured 1 by 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 km Γ 4 @.@ 0 km ) and would be called the " Dishno Creek Headwaters Wetland Preservation Area " . Conservation easements would limit development activities on the parcel owned by various timber companies . The new proposal would mean that 26 @.@ 6 acres ( 10 @.@ 8 ha ) of wetlands mitigation would be provided for every 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) of wetlands used to build the roadway . This compared to the 2 : 1 and 1 @.@ 5 : 1 ratios from the county road commission 's original plan . Compensation to the land owners would be provided by Rio Tinto if the plan was approved . The deadline was later extended to December 1 , 2012 , with assurances that Rio Tinto would still finance the road if construction started in the spring of 2013 ; the delay was to allow the EPA additional time to consider the comments from the public hearing in August . The DEQ had asked the EPA to withdraw its objections so that the project could be approved , reiterating the state 's support for the project . The backup plan was to upgrade CR 550 to " all @-@ weather status " if CR 595 is not approved ; currently weight restrictions are enacted each spring on that roadway .
CR 595 was even a topic of discussion as part of the 2012 US presidential election as a family member of Mitt Romney discussed the road at a campaign event in Marquette . The EPA dropped one of its two remaining objections to CR 595 on December 4 , 2012 . The agency no longer found fault with the MCRC 's methods for determining the route of the proposed road , but reaffirmed its objection to how the road commission 's plan would minimize impacts to wetlands and streams . The MCRC and DEQ had 30 days to modify plans for the road to account for the remaining objection , or the permitting process would restart under the review of the CoE .
= = = Cancellation = = =
The DEQ announced in a letter to the EPA and MCRC on January 3 , 2013 , that the department would not be issuing a permit for the project . The department supported the road plan , but said that the complexities of the EPA 's outstanding objection prevented the roadway from meeting the requirements of the Clean Water Act . After this action , authority to issue construction permits for the road transferred to the CoE in a new permit process . Iwanicki , the MCRC engineer @-@ manager , went on record in an interview with The Mining Journal to say that the EPA changed the requirements to satisfy the agency 's objections to the project throughout discussions in December 2012 . " The EPA moved the bar every time we got close . Throughout the whole process , it 's been an ever @-@ changing target " , he said . The last changes to the project were made on December 27 , 2012 , to comply with EPA objections , but the DEQ staff working on the permit were sent on vacation rather than continue to work on the project . In the wake of these developments , Kennecott Minerals transferred its financial support from the CR 595 project toward improving existing county roads in the area . The MCRC will not apply for a permit through the CoE , canceling the project instead . Mine trucks would instead use existing roads from the Big Bay area south to Marquette and west to Humboldt Township , including streets that pass through the campus of Northern Michigan University ( NMU ) .
Reaction to the decision included disappointment from various elected officials . Congressman Benishek faulted the EPA 's regulations for placing " too high a hurdle for this project " and for killing jobs in the area . Benishek also stated that he would fight for the project and investigate what can be done to move it forward . The congressman has requested a hearing on the matter as well . Marquette County Board Chair Deborah Pellow expressed interest in suing the EPA for its denial of the permits to build the road . The county board thanked the road commission in a letter of thanks , approved unanimously at their January 8 , 2013 , meeting . Casperson was also of the opinion that the EPA and other regulatory agencies had an " agenda " against projects related to the mine .
On the other side of the controversy , Catherine Parker said that the MCRC could not have done enough mitigation work to satisfy concerns over the road , and that she was " relieved that we can finally lay this issue to rest and direct our resources elsewhere , namely to improving existing roads . " Officials with the KBIC were also " gratified " by the decision , and called it a " victory for the integrity of the nation 's Clean Water Act " . Margaret Comfort , president of Save the Wild U.P. , was " relieved " about the decision , but expressed the sentiment that the fight over the road was not concluded yet .
= = = Revival = = =
Iwanicki authored a white paper in June 2013 on transportation and road needs in the county . Of the four stages of the proposal endorsed by local governments , the first is a resurrection of the CR 595 proposal . The paper carries the endorsements of Marquette County , the City of Marquette , Marquette Township . NMU also " strongly supports the construction of [ CR 595 ] . " The university is concerned with the levels of truck traffic between the Eagle Mine and the processing mill passing near its campus . State officials are supporting the collaboration between the local governments and NMU ; Casperson and State Rep. John Kivela received copies of the white paper , and Casperson 's office is looking for ways to provide funding in support of continued efforts to build CR 595 . The MCRC estimates that it will cost $ 500 @,@ 000 to move forward with a permit application through the CoE . Most of the needed environmental studies have already been completed , and they can " repurposed before they are out @-@ of @-@ date " . Since the cancellation of CR 595 in early 2013 , Rio Tinto has sold the Eagle Mine to Lundin Mining , and there are no funding guarantees for construction of CR 595 if the permitting process is resumed . The MCRC board voted in November 2013 to continue consideration of the project , over the recommendations of the county commission .
A truck hauling ore from the Eagle Mine down CR 550 tipped over on December 13 , 2014 , and was not removed from the roadway until the next day ; about 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) of ore was spilled in the accident . The roadway , called " a notoriously dangerous highway " by a local state representative , was the site of the first accident involving an ore hauler since the mine began production . The accident " created major delays for drivers " of up to two hours on the primary road between Big Bay and Marquette , which was upgraded and designated as part of a truck route into and through the City of Marquette to enable the mine 's ore to pass to the processing mill . The accident prompted additional renewed interest in building CR 595 .
In an interview with WLUC @-@ TV that aired on December 26 , 2014 , State Senator Casperson ( R @-@ Escanaba ) and State Representatives Kivela ( D @-@ Marquette ) , Scott Dianda ( D @-@ Calumet ) and Ed McBroom ( R @-@ Escanaba ) said that they had been discussing options to get the roadway built . The MCRC was expected to file suit against the EPA in January 2015 over the denied permits for the road . Opponents like the group Save the Wild UP are disappointed that the road commission is once again moving forward with the road . Just days later , the chair of the MCRC board said that there had been no decision on a lawsuit , although there are " possibilities " and interest in a suit . However , during its January 19 , 2015 regular meeting , the road commission board went into closed session with their attorneys and emerged with a resolution to sue , which the board unanimously voted to support . The board 's chairman , Dave Hall , said " [ the board ] believes strongly in how we feel about this road and the need for its existence . " Hall cited the December 2014 accident , and a second in early January 2015 , as factors prompting the MCRC to move forward with the lawsuit . The Marquette County Board of Commissioners has opposed the suit , citing issues related to the private funding of the suit , provocation of the EPA when permits related to the Eagle Mill are pending , and funding for the road if it is eventually built . In contrast , the Marquette County Townships Association , a group representing the townships in the county , has supported the suit while Lundin Mining is staying neutral . A local group called Stand UP formed to fund the costs of the lawsuit , soliciting donations from supporters of the road ; the group 's leaders include former chairman of the County Board of Commissioners and current Tilden Township Supervisor Deborah Pellow , Tony Retaskie of the Upper Peninsula Construction Council in Escanaba , and retired banker Stu Bradley .
On July 8 , 2015 , the MCRC filed their lawsuit in the Marquette division of the United States District Court for the Western District of Michigan . According to Deb Pellow , chairwoman of the Stand UP board of directors , a Freedom of Information Act ( FOIA ) request to the EPA resulted in the disclosure of documents that show that the EPA had pre @-@ determined its decision on the road before the permitting process had begun , The agency , according to Pellow , had told various environmental groups as well as " staff members for a California senator " that the road would not be allowed before the permit application had been submitted The state senator and state representatives for the Western and Central UP all repeated their bipartisan support for the lawsuit after it was filed , which is also supported by the LSCP .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire road is in Marquette County .
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= Prime7 =
Prime7 is an Australian television network owned by Prime Media Group Limited , and an affiliate of the Seven Network . Prime Television launched on 17 March 1962 as CBN / CWN in Orange and Dubbo , New South Wales , and has since expanded to cover regional New South Wales , Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory .
Prime7 ( along with GWN7 national broadcast facilities are based in Canberra . Prime Media Group head office / administration is located in Pyrmont , Sydney .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Prime Television originally began as a group of separate stations and networks β Midstate Television in Orange , Dubbo and Griffith , RVN / AMV in Albury and Wagga Wagga , and 'NEN / ECN in Tamworth and Taree .
CBN @-@ 8 Orange began on 17 March 1962 , followed by CWN @-@ 6 Dubbo on 1 December 1965 . The two stations were both licensed to Country Broadcasting Services ( also the owner of radio station 2GZ in Orange ) . CWN was a full @-@ time relay of CBN β the first Australian television station to relay another . The two stations thus formed the country 's first regional television network .
At the same time , RVN @-@ 2 Wagga Wagga began on 19 June 1964 , and MTN @-@ 9 Griffith began on 15 December 1965 . The two stations merged in 1971 as the Riverina and North East Victoria Television Service Pty Ltd with the callsign RVN / AMV on air .
In northern New South Wales , NEN @-@ 9 Tamworth began transmission on 27 September 1965 , with a relay in Armidale ( NEN @-@ 1 , later NEN @-@ 10 ) on 15 July 1966 . ECN @-@ 8 Taree started on 27 May 1966 . At one stage , ECN @-@ 8 was tied NRN @-@ 11 Coffs Harbour ( now owned by Southern Cross Broadcasting as Southern Cross Ten ) , however the two stations split . NEN later merged with ECN as NEN / ECN .
= = = Television 6 @-@ 8 @-@ 9 = = =
As a result of the financial difficulties that many independent stations faced , MTN @-@ 9 joined CWN @-@ 6 and CBN @-@ 8 to form Television 6 @-@ 8 @-@ 9 in 1973 . Relays were launched in Portland , Lithgow , Mudgee , Cobar , Kandos and Rylstone and Bathurst . In 1981 , 6 @-@ 8 @-@ 9 changed its name to Midstate Television .
Colour television was introduced at the same time as the rest of the country , on 1 March 1975 β one of the single most expensive processes undertaken by CBN to date . The station was a prominent broadcaster of local sporting events including Tennis and Rugby . In 1979 a documentary titled Goin ' Down The Road , about the 1978 National Rodeo Titles won the network a Logie award for an ' Outstanding Contribution by a Regional Station ' .
Midstate produced a number of local programs , including the Weekend Report , Early Shift , Rural Roundup and Around the Schools . Since 1968 CBN was able to access the Postmaster General 's microwave link for national news and other major events .
= = = Aggregation = = =
Midstate Television was bought out by media magnate Paul Ramsay 's Ramcorp Ltd. in October 1987 . It was soon merged with Ramcorp 's other stations , RVN / AMV and NEN / ECN . In 1988 , Midstate Television was renamed Prime Television and began to show increased Seven Network programming in readiness for aggregation .
When aggregation took place , Prime began broadcasting to both southern New South Wales and northern Victoria . Transmission problems meant that aggregation in southern New South Wales took place in two stages β first the Australian Capital Territory and NSW south coast on 31 March 1989 , followed by Orange , Dubbo , and Wagga Wagga on 31 December 1989 . These changes led to the de @-@ merger of RVN @-@ AMV , with RVN becoming CBN @-@ 2 .
Griffith remained a one @-@ station market , however instead of taking programming from Prime in line with the network 's other stations , MTN @-@ 9 relayed programming mainly from WIN Television in southern New South Wales . A supplementary licence , AMN @-@ 31 , was successfully bid for by MTN in 1996 , providing a relay of Prime Television . Soon after the station was purchased by WIN Television , which undertook a number of minor changes β mainly changing the news service to WIN News , and using entirely WIN branding . AMN @-@ 31 remains a relay of Prime . Similarly , the Mildura licence area remained separate from the remainder of Victoria , albeit with a single station , STV @-@ 8 , later bought out by WIN Television in 1996 . In 1997 Prime was successful in bidding for a new licence for the area at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 2 million . PTV @-@ 31 began broadcasting the following year .
Although advertising revenue increased post @-@ aggregation , local programming declined as a result of the costs incurred by the network 's expansion β an estimated $ 45 million had been spent by Ramcorp during and in the lead @-@ up to aggregation . After losses of $ 50 million , it was not until 1993 that the renamed Prime Television Limited posted a profit .
Prime Television became the first commercial network in Australia to add a watermark to the networks broadcasts , starting in the early 90 's the first watermark consisted of the Prime text from the networks former circle logo , located on the top right of the screen . The watermark was updated once again in 2001 to coincide with Primes new logo , still at the top right of the screen . This lasted up until Prime Televisions relaunch to Prime7 in 2011 , the watermark is now seen at the bottom right of the screen , like all common watermarks .
In November 1996 , Prime 's parent company , Prime Television Limited , purchased the Golden West Network , a merged group of four stations in regional Western Australia ; BTW @-@ 3 Bunbury , VEW @-@ 8 Kalgoorlie , GTW @-@ 11 Geraldton and GSW @-@ 9 Albany . Western Australia , similar to Griffith and Mildura , remained a one @-@ station commercial market until 1999 when GWN became a Seven Network affiliate , after WIN Television began transmission as an affiliate of both the Nine Network and Network Ten .
The network began to expand into New Zealand in 1997 , when a number of licences were purchased from United Christian Broadcasters for an estimated $ 3 @.@ 6 million . Prime Television New Zealand began broadcasting on 30 August 1998 , with a nightly local news program in both Waikato and Christchurch . Prime also expanded into Argentina with the purchase of the Canal 9 network .
= = = 2000s = = =
The renamed Argentine network Azul TelevisiΓ³n was sold for $ 108 million in early 2000 due to lower @-@ than @-@ expected performance . During the same year , Prime benefited greatly from its affiliation with the Seven Network throughout its carriage of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney . The network 's relationship with Seven was further developed throughout the early 2000s , leading to the unsuccessful introduction of 7onPrime branding for Seven Network @-@ produced programs .
Local news bulletins for Newcastle , the Gold Coast , Canberra , and Wollongong were axed in 2001 due to falling ratings and the anticipated costs of the switch to digital television . This , and the closure of a number of news bulletins by Southern Cross Broadcasting , prompted the Australian Broadcasting Authority to investigate the adequacy of regional news services The ABA later mandated that stations broadcast a minimum level of local content , based on a points system β two points per minute for local news , and one point per minute for other local content , excluding paid advertisements .
Prime formed a partnership with the Nine Network ( affiliated in Australia to competitor WIN Television ) , giving its owner , PBL Media the option to purchase a 50 % share of Prime Television New Zealand in return for access to original programming , and cross @-@ promotion in PBL 's New Zealand magazine titles . Following this , Prime Television New Zealand began to take on branding and programming similar to that of the Nine Network . In November 2005 , Prime Television New Zealand was purchased by subscription television provider SKY Network Television for $ NZ30 million , completed after approval by New Zealand 's Commerce Commission in February 2006 .
Mildura Digital Television , a digital @-@ only station in Mildura began transmissions in 2006 as a joint venture between Prime Television Limited and WIN Corporation . Section 38B of the Broadcasting Services Act allowed for the provision of a third station owned by either one or both existing networks . MDT is a direct relay of Ten Melbourne , albeit with local advertising .
Prime Television announced on 21 December 2009 that it would start broadcasting 7TWO on 23 December 2009 .
= = = 2010s = = =
On 25 September 2010 , Prime began transmission of the new HD digital channel 7mate aimed at men 16 β 49 . The first program to be broadcast was the drawn 2010 AFL Grand Final . On 15 January 2011 , Prime Media Group reported that Prime and GWN were to rebrand as Prime7 and GWN7 respectively . The news bulletins has changed to Prime7 News and GWN7 News , during that , 7TWO and 7MATE dropped the " Prime " logo on the multichannels . Prime and GWN relaunched on 16 January 2011 at 6 : 00pm .
= = Programming = =
Prime 's programming schedule is almost identical to those of metropolitan counterparts ATN in Sydney and HSV in Melbourne , with some differences . Since the network 's inception it has featured a broad range of original local programming , currently including children 's program Possum 's Club with Madelaine Collignon and station mascot Prime Possum as well as community service segment Prime7 InfoNet , a series of short updates listing local community events .
Prime 's overnight schedule also differs from the Seven Network feed , containing infomercials from Danoz Direct , Home Shopping , and a feed from pay television channel Expo . Past programming from Prime Television has been recognised nationally , with some local productions winning the Logie Award for ' Outstanding Contribution by a Regional Television Station ' . The network has won Logies for Goin ' Down The Road ( CBN @-@ 8 , 1979 ) , Naturally ( NEN @-@ 9 / ECN @-@ 8 , 1984 ) , Stranded ( Prime Television , 1993 ) , Rest in Peace ( Prime Television , 1994 ) , and No Time For Frailty ( Prime Television , 1996 ) .
= = Prime7 News = =
Prime7 News is the network 's local news service . Full bulletins are produced for the towns and surrounding regions originally covered by the stations " Midstate 6 @,@ 8 @,@ 9 Television " , Dubbo / Orange , " RVN @-@ 2 / AMV @-@ 4 " , Wagga Wagga / Albury and " 9 / 8 Television " ( NEN @-@ 9 / ECN @-@ 8 ) Tamworth / Taree , prior to the aggregation of regional television services in New South Wales that occurred in the early 1990s . In other areas two @-@ minute news updates are shown at various times of the day .
Prime7 News bulletins are presented from Canberra weeknightly at 6pm in the Albury @-@ Wodonga Border , North West , North Coast , Central West and Wagga Wagga broadcast areas . Prime7 News at 6 : 30 ( with Daniel Gibson ) also comes from the Canberra news centre .
= = Availability = =
Prime7 is available in standard definition digital format . Since June 2007 a 1080i high definition simulcast has also been available , replacing the network 's former 576p service . Prime is viewed mainly through free @-@ to @-@ air terrestrial transmitters , although subscription cable also provided by TransACT and Neighbourhood Cable in the Australian Capital Territory and Ballarat , respectively .
Prime broadcasts to southern New South Wales through stations based in Orange and Dubbo , northern New South Wales from stations in Tamworth and Taree , Victoria from its Albury @-@ Wodonga @-@ based station AMV , and Mildura via PTV .
= = Logos = =
Prime Television became a network in November 1988 , with a shared logo produced and used across the regional stations , featuring the word Prime Television above an outlined rectangle . Aggregation occurred across the network on 31 December 1989 , along with the introduction of a green logo featuring the word Prime with the letter i dotted with a globe . This logo was used across the network until 1991 , when a new gold logo was introduced . Following a decade in use , 2001 saw the launch of a new simplified yellow logo , with the removal of the circle . This logo has been used since , and was launched concurrently with a similarly design logo on the Golden West Network . Following the 2011 relaunch , a new logo was introduced which incorporates the Seven Network logo .
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= Ontario Highway 407 =
Highway 407 ( pronounced " four @-@ oh @-@ seven " ) is a tolled 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . Comprising a privately @-@ leased segment as well as a publicly @-@ owned segment , the route begins in Burlington and travels through the Greater Toronto Area ( GTA ) suburbs of Oakville , Mississauga , Brampton , Vaughan , Markham , Pickering and Whitby before ending in Oshawa . The segment between Burlington and Brougham in Pickering is leased to and operated by the 407 ETR Concession Company Limited and is officially known as the 407 Express Toll Route ( 407 ETR ) . It begins at the junction of the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) and Highway 403 in Burlington , and travels 107 @.@ 9 km ( 67 @.@ 0 mi ) across the Greater Toronto Area ( GTA ) to Brock Road in Pickering . East of Brock Road , the freeway continues east as Highway 407 East ( a provincially @-@ owned toll route ) for 21 @.@ 2 km ( 13 @.@ 2 mi ) to Harmony Road in Oshawa . Highway 407 is the first electronically @-@ operated toll highway opened in the world ; there are no toll booths along the length of the route . Distances are calculated automatically using transponders or licence plates , which are scanned at entrance and exit points . Major interchanges along the route include the QEW , Highway 403 , Highway 401 , Highway 410 , Highway 427 , Highway 400 , Highway 404 , and Highway 412 .
Highway 407 was planned in the late 1950s as a freeway bypassing the Toronto segment of Highway 401 , the busiest highway in the world . However , construction did not begin until 1987 . During the early 1990s , the provincial government proposed tolling the highway to alleviate a revenue shortfall . The central sections of Highway 407 opened 1997 . The remaining sections were built quickly over the following four years , with the final segment of opening in mid @-@ 2001 . Despite being included in the 400 @-@ series network , the Highway 407ETR section is not considered part of the provincial highway network due to it now being privately operated . The route is operated privately under a 99 @-@ year lease agreement with the provincial government . The lease was sold in 1998 for approximately C $ 3 @.@ 1 billion to a consortium of Canadian and Spanish investors operating under the name 407 International Inc . The privatization of the Highway 407 ETR section has been the source of significant criticism , especially regarding the increases in tolls , plate denial , and false charges . In addition , the safety of segments constructed following the sale of the freeway has been called into question . Many have come to regard Highway 407 ETR as a luxury , as opposed to the bypass of Highway 401 it was originally conceived to be .
A 42 @-@ kilometre ( 26 mi ) provincially owned and tolled extension to the route , known as Highway 407 East ( 407E ) , is currently under construction through Pickering , Whitby , Oshawa , and Clarington . It opened to Harmony Road in Oshawa on June 20 , 2016 , including a tolled north β south link to Highway 401 known as Highway 412 . A further extension will push the highway east to Highway 35 / Highway 115 in Clarington by 2020 , with a second link to Highway 401 known as Highway 418 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 407 is a 129 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometre ( 80 @.@ 3 mi ) controlled @-@ access highway that encircles the GTA , passing through Burlington , Oakville , Mississauga , Brampton , Vaughan , Markham , Pickering , Whitby , and Oshawa as well as travelling immediately north of Toronto . Although the general public felt that tolling made the highway a luxury rather than its original purpose of relieving traffic on Highway 401 , Highway 407 ETR has had average daily trip counts of over 350 @,@ 000 vehicles in June 2014 . The 407 ETR is contractually responsible for maintaining high traffic levels as justification for increasing tolls , but conduct their own traffic studies . Despite increased usage , parallel roads that Highway 407 was intended to supplement continue to grow congested , forcing the MTO to revisit costly widening projects of Highway 401 and the QEW .
Highway 407 has been designed with aesthetics and environmental concerns in mind by featuring landscaped embankments , 79 storm drainage ponds , as well as a curb and gutter system . Unlike most other Ontario highways , it features concrete pavement as opposed to top @-@ coated asphalt . Because of this , the high @-@ mast lighting along the urban portions of the route feature fewer luminaires than asphalt @-@ surfaced freeways .
= = = Burlington β Brampton = = =
Highway 407 begins in Burlington within Halton Region at the Freeman Interchange between Highway 403 and the QEW , from which it branches off northward . The six @-@ lane route passes under Brant Street , Upper Middle Road and Guelph Line ( Halton Regional Road 1 ) before it interchanges with Dundas Street ( Halton Regional Road 5 and former Highway 5 ) . It briefly enters greenspace as it curves gently to the northeast , avoiding the nearby Niagara Escarpment . The route is crossed by Walkers Line , east of which residential subdivisions line the south side and greenspace lines the north . At an interchange with Appleby Line ( Halton Regional Road 20 ) , the highway straightens and travels parallel to Dundas Street before passing over Bronte Creek and under the Canadian National Railway 's ( CN ) Halwest Subdivision .
East of Bronte Creek , Highway 407 enters an agricultural area , interspersed with woodlots . It enters Oakville at the Tremaine Road ( Halton Regional Road 22 ) overpass , then gradually swerves to the north as it encounters an interchange with Bronte Road ( Halton Regional Road 25 and former Highway 25 ) . The route crosses Sixteen Mile Creek just north of Glenarchy Conservation Area , then travels parallel to the creek for several kilometres . It swerves north after an interchange with Neyagawa Boulevard , near the hamlet of Glenarchy . After diverging from the creek , it curves northeast , parallel to and north of Burnhamthorpe Road , where it interchanges with Trafalgar Road ( Halton Regional Road 3 ) . Highway 407 then encounters Highway 403 at a large interchange where curves sharply to the northwest ; Highway 403 , meanwhile , curves from the southeast to the northeast .
Now travelling parallel to and immediately west of the Halton β Peel regional boundary and Oakville β Mississauga city boundary , the six @-@ lane Highway 407 progresses northwest alongside a power transmission corridor , with subdivisions to the east and greenspace to the west . The route continues as such northwest to Highway 401 , passing under Lower Base Line ( which continues east as Eglinton Avenue ) and interchanging at Britannia Road and Derry Road before crossing the Canadian Pacific Railway 's ( CP ) Galt Subdivision . At Highway 401 , the route makes a sharp curve to the northeast , while ramps weave across both freeway over several kilometres , interconnecting them . It enters Peel Region at the Winston Churchill Boulevard ( Peel Regional Road 19 ) overpass and follows another power transmission corridor just north of the Brampton β Mississauga boundary .
Highway 407 swerves east and encounters an interchange with Mississauga Road ( Peel Regional Road 1 ) just prior to crossing the Credit River and the Orangeville Brampton Railway , after which it enters the urban GTA . After passing interchanges with Mavis Road ( Peel Regional Road 18 ) and Hurontario Street ( Former Highway 10 ) , the route encounters Highway 410 at another sprawling interchange located over Etobicoke Creek . Over the next 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , the route nudges northward into Brampton , interchanging with Dixie Road ( Peel Regional Road 4 ) and Bramalea Road , as well as a CN railway line , before crossing Steeles Avenue ( Peel Regional Road 15 ) . Highway 407 curves back to the northeast as it interchanges with Airport Road ( Peel Regional Road 7 ) and passes beneath another CN line , before encountering the final interchange in Peel Region at Goreway Drive . It crosses the West Humber River and former Highway 50 in Claireville Conservation Area before curving east into York Region .
= = = Vaughan β Pickering = = =
Immediately after crossing into Vaughan , Highway 407 encounters the first of three large interchanges with other 400 @-@ series highways in York Region . The Highway 427 interchange is a four @-@ level partial stack located just north of Steeles Avenue in Vaughan and adjacent to the 407 ETR Concession Company offices . The interchange features weaved ramps which connect to former Highway 27 , located just east . The route continues eastward , parallel and between Steeles Avenue and Highway 7 . It dives through the Humber River valley alongside a CN line and along the northern border of Thackeray Conservation Lands , passing beneath a CP line . After an interchange with Pine Valley Drive ( York Regional Road 57 ) , the route becomes sandwiched between the industrial lands of the Pine Valley Business Park and the Emery Creek Corporate Park . A partial interchange with Weston Road ( York Regional Road 56 ) lies just west of the large four @-@ level stack interchange with Highway 400 , the only of its kind in Ontario . An interchange with Jane Street ( York Regional Road 55 ) is interwoven into the east side of the Highway 400 interchange , below which the future Spadina Subway Extension will travel .
Still travelling alongside a power transmission corridor , Highway 407 crosses a complex rail wye which provides access to the CN freight yards to the north . After interchanging with Keele Street ( York Regional Road 6 ) , the route gently curves northward , passing under the CN Newmarket Subdivision , which carries the GO Transit Barrie Line and crossing the Don River . It curves back eastward as it interchanges with Dufferin Street ( York Regional Road 53 ) , travelling adjacent and south of Highway 7 . After interchanges with Bathurst Street ( York Regional Road 38 ) and Yonge Street ( York Regional Road 1 ) , the Vaughan β Markham boundary , Highway 407 crosses the CN Bala Subdivision , which carries the GO Transit Richmond Hill Line . After an interchange with Bayview Avenue ( York Regional Road 34 ) , the highway serves south . A partial interchange with Leslie Street ( York Regional Road 12 ) precedes the third and final large freeway β freeway junction at Highway 404 .
East of Highway 404 , the freeway travels generally parallel to the Rouge River . It interchanges with Woodbine Avenue ( York Regional Road 8 ) and Warden Avenue ( York Regional Road 65 ) , east of which the route travels alongside a CN line and crosses the GO Transit Unionville Line . Highway 407 continues straight eastward into a residential area , interchanging with Kennedy Road ( York Regional Road 3 ) , McCowan Road ( York Regional Road 67 ) and Markham Road ( York Regional Road 68 ) where it crosses the river and diverges from both the CN line and power transmission corridor . The route interchanges with Ninth Line ( York Regional Road 69 ) and Donald Cousens Parkway ( York Regional Road 48 ) before exiting the urban GTA and curving northeast over a CP line and into Rouge Park .
Until the opening of the first phase of 407E in June 2016 , the final interchange along Highway 407 was with York β Durham Line ( York / Durham Regional Road 30 ) , the boundary between York Region and Durham Region as well as Markham and Pickering . The route curves eastward then crosses West Duffins Creek north of the community of Whitevale and south of the future Pickering Airport and planned community of Seaton . Sandwiched between farm fields , the highway is crossed by North Road , where a future interchange is planned , and Sideline 24 . Highway 407 ended just south of Brougham at a signalized intersection with Brock Road ( Durham Regional Road 1 ) until the end of 2015 , where it continued eastward as Highway 7 . A new interchange has been built in conjunction with the provincially maintained and tolled extension , Highway 407E , which was constructed east of this point , and ties in with the current freeway , eliminating the at @-@ grade intersection .
= = = Pickering β Oshawa = = =
Immediately east of Brock Road , this tollway falls under the ownership of the Province of Ontario and is now referred to as Ontario Highway 407 ( Or Highway 407 East ) instead of 407 ETR . This route runs parallel both Highway 7 and Durham Regional Road 3 ( with some crossovers ) through the North of Pickering , Whitby , and Oshawa , until its eastern terminus at Harmony Road . A major interchange of this route includes with Highway 412 , which is a spur connecting the 407 with Highway 401 in Whitby . Both the 407 East Extension and Highway 412 opened to traffic on June 20 , 2016 , with tolls waived off until the end of 2016 . This highway will be further extended eastward through Clarington .
= = Tolls = =
Unlike most other toll highways , Highway 407 features no toll booths . Rather , a system of cameras and transponders allows for automatic toll collection . It is one of the earliest examples of a highway to exclusively use open road tolling . Highway 407 is otherwise designed as a normal freeway ; interchanges connect directly to surface streets . A radio antenna detects when a vehicle with a transponder has entered and exited the highway , calculating the toll rate . For vehicles without a transponder , an automatic number plate recognition system is used . In both cases , monthly statements are mailed to users . The automatic number plate recognition system is linked to several provincial and U.S. state motor vehicle registries . Toll rates are set by both the 407 ETR and the Province of Ontario for each of the respective sections they own . However , the province set out limitations in the 407 ETR lease contract for maintaining traffic volumes to justify toll rates . Despite this , rates have increased annually against the requests of the provincial government , resulting in several court battles and the general public regarding the route as a luxury .
= = = Plate denial = = =
As part of the contractual agreement with the government , the MTO is required to deny licence plate validation stickers to drivers who have an outstanding 407 ETR bill over 125 days past due . This process was temporarily halted in February 2000 due to numerous false billing claims . Following a judicial decision by the Ontario Divisional Court on November 7 , 2005 , the Ontario Registrar of Motor Vehicles was ordered to begin denying the validation or issue of Canadian license plates and vehicle permits for 407 ETR users who have failed to pay owed fees . On November 22 , 2005 , the MTO announced that it would appeal the decision but would begin to deny plates until the appeal was decided . On February 24 , 2006 , the Ontario Court of Appeals denied the government leave to appeal the 2005 decision . As a result , plate denial remains in place .
= = = Rates = = =
= = = = 407 ETR = = = =
All dollar amounts listed are Canadian dollars .
As of February 1 , 2016 , the base tolls for driving on the 407 ETR are as follows :
The toll rate that applies to a specific trip is determined by the time at which a vehicle enters the highway .
Off peak rates are in effect from 19 : 00 - 06 : 00 Monday to Friday except public holidays , and 19 : 00 - 11 : 00 Saturday , Sunday and holidays .
Midday weekday rates are in effect from 10 : 00 - 15 : 00 , Mondays to Fridays except for holidays .
Midday weekend / holiday rates are in effect from 11 : 00 - 19 : 00 , Saturday , Sunday and holidays .
Peak period rates are in effect from 06 : 00 - 07 : 00 , 09 : 00 - 10 : 00 , 15 : 00 - 16 : 00 and from 18 : 00 - 19 : 00 , Monday to Friday except for public holidays .
Peak hours rates are in effect from 07 : 00 - 09 : 00 and from 16 : 00 - 18 : 00 , Mondays to Fridays except for public holidays .
The light zone lies between Highway 401 and Highway 427 as well as section east of Highway 404 . All other sections lie within the regular zone .
Heavy goods vehicles and lorries are assessed a minimum toll regardless of the length of their trip .
* Light goods vehicles without transponders are assessed an additional Video Toll . Motorcycles are not charged a video toll because there is rarely a reasonable place to mount a transponder .
* * Heavy duty vehicles are legally required to have transponders in order to use the highway ; offenders may be penalised under the Highway Traffic Act .
= = = = Highway 407 East = = = =
Upon opening of the new freeways in June 2016 , no tolls were initially set in place . However as of 2017 , the following tolls will come into effect for motorist utilizing the Highway 407E , 412 , and 418 tollways :
All end times displayed are rounded up to the nearest minute for simplicity purposes ( i.e. 6am is actually 5 : 59 : 59am )
The toll rate that applies to a specific trip is determined by the time at which a vehicle enters the highway .
Users of both 407 ETR and Highways 407E / 412 / 418 will only receive one bill invoice , with trips on each highway specified .
407 ETR Transponders will be compatible with Highways 407E , 412 , and 418 .
As seen above , the costs of utilizing these provincially owned tollways are less than that of the 407 ETR .
Light vehicles without transponders may be assessed an additional Video Toll .
Vehicles weighing over 5 @,@ 000 kilograms are divided into two categories : Heavy Single Units and Heavy Multiple Units . Heavy Multiple Unit Vehicles will be charged two or three time the passenger rate , depending on the size of the vehicle .
All Heavy Unit vehicles are legally required to have transponders in order to use the highway ; offenders may be penalized under the Highway Traffic Act .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and initial construction = = =
Although construction of Highway 407 did not begin until 1987 , planning for the bypass of Highway 401 north of Toronto began in the late @-@ 1950s . Concepts for the new " dual highway " first appeared in the 1959 plan for Metropolitan Toronto . Land adjacent to several hydro corridors was acquired for the future freeway in the 1960s , but sat vacant as the Ontario Department of Highway ( predecessor to the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) opted instead to widen Highway 401 to a twelve @-@ lane collector @-@ express system . The Highway 401 expansion project was considered a success and construction of Highway 407 was shelved for almost thirty years . The plan was revisted in the mid @-@ 1980s as congestion in Toronto pushed roads beyond capacity . In 1986 , Premier David Peterson was given a helicopter tour of the city during rush @-@ hour ; construction of the highway was announced soon thereafter , and began in 1987 .
The Ontario government 's normal process for highway construction was not possible given the financial constraints of the recession of the early 1990s . The Peterson government sought out private sector partnerships and acquired innovative electronic tolling technology . Two firms bid on the project , with the Canadian Highways International Corporation being selected as the operator of the highway . Financing for the highway was to be paid by user tolls lasting 35 years , after which it would return to the provincial system as a toll @-@ free 400 @-@ series highway . The succeeding government of Bob Rae announced on March 31 , 1995 , that the corridor reserved for Highway 403 between Burlington and Oakville would instead be built as a western extension of Highway 407 .
The first segment of Highway 407 , between Highway 410 and Highway 404 , was ceremoniously opened to traffic on June 7 , 1997 ; no tolls were charged for a month to allow motorists to test @-@ drive the freeway . Several other sections were well underway at this point . A 13 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) extension westwards to Highway 401 was opened just months later on December 13 , 1997 . That section was connected with Highway 403 to the south on September 4 , 1998 , with a temporary two lane ramp connecting to Trafalgar Road . In the east , an extension to Markham Road , at what was then the southern terminus of Highway 48 , was completed in early 1998 . However , due to the protest of local residents and officials concerning traffic spill @-@ off ( a scenario revisited with the extension to Oshawa ) , the freeway was opened only as far as McCowan Road on February 18 . The short segment from McCowan Road to Markham Road remained closed for over a year , as locals feared the funneling of traffic onto Main Street , which is named Markham Road south of the freeway . Both Markham and McCowan were widened to four lanes between Highway 407 and Steeles Avenue at this time . This did not alleviate concerns , but on June 24 , 1999 , the extension opened to continued protest regardless .
= = = Privatization and extensions = = =
When Mike Harris was elected Premier in 1995 on his platform of the Common Sense Revolution , the Ontario government faced a $ 11 billion annual deficit and a $ 100 billion debt . Seeking to balance the books , a number of publicly owned services were privatized over the following years . Although initially spared , Highway 407 was sold quickly in the year leading up to the 1999 provincial elections . The highway was leased to a conglomerate of private companies for $ 3 @.@ 1 billion . The route was subsequently renamed the 407 ETR . The Ontario corporation , known as 407 International Inc . , is jointly owned by the Spanish multinational Cintra Infraestructuras ( 43 @.@ 23 % ) , as well as various subsidiaries of the Canada Pension Plan Investment Board ( 40 % ) and the Montreal @-@ based engineering firm SNC @-@ Lavalin ( 16 @.@ 77 % ) . The deal included a 99 @-@ year lease agreement with unlimited control over the highway and its tolls , dependent on traffic volume ; however , the government maintains the right to build a transport system within the highway right @-@ of @-@ way .
When purchased , the highway travelled from the junction of Highway 403 in Mississauga to Markham Road in Markham . Extensions westward to the QEW and eastward to Highway 7 and Brock Road in Pickering were constructed by the corporation , as mandated in the lease agreement . The western extension , from Highway 403 southwest to the QEW , was not part of the original Highway 407 concept in 1987 ; rather , the corridor was originally intended to connect the Hamilton and Mississauga sections of Highway 403 . Highway 407 was originally slated to assume the temporary routing for Highway 403 along the Mississauga @-@ Oakville boundary to end at the QEW . However , the Bob Rae led Ontario government altered these plans in 1995 , and the corporation constructed this section quickly upon obtaining the lease . Sections opened throughout the middle of 2001 : between Neyagawa Boulevard and Highway 403 on June 17 ; between Bronte Road and Neyagawa Boulevard on June 29 ; between Dundas Street and Bronte Road on July 18 ; and between the Freeman Interchange and Dundas Street on July 30 . In the east , a final extension between Markham Road and Highway 7 opened a month later on August 30 .
On October 5 , 2010 , the Canadian Pension Plan announced that an agreement was reached with the owners of the roadway to purchase 10 % stake for $ 894 million . This implies a value of close to $ 9 billion for the highway in its current state . However , in 1998 , MPP E.J. Douglas Rollins found that as much as $ 104 billion had been spent by the province to that point .
= = = Controversy = = =
Highway 407 ETR has been the subject of several controversies over its two decades of existence . While the privatization of the route and toll rate increases have been routinely criticized by the general public and politicians , cost @-@ savings measures and the ensuing safety concerns resulted in an independent Ontario Provincial Police investigation shortly before the opening of the freeway . Finally , the public has accused the 407 ETR of predatory billing practices , including false billing and continued plate denial after bankruptcy .
An expert panel of engineers released a report outlining concerns regarding the decreased loop ramp radii and a lack of protective guardrail at sharp curves , in addition to the lack of a concrete median barrier to separate the opposite directions of travel . However , it was also argued that the large grass median was sufficient to prevent cross @-@ over collisions , given that Highway 410 has a similar median .
The Ontario provincial government has quarrelled with 407 ETR over toll rates and customer service , but is largely tied down by the lease contract . On February 2 , 2004 , the government delivered notice to 407 ETR that they are considered to be in default of their contract because of 407 ETR 's decision to raise toll rates without first obtaining provincial clearance . The court 's initial decision sided with 407 ETR : on July 10 , 2004 , an independent arbitrator affirmed that 407 ETR has the ability to raise toll rates without first consulting the government . The government filed an appeal of this decision but was overruled by an Ontario Superior Court decision released on January 6 , 2005 ; however , a subsequent ruling by the Ontario Court of Appeal on June 13 , 2005 granted the government permission to appeal the decision . The government also faced off against 407 ETR in court regarding plate denial around this time .
= = 407 East Extension = =
A provincially owned 65 @-@ kilometre ( 40 mi ) long extension to the 407 ETR , known as Highway 407 East ( or 407E ) , is currently under development in two separate phases . Phase 1 was opened on June 20 , 2016 , consisting of a 22 @-@ kilometre ( 14 mi ) extension to Harmony Road in Oshawa , as well as the 10 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) Highway 412 . The extension is free of tolls until 2017 . Phase 2A will add a 9 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 8 mi ) extension to Taunton Road and Highway 418 and is scheduled for completion in 2017 . Phase 2B will add a further 23 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 5 mi ) , consisting of an east @-@ west extension from Taunton Road to Highway 35 and Highway 115 , as well as Highway 418 , the north @-@ south connector to Highway 401 ; Phase 2B is scheduled for completion in 2020 .
An environmental assessment ( EA ) to analyze the proposed extension was undertaken in the early 2000s . The assessment also included studies of the two north β south connectors . A preferred route was announced in June 2007 , and the EA was complete in June 2009 . On March 6 , 2007 , as part of the FLOW initiative , the Government of Canada and the Province of Ontario confirmed the extension of the 407 to Highway 35 and Highway 115 in Clarington , including the connector highways , with an announced completion date of 2013 . On January 27 , 2009 , the provincial government announced that the extension would be a tolled highway but owned by the province and with tolls set by the province . The announcement also indicated that the province expected to issue a Request for Proposals later in the year . The contract , which is valued at $ 1 @.@ 6 billion and includes construction and operation of the highway , was eventually awarded to the same consortium that owns 407 ETR .
On June 9 , 2010 , the MTO approved the extension as far east as Simcoe Street in Oshawa , announcing plans to phase construction of the extension . Local residents and politicians rejected the plan , as had happened with the section between McCowan Road and Markham Road . A motion was proposed in the Ontario Legislature to build the full extension in one project , but failed to pass . Instead , a compromise was issued on March 10 , 2011 : the first phase would extend Highway 407 to Harmony Road in Oshawa by 2015 , including Highway 412 ; the second phase would then complete the extension to Highway 35 / 115 by 2020 , including Highway 418 . This timeline was confirmed by Premier Dalton McGuinty on May 24 , 2012 , and construction began in the first quarter of 2013 .
In early December 2015 , it was announced that contractor delays would push the opening of the first phase from December 18 to the spring of 2016 . However the extension did not open until June 20 , 2016 , the first day of Summer 2016 .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 407 , as noted by the 407 ETR Concession Company Limited .
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= 1960 North Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1960 North Indian Ocean cyclone season featured two deadly tropical cyclones that killed approximately 20 @,@ 000 people collectively in East Pakistan ( present @-@ day Bangladesh ) . The Indian subcontinent divides the North Indian Ocean into two areas : the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west . The official Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre in this basin is the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center releases unofficial advisories . On average , five storms form in the North Indian Ocean every season with dual peaks in activity during May and November . Cyclones that occurred between 45 Β° E and 100 Β° E were included in seasonal records by the IMD .
Fifteen depressions developed during the 1960 season , with five becoming cyclonic storms . The majority of the activity took place in the Bay of Bengal , where eleven systems formed ; however , the season 's first storm formed over the Arabian Sea on May 10 . The storm produced hurricane @-@ force winds and attained a barometric air pressure of 974 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 77 inHg ) . The deadliest and most intense cyclone of the season was Severe Cyclonic Storm Ten , which killed 14 @,@ 174 in East Pakistan in early November . With peak winds estimated at 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) and a pressure of 966 @.@ 7 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 55 inHg ) , it struck just three weeks after the previous system devastated the same area . The storm produced a 6 @.@ 1 m ( 20 ft ) storm tide that swept 16 km ( 10 mi ) inland , submerging several small islands . The two storms left a combined 200 @,@ 000 β 300 @,@ 000 people homeless . These systems marked the start of an unusually active period of cyclones impacting East Pakistan , culminating ten years later with the 1970 Bhola cyclone , which killed between 300 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 people . During the 1960 season , several depressions impacted India with heavy rainfall . Collectively , these systems killed 167 people .
= = Storms = =
= = = Severe Cyclonic Storm One = = =
On May 10 , an area of low pressure was identified over the Arabian Sea roughly 400 km ( 250 mi ) to the northwest of the Maldives . Moving northwestward , it gradually organized , becoming a depression during by the evening of May 12 . After turning more toward the west , the system continued to slowly deepen . On May 14 , the S.S. Kampala sailed into the system , encountering 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) winds and rough seas . Over the following two days , the depression intensified into a cyclonic storm , with gale @-@ force winds extending 150 km ( 90 mi ) from the center . During the overnight hours of May 16 through 17 , the S.S. Mohammedi sailed almost directly into the center of the cyclone , reporting a barometric pressure of 974 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 77 inHg ) and 9 @.@ 1 m ( 30 ft ) waves . Several other vessels , such as the S.S. Saudi and S.S. Exchequer , encountered the storm . Both ships reported hurricane @-@ force winds , and the latter endured seas as high as 15 @.@ 2 m ( 50 ft ) early on May 18 . Later that day , the storm weakened so rapidly the crew of the S.S. Exchequer were able to watch the pressure on their barometer actively rise . Continuing westward , the system degraded to a remnant low before dissipating on May 19 off the coast of Hadhramaut , Yemen .
As a developing cyclone , the system brought monsoon @-@ like moisture to much of the Maldives , Ceylon ( present @-@ day Sri Lanka ) , and southern India between May 14 and 17 . The heaviest rains fell on May 17 , with 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) recorded at Kochi , India , that day .
= = = Deep Depression Two = = =
On May 25 , an upper @-@ level low pressure system developed over the northern Bay of Bengal . The following day , a surface low formed in association with this feature . By May 27 , the low further consolidated into a depression while situated 285 km ( 175 mi ) south of Kolkata , India . Tracking northward , it intensified into a deep depression before making landfall on the Sundarbans region of West Bengal β near the border of East Pakistan β early on May 28 . Though it was classified a deep depression , stronger winds of up to 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) were reported from Sagar Island . Based on measurements from nearby stations , it is estimated that the system attained a minimum pressure of 988 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) just as it moved ashore . Once inland , the system quickly weakened and accelerated northeastward . It later dissipated over Assam on May 30 .
The system produced torrential rains across eastern India and East Pakistan . In Cherrapunji , 540 mm ( 21 in ) of rain fell during a two @-@ day span , while many other areas recorded over 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . No rainfall data were available from West Bengal and Assam . Strong winds from the storm destroyed numerous homes in West Bengal , and at least seven people were killed .
= = = Deep Depression Three = = =
On June 29 , a trough , associated with an upper @-@ level low , extended over the northwestern Bay of Bengal . Following a drop in sea @-@ level pressure over the next day , a depression formed in this area . Moving slowly westward , the storm intensified into a deep depression early on July 2 . Shortly thereafter , the system made landfall near Angul , India , and accelerated toward the northwest . The system later dissipated on July 4 over Madhya Pradesh after being absorbed back into the trough that it developed from .
Widespread heavy rains accompanied the depression along portions of the coast from Orissa to West Bengal and as far inland as Madhya . Sagar Island recorded at least 360 mm ( 14 in ) of rain over the span of two days , while Vishakhapatnam received 300 mm ( 12 in ) in just one . As much as 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of precipitation fell across Madhya Pradesh .
= = = Depression Four = = =
On June 26 , a slow @-@ moving trough developed over Gujarat . By July 2 , the system developed into a shallow land depression while situated 80 km ( 50 mi ) north of Veraval . Winds in the area were measured up to 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) ; however , as the system moved offshore , winds quickly increased to 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Low pressures were recorded across the area , with a minimum of 990 @.@ 8 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 26 inHg ) measured in Dwarka . Becoming nearly stationary off the coast of Gujarat , the depression began to interact with an approaching monsoon . This interaction caused winds to increase , with two vessels reporting 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) winds during the late morning hours of July 4 . Later that day , the system began moving to the northwest and quickly weakened . It was last noted the following day as a dissipating low over the northeastern Arabian Sea .
Between July 2 and 4 , heavy rains amounting to more than 300 mm ( 12 in ) fell across much of the Saurashtra region of Gujarat . These rains triggered severe flooding that killed at least 35 people and left 6 @,@ 000 others homeless . At least 500 homes were destroyed in the region .
= = = Depression Five = = =
On August 6 , a westward moving area of low pressure was identified over Burma . Initially an upper @-@ level system , it gradually propagated to the surface , becoming a depression on August 9 . Tracking west @-@ northwestward , the system crossed the Indian coastline later that day near Balasore , where a pressure of 996 @.@ 1 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) was measured . Sustained winds reached just 30 km / h ( 15 mph ) . Once onshore , the depression degenerated into a remnant low on August 10 . The remnants continued northwestward , ultimately merging with a trough over Uttar Pradesh on August 12 .
The depression dropped heavy rains over parts of India between August 8 and August 14 . The highest totals were recorded on August 14 when 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of rain fell in Jhansi . Significant flooding took place along the Ganges River as a result of the rains . Forty villages along the river near Fatehgarh were inundated .
= = = Deep Depression Six = = =
As the previous depression dissipated over India , a new circulation developed over the Bay of Bengal on August 12 . This system quickly became a depression . Moving slowly northwestward , it became a deep depression on August 14 before making landfall in the Sundarbans region . Winds up to 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) were reported in Sandheads . Once onshore , it turned westward and slowed while maintaining its intensity . The system finally weakened on August 18 as it resumed moving northwestward again , and two days later it dissipated over southeastern Rajasthan .
Large portions of India were affected by rains from the depression , with Orissa and Madhya receiving the heaviest rains . According to Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru , up to 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 40 in ) of rain fell across portions of Orissa . The tremendous precipitation triggered disastrous floods that killed at least 65 people . Continued rains over the next two weeks exacerbated the situation and by August 30 , an estimated 2 @.@ 5 million people were homeless . Most affected were areas around the Mahanadi River and its tributaries where flood waters reached 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) in depth . At least 85 villages were reportedly destroyed . Orissa government officials described the disaster as " the worst in living memory . " Rail lines and roads were severely damaged across the state , hampering initial relief efforts . A total of 1 @.@ 87 million acres of crops were flooded and overall damage amounted to βΉ 112 million .
= = = Depression Seven = = =
On August 20 , a wave of low pressure formed over Burma . Moving westwards , this upper @-@ level system triggered the development of a surface low two days later over the Bay of Bengal . Turning northwestward , the low consolidated into a depression by August 24 before making landfall in the Sundarbans region later that day . Once onshore , the depression degenerated into a remnant low ; the remnants persisted until August 28 when they were absorbed into a trough over Rajasthan Pradesh .
Heavy rains affected much of Bihar , Madhya Pradesh , Punjab , and Uttar Pradesh . The highest daily precipitation total was measured in Ghatsila at 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) . These rains triggered severe flooding along the Beas , Ganges , Jamuna , and Sutlej rivers . Large areas of Uttar Pradesh were left submerged , and significant crop and property damage took place in Punjab . At least 55 people were killed in Punjab alone , and losses overall amounted to $ 9 @.@ 24 million ( 1960 USD ) .
= = = Deep Depression Eight = = =
On September 22 , an area of low pressure was identified over the Andaman Sea . Tracking northwestward , the system consolidated into a depression two days later over the Bay of Bengal . During the evening of September 24 , it further strengthened to a deep depression , with winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . Early the next day it made landfall in Orissa between Balasore and Chandabali . Once onshore , the system slowed and turned northeastward . It later dissipated over Nepal on September 28 as it interacted with the Himalayas .
Heavy rains accompanying the depression affected much of Bihar , Orissa , and West Bengal . Many areas recorded more than 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) during a four @-@ day span ; the highest single @-@ day total was 270 mm ( 11 in ) in Bahadurganj .
= = = Severe Cyclonic Storm Nine = = =
In late September , a tropical storm developed over the South China Sea . Striking Vietnam , the storm slowly moved over Indochina , ultimately crossing 100 Β° E and entering the basin on October 5 while over Thailand . After crossing southern Burma , the low moved northwestward over the Bay of Bengal and reorganized . Following a report of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) winds from the S.S. Glenpark on October 8 , the system was classified as a depression . Moving slowly northwestwards , the system further deepened into a cyclonic storm on October 9 . Several ships in the path of the storm recorded gale @-@ force winds , depicting its strengthening . Early on October 10 , it became a severe cyclonic storm and soon reached its peak intensity with winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Its central pressure at this time was estimated to be 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 12 inHg ) . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) estimated that the storm attained one @-@ minute sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Turning northeastward , the system made landfall between Barisal and Noakhali in East Pakistan , with the eye passing directly over the islands of Bhola , Hatia , and Ramgati . Once onshore , the system quickly weakened and ultimately dissipated over Assam early on October 12 .
Across coastal areas of East Pakistan , the storm wrought catastrophic damage . A 5 @.@ 8 m ( 19 ft ) tidal surge washed over the islands of Hatia , Sandwip , Kutubdia . Communications across the region were crippled , and it took six days for word of the scale of damage to reach officials . Entire villages were reportedly wiped out by the storm . Approximately 35 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , most of which were thatched huts made of bamboo and mud . About 300 schools were also damaged . The worst damage took place on Ramgati Island where 3 @,@ 500 people were killed . Roughly 95 percent of the island 's structure were destroyed , forcing residents to cling to trees for survival . Only two police officers survived and were able to inform government officials of the disaster . An estimated 6 @,@ 000 people perished while another 100 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Heavy rain accompanied the storm , with Cox 's Bazar reporting 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) . Relief efforts in the wake of the storm were hampered by the nation 's poor infrastructure and debris left behind . On October 18 , members of the East Pakistani military were deployed to the hardest hit areas to provide stable communication and clean drinking water .
= = = Severe Cyclonic Storm Ten = = =
On October 26 , a trough formed over the south Andaman Sea and extended into the southern Bay of Bengal . By October 28 , the system consolidated into a depression as it moved northwestward . Steadily intensifying , several ships encountered the storms increasing winds as it moved northward in the Bay . On October 30 , it attained gale @-@ force winds and further became a severe cyclonic storm early the next morning . During the evening of October 31 , the IST Barisal recorded winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , indicating that the system had acquired a core of hurricane @-@ force winds . The maximum winds of this system is unknown , though reports indicated that winds peaked between 150 and 215 km / h ( 90 and 135 mph ) . NOAA estimated that the storm peaked with one @-@ minute sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and a pressure of 966 @.@ 7 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 55 inHg ) . The storm soon made landfall with great intensity near Noakhali , East Pakistan , just three weeks after the previous storm devastated the country . Once onshore , cold , dry air quickly wrapped around the backside of the cyclone . Within four hours of landfall , little rainfall was reported near the storm 's eye . The cyclone rapidly weakened and dissipated the following day over the Lushai Hills .
Striking East Pakistan as a powerful storm , the system produced a storm tide of 6 @.@ 1 m ( 20 ft ) that moved 16 km ( 10 mi ) inland , devastating many communities . A storm surge of 6 @.@ 7 m ( 22 ft ) was measured in Halishahar . In addition to the surge , there was a series of tidal waves that followed the storm , causing additional damage . Offshore , these waves were estimated at 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) ; though they significantly decreased before impacting land . Cittagong and surrounding communities were regarded as the hardest hit , with most being submerged in 3 m ( 10 ft ) of water . The city 's port was largely destroyed , with almost every vessel washed ashore . Some were found 16 km ( 10 mi ) away and one even at another port . The storm 's intense winds , estimated as high as 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) on Sandwip Island , leveled buildings and scattered debris over large distances . Crops were flattened by the storm and in some instances had been " burnt " by the sheer force of the wind . A total of 14 @,@ 174 people perished in the storm while another 200 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Following the mass casualties from the two storms , the Government of Pakistan requested the assistance of former National Hurricane Center director , Gordon E. Dunn , to improve the warning system .
= = = Depression Eleven = = =
On November 5 , an area of low pressure was identified over Lakshadweep . Tracking generally northwestward , it gradually organized into a depression by November 7 . No further development took place over the following days and the system eventually degraded into a remnant low on November 10 . Though the storm itself did not impact land , associated moisture combined with a low over the Bay of Bengal to produce heavy rains across Madras State and nearby islands from November 5 to 10 .
= = = Shallow Depression Twelve = = =
On November 7 , an area of low pressure over the Bay of Bengal formed and gradually moved towards India . By November 9 , it was located just of the Coromandel Coast . The following day , it deepened into a depression while situated off the northern edge of Ceylon . Becoming nearly stationary , the system failed to develop and soon weakened into a remnant low . The low dissipated early on November 12 . Heavy rains fell across much of Madras State in association with the system ; a 24 β hour total of 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) was reported in Nagapattinam . These rains triggered significant flooding that disrupted travel and communications . Severe damage took place in Madurai where 10 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Overall , five people were killed and 150 @,@ 000 were left homeless .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Thirteen = = =
On November 14 , an area of low pressure formed to the west of Lakshadweep . Tracking generally westward , it eventually developed into a depression three days later . Gradual intensification took place over the following two days , with the system becoming a cyclonic storm on November 19 . On November 20 , the system attained its peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 36 inHg ) . Continuing westward , the cyclone entered the Gulf of Aden on November 22 before becoming nearly stationary . During this time , it weakened to a depression before dissipating the following day .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Fourteen = = =
A well @-@ defined area of low pressure was identified over the southwestern Bay of Bengal on November 17 . The following day , the system developed into a depression as it moved slowly northwestward . On November 20 , as it neared the coast of Tamil Nadu , it intensified into a cyclonic storm , with gusts estimated as high as 135 km / h ( 84 mph ) . Shortly thereafter , it made landfall near Chennai . In nearby Tambaram , a pressure of 995 @.@ 7 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) was recorded , the lowest in relation to the cyclone . A small storm , it quickly weakened once onshore and was last noted early on November 21 as a dissipating low .
Heavy rains impacted most of southern Madras State , with a maximum daily total of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) in Punalur . The most significant damage took place in Madras City where gale @-@ force winds uprooted trees and disrupted transport and communications . Many poorly constructed homes were damaged or destroyed by the storm , leaving numerous low @-@ income families homeless .
= = = Depression Fifteen = = =
On November 24 , the S.S. Rajula sailed under a well @-@ defined trough over the southwest Bay of Bengal and reported 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) winds . Two days later , a tropical wave interacted with the system and resulted in the development of a depression . Over the following several days , the system drifted northwestward without change in intensity . By December 3 , it degenerated into a remnant low , ultimately tracking over southern India , near Circars , on December 4 before dissipating . The system brought locally heavy rains to parts of the Andaman Islands and Andhra Pradesh .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all storms in the 1960 North Indian Ocean cyclone season . It mentions all of the season 's storms and their names , durations , peak intensities ( according to the IMD storm scale ) , areas affected , damages , and death totals . Damage and death totals include the damage and deaths caused when that storm was a precursor wave or extratropical low , and all of the damage figures are in 1960 USD .
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= Crab dip =
Crab dip , sometimes referred to as Maryland crab dip , is a thick , creamy dip that is typically prepared from cream cheese and lump crab meat . Other primary ingredients such as mayonnaise may be used . Various types of crab preparations , species and superfamilies are used , as are a variety of added ingredients . It is typically served hot , although cold versions also exist . Hot versions are typically baked or broiled . It is sometimes served as an appetizer . Accompaniments may include crackers and various breads . Some U.S. restaurants offer crab dip , commercially produced varieties exist , and some stadiums offer it as a part of their concessions .
= = Ingredients = =
Fresh , frozen or canned crab meat may be used in the preparation of crab dip . Different types of crab meat may be used , such as jumbo lump , lump backfin , leg and claw , among others . Various types of crab species and superfamilies are also used , such as blue crab , Dungeness crab and Alaska king crab , among others .
Some versions may use mayonnaise , other types of cheese , such as pepper jack cheese , brie cheese or Cheddar cheese instead of cream cheese as primary ingredients . Some may incorporate other seafoods in addition to crab , such as imitation crab , lobster , shrimp and surimi . Additional ingredients may include mushrooms , artichoke , onion , green onion , shallot , green pepper , bread crumbs ( such as panko ) , heavy cream and others . Bread crumbs may be used to top the dish , which may be browned during the cooking process creating a crust . Sometimes Parmesan cheese is combined with the bread crumbs . Some versions use Old Bay Seasoning as an ingredient to add flavor , and some are prepared spicy with the addition of ingredients such as hot sauce and red pepper .
Crab dips
= = Preparation and service = =
Some U.S. restaurants offer crab dip on their menus . Commercially mass @-@ produced crab dips are also manufactured . Crab dip can be prepared in advance , refrigerated , and cooked at a later time . It may be served in bread that has been hollowed @-@ out , such as a sourdough loaf . Crab dip may be served with crackers , flatbread , pita bread , bread , crostino , pretzels and sliced vegetables , among other accompaniments .
= = Stadium concessions = =
The Nationals Park baseball park in the Navy Yard neighborhood of Washington , D.C. , the home ballpark for the Washington Nationals , offers a sandwich prepared with a half @-@ smoke , Maryland crab dip and Virginia ham called " The DMV " as part of its concessions . It was reported in August 2014 that Byrd Stadium on the campus of the University of Maryland in College Park , Maryland planned to offer a large 1 @.@ 5 pound soft pretzel baked with crab dip and melted cheese that serves four people as part of its concessions . Byrd Stadium also offers other foods prepared with crab , such as nachos and " crab fries " .
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= Action of 15 July 1798 =
The Action of 15 July 1798 was a minor naval battle of the French Revolutionary Wars , fought off the Spanish Mediterranean coast by the Royal Navy ship of the line HMS Lion under Captain Manley Dixon and a squadron of four Spanish Navy frigates under Commodore Don Felix O 'Neil . Lion was one of several ships sent into the Western Mediterranean by Vice @-@ Admiral Earl St Vincent , commander of the British Mediterranean Fleet based at the Tagus in Portugal during the late spring of 1798 . The Spanish squadron was a raiding force that had sailed from Cartagena in Murcia seven days earlier , and was intercepted while returning to its base after an unsuccessful cruise . Although together the Spanish vessels outweighed the British ship , individually they were weaker and Commodore O 'Neil failed to ensure that his manoeuvrees were co @-@ ordinated . As a result , one of the frigates , Santa Dorotea , fell out of the line of battle and was attacked by Lion .
Despite ineffectual long @-@ range gunfire towards the British ship by the remainder of the Spanish squadron , the isolated Santa Dorotea was rapidly forced to surrender , O 'Neil eventually turning the other three frigates back towards Cartagena . Unopposed , Dixon was able to consolidate his prize and send it to St Vincent 's fleet off Cadiz , where it was subsequently purchased into the Royal Navy . Lion remained in the Mediterranean during the year , later participating in the blockades of Malta and Alexandria . The Spanish , their seaports carefully guarded by Royal Navy squadrons , launched no further expeditions into the Mediterranean during the year .
= = Background = =
At the start of 1798 , the Mediterranean Sea was entirely under the control of the French Navy and their allies , including Spain , which had switched sides in the French Revolutionary Wars in late 1796 at the Treaty of San Ildefonso . Denied access to deep water ports and adequate supplies , the Royal Navy fleet deployed in the Mediterranean under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Jervis was forced to withdraw to the nearest friendly fleet anchorage , at the mouth of the Tagus River in Portugal . Although forced to retreat , Jervis ' force was not defeated and on 14 February 1797 he achieved a victory over the Spanish Navy at the Battle of Cape St Vincent , capturing four Spanish ships of the line . A blockade of the Spanish Atlantic ports was instituted , especially Cadiz , the large southern fleet anchorage , and the Spanish did not again attempt to break out during the remainder of the year .
Early in 1798 , rumours reached Jervis , recently ennobled as Earl St Vincent , of a buildup of French forces around the Mediterranean seaport of Toulon under General Napoleon Bonaparte . Similar rumours had reached the Admiralty in London , and St Vincent therefore sent Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson and three ships of the line to observe French activity . Nelson arrived too late however , and the French fleet had already sailed , carrying over 30 @,@ 000 men into the Eastern Mediterranean . Nelson , joined by a fleet of ten ships sent by St Vincent under Captain Thomas Troubridge , pursued the French , but failed to learn of their destination before the French fleet captured Malta . Ten days later , Bonaparte sailed for Alexandria for the second stage of his operation and Nelson 's fleet unwittingly passed his during the night , the British beating the French to Egypt but sailing off again before Bonaparte arrived .
While Nelson was crossing the Mediterranean , St Vincent was taking advantage of the absence of enemy forces in the Western Mediterranean to deploy newly arrived warships to the region . One of these vessels was the 64 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Lion , under the command of Captain Manley Dixon , who had been sent to St Vincent 's fleet early in the year as a replacement for one of Troubridge 's ships . Initially ordered to patrol the Spanish Mediterranean coast , Lion was cruising 97 miles ( 156 km ) southeast of Cartagena , a port in the Spanish Region of Murcia at 09 : 00 on 15 July when four sails were spotted to the southeast .
= = Battle = =
The four sails spotted by Lion 's lookout were a squadron of Spanish frigates that had departed Cartagena on 8 July for a brief and unsuccessful commerce raiding operation in the Western Mediterranean . Each ship carried 34 @-@ guns and a weight of shot of approximately 180 pounds ( 82 kg ) to Lion 's 678 pounds ( 308 kg ) . On sighting Lion , the Spanish ships formed a battle line , with Commodore Felix O 'Neil 's flagship Pomona under Captain Don Francis Villamil in the lead followed by Proserpine under Captain Don Quaj . Bial , Santa Dorotea under Captain Don Manuel Gerraro and Santa Cazilda under Captain Don Deam . Errara . Seeking to engage the strangers , Dixon bore up , halting his movement to ensure he held the weather gage . This would enable him to manoeuvre with the wind and attack the Spanish at the time of his choosing . Seizing the advantage , Dixon then bore down on the frigate squadron , which prepared to meet the attack .
One of the frigates , Santa Dorotea , had lost a topmast sometime earlier and as result was slower than the rest of the squadron . Falling behind the others , Gerraro soon found that his ship was in danger of being isolated by Lion , as Dixon steered for the rapidly opening gap between the Spanish ships . Recognising the danger , O 'Neil ordered the front three frigates to turn around and sail to the defence of Santa Dorotea , passing close by Lion and opening a heavy fire at 11 : 15 . Lion replied , and the Spanish frigates did not immediately turn back for a second pass , continuing ahead as Dixon closed with the straggling Santa Dorotea . In an effort to deter the ship of the line , Gerraro opened fire on Lion with his stern chasers , cannon situated in the frigate 's stern , which caused considerable damage to Dixon 's rigging . As Lion began to close the distance , O 'Neil 's ships returned , but the frigates passed Lion at extreme distance , their broadsides having no effect and again coming under fire themselves .
Eventually , Dixon succeeded in bringing his ship alongside the Spanish frigate and opened a heavy fire , to which Gerraro replied with his own broadside . The larger and more powerful British ship was able to rapidly inflict severe damage to the Santa Dorotea , and within minutes the mizenmast had fallen and the mainmast and rudder were severely battered . As Santa Dorotea veered off course , O 'Neil passed Lion for a third time , at an even greater distance than before , and once again his broadsides failed to have an effect and again he came under fire from the British vessel . His last attempt to save Santa Dorotea defeated , O 'Neil turned away and his ships raised all sail in the direction of Cartagena at 13 : 10 . Gerraro , his isolated ship trapped by Lion , which was slowly turning back towards the drifting frigate , raised the Union Flag upside down as a sign of surrender .
= = Aftermath = =
Santa Dorotea had suffered severe damage during the brief engagement , and had at least 20 men killed and 32 wounded from a crew of 371 . By contrast , Lion had lost just two men wounded in the exchange : a seaman lost a leg and a midshipman was shot in the shoulder . Although Lion 's rigging had been badly torn , there was no structural damage at all . Securing his prize , Dixon spent the next day conducting extensive repairs before sending Santa Dorotea to Earl St Vincent off Cadiz . The captured ship was purchased into the Royal Navy and served for several years as HMS Santa Dorotea , rated at 36 @-@ guns . The prize money generated by the sale of the captured ship and the stores aboard was paid out to the Dixon 's crew in October 1800 . Nearly five decades later the Admiralty recognised the action with the clasp " LION 15 JULY 1798 " attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .
Lion remained in the Western Mediterranean for the next two months , eventually joining with a squadron of four Portuguese ships of the line under the command of TomΓ‘s Xavier Teles de Castro da Gama , Marquess de Niza . In September , Niza 's squadron was ordered to join Nelson in his search for the French and sailed eastwards , but while passing to the north of Malta they encountered a large convoy of battered vessels under Captain Sir James Saumarez . These ships were seven British ships of the line and six captured French ships , all survivors of the Battle of the Nile , Nelson 's successful conclusion of the campaign fought at Aboukir Bay off Egypt on 1 August . The Anglo @-@ Portuguese squadron continued to Alexandria in October , briefly joining the blockade squadron there under Captain Sir Samuel Hood before returning to Malta in December as part of a new squadron formed off the island . Lion followed the Portuguese back to Malta in December . The Spanish did not launch another expedition from their Mediterranean ports during 1798 .
= = Notable participants = =
JosΓ© de San MartΓn was a staff member on the Santa Dorothea .
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= Seneb =
Seneb was a dwarf who served as a high @-@ ranking court official in the Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt , circa 2520 BC . Seneb was a person of considerable importance and wealth who owned thousands of cattle , held twenty palaces and religious titles and was married to a high @-@ ranking priestess of average size with whom he had three children . His successful career and the lavishness of his burial arrangements are indicative of the acceptance given to dwarfs in ancient Egyptian society , whose texts advocated the acceptance and integration of those with physical and mental disabilities .
Seneb is depicted with his wife and children in a painted sculpture from his tomb , rediscovered in 1926 , that is a famous example of Old Kingdom art . It shows him sitting cross @-@ legged on a block of stone with his wife embracing him and his children standing below him where the legs of a full @-@ size person would ordinarily have been . The composition of the scene thus achieves a harmonious symmetry . It depicts Seneb realistically with the facial features and shortened limbs of an individual with achondroplasia , a common form of dwarfism . Paintings and carvings in the tomb give his titles and depict various scenes from his life , such as carrying out inspections of his estate and holding symbols of his office .
= = Discovery and location of Seneb 's tomb = =
Seneb was buried in a mastaba - a flat @-@ roofed brick tomb β located in the West Field of the Giza Necropolis near modern Cairo , where a large complex of ancient Egyptian royal tombs and mortuary structures was built , including the Great Pyramid . It was rediscovered by the German archaeologist Hermann Junker in 1926 . The tomb is situated close to that of another dwarf , Perniankhu , a high @-@ ranking royal courtier who may have been Seneb 's father . Its date was long uncertain but is now firmly attributed to the reign of Djedefre ( 2528 β 2520 BC ) . His wife 's name also appears in the nearby tomb of an official , Ankh @-@ ib , suggesting that the families of Seneb , Perniankhu and Ankh @-@ ib may have been related . Seneb was apparently buried with his wife , but no trace remains of the bodies , and the tomb was looted long ago , like most of the others at Giza . It was one of the first known attempts at building a ceiling dome over a square chamber , with the dome resting on jutting bricks at the corners of the room .
The rectangular interior of Seneb 's mastaba contained two cult niches with a false door and cavities containing stone chests . Three statues were found within the chests β the painted limestone sculpture of Seneb and his family and two other statues in wood and granite . The wooden one disintegrated when it was discovered but Junker recorded that it had been about 30 cm ( 12 in ) high and depicted Seneb standing with a walking @-@ staff in one hand and a sceptre in the other . The remnants of the wooden statue are now in the Roemer- und Pelizaeus @-@ Museum Hildesheim in Germany , in a very fragmentary state ; the outline of a curled wig can still be made out , as can the pose of the left arm , which was held forward at the elbow . Seneb 's 1 @.@ 5 ton sarcophagus is part of the collection of the Egyptian Museum of the University of Leipzig .
= = Sculpture of Seneb and his family = =
The limestone sculpture of Seneb and his family is part of the collection of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo . It depicts Seneb and his wife sitting next to each other with their children in the lower register . Seneb is depicted sitting cross @-@ legged on a block of stone with his arms folded in a position characteristic of a scribe . His wife Senet sits alongside him , wearing a long robe with long sleeves and a wig covering her natural hair , which can be glimpsed on her forehead . She encircles him with her arms in a gesture of affection and support . She is shown with a slight smile on her face to signify her contentment and happiness .
Two of the couple 's children , one boy and one girl , stand below Seneb where the legs of an ordinary person would be . They are depicted nude with their index fingers placed in their mouths and a lock of hair falling on one side of their heads , indicating that they were below the age of puberty , when Egyptian children were given an " adult " haircut . Seneb and his son are shown with darker skin colouring than his wife and daughter . This was a standard artistic convention used to indicate gender and status , reflecting the fact that high @-@ ranking females would remain indoors and retain a light skin colour while males would gain a darker skin from the hot Egyptian sun . The names of three children are recorded , though the third child was not depicted on the sculpture - presumably for reasons of symmetry . They were named after Seneb 's royal masters ; his son was called Radjedef @-@ Ankh ( " May Radjedef live " ) , his eldest daughter was Awib @-@ Khufu ( " Happy is Khufu " ) and his younger daughter was Smeret @-@ Radjedef ( " Companion of Radjedef " ) . They are depicted with normal proportions , suggesting that they did not inherit their father 's condition .
The sculpture 's roughly cubical arrangement cleverly ensures that the overall composition retains a harmonious equilibrium . It is lightened by the artist dispensing with a back slab and incorporating negative space into the piece . By putting the children in the place of Seneb 's legs , the artist adds to the sense of symmetry . He creates the same impression that would have been made by an ordinary seated figure , preserving an appearance of normality without disguising Seneb 's unusual physique . The family 's names and titles are given in inscriptions placed on either side of the children and on the horizontal face of the base .
Seneb 's dwarfism is depicted realistically in the sculpture . It portrays him with a large head but small arms and legs . This possibly indicates that he had achondroplasia , a common form of dwarfism that most severely affects the fastest @-@ growing parts of the body β particularly the femur and humerus , which become short and squat β and stunts the forearms and lower legs . It also affects the head , producing a relatively large skull with a bulging forehead and often a depressed nasal bridge . An alternative diagnosis is dysmelia β a condition that produces short arms and legs . Seneb 's wife Senites is portrayed far less realistically ; her depiction is of a piece with other contemporary portraits of high @-@ ranking Egyptian women .
= = Role and position = =
Seneb 's name means " healthy " β perhaps given by his mother as a wish for survival when he was a baby . Many Egyptians possessed similar names , not to denote an absence of disease but to convey a positive message of healthiness and vigour .
Dwarfism was not seen as a defect in ancient Egypt , unlike in many other cultures . Egyptian texts advised the acceptance of those with physical or mental disabilities , and there were even two dwarf gods , Bes and Ptah . A number of dwarfs gained prestigious roles and were given lavish burials in proximity to their royal masters . Seneb 's career is documented on his false door and the plinths of his statues , which record twenty titles including " beloved of the lord [ king ] " , " overseer of weaving in the palace " , " overseer of dwarfs " ( presumably indicating that there were others in the palace ) , " overseer of the crew of the ks ship " ( referring to a ceremonial or cult boat ) , " overseer of the jwαΈ₯w " ( possibly referring to animal @-@ tenders ) , and " keeper of the God 's seal of the Wn @-@ αΈ₯r @-@ b3w boat " ( referring to a papyrus bark used in certain festivals ) . His titles suggest that he might have started his career as an official in charge of royal linen and possibly also pets , a role in which other dwarfs are known to have served , and subsequently gained higher @-@ ranking posts in charge of royal or cult boats . Alternatively , he could have been born into a high @-@ ranking family and was given roles appropriate to his birth rank . Seneb also carried out religious rites in his dual role as a priest . He was titled " Priest of Wadjet " , priest of " the large bull which is at the head of SαΉ―pt " and of the bull MrαΈ₯w . He participated in the funeral services for the Pharaohs Khufu , the builder of the Great Pyramid , and his successor Djedefre ( Radjedef ) . His wife Senetites , a woman of normal stature , was likewise a priestess , serving the goddesses Hathor and Neith .
Seneb 's tomb reliefs and the false door of his tomb indicate his wealth and power . Seneb is described as the owner of several thousand cattle and is shown in various scenes of domestic life β being carried in a litter , sailing in a boat in the Nile Delta , or receiving his children . The false door shows Seneb carrying out the standard activities of a high @-@ ranking courtier such as inspecting his linen and cattle , receiving accounts and overseeing his retainers . He is shown wearing kilts and a priestly robe made of panther skin , and carrying symbols of his office such as a sceptre and staff . One relief shows him accompanied by two pet dogs , each captioned with a name . He is depicted using what were evidently custom @-@ made items of furniture , such as low stools and a specially adapted litter with a low back and large side @-@ panels to conceal his legs .
As with the sculpture , Seneb 's size required the creator of the reliefs to make some unusual artistic choices . The standard convention of depicting higher status through physical size was maintained by portraying Seneb as being larger than his retainers , although this was clearly the opposite of the situation that actually existed . On the other hand , he is still shown with the physical characteristics of a dwarf . Unusually for such a relief , his wife is not pictured alongside him but appears separately . This may have been done to avoid the complications that would have arisen from needing to depict the couple 's relative sizes realistically while still portraying Seneb as the larger party , as convention would have dictated . Seneb is also not shown carrying out typical male activities such as hunting , which was presumably impractical for someone of his stature , although one relief shows him pulling on papyrus reeds to guide his boat through the marshes of the Nile Delta .
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= Grief Counseling ( The Office ) =
" Grief Counseling " is the fourth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 32nd overall . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Jennifer Celotta and directed by Roger Nygard , making it Nygard 's only series credit . It first aired on NBC in the United States on October 12 , 2006 .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is overcome with grief when he learns about the death of his former boss Ed Truck . Michael spends the rest of the day attempting grief counseling for the mostly grief @-@ lacking office . Meanwhile , in Stamford Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) embark on a quest for a particular brand of potato chips .
The outdoor scenes were filmed during the summer , although the cast had to pretend like it was in the middle of winter ; this included wearing coats . " Grief Counseling " earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 1 with an 11 percent share in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic and was watched by 8 @.@ 83 million viewers . The episode was viewed favorably by most television critics ; Pam 's pranks and the bird funeral were a particular source of praise , as was Michael 's monologue on the five stages of grief .
= = Synopsis = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is informed by Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) that his former boss Ed Truck has died . Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) and Phyllis Lapin ( Phyllis Smith ) console Michael after he breaks the news to a mostly unmoved staff . Later , Creed Bratton ( Creed Bratton ) tells Michael that Truck , heavily inebriated , was decapitated in a truck accident . Michael summons the staff to a primitive grief counseling session involving a collapsible Hoberman sphere ball , in which Michael tells members of the staff to give stories of deceased love ones . This leads to the staff telling stories about losing loved ones based on death scenes in movies ( Million Dollar Baby , The Lion King , and Weekend at Bernie 's ) with Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) saying he would elaborate more on his story , but it would take about an hour and a half to do it .
Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) tells Michael death is a part of life , and uses an example of a bird that flew into a first @-@ floor window that morning . Michael charges outside , picks up the deceased animal and tries in vain to revive it . Michael schedules a parking lot funeral for the bird . Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) fashions a makeshift coffin and reads a prepared speech that comforts Michael . Pam then proceeds to sing " On the Wings of Love " as Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) accompanies her on his recorder . The coffin is placed in a box of shredded paper and set afire .
Meanwhile , in Stamford , Connecticut , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) gains authority over Karen Filippelli 's ( Rashida Jones ) schedule for the day . When Karen mentions her favorite kind of Herr 's potato chips is missing from the vending machine , Jim tells Karen that they cannot work until they find her chips . The duo spends the rest of the day searching stores and vending machines around town in a vain attempt to find the chips . But at the end of the day , Karen finds a bag of Herr 's on her desk . Jim tells the documentary crew that he traced the chips from the manufacturer to the distributor to the vending machine company to an adjacent office building .
= = Production = =
" Grief Counseling " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jennifer Celotta , and was directed by Roger Nygard , his only episode of The Office to date . In a later interview with Den of Geek , Nygard found that " television episodes are the domain of the writer @-@ producers . You are there to service their vision . The Office is fully scripted , but there 's always a little room to play when it 's warranted . The first cuts are around 45 minutes , so you often have to cut the episodes in half for air . " Though " Grief Counseling " broadcast before the fifth episode , " Initiation " , its filming took place after that episode due to the availability of shooting on Dwight 's fictional beet farm .
The episode 's plot involved the death of former boss Ed Truck , a character who had been played by Ken Howard in the second season episode " The Carpet " . As part of the episode took place outdoors , the cast had to wear coats despite the hot summer weather . Actress Kate Flannery commented in a weekly blog she wrote for TV Guide that " we suffered while shooting the outdoor scenes ... We had to act like it was cold when it was warm . For hours and hours . You would never know it by looking at us . Isn 't that crazy ? " Flannery also wrote , " I love this episode because it 's dark , for a comedy . This time The Office tackles gutsy subject matter . " In her memoir Is Everyone Hanging Out Without Me ? , Mindy Kaling wrote that the episode resulted in the worst disagreement she ever had during her years on the show , where she and Greg Daniels , normally a " very nice " person , disagreed on a story point to the extent that Daniels told her that if " you [ were ] going to resist what I 'm doing here , you can just go home . " Kaling briefly left the set before returning , with no further problems or repercussions noted .
Deleted scenes of the episode were released in the third season DVD . Such scenes included a coworker showing Jim photographs of her baby , Dwight telling everyone to delete their records of Ed Truck , Michael talking about a need for a grief counselor , Toby holding a grief counseling session for the office , and Roy telling Pam of the birth of a cousin 's twins .
= = Reception = =
" Grief Counseling " first aired on October 12 , 2007 on NBC in the United States . It received a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 1 / 11 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 83 million viewers and placed as the 24th most @-@ watched episode for the week in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic .
IGN columnist Brian Zoromski rated " Grief Counseling " 9 @.@ 5 / 10 , an indication of an " amazing " episode . Writing that the opening sequence " excellently set " the tone of the episode , he found a " ton of great moments " , such as Michael 's " totally awkward speeches on Ed Truck 's death " and his conversation with Dwight over a robot statue . Zoromski saved the most praise for Pam and her pranks , particularly her " completely ridiculous bird funeral ... It was all so brilliantly over @-@ the @-@ top it becomes clear that the Scranton office will continue to be enjoyable to watch , as Pam takes over the mocking of the office all on her own , to a hilarious extreme . " AOL TV 's Michael Sciannamea also lauded Pam and her pranks , especially highlighting her actions during the opening sequence and her song during the bird funeral . Sciannamea assumed that " she feels liberated from Roy ( and Jim , to some extent ) [ and ] is allowing her personality and sense of humor to come out even more . " He concluded that it was " another solid episode with Steve Carell at his best . "
Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West expressed praise for an episode that " restored balance and order to our favorite paper @-@ pushers while still nicely forwarding the storylines of TV 's plainest super @-@ non @-@ couple . " West was also pleased " to have Michael back to his usual insanity " , and wrote that Pam " was priceless tonight , from the spot @-@ on reaction shots to the movie @-@ plotlines @-@ as @-@ my @-@ pain gag she started to the almost @-@ believably tender eulogy she delivered for the singing , er , impressionist bird , complete with the most tricked @-@ out pencil @-@ case coffin you 've ever seen . " Television Without Pity graded the episode with a B β . Michael 's monologue about the five stages of grief has also been isolated for praise ; Michael Sciannamea called it " the best line of the night , " and in 2011 , IGN 's Cindy White selected it as one of the series ' best .
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= Miniopterus zapfei =
Miniopterus zapfei is a fossil bat in the genus Miniopterus from the middle Miocene of France . First described in 2002 , it is known only from the site of La Grive M , where it occurs with another fossil Miniopterus species , the smaller and more common Miniopterus fossilis . M. zapfei is known from five mandibles ( lower jaws ) and an isolated fourth upper premolar ( P4 ) . The fourth lower premolar is more slender than in M. fossilis and the cingulum shelf surrounding the P4 is less well @-@ developed than in living Miniopterus . The length of the first lower molar is 1 @.@ 57 to 1 @.@ 60 mm .
= = Taxonomy = =
Miniopterus zapfei was described by Pierre Mein and LΓ©onard Ginsburg in a 2002 paper on the ages and faunas of the fossil sites of La Grive @-@ Saint @-@ Alban in southeastern France . Mein and Ginsburg wrote that it was the second fossil Miniopterus species to be described , after Miniopterus fossilis from Slovakia , but did not mention Miniopterus approximatus from the Pliocene of Poland or Miniopterus tao from the Pleistocene of China . Another fossil species , Miniopterus rummeli , was described from the Miocene of Germany in 2003 . The specific name , zapfei , honors Helmuth Zapfe , who described M. fossilis . Miniopterus also includes about 20 living species of small , insectivorous bats distributed in southern Eurasia , Africa , and Australia . Although the genus was historically placed in the family Vespertilionidae , it is now classified in its own family , Miniopteridae .
= = Description = =
The known material ( hypodigm ) of Miniopterus zapfei includes a mandible ( lower jaw ) with the fourth premolar ( p4 ) , first molar ( m1 ) , and second molar ( m2 ) ; a mandible with m1 ; a mandible with m1 and m2 ; a mandible with m2 and the third molar ( m3 ) ; a mandible without any teeth ; and an isolated fourth upper premolar ( P4 ) . Some of the mandibles also preserve the alveoli ( openings ) for teeth that have not been preserved . The dimensions of the p4 ( length and width ) are 1 @.@ 03 x 0 @.@ 88 mm ; m1 is 1 @.@ 57 to 1 @.@ 60 x 1 @.@ 01 to 1 @.@ 07 mm ; m2 is 1 @.@ 51 to 1 @.@ 64 x 0 @.@ 95 to 1 @.@ 05 mm ; the single m3 is 1 @.@ 41 mm long ; and the single P4 is 1 @.@ 38 x 1 @.@ 52 mm . In a well @-@ preserved mandible , the length from the alveolus for the first incisor to the end of m3 is 8 @.@ 80 mm and the depth of the mandible at m1 is 1 @.@ 50 mm . Miniopterus zapfei can be identified as a Miniopterus on the basis of the possession of three lower premolars ( designated p2 , p3 , and p4 , because the original first premolar has been lost ) ; a two @-@ rooted p3 ; and the nyctalodont molars , with the posterolophid ( a crest at the back of the molar ) behind the entoconid cusp . M. zapfei is about 30 % larger than M. fossilis and has a more slender p4 . Compared to living Miniopterus , the cingulum ( shelf ) that surrounds the P4 is less well @-@ developed and the parastyle crest is weaker .
= = Range and ecology = =
Miniopterus zapfei is known only from the site La Grive M in the village of Saint @-@ Alban @-@ de @-@ Roche , department of Isère , southeastern France . La Grive M is one of several fissure filling sites in the area , collectively known as La Grive @-@ Saint @-@ Alban , which have yielded rich fossil faunas . La Grive M is the reference locality for the MN zone MN 7 / 8 , about 13 to 11 million years ago . La Grive M is one of the older sites of La Grive , and Mein and Ginsburg proposed taking it as the reference locality for a separate zone MN 7 . M. zapfei is rare in La Grive M ; Miniopterus fossilis is much more common in the same site , and has also been found in La Grive L7 and other European localities ranging from MN 6 to MN 13 .
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= Wank Week =
Wank Week was a controversial season of television programming that was due to be broadcast in the United Kingdom by Channel 4 , expected to consist of a series of three documentary programmes about masturbation . However , plans to broadcast it in March 2007 came under public attack from senior television figures , and the planned broadcasts were pulled amid claims of declining editorial standards and controversy over the channel 's public service broadcasting credentials . While Wank Week itself was cancelled , the films it was meant to showcase may yet be broadcast by the channel at a later date .
= = Commissioning and programming = =
The season was commissioned by James Hindle , the channel 's factual entertainment commissioning editor , and announced in July 2006 . It was to consist of three films broadcast in the 11pm slot , headlined by a documentary on mass public masturbation . This kind of programming was not unprecedented : the Channel had previously screened a ' Penis Week ' , reportedly described by MacKenzie as a " success " in a Guardian article . He continued on the subject of Wank Week , " we feel this is exactly the type of provocative and mischievous programming that Channel 4 should be covering in the 11pm slot " In the United Kingdom , the 11pm slot is considered post @-@ watershed , defined by the regulator Ofcom in the Broadcasting Code as later than 9pm ( although transition to more adult material " must not be unduly abrupt at the watershed or after the time when children are particularly likely to be listening " according to section 1 @.@ 6 ) . This allows the broadcasting of more sexually explicit content .
The first show to be announced centred on a Masturbate @-@ a @-@ thon held in Clerkenwell , London in August 2006 . This was a public mass masturbation event organised to raise money for the sexual health charity Marie Stopes International . A press release from Zig @-@ Zag , the independent production company behind the recording of the event , promised that the film would reveal " if the only things allowed to be stiff in Britain are upper lips " . The programme 's working title was Wank @-@ a @-@ thon .
A week later , plans for an as yet unnamed second documentary about compulsive male masturbators were announced , to be produced by the independent company Spun Gold . The film was to be an hour long and focus on men trying to cut down excessive masturbatory habits of up to twenty times a day , using methods developed in the United States . In September 2006 , the final film in the series was announced . Entitled Masturbation For Girls , it was also to be produced by Spun Gold , and focus on female masturbation . It was to feature the sex educationalist Dr Betty Dodson , although the format had yet not been finalised . It was reported after the postponement of their airing that the second and third films were to be entitled I Can 't Stop Wanking and Masturbation for Women respectively .
= = Controversy and cancellation = =
Wank Week was criticised in the prestigious James MacTaggart Memorial Lecture at the 2006 Edinburgh International Television Festival on 25 August , only a month after Channel 4 's initial announcement . Charles Allen , the outgoing Chief Executive of Channel 4 's commercial rival ITV , attacked Channel 4 for deterioration of output and adopting a " begging " approach to finances in the run @-@ up to terrestrial digital switchover ( requesting subsidies for public service output while pursuing a path of commercialism ) . Wank Week 's mention came as part of a critique of programming that Channel 4 was counting towards its " educational " content . Allen joked that he was expecting Wank Week to be included , " but that could be a hard one to pull off even for Channel 4 . " The pun was subsequently repeated in the press .
Criticisms of Wank Week were echoed later in 2006 by Sir Jeremy Isaacs , the first Chief Executive of Channel 4 , in an article for Prospect magazine . Isaacs argued that Channel 4 's increased commercialisation led to a targeting of the 16- to 34 @-@ year @-@ old audience , and the subsequent " obsession with adolescent transgression and sex " could be seen in programming such as Designer Vaginas , The World 's Biggest Penis and Wank Week .
Although these public attacks led to reports of concern in Channel 4 management , postponement of Wank Week did not take place until early February 2007 , only a month before its planned screening . There had been a major racism controversy during January 's Celebrity Big Brother contest , and the launch of Wank Week raised the prospect of further embarrassment at a critical time : Ofcom was reviewing the channel 's finances ahead of the digital switchover , with the continued nature of Channel 4 's existence as a state @-@ owned but advertisement @-@ funded public service broadcaster at stake . Broadcast magazine reported that several senior figures at Channel 4 had felt uncomfortable about Wank Week , including deputy chairman David Puttnam and chairman Luke Johnson , although they had originally not intended to formally object . The atmosphere following the Celebrity Big Brother racism row was suggested to have influenced the decision .
According to the media section of The Guardian , the films commissioned for Wank Week are likely to be broadcast at a later date , but probably not as part of a dedicated season of programming , and certainly not under the Wank Week banner . Dan Wootton , senior reporter at Broadcast , criticised the decision , calling it " wimpy " . Contrasting it with the way that Channel 4 executives had been prepared to defend Celebrity Big Brother , he concluded they had acted hypocritically .
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= New York State Route 360 =
New York State Route 360 ( NY 360 ) was an east β west state highway located in northwestern Monroe County , New York , in the United States . It extended for 4 @.@ 87 miles ( 7 @.@ 84 km ) through the town of Hamlin from an intersection with NY 272 at the Monroe β Orleans county line to a junction with NY 19 north of the hamlet of Hamlin . NY 360 intersected the former southern terminus of NY 215 1 @.@ 50 miles ( 2 @.@ 41 km ) east of the county line at its northern junction with Redman Road . Most of NY 360 passed through rural areas ; however , the easternmost portion of the route was located in a residential neighborhood that comprises the northernmost portion of the hamlet of Hamlin .
The highways that NY 360 followed were originally improved to state highway standards in the 1900s and 1910s and first designated as part of NY 18 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . By the following year , the NY 360 designation was assigned to what is now NY 18 between NY 272 and NY 19 . The alignments of NY 18 and NY 360 between those two routes were flipped c . 1933 . Ownership and maintenance of NY 360 was transferred from the state of New York to Monroe County on November 26 , 2007 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . NY 360 overlapped with four different county routes at various points along its routing until the route was officially deleted as a touring route in February 2012 .
= = Route description = =
NY 360 began at an intersection with NY 272 at the Monroe β Orleans county line in the town of Hamlin . The route proceeded east on Morton Road , passing through a lightly populated area and crossing a pair of tributaries that feed into Yanty Creek . After 1 @.@ 50 miles ( 2 @.@ 41 km ) , Morton Road ended at an intersection with Redman Road . This junction was once the southern terminus of NY 215 ; however , it is now merely a junction between two county @-@ maintained routes . NY 360 turned south here to follow Redman Road for 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before resuming its eastward progression on Church Road .
Like on Morton Road before it , the portion of Church Road that is part of NY 360 was sparsely populated , save for a portion of the road near its junction with Lake Road West Fork . Roughly halfway between Redman Road and Lake Road West Fork , NY 360 passed over Sandy Creek . At Lake Road West Fork , NY 360 veered southeast . As NY 360 continued along the roadway , the amount of development increased as the route approached of the hamlet of Hamlin . North of the hamlet 's center , NY 360 met NY 19 ( Lake Road East Fork ) at a Y @-@ shaped intersection . NY 360 ended here , and NY 19 continued southward into Hamlin as Lake Road .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and designation = = =
On September 20 , 1907 , the state of New York let a contract for a project to improve Church Road , the section of Redman Road north of Church Road , and the portion of Lake Road West Fork between Church Road and Lake Road to state highway standards . The project was completed by mid @-@ 1909 , and the highways , collectively inventoried as State Highway 286 ( SH 286 ) , were added to the state highway system on July 20 , 1909 . On June 8 , 1915 , the state awarded another contract to bring Morton Road up to state highway standards . Work on the road , internally designated as SH 1282 , was completed that year , allowing for the highway to be added to the state highway system on December 8 , 1915 . The first set of posted state routes in New York were assigned in 1924 ; however , no designations were assigned to either of the aforementioned highways at this time .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , several of the routes assigned during the 1920s were renumbered or modified . At the same time , hundreds of state @-@ maintained highways that did not yet have a route number were assigned one . This included both SH 1282 and the section of SH 286 south of Morton Road as both became part of NY 18 , a highway that was extended eastward from Buffalo to Rochester as part of the renumbering . At the time , NY 18 entered the hamlet of Morton on Kenmore Road and followed Morton , Redman , and Church Roads and Lake Road West Fork into Hamlin , where it overlapped with NY 63 ( modern NY 19 ) south along Lake Road to rejoin its modern alignment at Hamlin Center Road . By the following year , NY 360 was assigned to what is now NY 18 between NY 272 and Lake Road ( then @-@ NY 63 ) in Hamlin . The alignments of NY 18 and NY 360 between Morton and Hamlin were flipped c . 1933 , placing both highways on their modern routings .
= = = Transfer of maintenance = = =
In 2007 , ownership and maintenance of NY 360 was transferred from the state of New York to Monroe County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . A bill ( S4856 , 2007 ) to enact the swap was introduced in the New York State Senate on April 23 and passed by both the Senate and the New York State Assembly on June 20 . The act was signed into law by Governor Eliot Spitzer on August 28 . Under the terms of the act , it took effect 90 days after it was signed into law ; thus , the maintenance swap officially took place on November 26 , 2007 .
As a result of the change in maintenance , NY 360 became part of four unsigned county routes . On Morton Road , NY 360 was co @-@ designated as County Route 279 ( CR 279 ) . The portion on Redman Road was part of CR 236 , which extends from NY 31 west of Brockport to Cook Road near the Lake Ontario State Parkway . The section of NY 360 on Church Road overlapped with CR 277 . Finally , the part of NY 360 on Lake Road West Fork was concurrent with CR 234 , which extends north past NY 360 to Moscow Road ( CR 211 ) . All four overlaps were eliminated when the NY 360 designation was officially removed in February 2012 , and the NY 360 shields were removed by June of that year .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Hamlin , Monroe County .
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= Star Wars Headspace =
Star Wars Headspace is an electronic music compilation album executively produced by Rick Rubin and Kevin Kusatsu . It compiles electronic dance tracks of acts including Claude VonStroke , Flying Lotus and RΓΆyksopp . It featured sound effects and samples from the Star Wars films , but does not contain any sample of John Williams ' soundtrack for the series . Hollywood Records and American Recordings released Star Wars Headspace in digital forms on February 19 , 2016 and in physical forms on March 18 , to decent commercial performance , beginning at number one on the United States Billboard Dance / Electronic Albums chart and becoming the second various artists compilation to top the chart . However , it also garnered a mixed response from music critics , praise going towards its eccentric concept and criticism that it would likely only be enjoyed by fans of the film series .
= = Composition = =
Star Wars Headspace is a compilation album of electronic dance music featuring sound effects and samples from the Star Wars films . Musicians Rick Rubin and Kevin Kusatsu , who executively produced the album , gave the producers files of these sounds , but were also instructed by Lucasfilm to not sample any of John Williams ' score from the films . Flying Lotus , who said that he was proud of being a part of the project , felt that the concept made sense given that the sounds used in the Star Wars would be a precursor of what was yet to come in electronic music . Therefore , he felt " close " to the sounds he was using to reflect the universe of the films .
Critic Jonah Bromwich analyzed that the beginning half of Star Wars Headspace consists of the producers sampling from the movie while making music in their common style , making it feel like " obvious tribute material " . The first track , Kaskade 's " C @-@ 3P0 's Plight " , represents Star Wars ' humor and C @-@ 3PO 's melodramatic character aspect , featuring sounds of Wookiee 's roar and shots from a Blaster weapon . Rubin 's house remix of " Jabba Flow " , a composition by J.J. Abrams and Lin @-@ Manuel Miranda used in Star Wars : The Force Awakens , is the fifth track on the compilation , which is followed by Claude VonStroke 's " R2 Knows " , featuring vocals from Barry Drift and described in a review by Pitchfork Media as a silly anthem similar to releases from Todd Terje . Another track by Rubin , " NR @-@ G7 " , has many samples such as R2 @-@ D2 blips playing over a " driving " four on the floor instrumental with " dazzling jet @-@ stream " synthesizers . However , Bromwich also wrote that the later songs on the track list focus less on the artists making music in their typical trend and more on replicating what made John Williams score so great . Consequence of Sound 's Derek Staples noted Norwegian duo RΓΆyksopp 's β Bounty Hunters β to be less of a bright song and more of a dark synthwave track than their usual material . " Sunset Over Manaan " by ATTLAS , a producer signed under the label mau5trap , has a melody reminiscent of " Leia 's Theme " , and has a more " cinematic " atmosphere than his previous work . The record closes with " Star Tripper " by French producer Breakbot , a downtempo funk song featuring orchestration reflecting the neo @-@ romantic aspect of Williams ' soundtrack .
= = Promotion and release = =
On February 8 , 2016 , the release date and cover art of Star Wars Headspace was announced , and pre @-@ ordering of the record began . That same day , Beats 1 , an Apple Music radio show by New Zealand DJ and producer Zane Lowe , promoted the compilation with an interview with Flying Lotus about his involvement , as well as premiering three tracks , " Cantina Boys " , " NR @-@ G7 " and " R2 Where R U ? " ; the latter song was a " World Record " premiere . " Help Me ! " was released on Beats 1 a day later , while on February 18 the channel Freeform premiered " Force " shortly before the album 's midnight release . Hollywood Records issued the album in digital form on February 19 , 2016 , followed by a physical release on March 18 . Selling 3 @,@ 000 copies in the United States on its first Billboard chart week , Star Wars Headspace topped the Dance / Electronic Albums chart , the first various artists compilation to do so on the chart since 2008 's High School Musical 2 : Non @-@ Stop Dance Party . It also landed at number 197 on the nation 's Billboard 200 and at number eight on the magazine 's Compilation Albums chart . In the United Kingdom , the album landed on the Official Charts Company 's UK Dance Albums Charts at number twenty and number twenty @-@ two on the Official Charts Company 's Soundtrack Albums Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Critical response to Star Wars Headspace was mixed , holding a weighted mean of a 48 out of 100 on the site Metacritic based on seven reviews . Drew Mcweeny reviewed it for One Thing I Love Today , his daily column on HitFix which is meant to highlight certain aspects of modern @-@ day popular culture . He honored the compilation 's concept of a EDM Star Wars tribute as funny : " I 'm not sure how long I 'll listen to it , because in the end , it 's still an hour or so of EDM , but it was a delightful soundtrack to a busy weekend , and all of the small surprises built into it should make it something that any Star Wars fan will be able to easily enjoy . " A correspondent for The Boston Globe wrote that it was much better than he expected it to be , giving all credit to the producers who contributed to the compilation . Los Angeles Times critic Randall Roberts spotlighted the distinguishing characteristic of each song . Bromwich , who wrote a review for Pitchfork Media , scored the release a 6 @.@ 9 out of ten , highlighting the record 's goal of just being " simple fun " and " Neither [ a ] stale tribute nor sloppy lovefest " . At the same time , however , he also disliked that the nostalgic style was seemingly " a way of avoiding risk " .
The album also garnered numerous mixed reviews that felt that it would only be enjoyed by fans of the franchise ; Staples described the tracks as " musical fan fiction ready for both celestial dance floors and distant forgotten landscapes " , while Jon Dolan , reviewing for Rolling Stone magazine , rated it two and a half stars out of five , feeling that many of the producers involved with the project didn 't experiment enough with the concept that it was " hard to get beyond timid fanboy reverence . " The harshest review came from Sam Goldner of Tiny Mix Tapes , who bashed the album as a major contributing factor to " the nasty details , the blemishes , the facts of this world that truly corrupt our collective sense of well @-@ being and hope " in regards to how the Star Wars franchise has been marketed .
= = Track listing and credits = =
All tracks mastered by Vlado Meller with assistance from Jeremy Lubsey .
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies an additional producer not credited as the main artist
= = Charts = =
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= Hugo von Pohl =
Hugo von Pohl ( 25 August 1855 β 23 February 1916 ) was a German admiral who served during the First World War . He joined the Navy in 1872 and served in various capacities , including with the new torpedo boats in the 1880s , and in the Reichsmarineamt ( Imperial Navy Office ) in the 1890s . He eventually reached the rank of Vizeadmiral and held the position of Chief of the Admiralty Staff in 1913 . He commanded the German High Seas Fleet from February 1915 until January 1916 . As the commander of the surface fleet , he was exceedingly cautious , and did not engage the High Seas Fleet in any actions with the British Grand Fleet . Pohl was an outspoken advocate of unrestricted submarine warfare , and he put the policy into effect once he took command of the fleet on 4 February 1915 . Seriously ill from liver cancer by January 1916 , Pohl was replaced by Reinhard Scheer that month . Pohl died a month later .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early career = = =
Hugo von Pohl was born in Breslau , Prussian Silesia , on 25 August 1855 . He entered the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) as a cadet in April 1872 . At the age of 24 , Pohl was promoted and given command of the sailing corvette SMS Carola . In the 1880s , he served with then @-@ KorvettenkapitΓ€n Alfred von Tirpitz in his so @-@ called " Torpedo Gang " , which advocated a greater emphasis on torpedo boats in the German fleet . Pohl took command of the spar torpedo vessel Ulan , an early , experimental torpedo boat , in 1882 . Two years later , in late September 1884 , he was involved in an experiment with new torpedo boat designs from Schichau , Thornycroft , AG Vulcan , and AG Weser ; Pohl commanded one of the Schichau boats . During the exercises , Pohl 's boat collided with the boat commanded by August von Heeringen . The former 's boat sprung a leak , while the latter 's rudder was damaged , but both safely returned to port .
By the 1890s , Pohl had been transferred to the Reichsmarineamt ( Imperial Navy Office ) , where he would again work with Tirpitz after the latter was appointed as the State Secretary of the Navy . In 1900 , Pohl was assigned to the fleet that was sent to China to help suppress the Boxer Rebellion . While in China , he commanded the protected cruiser SMS Hansa , which bombarded the Taku Forts . In May of that year , Pohl was promoted to KorvettenkapitΓ€n . He was promoted to the rank of Konteradmiral in 1906 . Thereafter he served as the commander of the reconnaissance forces of the German fleet . Pohl was promoted again , to Vizeadmiral , in January 1913 . That year , he was elevated to the nobility and , in April , became the Chief of the Admiralty Staff , a position he would hold for two years .
As Chief of the Admiralty Staff , Pohl was involved in the German deliberations during the July Crisis in the aftermath of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian terrorists the previous month . Pohl , Helmuth von Moltke , the Chief of the German General Staff , and Theobald von Bethmann @-@ Hollweg , the Chancellor , met the Kaiser after the monarch returned from a cruise to Norway with the bulk of the High Seas Fleet . Pohl and the others were present at several meetings with the Kaiser , which ultimately produced the " blank check " Wilhelm II extended to Austria @-@ Hungary ; this decision ultimately helped to push Europe into the First World War by the end of the month .
= = = First World War = = =
At the outbreak of war , Pohl , along with Georg von MΓΌller , the Chief of the Imperial Naval Cabinet , and Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet , believed that since the war would be over quickly , the fleet should be preserved intact . Together , they agreed that the fleet should be restrained to provide local defense of the German coast , rather than seek a decisive battle against the numerically superior British Grand Fleet . Pohl argued that U @-@ boats should be used to attack British merchant shipping . He pushed for fewer restrictions on the conduct of the commerce war beginning in late 1914 ; he further advocated abandoning the cruiser rules that handicapped the German effort , in favor of unrestricted submarine warfare . He presented his first plans for an unlimited commerce war in November 1914 , but these were rejected by the Kaiser and Bethmann @-@ Hollweg so as not to antagonize neutral nations , in particular the United States .
After the Battle of Dogger Bank , Pohl replaced Ingenohl as commander of the High Seas Fleet ; throughout his tenure as its commander , Pohl adopted a very cautious strategy in order to preserve the strength of the fleet . Pohl was a controversial choice to replace Ingenohl , in large part owing to his caution with the employment of the surface fleet . Two days after taking command , on 4 February 1915 , Pohl gave the order to use unrestricted submarine warfare against the Allies ; he had managed to convince Bethmann @-@ Hollweg by falsely promising him that U @-@ boat commanders could distinguish between enemy and neutral steamers , and thus avoid provoking the United States . The policy was short @-@ lived , however , as on 7 May 1915 , the U @-@ boat U @-@ 20 torpedoed and sank the passenger liner RMS Lusitania , causing a diplomatic crisis with the United States . To avoid drawing America into the war , Germany reinstated restrictions on the U @-@ boat fleet .
Aboard his flagship , SMS Friedrich der Grosse , Pohl conducted a series of short operations into the North Sea over the course of 1915 . None of these operations ventured outside of the southern end of the North Sea , and the fleet never encountered any British forces . Pohl became seriously ill from liver cancer on 8 January 1916 and was taken to a hospital ship . He was subsequently moved to Berlin for surgery . He was relieved of command due to his poor health on 23 January ; his replacement as fleet commander was Reinhard Scheer . Pohl died a month later , on 23 February . Shortly before his death , he was awarded the Order of the Red Eagle with oak leaves and swords for his command of the fleet . In 1920 , Pohl 's widow Ella published some of his papers in an effort to defend his reputation from postwar criticisms .
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= Unser Mund sei voll Lachens , BWV 110 =
Unser Mund sei voll Lachens ( May our mouth be full of laughter ) , BWV 110 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the Christmas cantata in Leipzig for Christmas Day and first performed it on 25 December 1725 .
Bach composed the cantata in his third year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig . He used a text by Georg Christian Lehms , which was published already in 1711 . The text has no recitatives alternating with arias , but instead three biblical quotations , opening with verses from Psalm 26 , then a verse from the Book of Jeremiah about God 's greatness , and finally the angels ' song from the Nativity according to the Gospel of Luke . The closing chorale is taken from Caspar FΓΌger 's " Wir Christenleut " .
Bach scored the work festively for four vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of trumpets and timpani , transverse flutes , different kinds of oboe , strings and basso continuo including bassoon . He derived the first chorus , in the style of a French overture , from the overture to his fourth Orchestral Suite , embedding vocal parts in its fast middle section . The song of the angels is based on the Christmas interpolation Virga Jesse Floruit of his Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a . He chose obbligato instruments to differentiate the character of the three arias : two flutes with the tenor expressing the " lowly birth " , oboe d 'amore with the alto , representing God 's love , and trumpet , oboes and strings with the bass for his call to sing songs of joy together . Bach led the Thomanerchor in the first performances on Christmas Day , one in the Nikolaikirche and one in the Thomaskirche .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata in his third year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig for Christmas Day , the first day of a Christmas celebration which lasted for three days . The prescribed readings for the feast day were from the Epistle of Titus , " God 's mercy appeared " ( Titus 2 : 11 β 14 ) or from Isaiah , " Unto us a child is born " ( Isaiah 9 : 2 β 7 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the Nativity , Annunciation to the shepherds and the angels ' song ( Luke 2 : 1 β 14 ) .
In 1723 , his first year in Leipzig , Bach had composed no new cantata for Christmas Day , but revived Christen , Γ€tzet diesen Tag , BWV 63 , on a text of free poetry without any biblical or chorale content . That year , he composed new works for the second and third feast day . In 1724 , his second year , he composed three chorale cantatas for the three feast days , beginning with Gelobet seist du , Jesu Christ , BWV 91 . In his third year , Bach used a cantata text by Georg Christian Lehms , which was published already in 1711 in Darmstadt in the collection GottgefΓ€lliges Kirchen @-@ Opffer . The librettist began with a quotation of two verses from Psalm 126 which deals with the hope for delivery of Jerusalem , " When the Lord turned again the captivity of Zion , we were like them that dream . " , and the joyful reaction ( Psalms 126 : 2 β 3 ) . The poet included for a recitative a verse from the Book of Jeremiah , praising God 's greatness ( Jeremiah 10 : 6 ) , and he quoted from the Christmas story in the Gospel of Luke the singing of the angels ( Luke 2 : 14 ) . In this early text , three biblical quotations alternate with arias . The closing chorale is the fifth stanza of Caspar FΓΌger 's hymn " Wir Christenleut " .
Bach led the Thomanerchor in the first performance in the morning of Christmas Day in the Nikolaikirche , repeated in the afternoon in the Thomaskirche . He led at least one more performance between 1728 and 1731 .
Some Bach scholars believed that the cantata was written in 1734 for the end of the War of the Polish Succession , but the discovery of the printed text showed that it was not related . The cantata was not published until 1876 when it appeared in the Bach Gesellschaft Ausgabe , the first complete edition of the composer 's works .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements . An opening chorus and a closing chorale frame a sequence of arias , a recitative and a duet . Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) , bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of three trumpets and timpani ( Ti ) , two transverse flutes ( Ft ) , three oboes ( Ob ) ( also oboe d 'amore and oboe da caccia ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo including bassoon . The heading of the original parts reads : " J.J. Feria 1 Nativitatis Xsti . Concerto. a 3 Trombe , Tamburi . 3 Hautb . / BaΓon . 2 Violini e Viola , 4 Voci Γ¨ Continuo . " , which means " Jesus help . First feast day of the birth of Christ . Concerto for 3 trumpets , timpani , 3 oboes , bassoon , 2 violins and viola , 4 voices and continuo " . The duration is given as 27 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred DΓΌrr , using the symbols for common time ( 4 / 4 ) and alla breve ( 2 / 2 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
In 1725 , Bach typically composed alternating recitatives and arias in his cantatas , both on contemporary poetry . The text for this work is in an older style , with biblical texts interspersed with arias . Bach followed it , using different musical forms for the biblical quotations . The opening chorus on psalm verses is an adaptation of his overture to his fourth Orchestral Suite in D major , BWV 1069 . The duet " Ehre sei Gott in der HΓΆhe " is based on the Christmas interpolation Virga Jesse floruit from Bach 's Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a , of 1723 , performed for his first Christmas in Leipzig .
= = = 1 = = =
The opening chorus is " Unser Mund sei voll Lachens " ( May our mouth be full of laughter ) . It calls for all instruments to perform . The text " concludes with acknowledgement that the Lord has achieved great things for his people " . Bach based the music on the overture to his fourth Orchestral Suite in D major , adding festive trumpets and timpani as well as flutes to the original music and embedding the voices . He followed the format of the French overture by instrumental slow sections framing the fast choral section . The French overture , normally played upon the arrival of the king to a performance , seemed suitable to greet the King of Heaven . The laughter mentioned in the text is " often made quite graphically audible " , as the Bach Scholar Alfred DΓΌrr words it . When Bach performed the work again later , he marked some vocal sections as " ripieno " , achieving even more variety in the " concerto " . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage , interprets it as Bach 's vote against a strict one voice per part concept . He chose this cantata in one of three Christmas concerts to conclude the endeavour of a full year , and notes the first movement 's " marvellous rendition of laughter @-@ in @-@ music " and " innate elegance and lightness of touch " .
= = = 2 = = =
A tenor aria , " Ihr Gedanken und ihr Sinnen " ( You thoughts and musings ) , is accompanied by two transverse flutes . DΓΌrr interprets the choice of the flutes as a symbol for the " lowly birth " .
= = = 3 = = =
A bass recitative , " Dir , Herr , ist niemand gleich " ( There is no one like You , Lord ) , is accompanied by the strings , which accompany the expressive line of the bass voice by " upward @-@ pointing gestures " .
= = = 4 = = =
The alto aria , " Ach Herr , was ist ein Menschenkind " ( Ah , Lord , what is a human being ) , is accompanied by a solo oboe d 'amore that " expresses wonder about the nature of man " and God 's interest in him . The aria , as the first one , is not a da capo aria , but in two parts . The idea of man in a sinful condition which is presented first , is changed to redemption . The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann relates the choice of the oboe d 'amore to the answer to the singer 's question " Why do you do all this for man ? " : " Aus Liebe " ( through love ) .
= = = 5 = = =
The duet " Ehre sei Gott in der HΓΆhe " ( Glory to God in the highest ) , combines two high voices over a simple continuo accompaniment , singing of God 's glory in the highest and peace on Earth . The music is based on the Virga Jesse floruit from the Magnificat , changing the vocal lines to the different text but retaining the " essentially lyrical character " . Gardiner notes that " goodwill towards men " is expressed in pastoral style , with the voices in parallels of tenths .
= = = 6 = = =
The bass aria " Wacht auf , ihr Adern und ihr Glieder " ( Awaken , veins and limbs ) , is a final call to wake up and join the praise of the angels . Trumpet and oboe add to energetic music . The oboes double the strings or rest , for more dynamic effect . Virtuoso passages in the trumpets are reminiscent of the first movement . The first triad call of the trumpet is of martial character , and imitated by the voice . When the text refers to the strings , the winds have a rest .
= = = 7 = = =
The closing chorale , " Alleluja ! Gelobt sei Gott , " ( Alleluia ! Praise be to God ) , is a four @-@ part setting of the tune by an anonymous composer . Bach set the same tune again to close Part III of his Christmas Oratorio with another stanza fromthe hymn , " Seid froh , dieweil " ( Be glad , therefore ) .
= = Selected recordings = =
The listing is taken from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly marked as large by red background ; instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green under the header Instr ..
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= Hasvik Airport =
Hasvik Airport ( Norwegian : Hasvik lufthavn ; IATA : HAA , ICAO : ENHK ) is a regional airport serving Hasvik Municipality in Finnmark county , Norway . The airport is located in the village of Hasvik on the island of SΓΈrΓΈya . In 2012 , Hasvik Airport had 7 @,@ 629 passengers , making it the third @-@ least busy airport operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor . The airport consists of a 909 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 982 ft ) runway and is served by WiderΓΈe with Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft .
Planning started in 1972 for an airport to serve air taxi and air ambulance services . The original 421 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 381 ft ) gravel runway opened on 17 May 1973 , allowing Norving to operate flights with their Britten @-@ Norman Islanders . The airport was upgraded with a longer runway and a larger terminal in 1983 , allowing Norving to start scheduled services to Alta and Hammerfest . WiderΓΈe took over the routes in 1990 , at first using the de Havilland Canada Twin Otter . The runway was asphalted in 1995 , allowing WiderΓΈe to introduce the Dash 8 . The airport was nationalized two years later .
= = History = =
The first aircraft in Hasvik was an emergency landing carried out en route to Svalbard in the early 1970s . The plain where the aircraft landed , located near the village , became the site of the airport . The regional airline Norving took the initiative in 1972 to construct a simple airfield at Hasvik ; they hoped to finance along with the municipality , the National Insurance Administration and the local chapter of the Norwegian Red Cross Search and Rescue Corps . In addition to being able to operate an air taxi service and land air ambulances , locals hoped that the construction would be a first step to becoming part of the state @-@ financed construction of regional airports in Finnmark . However , Hasvik was not selected as one of the original regional airports .
The initial airport consisted of a 421 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 381 ft ) gravel runway and a spartan terminal consisting of no more than a shack . The airport opened on 17 May 1973 and Norving started an air taxi service using the eight @-@ passenger Britten @-@ Norman Islander . Grants of 3 @.@ 5 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) were issued from the state in 1981 , which was supplemented with funding from Norving , the National Insurance Administration , Kommunalbanken and local interests . The new facilities opened in early 1983 , consisting of a larger terminal and control tower and a lengthening of the runway β although it retained the gravel surface . The upgrades cost NOK 5 @.@ 8 million ; they allowed Norving to operate a daily scheduled taxi route to Hammerfest and Alta , and for the first time Hasvik was able to receive same @-@ day newspapers . The flights corresponded with Scandinavian Airlines System 's Oslo @-@ flights at Alta Airport .
Norving operated at the airport until 1990 , when the route was taken over by WiderΓΈe , who initially used the de Havilland Canada Twin Otter . The Ministry of Transport and Communications announced in February 1993 that they were considering taking over ownership and operations of the airport through the Civil Aviation Administration ( CAA , later renamed Avinor ) . Along with BΓ₯tsfjord Airport and VardΓΈ Airport , Svartnes , Hasvik Airport was one of three regional airports in Finnmark with government @-@ subsidized routes which did not receive state operating grants . In December WiderΓΈe articulated that Hasvik Airport did not meet the demands for future operation as it lacked proper instruments and did not have an asphalt runway . WiderΓΈe stated that with the introduction of the Dash 8 they would no longer be able to serve the airport . Additional navigation aids were installed in 1993 and the runway was asphalted in 1995 , subsequently resulting in Dash 8 services being introduced . The state and the Civil Aviation Administration took over ownership and operations of the airport from 1 January 1997 . The runway lights were upgraded in 2008 and 2009 , followed by the installation of the Global Positioning System @-@ based landing system SCAT @-@ I.
Avinor wants to extend most short airports to 1200 m by year 2030 , because they see a lack of aircraft types which have more than 19 seats able to use 800 @-@ meter runways . Dash 8 built after 2009 can 't use them . Few countries apart from Norway have such short airports . There is however no room for this at Hasvik , so the plan here and for some other airports with few passengers , is to use small planes with less than 20 seats .
= = Facilities = =
Hasvik Airport has a simple terminal building with a capacity for 20 passengers per hour . It has a 909 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 982 by 98 ft ) asphalt runway aligned 11 / 29 . The tarmac has a place for one airliner . There is a harbor southeast of the runway which limits any expansion . The airport is located two minutes drive from the village center ; free parking is available .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
The airport is served by WiderΓΈe , who operates flights based on a public service obligation contract with the Ministry of Transport and Communications . All flights are operated using 39 @-@ seat Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft . Flights are flown to TromsΓΈ and Hammerfest and can continue to other villages and towns in Finnmark . In 2014 the airport served 7 @,@ 629 passengers , 1 @,@ 272 aircraft movements and handled 0 @.@ 2 tonnes of cargo . Hasvik is the third @-@ least busy airport operated by Avinor , ahead of BerlevΓ₯g Airport and Fagernes Airport , Leirin .
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= Robert P. Letcher =
Robert Perkins Letcher ( February 10 , 1788 β January 24 , 1861 ) was a politician and lawyer from the US state of Kentucky . He served as a U.S. Representative , Minister to Mexico , and the 15th Governor of Kentucky . He also served in the Kentucky General Assembly where he was Speaker of the House in 1837 and 1838 . A strong supporter of the Whig Party , he was a friend of Henry Clay and John J. Crittenden .
Letcher 's family came to Kentucky around 1800 . Letcher attended the private academy of Joshua Fry , then studied law . He was briefly a judge advocate in John Allen 's volunteer militia during the War of 1812 . He began his political career in 1813 , representing Garrard County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . In 1823 , he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives , where he served for more than a decade . During the 1824 presidential election , he acted as an intermediary between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay . Adams ' opponent , Andrew Jackson , charged that , through these negotiations , Clay agreed to support Adams for president in exchange for being named Secretary of State .
In 1840 , Letcher was chosen as the Whig nominee for governor of Kentucky over William Owsley . In the general election , Letcher won by landslide over Judge Richard French . Letcher 's fiscally conservative policies helped Kentucky recover from the financial Panic of 1837 . By the end of his term , the state was experiencing budget surpluses and state banks had resumed specie payments . After Letcher left office , he was appointed Minister to Mexico by President Zachary Taylor . Following this , he made an attempt to return to the U.S. House , but was defeated by Democrat John C. Breckinridge . Letcher 's defeat in Henry Clay 's home district was a strong indication of the decline of Whig influence in Kentucky . Though he remained active in politics , Letcher never again sought public office . He died on January 24 , 1861 .
= = Early life = =
Robert Perkins Letcher was born in Goochland County , Virginia , on February 10 , 1788 . He was seventh of twelve children born to Stephen Giles and Betsy ( Perkins ) Letcher . The family moved to Kentucky about 1800 , first living at Harrodsburg , then settling in Garrard County . For a time , Letcher attended the common schools of the area , but he was dismissed for being unruly . He studied the trade of masonry , though not very enthusiastically , at his father 's brickyard .
Letcher enrolled in Joshua Fry 's private academy near Danville , Kentucky , faring better under Fry 's instruction than he had in the common schools , and gained a sound education . Following his instruction at Fry 's academy , he returned to his father 's brickyard , where tradition holds that he helped build the state 's first governor 's mansion alongside future governor Thomas Metcalfe . He then read law in the office of Humphrey Marshall , was admitted to the bar , and commenced practice in Lancaster , Kentucky . He briefly served as a judge advocate in Colonel John Allen 's volunteer militia during the War of 1812 .
Letcher first married Susan Oden Epps . Epps died on March 9 , 1816 and did not bear any children . Following the death of his first wife , Letcher married Charlotte Robertson , sister of George Robertson , a congressman and future chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals . Historian Jennie Morton records that Letcher referred to his second wife as " the queen " . No children were born as a result of this marriage , but the couple raised one of their nieces from childhood . Charlotte Letcher survived her husband , and died October 29 , 1879 .
= = Political career = =
Nicknamed " Black Bob " , Letcher was known as a witty and gregarious campaigner . He was also known to distract audiences at his opponents ' campaign speeches by playing a fiddle . His political career began in 1813 when he was elected to represent Garrard County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He served until 1815 , and after a respite of one term , was re @-@ elected in 1817 .
= = = In the House of Representatives = = =
Letcher was elected as a Democratic Republican to the Eighteenth Congress in 1823 . He represented the state 's fourth district until 1833 , when the General Assembly conducted a redistricting of the state . After the redistricting , Garrard County became part of the fifth district .
Letcher was a friend and ardent supporter of Henry Clay . When no candidate gained a two @-@ thirds majority of the electoral vote in the 1824 presidential election , the outcome fell to a vote of the House of Representatives . In the political wrangling that followed , Letcher served as an intermediary between Clay and John Quincy Adams . Eventually , Clay 's supporters threw their support behind Adams , reportedly in exchange for Clay 's being named Secretary of State . Andrew Jackson called the alleged deal the " corrupt bargain " .
Letcher supported Adams ' administration , but became anti @-@ administration when Jackson won the 1828 presidential contest . Consistent with his support of Clay , he promoted expansion of internal improvements , including the Maysville Road bill vetoed by Jackson . In 1833 , Clay proposed a compromise in the Senate to quell the Nullification Crisis ; Letcher introduced Clay 's compromise in the House .
In the 1833 election , Thomas P. Moore challenged Letcher for the fifth district 's seat in the House of Representatives . Moore had previously represented the counties in the fifth district ( Garrard excepted ) , and had just returned from a four @-@ year stint as U.S. minister to Grenada . The vote was so close that the House refused to seat either candidate and ordered a new election . Letcher won the new election by 258 votes . During this term , he served on the Committee on Foreign Affairs . He did not seek re @-@ election at the end of his term .
In 1836 , Letcher served as a presidential elector on the Whig ticket He returned to the Kentucky House later that year , and was re @-@ elected every year until 1838 . Each of these years , he sought to become Speaker of the House . In 1836 , he was defeated by incumbent speaker John L. Helm by a vote of 45 β 48 . The following year , there was a three @-@ way contest for speaker between Letcher , Helm , and James Turner Morehead . After nine ballots , Helm withdrew from the race , and Letcher defeated Morehead 50 β 48 . The next year , Letcher was re @-@ elected to the post without opposition .
= = = As governor of Kentucky = = =
The Whigs ' state nominating convention was held in Harrodsburg on August 26 , 1839 . Four candidates were initially put forward for the office of governor , but two withdrew from consideration , leaving the contest between Letcher and Judge William Owsley . Letcher won the nomination by a vote of 48 β 26 . In the general election , Letcher defeated his Democratic opponent , Judge Richard French , by a majority of over 15 @,@ 000 votes ( out of 95 @,@ 020 cast ) . The Whigs also captured large majorities in both houses of the state legislature .
Just weeks after Letcher 's inauguration , William Henry Harrison prevailed in the 1840 presidential election . Soon after , Harrison visited Letcher in Frankfort to discuss the appointment of Letcher 's friend John J. Crittenden to Harrison 's cabinet . On December 14 , 1840 , Letcher wrote Crittenden to tell him that the General Assembly would shortly re @-@ elect him to his Senate seat . If he ( Crittenden ) were going to accept a position in President Harrison 's cabinet , Letcher would prefer he do it before March 4 , 1841 so the General Assembly would still be in session to elect Crittenden 's replacement in the Senate . On January 11 , 1841 , Crittenden replied that he expected to be named attorney general and believed he could accept the post before Letcher 's preferred deadline . However , due to Harrison 's death only a month after his inauguration , Crittenden was not able to keep Letcher 's timeline ; he was appointed attorney general by John Tyler on March 5 , 1841 .
For the first half of Letcher 's term , the state was still struggling to recover from the financial Panic of 1837 . Consistent with his Whig views , Letcher blamed the crisis on the federal government 's failure to recharter the Second Bank of the United States . To ameliorate the state 's dire financial situation , Letcher drastically cut spending , including the suspension of turnpike construction and improvements on the Green , Kentucky , and Licking rivers . These actions greatly reduced the state 's deficit and improved its credit . In each of Letcher 's years in office , the state showed a small but growing budget surplus .
Although Letcher generally opposed debt relief measures , he did allow the passage of some minor legislation to aid those most in danger of foreclosure on their property . In 1842 , legislation was passed that expanded the types of personal property that were exempted from foreclosure . The next year , the General Assembly eliminated the summer terms of the circuit courts , effectively delaying some foreclosure hearings . Letcher also encouraged banks to make new small loans , and the legislature followed suit by moderately increasing the credit extended by state banks . As the state 's economy recovered , its banks resumed specie payments . State bonds increased in value . By the end of Letcher 's term , Kentucky had weathered the worst of the economic crisis .
In one of his final acts as governor , Letcher proclaimed the first thanksgiving day in Kentucky on September 26 , 1844 . After leaving office , he resumed his law practice in Frankfort . In 1847 , he was one of four contenders for a seat in the U.S. Senate . The other contenders consisted of two fellow Whigs and a Democrat . After twenty @-@ eight ballots , no winner emerged , and Letcher 's supporters withdrew his name and nominated Joseph R. Underwood , who eventually won the seat .
= = = As a diplomat to Mexico = = =
Letcher was a strong supporter of Whig candidate Zachary Taylor in the 1848 presidential election . When Taylor won the election , Letcher 's friend John J. Crittenden recommended Letcher for the post of postmaster general ; Taylor declined this suggestion , but instead appointed Letcher as the United States envoy and minister to Mexico . Letcher arrived in Mexico City on February 3 , 1850 .
Letcher 's primary responsibility was negotiating a treaty to protect the interests of some American citizens who had purchased the rights to construct a line of transit on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . He submitted a rough draft of the treaty to Mexican officials in March 1850 . After nearly three months of negotiation , Letcher signed a modified treaty on June 22 , 1850 . Among the modifications were a provision that tolls on Mexican @-@ produced goods transported on the route would be twenty @-@ percent less than those of United States goods and an increase in the authority exercised by Mexico in protecting the route . Letcher wrote to Secretary of State John M. Clayton that the treaty fell short of what he had hoped for , but that he believed that its provisions were the best that could be obtained .
A month after Letcher signed the treaty , Clayton was replaced as Secretary of State by Daniel Webster . In response to concerns raised by one of the Americans hoping to construct the line of transit , Webster asked that Letcher attempt to obtain certain modifications to the treaty . Letcher brought these modifications to the Mexican diplomats , but they steadfastly refused to accept them . Letcher , speaking with the blessing of the administration , intimated that the United States would take the region by force if the requested concessions were not made . The Mexican government conceded that they would not be able to resist such action , but still refused to accept the modifications to the treaty .
Upon learning of the strong Mexican resistance to his proposed modifications , Webster instructed Letcher to negotiate the most favorable terms to which the Mexicans would agree . On January 25 , 1851 , Letcher signed a second treaty that was slightly more favorable to the Americans . During the time it had taken both sides to negotiate the treaty , however , public sentiment in Mexico had turned decidedly against any form of treaty with the United States regarding Tehuantepec . On May 22 , 1851 , the Mexican government declared the agreement with the American investors null on grounds that the provisional government which granted it did not have the right to do so . Letcher attempted to negotiate a new treaty to re @-@ acquire the rights nullified by the Mexican government , but by February 14 , 1852 , he reported that he did not expect to be able to reach any kind of agreement . He returned home in August 1852 .
= = = Later political career = = =
On returning to Kentucky , Letcher resumed his legal practice . While he was away in Mexico , the congressional seat of Kentucky 's Eighth District was won by Democrat John C. Breckinridge . Known as the " Ashland district " because it contained Henry Clay 's Ashland estate and much of the territory he once represented , it was a Whig bastion that hadn 't been represented by a Democrat since 1828 . Whigs were eager to avenge the loss in 1853 , and Letcher wanted to be their candidate , but at their state convention , they chose Kentucky Attorney General James Harlan . The nomination was not well @-@ received among some Whig factions ; Harlan withdrew in March 1853 , and Letcher was chosen to replace him .
Letcher first met Breckinridge in debate at Nicholasville on April 18 , 1853 . As the incumbent , Breckinridge spoke first and focused on political issues like contrasting the higher revenue generated by the Democratic Walker tariff with that produced by the higher Tariff of 1842 favored by the Whigs . Letcher , as he did for much of the campaign , responded by appealing to party loyalty ; Breckinridge would misrepresent the district , he claimed , " because he is a Democrat " . While Breckinridge was typically well composed in debate , Letcher would often become angry . On one occasion , Letcher so frequently attempted to interrupt Breckinridge that John J. Crittenden grabbed him by the coat tails to restrain him . Breckinridge supporters derisively nicknamed Letcher " Coat Tails " for the remainder of the campaign .
When Letcher 's factional enemy , abolitionist Cassius Marcellus Clay , endorsed Breckinridge , Letcher charged that this , combined with the abolitionist views of Breckinridge 's uncle , Reverend Robert Jefferson Breckinridge , proved that Breckinridge was secretly an abolitionist , despite his consistent denial that Congress had the power to interfere with that institution . Breckinridge responded by citing newspaper accounts of an 1848 campaign speech Letcher had made in Indiana on behalf of Zachary Taylor . In the speech , he predicted that the constitutional convention then under way in Kentucky would produce a document that contained provisions for gradual emancipation , noting " It is only the ultra men in the extreme South who desire the extension of slavery . "
Both candidates received financial support from outside the district , some of which was used to buy votes or bribe voters to stay home . Breckinridge received several thousand dollars , with a substantial amount coming from Washington , D.C. banker William Wilson Corcoran ; estimates of Letcher 's support ranged from $ 30 @,@ 000 to $ 100 @,@ 000 . Breckinridge won the canvass by 526 votes and received 71 % of the vote in Owen County , which recorded 123 more votes than registered voters .
Letcher was considered the strongest Whig candidate in the state , and his inability to win the seat was a harbinger of the ultimate failure of the Whig Party in Kentucky . His loss to Breckinridge would be his last run for public office , though he remained active in politics until his death . During the 1856 presidential election , Letcher spoke on behalf of Millard Fillmore in Pennsylvania , New York , and Kentucky . In 1857 and 1858 , he urged John J. Crittenden to oppose the Lecompton Constitution for Kansas .
After the dissolution of the Whig Party , Letcher generally supported Know @-@ Nothing candidates in state politics . Letcher and Crittenden both supported National Union candidate John Bell in the 1860 presidential election , believing he represented the best hope of peacefully resolving the tension between the north and south . By election day , his health was beginning to fail . He died at his home in Frankfort on January 24 , 1861 , and was buried in Frankfort Cemetery . Letcher County , Kentucky is named in his honor .
|
= History of the National Hockey League ( 1917 β 42 ) =
The National Hockey League ( NHL ) was founded in 1917 following the demise of its predecessor league , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . In an effort to remove Eddie Livingstone as owner of the Toronto Blueshirts , a majority of the NHA franchises ( the Montreal Canadiens , Montreal Wanderers , Ottawa Senators and Quebec Bulldogs ) suspended the NHA and formed the new NHL . Quebec , while a member , did not operate in the NHL for the first two years . Instead the owners of the Toronto Arena Gardens operated a new Toronto franchise . While the NHL was intended as a temporary measure , the continuing dispute with Livingstone led to the four NHA owners meeting and making the suspension of the NHA permanent one year later .
The NHL 's first quarter @-@ century saw the league compete against two rival major leagues , the Pacific Coast Hockey Association and Western Canada Hockey League , for players and the Stanley Cup . The NHL first expanded into the United States in 1924 with the founding of the Boston Bruins , and by 1926 consisted of ten teams in Ontario , Quebec , the Great Lakes region , and the Northeastern United States . At the same time , the NHL emerged as the only major league and the sole competitor for the Stanley Cup .
The game itself continued to evolve during this time . Numerous innovations to the rules and equipment were put forward as the NHL sought to improve the flow of the game and make the sport more fan @-@ friendly . The NHL played with six men to a side rather than the traditional seven , and was among the first leagues to allow goaltenders to leave their feet to make saves . The NHL 's footprint spread across Canada as Foster Hewitt 's radio broadcasts were heard coast @-@ to @-@ coast starting in 1933 .
The Montreal Forum and Maple Leaf Gardens were built , and each played host to All @-@ Star benefit games held to raise money to support Ace Bailey and the family of Howie Morenz in Toronto and Montreal , respectively . Both players ' careers had ended due to an on @-@ ice incident , with Morenz eventually dying , a month after he sustained his initial injury . These early NHL All @-@ Star games would lead to the annual All @-@ Star games which continue today .
The Great Depression and World War II reduced the league to six teams by 1942 . Founding team Ottawa , and expansion teams New York Americans , Montreal Maroons and Pittsburgh Pirates / Philadelphia Quakers passed from the scene . Expansion team Detroit Falcons declared bankruptcy in 1932 and only survived through a merger with the Chicago Shamrocks of the American Hockey League and the pockets of prosperous owner James Norris to become the Detroit Red Wings . Desperate conditions in Montreal meant that the city nearly lost both of its teams in the 1930s ; the Canadiens nearly moved to Cleveland , but survived due to its stronger fan support . The six teams left standing in 1942 ( the Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers and Toronto Maple Leafs ) are known today as the " Original Six " .
= = Background = =
The first attempts to regulate competitive ice hockey matches came in the late 1880s . Before then , teams competed in tournaments and infrequent challenge contests that prevailed in the Canadian sports world at the time . In 1887 , four clubs from Montreal ( the Montreals , the Crystals , the Victorias , and McGill University ) and the Ottawa HC ) formed the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada ( AHAC ) and developed a structured schedule . Lord Stanley donated the Stanley Cup and appointed Sheriff John Sweetland and Philip Dansken Ross as its trustees ; they chose to award it to the best team in the AHAC , or to any pre @-@ approved team that won it in a challenge . Since the Cup carried an air of nobility , its prestige greatly benefited the AHAC .
The coordination and regularized schedule that the AHAC brought helped commercialize amateur ice hockey , which ran against the spirit of the prevailing amateur ethic . As the importance of winning grew , AHAC clubs began recruiting players from outside , and the disparity in skill between teams of the AHAC and those of other leagues became clearer . Since team owners in the AHAC wanted to defend the Stanley Cup and maintain the organization 's honour , and rink owners wanted senior hockey as their marquee attraction , AHAC clubs became increasingly reluctant about admitting new teams into the league and the senior series . When the relatively weak Ottawa Capitals joined in 1898 , the five original clubs withdrew from the AHAC to form the new Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) . In 1903 , four new teams created the Federal Amateur Hockey League ( FAHL ) , and in 1904 , the International Hockey League ( IHL ) , based in both Sault Ste . Maries , the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , and Pennsylvania , was created as the first fully professional league . The IHL 's ability to pay salaries caused an " Athletic War " that drained amateur clubs of top players , most noticeably in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) .
By the 1905 β 06 season , several of the FAHL and CAHL markets were overcrowded ; Montreal alone had seven clubs . To solve the problem , the leagues merged into the new Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) , which kept four of the Montreal clubs . The new league mixed paid and amateur players in its rosters , which led to the demise of the IHL . With the IHL gone , teams from Toronto , Berlin ( now Kitchener ) , Brantford , and Guelph filled the void with the Ontario Professional Hockey League ( OPHL ) . Bidding wars for players led many ECAHA teams to lose money , and before the 1907 β 08 season , the Montreal Victorias and the Montreal HC left . The ECAHA dropped " Amateur " from its name for the 1909 season , and on November 25 , it folded . Ottawa HC , Quebec HC , and the Montreal Shamrocks founded the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) , and the league later admitted the Montreal Le National and All @-@ Montreal HC . Rejected CHA applicants formed the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) .
When compared to the CHA , the geographical distances between NHA teams were much greater ; however , the NHA 's financial backers were more notable businessmen . These businessmen applied financial principles similar to those of early baseball , and the leagues quickly entered a bitter bidding war over players . In particular , after being rejected from the CHA , Renfrew aggressively pursued any players that the CHA 's Ottawa club wanted . Montreal became a notable battleground as the NHA established two franchises , including the modern @-@ day Montreal Canadiens . With its significantly wealthier backers , the NHA easily recruited the top players , leaving the CHA teams , except Ottawa , relatively mediocre . Ottawa regularly trounced its opponents , and league attendance and interest dropped . The CHA 's final season lasted eight games , and the league folded in 1910 , as its Ottawa and Montreal clubs joined the NHA .
= = Founding = =
In the 1916 β 17 season , the NHA was facing numerous problems . The Quebec Bulldogs were in financial difficulty , while the league 's most popular team , the Toronto 228th Battalion , was called away to fight in World War I. Several of the league 's team owners were growing frustrated with Toronto Blueshirts owner Eddie Livingstone , with whom they had been having problems since 1915 . Prior to the start of the season , the owners of the Montreal teams , Sam Lichtenhein of the Wanderers and George Kennedy of the Canadiens , threatened to drop the Blueshirts from the league over a player dispute Livingstone was having with the 228th Battalion . Livingstone was also in a dispute with the Ottawa Senators over the rights to Cy Denneny , while Kennedy and Livingstone had a mutual dislike that occasionally threatened to come to blows at league meetings .
The remaining owners used the loss of the 228th Battalion as a reason to eliminate the Blueshirts on February 11 , 1917 . The Montreal teams led a motion to reduce the NHA to four teams by removing the Blueshirts , ignoring Livingstone 's attempts to create a revamped five @-@ team schedule . Livingstone was promised that his players would be returned to him after the season . The dispersal of the Blueshirts ' players , organized by league secretary Frank Calder , was described by the Toronto Mail and Empire as a " raid of the Toronto players " . At the same meeting , the league adopted a motion commanding Livingstone sell the Blueshirts by June 1 .
By November 1917 , with the sale of Livingstone 's Blueshirts still not completed , the remaining owners , realizing they were powerless under the NHA constitution to forcibly eject Livingstone , decided to suspend the NHA and form a new league without Livingstone . On November 26 , 1917 , following several meetings of the NHA owners throughout the month , the National Hockey League was created at the Windsor Hotel in Montreal . The new league was represented by Lichtenhein 's Wanderers , Kennedy 's Canadiens , Tommy Gorman on behalf of the Senators , and Mike Quinn of the Bulldogs . A new team in Toronto , under the control of the Toronto Arena Company , completed the five @-@ team league . The NHL adopted the NHA 's constitution and named Calder its first president . Quebec retained membership in the NHL , but did not operate that season , so their players were dispersed by draft among the other teams .
= = = Minutes of the first meeting = = =
At a meeting of representatives of hockey clubs held at the Windsor Hotel , Montreal , November 22nd , 1917 [ , ] the following present [ , ] G.W. Kendall , S.E. Lichtenhein , T.P. Gorman , M.J. Quinn and Frank Calder , it was explained by the last named that in view of the suspension of operations by the National Hockey Association of Canada Limited , he had called the meeting at the suggestion of the Quebec Hockey Club to ascertain if some steps could not be taken to perpetuate the game of Hockey .
Frank Calder was elected to the Chair and a discussion ensued after which it was moved by T.P. Gorman , seconded by G.W. Kendall [ : ] " That the Canadien , Wanderer , Ottawa and Quebec Hockey Clubs unite to comprise the National Hockey League " . The motion was carried .
It was then moved by M.J. Quinn seconded by G.W. Kendall that : " This League agrees to operate under the rules and conditions governing the game of hockey prescribed by the National Hockey Association of Canada Limited " . The motion was carried .
At this stage , Mr. W.E. Northey , representing the Toronto Arena Company asked to be admitted to the meeting and was admitted . Mr. Northey explained that he was empowered by the interests he represented to say that in the event of a league being formed to contain four clubs , the Toronto Arena desired to enter a team in the competition .
Upon this assurance M.J. Quinn on behalf of Quebec Hockey Club declared the latter willing to withdraw provided a suitable arrangement could be made regarding players then the property of the Quebec Hockey Club .
After discussion it was unanimously agreed that the Quebec players be taken over by the league at a cost of $ 700 ( Seven Hundred Dollars ) of which amount 50 % should be paid to the Quebec Hockey Club by the club winning the championship , 30 % by the second club and 20 % by the third club in the race ....
The meeting then proceeded to the election of officers . The following directors were elected S.E. Lichtenhein ( Wanderers ) , Martin Rosenthal ( Ottawa ) , G.W. Kendall ( Canadiens ) and a director to be named by the Toronto club .
M.J. Quinn was elected Honorary President with power to vote on matters pertaining to the general welfare of the league .
Frank Calder was elected President and Secretary @-@ Treasurer at a salary of $ 800 ( Eight Hundred Dollars ) on the understanding that there could be no appeal from his decisions ....
The NHL was intended to be a temporary league , as the owners hoped to remove Livingstone from Toronto , then return to the NHA in 1918 β 19 . Livingstone had other ideas , filing lawsuits against the new league , the owners and the players in an attempt to keep his team operating . Nonetheless , the NHL began play three weeks after it was created , with the first games held on December 19 in Ottawa and Montreal .
= = Early years = =
The NHL 's first superstar was " Phantom " Joe Malone . A two @-@ time NHA scoring champion , Malone scored five goals for the Montreal Canadiens in a 7 β 4 victory over the Ottawa Senators on the NHL 's opening night . Malone went on to record a league @-@ leading 44 goals in 20 games in 1917 β 18 . He again led the NHL in scoring in 1919 β 20 , scoring 39 goals in 24 games with Quebec . During that season , on January 20 , 1920 , Malone scored seven goals in one game against the Toronto St. Patricks , a record that still stands today . Malone was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1950 .
The first goal in NHL history was scored by Dave Ritchie of the Montreal Wanderers one minute into a 10 β 9 win over Toronto , which was the only victory the Wanderers recorded in the NHL . On January 2 , 1918 , a fire destroyed the Montreal Arena , home to both the Wanderers and the Canadiens . While the Canadiens relocated to the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Jubilee Arena , Lichtenhein chose to withdraw the Wanderers , citing the lack of available players due to the war . The NHL continued on as a three @-@ team league until Quebec returned to it in 1919 .
In its first years , the NHL continued the NHA 's split season format . The first @-@ half champion Canadiens fell to the second @-@ half champion Toronto team in the 1918 playoffs for the O 'Brien Cup by a combined score of 10 β 7 in a two @-@ game , total goals series . The victory gave Toronto the right to face the Pacific Coast Hockey Association 's champion , the Vancouver Millionaires , in the Stanley Cup final . The Torontos defeated Vancouver to become the first NHL team to win the Cup .
The Canadiens won the NHL championship over the Senators in 1918 β 19 , and traveled west to meet the PCHA 's champion , the Seattle Metropolitans . The series is best remembered for its cancellation with the series tied at two wins , two losses , and a tie ( 2 β 2 β 1 ) due to the Spanish flu pandemic . Several players from both teams became ill , prompting health officials in Seattle to cancel the sixth , and deciding , game . Canadiens defenceman Joe Hall died as a result of the flu on April 5 , 1919 .
Meanwhile , defending champions Toronto finished in last place in both halves of the 1918 β 19 season . On February 20 , 1919 , Toronto informed the league that it was withdrawing from competition . The NHL avoided being reduced to two teams for 1919 β 20 when the team was reorganized as the Toronto St. Patricks . The Quebec franchise also returned , ( known for the season as the Quebec Athletic Club ) increasing the league to four teams . The Quebec club posted a 4 β 20 record in 1919 β 20 , despite the return of Malone . It was the franchise 's final season in Quebec City , relocating to Hamilton , Ontario , in 1920 to become the Hamilton Tigers .
Throughout , Livingstone continued to try to revive the NHA , convening league meetings on September 20 and December 11 , 1918 , which representatives of the Canadiens , Senators and Wanderers determined to close out the expired league for good .
= = = Competition with the WCHL = = =
Beginning in 1921 , the NHL faced competition from a third major league , the prairie @-@ based Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) . With three leagues competing for talent , ice hockey players were among the highest @-@ paid athletes in North America . They commanded salaries equivalent to the top Major League Baseball players of the era . The WCHL only survived for six seasons , merging with the PCHA in 1924 , but challenged the NHL for the Stanley Cup four times . In the 1923 Stanley Cup Finals , the Senators defeated the Edmonton Eskimos after eliminating the PCHA 's Vancouver Millionaires . In 1924 , the Canadiens defeated the PCHA 's Millionaires and the WCHL 's Calgary Tigers on the strength of two shutouts by Georges Vezina and a strong offensive showing by rookie forward Howie Morenz .
In 1924 β 25 , the Hamilton Tigers finished first in the NHL after four consecutive last @-@ place finishes . While the Canadiens and St. Patricks prepared to play in a semi @-@ final playoff round , the Tigers ' players , upset that the team had turned a sizable profit despite claiming financial difficulty , went on strike to demand a C $ 200 playoff bonus each . Threatened with fines , suspension and a possible lawsuit by league president Frank Calder , the players , led by Billy Burch and Shorty Green , held firm . Calder then suspended the entire team and declared Montreal the NHL champions after they defeated Toronto in the semi @-@ final .
The Canadiens faced the Victoria Cougars , then of the WCHL , in the 1925 Stanley Cup Finals . Victoria defeated Montreal three games to one in the best @-@ of @-@ five final . In doing so , they became the last non @-@ NHL team to win the Stanley Cup . The WCHL ceased operations one year later , with its assets purchased by the NHL for $ 300 @,@ 000 . The rights to the Tigers ' players , meanwhile , were purchased for $ 75 @,@ 000 by New York mobster Bill Dwyer to stock his expansion New York Americans . The Americans began play in 1925 , replacing the Tigers .
= = 1920s expansion = =
The NHL grew to six teams in 1924 , adding a second team in Montreal , the Maroons , and the first American team , the Boston Bruins . The Bruins were purchased by Charles Adams , a grocery store financier who first developed an interest in hockey during the Stanley Cup playoffs , paying $ 15 @,@ 000 for the team . The Maroons were created to replace the Wanderers and to appeal to the English population of Montreal . The first NHL game played in the United States was a 2 β 1 Bruins victory over the Maroons at the Boston Arena on December 1 , 1924 , at an ice hockey venue which still exists today , and is used in the 21st century for American college hockey and other indoor collegiate sports .
The Montreal Forum , which in later decades became synonymous with the Canadiens , was built in 1924 to house the Maroons . The Canadiens did not move into the Forum until two years later . The Forum hosted its first Stanley Cup final in its second year , as the Maroons defeated the WCHL 's Victoria Cougars in the 1926 Stanley Cup Finals , the last time a non @-@ NHL team competed for the Cup .
The New York Americans began play in 1925 along with the NHL 's third American @-@ based team , the Pittsburgh Pirates . Three more teams were added for the 1926 β 27 season . Tex Rickard , operator of the then @-@ new , 1925 @-@ completed Madison Square Garden , had reluctantly allowed the Americans into his arena the year before . However , the Americans were so popular in New York he felt his arena could support a second team . As a result , the New York Rangers were granted to Rickard on May 15 , 1926 . In November of that year , the league announced that the cities of Detroit and Chicago would get teams . Detroit purchased the assets of the Victoria Cougars to stock the expansion Detroit Cougars . The players of the Portland Rosebuds were sold to coffee tycoon Frederic McLaughlin for his new Chicago Black Hawks team . The three new franchises brought the NHL to ten teams .
The Rangers reached the 1928 Stanley Cup Finals , in just their second season , against the Maroons . Lorne Chabot was injured early in the second game of the series , leaving the Rangers without a goaltender . As the Maroons were unwilling to allow the Rangers to substitute a goaltender watching from the Montreal Forum stands , Rangers coach Lester Patrick was forced into goal himself . A defenceman during his playing days , the 44 @-@ year @-@ old Patrick allowed only one goal on 19 shots as the Rangers won the game in overtime , 2 β 1 . The Rangers signed New York Americans goaltender Joe Miller the next day , and went on to capture the Stanley Cup in five games .
= = Conn Smythe and the Toronto Maple Leafs = =
= = = Livingstone 's court battles = = =
Throughout the NHL 's first decade , Eddie Livingstone continued to press his claim to the Toronto franchise in court . On October 18 , 1923 , the Supreme Court of Ontario awarded Livingstone $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages . St. Patricks owner Charlie Querrie made numerous attempts to prevent Livingstone from collecting on his awards . In 1923 , he transferred the ownership of his team to his wife , Ida , making her the first female owner in ice hockey history . The $ 100 @,@ 000 award was later reduced to $ 10 @,@ 000 by the Ontario Court of Appeal , causing Livingstone to appeal to the highest court in the British Empire , the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London , England ; the court denied his claim .
Despite the reduced awards , the Querries found the pressures of meeting their obligations to Livingstone too great and , as a result , placed the St. Patricks up for sale in 1927 . On February 14 , 1927 , the St. Patricks were sold to a group represented by Conn Smythe for $ 160 @,@ 000 despite a potentially greater offer from a Philadelphia @-@ based group . Among the first moves Smythe made was to rename his team the Toronto Maple Leafs .
When Smythe bought the Leafs , he promised that the team would win the Stanley Cup within five years . To that end , Smythe wanted to bring in a star player to help his team . In 1930 , with the Senators struggling financially due to the Great Depression , they put King Clancy up for sale . Smythe 's partners could only offer $ 25 @,@ 000 for Ottawa 's defensive star , one @-@ half of Ottawa 's asking price . In an attempt to raise money , Smythe entered a thoroughbred racing horse he owned , Rare Jewel , in the Coronation Futurity Stakes at odds of 106 β 1 . Rare Jewel won the race , earning Smythe over $ 15 @,@ 000 . Smythe then acquired Clancy for $ 35 @,@ 000 and two players worth $ 15 @,@ 000 , which was an unprecedented price to pay for one player . It was also the only race Rare Jewel ever won .
= = = " Smythe 's Folly " = = =
Smythe also envisioned building a new shrine for his team . He described it as " a place where people can go in evening clothes , if they want to come there for a party or dinner ... a place that people can be proud to bring their wives or girlfriends to " . Smythe purchased a piece of land at the corner of Church and Carlton Streets from the Eaton 's department store chain for $ 350 @,@ 000 . Skeptics argued that Smythe would never get the arena built , nor fill it , as the Depression was in full swing . They referred to the arena plan as " Smythe 's Folly " . To help fund the arena , the Leafs convinced construction workers to accept 20 % of their wages in shares in the arena . Just 4 Β½ months after breaking ground , Maple Leaf Gardens opened on November 12 , 1931 . Many in the sold @-@ out crowd of over 13 @,@ 000 wore evening clothes in response to Smythe 's stated goal in building the arena . In 1932 , five years after Smythe 's promise , the Leafs won the Stanley Cup in three games over the Rangers .
Maple Leaf Gardens also featured the famous " gondola " , a broadcast booth specially constructed for Foster Hewitt . Hewitt began broadcasting hockey games in 1923 on CFCA , a radio station owned by his father , W. A. Hewitt . It was an assignment he initially did not want . Smythe supported the broadcast of Leafs games in contrast of other team owners , who feared that airing games on the radio would cut into gate receipts . By 1931 , Hewitt had established himself as the voice of hockey in Canada with his famous catchphrase : " he shoots , he scores ! " On January 1 , 1933 , Leafs ' broadcasts were first heard across Canada on 20 stations of the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission ( today the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ) . Hewitt 's broadcasts quickly attracted audiences of over one million listeners . The broadcasts were a precursor to Hockey Night in Canada , a Saturday night tradition that continues today .
= = = Ace Bailey benefit game = = =
On December 13 , 1933 , Bruins defenceman Eddie Shore , in a daze following what he thought was a check by Toronto 's Ace Bailey , charged the latter player from behind , flipping Bailey into the air and causing him to suffer a severe skull fracture after he landed on his head . The check was so vicious that Bailey was given the last rites before being transported to the hospital in Boston . Neurosurgeons operated throughout the night to save his life ; however , Bailey 's prognosis was so grim that morning papers printed his death notice . Bailey survived , but he never played professionally again . Shore ultimately served a 16 @-@ game suspension for the hit , and avoided being charged with manslaughter had Bailey died .
To raise money for Bailey 's recovery , Maple Leaf Gardens hosted the Ace Bailey All @-@ Star Benefit Game on February 14 , 1934 . The Maple Leafs defeated an all @-@ star team of players from the rest of the league 7 β 3 while raising over $ 20 @,@ 000 . Prior to the game , the Leafs announced that no Toronto player would ever wear Bailey 's # 6 again , marking the first time in NHL history that a team retired a player 's jersey number . Before the game , each player came out and shook Bailey 's hand as they received their all @-@ star jersey . The last player to do so was Eddie Shore . The crowd , which had fallen silent as Shore approached , erupted into loud cheering as Bailey extended his hand towards his attacker . Elmer Ferguson described the moment as " the most completely dramatic event I ever saw in hockey " .
= = Great Depression = =
While Smythe was building Maple Leaf Gardens , several other teams were facing financial difficulty . At the end of the 1929 β 30 season , the Pittsburgh Pirates were US $ 400 @,@ 000 in debt and relocated to Philadelphia , to become the Philadelphia Quakers . The Quakers lasted only one season before suspending operations in 1931 , along with the Ottawa Senators . The Quakers never returned , but Ottawa resumed operations in 1932 β 33 . The Senators continued to struggle , and despite a promise by Calder in 1934 that the Senators would never leave " hockey 's birthplace of Canada " , the team was nonetheless transferred south to become the St. Louis Eagles . The Eagles played only one year in St. Louis before asking for permission to suspend operations . The league refused , and instead bought and dissolved the team . The Eagles ' players were dispersed amongst the remaining teams . It was announced that the NHL would be an eight @-@ team league in 1935 β 36 .
That summer , the Canadiens ' franchise was for sale , after posting losses of $ 60 @,@ 000 over the previous two seasons . Over forty thousand families and 150 @,@ 000 individuals were receiving social assistance in Montreal . Owners Leo Dandurand and Joseph Cattarinich held negotiations with A. C. Sutphin to sell the club and move it to Cleveland . Just before the season , a syndicate of local Montreal businessmen , led by Maurice Forget and Ernest Savard , stepped forward to buy the club and prevent the transfer .
= = = Howie Morenz = = =
At the same time , the league reduced its salary cap to $ 62 @,@ 500 per team , and $ 7 @,@ 000 per player . Several well @-@ paid star players were traded as teams attempted to fit under the cap . The biggest name was Montreal 's Howie Morenz , a three @-@ time Hart Trophy winner , two @-@ time scoring leader and the face of the Canadiens organization . Drawing only 2 @,@ 000 fans per game in an arena that held 10 @,@ 000 , Canadiens owner LΓ©o Dandurand sent his star to the Black Hawks . The Montreal fans voiced their opinion of the deal by giving Morenz a standing ovation when he scored against the Canadiens on the last day of the 1935 season . Less than two seasons later , Morenz was traded back to Montreal after a brief time playing for the Rangers .
On January 28 , 1937 , Morenz 's skate caught on the ice while he was being checked by Chicago 's Earl Seibert ; he broke his leg in four places . On March 8 , Morenz died of a coronary embolism . Morenz 's teammate AurΓ¨le Joliat had a different explanation of his death : " Howie loved to play hockey more than anyone ever loved anything , and when he realized that he would never play again , he couldn 't live with it . I think Howie died of a broken heart . " On the day of his funeral , 50 @,@ 000 people filed past Morenz 's casket at centre ice of the Montreal Forum to pay their last respects to the man the media called " the Babe Ruth of hockey " . A benefit game held in November 1937 raised $ 20 @,@ 000 for Morenz 's family as the NHL All @-@ Stars defeated the Montreal Canadiens 6 β 5 . Morenz was one of the first players elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame when it was created in 1945 .
= = = Chicago 's " All @-@ American " team = = =
In the mid @-@ 1930s , Black Hawks owner and staunch American nationalist Frederic McLaughlin commanded his general manager to compile a team of only American players . At the time , Taffy Abel was the only American @-@ born player who was a regular player in the league . The Black Hawks hired Major League Baseball umpire Bill Stewart to be the first American coach in NHL history . They were led in goal by Minnesotan Mike Karakas , one of eight Americans on the 14 @-@ man roster . The 1937 β 38 Black Hawks " All @-@ American " team won only 14 of 48 games , finishing third in the American division . In the playoffs , however , the Hawks upset the Canadiens and the Americans to reach the Stanley Cup Final against the heavily favoured Maple Leafs .
In the first game of the final , the Hawks were forced to use minor @-@ league goaltender Alfie Moore after Karakas suffered a broken toe . Moore led the Hawks to a 3 β 1 victory before being ruled ineligible to play the rest of the series by the NHL . After Chicago lost game two , Karakas returned wearing a steel @-@ toed boot and led the Hawks to victories in games three and four , and the Stanley Cup . The 1938 Black Hawks remain the only team in NHL history to win the Stanley Cup despite a losing regular @-@ season record .
= = = Six @-@ team league = = =
In the 1942 Stanley Cup Finals , the heavily favoured Maple Leafs initially found themselves unable to counter the fifth @-@ place Red Wings ' strategy of firing the puck into the offensive zone then chasing after it , losing the first three games of the final as a result . Jack Adams ' " dump @-@ and @-@ chase " tactic led Leafs goaltender Turk Broda to declare the Wings " unbeatable " . Toronto rebounded , however , winning the final four games , and the Stanley Cup . The 1942 Leafs remain the only team in NHL history to come back from a 3 β 0 deficit to win a championship series .
In financial difficulty , and unable to compete with the Canadiens for fan support in Montreal , the Maroons suspended operations prior to the 1938 β 39 season after being denied permission to relocate to St. Louis . Six Maroons players were transferred to the Canadiens while three were sold to the Black Hawks . The Americans , also struggling in New York and under the control of the league , were turned over to Red Dutton in 1940 with orders to improve the club 's finances . By 1942 , 90 players had left the NHL for active duty during World War II . Continuing to struggle financially , and due to a lack of players , the Americans were suspended prior to the 1942 β 43 season . Thus began what became known as the " Original Six " era of the National Hockey League .
= = Rules and innovations = =
The 1920s saw numerous rule innovations as the sport evolved . The Ottawa Senators won three Stanley Cups in the early 1920s using strong defence , and the goaltending of Clint Benedict , who recorded a record five shutouts in a 24 @-@ game season in 1921 . The Senators employed a strategy where they kept both defencemen and a forward in their own zone at all times after they gained a lead . After the Senators ' third championship in 1924 , Frank Calder made it illegal for more than two players to be in their defensive zone if the puck was not .
Defence continued to dominate the game , however , as in 1928 β 29 , the league averaged less than three goals per game . Canadiens goaltender George Hainsworth set what remains a league record with 22 shutouts in only 44 games . As a result , the league allowed the use of the forward pass in all zones beginning in 1929 . Previously , forward passing was allowed only in the defensive and neutral zones . The change saw offence rise to 6 @.@ 9 goals per game over the first third of the season as players began to park themselves on their opponent 's goal crease . The league responded by introducing the offside rule early in the 1929 β 30 season , barring offensive players from entering their opponent 's zone before the puck . Despite this , Cooney Weiland , Dit Clapper and Howie Morenz all broke the 40 @-@ goal mark , the first players to do so since Joe Malone scored 44 in the NHL 's first season .
Boston Bruins governor , Charles Adams had long disliked the defensive tactic of shooting the puck the length of the ice ( " icing " ) to relieve pressure . After the New York Americans iced the puck 61 times in a 3 β 2 win in Boston during the 1936 β 37 season , Adams promised that he would see to it that the Bruins played a similar style in New York . True to his word , the Bruins iced the puck 87 times in a 0 β 0 tie at Madison Square Garden . The NHL introduced the icing rule the following season , calling for a faceoff in the offending team 's defensive zone after each infraction .
Benedict became the first goaltender to wear facial protection during a game , as he donned a leather mask to protect a broken nose on January 20 , 1930 . The mask obscured Benedict 's vision , and he abandoned it shortly after . Later that season , Benedict was again hit by a puck , effectively ending his NHL career . It was not the first attempt at changing how goaltenders played their position . When the NHL was formed , the league abandoned the rule forbidding goaltenders from leaving their feet to make a save . While the NHA imposed a $ 2 fine every time a goalie left his feet , Calder dismissed the idea for the NHL . He was quoted as saying : " as far as I 'm concerned , they can stand on their head if they choose to " . The phrase became , and remains today , a popular way to describe a goaltender who plays a great game .
Art Ross was an early innovator of the game . He designed rounded goal nets that became the league standard , replacing the old square @-@ backed nets . He also successfully argued for using synthetic rubber pucks rather than real rubber . Some of Ross ' inventions did not catch on , however . Ross invented a puck with rounded edges that was rejected after goaltenders complained about their erratic behaviour on the ice . He also created a two @-@ piece hockey stick that had a metal shaft and replaceable wooden blades . The idea did not catch on at the time , but was a forerunner to modern composite sticks used today .
= = Timeline = =
Notes
Toronto Maple Leafs known as the St. Patricks 1919 β 1927
Detroit Red Wings known as the Cougars 1926 β 1930 and Falcons 1930 β 1932
New York Americans known as the Brooklyn Americans 1941 β 1942
" SC " denotes won Stanley Cup
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= Cherry Poppin ' Daddies =
The Cherry Poppin ' Daddies are an American band established in Eugene , Oregon in 1989 . Formed by singer Steve Perry and bassist Dan Schmid , the band has experienced many membership changes over the years , with only Perry , Schmid and trumpeter Dana Heitman currently remaining from the founding line @-@ up .
The Daddies ' music is primarily a mix of swing and ska , contrastingly encompassing both traditional jazz @-@ influenced forms of the genres as well as modern rock , pop and punk hybrids , characterized by a prominent horn section and Perry 's darkly mordant lyricism . While the band 's earliest releases were rooted mostly in punk rock and funk , their subsequent studio albums have since incorporated elements from many diverse genres of popular music and Americana into their sound , including rockabilly , rhythm and blues , soul and world music .
Having first established themselves in the West Coast third wave ska scene , the Daddies ultimately broke into the musical mainstream with their 1997 swing compilation Zoot Suit Riot . Released at the onset of the late 1990s swing revival , Zoot Suit Riot sold over two million copies in the United States while its eponymous single became a radio hit , launching the Daddies to the forefront of the neo @-@ swing movement . By the end of the decade , however , the Daddies ' mainstream popularity declined with that of the swing revival 's , and the resulting commercial failure of their ska @-@ flavored follow @-@ up Soul Caddy led to an abrupt hiatus in 2000 .
The Daddies officially regrouped in 2002 to resume part @-@ time touring , eventually returning to recording with the independently released Susquehanna in 2008 . Their tenth and most recent album The Boop @-@ A @-@ Doo , a collection of 1920s and 1930s cover songs , was released in January 2016 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Following his high school graduation in 1981 , Steve Perry left his hometown of Binghamton , New York , for Eugene , Oregon , to pursue track and field and a chemistry degree at the University of Oregon . A punk rock fan since adolescence , Perry soon became engrossed in Eugene 's underground music scene , where he eventually met and befriended musician and fellow University student Dan Schmid . Sharing similar musical ambitions and a mutual disinterest in school , the pair agreed to drop out of college together and start a band , forming the punk trio The Jazz Greats in 1983 , which evolved into the Paisley Underground @-@ styled garage rock group Saint Huck , who lasted from 1984 to 1987 .
As the rise of grunge began to phase punk and hardcore out of the Northwest underground by the late 1980s , Perry set out to start a band that stood in defiant contrast to the shoegazing attitude of alternative rock , showcasing high energy dance music and Zappa @-@ esque theatricality in an attempt to create something that an audience would react to viscerally instead of passively . Recruiting a horn section led by alto saxophonist Brooks Brown , Perry and Schmid formed their latest band Mr. Wiggles β named after a Parliament song β in November 1988 , playing their first show in Springfield as part of a benefit concert for workers of the Nicolai door manufacturing plant , who were then engaged in a union strike .
" My conception of punk " , Perry told The Rocket , " was doing whatever the hell you wanted as long as it had vitality and wasn 't overly stupid ... something exploratory and experimental " , citing influence from genre @-@ bending bands such as The Clash and the Meat Puppets . In their earliest incarnation , Mr. Wiggles played punk @-@ inflected funk and soul music , though Perry 's songwriting soon grew to draw heavily from a newfound interest in jazz , swing and rhythm and blues , combining punk rock and jazz arrangements in what Perry described was a desire to contemporize American roots music by infusing it with punk energy and using modernist , socially aware lyricism .
= = = Early years ( 1989 β 1993 ) = = =
By early 1989 , the title of Mr. Wiggles had been retired as the band switched to the intentionally risquΓ© " Cherry Poppin ' Daddies " . Derived from a jive phrase the band had heard on a vintage race record , the name intended to reflect the group 's jazz and blues influences as well as an edgy punk irreverence in the same vein as the Butthole Surfers , though the decision was ultimately made on impulse , as the members had run out of time to figure out a name to put on their posters and doubted their longevity past a handful of shows . The band played their first show as the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies at Eugene 's W.O.W. Hall on March 31 , 1989 .
Boasting a full horn section , a penchant for stage theatrics and encouraging their audiences to dance , the Daddies sought to prove themselves the antithesis to the then @-@ current state of Northwest rock . As Perry said of the Daddies ' ideology , " It was our way of saying ' screw you ' [ to alternative rock ' phoniness ' ] " ... " we wanted to have fun , outrageously have a good blast without even thinking about it " . By the end of 1989 , the Daddies had built a strong following within Eugene 's counterculture , frequently selling out shows and gathering critical acclaim , earning praise from Eugene Weekly as being the city 's best band " by far " .
The Daddies recorded their first demo cassette 4 From On High in July 1989 , featuring four tracks of punk @-@ tinged swing and funk rock . The tape went on to sell over 1 @,@ 000 copies in the Eugene and Portland areas , enabling the band to self @-@ produce their debut LP Ferociously Stoned the following year . Fusing punk rock and jazz horns with funk grooves , the album garnered favorable comparisons to contemporaries Faith No More and the Red Hot Chili Peppers . Before it was even officially released , Ferociously Stoned became a regional best @-@ seller , setting a record for advance sales in Eugene 's record stores and then remaining for over a year on The Rocket 's Northwest Top Twenty list , helping expand the Daddies ' touring reach to as far as Alaska and Los Angeles by 1992 .
= = = = Eugene controversies and censorship = = = =
In addition to their unusual mix of musical styles , the Daddies became perhaps most notorious for their extravagant and often provocative stage shows . With the band donning a rotating array of flamboyant costumes , a typical Daddies performance would often feature go @-@ go dancers , phallic stage scenery , prop @-@ heavy vaudevillian skits and choreographed dance numbers . Perry β performing under the mad scientist stage persona of " MC Large Drink " β would engage in absurdist shock rock antics such as mock crucifixion , flag burning and slathering his body with various foods and liquids . The most infamous element of the Daddies ' early stage shows , however , was the " Dildorado " ( alternately " Dildozer " ) , a penis @-@ shaped modified ride @-@ on lawnmower which mimicked ejaculation by shooting salvos of colorful fluids from its tip .
Almost immediately , the Daddies emerged a controversial presence within Eugene 's actively political atmosphere . Feminist groups condemned the band 's performances as pornographic , accusing their band name and sexually charged lyricism as promotion of sexism and misogyny , claims which Perry boldly disputed , defending the controversial elements as misinterpreted satire . In what Eugene Weekly called " the most hotly discussed topic in the local music scene " and " the Eugene flash point for the growing national debate on censorship [ and ] free speech " , the Daddies endured a storm of controversy which nearly ended their burgeoning career . Vigilante protest groups habitually tore down or defaced the band 's posters and led boycotts against venues that would book the group and even newspapers which gave them a positive review . The Daddies ' concerts regularly became sites of organized picketing and , on one occasion , a bomb threat . The band members themselves were frequent recipients of hate mail , threats and physical harassment : once , Perry claimed , an irate protester threw a cup of hot coffee in his face as he was walking down the street .
At first , the Daddies refused to change their name on the grounds of artistic freedom , but after venues refused to book them due to the negative publicity that naturally accompanied their shows β including a temporary ban from the W.O.W. Hall , where the Daddies had previously served as house band β the group caved into community pressure , taking to performing under pseudonyms such as " The Daddies " , " The Bad Daddies " and similar variations just within Eugene , retaining their full title while traveling abroad . As the Daddies advanced in their career and retired the theatrical elements from their live shows , the controversies surrounding them waned and the band returned to using their full name in their hometown , though some minor protests resurfaced during their mainstream success in the late 1990s .
= = = National touring and independent success ( 1994 β 1996 ) = = =
After numerous member changes including the departure of co @-@ founder Brown and the addition of guitarist Jason Moss , the Daddies had progressed into a full @-@ time touring band by early 1994 . Now traveling coast @-@ to @-@ coast , the band was playing upwards of 200 shows a year , including spots at festivals such as SXSW in Austin , Texas and New York 's CMJ Music Marathon . The Daddies eventually developed a steady following in the San Francisco Bay Area , where they became a staple of the region 's thriving third wave ska scene , acting as regular touring support for ska bands like Skankin ' Pickle , Let 's Go Bowling , Fishbone and The Mighty Mighty Bosstones . In 1994 , the group was awarded SF Weekly 's title of " Best Unsigned Band " .
While the mainstream 's growing focus on punk and ska by the mid @-@ 1990s began presenting the Daddies with commercial opportunities β leading The Register @-@ Guard to predict them as becoming the next Northwestern act " to go national " β the band chose to remain wholly independent during this time to allow themselves unlimited creative freedom , supposedly after several major contract offers ( including a brief attachment to Hollywood Records ) had been withdrawn due to the Daddies ' refusal to adhere to any one particular genre .
This experimental freedom was fully exercised on the Daddies ' second album , Rapid City Muscle Car . Self @-@ produced and self @-@ recorded , Rapid City Muscle Car was the band 's attempt at creating an eclectic concept album wherein each track was composed in a different musical style , yet were all thematically united through interconnected lyricism . Anchored in funk and swing , the album featured genre experiments in ska punk , psychedelic rock , country , rockabilly , big band , hard rock and lounge . Released on the band 's self @-@ operated label Space Age Bachelor Pad Records in December 1994 , the album sold decently , though failed to match the success of Ferociously Stoned .
Throughout the mid @-@ 1990s , the Daddies toured constantly , carrying out six cross @-@ country tours in 1996 alone following the release of their third independent album , Kids on the Street . A remarkable musical departure from their previous work , Kids on the Street was primarily a showcase of the ska influences which had gradually become a major part of the Daddies ' live sound , forgoing their usual brassy funk and swing @-@ based eclecticism in favor of guitar @-@ driven ska , rock and punk . Distributed by noted indie label Caroline Records , Kids on the Street wound up becoming the Daddies ' then @-@ most successful release , remaining on The Rocket 's Retail Sales Top Twenty for over seven months and eventually working its way onto Rolling Stone 's Alternative Charts .
= = = Zoot Suit Riot and major label years ( 1997 β 1999 ) = = =
With the breakthrough of third wave ska into the American mainstream by late 1996 , the Daddies seemed poised for commercial success , landing a spot on a well @-@ publicized national tour with popular ska bands Reel Big Fish and Let 's Go Bowling . Although the band were mainly playing ska shows at the time , they soon began drawing a sizable following for their swing material when the coincident success of the film Swingers and its featured band Big Bad Voodoo Daddy started drawing public and media attention towards the formerly underground swing revival movement . When fans regularly began approaching the band 's merchandise table asking which of their albums contained the most swing , the Daddies realized they lacked an album fully representing their swing side , prompting the band 's manager to convince them to compile all of their swing songs onto one CD until they could afford to make a new album , using their available finances to record several bonus tracks for inclusion . The result , Zoot Suit Riot : The Swingin ' Hits of the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies , became an unexpectedly popular item as the band went on tour , reportedly selling as many as 4 @,@ 000 copies a week through their Northwest distributors .
Despite the promising sales of Zoot Suit Riot , this period proved to be the most difficult of the Daddies ' career . Consistently performing to little media recognition , full @-@ time touring was becoming both a personal and financial strain , leading to frequent quitting among band members . The Daddies experienced at least fifteen line @-@ up changes from 1996 to 1997 , including the departure of original keyboardist Chris Azorr and co @-@ founder Schmid , leaving Perry and trumpeter Dana Heitman as the sole remnants of the original line @-@ up . With no label backing them , the band had trouble securing distribution and press outside of the Northwest , often being unable to get their CDs sold in cities they were touring through . Feeling they had finally hit a glass ceiling as an independent band , Perry said the Daddies were ultimately left with one of two options at this time : either sign to a label or break up .
In the midst of another tour together , Reel Big Fish arranged a meeting between their label Mojo Records and the Daddies in the hopes of helping the band obtain a distribution deal , negotiations of which instead led to Mojo signing the Daddies to a full recording contract . Zoot Suit Riot was licensed and reissued by Mojo and given national distribution in July 1997 , less than four months after its original release .
= = = = Mainstream breakthrough = = = =
By October 1997 , the rising popularity of swing music had contributed to the consistently steady sales of Zoot Suit Riot , persuading Mojo to issue the album 's title track as a single and distribute it among mainstream radio stations . The Daddies , who were beginning work on their next studio album , ardently protested this move , believing that a swing song would never receive major airplay and were concerned that the band would end up having to recoup the marketing costs . Mojo nevertheless persisted , and to the band 's surprise , " Zoot Suit Riot " soon found regular rotation on stations such as Los Angeles ' influential KROQ @-@ FM , helping establish swing music in the mainstream and leading to its eventual commercial breakthrough , with the Daddies at the forefront . By mid @-@ 1998 , the Daddies had emerged as one of the most successful bands of the swing revival : after climbing to number one on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers , Zoot Suit Riot became the first album of the swing revival to crack the Top 40 on the Billboard 200 , peaking at number 17 and spending an ultimate total of 53 weeks on the charts . In June 1998 , the album had sold 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , going on to surpass sales of 1 @.@ 4 million by August .
Suddenly finding themselves in hot demand , the Daddies immediately started touring again . Spending the majority of 1998 and 1999 on the road , the band were playing close to 300 shows a year , carrying out both headlining and supporting tours of the United States while traveling internationally as one of the headliners on the 1998 Warped Tour beside Rancid , NOFX and Bad Religion . By this time , the group 's touring conditions had greatly improved , thus enticing Dan Schmid β who had originally left the band due to health concerns β to return as the Daddies ' bassist at Perry 's request .
Although the Daddies were experiencing commercial success under the guise of swing revivalists , having been declared the " leaders " of the movement by Rolling Stone , the band openly contested being labeled a retro act at the exclusion of their dominant ska and punk influences and modernist lyricism . While still vocal supporters of both the swing revival and its bands , the Daddies adamantly tried to disassociate themselves from the swing scene and in particular its nostalgia @-@ based mentality . Perry explained to Spin in July 1998 , " it 's not our mission to be a swing band . I 'm not a guy from the ' 40s . That 's why we play ska and use heavy guitars " , noting elsewhere " I can 't fully take us out of the retro classification , but we harp on the fact that we 're contemporary music " . Thusly , the Daddies avoided touring with swing bands , selecting Latin rock group Ozomatli and ska / soul band The Pietasters as support on their first headlining U.S. tour , and opening for Argentine rock band Los Fabulosos Cadillacs on their 1998 North American tour . At one point , the Daddies attempted to arrange a tour with Primus which never materialized ; said Perry , " I know there are people who come to our shows who 'd like nothing more than for us to play swing 24 / 7 ... there are plenty of bands who want to be swing bands and swing bands only . We 're trying to find the audience who 'll let us write songs and just be who we are " .
During the height of the Daddies ' popularity , Perry found the band 's mainstream notoriety was causing an alienating effect on his personal life , claiming it to have negatively changed his relationships with friends and even subjected him to occasional heckling from strangers who recognized him in public . He would later recall , " It 's a total clichΓ© , but [ fame ] doesn 't make you happy . There 's a lot missing . Success has given people the right to yell at me on the street , but I don 't really feel like it 's given me any dignity " . Already feeling burnt out from the Daddies ' constant touring , Perry 's frustration was only exacerbated by the media 's persistent dismissal of the Daddies as a retro novelty act , though he later claimed to have felt pressured to maintain the image due to audience and media expectations . When the band began to face criticism and accusations of selling out from their Northwest fanbase , the Daddies fought to further push themselves away from their mainstream typecasting : in a 1999 interview , responding to their place in the swing scene , Perry retorted " [ we 'll ] unapologetically play ska right in the face of people who want to hear swing " .
Zoot Suit Riot had sold over two million copies in the United States by the time the swing revival 's mainstream popularity had declined , finally slipping off the charts in January 2000 . With their touring schedule coming to a close , the Daddies began work on their next studio album .
= = = Soul Caddy and mainstream decline ( 2000 ) = = =
In the fall of 1999 , the Daddies returned to the studio to record their fourth album , Soul Caddy . A loose concept album reflecting Perry 's disillusionment over the cultural zeitgeist and his experience with fame ( as he described it , a " bittersweet " record about " being alienated and hoping to connect " ) , Soul Caddy marked a continuation of the band 's musically varied format , intended to introduce a truer perspective of the Daddies ' sound and personality to both their swing @-@ based fans and a wider audience . Drawing from the rock and pop of the 1960s and 1970s , Soul Caddy interwove swing and ska with glam rock , soul , psychedelic pop , folk and funk .
Despite allowing the Daddies creative control over Soul Caddy 's production , Mojo 's response to the album was marginal . Claiming that the new material was not like " the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies people know and love " , the label did little to promote either the album or its glam @-@ styled single " Diamond Light Boogie " , at one point releasing the latter without the band 's name on it , allegedly due to hesitancy over marketing a rock single from a band primarily known for swing music . With virtually no promotion , Soul Caddy was quietly released on October 3 , 2000 .
Met by an audience largely unaware of the Daddies ' eclectic background , Soul Caddy was received negatively by both fans and critics , one of the more prevalent criticisms being its lack of swing tracks . Many reviewers chastised the band for what was being seen as an abandonment of their swing " roots " in favor of a trendier sound , while some criticized the Daddies ' entire musical aesthetic β UGO 's Hip Online stated bluntly , " covering five or six genres on one album is just insane " . The Los Angeles Daily News placed Soul Caddy on their list of the 10 worst albums of 2000 , the reviewer wondering what made a swing band " think it could get away with an album of recycled psychedelic pop " .
Despite some moderate critical praise including a glowing review from AllMusic , who called the album 's " impressively surprising " array of sounds " refreshing coming from a band who was assumed to be generic retro swing " , Soul Caddy failed to achieve the chart success or commercial attention of its predecessor . The Daddies ' accompanying national tour fared just as poorly , showing a marked decline in attendance and negative audience reactions towards the band 's decreased focus on playing swing music . Speaking retrospectively in a 2002 interview , Perry recalled " we went out on tour and most people saw us as a swing band because of the success of Zoot Suit Riot ... we felt this tension to be something we weren 't " . Facing low ticket sales and their own dissatisfaction over the tour 's outcome , the Daddies brought their scheduled tour to an early close , eventually reaching a mutual decision upon taking an indefinite hiatus in December 2000 . " A lot of it was just fatigue " , Perry explained , " We 'd be on the road for a long time and we had no life outside of Cherry Poppin ' Daddies . I think everybody was interested in doing other things " . The Daddies were released from Mojo shortly thereafter , though Jason Moss would later comment that the band were kicked " to the curb " after Soul Caddy 's poor commercial performance .
= = = Hiatus and limited touring ( 2001 β 2006 ) = = =
With nearly a decade of full @-@ time band activity come to a rest , the Daddies parted ways to pursue other musical endeavors , remaining active in various local bands . Perry and Moss formed the theatrical glam punk group White Hot Odyssey , releasing an album on Jive Records in 2004 and later becoming a regular opening act for the Daddies ' local concerts until their disbandment in 2005 . Dan Schmid and keyboardist Dustin Lanker formed the piano rock trio The Visible Men , recording two independent albums and touring extensively throughout the Northwest in the early and mid @-@ 2000s , while Lanker worked steadily as a touring member of the California ska punk band Mad Caddies . Drummer Tim Donahue , after a stint with The Visible Men , worked as a session musician , recording on albums for artists including TobyMac and Shawn McDonald and playing in Yngwie Malmsteen 's band for his 2001 European tour .
Over the next few years , all Daddies activity was put on further hold as the members returned to their family lives and full @-@ time jobs , while Perry chose to resume his education at the University of Oregon , eventually graduating in 2004 with a B.S. in molecular biology . In February 2002 , the Daddies spontaneously regrouped to play a sporadic series of music festivals in the Northwest , though immediately announced no future plans for recording new material or carrying out any extensive tours . Favoring a change of pace from their formerly exhaustive touring habits , the Daddies began scheduling their performances entirely around the band members ' desire and personal availability , playing as few as eight to ten shows a year and limiting their appearances largely to Northwest shows or commissions for one @-@ off " swingin ' hits " concerts at various fairs and festivals across the United States .
= = = Susquehanna and return to independent label ( 2006 β 2009 ) = = =
Following several years of relative inactivity as the band maintained their relaxed touring pace , Perry began writing material for a new Daddies album in early 2006 , claiming to have come to the realization of a cathartic reliance on songwriting . In an April 2006 radio interview , he confirmed that the band was in preparation over recording a new studio album , noting that the music would cover new territory for the Daddies , drawing heavily on tropical themes . This was followed shortly thereafter by the band 's first U.S. tour since 2000 , where much of this new material was debuted .
Self @-@ produced and recorded in Eugene during the summer of 2007 , the Daddies ' fifth album , Susquehanna , was released via digital download exclusively through the band 's website in February 2008 , receiving a limited CD release several months later . Taking the shape of a narrative concept album which Perry detailed as a portrait of " various relationships in decay " , Susquehanna featured prominent strains of Latin and Caribbean @-@ influenced music , incorporating flourishes of flamenco , Latin rock and reggae into the band 's traditional fare of swing and ska . While its low @-@ profile DIY release went mostly unnoticed by the mainstream media , response from internet @-@ based publications ranged from mixed to positive , with reviewers once again polarized over the album 's eclectic blend of genres . The Daddies embarked on another full @-@ length tour in support of Susquehanna in mid @-@ 2008 , followed by a headline tour of Europe , their first visit to the continent since 1998 .
In July 2009 , the Daddies announced having signed to independent label Rock Ridge Music for the release and national distribution of two albums , a re @-@ issue of Susquehanna and Skaboy JFK : The Skankin ' Hits of the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies , a compilation of the band 's ska material . Perry explained that fans had been suggesting the concept of a ska collection for years , and that such an album might help show a different side of the Daddies than the " swing band " persona they 're generally recognized for . Skaboy JFK was released in September 2009 to a largely positive critical reception , followed by further touring into 2010 , taking the Daddies back across Europe and the United States , as well as appearing alongside Fishbone and The Black Seeds at the 11th Victoria Ska Fest in British Columbia , where the band played the first all @-@ ska set of their career .
= = = White Teeth , Black Thoughts ( 2010 β 2013 ) = = =
Shortly after the release of Skaboy JFK , Perry already began announcing plans for the Daddies ' next studio album , revealing the band would be returning to swing music for their first all @-@ swing album since Zoot Suit Riot . Initial production on the album , titled White Teeth , Black Thoughts , began in March 2011 , though lasted infrequently throughout the year as the Daddies continued to carry out several more successful international tours , including two separate sold @-@ out tours of Australia in 2011 and 2012 . During this time , the band experienced major changes within their touring line @-@ up after longtime keyboardist Dustin Lanker departed the group in 2012 , prompting the Daddies to decide to continue touring without a live keyboardist . Several months later , trombonist Joe Freuen was added to the band , marking the first time the Daddies have ever included a full @-@ time trombone player in their official line @-@ up .
In mid @-@ 2012 , Perry finally elaborated on the production status of the new album , revealing that the band had written enough material to release White Teeth , Black Thoughts as a double album , consisting of the main all @-@ swing album and a bonus disc of " Americana " -influenced rock songs in styles including rockabilly , country , bluegrass and western swing , the latter disc featuring guest appearances from accordionist Buckwheat Zydeco on a zydeco song and former Captain Beefheart guitarist Zoot Horn Rollo on a psychobilly track . On June 20 , 2012 , the Daddies launched a PledgeMusic campaign to help finance the final stages of the album 's production , successfully reaching its target on August 14 and continuing to collect pledges into the following year , ultimately raising 133 % of its goal .
Preceded by the release of two singles and music videos for the songs " I Love American Music " and " The Babooch " , White Teeth , Black Thoughts was released on July 16 , 2013 . Following the low @-@ key DIY release and promotion of Susquehanna , the Daddies worked to heavily publicize White Teeth , Black Thoughts , receiving coverage by major news outlets including Billboard and USA Today , while the band later appeared on the Fox @-@ owned KTTV program Good Day L.A. to perform " I Love American Music " , their first major television appearance since the 1990s . Despite not experiencing any chart success , the album received generally positive critical reviews , and the Daddies carried out a brief fifteen @-@ city tour of the United States during the summer .
In January 2014 , it was announced that the Eugene Ballet Company had collaborated with the Daddies for production entitled Zoot Suit Riot , a dance show set to the music of and featuring live accompaniment from the band , featuring choreographed dance routines set to thirteen of the Daddies ' songs , ranging from their biggest swing hits to their lesser @-@ known rock , pop and psychedelic songs . Zoot Suit Riot played at Eugene 's Hult Center for the Performing Arts on April 12 and 13 , 2014 .
= = = Covers trilogy and future ( 2014 @-@ present ) = = =
During the initial writing and recording period of White Teeth , Black Thoughts , the Daddies began playing select shows billed as " The Cherry Poppin ' Daddies Salute the Music of the Rat Pack " , playing an equal mix of the band 's own swing songs as well as covers of songs popularized by the " Rat Pack " of Frank Sinatra , Dean Martin and Sammy Davis , Jr .. In a July 2013 interview with Billboard magazine , Perry revealed that the band had concurrently recorded a tribute album featuring these songs and would be releasing it after touring behind White Teeth , Black Thoughts . Please Return the Evening β the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies Salute the Music of the Rat Pack ! was released on July 29 , 2014 , promoted by music videos for the album 's covers of the Sinatra staples " Come Fly with Me " and " Fly Me to the Moon " .
The following December , Perry expressed plans on the Daddies ' official Facebook page to further explore the band 's swing and jazz influences with another cover album , this time centered on the hot jazz of the Cotton Club era of the 1920s and 1930s . Production on what would be entitled The Boop @-@ A @-@ Doo began in Spring 2015 in Eugene , utilizing vintage recording techniques as well as the use of pre @-@ 1940s instruments . In April , the Daddies updated their press biography to include mention of The Boop @-@ A @-@ Doo being " the second of a planned trilogy of cover tunes designed to outline for fans some of the Daddies ' swing influences " , though declined to reveal plans for the band 's third tribute album . The Boop @-@ A @-@ Doo was released on January 22 , 2016 , promoted by a music video for the 1930 Eubie Blake / Andy Razaf song " That Lindy Hop " directed by Perry .
Perry has announced ongoing work on the Daddies ' next album of originals . In a 2014 interview with The Huffington Post , he described his intent with the next album was to do a " psychobilly / Zappa / American Idiot / R. Crumb type record that paints a picture of the American socio political scene " , and has since described it as " a little like Ferociously Stoned 2 " , featuring a primary emphasis on rock and funk .
Additionally , Perry mentioned in a radio interview that he had recently obtained the rights to Zoot Suit Riot from Jive Records and was considering releasing a remixed and remastered edition , expressing a desire to revisit the original recordings with contemporary production values .
= = Musical style and lyricism = =
The Daddies are generally labeled as swing and / or ska band by the media , and their music is largely composed of various interpretations of both genres , ranging from traditional jazz and big band @-@ influenced forms to modernized pop and rock fusions . During their commercial breakthrough in the 1990s , critics conceived terms such as " punk swing " , " power swing " and " big band punk rock " to describe the Daddies ' unique approach to these fusions , mixing " the propulsion of swing beats and rabbit @-@ punch bursts of brass with grimy rebel @-@ rock guitars to give the jumpin ' jive sound a much @-@ needed facelift " . The Pacific Northwest Inlander wrote of this style in 1994 , " atop the swing of the band 's jazz you can hear strains of Parliament @-@ Funkadelic , crumbs of barrelhouse rhythm and blues , snippets of ska , and huge whiffs of in @-@ your @-@ face punk rock " , likening the Daddies to " Cab Calloway @-@ meets @-@ Johnny Rotten , or the Duke Ellington Orchestra pumped up on steroids and caffeine " .
The Daddies themselves used to facetiously classify their music as " swing @-@ core " , exemplified by the fast tempos and frequent use of guitar distortion in their swing material , as well as " third wave swing " , owing to their prominent ska influence . In recent years , however , Perry has dismissed attempts to apply labels to the Daddies ' music , often casually describing them in vaguer terms as " a rock band with horns " or " a dance band that uses jazz a bit " . Perry has compared the Daddies ' style of musical eclecticism with that of Fishbone , Mink DeVille and Oingo Boingo , while also citing major influence from The Specials and Roxy Music , as well as from Fletcher Henderson , Jimmie Lunceford and Duke Ellington on his composing and arrangements .
Alongside the constants of swing , ska , and on earlier recordings , funk , each of the Daddies ' studio albums feature a collective assortment of varied and often diametrically opposed genres of music . Some of the musical styles the band has experimented with include blues , country , disco , Dixieland , flamenco , folk , glam rock , hardcore punk , jump blues , lounge , psychedelic pop , rhythm and blues , reggae , rockabilly , soca , soul , western swing and zydeco . As opposed to playing fusions , the Daddies perform each genre separately , contrasting one style against another so that the album 's musical texture may continually change . Perry has explained that the group 's " detournement " of using vastly different genres is both a means for band experimentation and evolution beyond their typically swing and ska @-@ oriented live shows , as well as an artistic choice , lending each song a distinctive musical personality and using certain genres to effectively fit β or ironically contradict β the tone of the lyrics .
= = = Lyrical = = =
Steve Perry is the Daddies ' sole lyricist , and writes the majority of his songs in a fictional narrative format he credits as being influenced by Randy Newman , Ray Davies and Jarvis Cocker , often told about or through the unreliable perspective of downtrodden characters struggling against adversity . Recurring themes in the Daddies ' lyrics include sex , death , alcoholism , family dysfunction , loneliness and alienation , often utilizing satire . Perry has also incorporated political themes into his music , most overtly on the Daddies ' 2013 album White Teeth , Black Thoughts , which addressed issues relating to the 2008 financial crisis through a variety of American character perspectives . The Register @-@ Guard has described Perry 's lyrics as " ribald [ and ] often despairing " , " [ probing ] the underbelly of society , stabbing at oppressors such as ... the pressure to conform " , while The New York Times has lauded them as " vivid poetry " containing " an inventiveness missing from the other swing bands ' lyrics " .
The Daddies have often been criticized for their seeming juxtaposition of lurid subject matter and profanity with jazz and swing music , though Perry has boldly defended the band 's predilection towards " darker " lyricism and visuals , calling to attention his interest in the era 's film noir and avant @-@ garde artistic movements . A prominent example of this includes the two music videos for the Daddies ' hit single " Zoot Suit Riot " , which β in addition to being written about the 1943 race riots β both featured pervasive surrealist imagery inspired by the films of Luis BuΓ±uel , specifically his 1929 short Un Chien Andalou . " We wanted to be darker , weirder and stranger " , Perry stated in a 2012 interview , " and unfortunately , with other [ swing ] bands it was ' Back then everyone dressed nice and was nice ' . That 's not true . You don 't know anything about that era at all " .
Most of the Daddies ' studio albums are written to varying extents as concept albums , featuring either recurring lyrical themes or an abstract progressive narrative . According to Perry , this lyrical interconnectedness is intended as means of providing an album with threads of thematic stability against wildly varying musical styles .
= = Reception , criticism and influence = =
In their native Oregon , the Daddies have been called " a Northwest institution " , having been inducted into the Oregon Music Hall of Fame in 2009 . The Register @-@ Guard has credited the band with shaping Eugene 's alternative musical culture in the 1990s , while Eugene Weekly added likewise , " when some people think of the Northwest music scene , they think of grunge . If you β re a Eugenean , however , you might think of swing , thanks to [ the ] Cherry Poppin ' Daddies " . Seattle 's The Rocket commented on the band 's influence in 1997 , stating " [ t ] he Daddies were busting out the swing before the Squirrel Nut Zippers , stirring cocktails before Combustible Edison and skating the ska before Sublime ... the band shakes out an incredible variety of sounds with peerless verve and polish . "
In addition to the controversies surrounding the early years of their career , the band has also drawn a fair amount of professional criticism in their home state . The Portland Mercury have been frequent detractors of the Daddies , deriding them as " at best , an edgeless recycle of a rather particular musical fashion movement ; at worst , a self @-@ conscious parody of the genre they purport to love " , while the Willamette Week , in an article detailing the band 's polarizing reception , described the negative consensus of the Daddies as " an annoying white @-@ boy funk rock band who , seeing the opportunity , milked the swing revival for all it was worth " . Jazz critic and author Scott Yanow vociferously criticized the band as the choice " whipping boy for the Retro Swing movement " in his 2000 book Swing ! , writing them off as " a punk rock band who has chosen to masquerade as Swing , at least until a better fad comes along " , spotlighting the Daddies ' " mediocre " rhythm section and profane lyricism as a case for making them " a band to avoid " .
The Daddies are more widely recognized , however , as one of the first bands to revive swing music in the musical mainstream , helping spearhead the swing revival of the late 1990s which paved the way for the larger successes of Big Bad Voodoo Daddy and the Brian Setzer Orchestra . Although the Daddies have been cited as an influence on ska punk bands the Mad Caddies and Spring Heeled Jack U.S.A. , SF Weekly claims the group has " never gotten the accolades it deserves " for their eclectic funk @-@ ska repertoire . The Phoenix New Times expressed similar sentiments , listing the " woefully unsung " Daddies as among the bands that defined the Northwest 's " alternative to alternative " , " [ delivering ] rock with more complexity than three @-@ chord guitar riffs and social critique without heavy @-@ handed cynicism " . In a 2008 retrospective feature posted on RollingStone.com 's The Capri Lounge , a blog run by the editors of Rolling Stone magazine , the Daddies were declared as " one of the most misunderstood bands of the nineties " .
= = = Band name = = =
More dubiously , the Daddies have also retained a particular pop cultural legacy for their provocative and often contentious band name which has persisted beyond the initial controversies that pegged the band 's early years . The Daddies frequently appear on lists of the worst band names of all time , including those by Pitchfork , the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , the Toronto Sun and VH1 , who called it " quite possibly the most offensive band name ever , made all the more ridiculous by the fact that these outwardly bragging virgin @-@ sexers had a completely innocuous mainstream hit song " . A 2009 issue of Blender magazine placed the Daddies third with Limp Bizkit in a bracket chart of the worst band names , with comedian Steve Bodow commenting " Because ' Virgin @-@ Fuckin ' Date Rapists ' was taken " and Eugene Mirman concurring " it 's a horrible name " . In 2013 , Rolling Stone included the Daddies on their list of " The Thirteen Dumbest Band Names in Rock History " , dwelling on the potentially incestuous interpretation as " the last thing anyone wants to visualize while listening to music " .
Steve Perry has expressed ambivalence towards the lasting vilification of the Daddies ' name , admitting it 's " probably the most heinous name in the history of rock " while emphasizing a disparate delineation between the band 's roots in the " bubble " of Eugene 's punk subculture and their unexpected longevity in the wider cultural mainstream : " I started this band a long time ago , and we just used [ the name ] . We didn 't know that in 10 years we 'd turn into some sort of happy , peppy , feel @-@ good things " . Though Perry has occasionally voiced regret over not having changed the Daddies ' name earlier in their career , he has nevertheless acquiescently embraced the name as his " Holden Caulfield red hunting hat " , while outright dismissing critics who choose to demonize the name based on literal interpretation than the jazz @-@ era jive slang it drew from . " It gives outrage addicts another soapbox they can jump up on " , Perry said , " If people want to just look at it [ in that context ] , then that 's their problem , but I don 't write it that way " ... " I assure you we don 't cruise high schools for dates " .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Compilations
Zoot Suit Riot : The Swingin ' Hits of the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies ( 1997 )
Skaboy JFK : The Skankin ' Hits of the Cherry Poppin ' Daddies ( 2009 )
= = Band members = =
Current members
Steve Perry ( MC Large Drink ) β lead vocals , rhythm guitar ( formation β present )
Dan Schmid ( Dang Oulette ) β bass guitar ( formation β 1996 , 1998 β present )
Dana Heitman β trumpet ( formation β present )
Willie Matheis β tenor saxophone ( 2010 β present )
Joe Freuen β trombone ( 2012 β present )
Paul Owen β drums ( 2013 β present )
Andy Page β alto saxophone ( 2013 β present )
Zak Johnson - guitar , banjo ( 2015 β present )
Former members
Tim Arnold β drums ( formation β 1990 )
James Gossard β guitar ( formation β 1990 )
John Fohl β guitar ( 1990 β 1992 )
James Phillips β tenor saxophone ( formation β 1992 , 1996 ) ( deceased , 1961 β 2011 )
Brooks Brown β alto saxophone ( formation β 1994 )
Adrian P. Baxter β tenor saxophone ( 1993 β 1996 )
Adam Glogauer β drums ( 1996 )
Sean Oldham β drums ( 1996 )
Jason Palmer β drums ( 1996 ) ( 2009 β studio recordings )
Brian West β drums ( 1990 β 1996 )
Chris Azorr β keyboards ( 1990 β 1997 )
Rex Trimm β alto saxophone ( 1996 β 1997 )
Hans Wagner β drums ( 1996 β 1997 )
Darren Cassidy β bass ( 1996 β 1998 )
Johnny Goetchius β keyboards ( 1998 β 2000 )
Ian Early β alto saxophone ( 1997 β 2006 )
Tim Donahue β drums ( 1997 β 2008 )
Sean Flannery β tenor saxophone ( 1996 β 2008 )
Jesse Cloninger β tenor saxophone ( 2008 β 2010 )
Jason Moss β guitar ( 1992 β 2010 )
Dustin Lanker β keyboards , backing vocals ( 1997 β 1998 , 2000 β 2012 )
Kevin Congleton β drums ( 2008 β 2013 )
Joe Manis β alto and baritone saxophones ( 2006 β 2013 )
William Seiji Marsh β guitar , backing vocals ( 2010 β 2014 )
Chris Ward β guitar , banjo ( 2014 β 2015 )
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